Military Organization

MILITARY ORGANIZATION
Contents
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Admiralty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.1
Function and organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.2
Admiralty buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.3
Admiraltyas a metonym for sea power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.2
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.3
Air armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.4
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Army group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.1
World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.2
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.3
NATO 'Army Groups' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Artillery battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
0.4.1
Land usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
0.4.2
Naval usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
0.4.3
Modern battery organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
0.4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
0.4.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
0.4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
0.4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
0.5.1
Independent operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
0.5.2
Homogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
0.5.3
British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
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CONTENTS
0.5.4
Canadian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
0.5.5
Dutch Army
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
0.5.6
Swiss Army
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
0.5.7
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
0.5.8
USSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
0.5.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
0.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
0.5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Battle Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
0.6.1
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
0.6.2
Commander in Chief, Battle Fleet (COMBATFLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
0.6.3
Commander Battle Force (COMBATFOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
0.6.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
0.6.5
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Battlegroup (army) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
0.7.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
0.7.2
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
0.7.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
Battlespace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
0.8.1
Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
0.8.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
0.8.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
0.8.4
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
0.8.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
0.9.1
Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
0.9.2
Individual armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
0.9.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
0.9.4
Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
0.9.5
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
0.10 Brigade group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
0.10.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
0.10.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
0.11 Combat command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
0.11.1 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
0.11.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
0.11.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
0.11.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
0.11.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
0.12 Command and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
0.12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
CONTENTS
iii
0.12.2 Derivative terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
0.12.3 Command and control centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
0.12.4 Command and control warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
0.12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
0.12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
0.12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
0.13 Company (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
0.13.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
0.13.2 British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
0.13.3 Canadian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
0.13.4 Soviet armed forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
0.13.5 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
0.13.6 Disambiguation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
0.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
0.13.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
0.13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
0.13.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
0.14 Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
0.14.1 Military formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
0.14.2 Administrative Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
0.14.3 Non-military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
0.14.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
0.14.5 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
0.15 Detachment (military) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
0.15.1 Use by Cadet forces in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
0.15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
0.15.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
0.16 Division (military) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
0.16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
0.16.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
0.16.3 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
0.16.4 National organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
0.16.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
0.16.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
0.16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
0.16.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
0.17 Field army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
0.17.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
0.17.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
0.18 Field force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
0.18.1 United Kingdom use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
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CONTENTS
0.18.2 Australian use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
0.18.3 United States use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
0.18.4 Police eld forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
0.18.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
0.19 Fireteam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
0.19.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
0.19.2 National variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
0.19.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
0.19.4 Fire and maneuver team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
0.19.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
0.19.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
0.20 Flight (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
0.20.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
0.20.2 Commonwealth usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
0.20.3 American usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
0.20.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
0.20.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
0.21 Flotilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
0.21.1 US Coast Guard
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
0.21.2 Russian Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
0.21.3 Non-military usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
0.21.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
0.21.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
0.21.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
0.22 Grand strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
0.22.1 Historical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
0.22.2 In the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
0.22.3 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
0.22.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
0.22.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
0.22.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
0.22.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
0.23 Group (military aviation unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
0.23.1 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
0.23.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
0.24 Joint Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
0.24.1 Numbered USMCEB joint task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
0.24.2 Named joint task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
0.24.3 United States Army and other non-USMCEB task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
0.24.4 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
0.24.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
CONTENTS
0.24.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
0.24.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
0.25 Military administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
0.25.1 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
0.25.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
0.26 Military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
0.26.1 Historiography of military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
0.26.2 Early historians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
0.26.3 Technological evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
0.26.4 Periods of military history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
0.26.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
0.26.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
0.26.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
0.26.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
0.27 Military logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
0.27.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
0.27.2 Modern developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
0.27.3 Loss of Strength Gradient
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
0.27.4 U.S. Armed Forces classes of supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
0.27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
0.27.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
0.27.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
0.28 Military organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
0.28.1 Executive control, management and administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
0.28.2 Armed services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
0.28.3 Commands, formations, and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
0.28.4 Table of organization and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
0.28.5 Modern hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
0.28.6 Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
0.28.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
0.28.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
0.29 Military strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
0.29.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
0.29.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
0.29.3 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
0.29.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
0.29.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
0.29.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
0.29.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
0.30 Military tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
0.30.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
vi
CONTENTS
0.30.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
0.30.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
0.30.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
0.31 Naval eet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
0.31.1 The modern eet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
0.32 Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
0.32.1 Etymology and meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
0.32.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
0.32.3 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
0.32.4 Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
0.32.5 Naval organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
0.32.6 Naval infantry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
0.32.7 Naval aviation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
0.32.8 Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

0.32.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
0.32.10 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
0.32.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
0.33 Numbered Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
0.33.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
0.33.2 List of Numbered Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
0.33.3 Named Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
0.33.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
0.33.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
0.34 Operational level of war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
0.34.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
0.34.2 Role in battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
0.34.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
0.34.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
0.34.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
0.35 Operational manoeuvre group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
0.35.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
0.35.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
0.36 Patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
0.36.1 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
0.36.2 Law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
0.36.3 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
0.36.4 Non-law enforcement patrols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
0.36.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
0.36.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
0.37 Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
0.37.1 Early usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
CONTENTS
vii
0.37.2 Modern usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

0.37.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
0.37.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
0.37.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
0.38 Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
0.38.1 Historical origin
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
0.38.2 Regimental system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

0.38.3 Commonwealth armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
0.38.4 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
0.38.5 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
0.38.6 Russian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
0.38.7 Soviet Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
0.38.8 Irish Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
0.38.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
0.38.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
0.39 Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
0.39.1 Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
0.39.2 Geographical regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
0.39.3 Regions in human geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
0.39.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
0.39.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
0.39.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
0.39.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
0.40 Section (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
0.40.1 Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
0.40.2 Danish Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
0.40.3 French Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
0.40.4 Singapore Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
0.40.5 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
0.40.6 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
0.40.7 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
0.40.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
0.40.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
0.40.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
0.41 Squad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
0.41.1 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
0.41.2 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
0.41.3 Other military uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
0.41.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
0.41.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
0.41.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
viii
CONTENTS
0.42 Squadron (army) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
0.42.1 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
0.42.2 Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
0.42.3 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
0.42.4 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
0.42.5 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
0.43 Squadron (aviation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
0.43.1 United States military air services
0.43.2 Others
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
0.43.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

0.44 Squadron (naval) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
0.44.1 Command element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
0.44.2 Squadron types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
0.44.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
0.44.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
0.44.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
0.45 Table of organization and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
0.45.1 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
0.45.2 Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
0.45.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
0.45.4 External links and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
0.46 Task force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
0.46.1 Naval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
0.46.2 Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
0.46.3 Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
0.46.4 Other data regarding US task forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
0.46.5 Task forces in popular culture
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
0.46.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

0.46.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
0.46.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
0.47 Theater (warfare) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
0.47.1 Theater of war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
0.47.2 Theater of operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
0.47.3 Soviet and Russian Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
0.47.4 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
0.47.5 Images and diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
0.47.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
0.47.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
0.48 Troop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
0.48.1 Troops in various forces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
CONTENTS
ix
0.48.2 Troops in civilian organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

0.48.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
0.49 United States Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
0.49.1 Mission, vision, and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
0.49.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
0.49.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
0.49.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
0.49.5 Aircraft inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
0.49.6 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
0.49.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
0.49.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
0.49.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
0.50 War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
0.50.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
0.50.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
0.50.3 Behaviour and conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
0.50.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
0.50.5 Eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
0.50.6 Factors ending a war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
0.50.7 Ongoing conicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
0.50.8 Eorts to limit or stop wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
0.50.9 Theories for motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
0.50.10 War ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
0.50.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
0.50.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
0.50.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
0.51 Weapon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
0.51.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
0.51.2 Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
0.51.3 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
0.51.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
0.51.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
0.51.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
0.52 Wing (military aviation unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
0.52.1 Commonwealth usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
0.52.2 Canadian usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
0.52.3 United States Air Force usage
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
0.52.4 U.S. Naval Aviation and Civil Air Patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

0.52.5 Equivalents in other countries
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
0.52.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

1
undened
200
CONTENTS
1.1
Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
1.1.1
Glossary
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
1.1.2
Design
1.1.3
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
1.1.4
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.1.5
For rearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.1.6
Ordnance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.1.7
Naval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1.1.8
Field supply
1.1.9
Environmental problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1.1.10 Sabotage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

1.1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
1.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1.2
1.3
1.4
Automatic rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

1.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1.2.2
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
1.2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
1.2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Designated marksman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

1.3.1
DM / sniper dierences
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.3.2
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.3.3
Worldwide use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.3.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
1.3.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.3.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
FGM-148 Javelin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

1.4.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.4.2
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.4.3
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
1.4.4
Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1.4.5
Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1.4.6
Combat history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
1.4.7
Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
1.4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
1.4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
1.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

1.5
Force multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

1.5.1
Doctrinal changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
1.5.2
Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
1.5.3
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
CONTENTS
1.6
xi
1.5.4
Creating local forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1.5.5
Deception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1.5.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1.5.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Grenadier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1.6.1
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.6.2
Grenades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.6.3
Early distinctions of dress and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.6.4
Elite status in the 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
1.6.5
Headgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
1.6.6
Grenadier companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
1.6.7
Grenadier regiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
1.6.8
Modern usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
1.6.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
1.6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

1.6.11 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
1.6.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
1.7
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
1.7.1
History and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
1.7.2
Combat role
1.7.3
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
1.7.4
Doctrine
1.7.5
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
1.7.6
Day to day service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
1.7.7
Equipment and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
1.7.8
Other infantry
1.7.9
Descriptions of infantry
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
1.7.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

1.7.11 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
1.7.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
1.7.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
1.8
1.9
M14 rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

1.8.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
1.8.2
Rie design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
1.8.3
Variants and related designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
1.8.4
Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
1.8.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
1.8.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
1.8.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
1.8.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
M203 grenade launcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
xii
CONTENTS
1.9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
1.9.2
Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
1.9.3
Rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
1.9.4
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
1.9.5
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
1.9.6
Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
1.9.7
Civilian ownership in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
1.9.8
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
1.9.9
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
1.9.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

1.9.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
1.9.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.10 M249 light machine gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.10.1 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.10.2 Design details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
1.10.3 Operational history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
1.10.4 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
1.10.5 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
1.10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
1.10.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
1.10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
1.10.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.11 M27 Infantry Automatic Rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1.11.2 Combat reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
1.11.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
1.11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
1.11.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
1.11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
1.11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1.12 M320 Grenade Launcher Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1.12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1.12.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
1.12.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
1.12.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
1.13 M4 carbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
1.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
1.13.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
1.13.3 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
1.13.4 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
1.13.5 Trademark issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
CONTENTS
xiii
1.13.6 Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

1.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
1.13.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
1.13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
1.14 Military science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
1.14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
1.14.2 Employment of military skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
1.14.3 Military concepts and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
1.14.4 Military systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
1.14.5 Military studies journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
1.14.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1.14.7 Citations and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1.14.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1.14.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1.15 Overwatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
1.15.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
1.16 Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
1.16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
1.16.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
1.16.3 Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
1.16.4 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
1.16.5 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
1.16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
1.16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
1.16.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
1.17 Rieman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
1.17.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
1.17.2 Modern tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
1.17.3 Rieman in dierent countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
1.17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
1.17.5 References and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
1.18 Suppressive re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
1.18.1 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
1.18.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
1.18.3 Weapons used
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
1.18.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

1.19 Team leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
1.19.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1.19.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1.20 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1.20.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
xiv
CONTENTS
1.20.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1.20.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
1.20.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
1.20.5 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
1.20.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
1.20.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
1.20.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
1.20.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
1.21 United States Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
1.21.1 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
1.21.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
1.21.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
1.21.4 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
1.21.5 Uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
1.21.6 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
1.21.7 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
1.21.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
1.21.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
1.21.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
undened
339
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
340
3.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
3.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
3.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
0.1. ADMIRALTY
0.1 Admiralty
1
the nine Great Ocers of State.
In 1628, Charles I put the oce of Lord High Admiral

This article is about a former military department of into commission and control of the Royal Navy passed to
England and later the United Kingdom. For other uses, a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The
see Admiralty (disambiguation).
oce of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times
in and out of commission until 1709, after which the ofThe Admiralty was the authority responsible for the ce was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord
command of the Royal Navy in the Kingdom of England, High Admiral being the future King William IV in the
and later in Great Britain and until 1964 in the United early 19th century).
Kingdom. Originally exercised by a single person, the
Lord High Admiral, the Admiralty was from the early
18th century onwards almost invariably putin commissionand exercised by the Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty, who sat on the Board of Admiralty.
In 1831, the Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity and its duties and responsibilities were given over to
the Admiralty.
In 1964, the Admiralty was subsumed into the Ministry of
Defence along with the War Oce and the Air Ministry.
Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new
Admiralty Board, Army Board and Air Force Board, each
headed by the Secretary of State for Defence. As mentioned above, there is also a new Navy Board in charge of
the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy.
In 1964, the functions of the Admiralty were transferred

to a new Admiralty Board, which is a committee of the
tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom and
part of the Ministry of Defence. The new Admiralty
Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board
(not to be confused with the historical Navy Board described later in this article). It is common for the various The Board of Admiralty
authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred
to as simply The Admiralty.
The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom
was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen
Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday.* [1] There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a
Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are
honorary oces.
0.1.1
Function and organisation
History
Board of admiralty about 1810.
Flag of the Lord High Admiral
The oce of Admiral of England (or Lord Admiral

and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400,
though there were before this Admirals of the Northern
and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established
the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy
Board, to oversee administrative aairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of
When the oce of Lord High Admiral was in commission, as it was for most of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries until it reverted to the Crown, it was exercised by
a Board of Admiralty, ocially known as the Commissioners for Exercising the Oce of Lord High Admiral of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &c. (alternatively of England, Great Britain or the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland depending
on the period).
The Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as
Naval Lords or Sea Lords, and Civil Lords, normally
politicians. The quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary.
The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of
the Admiralty, who was a member of the Cabinet. After
CONTENTS
1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be
(and is still today) known as the First Sea Lord.
0.1.2
Admiralty buildings
Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) in 1760 before addition of the Adam screen
Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) circa 1790 after
addition of the Adam screen
Old Admiralty (Ripley Building) circa 1830
Admiralty House
Admiralty House is a moderately proportioned mansion
to the south of the Ripley Building, built in the late
18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the
Admiralty, serving that purpose until 1964. Winston
Churchill was one of its occupants. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall, and is entered through the Ripley
Building. It is a three-storey building in yellow brick with
neoclassical interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto
Horse Guards Parade. The architect was Samuel Pepys
Cockerell. There are now three ministerial ats in the
building, which were unoccupied in 2012.* [2]
Admiralty Extension
The Admiralty complex in 1794. The colours indicate departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The
pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is
Admiralty House.
The Admiralty complex lies between Whitehall, Horse

Guards Parade and The Mall and includes ve interconnected buildings. Since the Admiralty no longer exists The Admiralty Extension (which is also one of the two buildings
which are sometimes referred to as the Old Admiralty) dates
as a department, these buildings are now used by separate
from the turn of the 20th century.
government departments:
The Admiralty
The oldest building was long known simply as The Admiralty; it is now known ocially as the Ripley Building, a
three storey U-shaped brick building designed by Thomas
Ripley and completed in 1726. Alexander Pope implied
the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour
of the baroque style which was fading from fashion at the
time, or the austere grandeur of the Palladian style which
was just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the rst purpose built oce building in Great
Britain. It contained the Admiralty board room, which is
still used by the Admiralty, other state rooms and oces
and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. Robert
Adam designed the screen which was added to the entrance front in 1788. The Ripley Building is currently
occupied by the Department for International Development.
This is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings. It was begun in the late 19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra ofces needed due to the naval arms race with the German
Empire. It is a red brick building with white stone detailing in the Queen Anne style with French inuences.
It has been used by the Foreign and Commonwealth Ofce since the 1960s. The Department for Education will
move into the building in September 2017 following the
Foreign and Commonwealth Oce's decision to leave the
building and consolidate its London sta into one building on King Charles Street.
Admiralty Arch
Admiralty Arch is linked to the Old Admiralty Building by a bridge and is part of the ceremonial route from
Trafalgar Square to Buckingham Palace.
0.1. ADMIRALTY
0.1.5 References
[1] New title for Duke of Edinburgh as he turns 90. BBC
news (BBC). 10 June 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
[2] Ministerial Residences
0.1.6 Further reading

Admiralty Arch
The Admiralty Citadel

This is a squat windowless World War II fortress north
west of Horse Guards Parade, now covered in ivy. See
Military citadels under London for further details.
0.1.3
The Building
Bradley, Simon, and Nikolaus Pevsner. London 6:
Westminster (from the Buildings of England series).
New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,
2003. ISBN 0-300-09595-3.
C. Hussey,Admiralty Building, Whitehall, Country Life, 17 and 24 November 1923, pp. 684692,
718726.
Admiraltyas a metonym for sea

The Oce
power
Daniel A. Baugh, Naval Administration in the Age of
Walpole (Princeton, 1965).
Sir John Barrow, An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir
John Barrow, Bart., Late of the Admiralty (London,
1847).
John Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III:
Its State and Direction (Cambridge, 1953).
C. I. Hamilton, The Making of the Modern Admiralty: British Naval Policy-Making 18051927
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
Bomb proof citadel constructed 1940 for Admiralty headquarters
In some cases, the term admiralty is used in a wider sense,

as meaning sea power or rule over the seas, rather than in
strict reference to the institution exercising such power.
For example, the well-known lines from Kipling's Song
of the Dead:
If blood be the price of admiralty,
Lord God, we ha' paid in full!
0.1.4
See also
Admiralty administration
List of Lords High Admiral
List of the First Lords of the Admiralty
C. I. Hamilton, Selections from the Phinn Committee of Inquiry of OctoberNovember 1853 into
the State of the Oce of Secretary to the Admiralty, in The Naval Miscellany, volume V, edited by
N. A. M. Rodger, (London: Navy Records Society,
London, 1984).
C. S. Knighton, Pepys and the Navy (Stroud: Sutton
Publishing, 2003).
Christopher Lloyd, Mr Barrow of the Admiralty
(London, 1970).
Malcolm H. Murfett, The First Sea Lords: From
Fisher to Mountbatten (Westport: Praeger, 1995).
Lady Murray, The Making of a Civil Servant: Sir
Oswyn Murray, Secretary of the Admiralty 1917
1936 (London, 1940).
List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty
N.A.M. Rodger, The Admiralty (Lavenham, 1979)
Lord High Admiral of Scotland
J.C. Sainty, Admiralty Ocials, 16601870 (London, 1975)
St Boniface's Catholic College

Admiralty chart
Sir Charles Walker, Thirty-Six Years at the Admiralty (London, 1933)
CONTENTS
0.1.7
External links
The Admiralty at the Survey of London online
0.2 Air force

For other uses, see Air Force (disambiguation) and list
of air forces.
For military aviation conducted by armies and

navies, see army aviation and naval aviation.
Refuelling a Jaguar GR1 of the Royal Air Force (1991).
air components from allied nations. Air forces typically

consist of a combination of ghters, bombers, helicopters,
transport planes and other aircraft.
Four ghters and a tanker aircraft of the USAF.
Many air forces are also responsible for operations of

military space, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM),
and communications equipment. Some air forces may
command and control other air defence assets such as
anti-aircraft artillery, surface-to-air missiles, or antiballistic missile warning networks and defensive systems. Some nations, principally Russia, the former Soviet Union and countries who modelled their militaries
along Soviet lines, have an Air Defence Force which is
organizationally separate from their air force.
In addition to pilots, air forces have ground support sta
who support the aircrew. In a similar manner to civilian
airlines, there are supporting ground crew as pilots cannot y without the assistance of other personnel such as
engineers, loadmasters, fuel technicians and mechanics.
However, some supporting personnel such as aireld defence troops, weapons engineers and air intelligence sta
do not have equivalent roles in civilian organizations.
0.2.1 History
Main article: Aerial warfare
USAF B-2 Spirit stealth strategic bomber.
An air force, also known in some countries as an air

army, is in the broadest sense, the national military organization that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More
specically, it is the branch of a nation's armed services
that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an
army, navy, or a marine corps. Typically, air forces are
responsible for gaining control of the air, carrying out
strategic and tactical bombing missions, and providing
support to Infantry Forces
Heavier-than-air military aircraft

Balloon or ying corps are not generally regarded as examples of an air force. However, with the invention of
heavier-than-air craft in the early 20th century, armies
and navies began to take interest in this new form of
aviation as a means to wage war.
The rst aviation force in the world was the Aviation Militaire of the French Army formed in 1910, which eventu.
ally became L'Arme de l'Air. In 1911, during the ItaloThe termair forcemay also refer to a tactical air force Turkish War, Italy employed aircraft for the rst time
or numbered air force, which is an operational formation ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing miseither within a national air force or comprising several sions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The
0.2. AIR FORCE
ItalianTurkish war of 19111912 was the rst in history that featured air attacks by airplanes and dirigible
airships.* [1] During World War I France, Germany, Italy,
the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed
signicant forces of bombers and ghters. World War I
also saw the appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare and numerous ying aces.
Independent air forces
An independent air force is one which is a separate branch
of a nation's armed forces and is, at least nominally, RAF Supermarine Spitre played a vital role in British victory
treated as a military service on par with that of older ser- during the Battle of Britain.
vices like navies or armies.
The British Royal Air Force was the rst independent air
force in the world.* [2] The RAF was founded on 1 April
1918 by amalgamation the British Army's Royal Flying
Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. On establishment the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft, was commanded by a Chief of the Air Sta who held the rank of
Major General and was governed by its own government
ministry (the Air Ministry).
Germany was the rst country to organize regular air attacks on enemy infrastructure with the Luftstreitkrfte.
In World War I, it used its zeppelins (airships) to drop
bombs on British cities. At that time, Britain did have
aircraft, though her airships were less advanced than the
zeppelins and were very rarely used for attacking; instead they were usually used to spy on German U-boats
(submarines).
Over the following decades most countries with any substantial military capability established their own independent air forces. The South African Air Force was formed
on 1 February 1920 and the Australian Air Force was
formed shortly afterwards on 31 March 1921, although it
was not until 1922 that the head of the Service was titled
as Chief of the Air Sta, placing him on a par with his
Australian Army and Navy counterparts. The Canadian
Air Force was formed at the end of World War I, and was
abolished and reorganized several times between 1918
and 1924. It became the permanent Royal Canadian Air
Force when it received theRoyaltitle by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938 when its head
was also designated as Chief of the Air Sta. Similarly,
the Royal New Zealand Air Force was established in 1923
as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force but did not become independent of the New Zealand Army until 1937.
The Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928* [3] and the United States Air Force
was formed as a separate branch of the American military
on 18 September 1947.* [4] The Israeli Air Force came
into being the with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, but
evolved from the pre-existing Sherut Avir (Air Service) of
the Haganah paramilitary. The Japan Air Self-Defense
Force was not established until 1954; in World War II
Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the
Army and Navy. Unlike all these countries, the Mexican
Air Force remains an integral part of the Mexican Army.
Fixed-wing aircraft at the time were quite primitive, being able to achieve velocities comparable to that of modern automobiles and mounting minimal weaponry and
equipment. Aerial services were still largely a new venture, and relatively unreliable machines and limited training resulted in stupendously low life expectancies for
early military aviators.
The world wars

World War I See also: Aviation in World War I
World War II
See also: Air warfare of World War II
By the time World War II began, planes had become

much safer, faster, and more reliable. They were adopted
as standard for bombing raids and taking out other aircraft because they were much faster than airships. The
world's largest military Air Force by the start of the Second World War in 1939 was the Soviet Red Air Force,
and although much depleted, it would stage the largest air
operations of WWII over the four years of combat with
the German Luftwae.
Arguably the war's most important air operation, known
as the Battle of Britain, took place during 1940 over
Britain and the English Channel between Britain's Royal
Air Force and Germany's Luftwae over a period of several months. In the end Britain emerged victorious, and
this caused Adolf Hitler to give up his plan to invade
Britain. Other prominent air force operations during the
Second World War include the Allied bombing of Germany during 19421944, and the Red Air Force operations in support of strategic ground oensives on the
Eastern Front. The aerial warfare in Pacic Ocean theatre
was of a comparable strategic signicance to the Battle of
Britain but was largely conducted by the US and Japanese
naval aviation services and not by air forces.
CONTENTS
A-6As VA-196 dropping Mk 82 bombs Vietnam
Heinkel He 111 during the Battle of Britain
Strategic bombing
navy to form the unied Canadian Forces, with air assets

divided between several commands and a green uniform
for everyone. This proved very unpopular, and in 1975
Canadian aviation units were rebrigaded under a single
organization (Air Command) with a single commander.
In 2011 the Canadian Forces Air Command reverted to
its pre-1960s name, the Royal Canadian Air Force. Perhaps the latest air force to become independent is the Irish
Air Corps, which changed its uniform from army green
to blue in the 1990s.
0.2.2 Organization
See also: Military organization
B-29 in ight
The air force's role of strategic bombing against enemy

infrastructure was developed during the 1930s by the
Japanese in China and by the Germans during the Spanish
Civil War. This role for the bomber was perfected during
World War II, during Allied Thousand Bomber Raid
operations. The need to intercept these bombers, both
during the day and at night, accelerated ghter aircraft
developments. The war ended when United States Army
Air Forces Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers dropped
atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in
August 1945.
The organizational structures of air forces vary between

nations: some air forces (such as the United States Air
Force, the Royal Air Force) are divided into commands,
groups and squadrons; others (such as the Soviet Air
Force) have an Army-style organizational structure. The
modern Royal Canadian Air Force uses Air Division as
the formation between wings and the entire air command.
Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of squadrons. In
the case of China the Air Force headquarters consists
of four departments: Command, Political, Logistic, and
Equipment, which mirrors the four general departments
of the People's Liberation Army. Below the headquarters, Military Region Air Forces (MRAF) direct divisions
(Fighter, Attack, Bomber), which in turn direct regiments
and squadrons.* [5]
0.2.3 Air armies

Post World War II
The United States Air Force nally became an independent service in 1947. As the Cold War began, both the
USAF and the Soviet Air Force built up their nuclearcapable strategic bomber forces. Several technological
advances were widely introduced during this time: the jet
engine; the missile; the helicopter; and inight refueling.
Several countries title their air force Air Army, notably

France and Spain. In such countries the army is ocially
called the Land Army, although in common usage army
retains its meaning of a land force.
However, in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation

the term Air Army also refers to a military formation, and
during WWII eighteen Air Armies operated as part of
During the 1960s, Canada took the unusual step of merg- the Red Army Order of Battle as the Soviet Air Forces
ing the Royal Canadian Air Force with the army and the in World War II. The Air Armies were divided into the
0.3. ARMY GROUP
air forces of the military district PVO, the Frontal Avia- 0.2.7 References
tion Air Armies assigned one to each Front, and the AntiAFPC Air Force Personnel Center, Air Force
Air Defence Armies that included anti-aircraft guns and
Personnel Center, Joint Base San Antonio, Texas,
interceptors.
2013, webpage: www.afpc.af.mil.
United States Air Force, U.S. Air Force, 2009,
webpage (large): Airforce.com (Air Force recruiting site).
United States Air Force, U.S. Air Force, 2013,
webpage (large): Ocial Site of the US Air Force
(has subpages about the Air Force).
United States Air Force Fact Sheet, U.S. Air
Force, 2013, webpage (large): US Air Force Fact
Sheet.
Members of the Fusiliers Commandos de l'Air, the infantry unit
of the French Air Force
0.2.4
Infantry
Main article: Air force infantry and special forces units

Infantry in air forces, such as the Royal Air Force Regiment and the Royal Australian Air Force Aireld Defence
Guards, are used primarily for ground-based defence of
air bases and other, air force facilities. They also have a
number of other, specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and
training other, air force personnel in basic ground defence
tactics.
0.2.5
United States Air Force Facebook Ocial External

Presence, U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large):
Ocial US Air Force Facebook page.
United States Air Force blog, U.S. Air Force,
2013, webpage (large): Ocial US Air Force blog.
0.3 Army group
See also
List of air forces

Aerial warfare
History of military aviation
Military aircraft
Space force
Standard NATO symbol for an army group (or Soviet front)
0.2.6
Notes
[1] Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare, pg.19

[2] Royal Air Force 90th Anniversary History of the RAF
[3] FINNISH AIR FORCE AIRCRAFT HISTORY TIMELINE. Pentti Perttula. 8 April 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
[4] 80 P.L. 253, 61 Stat. 495 (1947); Air Force Link, (2006)
Factsheets: The U.S. Air Force. U.S. Air Force, December 2008. Retrieved on 9 May 2009.
[5] IISS Military Balance 2012, 233, 237
An army group is a military organization consisting of

several eld armies, which is self-sucient for indenite
periods. It is usually responsible for a particular geographic area. An army group is the largest eld organization handled by a single commanderusually a full general or eld marshaland it generally includes between
400,000 and 1,000,000 soldiers.
In the Polish Armed Forces and former Soviet Red Army
an army group was known as a Front. The equivalent
of an army group in the Imperial Japanese Army was an
area army(Hmen-gun ()).
CONTENTS
Army groups may be multi-national formations. For province. He was the highest ranking Chinese ocer to
example, during World War II, the Southern Group of be killed in the war.
Armies (also known as the U.S. 6th Army Group) comprised the U.S. Seventh Army and the French First Army;
the 21st Army Group comprised the British Second Germany
Army, the Canadian First Army and the US Ninth Army.
See List of German Army Groups in WWII
In U.S. Army usage, the number of an army group is expressed in Arabic numerals (e.g., 12th Army Group
), while the number of a eld army is spelled out (e.g., The German Army was organized into army groups
(Heeresgruppen). Some of these army groups were multiThird Army).
national, containing armies from several Axis countries.
For example Army Group Africa contained both German
0.3.1 World War I
and Italian corps.
France
Japan
The French Army formed a number of groupe d'armees
during the First World War. The rst of these was Army Main article: Armies of the Imperial Japanese Army
Group North, formed on a provision basis in October
1914. Army Group East and Army Group Centre both
During World War II there were six general armies:
followed in 1915 while Army Group Reserve was established in 1917. A Franco-Belgian Army Group Flanders
Kantgun (often known as the Kwantung Army
also existed briey in 1918, under the command of Albert
) originated as the division-level garrison of a
I of Belgium.
Japanese colony in northeast China, in 1908; it remained in northern China until the end of World
Germany
War II. The strength of the Kantgun peaked at
700,000 personnel in 1941. It faced and was deThe German Army formed its rst two Heeresgruppen
stroyed by Soviet forces in 1945.
in 1915, to control forces on the eastern front. A total of eight army groups would ultimately be raised; four
Shina Hakengun, theChina Expeditionary Army,
for service on each front, with one of the eastern front
was formed in Nanjing, in September 1939, to conarmy groups being a multinational German and Austrotrol
operations in central China. At the end of World
Hungarian formation. Originally the Imperial German
War
II, it consisted of 620,000 personnel in 25 inarmy groups were not separate formations, but instead
fantry
and one armored divisions.
additional responsibilities granted to certain army commanders. Crown Prince Wilhelm for instance, was simultaneously commander of the 5th Army and Army Group
Nanpo Gun was theSouthern Army, also known
German Crown Prince from August 1915 to November
as theSouthern Expeditionary Army. By Novem1916.
ber 1941, war with the western Allies appeared
likely and Nanpo Gun was formed in Saigon, French
All eight German army groups were named after their
Indochina, to control Imperial Japanese Army opcommanders.
erations in southern China, South Asia, South East
Asia, and the South Pacic.
0.3.2
World War II
China
Main article: List of Army Groups of the
National Revolutionary Army
Main article: Group Army
A Chinesearmy groupwas usually equivalent in numbers only to a eld army in the terminology of other countries. On 16 May 1940, Zhang Zizhong, commander
of the 33rd Army Group was killed in action in Hubei
In April 1945, the Boei So-Shireibu (translated as general defense commandorhome defense general headquartersand similar names) was split into three general
armies:
Dai-Ichi So-Gun (1st General Army, headquartered in Tokyo)
Dai-Ni So-Gun (2nd General Army, headquartered in Hiroshima)
Koku So-Gun (Air General Army, headquartered
in Tokyo)
0.3. ARMY GROUP

By August 1945, these comprised two million personnel
in 55 divisions and numerous smaller independent units.
After the surrender of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army
was dissolved, except for the Dai-Ichi So-Gun, which existed until 30 November 1945 as the 1st Demobilization
Headquarters.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Army was organized into fronts (, pl.
) which were often as large as an army group.
(See List of Soviet fronts in World War II.) Some of the
fronts contained Allied formations raised in exile. For
example, the Polish First Army was part of the 1st Belorussian Front.
Western Allies
Six army groups were created by the Western Allies
during the Second World War, although no more than
ve existed at any one time. The army groups were in
turn subordinate to the Allied theatre supreme commanders. While led by British and American ocers they
included troops from numerous allied nations; the 15th
Army Group included Canadian and Polish Corps, Divisions from Brazil, India, New Zealand and South Africa
and a Greek brigade.
18th Army Group: Established on 20 February 1943, under the command of General Harold
Alexander for the Tunisia Campaign. A primarily British formation, it comprised the British First
Army and Eighth Army, but included French and
American corps. After the capture of Tunisia it was
reorganized as the 15th Army Group.
9
12th Army Group: Established on 14 July 1944, the
12th Army Group was ocially activated at noon on
August 1, 1944 under the command of Lieutenant
General Omar Bradley, with Lieutenant Generals
Courtney Hodges and George Patton commanding
First Army and Third Army, respectively. Eventually, 12th Army Group included Ninth Army under the command of Lieutenant General William
Simpson and Fifteenth Army under the command of
Lieutenant GeneralGeeGerow, it was the largest
of the Western Allies' army groups in World War II.
12th Army Group occupied the middle of the allied line, between the 21st and 6th Army Groups,
and was sometimes referred to as the Central Army
Group. This is the only army group in World War
II that consisted entirely of U.S. troops. At its peak
at end of the war, 12th Army Group consisted of
the four aforementioned eld armies, twelve corps,
and over forty divisions -- four-star General Bradley
commanded over 1.3 million men in his army group,
the largest number of soldiers ever commanded by
a single ocer in United States history.
6th Army Group: Established on 29 July 1944 under
the command of Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers for Operation Dragoon. Made up of the U.S.
Seventh Army and the First French Army, it occupied the southern ank of the Allied Expeditionary
Force and was sometimes referred to as the Southern Army Group.
11th Army Group: Established in November 1943
under the command of General George Giard for
the Burma Campaign. The 11th Army Group was
originally comprised the British Fourteenth Army
and Ceylon Army, with a degree of control over
the Sino-American Northern Combat Area Command. In November 1944 Giard was succeeded
by Lieutenant General Oliver Leese and rm command established over the Northern Combat Area
Command. Leese was in turn replaced by General
William Slim in July 1945, shortly before the war
ended.
15th Army Group: Established on 15 May 1943,

under the command of General Alexander for the
invasion of Italy. For the invasion of Sicily it consisted of the British Eighth Army and U.S. Seventh Army. Subsequently the Seventh Army was replaced by the U.S. Fifth Army and in Alexander was
succeeded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark in
As part of Operation Quicksilver, a ctitious First United
December 1944.
States Army Group was created.
21st Army Group: Established in June 1943 under
the command of General Bernard Paget. In January
1944 Paget was replaced by General Bernard Mont- 0.3.3 NATO 'Army Groups'
gomery who led the army group through Operation
Overlord and the subsequent North West Europe During the Cold War, NATO land forces in what was descampaign. 21st Army Group was made up of the ignated the Central Region (most of the Federal Republic
Canadian First Army and the British Second Army, of Germany) would have been commanded in wartime by
but also had command of the First Allied Airborne two 'army groups'. Under Allied Forces Central Europe
Army, U.S. First Army and U.S. Ninth Army for and alongside air force elements, the two army groups
some operations. After the breakout from Nor- would have been responsible for the defence of Germany
mandy, it formed the northern wing of the Allied against any Soviet/Warsaw Pact invasion. These two prinExpeditionary Force and was sometimes referred to cipal subordinate commanders had only limited peaceas the Northern Army Group.
time authorities, and issues such as training, doctrine, lo-
10
CONTENTS
0.3.4 References
[1] Globalsecurity.org, Cold War NATO Army Groups, accessed 20 June 2010
[2] David C Isby & Charles Kamps Jr, Armies of NATO's
Central Front, Jane's Publishing Company Limited, 1985
0.4 Artillery battery
Northern Army Group

Remains of a battery of English cannon at Youghal, County Cork
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit of

guns, mortars, rockets or missiles so grouped in order to
facilitate better battleeld communication and command
and control, as well as to provide dispersion for its constituent gunnery crews and their systems. The term is
gistics, and rules of engagement were largely a national,
also used in a naval context to describe groups of guns
rather than NATO, responsibility.* [1]
on warships.
The two formations were the 'Northern Army Group'
(NORTHAG) and the 'Central Army Group' (CENTAG). By World War II and previous standards these two 0.4.1 Land usage
formations were only armies, as they contained four corps
each.* [2] NORTHAG consisted, from north to south, of
I Netherlands Corps (I (NE) Corps), I German Corps (I
(GE) Corps), I (BR) Corps, and I Belgian Corps (I (BE)
Corps). Its commander was the British commander of the
British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). CENTAG consisted,
from north to south, of III (GE) Corps, V US Corps, VII
(US) Corps, and II (GE) Corps in the extreme south of
the Federal Republic of Germany. The commander of
the United States Army Europe commanded CENTAG.
In November 1991, the NATO heads of state and government adopted the New Strategic Conceptat the
NATO Summit in Rome. This new conceptual orientation led, among other things, to fundamental changes
both in the force and integrated command structure.
Structural changes began in June 1993, when HQ Central Army Group (CENTAG) at Heidelberg and Northern Army Group (NORTHAG) at Mnchengladbach, GE
were deactivated and replaced by Headquarters Allied
Land Forces Central Europe (LANDCENT), which was
activated at Heidelberg on 1 July 1993.
A coast battery in Crawfordsburn, County Down.
Historically the term 'battery' referred to a cluster of cannon in action as a group, either in a temporary eld position during a battle or at the siege of a fortress or a city.
Such batteries could be a mixture of cannon, howitzer,
0.4. ARTILLERY BATTERY
11
or mortar types. A siege could involve many batteries at

dierent sites around the besieged place. The term also
came to be used for a group of cannon in a xed fortication, for coastal or frontier defence. During the 18th
century 'battery' began to be used as an organizational
term for a permanent unit of artillery in peace and war,
although horse artillery sometimes used 'troop' and xed
position artillery 'company'. They were usually organised
with between six and 12 ordnance pieces, often including
cannon and howitzers. By the late 19th century 'battery'
had become standard mostly replacing company or troop.
In the 20th century the term was generally used for
the company level sub-unit of an artillery branch including eld, air-defence, anti-tank and position (coastal
and frontier defences). Artillery operated target acquisition emerged during the First World War and were also
grouped into batteries and have subsequently expanded
to include the complete intelligence, surveillance, target
acquisition and reconnaissance (ISTAR) spectrum. 20thcentury ring batteries have been equipped with mortars,
guns, howitzers, rockets and missiles.
Mobile batteries
60-pounder battery at Arras, 1917.
and periods, but often translate into the English 'platoon'

or 'troop' with individual ordnance systems called a 'section', or 'sub-section' where a section comprises two artillery pieces.
The rank of a battery commander has also varied, but is
usually a lieutenant, captain or major.
The number of guns, howitzers, mortars or launchers in
an organizational battery has also varied, with the calibre
of guns usually being an important consideration. In the
19th century four to 12 guns was usual as the optimum
number to maneuver into the gun line. By late 19th century the mountain artillery battery was divided into a gun
line and an ammunition line. The gun line consisted of six
guns (ve mules to a gun) and 12 ammunition mules.* [1]
During the American Civil War, artillery batteries often consisted of six eld pieces for the Union Army and
four for the Confederate States Army, although this varied. Batteries were divided into sections of two guns
apiece, each section normally under the command of a
lieutenant. The full battery was typically commanded by
French Napoleonic artillery battery. Photo taken during the a captain. Often, particularly as the war progressed, in200th anniversary reenactment of the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. dividual batteries were grouped into battalions under a
major or colonel of artillery. See Field Artillery in the
During the Napoleonic Wars some armies started group- American Civil War.
ing their batteries into larger administrative and eld In the 20th century it varied between four and 12 for eld
units. Groups of batteries combined for eld combat em- artillery (even 16 if mortars), or even two pieces for very
ployment called Grand Batteries by Napoleon.
heavy pieces. Other types of artillery such as anti-tank or
Administratively batteries were usually grouped in
battalions, regiments or squadrons and these developed
into tactical organisations. These were further grouped
into regiments, simply 'group' or brigades, that may be
wholly composed of artillery units or combined arms
in composition. To further concentrate re of individual batteries, from World War I they were grouped into
'artillery divisions' in a few armies. Coastal artillery
sometimes had completely dierent organizational terms
based on shore defence sector areas.
anti-aircraft have sometimes been larger. Some batteries

have been 'dual-equipped' with two dierent types of gun
or mortar, and taking whichever was more appropriate
when they deployed for operations.
From the late 19th Century eld artillery batteries started

to became more complex organisations. First they
needed the capability to carry adequate ammunition, typically each gun could only carry about 40 rounds in its limber so additional wagons were added to the battery, typically about two per gun. The introduction on indirect re
Batteries also have sub-divisions which vary across armies in the early 20th Century necessitated two other groups,
12
CONTENTS
rstly observers who deployed some distance forward of

the gun line, secondly a small sta on the gun position
to undertake the calculations to convert the orders from
the observers into data that could be set on the gun sights.
This in turn led to the need for signalers, which further
increased as the need to concentrate the re of dispersed
batteries emerged and the introduction re control sta
at artillery headquarters above the batteries.
Fixed battery
Barbette of the French battleship Redoutable (1876)
This remained the standard layout for centuries, until new

designs, such as the revolving turret, made it obsolete.
64 Pounder Ried Muzzle-Loader (RML) gun on Moncrie disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort, a xed battery of coastal
artillery in Bermuda.
Fixed artillery refers to guns or howitzers on mounts that

were either anchored in one spot (though capable of being moved for purposes of traverse and elevation), or on
carriages intended to be moved only for the purposes of
aiming, and not for tactical repositioning. These were
in distinction from eld artillery guns positioned within
forts. Such mounts were typically used in forts, or permanent defensive batteries, such as coastal artillery. By
the end of the 19th Century, batteries of this sort were
equipped with much larger guns than eld artillery units
could utilise, and the gun emplacement was only one part
of an extensive installation that included magazines and
systems to deliver ammunition from the magazines to the
guns. Although such batteries were useful where permanent defences were required, especially with artillery capable of ring at long ranges, they became increasingly
vulnerable to naval re as the size and range of naval artillery outstripped that of coastal artillery, and to air attack with the advent of powered ight.
The rst operational use of a rotating turrets was on the

American ironclad USS Monitor, designed by John Ericsson. Other designs used open barbettes to house their
main batteries on rotating mounts. Both designs allowed
naval engineers to dramatically reduce the number of
guns present in the battery, by giving a handful of guns
the ability to concentrate on either side of the ship.
A revolution in ship armament occurred in 1906, with the
completion of HMS Dreadnought. In previous battleship
designs, the primary battery often consisted of four large
caliber guns in two turrets: one forward and the other aft.
The ships also had a mixed secondary battery of smaller
guns that were also intended to be used oensively. The
dierences in gun calibers and ranges made it dicult to
accurately judge shell splashes, and thus to re the guns
accurately, which led to decreased eectiveness of the
ships. Dreadnought's design did away with the oensive
secondary battery, and replaced it with ten heavy caliber
guns, and a smaller secondary battery to be used for selfdefense. This leap in armament made all other battleships
obsolete.
Armored gun house
Powder hoist
Rammers
Gun barrels
Deck lug
Gun deck
Gun girder
Projectile hoist
Pan floor
Roller path
Rotating turret structure

Projectile ring
Fixed stowage
Barbette
See also: land battery
Turret foundation (stationary)

Machinery floor
Projectile handling floor
Magazines
Powder handling room
0.4.2
Naval usage
Cut-away illustration of the 16 inch gun turret on Iowa-class

battleships that formed the primary battery.
The term 'battery' has also been used in association with

warships. Early warships that mounted guns, such as the
ship of the line, mounted dozens of cannons, carronades, Often, ships have a primary battery for oensive purand other guns in broadsides, sometimes on several decks. poses, and a secondary and sometimes even a tertiary bat-
0.4. ARTILLERY BATTERY
13
tery for self-defense. An example of this was the German

Headquarters batteries, which themselves have no
battleship Bismarck, which carried a primary battery of
artillery pieces, but are rather the command and
eight 380 mm (15 in) guns, a secondary battery of twelve
control organization for a group of ring batteries
150 mm (5.9 in) guns for defense against destroyers and
(for example, a regimental or battalion headquarters
torpedo boats, as well as a tertiary battery of various
battery).
anti-aircraft guns ranging in caliber from 105-to-20 mm
(4.13-to-0.79 in). Many later ships used dual-purpose The battery is typically commanded by a captain in US
guns to combine the secondary battery and the heavier forces and is equivalent to an infantry company.
guns of the tertiary batteries, in order to simplify the deIn United Kingdom and Commonwealth forces a battery
sign.
commander, or BCis a Major (like his infantry comMost modern vessels have largely done away with conven- pany commander counterpart). However, in these armies
tional artillery, instead using cruise and guided missiles the battery commander leads the 'tactical group' and is
for most oensive and defensive purposes, respectively. usually located with the headquarters of the infantry or
Guns are retained for niche roles, such as the Phalanx amoured unit the battery is supporting. The battery poCIWS, a multi-barrel rotary cannon used for point de- sition is commanded by the BC's second-in-command,
fense, the Mark 45 5-inch (130 mm), or the Otobreda 76 the Battery Captain (BK). Increasingly these direct supmm which is used for close defense against surface com- port battery commanders are responsible for the orchesbatants and shore bombardment.
tration of all forms of re support (mortars, attack helicopters, other aircraft and naval gunre) as well as artillery. General support battery commanders are likely to
0.4.3 Modern battery organization
be at brigade or higher headquarters.
A US Army battery is divided into the following units:
The ring section, which includes the individual gun
sections. Each gun section is typically led by a sta
sergeant (US Army Enlisted pay grade E-6); the ring section as a whole is usually led by a lieutenant
and a senior NCO.
I Battery, 2nd Battalion 11th Marines in Iraq, 2003
The re direction center (FDC), which computes ring solutions based on map coordinates, receives re
requests and feedback from observers and infantry
units, and communicates directions to the ring section. It also receives commands from higher headquarters (i.e. the battalion FDC sends commands to
the FDCs of all three of its batteries for the purpose
of synchronizing a barrage).
In modern battery organization, the military unit typically

has six to eight howitzers or six to nine rocket launchers and 100 to 200 personnel and is the equivalent of a United States Marine Corps
company in terms of organisation level.
155mm Howitzer Battery, Artillery Battalion, Artillery
In the United States Army, generally a towed howitzer Regiment, Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force
battery has six guns, where a self-propelled battery (such
as an M 109 battery) contains eight. They are subdivided (Battery Organization consisting of 145 Marines and
Navy personnel, per Table of Organization T/O 1113G)
into:
Field batteries, equipped with 105 mm howitzers or
equivalent;
Medium batteries, equipped with 155 mm howitzers
or equivalent;
Battery Headquarters
Headquarters Section Battery CO (Capt),
Battery 1stSgt, plus 3 Marines
Communications Section 16 Marines, led by
the Radio Chief (SSGT)
Heavy batteries, which are equipped with guns of

203 mm or more calibre, but are now very rare; and
Maintenance Section 11 Marines, led by the

Battery Motor Transport Chief (GySgt)
Various more specialised types, such as anti-aircraft,

missile, or Multiple Launch Rocket System batteries.
Medical Section 3 Navy Hospital Corpsmen

Liaison Section led by the Liaison Ocer
(1stLt)
14
CONTENTS
Liaison Team 5 Marines, led by the Ob- 0.4.6 References
server Liaison Chief (SGT)
Bethell, Henry Arthur, 1911, Modern Artillery in
Forward Observer Team (3) 4 Marines,
the Field: A Description of the Artillery of the Field,
led by a Forward Observer (2ndLT)
London, Macmillan and Co Ltd
Ammunition Section 17 Marines, led by the
Ammunition Chief (SSGT)
Firing Platoon
Headquarters Section Platoon Commander/Battery XO (1stLt), Battery Gunnery
Sergeant (GySgt), and Local Security
Chief/Platoon Sergeant (SSGT)
0.4.7 External links

French Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars
Corregidor's artillery batteries
Battery Operations Center 5 Marines, 0.5 Battalion

led by the Assistant XO/FDO (2ndLt) and
an Operations Assistant (SGT)
For other uses, see Battalion (disambiguation).
Fire Direction Center 9 Marines, led by
A battalion is a military unit. The use of the term
the Fire Direction Ocer (FDO) (1stLT)
and the Operations Chief (SSGT)
Artillery Section (6) 10 Marines, led by the
Section Chief (SSGT), with a Gunner (SGT),
two Assistant Gunners (CPL), ve Cannoneers
(PVT-LCPL), and a Motor Vehicle Operator (LCPL) to operate and maintain the prime
mover (i.e., truck used to tow the artillery
piece and transport the gun crew and baggage).
Other armies can be signicantly dierent, however.
For example: the basic eld organization being the 'gun
group' and the 'tactical group'. The former being reconnaissance and survey, guns, command posts, logistic and
equipment support elements, the latter being the battery
commander and observation teams that deploy with the Standard NATO code for a friendly infantry battalion.
supported arm. In these armies the guns may be split into
several re units, which may deploy dispersed over an extended area or be concentrated into a single position. It
some cases batteries have operationally deployed as six
totally separate guns, although sections (pairs) are more
usual.
During the Cold War NATO batteries that were dedicated
to a nuclear role generally operated as 'sections' comprising a single gun or launcher.
Groupings of mortars, when they are not operated by arSymbol of the Austrian 14th Armoured Battalion in NATO militillery, are usually referred to as platoons.
tary graphic symbols
0.4.4
See also
Artillery
Field artillery team
0.4.5
Notes
[1] p.263, Bethell
battalionvaries by nationality and branch of service.

Typically a battalion consists of 300 to 800 soldiers and
is divided into a number of companies. A battalion is typically commanded by a lieutenant colonel. In some countries the wordbattalionis associated with the infantry.
The term was rst used in Italian as battaglione no later
than the 1500s. It derived from the Italian word for battle,
battaglia. The rst use of battalion in English was in the
1580s, and the rst use to mean part of a regimentis
from 1708.
0.5. BATTALION
15
0.5.3 British Army

The term battalion is used in the British Army Infantry, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, and
intelligence corps only. It was formerly used for a few
units in the Royal Engineers (before they switched to regiments), and was also used in the now defunct Royal Army
Ordnance Corps and Royal Pioneer Corps. Other corps
usually use the term regimentinstead.
Australian 11th (Western Australia) Battalion, 3rd Infantry

Brigade, Australian Imperial Force posing on the Great Pyramid
of Giza on 10 January 1915
0.5.1
Independent operations
An infantry battalion is numbered ordinarily within its

regiment (e.g., 1st Battalion, The Ries, usually referred
to as 1 Ries). It normally has a headquarters company,
support company, and three rie companies (usually, but
not always, A, B and C companies). Each company is
commanded by a major, the ocer commanding (OC),
with a captain or senior lieutenant as second-in-command
(2IC). The HQ company contains signals, quartermaster,
catering, intelligence, administration, pay, training, operations and medical elements. The support company
usually contains anti-tank, machine gun, mortar, pioneer
and reconnaissance platoons. Mechanised units usually
have an attached light aid detachment (LAD) of the Royal
Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) to perform
eld repairs on vehicles and equipment. A British battalion in theatre during World War II had around 845 men in
it, and, as of 2012, a British battalion had around 650 soldiers. With successive rounds of cutbacks after the war,
many infantry regiments were reduced to a single battalion (others were amalgamated to form large regiments
which maintained multiple battalions, e.g., the Royal Anglian Regiment).
A battalion may be the smallest military organization capable of independent operations, though this depends on
the denition ofindependent operations. It must have
a source of re-supply to sustain operations for more than
several days. In addition to comprising sucient personnel and equipment (usually at least two primary mission
companies and one mission support company) to perform
signicant operations, as well as a limited self-contained Important gures in a battalion headquarters include:
administrative and logistics capability, the commander is
Commanding ocer (CO) (invariably a lieutenant
provided with a full-time sta whose function is to coorcolonel)
dinate current operations and plan future operations. A
battalion's subordinate units (companies and their organic
Second-in-command (2i/c) (Major)
platoons) are dependent upon the battalion headquarters
for command, control, communications, and intelligence
Adjutant (captain)
and the battalion's organic service and support structure
Quartermaster (QM) (major)
to perform their mission. The battalion is usually part of
a regiment, brigade, or group, depending on the organi Quartermaster (technical) (QM(T))
zational model used by that service. Battalions generally
Medical ocer (MO) (Royal Army Medical Corps
can operate for no greater than 10 days without higher
captain or major)
echelon support, and are unable to operate away from a
supported location without their higher headquarters reg Administrative ocer (Adjutant General's Corps
iment, brigade, or group's logistical support structure.
captain or major)
0.5.2
Homogeneity
The bulk of a battalion's companies are often homogeneous with respect to type (e.g., an infantry or tank battalion), although there are exceptions such as combined
arms battalions in the U.S. Army. A battalion includes
a headquarters company and some sort of combat service support, typically organized within a combat support
company.
Padre (Royal Army Chaplains Department chaplain

4th or 3rd class)
Intelligence ocer (IO) (lieutenant)
Signals ocer (lieutenant)
Regimental sergeant major (RSM) (warrant ocer
class 1)
Regimental quartermaster sergeant (RQMS) (warrant ocer class 2)
16
CONTENTS
Regimental quartermaster sergeant (technical)

(RQMS(T)) (warrant ocer class 2)
Battalions of other corps are given separate cardinal numbers within their corps (e.g., 101 Battalion REME).
Battalion group
A battalion group is a military unit based around a battalion. A typical battalion group consists of an infantry
or armoured battalion with sub-units detached from other
military units acting under the direct command of the battalion commander. Battalion groups may be permanent
or temporary formations.
Mortar platoon:
Platoon headquarters of two FV105 Sultans
Four sections of three FV432s with L16
81 mm mortar
Operations section of four MFC teams
and four FV103 Spartans
CSS detachment of one FV432
Pioneer platoon of four Warriors, platoon
headquarters (L9A1 51 mm light mortar),
three sections (two L86 LSWs each)
LAD section of one FV432, one FV434
carrier, maintenance, full trackedand one
FV106 Samson
Under modern military doctrine, battalion groups are be- This is all scheduled to change under the Army 2020 coning replaced by battlegroups. The key dierence between cept.
battalion groups and battlegroups is that battlegroups consist of a mixture of sub-units and typically do not include
all sub-units of any single battalion.
0.5.4 Canadian Army
The battalion sta includes the operations ocer (usually a major) who is also generally the next in command In the Canadian Forces, most battalions are reserve units
of between 100200 soldiers that include an operationally
hierarchy after the battalion second in command.
ready, eld-deployable component of approximately a
half-company apiece. The nine regular force infantry batArmoured infantry battalion
talions each contain three or four rie companies and one
or two support companies. Canadian battalions are gen Headquarters of ve FV432, two Warrior MCRVs erally commanded by lieutenant-colonels, though smaller
(mechanised combat repair vehicle) and one War- reserve battalions may be commanded by majors.
rior MAOV (mechanised artillery observation vehiThose regiments consisting of more than one battalion
cle)
are:
Four armoured infantry companies (one company
The Royal Canadian Regiment (three regular and
has two platoons):
one reserve battalions)
Headquarters of two Warriors, one FV432
Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (three
ambulance, two Land Rovers, one eight-ton
regular battalions)
truck, headquarters and sniper section
Royal 22* e Rgiment (three regular and two reserve
Three platoons of four Warriors, platoon headbattalions)
quarters (L9A1 51 mm light mortar), three
sections (two L86 LSW each)
LAD section of one Warrior MCRV, one Warrior 512 and one FV432
The Royal Newfoundland Regiment (two reserve

battalions)
Tactically, the Canadian battalion forms the core of the

infantry battle group, which also includes various supporting elements such as armour, artillery, combat en Headquarters of ve FV432s, two Warrior gineers and combat service support. An infantry battle
MCRVs and one Warrior MAOV
group will typically be commanded by the commander
of the core infantry battalion around which it is formed
Anti-tank platoon:
Headquarters of two Warriors and two and can range in size from 300 to 1,500 or more soldiers,
depending on the nature of the mission assigned.
MILAN teams
Manoeuvre support company:
Three sections of one FV103 Spartan

(headquarters) three Warriors and six MILAN teams
Reconnaissance platoon:
Three sections of four Sabres
Headquarters ISTAR group of one FV432
0.5.5 Dutch Army

A mechanised infantry battalion usually consists of
one command- and medical company, three mechanised infantry companies, and one support company which has three platoons with heavy mortars
0.5. BATTALION
17
and three platoons with anti-tank missiles (TOW). 0.5.7 United States
With the Dutch artillery units, the equivalent of a
battalion is called an "afdeling" (which translates to
United States Army
section).
Combat companies consist of (usually mechanised)
infantry, combat engineers, or tanks. In the latter
case, the unit is called an "eskadron", which translates roughly to squadron. There are also support battalions in the Dutch Army, which specialise
on specic task: for example, supplies and transport
or communications.
In the United States Army, a battalion is a unit composed

of a headquarters and two or more batteries, companies or
troops. They are normally identied by ordinal numbers
(1st Battalion, 2nd Squadron, etc.) and normally have
subordinate units that are identied by single letters (Battery A, Company A, Troop A, etc.). Battalions are tactical and administrative organizations with a limited capability to plan and conduct independent operations and
The Netherlands have four battalions that are per- are normally organic components of brigades, groups, or
manently reserved for the United Nations, for the regiments.
purpose of peacekeeping duties.
A US Army battalion includes the battalion commander
(lieutenant colonel), executive ocer (major), command
An infantry battalion, logistical battalion, combat
sergeant major (CSM), headquarters sta, and usually
battalion, and the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps
three to ve companies, with a total of 300 to 1,200 solall have a battalion structure. Each battalion usually
diers. A regiment consists of between two and six organic
consists of the following:
battalions, while a brigade consists of between three and
seven separate battalions.
Battalion command
During the American Civil War, an infantry or cavalry
Commander
battalion was an ad hoc grouping of companies from the
Second in command
parent regiment (which had ten companies, A through
K, minus J as described below), except for certain reg General service
ular infantry regiments, which were formally organized
Personnel section
into three battalions of six companies each (numbered
Intelligence section
16 per battalion vice sequential letter designations). After 1882, cavalry battalions were renamed squadrons and
Operations section
cavalry companies were renamed troops. Artillery battal Materiel section
ions typically comprised four or more batteries, although
Communication section
this number uctuated considerably.
Command company
During World War II, most infantry regiments consisted
Command group
Administration group
Medical group
Communication group
Supply platoon
Three infantry companies

Support company
0.5.6
Command group
Recon platoon
Mortar platoon
Anti-tank platoon
Swiss Army
With the major reform of its armed forces in 2004, the

Swiss Army abandoned the old regimental system and
adopted a combat team approach centred on battalions as
the building blocks of mission-oriented task forces. Battalion sizes vary between branches.
of three battalions (1st, 2nd, and 3rd) with each battalion

consisting of three rie companies and a heavy weapons
company. That is, rie companies A, B, C along with
heavy weapons company D were part of the 1st battalion, rie companies E, F, G, and heavy weapons company H constituted the 2nd battalion, and rie companies
I, K, L, and heavy weapons company M were in the 3rd.
There was no J company: the letter J was traditionally not
used because in 18th and 19th centuries old-style type,
the capital letters I and J looked alike, and were therefore easily confused with one another. It was common
for a battalion to become temporarily attached to a different regiment. For example, during the confusion and
high casualty rates of both the Normandy landings and
the Battle of the Bulge, in order to bolster the strength of
a depleted infantry regiment, companies and even battalions were moved around as necessary.
From the 1960s through the early 1980s, a typical maneuver (infantry or tank) battalion had ve companies:
headquarters and headquarters company (HHC) and A,
B, and C companies, plus a combat support company
(CSC), with a scout platoon, 4.2 inch heavy mortar platoon, along with other elements that varied between or-
18
ganizations. These included heavy anti-tank TOW missile platoons, ground surveillance radar sections and manportable anti-aircraft missile sections. Beginning in the
early 1980s, some elements of the combat support companies (the mortar and scout platoons) were merged into
the headquarters company with the sta and support elements, others were moved to their parent type organization (ground surveillance radar and air defense), and
in infantry battalions the heavy anti-tank missile platoon
was organized as a separate company (E company). In
the late 1980s, there was a fourthlinecompany added
(D company) in most infantry and tank battalions.
In this older structure, U.S. Army mechanized infantry
battalions and tank battalions, for tactical purposes, crossposted companies to each other, forming a battalion-sized
task force (TF).
Starting in 20052006, the U.S. Army mechanized and
tank battalions were reorganized into combined arms battalions (CABs). Tank battalions and mechanized infantry
battalions no longer exist. These new combined arms
battalions are modular units, each consisting of a headquarters company, two mechanized infantry companies,
two armor companies, and a forward support company attached from the battalions parent brigade support battalion. This new structure eliminated the need to cross-post
(or as it is more commonly referred to, cross-attach) companies between battalions; each combined arms battalion
was organically composed of the requisite companies. At
a higher level, each armored brigade (formerly designated
as a heavy brigade) is now composed of three CABs (vs.
the two CABs of a former heavy brigade), an armored reconnaissance squadron, a res battalion (eld artillery), a
brigade engineer battalion (BEB), and a brigade support
battalion (BSB).
United States Marine Corps

See also: List of United States Marine Corps battalions
CONTENTS
brigade" (MEB). An MEB is one of the standard marine
air-ground task forces (MAGTF), is commanded by a
brigadier general or major general, and consists of command element, a ground combat element (usually one reinforced marine infantry regiment), an aviation combat
element (a reinforced marine aircraft group including rotary wing, xed wing, and tiltrotor aircraft), and a combat logistics element (a marine combat logistics regiment,
which includes naval construction forces [Seabees] and
naval medical elements).
In the U.S. Marine Corps, an infantry or riebattalion typically consists of a headquarters and service company, three rie, or line, companies (designated alphabetically A through M depending upon which battalion of the parent regiment to which they are attached)
and a weapons company. Weapons companies do not receive a letter designation. Marine infantry regiments use
battalion and company designations as described above
under World War II, with company letters D, H, and M
not normally used but rather held in reserve for use in
augmenting a fourth rie company into each battalion as
needed.
United States Marine Corps infantry battalions are task
organized into battalion landing teams (BLTs) as the
ground combat element (GCE) of a marine expeditionary
unit (MEU). A standard U.S. Marine infantry battalion
is typically supported by an artillery battery and a platoon each of tanks, amphibious assault vehicles, light armored reconnaissance vehicles, reconnaissance marines,
and combat engineers. The battalion structure is designed
to readily expand to include a fourth rie company, if required, as described above under battalion organization.
Often Air Naval Gunre Liaison Company (ANGLICO)
ocers are assigned to the battalion, to coordinate naval
gunre support.
United States Navy
The United States Navy has construction battalions and

navy cargo handling battalions. They are structured
A United States Marine Corps battalion includes the bat- roughly analogous to an army or marine corps battalion
talion headquarters, consisting of the commanding o- with sta and commanding ocers of similar grade and
cer (usually a lieutenant colonel, sometimes a colonel), experience.
an executive ocer (the second-in-command, usually a
major), the sergeant major, and the executive sta (S1 through S-4 and S-6). The battalion headquarters is 0.5.8 USSR
supported by a headquarters and service company (battery). A battalion usually contains two to ve organic Soviet Armed Forces
companies (batteries in the artillery), with a total of 500
to 1,200 marines in the battalion. A regiment consists Motorised rie battalion In the Soviet Armed Forces
of a regimental headquarters, a headquarters company a motorised rie battalion could be mounted on either
(or battery), and two to ve organic battalions (marine BTR armoured personnel carriers or BMP infantry ghtinfantry regiments three battalions of infantry; marine ing vehicles, with the former being more numerous into
artillery regiments three to ve battalions of artillery; the late 1980s. Both consisted of a battalion headquarmarine combat logistics regiments one to three com- ters of 12 personnel and three motorised rie companies
bat logistics battalions). In the U.S. Marine Corps, the of 110 personnel each, along with a number of combat
brigade designation is used only in "marine expeditionary support units: a mortar battery consisting of eight 120mm
0.5. BATTALION
19
mation with 135 personnel and 31 tanks total, with each
tank company consisting of 10 tanks total.* [2]* [3]
1980s Soviet motorised rie battalion (BTR)
120-PM-43 mortars or automatic 82mm 2B9 Vasileks, an

air defense platoon with nine MANPADs, either the SA7 Grail, SA-14 Gremlin or SA-16 Gimlet, and an automatic grenade launcher platoon with six 30mm AGS-17
launchers. The BTR battalion also featured an anti-tank
platoon with four AT-3 Sagger or AT-4 Spigot launchers and two 73mm SPG-9 recoilless guns; BTR units on
high-readiness status sometimes had six missile launchers
and three recoilless guns. Both featured the same support
units as well, with a signal platoon, supply platoon, repair
workshop and medical aid station. The addition of the
antitank platoon meant a BTR battalion at full strength
was 525 personnel and 60 BTRs, including three command variants, while a BMP battalion consisted of 497
personnel and 45 BMPs, including three command variants.* [1]
1980s Soviet 122mm artillery battalion
Artillery battalion A Soviet artillery battalion in the

late 1980s consisted of a battalion headquarters, a headquarters platoon, a maintenance and supply platoon and
three ring batteries of eighteen artillery pieces total,
whether the self-propelled 2S1 Gvozdikas or the towed
D-30 howitzers, and numbering 260 personnel or 240
personnel respectively. Rocket launcher artillery battalions consisted of a headquarters and headquarters platoon, a service battery and three ring batteries equipped
with BM-21 Grads for a total of 255 personnel.* [4]* [5]
0.5.9 See also

March battalion
Military organization
Swedish Battalion of the 17th and 18th century
0.5.10 References
[1] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 4-3
1980s Soviet tank battalion and company
Tank battalion Prior to the late 1980s Soviet tank battalions consisted of three tank companies of 13 T-64, T72 or T-80 tanks each, along with a battalion headquarters
mounted in a command tank and a headquarters and service platoon, for a total of 165 personnel and 40 tanks;
battalions using the older T-54, T-55 or T-62s tanks had
31 or 40 additional enlisted personnel. However forces
in Eastern Europe began to standardize to a smaller for-
[2] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-15
20
0.5.11
CONTENTS
External links
Battle Force. In 1939, the Battle Force had 5 carriers, 12

battleships, 14 light cruisers, and 68 destroyers.* [2]
French Infantry of the Napoleonic Wars
On 1 February 1941, General Order 143 reorganized the

The Battalion Commander's Handbook, 1996, by United States Fleet with three separate eets, the United
Major General Richard A. Chilcoat, US Army War States Atlantic Fleet, the United States Pacic Fleet and
the Asiatic Fleet.
College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania
USS Mississippi SSN-782 is in the current Battle Force
*
[3]
0.6 Battle Fleet

This article is about the U.S. Navy Battle Fleet. For the
game series, see BattleFleet (game series). For the 1978
war movie, see The Greatest Battle.
The United States Battle Fleet or Battle Force was part
of the organization of the United States Navy from 1922
to 1941.
The General Order of 6 December 1922 organized the
United States Fleet, with the Battle Fleet as the Pacic
presence. This eet comprised the main body of ships in
the Navy, with the smaller Scouting Fleet as the Atlantic
presence. The battleships, including most of the modern
ones, and new aircraft carriers were assigned to this eet.
0.6.1
Organization
On July 1, 1923, the Battle Fleet was under the command of Admiral Samuel S. Robison. Battleships, Battle Fleet was under the command of Vice Admiral Henry
A. Wiley, with his ag aboard New Mexico (BB-40).* [1]
Battleship Division Three, under Rear Admiral Louis
M. Nulton, consisted of New York (BB-34) (F), Texas
(BB-35) under Capt. A. M. Proctor, Oklahoma (BB37) under Captain W. F. Scott, and California (BB-44)
under Captain H. H. Christy, which was also the Battle Fleet agship. Battleship Division Four, under Rear
Admiral William Veazie Pratt, comprised Arizona (BB39) (F), under Captain J. R. Y. Blakely, Nevada (BB36), Mississippi (BB-41), and Pennsylvania (BB-38). Battleship Division Five under Vice Admiral Wiley himself comprised New Mexico (BB-40), Idaho (BB-42),
Tennessee (BB-43), and Maryland (BB-46). Aircraft
Squadrons, Battle Fleet, under Captain A. W. Marshall,
comprised Aroostook (CM-3) (F), Langley (CV-1), and
the tender Gannet (AM-41). Destroyer Squadrons, Battle
Fleet, under Rear Admiral Sumner E. W. Kittelle, comprised Destroyer Squadron 11 and Destroyer Squadron
12. Submarine Divisions, Pacic, was under Captain A.
Bronson, Jr.
In 1930, the name of the eet was changed to Battle
Force, but the structure remained the same. In 1931, the
force was based in Pearl Harbor and consisted of a majority of the United States' surface eet: all of the newer
battleships, all of the carriers, a light cruiser squadron and
three or fourdestroyer squadrons were all a part of the
0.6.2 Commander in Chief, Battle Fleet

(COMBATFLT)
0.6.3 Commander Battle Force (COMBATFOR)
0.6.4 References
[1] Stephen Svonavec, The United States Fleet, July 1, 1923:
Battle Fleet, accessed June 2012
[2] Morison, 28.
[3] USS Mississippi.
0.6.5 Bibliography
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1948). Volume III, The Rising Sun in the Pacic. Boston and Toronto: Little,
Brown and Company.
0.7 Battlegroup (army)

For Pentomic Division subunit, see Battle Group (Pentomic).
A battlegroup (British/Commonwealth term), or task
force (U.S. term) in modern military theory is the basic building block of an army's ghting force. A battlegroup is formed around an infantry battalion or armoured
regiment, which is usually commanded by a lieutenant
colonel. The battalion or regiment also provides the command and sta element of a battlegroup, which is complemented with an appropriate mix of armour, infantry
and support personnel and weaponry, relevant to the task
it is expected to perform.
The organisation of a battlegroup is exible, and can be
restructured quickly to cope with any changes in the situation. Typically, an oensive battlegroup may be structured around an armoured regiment, with two squadrons
of main battle tanks supported by an infantry company;
conversely, a more defensive battlegroup may be structured around an infantry battalion, with two companies
and an armoured squadron. In support would be a reconnaissance troop, a low-level air defence detachment,
0.8. BATTLESPACE
21
an anti-tank section and engineering detachment, plus artillery support.
0.8 Battlespace
Battlegroups are often subdivided into company groups

(calledteamsin the U.S. Army) consisting of a single
infantry company supported by a tank troop and various
other support units.
Battlespace is a term used to signify a unied military

strategy to integrate and combine armed forces for the
military theatre of operations, including air, information,
land, sea, and space to achieve military goals. It includes
the environment, factors, and conditions that must be understood to successfully apply combat power, protect the
force, or complete the mission. This includes enemy and
friendly armed forces, infrastructure, weather, terrain,
and the electromagnetic spectrum within the operational
areas and areas of interest.* [1]* [2]
In the British Army, an armoured or mechanised division

could expect to have as many as twelve separate battlegroups at its disposal, with three or four in each brigade.
A Commonwealth battle group is usually named after

its major constituent; for example, the Canadian Army's
1st Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment Battle
Group(shortened to 1 RCR Battle Group) on an
operational tour of duty in Afghanistan in 200708,* [1] 0.8.1 Concept
and the British Army's 3 Para Battle Groupthat was
From 'Battleeld' to 'Battlespace'
operational in Afghanistan in 2011.* [2]
India, with the adoption of the Cold Start Doctrine, has
come up with independent brigade groups a little larger
in composition than a task force. It is composition mix
of all elements for specic war purpose against Pakistan.
Oensive elements comprise independent armed brigade
groups (usually composed of armour units) and independent oensive brigade groups (usually composed of infantry); the Indian Army has substantially reduced the
time it took to deploy its forces on its borders.
Over the last 25 years, the understanding of the military

operational environment has transformed from primarily
a time & space driven linear understanding (a battleeld),
to a multi-dimensional system of systems understanding
(a battlespace). This system of systems understanding
implies that managing the battlespace has become more
complex, primarily because of the increased importance
of the cognitive domain, a direct result of the information
age. Today, militaries are expected to understand the efMost nations form battlegroups as required for opera- fects of their actions on the operational environment as a
tional or training purposes. When not deployed, the el- whole, and not just in the military domain of their operements that would make up a battlegroup remain with ational environment.
their parent units. However, some nations maintain permanently formed battlegroups a notable example is
Battlespace agility
Norway, three of whose four major combat units are allarms battlegroups.
Battlespace agility refers to the speed at which the
warghting organization develops and transforms knowledge into actions for desired eects in the battlespace.
0.7.1 See also
Essentially it argues that you must be better than the op Kampfgruppe - original source of the term, in the position at doing the right actions at the right time and
place. Inbuilt into this understanding is that battlespace
German Army.
agility is not just about speed, but it is also about exe Battlegroup of the European Union
cuting the most eective action (ways) in the most ecient manner (means) relative to achieving the desired im Demi-brigade
pact on the system (ends). At all times battlespace agility
is dependent on the quality of situational awareness and
0.7.2 Notes
holistic understanding of the battlespace to determine the
best actions, a logic that has become a driving force be[1] Smyth 2008.
hind a renaissance of interest in the quality of military
[2] MOD sta 2011.
intelligence. It has been heavily linked to the ability of
intelligence analysts and operational planners to understand their battlespace, and their targets, as networks in
0.7.3 References
order to facilitate a faster, and more accurate shared situational understanding. This in turn increases targeting ef Smyth, Lieutenant Travis (28 January 2008).
cacy and helps retain the overall initiative. Battlespace
Canadian Battle Group in Afghanistan Transagility has its roots solidly in the more generic Command
fers Command Authority of Joint Task Force
& Control (C2) research eld on C2 agility conducted
Afghanistan. Canadian Government website.
by NATO,* [3] but works specically with an agility con MOD sta (17 June 2011).Prince Charles praises cept within the context of warghting only.* [4] Hence it
Paras. British Ministry of Defence.
is framed by eects based thinking, system of systems
22
CONTENTS
analysis, and competing Observation Orient Decide Act process that includes dening the total battlespace envi(OODA) loops.* [5]
ronment; describing the battlespace's eects; evaluating
the adversary; and determining and describing adversary
potential courses of action.
Battlespace awareness
The process is used to analyze the aerial, terrestrial,
Battlespace awareness (BA) is a practice of military phi- maritime/littoral, spatial, electromagnetic, cyberspace,
losophy that is used as a valuable asset by joint compo- and human dimensions of the environment and to deternent and force commanders, to predict courses of action mine an opponent's capabilities to operate in each. JPIB
before employing troops into a prescribed area of opera- products are used by the joint force and component comtion (AO). It utilizes the intelligence preparation asset to mand stas in preparing their estimates and are also apassist the commander in being 'aware' of recent, current, plied during the analysis and selection of friendly courses
of action.
and near term events in his battlespace.* [6]
It is based around its knowledge and understanding obtained by the an intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) system. It is another methodical concept
used to gain information about the operational areathe
environment, factors, and conditions, including the status
of friendly and adversary forces, neutrals and noncombatants, weather and terrainthat enables timely, relevant,
comprehensive and accurate assessments. It has become
an eective concept for conventional and unconventional
operations in successfully projecting, or protecting, a military force, and/or completing its mission.* [7]
Battlespace digitization
Battlespace measures
Manoeuvre control Manoeuvre control measures are
the basic preliminary step in eective clearance of re
support (e.g. artillery, Naval gunre, and close air support), marked by imaginary boundary lines used by commanders to designate the geographical area for which a
particular unit is tactically responsible. It is usually established on identiable terrain to help aid in hasty referencing for better lateral advantage in the science of re
support, normally orchestrated by a higher echelon of the
general sta, mainly the operations sta sections.
They are normally designated along terrain features easily recognizable on the ground. An important point on
maneuver control graphics: stas must be knowledgeable
regarding the dierent maneuver control measures and
their impact on clearance of res. For instance, boundaries are both restrictive and permissive; corridors are restrictive, while routes, axis, and directions of attack are
neither.
Battlespace digitization is designed to improve military

operational eectiveness by integrating weapons platforms, sensor networks, ubiquitous command and control
(UC2), intelligence, and network-centric warfare. This
military doctrine reects that in the future, military operations will be merged into joint operations rather than
take place in separate battlespaces under the domain of
individual armed services.
It should be reminded of the eect on clearance of res
if subordinate maneuver units are not given zones or sectors (i.e. no boundaries established). Since boundaries
Battlespace intelligence preparation
serve as both permissive and restrictive measures, the
decision not to employ them has profound eects upon
Intelligence preparation Intelligence preparation of timely clearance of res at the lowest possible level.
the battlespace (IPB) is an analytical methodology employed to reduce uncertainties concerning the enemy, en- The higher echelon may coordinate all clearance of res
vironment, and terrain for all types of operations. Intel- short of the Coordinated Fire Line (CFL), a very timeligence preparation of the battlespace builds an extensive intensive process. It allows the unit to maneuver successdatabase for each potential area in which a unit may be fully and to swiftly and eciently engage targets. It requires coordination and clearance only within that orgarequired to operate.
nization.
The database is then analyzed in detail to determine the
*
impact of the enemy, environment and terrain on opera- They aect re support in two ways: [8]
tions and presents it in graphic form. Intelligence preparation of the battlespace is a continuing process.
RestrictiveRestrictive control that is established
in conjunction with a host nation to preclude damage
or destruction to a national asset, population center,
Joint intelligence preparation Joint intelligence
or religious structure. Its key role are for protection
preparation of the battlespace (JIPB) is the analytical
of an element of tactical importance, such as a fuel
process used by joint intelligence organizations to
storage area.
produce intelligence assessments, estimates and other
Restrictive re area (RFA) is an area with speintelligence products in support of the joint force comcic restrictions and in which res that exceed
mander's decision making process. It is a continuous
0.9. BRIGADE
those restrictions will not be delivered without
coordination with the establishing headquarters, or higher echelon; occasionally, it may be
established to operate independently.
23
[6] Joint Synthetic Battlespace: Cornerstone for Predictive

Battlespace Awareness
[7] DOD - Battlespace Awareness dened
No-re area (NFA) is a designated area which

no re support may be delivered for res [8] U.S. Field Manual 6-20-40; Appendix E: Fire Support
Coordinating Measures
or eects. When the establishing headquarters allows res on a mission-by-mission basis.
[9] DEATH FROM ABOVE: I MEF's use of Marine
When a friendly force is engaged by an enemy
TACAIR during Desert Storm
located within the NFA and the commander
returns re to defend his forces. The amount
of return re should not exceed that sucient
to protect the force and continue the mission. 0.8.4 Further reading
PermissivePermissive control that gives the maneuver commander the liberty to announce and engage re support at his will, unless it otherwise is
restricted by a higher echelon. Most cases, a commander will deny the use of Fire Support Coordinating Measures (FSCM).
There are free-re areas (FFA) which re support can commence without additional coordination with the establishing headquarters.
Normally, it is established on identiable terrain by division or higher headquarters.
Battlespace shaping
Further information: Area of responsibility
Battlespace shaping is a concept involved in the practice
of maneuver warfare that are used for shaping a situation
on the battleeld, gaining the military advantage for the
commander. It forecasts the elimination of the enemy's
capability by ghting in a coherent manner before deploying determine-sized forces.* [9]
0.8.2
See also
Mitchell, W. (2013). Battlespace Agility 101. Royal

Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN
978-87-7147-006-2
Mitchell, W. (2013). Battlespace Agility 201.Royal
978-87-7147-018-5
Mitchell, W. (2012). Battlespace Intelligence. Royal
9788798772064
Mitchell, W. (2012). Battlespace Agility in Helmand. Royal Danish Defence College Publishing
House. ISBN 9788798772057
Mitchell, W. (2008). Comprehensive Approach Capacity Building.Royal Danish Defence College Publishing House. ISBN 978-87-9142-152-5
Blackmore, T. (2005). War X: Human Extensions
in Battlespace. University of Toronto Press. ISBN
0-8020-8791-4
Owens, W. (2002). Dominant Battlespace Knowledge. University Press of the Pacic. ISBN 1-41020413-8
List of command and control abbreviations

Command and control
Fog of war
Network-centric warfare
0.8.3
References
[1] Battlespace denition, DoD

[2] Military Jargon Database
[3]
[4]
[5]
Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication (MCDP) 1-0:

Marine Corps Operations'
Achieving Dominant Battlespace Awareness
Joint Synthetic Battlespace: Cornerstone for Predictive Battlespace Awareness
Battlespace Digitization - Coping With Uncertainty In
The Command Process
Challenges for Joint Battlespace Digitization (JBD)
24
CONTENTS
vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached.
The headquarters will usually have its own communications unit.
Stryker Brigade Combat Team
Organizational Table
United States Army
X
Stryker Brigade
Combat Team
HHC
MI
Infantry
Battalion (Stryker)
HHC
Headquarters and
Headquarters
Company
Military Intelligence
Company
Infantry
Battalion (Stryker)
HHC
Headquarters and
Headquarters
Company
NSC
Network Support
Company
Brigade Headquarters
and Headquarters
Company
Engineer
Company
Cavalry
Squadron
Infantry
Battalion (Stryker)
HHC
Headquarters and
Headquarters
Company
Anti-Tank
Company
HHT
Headquarters and
Headquarters
Troop
Field Artillery
Battalion
HHB
Headquarters and
Headquarters
Battery
Alpha Company
(Stryker)
Alpha Company
(Stryker)
Alpha Company
(Stryker)
Alpha Troop
(Stryker Recon)
Alpha Battery
(155mm)
Bravo Company
(Stryker)
Bravo Company
(Stryker)
Bravo Company
(Stryker)
Bravo Troop
(Stryker Recon)
Bravo Battery
(155mm)
Charlie Company
(Stryker)
Charlie Company
(Stryker)
Charlie Company
(Stryker)
Charlie Troop
(Stryker Recon)
Charlie Battery
(155mm)
BSB
Brigade Support
Battalion
HHC
Headquarters and
Headquarters
Company
Alpha Company
(Supply and Distribution)
FLD
Bravo Company
(Field Maintenance)
Charlie Company
(Medical Support)
Delta Troop
(Surveillance)
Standard NATO symbol for an infantry brigade.
0.9 Brigade
This article is about a type of military unit. For other
uses, see Brigade (disambiguation).
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that
is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged
or reinforced regiment. Three or more brigades constitute a division.
Example of typical modern US Brigade formation
In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the basic-level

organizational unit.
0.9.1 Origin
The brigade was invented as a tactical unit by the Swedish
king Gustavus Adolphus. It was introduced during the
Thirty Years' War to overcome the lack of coordination
between normal army structure consisting of regiments
by appointing a senior ocer. The term derives from
Italian brigata, as used for example in the introduction to
The Decameron, where it refers only to a group of ten, or
Old French brigare, meaningcompanyof an undened
size, which in turn derives from a Celtic root briga, which
means strife.
Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or

armoured (sometimes referred to as combined arms
brigades). In addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery
and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigadegroups. On operations, a brigade may comprise both
organic elements and attached elements, including some
The so-called brigadawas a well mixed unit, comtemporarily attached for a specic task.
prising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, desBrigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions ignated for a special task. The size of such brigada
of a single branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, ar- was a reinforced companyof up to two regiments.
mored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers, signals Thebrigadawas the ancient form of the modern "task
or logistic. Some brigades are classied as independent or force".
separate and operate independently from the traditional
division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade This was copied in France by General Turenne, who made
consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops. How- it a permanent standing unit, requiring the creation in
ever, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go 1667 of a permanent rank of brigadier des armes du
as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerun- roi (literally translating to brigadier of the armies of the
ners and successors, mostly use regimentinstead of king), which would in time be renamed simply Gnral
brigade, and this was common (e.g. in Germany) in much de brigade (but would still be referred to occasionally as
brigadier for short).
of Europe until after World War II.
A brigade's commander is commonly a brigadier general,
brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander
is rated as a General Ocer. The brigade commander
has a self-contained headquarters and sta. The principal sta ocer, usually a lieutenant colonel or colonel,
may be designated chief of sta, although until the late
20th century British and similar armies called the position
'brigade-major'. Some brigades may also have a deputy
commander. The headquarters has a nucleus of sta ofcers and support (clerks, assistants and drivers) that can
0.9.2 Individual armies

Australia
In the Australian Army, the brigade has always been the
smallest tactical formation, since regiments are either administrative groupings of battalions (in the infantry) or
battalion-sized units (in the cavalry). A typical brigade
may consist of approximately 5,500 personnel between
0.9. BRIGADE
two mechanised infantry battalions, an armored regiment, an armored artillery regiment, and other logistic
and engineering units. The brigade is usually commanded
by an ocer holding the rank of Brigadier, who is referred to as the Brigade Commander.
United Kingdom
Brigades, with a eld not a regional administrative role,
have usually been of a named type and numbered since
the 19th century (e.g. Cavalry Brigade or Infantry
Brigade). From after World War II, brigade numbers
have been unique and not by type. Brigades in divisions
do not usually command their combat support and combat service support units. These remain under divisional
command, although they may be permanently aliated
with a particular brigade (as abrigade group). Historically, infantry or cavalry/armoured brigades have usually
comprised three or four combat arm battalions, but currently larger brigades are normal, made larger still when
their aliated artillery and engineer regiments are added.
25
and one combat service and support (CSS) battalion. Colocated with each CMBG is a eld ambulance, and a tactical helicopter squadron, and a military police platoon.
Regular Force CMBG strengths are 5,000 personnel.* [2]
Canada also has 10 Primary Reserve brigades (Canadian
brigade group, CBG), 31 CBG through 39 CBG, and 41
CBG. The CBG formations are for administrative purposes.
Republic of China (19111947)
An NRA Brigade, , was a military formation of the
Chinese Republic's National Revolutionary Army. Infantry and Cavalry Brigades were composed of two Infantry Regiments. After the 1938 reforms, the Brigade
was dispensed with within the Infantry Division in favor
of the Regiment to simplify the command structure.* [3]
United States
Until 1918, the chief of sta of a brigade was known as

a Brigade Major. Before 1922, British Army brigades
were normally commanded by general ocers holding the
one-starrank of Brigadier-General; after that date, the
appointment became that of Brigadier, usually held by a
eld ocer with the substantive rank of Colonel.
From 1859 to 1938,brigade
brigade-division
(
1885
1903) was also the term used for a battalion-sized unit of
the Royal Artillery. This was because, unlike infantry
battalions and cavalry regiments, which were organic, artillery units consisted of individually numbered batteries
that werebrigadedtogether. The commanding ocer
of such a brigade was a Lieutenant Colonel. In 1938, the
Royal Artillery adopted the termregimentfor this size
of unit, and brigadebecame used in its normal sense,
particularly for groups of anti-aircraft artillery regiments
commanded by a brigadier.* [1]
A U.S. infantry brigade of around 3,200 personnel, formed into

eight battalion-sized groups
Army
In the United States Army, a brigade is smaller than

a division and roughly equal to or a little larger than
a regiment. During the American Civil War infantry
brigades contained two to ve regiments.and were usually commanded by a brigadier general. More recently,
the U.S. Army has moved to a new generic brigade combat team (BCT) in which each brigade contains combat
elements and their support units. After the 2013 reform,
BCT personnel strength typically ranges from 4,400 for
infantry BCTs, to 4,500 for Stryker BCTs, to 4,700 for arCanada
mored BCTs. This formation is standard across the active
U.S. Army, U.S. Army Reserve, and the Army National
The Canadian Army currently has three Regular Force Guard.
brigade groups, designated as Canadian mechanized
brigade groups (CMBG): 1 CMBG, 2 CMBG, which con- The brigade commander is usually a colonel, although a
tain the regular army's Anglophone units, and 5 CMBG, lieutenant colonel can be selected for brigade command
the regular Francophone formation. These CMBGs are in lieu of an available colonel. A typical tour of duty for
each composed of two mechanized infantry battalions, this assignment is 24 to 36 months.
one light infantry battalion, one armoured regiment, one A brigade commander enjoys a headquarters and sta to
mechanized artillery regiment, one engineer regiment, assist him in commanding the brigade and its subordinate
In the Second World War, a Tank Brigade comprised
three tank regiments and was equipped with infantry
tanks for supporting the Infantry divisions. Armoured
Brigades were equipped with cruiser tanks or (US LendLease) medium tanks and a motorised infantry battalion.
The armoured divisions included one or more armoured
brigades.
26
battalion units. The typical sta includes:
a brigade executive ocer, usually a lieutenant
colonel (if commanded by a colonel)
a brigade command sergeant major
a personnel ocer (S1), usually a major
an intelligence ocer (S2), usually a major
CONTENTS
0.9.3 See also

Artillery brigade
Mixed brigade
International Brigades
an operations ocer (S3), usually a lieutenant

colonel
0.9.4
a logistics ocer (S4), usually a major
a plans ocer (S5), usually a major
a communications ocer (S6), usually a major
a medical ocer, usually a major
a legal ocer (JAG), usually a major
a brigade chaplain, usually a major
Notes and references
[1] Maj-Gen Sir John Headlam, The History of the Royal Artillery, Vol II (18991914), Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1937.
[2] Defence, Issue 1, Evidence, July 18, 2001 (afternoon)
[3] Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The
Sino-Japanese War (19371945) 2nd Ed. ,1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung , Chung Wu Publishing; 33,
140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic
of China.
In addition, the headquarters includes additional junior

sta ocers, non-commissioned ocers, and enlisted
support personnel in the occupational specialties of the 0.9.5 Bibliography
sta sections; these personnel are ordinarily assigned to
(French) Nouveau Larousse illustr, undated (early
the brigade's headquarters and headquarters company.
20th century)
Marine Corps
In the United States Marine Corps, brigades are designated as Marine Expeditionary Brigades (MEB), and are
usually commanded by a brigadier general. The MEB is
a mid-level Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF)
essentially forming a demi-division.The MEB organizational structure is completely dierent from an
army brigade, and consists of a minimum of three
regimental-equivalent sized units and a command element (a Regimental Combat Team, a Composite Marine Aircraft Group, a Marine Logistics Regiment, and
a MEB Headquarters Group). Each Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) contains a MEB, available for deployment on expeditionary duty. The MEB is the intermediate MAGTF between the MEF and the Marine
Expeditionary Unit (MEU). Along with the Marine Infantry Regiments, the MEU, (while smaller than an
army brigade), are the USMC organizational equivalents of army brigades. The MEU consists of three
battalion-equivalent sized units and a command element
(a Battalion Landing Team, a Marine Medium Tilt-rotor
Squadron (Reinforced), a Combat Logistics Battalion,
and a MEU Headquarters Group). The Marine Infantry
Regiments, combined with the Marine Artillery Regiments, comprise the bulk of the Marine Divisions. An
example of a MEB is Task Force Tarawa (2nd Marine
Expeditionary Brigade) during the Operation Iraqi Freedom campaign.
0.10 Brigade group

A brigade group is a term used primarily in armies of the
Commonwealth of Nations for an ad hoc arrangement of
forces and not a permanent organisation whereas, with a
capital G, a Brigade Group is.* [1]
It generally refers to a formation which includes three
or four battle groups, or an infantry brigade (three
battalions), supported by armoured, artillery, eld engineer, aviation and support units, and amounting to about
5,000 soldiers.* [2] A brigade group represents the smallest unit able to operate independently for extended periods on the battleeld. It is similar to the concept of
a regimental combat team (RCT), which was once used
by the United States Army, but which now uses the term
brigade combat team (BCT). The United States Marine
Corps continues to use the term regimental combat team.
0.10.1 References
Reid, Brian. No Holding Back: Operation Totalize,
Normandy, August 1944 Robin Brass Studio (April
2005) 1-896941-40-0
0.11. COMBAT COMMAND
0.10.2
Footnotes
[1] Reid, Pg 4
[2] Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Defence and Security
0.11 Combat command
27
Use of combat commands was rst specied in Armored
Force Tentative Table of Organization A, for armored divisions, dated December 22, 1941. The initial organization envisioned two combat command headquarters at
the disposal of the armored division. The combat command headquarters themselves were small, elding only
ve light tanks and 56 men. Revisions to this structure
in 1943 resulted in a headquarters of 3 light tanks and 99
men. The 1943 structure also allowed for three combat
command headquarters in an armored division.
A Combat Command was a combined-arms military organization of comparable size to a brigade or regiment
employed by armored forces of the U.S. Army from 1942
until 1963. The structure of combat commands was taskorganized and so the forces assigned to a combat command often varied from mission to mission.
Within the armored division, the combat commands were

namedA,B, and later,R(for Reserve).* [note
1] Thus, historical accounts of U.S. armored divisions of
this period refer to Combat Command Bor CCB
and so forth. During the latter stages of World War II in
Europe, armored divisions tended to ght with CCA and
CCB, while moving worn-out battalions into CCR for rest
and ret, though this was not always the case.* [note 2] In
0.11.1 Abbreviations
1954, CCR was redesignated Combat Command C
Combat Command is most often abbreviated by one of (CCC).
the related derivative notations:
The combat command proved to be the forerunner of
modern U.S. Army organizational structure for divisions.
In the early 1960s, divisions were restructured as part of
CCA, or CC-A or CC A
the Reorganization Objective Army Division (ROAD),
CCB, or CC-B or CC B
in which all divisions, including infantry, were organized
CCC, or CC-C or CC C (an older convention for with three brigades which also did not have dedicated
battalions and could be assigned as many battalions as
"reserve formation")
needed for a mission. With the transition to ROAD divi CCR, or CC-R or CC R (for Combat Command sions, the term combat command was no longer employed
by the U.S. Army.
Reserve)
0.11.2
History
The concept of the combat command was developed by

General Adna Chaee during the 1930s. Chaee's concept envisaged combined arms mechanized units with no
formal structure. When the rst U.S. armored divisions
were organized a few years later, Chaee's concepts for
the combat command were incorporated into the divisional structure.* [1]
The combat command was a exible organization that did
not have dedicated battalions. Instead, tank, armored infantry, and armored eld artillery battalions, as well as
smaller units of tank destroyers, engineers, and mechanized cavalry were assigned as needed in order to accomplish any given mission.* [2] During a U.S. Army reorganization in the 1960s, the term combat command fell out
of favor and was replaced by the designation brigade.
While exible, this task-force organization lacked the
high cohesion characteristic of traditional regiments that
always kept the same group of battalions together. The
organization of the combat command contrasted with
that of the infantry, who employed reinforced infantry
regiments with permanently assigned infantry battalions. This type of infantry organization was called a
Regimental combat team.
0.11.3 Notes
[1]While still at Camp Cooke the division also started developing the combat command type of tactical headquarters. CC A was rst commanded by Brig. Gen. Wood
and later, by Brig. Gen. Harold W. Blakely, CC B's rst
commander was Brig. Gen. Serene E. Brett. CC A's tactical units included: the 34th Armored Regiment, 71st
Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and the 1st Battalion
of the 46th Armored Infantry Regiment. CC B's organization consisted of: the 81st Armored Regiment, 47th
Armored Field Artillery Battalion, and the 2nd Battalion
of the 46th. The remainder of the units formed what was
known as the Division Reserve., Paths_of_Armor, p. 8.
[2] Some armored used CCR as an operational combat element of the division as well, such as the 7th Armored Division's use of CCR during the reduction of the Ruhr Pocket
and the 12th Armored Division's CCR spearhead outpacing CCA and CCR in the XXI Corps' dash for Austria
in the nal weeks of the war.UNITED STATES ARMY
IN WORLD WAR II, Special Studies, CHRONOLOGY
1941-1945 The 5th Armored Division used CCR as a
combat element during the entire campaign in northwestern Europe. See Paths_of_Armor for details, particularly
the biography section for Colonel Glen H. Anderson, the
CCR commander.
28
0.11.4
CONTENTS
References
[1] Coey, p. 42.

[2] McGrath, pp. 48-49.
0.11.5
Canadian defence scientists Ross Pigeau and Carol McCann discuss the issues and uncertainties related to the
denition of command & control in their article in the
Canadian Military Journal.* [5]
Sources
0.12.1 Overview
Rod Coey, Doctrinal Orphan or Active Partner?

A History of U.S. Army Mechanized Infantry DocUS perspective
trine, U.S. Army Command and General Sta College thesis, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 2000.
The US Department of Defense Dictionary of Military
John J. McGrath, The Brigade: A History, Its and Associated Terms.* [6] denes command and control
Organization and Employment in the US Army, as:The exercise of authority and direction by a properly
Combat Studies Institute Press, Fort Leavenworth, designated commander over assigned and attached forces
Kansas, 2004.
in the accomplishment of the mission. Also called C2.
Source: JP 1.* [7]
Revised Tables of Organization Armored Force 1
The edition of the Dictionary As Amended Through
January 1942 (U.S. Army)
April 2010elaborates, Command and control func Armored Division Tables of Organization, 15 tions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and proceSeptember 1943 (U.S. Army)
dures employed by a commander in planning, directing,
Discussion of U.S. Army divisional organizations
coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the
accomplishment of the mission.* [8] However, this sen Paths of Armor
tence is missing from thecommand and controlentry
for the editionAs Amended Through 15 August 2014.
*
[9]
0.12 Command and control
Commanding ocers are assisted in executing these tasks

by specialized sta ocers and enlisted personnel. These
This article is about command and control in the military sta are a group of ocers and enlisted personnel
military. For other uses, see Command and control that provides a bi-directional ow of information between
a commanding ocer and subordinate military units.
(disambiguation).
Older versions of U.S. Army FM 3-0 state: Command
and control, or C2, in a military organization is the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated
commanding ocer over assigned and attached forces
in the accomplishment of the mission.* [1]* [2] The term
may also refer to command and control systems within a
military system.
The purpose of a military sta is mainly that of providing accurate, timely information which by category
represents information on which command decisions are
based. The key application is that of decisions that effectively manage unit resources. While information ow
toward the commander is a priority, information that is
useful or contingent in nature is communicated to lower
stas and units.
The 1988 NATO denition: Command and control is the

exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated [individual] over assigned [resources] in the accomplishment of a [common goal].* [3]
Computer security industry
The Australian Defence Force denition is similar: C2
is the system empowering designated personnel to exercise lawful authority and direction over assigned forces
for the accomplishment of missions and tasks.* [4] (The
Australian doctrine goes on to state: The use of agreed
terminology and denitions is fundamental to any C2 system and the development of joint doctrine and procedures. The denitions in the following paragraphs have
some agreement internationally, although not every potential ally will use the terms with exactly the same meaning.* [4])
This term is also in common use within the computer security industry and in the context of cyberwarfare. Here
the term refers to the inuence an attacker has over a
compromised computer system that they control. For
example, a valid usage of the term is to say that attackers use command and control infrastructureto issue
command and control instructionsto their victims. Advanced analysis of command and control methodologies
can be used to identify attackers, associate attacks, and
disrupt ongoing malicious activity.* [10]
0.12. COMMAND AND CONTROL
0.12.2
Derivative terms
There is a plethora of derivative terms which emphasise

dierent aspects, uses and sub-domains of C2. These
terms come with a plethora of associated abbreviations
for example, in addition to C2, command and control
is also often abbreviated as C2 , and sometimes as C&C.
29
C2I Command, Control & Intelligence
C2I Command, Control & Information (A less
common usage)* [12]
C2IS Command and Control Information Systems
C2ISR C2I plus Surveillance and Reconnaissance
C2ISTAR C2 plus ISTAR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance)
C3 Command, Control & Communication (Human activity focus)
C3 Command, Control & Communications (Technology focus)
C3 Consultation, Command, and Control [NATO]
C3I 4 possibilities; the most common is Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence
C3ISTAR C3 plus ISTAR
C3ISREW C2ISR plus Communications plus
Electronic Warfare (Technology focus)
C4, C4I, C4ISR, C4ISTAR, C4ISREW plus Computers (Technology focus) or Computing (Human
activity focus)* [13]* [14]
C4 I2 Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, and Interoperability
C5I Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Collaboration and Intelligence
and others.
C4ISR
Command and control have been coupled with

Communication / Communications
(Military) Intelligence
Information / Information Systems
Computers / Computing* [11]
Surveillance
Target acquisition
Reconnaissance
Interoperability
Collaboration
Electronic Warfare
and others.
Some of the more common variations include:
Command: The exercise of authority based

upon certain knowledge to attain an objective.
Control: The process of verifying and correcting activity such that the objective or goal of
command is accomplished.
Communication: Ability to exercise the necessary liaison to exercise eective command between tactical or strategic units to command.
Computers: The computer systems and compatibility of computer systems. Also includes
data processing.
Intelligence: Includes collection as well as analysis and distribution of information.
0.12.3 Command and control centers

A command and control center is typically a secure
room or building in a government, military or prison facility that operates as the agency's dispatch center, surveillance monitoring center, coordination oce and alarm
30
CONTENTS
monitoring center all in one. Command and control centers are operated by a government or municipal agency.
Various branches of the US military such as the US
Coast Guard and Navy have command and control centers. They are also common in many large correctional
facilities.
A command and control center that is used by a military
unit in a deployed location is usually called acommand
post.* [15] A warship has a Combat Information Center
for tactical control of the ship's resources, but commanding a eet or joint operation requires additional space for
commanders and sta plus C4I facilities provided on a
Flagship (e.g., aircraft carriers), sometimes a Command
ship or upgraded logistics ship such as USS Coronado.
Communications protection
Defence Information Infrastructure
Electronic warfare
Fingerspitzengefhl
Fog of war
Intent (Military)
Military communications
Mission Command
Mission-type tactics
0.12.4
Command and control warfare
Command and control warfare encompasses all the military tactics that use communications technology. It can
be abbreviated as C2 W. An older name for these tactics
is signals warfare, derived from the name given to
communications by the military. Newer names include
information operations and information warfare
Reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition

(RSTA)
The following techniques are combined:
Surveillance and Target Acquisition (STA)
Operations security (OPSEC)

Military deception
Psychological operations (PSYOP)
Electronic warfare (EW)
Psychological warfare
with the physical destruction of enemy communications
facilities. The objective is to deny information to the enemy and so disrupt its command and control capabilities.
At the same time precautions are taken to protect friendly
command and control capabilities against retaliation.
In addition to targeting the enemy's command and control, information warfare can be directed to the enemy's
politicians and other civilian communications.
0.12.5
See also
Signal Corps (disambiguation)

Signals intelligence (SIGINT)
US and other NATO specic:

505th Command and Control Wing
Command and Control Research Program (CCRP)
Deployable Joint Command and Control
Future Combat Systems Command and Control Vehicle
Global Command and Control System
Joint Force Air Component Headquarters
Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and
Control Systems
NATO Communications and Information Systems
Agency
Battlespace
NATO Consultation,
Agency
Battle command
NORAD
Civilian control of the military
Worldwide Military Command and Control System
Command and Control
Command and control warfare

Command center
Command ship
other
Kiev Military Institute of Control and Signals
0.13. COMPANY (MILITARY UNIT)
0.12.6
References
[1] para 5-2, United States Army Field Manual: FM 30

Headquarters, Department of the Army (14 June 2001).
FM 30, Operations. Washington, DC: GPO. OCLC
50597897. Archived from the original (PDF INSIDE
ZIPSFX) on 19 February 2002. Retrieved 19 August
2013.
Newer versions of FM 3-0 do not dene Command and
control, even though they use the term extensively.
[2] Builder, Carl H., Bankes, Steven C., Nordin, Richard,
Command Concepts A Theory Derived from the Practice of Command and Control, MR775, RAND, ISBN
0-8330-2450-7, 1999
[3] Neville Stanton, Christopher Baber, Don Harris (1 January 2008). Modelling Command and Control: Event
Analysis of Systemic Teamwork. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
[4] ADDP 00.1 Command and Control(PDF). Commonwealth of Australia. 27 May 2009. pp. 12.
[5] Ross Pigeau and Carol McCann (Spring 2002). Reconceptualizing Command and Control (PDF). Canadian Military Journal 3 (1): 5363.
31
This article incorporates public domain material
from the United States Department of Defense
document "Dictionary of Military and Associated
Terms".
from the General Services Administration document
Federal Standard 1037C.

Command and control denitions and procedures,
UK College of Policing, www.app.college.police.uk
The Command and Control Research Program
(CCRP)
Understanding Command and Control by D. S.
Alberts and R. E. Hayes (2006)
0.13 Company (military unit)
[6] DoD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, www.

dtic.mil
[7] Command and control, Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, www.dtic.mil
[8] Joint Chiefs of Sta (U.S.) (8 November 2010). Command and Control. Joint Publication 1-02. Department
of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
(As Amended Through 31 January 2011) (PDF). p. 65.
Retrieved 3 November 2014.
[9] Joint Chiefs of Sta (U.S.) (8 November 2010). Command and Control. Joint Publication 1-02. Department
of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
(As Amended Through 15 August 2014) (PDF). p. 44. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
Standard NATO code for a friendly infantry company.
[10] Command Five Pty Ltd, Command and Control in the

Fifth Domain, February 2012, www.commandfive.com
[11] In modern warfare, computers have become a key component as cyberspace is now seen as "the fth domain of
warfare" refer: Clarke, Richard A. (2010). Cyber War.
HarperCollins. and
Cyberwar: War in the Fifth Domain. Economist. 1
Bcompany of 113th regiment in American Expeditionary
July 2010.
Forces in France, 1919.
[12] TTCP Groups, www.dtic.mil/ttcp/
A company is a military unit, typically consisting of

80250 soldiers and usually commanded by a captain or
a major. Most companies are formed of three to six
platoons, although the exact number may vary by country,
[14] Sloan, E., Security and Defence in the Terrorist Era unit type, and structure. Several companies are grouped
, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 2005; see to form a battalion or regiment, the latter of which is
Ch. 7 for C4ISTAR discussion.
sometimes formed by several battalions.
[13] Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, Joint Publication 1-02, US Department
of Defense, 17 March 2009.
[15] US Army PEO C3T Project Manager, Command Posts,

peoc3t.monmouth.army.mil
Certain sub-units were raised as independent companies

that reported to no higher unit headquarters.
32
0.13.1
CONTENTS
Historical background
0.13.2 British Army

Rie companies consist of three platoons and a company
headquarters.
The modern military unitcompany,became popularized during the reorganization of the Swedish Army in
1631 under King Gustav II Adolph. For administrative
purposes the infantry was divided into companies consisting of 150 men, grouped into regiments of eight companies. Tactically, the infantry companies were organized
into battalionsand grouped with cavalry troops and
artillery batteries to form brigades.
Company-sized organisations in units with a horsemounted heritage, such as Household Cavalry, Royal Armoured Corps, Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals,
Army Air Corps, Special Air Service, Honourable Artillery Company and Royal Logistic Corps, use the term
squadron instead of company, and in the Royal Artillery
they are called batteries. Until after the Second World
War, the Royal Engineers and Royal Signals had both
From ancient times, some armies have commonly used a squadrons and companies depending on whether the units
base administrative and tactical unit of around 100 men. were supporting mounted or foot formations.
(Perhaps the most well-known is the Roman century, The British Army infantry normally identies its rie
originally intended as a 100-man unit, but later ranging companies by letter (usually, but not always, A, B and C)
from about 60-80 men, depending upon the time period.) within a battalion, usually with the addition of a headAn organization based on the decimal number system quarters company and a support/heavy weapons com(i.e., by tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten-thousands) pany. Some units name their companies after regimental
might seem intuitive to most, if not also highly logical, battle honours; this is commonly the case for composite
based on the common anatomical counting device cre- units, for example the London Regiment with its Somme,
ated by using the ten digits of the human hands in num- Messines and Cambrai companies. The foot guards regbering objects, animals, people, etc. Therefore, to the iments use traditional names for some of their compaRomans, for example, a unit of 100 men seemed su- nies, for example Queen's Company, Left Flank, Prince
ciently large enough to eciently facilitate organizing a of Wales's Company etc.
large body of men numbering into the several thousands,
Royal Marines companies are designated by a letter that
yet small enough that one man could reasonably expect
is unique across the corps, not just within their command.
to command it as a cohesive unit by using his voice and
The Intelligence Corps, Royal Army Medical Corps,
physical presence, supplemented by musical notes (e.g.,
Royal Military Police and Royal Electrical and Mechandrum beats, bugle or trumpet blasts, etc.) and visual cues
ical Engineers all have companies uniquely numbered
(e.g., colors, standards, guidons, etc.).
across their corps.
Furthermore, recent studies have indicated that humans
The defunct Royal Army Service Corps, Royal Pioneer
are best able to maintain stable relationships in a coheCorps and Royal Army Ordnance Corps had companies;
sive group numbering between 100-250 members, with
the Royal Corps of Transport had squadrons.
150 members being the common number (see Dunbars
number). Again, a military unit on the order of no more British companies are usually commanded by a major,
than 100 members, and perhaps ideally fewer, would per- the ocer commanding (OC), with a captain or senior
haps present the greatest eciency as well as eective- lieutenant as second-in-command (2i/c). The company
ness of control, on a battleeld where the stress, danger, headquarters also includes a company sergeant major
fear, noise, confusion, and the general condition known (CSM) normally holding the rank of WO2 and a company
as thefog of war,would present the greatest challenge quartermaster sergeant (CQMS) of colour sergeant rank,
to an ocer to command a group of men engaged in mor- the two most senior soldiers in the company.
tal combat. Indeed, until the latter half of the 19th cen- The Honourable Artillery Company is in fact a regiment,
tury, when infantry troops still routinely fought in close- not a company in terms of organisation and size.
order, marching and ring shoulder-to-shoulder in lines
facing the enemy, the company remained at around 100,
or fewer, men.
0.13.3 Canadian Army
The advent of accurate, long-range rie re, repeating ries, and machine guns necessitated highly dispersed combat formations. This reality, coupled with the advent of
radio communication, permitted relatively small numbers
of men to have much greater repower and combat eectiveness than previously possible. Companies, however,
continue to remain within the general range of 100-250
members, perhaps validating the premise that men ght
best (as well as live, work, socialize, play, etc.) in organizations of around 150 members, more or less.
Canadian Army organisation is modelled after the

British. However, a Canadian infantry battalion consists
of three or four rie companies identied by letter (A
Company, B Company, etc.), a Combat Support Company, and an Administration Support Company. A notable exception is The Royal Canadian Regiment, which
names its companies sequentially throughout the regiment from the Duke of Edinburgh's Company (instead
of A Company) in the 1st Battalion to T Company in the
33
4th Battalion. Many regiments name their companies af- of 110 personnel and 12 BTRs. A BMP rie company
ter battle honours or former units that make up the current had the same number of personnel and carriers and also
regiment, for example:
consisted of a company headquarters and three motorised
rie platoons but instead included a machine gun platoon
75th Company The Toronto Scottish Regiment equipped with six RPK-74s. While seemingly containing
less repower, US commanders were advised to include
(Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother's Own)
the BMP's heavier weaponry in their calculations.* [1]
Victoria Company The Queen's Own Ries of
Canada
Tank company
Grenadier Company The Royal Regiment of
Canada
Prior to the late 1980s, a Soviet tank company consisted
No.2 (Prince of Wales) Company-Canadian of a company headquarters and three tank platoons with
T-64, T-72 or T-80 tanks for a total of 39 personnel and
Grenadier Guards
13 tanks; companies using the older T-54, T-55 or T-62s
tanks had 10 or 13 additional enlisted personnel. HowThe combat support company administratively contains ever, forces in Eastern Europe began to standardize tank
the specialized platoons, such as reconnaissance, pio- companies at 10 tanks, with three tanks in each platoon
neer, headquarters and signals, anti-armour, and mortar. instead of four.* [2]* [3]
The administration support company contains the support
tradesmen that a battalion requires, such as cooks, vehicle
technicians, supply, medics, etc.
0.13.5 United States
As in the British Army, company sized units with a
mounted heritage use the term squadron, and in the ar- Army
tillery they are called batteries.
Historical background In the 1700s, British Army (as
well as American Colonial Militia), and later American
0.13.4 Soviet armed forces
Army infantry, regiments were organized into companies
of somewhat less than 100 ocers and enlisted men, alMotorised rie company
though the actual totals widely varied from a low of 38 enlisted men in British companies in 1775 (organized into a
regiment of 10 companies totaling 477 ocers and men)
to a high of 95 enlisted men in an American company
(organized into a regiment of approximately 1200 ocers and enlisted men) in 1792.
From the late 1700s up until the late 1800s, a US infantry
company consisted of a small company headquarters,
commanded by a captain and assisted by a rst sergeant
(and later an executive ocer), and two or (later) three
identical platoons led by lieutenants. In 1775, a Continental Army Infantry Company was authorized with one
captain, two lieutenants (as platoon leaders), a company
rst sergeant, four sergeants (section leaders with two to
a platoon), four corporals (squad leaders with two to a
platoon), a musician, and 68 privates.
1980s Soviet Motorised Company (BTR)
A Soviet motorised rie company could be mounted in

either BTR armoured personnel carriers or BMP infantry
ghting vehicles, with the former being more numerous
into the late 1980s. A BTR rie company consisted of a
company headquarters, three motorised rie platoons and
a machine gun/antitank platoon equipped with two PK
machine guns and two AT-7 Saxhorn launchers for a total
The company was an administrative and tactical unit seldom employed in other than as a massed formation. The
standard procedure, once the company had marched into
its position in the line of battle, was for the company to
form facing the enemy as two ranks, by platoon, one behind the other. The commanding ocer (a captain), and
the one to three lieutenants, serving as platoon leaders
and the executive ocer (again depending upon the time
period) would direct the ghting, leading from the front
in the attack and on the anks in the defense (the executive ocer and the rst sergeant were normally positioned behind the battle line so as to assist the company
commander in overseeing the company and managing the
34
rear (company trains, casualties, enemy prisoners, noncombatants, deserters, etc.). The musician remained with
the commanding ocer to relay orders by sound (i.e.,
music) and served as an orderly when not playing his instrument. The sergeants, acted as le closers,working the line by putting men forward to replace casualties
in the front rank, encouraging men to re, reload, move
forward, etc. and if need be, physically assisting or restraining men who refused to move forward or attempted
to ee. The corporals, physically led by example (much
like modern re team leaders) by taking their place in the
line with their privates and ghting alongside them.
Cavalry companies (not ocially re-designated as
troopsuntil 1883) had a similar organization to the
infantry, but with fewer men, companies rarely exceeding around 70 men. In the Field Artillery the companyequivalent unit is designated as a batteryand historically consisted of a battery headquarters and two or three
gun platoons, each with two gun sections. At full authorized strength a typical battery of six gun sections would
consist of approximately 100 ocers and enlisted men.
CONTENTS
battalion are identied by letterfor example, Company A, 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment. This
would commonly be abbreviated as A/1-15 INFin
writing, but not in speaking. When the regimental headquarters exists as a separate echelon of command (e.g.,
the 75th Ranger Regiment, the 11th Armored Cavalry
Regiment, and the 1st Marine Regiment), as virtually all
US Army regiments did until after the Korean War, a
slash separates the battalion/squadron number from the
regimental number (i.e., B/2/75 Ranger, C/3/11 ACR,
E/2/1 Marines). The letters are usually pronounced using the NATO phonetic alphabet or, before that, the Joint
Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet, resulting in names such
asBravo CompanyandEcho Company(formerly
Bakerand "Easy" Companies, respectively). Companies with a separate table of organization and equipment are identied by a number, and are able to operate
completely independently from any other unit's support.
Company-sized units which are organized under a table
of distribution and allowance are identied with a name
or number.
Company-sized units usually consist of four to six platoons (each led by a lieutenant), although there are examples of combat service and combat service support companies that have seven or more platoons. For example,
a transportation terminal service company normally has
two ship platoons, two shore platoons, one documentation
platoon, one maintenance platoon, and the headquarters
platoon. These platoons are led by rst lieutenants, while
the company is commanded by a major.
B Company, 3rd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment in Somalia, 1993.
Modern use In the United States Army, infantry companies are usually made up of three rie platoons and
a heavy weapons platoon; mechanized infantry companies are usually made up of three rie platoons consisting
of four IFVs each and a command element containing
two IFVs; tank companies are usually made up of three
tank platoons consisting of four tanks each and a command element containing two tanks; support companies
are typically divided into platoons of specialization that
may contain additional special sections. A company is
usually commanded by an Army captain, although in rare
cases they may be commanded by a rst lieutenant or a
major. Unlike its component platoons, a company typically has additional positions of supporting sta, such as
an executive ocer (XO), a readiness/training NCO, and
other positions (e.g. supply sergeant). By tradition, the
corresponding unit of artillery is always called a battery.
Similarly, the term troop is used for cavalry units, including both the horse-mounted units of history as well as
modern armored cavalry and air cavalry units.
While companies are typically commanded by captains,

some special units are commanded by majors, and have
platoons commanded by captains. Examples of this arrangement include aviation platoons and many special
forces units. This is not a dishonor to the ocers
so appointed, but rather an acknowledgement that such
platoons usually have some special operational capacity
that requires them to be commanded by an ocer with
greater command authority and more experience than
that usually possessed by a lieutenant. A captain reports
to his commander, usually the battalion commander (a
lieutenant colonel). However, there are some administrative and other duties at battalion level and larger (brigade
or division) that are also handled by captains, for example the S-1, S-2, & S-4 ocers of a battalion (S-3 is a
major), or some assistant sta positions in the G shops at
division.
The senior non-commissioned ocer of a company is

called a rst sergeant. Any sergeant holding this position
is referred to asrst sergeantregardless of actual rank
and pay grade, though the non-commissioned ocer assigned ordinarily has the rank of rst sergeant and a grade
of E-8. A master sergeant (E-8) assigned to this position
will belaterally promotedto the rank of rst sergeant,
unless the appointment is temporary. In some instances,
a sergeant rst class (E-7) will be appointed to the job in
Companies that are not separate from their parent lieu of a qualied rst sergeant or master sergeant. Again,

in such situations, the NCO holds the duty position and
title of First Sergeant, while retaining the rank of
sergeant rst class, at a grade of E-7.
Marine Corps
Rie Company
Company Headquarters
Company Commander (Commanding Ocer/CO) Captain (O-3)
Executive Ocer (XO) usually a First Lieutenant (O-2)
First Sergeant (1stSgt, E-8)
Gunnery Sergeant (GySgt, E-7)
Property NCO (Sgt, E-5)
Messenger/Driver (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3)
Rie Platoon (3)
Platoon Headquarters
Platoon Commander Lieutenant (O1/2)
Platoon Sergeant Sta Sergeant (E-6)
Platoon Guide Sergeant (E-5)
Messenger (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3)
Rie Squad (3)
Squad Leader Sergeant (E-5)
Fire Team (3)
Team Leader/Grenadier Corporal
(E-4)
Automatic Rieman Lance Corporal (E-3)
Assistant Automatic Rieman
(Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3)
Rieman/Scout (Pvt-LCpl, E-1/3)
Weapons Platoon
Platoon Headquarters
35
Ammunition Man (Pvt-LCpl, E1/3)
LWCMS Mortar Section (3 M224 60mm
Light Weight Company Mortar Systems)
Section Leader Sta Sergeant (E-6)
Mortar Squad (3)
Squad Leader/Gunner Corporal (E4)
Assistant Gunner Lance Corporal
(E-3)
Ammunition Man (2) (Pvt-LCpl,
E-1/3)
Assault Section (6 Mk153 SMAW Shoulderlaunched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
launchers)
Section Leader Sergeant (E-5)
Assault Squad (3)
Squad Leader/Team Leader/Gunner
Corporal (E-4)
Team Leader/Gunner Lance Corporal (E-3)
Assistant Gunner (2) (Pvt-LCpl, E1/3)
Attachments (notional, dependent upon mission and
availability)
Company Medical Team from Medical Platoon, Headquarters and Service Company, Infantry Battalion
Forward Observer from Fire Direction Center,
81mm Mortar Platoon, Weapons Company,
Infantry battalion
Forward Air Control Party from S-3 Section
and Communications Platoon, Headquarters
and Service Company, Infantry Battalion
Forward Observer Team from the Battalion's
Direct Support 155mm Howitzer Battery, Artillery Battalion
Dining Facility Team from Dining Facility
Section, Service Platoon, Headquarters and
Service Company, Infantry Battalion
Platoon Commander usually a First

Lieutenant (O-2)
Platoon Sergeant Gunnery Sergeant (E7)
Heavy Machine Gun Squad/Section (M2HB

.50 cal.BMG and/or Mk 19 40mm AGL) from
Heavy Machine Gun Platoon, Weapons Company, Infantry Battalion
Machine Gun Section (6 M240G 7.62mm

general-purpose machine guns)
Javelin Squad (4 FGM-148 Javelin AntiTank Missile launchers) from Javelin Section,
Antiarmor Platoon, Weapons Company, Infantry Battalion
Section Leader Sta Sergeant (E-6)

Machine Gun Squad (3)
Squad Leader Sergeant (E-5)
Machine Gun Team (2)
Team Leader Corporal (E-4)
Gunner Lance Corporal (E-3
Antitank (TOW) Squad (2 BGM-71 Tube

launched, Optically tracked, Wire command
link guided missile launchers) from Antitank
(TOW) Section, Antiarmor Platoon, Weapons
Company, Infantry Battalion
36
CONTENTS
Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAV) Platoon
(12 AAV-7 Amphibious Assault Vehicles)
from the Battalion's Direct Support AAV
Company/Battalion
AAV companies have three platoons containing four sections of three AAVs each, for a total of 12 AAVs per
platoon, and a headquarters section of three AAVs. The
company also includes both command and recovery vari Tank Section/Platoon (2/4 M1A2 Main Bat- ents of the AAV, giving the company a grand total of
tle Tanks) from the Battalion's Direct Support approximately 42-45 AAVs.
Tank Company/Battalion
Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) Pla- 0.13.6 Disambiguation
toon (4 LAV-25 Light Armored Reconnaissance Vehicles) from the Battalion's Direct Some companies were well enough known that they have
Support LAR Company/Battalion
been identied with their company letter. Examples in Other Ground Combat Element assets as re- clude:
quired (e.g., Scout Sniper, Reconnaissance,
Combat Engineer, etc.)
Weapons company
Easy Company of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, which became the
focus of the BBC/HBO miniseries Band of Brothers.
A weapons company has in place of the three rie pla- 0.13.7 See also
toons, an 81 mm mortar platoon, an anti-armor platoon,
and a heavy machine gun platoon.
Headquarters and Service Company
Infantry of the British Army
Headquarters Platoon consists of Marines from S-1, 0.13.8

S-2, S-3, the Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Defense
section, and the Chaplain section (one Navy chap- 0.13.9
lain and an enlisted religious program specialist).
Communications Platoon, consisting of Radiomen,
Wiremen, Techs, Data Marines, and the associated
sta.
Service Platoon, consisting of S-4, Motor Transportation, Food Service, armorers, and Supply.
Notes
References
[1] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, 426
[2] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 415
[3] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4108
Scout Sniper Platoon.

Medical Platoon, which includes all of the Navy 0.13.10 External links
medical personnel for the rie companies and the
Battalion Aid Station (BAS). The allowance of 65 0.14 Corps
hospital corpsmen and two Medical Corps ocers
(doctors) is usually not completely staed. As such,
This article is about a military unit. For alterthe BAS usually elds one doctor and 1012 hospital
native meanings, see Corps (disambiguation).
corpsmen. The remaining personnel are assigned to
the rie companies, usually ve hospital corpsmen
A corps (/kr/core"; the plural is spelled the same as
per company.
singular but pronounced /krz/ cores"; from French,
from the Latin corpus body) is an organized body of
Tank and Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) companies
people.
It may be:
USMC tank and LAR companies are organized similarly
to US Army tank and mechanized infantry companies,
with the three line platoons consisting of four tanks or
LAVs each and the company command element containing two tanks or LAVs.
A large military formation composed of two or more

military divisions. There is no rule for the size of a
corps, but typically it might consist of twenty thousand to forty thousand soldiers.
Assault Amphibian Vehicle (AAV) companies
A professional branch of the armed forces such as a

medical corps, signal corps, marine corps, etc.
0.14. CORPS
37
the New Guinea campaign. In early 1945, when I Corps
was assigned the task of re-taking Borneo, II Corps took
over in New Guinea.
Canada
Canada rst elded a corps-sized formation in the First

World War; the Canadian Corps was unique in that its
composition did not change from inception to the war's
end, in contrast to British corps in France and Flanders.
The Canadian Corps consisted of four Canadian divisions. After the Armistice, the peacetime Canadian militia was nominally organized into corps and divisions but
no full-time formations larger than a battalion were ever
trained or exercised. Early in the Second World War,
Standard NATO symbol for a corps. The Xs do not indicate the Canada's contribution to the British-French forces ghtcorps' number; instead, the three Xs represent a corps (two Xs
ing the Germans was limited to a single division. After
represent a division and 1 X represents a brigade).
the fall of France in June 1940, a second division moved
to England, coming under command of a Canadian corps
A civilian public organization such as a police corps, headquarters. This corps was renamed I Canadian Corps
as a second corps headquarters was established in the
ambulance corps, Civil Defence Corps etc.
UK, with the eventual formation of ve Canadian divisions in England. I Canadian Corps eventually fought in
Italy, II Canadian Corps in NW Europe, and the two were
0.14.1 Military formation
reunited in early 1945. After the formations were disIn many armies, a corps is a battleeld formation com- banded after VE Day, Canada has never subsequently orposed of two or more divisions, and typically commanded ganized a Corps headquarters.
by a lieutenant general. During World War I and World
War II, due to the large scale of combat, multiple corps
Republic of China (19111947)
were combined into armies which then formed into army
groups. In Western armies with numbered corps, the
An NRA Corps () was a type of military organizanumber is often indicated in Roman numerals (e.g., VII
tion used by the Chinese Republic, and usually exercised
Corps).
command over two to three NRA Divisions and often a
number of Independent Brigades or Regiments and supporting units. The Chinese Republic had 133 Corps durAustralia
ing the Second Sino-Japanese War. After losses in the
early part of the war, under the 1938 reforms, the reIn the later stages of World War I, the ve infantry dimaining scarce artillery and the other support formations
visions of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF)
were withdrawn from the Division and was held at Corps,
consisting entirely of personnel who had volunteered for
or Army level or higher. The Corps became the basic
service overseaswere united as the Australian Corps,
tactical unit of the National Revolutionary Army having
on the Western Front, under Lieutenant General Sir John
strength nearly equivalent to an allied Division.
Monash.
During World War II, the Australian I Corps was formed
to co-ordinate three Second Australian Imperial Force
(2nd AIF) units: the 6th, 7th and 9th Divisions, as well
as other Allied units on some occasions, in the North
African campaign and Greek campaign. Following the
commencement of the Pacic War, there was a phased
withdrawal of I Corps to Australia, and the transfer of
its headquarters to the Brisbane area, to control Allied
army units in Queensland and northern New South Wales
(NSW). II Corps was also formed, with Militia units, to
defend south-eastern Australia, and III Corps controlled
land forces in Western Australia. Sub-corps formations
controlled Allied land forces in the remainder of Australia. I Corps headquarters was later assigned control of
France
The French Army under Napoleon used corps-sized formations (French: Corps d'Arme) as the rst formal
combined-arms groupings of divisions with reasonably
stable manning and equipment establishments. Napoleon
rst used the Corps d'Arme in 1805 . The use of the
Corps d'Arme was a military innovation that provided
Napoleon with a signicant battleeld advantage in the
early phases of the Napoleonic Wars. The Corps was
designed to be an independent military group containing cavalry, artillery and infantry, and capable of defending against a numerically superior foe. This allowed
38
Napoleon to mass the bulk of his forces to eect a penetration into a weak section of enemy lines without risking
his own communications or ank. This innovation stimulated other European powers to adopt similar military
structures. The Corps has remained an echelon of French
Army organization to the modern day.
CONTENTS
of the IFOR deployment prior to that in 1996. Otherwise, the only time a British corps headquarters has been
operationally deployed since 1945 was II Corps during
the Suez Crisis.
United States
Pakistan
The paramilitary forces of Pakistan's two main western
provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan are
the Frontier Corps (FC) founded in 1907 during British
Rule as at least three various organizations before being combined together. They are charged with guarding the country's western borders as well as providing
internal security including guarding important sites and
participating in law enforcement activities. They are divided into two sub-organizations: FC Balochistan and FC
Pakhtunkhwa.
Poland (193839)
The Polish Armed Forces used Independent Operational
Group's in the place of the Corps before and during
World War Two. An example would be Independent Operational Group Polesie. The groups, as the name indicates, were more exible and showed greater capacity to
absorb and integrate elements of broken units over a period of just a couple days and keep cohesion during the
September Campaign than more traditional army units
such as divisions, regiments, or even brigades.
The XVIII Airborne Corps command group returns home from

Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2009
United Kingdom
The structure of a eld corps in the United States Army
Wellington formed a corps d'armeein 1815 for com- is not permanent; many of the units that it commands are
manding his mixed allied force of four divisions against allocated to it as needed on an ad hoc basis. On the batNapoleon.
tleeld, the corps is the highest level of the forces that
When the British Army was expanded from an expedi- is concerned with actually ghting and winning the war.
tionary force in the First World War, corps were created Higher levels of command are concerned with administo manage the large numbers of divisions. The British tration rather than operations, at least under current doccorps in World War I included 23 infantry corps and a trine. The corps provides operational direction for the
forces under its command.
few mounted corps.
The British Army still has a corps headquarters for operational control of forces. I Corps of the British Army
of the Rhine was redesignated the Allied Rapid Reaction
Corps in 1994 . It is no longer a purely British formation,
although the UK is the 'framework nation' and provides
most of the sta for the headquarters. A purely national
Corps headquarters could be quickly reconstituted if necessary.
It took command of the International Security Assistance
Force in Afghanistan on 4 May 2006. Previously, it was
deployed as the headquarters commanding land forces
during the Kosovo War in 1999 and also saw service in
Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding the initial stages
As of 2014, the active eld corps in the U.S. Army are I

(
core), III Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps;
Corps eye
their lineages derive from three of the corps formed during World War I (I and III Corps) and World War II
(XVIII Airborne Corps).
Civil War The rst eld corps in the United States
Army were legalized during the American Civil War by
an Act of Congress on July 17, 1862, but Major General
George B. McClellan had designated six corps organizations within his Army of the Potomac that spring. Previously, groupings of divisions were known by other names,
such aswingsandgrand divisions. The termarmy
0.14. CORPS
corpswas often used at this time. These organizations
were much smaller than their modern counterparts: they
were usually commanded by a major general, were composed of two to six divisions (although predominantly
three) and typically included from 10,000 to 15,000 men.
Although designated with numbers that are sometimes
the same as those found in the modern U.S. Army, there
is no direct lineage between the 43 Union eld corps of
the Civil War and those with similar names in the modern
era, due to Congressional legislation caused by the outcry
from Grand Army of the Republic veterans during the
SpanishAmerican War.
In the Confederate States Army, eld corps were authorized in November 1862. They were commanded
by lieutenant generals and were usually larger than their
Union Army counterparts because their divisions contained more brigades, each of which could contain more
regiments. All of the Confederate corps at the Battle of
Gettysburg, for instance, exceeded 20,000 men. However, for both armies, unit sizes varied dramatically with
attrition throughout the war. In Civil War usages, by
both sides, it was common to write out the number, thus
Twenty-rst Army Corps, a practice that is usually ignored in modern histories of the war.
39
Cold War and 21st Century After the Korean War,
the Army and Marines would diverge in their approach
to the concept of the eld corps. III Marine Amphibious
Corps would be transformed over the years into a selfcontained Marine Expeditionary Force, with organic air
and logistic elements. The Army, meanwhile, would use
corps-level headquarters during the Vietnam War, but using the name of Field Force,to avoid confusion with
the ARVN corps areas.* [2]
Soviet Union
Main article: Formations of the Soviet Army
The pre-World War II Red Army of the former USSR

had rie corps much like in the Western sense with approximately three divisions to a corps.* [3] However, after
the war started, the recently purged Soviet senior command (Stavka) structure was apparently unable to handle the formations, and the armies and corps were integrated. Rie Corps were re-established during the war
after Red Army commanders had gained experience handling larger formations. Before and during World War II,
however, Soviet armored units were organized into corps.
The pre-war Mechanized Corps were made up of divisions. In the reorganizations, these Corpswere reSpanish-American War Although the U.S. Army in
organized into tank brigades and support units, with no
the years following the Civil War lacked standing orgadivision structure. Due to this, they are sometimes, innization at the corps and division levels, it moved swiftly
formally, referred to as Brigade Buckets.
to adopt these during the mobilization for the SpanishAmerican War in the spring of 1898. On May 7, General After the war, the Tank and Mechanized Corps were
Order 36 called for the establishment of seven army re-rated as divisions. During the reforms of 1956-58,
corps(repeating the nomenclature of the Civil War); an most of the corps were again disbanded to create the
eighth was authorized later that month.* [1] Two of these new Combined Arms and Tank Armies. A few corps
saw action as a unit: the Fifth in Cuba and the Eighth in were nevertheless retained, of both patterns. The Vyborg
the Philippines; elements of the First, Fourth and Seventh and Archangel Corps of the Leningrad Military District
made up the invasion force for Puerto Rico (the Sec- were smaller armies with three low-readiness motorized
ond, Third and Seventh provided replacements and oc- rie divisions each. The Category A Unied Corps of
cupation troops in Cuba, while the Sixth was never or- the Belarussian Military District (Western TVD/Strategic
ganized). The corps headquarters were disbanded during Direction) and Carpathian Military District (also Western
the months following the signing of the peace treaty (with TVD) were of the brigade pattern.
the exception of the Eighth Army Corps, which remained The Soviet Air Forces used ground terminology for its
active until 1900 due to the eruption of the Philippine- formations down to squadron level. As intermediates
American War), and like the corps of the Civil War, their between the Aviation Division and the Air Army were
lineage ends at that point.
Corpsthese also had three Air Divisions each.
World Wars I & II During World War I the American
Expeditionary Forces (AEF) adopted the common European usage of designating eld corps by Roman numerals.
Several "corps areas" were designated under the authority
of the National Defense Act of 1920, but played little role
until the Army's buildup for World War II. During that
war, the Marine Corps organized corps headquarters for
the rst time, the I Marine (later III Amphibious Corps)
and V Amphibious Corps. The Army would ultimately
designate 25 eld corps (I-XVI, XVIII-XXIV, XXXVI
and I Armored Corps) during World War II.
0.14.2 Administrative Corps

In the British Army and the armies of many
Commonwealth countries, a corps is also a grouping by common function, or an Arm or a Service (e.g.
Intelligence Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, Royal Corps
of Signals), performing much the same function as a
ceremonial infantry or cavalry regiment, with its own
cap badge, stable belt, and other insignia and traditions.
The Royal Armoured Corps and the Corps of Infantry
are looser groupings of independent regiments.
40
Australia
Main article: List of Australian Army Corps
In Australia, soldiers belong foremost to a Corps which
denes a common function or employment across the
army. The Australian Army has a system of coloured lanyards, which each identify a soldier as part of a specic
Corps (or sometimes individual battalion). This lanyard
is a woven piece of cord which is worn on ceremonial
uniforms and dates back to the issue of clasp knives in
the early 20th century which were secured to the uniform
by a length of cord. If a soldier is posted to a unit outside of their parent corps, except in some circumstances
the soldier continues to wear the hat badge and lanyard of
their Corps (e.g. a Clerk posted to an infantry battalion
would wear the hat badge of the Royal Australian Ordnance Corps but would wear the lanyard of the battalion
they are posted to.)
CONTENTS
regimental system there is less variation in insignia and
tradition. These are often referred to as Branches
and include the Quartermaster Corps, Ordnance Corps,
Transportation Corps, Medical Corps, Nurse Corps,
Chaplain Corps, Judge Advocate General's Corps, & Finance Corps. Each of these Corps is also considered a
Regimentfor historic purposes but these Regiments
have no tactical function.
0.14.3 Non-military use

The Salvation Army calls its local units/church corps
(e.g. The Rockford Temple Corps, The St. Petersburg
Citadel Corps), echoing the pseudomilitary name and
structure of the organization.
In the United Kingdom, the Royal Observer Corps was a
civil defence unit from 1925 until disbanded in 1995.
In the US, there are non-military, administrative, training and certication Corps for commissioned ocers of
the government's uniformed services, such as the United
Canada
States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps and
In Canada, with the integration of the Canadian army the National Oceanic *and* Atmospheric Administration
into the Canadian Forces, the British Corps model was Commissioned Corps. [7] [8]
replaced with personnel branches, dened in Canadian Many volunteer municipal or university ambulance, resForces Administrative Orders (CFAOs) as "...cohesive cue, and rst aid squads are known as VACs (volunteer
professional groups...based on similarity of military roles, ambulance corps). Prominent examples are the Order of
customs and traditions.CFAO 2-10)* [4] However, the Malta (the largest in Ireland), Hatzolah (largest VAC netArmour Branch has continued to use the title Royal Cana- work worldwide), Hackensack VAC. The usage of the
dian Armoured Corps, the Infantry Branch continued to term Ambulance Corps dates to Civil War Major General
use the Royal Canadian Infantry Corps designation, and George B. McClellan's General Order No 147 to create
the Artillery Branch uses the term Royal Regiment of an ambulance corpswithin the Union Army.* [9] GO
Canadian Artillery. When the Army, Royal Canadian 147 usedCorpsin one of its standard military senses.
Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged in However, subsequent formations of non-military ambu1968 to form the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian lance squads continued to use the term, even where they
Dental Corps and Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps adhere less to paramilitary organizational structure.
were deactivated and merged with their Naval and Air
The Peace Corps was organized by the United States as
Force counterparts to form the Dental Branch (Canadian
an armyof volunteers.
Forces) and the Canadian Forces Medical Service of the
Canadian Forces Health Services Group (CF H Svcs Gp). Some Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are
The Royal Canadian Army Service Corps transport and known as corps. Examples include Global Health Corps
supply elements were combined with the Royal Cana- and Mercy Corps.
dian Ordnance Corps to form the Logistics Branch The A Patent Examiner in the US is a member of the ExamRoyal Canadian Army Service Corps clerical trades were iner Corps.
merged with the Royal Canadian Army Pay Corps and
the Royal Canadian Postal Corps to form the Administration Branch (later merged with the Logistics Branch) 0.14.4 See also
*
[5] Othercorps, included: Canadian Engineer Corps,
Signalling Corps, Corps of Guides, Canadian Women's
The Salvation Army
Army Corps, Royal Canadian Army Veterinary Corps,
Military unit
Canadian Forestry Corps, Canadian Provost Corps and
Canadian Intelligence Corps.* [6]
Corps area
United States
The Corps system is also used in the U.S. Army to
group personnel with a common function, but without a

Eurocorps
List of military corps
0.15. DETACHMENT (MILITARY)
41
List of corps of the United States
0.15 Detachment (military)
Drum and bugle corps (modern)
A detachment (from the French dtachement) is a

military unit. It can either be detached from a larger
unit for a specic function or (particularly in United
States Military usage) be a permanent unit smaller than
a battalion. The term is often used to refer to a unit that
is assigned to a dierent base from the parent unit. An
example is the United States Army's 1st Special Forces
Operational Detachment-Delta (Airborne) (1st SFOD-D
(A)), commonly known as Delta Force by the general
public.
Drum and bugle corps (classic)

Peace Corps
AmeriCorps
Signal Corps (disambiguation)
United States Army Corps of Engineers
Ambulance corps
Detachment is also the term used as the collective noun

for personnel manning an artillery piece (e.g. gun detachment).
Green Lantern Corps
0.14.5
References and Further Reading
[1] Kreidberg, Marvin; Henry, Morton (November 1955).

History of Military Mobilization (PDF). Washington, DC:
Department of the Army. pp. 144145. Retrieved 30
July 2014.
[2] Eckhardt, George S. (1991). Vietnam Studies: Command
and Control, 1950-1969. Washington, DC: Department
of the Army. pp. 5255. Retrieved 30 July 2014.
0.15.1 Use by Cadet forces in the United

Kingdom
The Army Cadet Force in the United Kingdom breaks
its structure down into local detachments which usually
consist of between 10 and 40 cadets. Several detachments
make up a company.
The Combined Cadet Force, however, does not use this
term. Individual units are known as Cadet Contingents.
0.15.2 See also

[3] Eve of war Soviet structure
Geographically Separate Unit

[4] http://www.admfincs.forces.gc.ca/admfincs/subjects/
cfao/002-10_e.asp
0.15.3 References
[5] Sutton, Brigadier John, ed.,Wait For The Waggon.
Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Leo Cooper, 1998.
0.16 Division (military)
[6] Love, David, A Call To Arms.

[7] Mission of Public Health Service at USPHS Commissioned Corps. Usphs.gov. 2011-11-14. Retrieved 4 July
2012.
[8] NOAA Corps. Noaacorps.noaa.gov. Retrieved 4 July
2012.
[9] The Union Army Ambulance Corps.
Phisterer, Frederick, Statistical Record of the Armies

of the United States, Castle Books, 1883, ISBN 07858-1585-6.
Tsouras, P.G. Changing Orders: The evolution of the
World's Armies, 1945 to the Present Facts On File,
Inc, 1994. ISBN 0-8160-3122-3
Standard NATO symbol for an infantry division. The Xs do not
Warsaw Pact June 1989 OOB
replace the division's number; instead, the two Xs represent a division (one would denote a brigade; three, a corps).
42
CONTENTS
A division is a large military unit or formation, usually

consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In
most armies, a division is composed of several regiments
or brigades; in turn, several divisions typically make up
a corps. In most modern militaries, a division tends to
be the smallest combined arms unit capable of independent operations; this is due to its self-sustaining role as a
unit with a range of combat troops and suitable combat
support forces, which can be divided into various organic
combinations.
While the focus of this article is on army divisions, in
naval usage division has a completely dierent meaning,
referring either to an administrative/functional sub-unit
of a department aboard naval and coast guard ships and
shore commands (e.g., re control division, weapons department), to a sub-unit of several ships within a otilla
or squadron, or to two or three sections of aircraft operating under a designated division leader. In the administrative usage, unit size varies widely, though typically
divisions number far less than 100 people. In the US and
Commonwealth navies a divisional ocer (DIVO) is usually an ensign or lieutenant (JG), but may be an ocer
of much higher rank in certain circumstances or aboard
large warships, who oversees a team of enlisted sailors in
their duties.
0.16.1
History
Modern divisions
In modern times, most military forces have standardized
their divisional structures. This does not mean that divisions are equal in size or structure from country to country, but divisions have, in most cases, come to comprise
units of 10,000 to 20,000 troops with enough organic
support to be capable of independent operations. Usually, the direct organization of the division consists of
one to four brigades or battle groups of its primary combat arm, along with a brigade or regiment of combat support (usually artillery) and a number of direct-reporting
battalions for necessary specialized support tasks, such
as intelligence, logistics, reconnaissance, and combat engineers. Most militaries standardize ideal organization
strength for each type of division, encapsulated in a Table
of Organization and Equipment (TO&E) which species
exact assignments of units, personnel, and equipment for
a division.
The modern division became the primary identiable
combat unit in many militaries during the second half of
the 20th century, supplanting the brigade; however, the
trend started to reverse since the end of the Cold War.
The peak use of the division as the primary combat unit
occurred during World War II, when the belligerents deployed over a thousand divisions. With technological advances since then, the combat power of each division has
increased; the Invasion of Iraq in 2003 involved only a
handful of divisions but signicant support forces.
Origins
In the West, the rst general to think of organising an
army into smaller combined-arms units was Maurice de
Saxe (d. 1750), Marshal General of France, in his book
Mes Rveries. He died at the age of 54, without having
implemented his idea. Victor-Franois de Broglie put the
ideas into practice. He conducted successful practical experiments of the divisional system in the Seven Years'
War.
0.16.2 Types
Divisions are often formed to organize units of a particular type together with appropriate support units to allow
independent operations. In more recent times, divisions
have mainly been organized as combined arms units with
subordinate units representing various combat arms. In
this case, the division often retains the name of a more
specialized division, and may still be tasked with a primary role suited to that specialization.
Early divisions
The rst war in which the divisional system was used systematically was the French Revolutionary War. Lazare
Carnot of the Committee of Public Safety, who was in
charge of military aairs, came to the same conclusion
about it as the previous royal government, and the army
was organised into divisions.
It made the armies more exible and easy to manoeuvre, and it also made the large army of the revolution manageable. Under Napoleon, the divisions were
grouped together into corps, because of their increasing size. Napoleon's military success spread the divisional and corps system all over Europe; by the end of
the Napoleonic Wars, all armies in Europe had adopted
it.
Cavalry
For most nations, cavalry was deployed in smaller units
and was not therefore organized into divisions, but for
larger militaries, such as that of the British Empire,
United States, First French Empire, France, German Empire, Nazi Germany, Russian Empire, Empire of Japan,
Second Polish Republic and Soviet Union, a number of
cavalry divisions were formed. They were most often
similar to the nations' infantry divisions in structure, although they usually had fewer and lighter support elements, with cavalry brigades or regiments replacing the
infantry units, and supporting units, such as artillery and
supply, being horse-drawn. For the most part, large cavalry units did not remain after World War II.
0.16. DIVISION (MILITARY)

While horse cavalry had been found to be obsolete, the
concept of cavalry as a fast force capable of missions traditionally fullled by horse cavalry made a return to military thinking during the Cold War. In general, two new
types of cavalry were developed: air cavalry or airmobile, relying on helicopter mobility, and armored cavalry,
based on an autonomous armored formation. The former
was pioneered by the 11th Air Assault Division (Test),
formed on 1 February 1963 at Fort Benning, Georgia.
On 29 June 1965 the division was renamed as the 1st
Cavalry Division (Airmobile), before its departure for the
Vietnam War.
43
tank, infantry, artillery, and support units. A panzer division was an armoured division of the Wehrmacht and the
Waen-SS of Germany during World War II.
Since the end of the war, most armored and infantry divisions have had signicant numbers of both tank and infantry units within them. The dierence has usually been
in the mix of battalions assigned. Additionally, in some
militaries, armored divisions would be equipped with the
most advanced or powerful tanks such as the M1A2
Abrams in the United States.
After the end of the Vietnam War, the 1st Cavalry Di- Infantry division
vision was reorganised and re-equipped with tanks and
armored scout vehicles to form armored cavalry, as were Infantry division refers to a division with a majority of
all of the United States' independent Cavalry Regiments. infantry sub-units but also supported by subunits from
other combat arms. In the Soviet Union and Russia, an
After the 199091 Gulf War, the U.S. 2nd Armored
infantry division is often referred to as a rie division. A
Cavalry Regiment (2nd ACR) was re-equipped with
motorised infantry division refers to a division with a
Humvees and designated Armored Cavalry (Light), while
majority of infantry subunits transported on soft-skinned
units retaining their Abrams tanks and Bradley ghting
motor vehicles. A mechanized infantry division refers
Vehicles were classied as Armored Cavalry (Heavy). In
to a division with a majority of infantry subunits trans2004, the 2nd ACR was again reequipped, this time with
ported on armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry
Stryker Armored Combat Vehicles, and renamed the 2nd
ghting vehicles (IFVs) or both, or even some other class
Cavalry Regiment.
of armored ghting vehicles designed for the transportation of infantry.
Armored division
0.16.3 Nomenclature
Divisions are designated by combining an ordinal number and a type name. Nicknames are often assigned or
adopted, although these often are not considered an ofcial part of the unit's nomenclature. In some cases, divisional titles lack an ordinal number, often in the case
of unique units or units serving as elite or special troops.
For clarity in histories and reports, the nation is identied
before the number. This also helps in historical studies,
but due to the nature of intelligence on the battleeld,
division names and assignments are at times obscured.
However, the size of the division rarely makes such obfuscation necessary.
0.16.4 National organization

Australia
A Priest 105mm self-propelled gun of British 3rd Infantry Division, 1944
The development of the tank during World War I

prompted some nations to experiment with forming them
into division-size units. Many did this the same way as
they did cavalry divisions, by merely replacing cavalry
with AFVs (including tanks) and motorizing the supporting units. This proved unwieldy in combat, as the units
had many tanks but few infantry units. Instead, a more
balanced approach was taken by adjusting the number of
Historically, the Australian Army has elded a number

of divisions. During World War I, a total of six infantry divisions were raised as part of the all-volunteer
Australian Imperial Force: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and
6th. The 1st Division and part of the 2nd saw service
during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 before later taking part in the ghting on the Western Front between
1916 and 1918 along with the 3rd, 4th and 5th.* [1] The
6th Division existed only briey in 1917, but was disbanded without seeing combat to make up for manpower
44
shortages in the other divisions.* [2] Another infantry division, known as the New Zealand and Australian Division, was also formed from Australian and New Zealand
troops and saw service at Gallipoli.* [3] Two divisions of
Australian Light Horse were also formed the Australian
Mounted Division (which also included some British and
French units) and the ANZAC Mounted Division both
of which served in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the war.* [4]
Members of the Australian 6th Division at Tobruk, 22 January

1941
In the inter-war years, on paper the Australian Army was

organised into seven divisions: ve infantry (1st through
to 5th) and two cavalry, albeit on a reduced manning
scale.* [5] During World War II, the size of Australia's
force was expanded to eventually include 12 infantry divisions: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th,
11th and 12th. Of these, four the 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th
were raised as part of the all-volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force, while the others formed part of the
Militia, and were maintained through a mixture of volunteers and conscripts. In addition to the infantry divisions,
three armoured divisions were formed: 1st, 2nd and 3rd.
The Australian divisions were used in various campaigns,
ranging from North Africa, Greece, Syria and Lebanon,
to the South West Pacic.* [6]
CONTENTS
and became the 1st Canadian Division when a 2nd Canadian Division took to the eld later that year. A 3rd
Canadian Division and 4th Canadian Division saw service in France and Flanders, and a Fifth Canadian Division was disbanded in the United Kingdom and broken up
for reinforcements. The four divisions (collectively under
the command of the Canadian Corps) were disbanded in
1919.
Canada had nominal divisions on paper between the wars,
overseeing the Militia (part-time reserve forces), but no
active duty divisions. On 1 September 1939, two divisions were raised as part of the Canadian Active Service
Force; a Third Division was raised in 1940, followed by a
First Canadian (Armoured) Division and Fourth Canadian Division. The First Armoured was renamed the
Fifth Canadian (Armoured) Division and the Fourth Division also became an armoured formation. The 1st and
5th Divisions fought in the Mediterranean between 1943
and early 1945; the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions served in
Northwest Europe. A Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Division were raised for service in Canada, with one brigade
of the Sixth Division going to Kiska in 1943. By 1945,
the latter three divisions were disbanded as the threat to
North America diminished. A Third Canadian Division
(Canadian Army Occupation Force) was raised in 1945
for occupation duty in Germany, organized parallel to the
combatant Third Division, and a Sixth Canadian Division
(Canadian Army Pacic Force) was undergoing formation and training for the invasion of Japan when the latter
country surrendered in September 1945. All ve combatant divisions, as well as the CAOF and CAPF, were
disbanded by the end of 1946.
A First Canadian Division Headquarters (later renamed

simply First Division) was authorized once again in April
1946, but remained dormant until formally disbanded in
July 1954. Simultaneously, however, another Headquarters, First Canadian Infantry Divisionwas authorized as part of the Canadian Army Active Force (the
Regular forces of the Canadian military), in October
1953. This, the rst peace-time division in Canadian history, consisted of a brigade in Germany, one in Edmonton
Since the end of World War II, the number of divisions and one at Valcartier. This division was disbanded in
has fallen signicantly as the Australian Army has con- April 1958.
centrated its force generation at brigade level. Three di- The First Canadian Division was reactivated in 1988
visions the 1st, 2nd and 3rd have existed during this and served until the 1990s when the headquarters of
time, but the 3rd Division was disbanded in 1991, and the division was transformed into the Canadian Forces
only two divisions currently remain active. The 1st Divi- Joint Headquarters and placed under the control of the
sion is a skeleton organisation that acts as a deployable Canadian Expeditionary Force Command. The CFJHQ
force headquarters, while the 2nd is a Reserve forma- was transformed back into Headquarters, 1st Canadian
tion.* [7]* [8]
Division, on 23 June 2010, the unit once more falling
under the control of the Canadian Army. The unit is
based
at Kingston. Canada currently has 5 divisions unCanada
der its command. 1st Canadian Division has approxiThe rst division-sized formation raised by the Canadian mately 2000 troops under its command, while 2nd Canamilitary was the First Contingent of the Canadian Ex- dian Division, 3rd Canadian Division, 4th Canadian Dipeditionary Force; raised in 1914, it was renamed the vision, and the 5th Canadian Division have approximately
Canadian Division in early 1915 when it took to the eld, 10,000 troops each.
45
China
Colombia
People's Republic The People's Liberation Army

(PLA) deploys the world's largest ground force, currently
totaling some 1.6 million personnel, or about 70% of
the PLA's total manpower (2.3 million in 2005). The
ground forces are divided into seven Military Regions
(MR). The regular forces of the ground forces consist of
18 group armies: corps-size combined arms units each
with 24,00050,000 personnel. The group armies contain among them:
In the Colombian Army, a division is formed by two or

more brigades and is usually commanded by a Major
General. Today, the Colombian Army has eight active
divisions:
25 infantry divisions
28 infantry brigades
9 armored divisions
9 armored brigades
2 artillery divisions
19 artillery brigades
19 antiaircraft artillery/air-defense missile brigades
10 army aviation (helicopter) regiments.
1st Division (Santa Marta) Its jurisdiction covers

the Northern Region of Colombia in which there are
the departments of Cesar, La Guajira, Magdalena,
Sucre, Bolvar and Atlntico.
2nd Division (Bucaramanga) Its jurisdiction covers the north eastern Colombia in which there are
the departments of Norte de Santander, Santander
and Arauca.
3rd Division (Popayn) Its jurisdiction covers the
South West of Colombia in which there are the departamntos of Nario, Valle del Cauca, Cauca, Caldas, Quindio, part of Santander and the southern
part of the Choc.
4th Division (Villavicencio) Its jurisdiction covers the eastern region of Colombia in which there
are the departments of Meta, Guaviare, and part of
Vaups.
There are also three airborne divisions manned by the

PLA Air Force (PLAAF). The PLA Navy (PLAN) has
two multi-arm marine brigades.
5th Division (Bogot) Its jurisdiction covers the

Central Region of Colombia in which there are the
departments of Cundinamarca, Boyaca, Huila and
Tolima.
National Revolutionary Army The NRA Division

(Chinese: , ) was a military unit of the
Chinese Republic. The original pattern of the infantry
Division organization of the early Republic, was a square
division. It was formed with two infantry brigades of two
infantry regiments of three infantry battalions, an artillery
regiment of fty four guns and eighteen machineguns, a
cavalry regiment of twelve squadrons, an engineer battalion of four companies, a transport battalion of four companies, and other minor support units.* [9]* [10]
6th Division (Florencia) Its jurisdiction covers the

southern region of Colombia in which there are the
departments of Amazonas, Caquet, Putumayo and
southern Vaups.
In the mid-1930s, the Nationalist government with the

help of German advisors attempted to modernize their
army and intended to form sixty Reorganized Divisions
and a number of reserve divisions. Under the strains
and losses of the early campaigns of the Second SinoJapanese War, the Chinese decided in mid-1938 to standardize their Divisions as triangular divisions as part of
their eort to simplify the command structure and placed
them under Corps, which became the basic tactical units.
The remaining scarce artillery and the other support formations were withdrawn from the Division and were held
at Corps or Army level or even higher. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Republic mobilized
at least 310 Infantry Divisions, 23 Cavalry Divisions, and
one Mechanized Division, (the 200th Division).
8th Division (Yopal) Its jurisdiction covers the

northeastern region of Colombia in which there
are the departments of Casanare, Arauca, Vichada,
Guaina, and the municipalities of Boyaca of
Cubar, Pisba, Paya, Labranzagrande and Pajarito.
7th Division (Medellin) Its jurisdiction covers the

western region of Colombia in which there are the
departments of Cordoba, Antioquia, and part of the
Choc.
France
French Army retained divisions as permanent units until
its 1999 reorganisation. Since then, brigades have been
the largest permanent formations. However, the army still
retains two divisions headquarters, known as tat-major
de force n 1 and tat-major de force n 3 (Etat-major
n2 and 4 were disbanded in 2011).
46
CONTENTS
Germany
Today, the German Army has ve active divisions:
jor (BSM) and may consists of three infantry, mechanised

and/or armoured brigades and supporting units.
Currently, the British Army has two active divisions:
1. Panzerdivision (1. PzDiv) in Hannover
1st (United Kingdom) Division, the Adaptable

Force
Division Spezielle Operationen (DSO) in

Veitshchheim
3rd (United Kingdom) Division, the Reaction

Force
Division Luftbewegliche Operationen (DLO) in The British Army previously had four other infantry diStadtallendorf
visions. These are now disbanded and were placed under
one single two-star command,
Support Command.
10. Panzerdivision (10. PzDiv) in Sigmaringen
13. Panzergrenadierdivision (13. PzGrenDiv)

in Leipzig
1. Panzerdivision includes the main part of the rapid reaction forces. The DSO is specialized in airborne and
commando operations, the DLO covers army aviation,
airmobile forces and combat support troops. 10. Panzerdivision and 13. Panzergrenadierdivision are planned
for peace keeping missions. Each division is structured
as two brigades and divisional troops.
India
With more than 1,130,000 soldiers in active service, the
Indian Army is the world's third largest. An Indian Army
division is intermediate between a corps and a brigade.
Each division is headed by General Ocer Commanding (GOC) in the rank of Major general. It usually consists of 15,000 combat troops and 8,000 support elements. Currently, the Indian Army has 37 divisions: four
RAPIDs (Reorganised Army Plains Infantry Divisions),
18 infantry, 10 mountain, three armoured and two artillery. Each division consists of several brigades.
Pakistan
An Army division in the Pakistan Army is an intermediate between a corps and a brigade. It is the largest striking force in the army. Each division is headed by General Ocer Commanding (GOC) in the rank of major
general. It usually consists of 15,000 combat troops and
8,000 support elements. Currently, the Pakistani Army
has 29 divisions: 20 infantry, two armoured, two mechanized, two air defence, two strategic and one artillery.
Each division consists of several brigades.
2nd Division Scotland and Northern England,

headquartered at Edinburgh
4th Division Southern England, headquartered at Aldershot
5th Division Wales, English Midlands and

Eastern England, headquartered at Shrewsbury
United States
See also: Divisions of the United States Army
A divisional unit in the United States Army typically consists of 17,000 to 21,000 soldiers commanded by a major
general. Two divisions usually form a corps and each division consists of three maneuver brigades, an aviation
brigade, an engineer brigade, and division artillery (latter
two excluded from divisional structure as of 2007), along
with a number of smaller specialized units. In 2014 divisional artillery (DIVARTY) organizations began to reappear with some res brigades reorganizing to ll this
role.* [11]
The United States Army currently has ten active divisions:
1st Infantry Division at Fort Riley, Kansas and

in Fort Knox, Kentucky
1st Armored Division at Fort Bliss, Texas
1st Cavalry Division at Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Infantry Division at Camp Red Cloud,

South Korea and in Fort Lewis, Washington
3rd Infantry Division at Fort Stewart, Georgia

and in Fort Benning, Georgia
United Kingdom
In the British Army, a division is commanded by a
major-general with a WO1 as the Brigade Sergeant Ma-
6th Division headquartered at York
47
42nd Infantry Division, Troy, New York
There are two division within the Army Reserve that are
responsible for training operations:
95th Division (Training), Fort Sill, Oklahoma
100th Division (Training), Fort Knox,

Kentucky
The United States Marine Corps has a further three active divisions and one reserve division. They consist of
three infantry regiments, one artillery regiment, a tank
Soldiers from the US 1st Infantry Division in Fallujah, 2005.
battalion, a Light Armored Reconnaissance battalion, an
Amphibious Assault Vehicle battalion, a reconnaissance
battalion, a combat engineer battalion, and a headquarters
4th Infantry Division at Fort Carson, Col- battalion.

orado
1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton,
California.
10th Mountain Division (Light) at Fort Drum,

New York and in Fort Polk, Louisiana
25th Infantry Division at Schoeld Barracks,

Hawaii, Fort Richardson, Alaska and in Fort Wainwright, Alaska
2nd Marine Division at Camp Lejeune, North

Carolina.
3rd Marine Division at Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa, Japan.
4th Marine Division (Reserve) with units located throughout the United States and headquartered in New Orleans, Louisiana.
82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, North

Carolina
101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) at Fort

Campbell, Kentucky
Japan
The Army National Guard has a further eight divisions:
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force divisions are combined

arms units with infantry, armored, and artillery units,
combat support units and logistical support units. They
28th Infantry Division, Fort Indiantown Gap, are regionally independent and permanent entities. The
Pennsylvania
divisions strength varies from 6,000 to 9,000 personnel.
JGSDF currently has 9 active duty divisions (1 armored,
8 infantry):
29th Infantry Division, Fort Belvoir, Virginia
34th Infantry Division, Rosemount, Minnesota
1st Division, in Nerima.
35th Infantry Division, Fort Leavenworth,

Kansas
2nd Division, in Asahikawa.
3rd Division, in Itami.
4th Division, in Kasuga.
6th Division, in Higashine.
071216-A-0013H-001
36th Infantry Division, Camp Mabry, Texas
38th Infantry Division, Indianapolis, Indiana
40th Infantry Division, Los Alamitos JFTB,

California
7th Division (Armored), in Chitose.
48
CONTENTS
8th Division, in Kumamoto.
Russian Federation
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian tank

and motorized-rie divisions were reduced to nearcadre state, many being designated Bases for Storage
of Weapons and Equipment (Russian acronym BKhVT).
10th Division, in Nagoya.

These bases, orcadredivisions, were equipped with all
the heavy armaments of a full-strength motor-rie or tank
division, while having only skeleton personnel strength,
USSR
as low as 500 personnel. The ocers and men of a cadre
division focus primarily on maintaining the equipment in
Main article: List of Soviet Union divisions
working condition. During wartime mobilization, such a
division would be beefed up to full manpower strength;
In the Soviet Armed Forces, a division (Russian: diviziya) however, in peacetime, a cadre division is unt for any
may have referred to a formation in any of the Armed combat.
Services, and included subunits appropriate to the service
After the 2008 Russian military reforms, most active disuch as regiments and battalions, squadrons or naval vesvisions were disbanded or converted into brigades. Exsels. Almost all divisions irrespective of the service had
ceptions are the:
the 3+1+1 structure of major sub-units, which were usually regiments.
9th Division, in Aomori.
There is also a similarly sounding unit of military organization in Russian military terminology, called divizion. A
divizion is used to refer to an artillery battalion, a specic
part of a ship's crew (korabel'nyy divizion, 'ship battalion'), or a group of naval vessels (divizion korabley).
Before the Second World War, besides the Mechanised
Corps, there were independent tank battalions within rie
divisions. These were meant to reinforce rie units for the
purpose of breaching enemy defences. They had to act in
cooperation with the infantry without breaking away from
it and were called tanks for immediate infantry support
(tanki neposredstvennoy podderzhki pekhoty).
After 1945, some Red Army rie divisions were converted to Mechanised Divisions. From 1957, all rie
and mechanised divisions became Motorised Rie Divisions (MRDs). These divisions usually had approximately 12,000 soldiers organized into three motor rie
regiments, a tank regiment, an artillery regiment, an air
defense regiment, surface-to-surface missile and antitank
battalions, and supporting chemical, engineer, signal, reconnaissance, and rear services companies.* [12] A typical tank division had some 10,000 soldiers organized into
three tank regiments and one motorized rie regiment, all
other sub-units being same as the MRD.* [13]
7th Guards Air Assault (Mountain) Division

in Novorossiysk
76th Guards Air Assault Division in Pskov
98th Guards Airborne Division in Ivanovo
106th Guards Airborne Division in Tula
4th Guards Tank Division in Naro-Fominsk
2nd Guards Motor Rie Division in Moscow
In addition to the Army divisions, Ministry of Internal Aairs has one, rapid deployment capable Internal
Troops division:
Dzerzhinsky Division in Moscow.
0.16.5 See also
Air Division
A typical Soviet Frontal Aviation Division consisted of
three air regiments, a transport squadron, and associated
List of military divisions
maintenance units. The number of aircraft within a regiment varied. Fighter and ghter-bomber regiments were
commons:Division insignia of the United States
usually equipped with about 40 aircraft (36 of the primary
Army
unit type and a few utility and spares), while bomber reg Military organization
iments typically consisted of 32 aircraft. Divisions were
typically commanded by Colonels or Major Generals, or
Colonels or Major Generals of Aviation in the Air Force.
0.16.6 Notes
Soviet Naval Aviation and the Strategic Missile Forces
divisions had either Colonels or Major Generals as com- [1] Grey 2008, p. 100
manding ocers while the Ship Divisions were led by
[2] Grey 2008, p. 111
Captains 1st Rank or Captains 2nd Rank.
0.17. FIELD ARMY
[3] Grey 2008, p. 92

[4] Grey 2008, pp. 99 & 117
[5] Keogh 1965, p. 37
[6] Johnston 2007, p. 10
49

Infantry Divisions (British Army and British Indian
Army) 19301956
0.17 Field army
[7] 1st Division. Australian Army. Retrieved 4 June 2013.

[8] Palazzo 2002, p. 194
[9] Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The
Sino-Japanese War (19371945) 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33,
140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic
of China.
[10] History of the Frontal War Zone in the Sino-Japanese
War, published by Nanjing University Press.
[11] Division Artillery returns to the Army. DVIDS. 23
July 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
[12] Note that during the Soviet era, 25 dierent MRD stang
and equipage tables existed to reect dierent requirements of divisions stationed in dierent parts of the Soviet
Union, the Warsaw Pact countries and Mongolia
The standard map symbol for a eld army. The four exes are
the generic symbol of a eld army (i.e. they do not represent Roman numerals); the army's specic number or name, if included,
would be written numerically to the left of the symbol.
[13] Note that during the Soviet era, 15 dierent TD stang

and equipage tables existed to reect dierent requirements of divisions stationed in dierent parts of the Soviet
Union, the Warsaw Pact countries and Mongolia
0.16.7
References
Van Creveld, Martin (2000). The Art of War: War

and Military Thought. London: Cassell. ISBN 0304-35264-0.
Grey, Jerey (2008). A Military History of Australia
(3rd ed.). Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69791-0.
Johnston, Mark (2007). The Australian Army in
World War II. Elite. Martin Windrow (consultant The unit ag of the Sixth United States Army. The distinguishing
editor). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1- ag of a United States army is bicolored, white over red, measuring 91.4 centimeters (36 inches) hoist by 121.9 centimeters (48
84603-123-6.
inches) y, with gold fringe. In the center is a rendering of the
army's shoulder-sleeve insignia, measuring 38.1 centimeters (15
inches) in height.* [1]
Jones, Archer (2000). The Art of War in the Western

World. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-25206966-8.
A eld army (or numbered army or simply army) is a
military formation in many armed forces, composed of
Keogh, Eustace (1965). South West Pacic 1941
two or more corps and may be subordinate to an army
45. Melbourne, Victoria: Grayower Publications.
group. Likewise, air armies are equivalent formation
OCLC 7185705.
within some air forces.
Palazzo, Albert (2002). Defenders of Australia: The
3rd Australian Division 19161991. Loftus, New
South Wales: Australian Military Historical Publications. ISBN 1-876439-03-3.
Particular eld armies are usually named or numbered to

distinguish them from armyin the sense of an entire national land military force. In English, the typical
style for naming eld armies is word numbers, such as
50
CONTENTS
First Army"; whereas corps are usually distinguished by

Roman numerals (e.g. I Corps) and subordinate formations with ordinal numbers (e.g. 1st Division). A eld
army may be given a geographical name in addition to or
as an alternative to a numerical name, such as the British
Army of the Rhine, Army of the Niemen or Aegean
Army (also known as the Fourth Army).
The Roman army was among the rst to feature a formal eld army, in the sense of a very large, combined
arms formation, namely the sacer comitatus, which may
be translated literally assacred escort. The term is derived from the fact that they were commanded by Roman
emperors (who were regarded as sacred), when they acted
as eld commanders. While the Roman comitatensis (plural: comitatenses) is sometimes translated aseld army
, it may also be translated as the more genericeld force
or mobile force(as opposed to limitanei or garrison
units).
In some armed forces, anarmyis or has been equivalent to a corps-level unit. Prior to 1945, this was the case
with a gun (; army) within the Imperial Japanese
Army, for which the formation equivalent in size to a eld
army was an area army(; hmen-gun). In the
Soviet Red Army and the Soviet Air Forces, an army was
subordinate in wartime to a front (an equivalent of army
group). It contained at least three to ve divisions along
with artillery, air defense, reconnaissance and other supporting units. It could be classied as either a combined
arms army (CAA) or tank army (TA); and while both
were combined arms formations, the former contained a
larger number of motorized rie divisions while the later
contained a larger number of tank divisions.* [2] In peacetime, a Soviet army was usually subordinate to a military
district.
Modern eld armies are large formations which vary signicantly between armed forces in size, composition, and
scope of responsibility. For instance, within NATO a
eld army is composed of a headquarters, and usually
controls at least two corps, beneath which are a variable
number of divisions. A battle is inuenced at the eld
army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements
from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the
enemy at a critical point. NATO armies are controlled by
a general or lieutenant general.
0.17.1
See also
Military unit
Military history
List of numbered armies
0.17.2
Footnotes
[1] US Army, AR 840-10, Paragraph 5-11.
[2] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 1-3.
0.18 Field force

A eld force in British and Indian Army military
parlance is a combined arms land force operating under
actual or assumed combat circumstances,* [1] usually for
the length of a specic military campaign. It is used by
other nations, but can have a dierent meaning.
0.18.1 United Kingdom use

A eld force would be created from the various units in
an area of military operations and be named for the geographical area. Examples are:
Kurram Field Force, 1878
Peshawar Valley Field Force, 1878
Kabul Field Force, 18791880
Kabul-Kandahar Field Force, 1880
Natal Field Force, 1881
Zhob Field Force, 1890
Mashonaland Field Force, 1896
Malakand Field Force, 1896
Tirah Field Force, 1897
Yukon Field Force, 1898
Royal West African Frontier Force, 1900
0.18.2 Australian use

In Australia, a eld force comprises the units required to
meet operational commitments.* [2]
0.18.3 United States use

In the United States, during the Vietnam War the term
came to stand for a corps-sized organization with other
functions and responsibilities. To avoid confusion with
the corps designations used by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and to allow for a exible organization,
MACV and General William Westmoreland developed
theeld forcesuch as I Field Force and II Field Force.
Unlike an Army corps, which had a size and structure
xed by Army doctrine, the eld force could expand as
needed and had other functions such as liaison with South
Vietnamese and civil aairs functions and was exible
enough to have many subordinate units assigned to it.* [3]
0.19. FIRETEAM
0.18.4
51
Police eld forces
In counter insurgency type campaigns, select and specially trained units of police armed and equipped as light
infantry have been designated as police eld forces who
perform paramilitary type patrols and ambushes whilst
retaining their police powers in areas that were highly
dangerous.* [4]
Examples of these are:
Royal Malaysian Police Police Field Force/General
Operations Forces (Malayan Emergency)
Kenya Police General Service Unit (Mau Mau Uprising)
Tanzania Police Police Field Force (Zanzibar Revo- Standard NATO military map symbol for a friendly infantry
Fireteam.
lution)
Gambia Police Field Force
section in coordinated operations, which is led by a squad

Republic of Vietnam National Police Field Force leader.* [1]
(Vietnam War)
Fireteams are the second smallest organized unit in the
militaries
that use it; the smallest being three or fewer sol British South Africa Police Support Unit (Rhodesian
dier
support
or specialist teams (such as anti-tank teams,
Bush War)
machine gun teams, mortar teams, sniper teams, EOD
Royal Solomon Islands Police Force Police Field teams, or military working dog teams) that are designed
Force
to operate independently.
Sri Lanka Special Task Force (Sri Lankan Civil Fireteams are the primary unit upon which modern infantry organization is based in the British Army, Royal
War)
Air Force Regiment, Royal Marines, United States Army,
Namibia Special Field Force
United States Marine Corps, United States Air Force Security Forces, Canadian Forces, and Australian Army.
0.18.5
References
[1] p.88 Dupuy, Trevor N., Johnson, Curt and Hayes, Grace
P. (1986). Dictionary of Military Terms: A Guide to the
Language of Warfare and Military Institutions. The H. W.
Wilson Company.
0.19.1 Concept
The concept of the reteam is based on the need for tactical exibility in infantry operations. A reteam is capable of autonomous operations as part of a larger unit.
[2] http://www.diggerhistory3.info/handbook/page/
Successful reteam employment relies on quality small
01-army-today.htm
unit training for soldiers, experience of reteam members
[3] Eckhard, George S. Vietnam Studies: Command and Con- operating together, sucient communications infrastructrol 1950-1969. Washington, DC: Department of the ture, and a quality non-commissioned ocer corps to
Army, 1991 p. 53. Online http://www.history.army.mil/ provide tactical leadership for the team.
books/Vietnam/Comm-Control/index.htm
[4] p.Davies, Bruce & McKay, Gary The Men Who
Persevered:The AATTV 2005 Bruce & Unwin
0.19 Fireteam
A reteam is a small military sub-subunit of infantry
designed to optimize bounding overwatch and re and
movement tactical doctrine within a hostile urban environment. Depending on mission requirements, it generally consists of four or fewer soldiers and are usually grouped by two or three reteams into a squad or
These requirements have led to successful use of the

reteam concept by more professional militaries. It is
less useful for armies employing massed infantry formations, or with signicant conscription. Conscription
makes reteam development dicult, as team members
are more eective as they build experience over time
working together and building personal bonds.
The creation of eective reteams is seen as essential for
creating an eective professional military as they serve
as a primary group. Psychological studies by the United
States Army have indicated that the willingness to ght is
more heavily inuenced by the desire to avoid failing to
support other members of the reteam than by abstract
52
CONTENTS
concepts. Historically, nations with eective reteam

organization have had signicantly better performance
from their infantry units in combat than those limited to
operations by larger units.
(Equipe de choc), made up of riemen armed with rie grenades or disposable rocket launchers, is the reconnaissance and maneuver unit. The Teams bounding overwatch, with one element covering as the other moves. The
Team leaders have handheld radios so the elements can
stay in contact with each other, as well as with the Section
Leader's backpack radio set. The most common symbol
of the modern French junior NCO (chef d'equipe) has
been a radio hanging around their neck.
In combat, while attacking or maneuvering, a reteam

generally spreads over a distance of 50 metres (160 ft),
while in defensive positions the team can cover up to the
range of its weapons or the limits of visibility, whichever
is less. In open terrain, up to 500 metres (1,600 ft) can
be covered by an eective team, although detection range
limits eectiveness beyond 100 metres (330 ft) or so United States
without special equipment. A team is eective so long
as its primary weapon remains operational.
Army The United States Army particularly emphasizes
the reteam concept.* [2]
0.19.2
National variations
British
Infantry units of the British Army, Royal Marines and
RAF Regiment use the reteam concept. An infantry
section of eight men contains two reteams, Charlie and
Delta, each comprising an NCO (Corporal or Lance Corporal) and three Privates.
Team Leader: The NCO will carry an L85A2 rie with an L17A2 under-slung grenade launcher.
Some units vary with one of the privates carrying
the grenade launcher rather than the NCO.
Rieman: One private carries the L85A2 rie.
Automatic Rieman: One private carries L110A1
light machine gun or L86A2 light support weapon.
Designated marksman: One private carries the
L129A1 designated marksman rie.
The reteam is generally used as a subdivision of the section for re and maneuver rather than as a separate unit
in its own right, although reteams or reteam sized units
are often used for reconnaissance and special operations.
Canadian
In the Canadian Army 'reteam' refers to two soldiers
paired for re and movement. Two reteams form an
'assault group' and two assault groups form a section of
eight soldiers.
French
The French Section (Groupe de Combat Combat
Group) is divided into two Teams. The Fire Team
(Equipe de feu) is based around the section-level automatic rie or light machinegun. The Shock Team
According to US Army Field Manual 3-21.8 (Infantry Rie Platoon and Squad, formerly FM 7-8* [3]) a typical
United States Army reteam consists of four soldiers:
Team Leader (TL): The NCO holds the rank of
Sergeant or Corporal (although occasionally a team
is led by a Specialist or Private First Class). Provides
tactical leadership for the team at all times with a
"Do As I Do" attitude; standard equipped with backpack GPS/radio set, and either an M16 rie or M4
carbine. A Squad Leader or Assistant Squad Leader
may replace the team leader at the squad or section
level.
Rieman (R): Is 'the baseline standard for all Infantrymen'. They are equipped with the M16 rie
or M4 carbine. The rieman is usually assigned with
the grenadier to help balance the repower capabilities of the automatic rieman.
Grenadier Rieman (GR): Provides limited highangle re over 'Dead zones'. A grenadier is equipped
with an M4/M16 with the M203 grenade launcher
(or newer M320 grenade launcher) mounted to the
weapon.
Automatic Rieman (AR): Second-in-command
next to Team Leader: provides overwatch an
suppressive re through force multiplication. The
most casualty producing person in a reteam, in
terms of repower and maneuverability when compared to the standard nine-man rie squad. An automatic rieman is equipped with a M249 light machine gun. The automatic rieman is usually assigned with the team leader to maximize directed
elds of re and to help balance the repower capabilities of the grenadier.
In the context of a Stryker Brigade Combat Team
(SBCT)'s Infantry Rie Companies,* [4] one man from
each reteam in a rie squad is either the Squad
Leader (SL),* [5] Assistant Squad Leader (ASL), the
squad machine gunner (MG), the squad assistant gunner
(AG), the squad RTO, the squad rieman/compassman
0.19. FIRETEAM
(R/CM), the Squad Anti-armor Specialist (RMAT),
armed with the FGM-148 Javelin, or the Squad Designated Marksman (DM), who carries the M4 carbine and
M14 rie. In all cases these specialized function replaces
the basic rieman position in the reteam.* [6]
US Marines on patrol in Afghanistan, 2009.
Marine Corps The United States Marine Corps summarizes its reteam organization with the mnemonic
ready-team-re-assist, the following being the arrangement of the reteam when in a column:
Rieman: acts as a scout for the reteam; Ready
.
53
World War I
Although in the Napoleonic War skirmishers ahead of
the main group would often work in teams of two, providing covering re and protecting each other, this was
particularly eective for the British Riemen. During
World War I, this resulted in a trench warfare stalemate
on the Western Front. In order to combat this stalemate,
the Germans developed a doctrinal innovation known
as inltration tactics, in which small, autonomous teams
would covertly penetrate Allied lines. The Germans used
their stormtroopers organized into squads at the lowest levels to provide a cohesive strike force in breaking
through Allied lines. The British and Canadian troops
on the Western Front started dividing platoons into sections after the Battle of the Somme in 1916. (This idea
was later further developed in World War II.) French
Chasseur units in WWI were organized into reteams,
equipped with a light machine gun (Chauchat) team and
grenades, to destroy German re positions by re (not
assault) at up to 200 meters using rie grenades. The
light machinegun team would put suppressive re on the
enemy position, while the grenadier team moved to a
position where the enemy embrasure could be attacked
with grenades. The Chasseur tactics were proven during
the Petain Oensive of 1917. Survivors of these French
Chasseur units taught these tactics to US Infantry, which
used them with eectiveness at St. Mihiel and the Argonne.
Team Leader: uses the M203 and works as the desInterbellum

ignated grenadier; Team.
Designated Automatic Rieman: uses the M249 In the inter-war years, United States Marine Corps Caplight machine gun or M27 IAR and serves as sec- tain Evans F. Carlson went to China in 1937 and obond in command for the reteam; Fire.
served units of the Communist Chinese National Revolutionary Army in action against the Japanese army. Carl Assistant Automatic Rieman:
carries extra son and Merritt A. Edson are believed to have developed
ammunition for the team; Assist.
the reteam concept during the United States occupation
of Nicaragua (19121933). At that time the US Marine squad consisted of a Corporal and seven Marines
Other
all armed with a bolt-action M1903 Springeld rie and
an automatic rieman armed with a Browning Automatic
Many other armed forces see the squad as the smallest
Rie. The introduction of the Thompson submachine gun
military unit; some countries' armies have a pair consistand Winchester Model 1912 shotgun was popular with
ing of two soldiers as the smallest military unit. In oththe Marines as a point-defense weapon for countering
ers a reteam is composed of two pairs of soldiers (re
ambush by Nicaraguan guerrillas within the thick vegeand maneuver team) forming a reteam. Chinese militation that could provide cover for a quick overrun of a
tary forces traditionally use a three-man 'cell' (equivalent
patrol. A team of four men armed with these weapons
to reteam) as the smallest military formation.
had proven more eective in terms of repower and maneuverability than the standard nine-man rie squad.
0.19.3
History
Fireteams have their origins in the early 20th century.

From the Napoleonic War until World War I, military
tactics involved central control of large numbers of soldiers in mass formation where small units were given little
initiative.
Carlson later brought these ideas back to the US when the

country entered World War II. Under his command, the
2nd Marine Raider battalion were issued with the semiautomatic M1 Garand rie and were organized in the standard 4-man reteam (although it was called regroup)
concept, 3 regroups to a squad with a squad leader. A
regroup was composed of an M1 Garand rieman, a
54
CONTENTS
BAR gunner and a submachine gunner. After sustaining severe wounds, Carlson was replaced and his battalion later disbanded and reorganized under conventional
Marine doctrine of ten-man squads. Later, Carlson's
reteam concept was re-adopted.
World War II
WWII US Army squads consisted of an A-team (squad
leader and two scouts), B-team (BAR Gunner, assistant
and 3 rie men) and C-team (Bazooka gunner, assistant
and 3 rie men). In an assault the A team and C team
would assault, as the B-team provided suppressive re.
Suppressive re from the BAR would be supplemented by
re from the ries of his team as he reloaded, and could be An example of re and maneuver in actual combat. Here, during
further supplemented by platoon medium machine guns. the Battle of Okinawa, a US Marine on the left provides covering
The US Army Rangers and Special Service Force adopted
an early Fire Team concept when on campaign in Italy and
France. Each Squad sub-unit of 4 to 5 men was heavily armed. Each Fire Team was composed of a 2-man
BAR automatic rieman and assistant, a scout (marksman/grenadier) armed with a M1903 Springeld with a
rie grenade discharger, and a team leader armed with an
M1 carbine or M1 SMG. Their later misuse as conventional infantry negated their special training and ghting
skill and their use as re brigadesagainst larger enemy forces negated their advantages in aggressiveness and
repower.
re for the Marine on the right to break cover and move to a

dierent position.
France
The French Army has the concept of a Binome (pair
). In the regular forces it is the pairing of an experienced
soldier with a recruit or replacement. The new man learns
from the experienced man how to properly perform the
everyday tasks and responsibilities of his assignment.
In the old Colonial Forces (like the Legion Etrangere) it

was a means of imposing order. The pair were responMeanwhile, the Communist Chinese established the sible for each other - if one member broke the rules or
three-man reteam concept as the three-man cell when deserted, the other would be punished for not preventing
they organized a regular army, and its organization it.
seemed to have been disseminated throughout all of
Asia's communist forces, perhaps the most famous of
which are the PAVN/NVA (People's Army of Viet- Sweden
nam/North Vietnamese Army) and the Viet Cong.
According to the Swedish Armed Forces eld manual, a
trained re and maneuver team is as eective as four individual soldiers of same quality. However, the eciency
0.19.4 Fire and maneuver team
of the re and maneuver team has been challenged by
many experts as it has been claimed to be insucient in
Main article: Fire and Movement
A Fire and Maneuver team is the smallest unit above close-quarter situations where many ghting techniques
the individual soldier. It consists of two soldiers with have been designed for larger units.
one soldier acting as senior of the two ghters (decided
amongst the two or by their superior). A reteam in turn
consists of at least two re and maneuver teams and a 0.19.5 See also
squad of two or more reteams.
Infantry
The concept is not widely utilized. The United States and
most Commonwealth armies rely on the concept of re
Military science
teams forming a squad.
Finland
In the Finnish Defence Forces, a squad is formed by three
re and maneuver teams (taistelupari, literally combat
pair) and a squad leader.
0.19.6 References
[1] http://armypubs.army.mil/doctrine/DR_pubs/dr_a/pdf/
fm3_21x8.pdf
[2] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kR8VLkzfbuU
0.20. FLIGHT (MILITARY UNIT)
[3] http://armypubs.army.mil/doctrine/DR_pubs/dr_a/pdf/
fm3_21x8.pdf
[4] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/
army/fm/3-21-11/c01.htm#sectionii1_7
[5] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VVQ6F57w8_U
[6] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zp8-ugcWh-w
0.20 Flight (military unit)
55
air forces, was commanded by a ight lieutenant, a rank
equivalent to captain in armies and other air forces, or a
naval lieutenant. More recently, however, it has become
common for a ight to be led by a squadron leadera formal rank distinct from a squadron commanderequivalent to an army major or naval lieutenant commander.
A ight is usually divided into two sections, each containing two to three aircraft, which share ground sta with
the other section, and are usually commanded by a ight
lieutenant.
The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm, the Army Air Corps,
and other Commonwealth naval and army aviation arms
also have ights.
Ground ights
An air force ground ight is roughly equivalent to an army

platoon and may be commanded by a ight lieutenant,
ying ocer, pilot ocer, or warrant ocer. A ight is
also a basic unit of guided missiles, such as surface-toair missiles. These ground ights may carry out operational roles (such as air trac control, aireld defence or
reghting), engineering roles (such as aircraft or ground
systems maintenance), medical, dental, and legal units, or
A ight of four RNZAF Strikemasters
purely administrative roles, such as nance, infrastructure
A ight is a military unit in an air force, naval air ser- or human resource management.
vice, or army air corps. It usually comprises three to
six aircraft, with their aircrews and ground sta; or, in
the case of a non-ying ground ight, no aircraft and a 0.20.3 American usage
roughly equivalent number of support personnel. In most
usages, multiple ights make up a squadron. Theight The United States Air Force (USAF) has three types of
is also a basic unit for intercontinental ballistic missiles. ights: numbered, alphabetic, and aircraft (which may be
In the Fleet Air Arm a ight could be as few as 1 heli- designated by alpha/numerics or name).
copter operating from a smaller ship. French equivalent A numbered ight is a unit with a unique base, wing,
is escadrille.
group, or Numbered Air Force mission, such as training
or nance, though not large enough to warrant designation
as a squadron. Numbered ights are uncommon, and are
0.20.1 Origins
usually only found in basic training facilities.
The use of the term ightto describe a collection
of aircraft (typically four in the early days of aviation)
dates back to around 1912. Winston Churchill claims
to have invented the term while he was learning to y
with the Royal Navy's embryonic air service. It has also
been suggested that the term was coined by technical subcommittee of the Committee of Imperial Defence which
was examining the British air arrangements around the
same time.* [1]
An alphabetic ight is an operational component of a ying or ground squadron, not an independent unit; alphabetic ights within a squadron normally have identical or
similar functions and are normally designated A, B, C and
so on within the squadron. Flights in the USAF are generally authorized to have between 20 and 100 personnel,
and are normally commanded by a company-grade ocer (lieutenant or captain) and/or a ight chief, usually a
senior noncommissioned ocer with the rank of master
sergeant or senior master sergeant.
In USAF ying squadrons, the term ight also designates

a tactical sub-unit of a squadron consisting of two or three
elements (designated sectionsin US Army and US
Aircraft ights
Naval Aviation), with each element consisting of two or
In the United Kingdom Royal Air Force and the air forces three aircraft. The ight operates under the command of
of the Commonwealth, from where much air force termi- a designated ight leader.
nology emanated, an aircraft ight, in the rst decades of In Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile units of
0.20.2
Commonwealth usage
56
CONTENTS
the U.S. Air Force, a ight is composed of ten unmanned

launch facilities remotely controlled by a manned launch
control center, containing two personnel. Five of these
ights make up one missile squadron. The Air Force has
a total of 45 ICBM missile ights.
(In US Army Aviation the equivalent organizational level
of a ight is called a platoon,while in US Naval Aviation the ightis known as a division.)
Under US military and FAA common usage, for air trafc control and separation purposes, aightof aircraft
is simply two or more aircraft intentionally operating in
close proximity to each other under a designated ight
leaderwithout regard to military organizational hierarchy. For example, the division leader of a ight of seven
USMC KC-130's may check in with the Air Route Trafc Control Center with, Good morning, Atlanta Center, Otis 08, ight of seven KC-130's, Flight Level 230.
Which would simply conrm to the controller that the
large blip on his radar screen, squawking a discrete code,
and indicating FL230, was indeed the gaggle of Battle
Hercs from MCAS Cherry Point that were just handed
o to him/her from Washington Center; he/she doesn't
really care that they are actually a divisionof aerial
refuelers from VMGR-252, but rather that they are a collection, viz, ightof airplanes ying together under a
common leader.
0.20.4
References
[1] Joubert de la Fert, Sir Philip (1955). The Third Service.

London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 14, 15.
Jos de Bustamante y Guerra's otilla is intercepted by four

British frigates
of the command (a Vice Admiral would normally command a squadron). A otilla is often divided into two or
more divisions, each of which might be commanded by
the most senior Commander. A otilla is often, but not
necessarily, a permanent formation.
In modern navies, otillas have tended to become administrative units containing several squadrons.* [1] As warships have grown larger, the term squadron has gradually replaced the term otilla for formations of destroyers,
frigates and submarines in many navies.
A naval otilla has no direct equivalent on land, but is,
perhaps, the rough equivalent in value of a brigade or
regiment.
0.21.1 US Coast Guard
In the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, a Flotilla is

the basic organizational unit and consists of members at a
local level where the majority of the work of the Auxiliary
Australian War Memorial, 2005, RAAF: Struc- is done. A Flotilla is led by an elected Flotilla Commanture
der assisted by an elected Vice Flotilla Commander, who
is in turn assisted by appointed Flotilla Sta Ocers.* [2]
A Coast Guard Auxiliary Division consists of multiple
Flotillas and a District consists of multiple Divisions.
0.21 Flotilla
Auxiliary Districts are organized along Coast Guard District lines and are administered by a Coast Guard ocer
This article is about the naval term. For the 2010 video (usually a Commander or Captain) who is called the Digame, see Flotilla (video game).
rector of the Auxiliary.
A otilla (from Spanish, meaning a small ota (eet)
of ships, and this from French otte), or naval otilla,
is a formation of small warships that may be part of 0.21.2 Russian Navy
a larger eet. A otilla is usually composed of a homogeneous group of the same class of warship, such as In the Russian Navy, the word otilla has tended to be
frigates, destroyers, torpedo boats, submarines, gunboats, used for "brown-water" naval units - those operating not
or minesweepers. Groups of larger warships are usually in the oceans and real seas, but in inland seas or rivers.
called squadrons, but similar units of non-capital ships Among the former are the present-day Caspian Flotilla,
may be called squadrons in some places and times, and the early 20th century Satakundskaya Flotilla, or the Aral
otillas in others.
Flotilla of the 1850s;* [3] among the latter, the Don Mil-
0.20.5
External links
A otilla is usually commanded by a Rear Admiral, a itary Flotilla (which was created several times over more
Commodore or a Captain, depending on the importance than 200 years), the Red Volga Flotilla, which partici-
0.22. GRAND STRATEGY
57
pated in the Kazan Operation during the Russian Civil 0.22 Grand strategy
War, or the Danube Military Flotilla. In the 18th century,
the term also applied to the comparatively small eets op- For grand strategy in wargaming, see Grand strategy
erating on those seas where Russia did not have much wargame.
naval presence yet, e.g. the Okhotsk Flotilla.
0.21.3
Non-military usage
The word otilla has been used at times to refer to a small

eet of vessels, commercial or otherwise.* [4] There is
also such thing as a otilla holiday, in which is a group of
chartered yachts that set sail together on the same route.
0.21.4
See also
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary

Tactical formation
Chesapeake Bay Flotilla of U.S. Navy (War of
1812)
0.21.5
References
Chief Director of Auxiliary (2007-02-15).USCG

G-PCX Web Site - Flotilla Organizational Structure. USCG Auxiliary Oce of the Chief Director
(CG-3PCX). Retrieved 2007-03-15.
[1]military unit.Encyclopdia Britannica.
2010.
Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
16 Oct.
2010
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/
1346160/military-unit>:
"Administratively, several
ships of the same type (e.g., destroyers) are organized into
a squadron. Several squadrons in turn form a otilla,
several of which in turn form a eet. For operations,
however, many navies organize their vessels into task units
(35 ships), task or battle groups (410 ships), task forces
(25 task groups), and eets (several task forces)."
[2] As described at the Flotilla Organization page of the U.S.
Coast Guard.
Grand strategy, also called high strategy, comprises

thepurposeful employment of all instruments of power
available to a security community.* [1] Military historian B. H. Liddell Hart says about grand strategy:
[T]he role of grand strategy higher strategy is to co-ordinate and direct all the resources of a nation, or band of nations, towards
the attainment of the political object of the war
the goal dened by fundamental policy.
Grand strategy should both calculate and
develop the economic resources and manpower of nations in order to sustain the ghting services. Also the moral resources for to
foster the people's willing spirit is often as important as to possess the more concrete forms
of power. Grand strategy, too, should regulate
the distribution of power between the several
services, and between the services and industry. Moreover, ghting power is but one of the
instruments of grand strategy which should
take account of and apply the power of nancial pressure, and, not least of ethical pressure,
to weaken the opponent's will. ...
Furthermore, while the horizons of strategy is bounded by the war, grand strategy looks
beyond the war to the subsequent peace. It
should not only combine the various instruments, but so regulate their use as to avoid
damage to the future state of peace for its
security and prosperity.* [2]
Grand strategy expands on the traditional idea of strategy
in three ways:* [3]
1. expanding strategy beyond military means to include
diplomatic, nancial, economic, informational, etc.
means
[3] Ram Rahul. March of Central Asia. Published 2000.

Indus Publishing. ISBN 81-7387-109-4. p.160. On
Google Books
2. examining internal in addition to external forces

taking into account both the various instruments of
power and the internal policies necessary for their
implementation (conscription, for example)
[4] http://www.ocscsailing.com/vacations/flotillas/index.
php
3. including consideration of periods of peacetime in

addition to wartime
0.21.6
External links
Coast Guard Auxiliary Los Angeles Flotilla

Coast Guard Auxiliary Lake Clarke Flotilla
Issues of grand strategy typically include the choice of

primary versus secondary theaters in war, distribution of
resources among the various services, the general types
of armaments manufacturing to favor, and which international alliances best suit national goals. Grand strategy
has considerable overlap with foreign policy, but grand
58
CONTENTS
strategy focuses primarily on the military implications of

policy. The political leadership of a country typically directs grand strategy with input from the most senior military ocials. The development of a nation's grand strategy may extend across many years or even multiple generations.
Some have extended the concept of grand strategy to describe multi-tiered strategies in general, including strategic thinking at the level of corporations and political parties. In business, a Grand strategy is a general term for
a broad statement of strategic action. A grand strategy
states the means that will be used to achieve long-term objectives. Examples of business grand strategies that can
be customized for a specic rm include: concentration,
market development, product development, innovation,
horizontal integration, divestiture, and liquidation.
0.22.1
of the Roman empire by weakening its frontier defenses and allowing it to be susceptible to outside armies coming in. Also, people
who lived near the Roman frontiers would begin to look to the barbarians for protection after the Roman armies departed. Constantine
abolished this frontier security by removing the
greater part of the soldiery from the frontiers
to cities that needed no auxiliary forces. He
thus deprived of help the people who were harassed by the barbarians and burdened tranquil
cities with the pest of the military, so that several straightway were deserted. Moreover, he
softened the soldiers who treated themselves to
shows and luxuries. Indeed, to speak plainly,
he personally planted the rst seeds of our
present devastated state of aairs Zosimus,
5th-century CE historian
Historical examples
Peloponnesian War
World War II
See also: List of World War II conferences and

One of the earlier writings on grand strategy comes Combined Chiefs of Sta
from Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War,
an account of the Peloponnesian War between the
An example of modern grand strategy is the decision of
Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Delian
the Allies in World War II to concentrate on the defeat
League (led by Athens).
of Germany rst. The decision, a joint agreement made
after the attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) had drawn the US
into the war, was a sensible one in that Germany was the
Roman Empire
most powerful member of the Axis, and directly threatFrom the era of Hadrian, Roman emperors
ened the existence of the United Kingdom and the Soviet
employed a military strategy ofpreclusive seUnion. Conversely, while Japan's conquests garnered
curitythe establishment of a linear barrier of
considerable public attention, they were mostly in coloperimeter defence around the Empire. The Lenial areas deemed less essential by planners and policygions were stationed in great fortresses* [4]
makers. The specics of Allied military strategy in the
Pacic War were therefore shaped by the lesser resources
*
These fortressesexisted along the perimeter of the made available to the theatre commanders. [5]
Empire, often accompanied by actual walls (for example,
Hadrian's Wall). Due to the perceived impenetrability Cold War
of these perimeter defenses, the Emperors kept no central reserve army. The Roman system of roads allowed The US and the UK used a policy of containment as part
for soldiers to move from one frontier to another (for the of their grand strategy during the Cold War.* [6]
purpose of reinforcements during a siege) with relative
ease. These roads also allowed for a logistical advantage
for Rome over her enemies, as supplies could be moved 0.22.2 In the United States
just as easily across the Roman road system as soldiers.
This way, if the legions could not win a battle through mil- In a 1997 piece for International Security entitledComitary combat skill or superior numbers, they could simply peting Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy,Barry R. Posen
outlast the invaders, who, as historian E.A. Thompson and Andrew L. Ross outlined four major grand strategies
wrote, Did not think in terms of millions of bushels of applicable to U.S. foreign policy in the post-Cold War
wheat.
world:* [7]
Emperor Constantine moved the legions
from the frontiers to one consolidated roving
army as a way to save money and to protect
wealthier citizens within the cities. However,
this grand strategy would have costly eects
1. neo-isolationism
2. selective engagement
3. cooperative security
4. primacy

Neo-isolationism
See also: Non-interventionism and Isolationism
Stemming from a defensive realist understanding of international politics, what the authors callneo-isolationism
advocates the United States remove itself from active
participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are
no threats to the American homeland, the United States
does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular
understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe
how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear
weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of
the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons
to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the
Eurasian landmass.* [8] The United States' security and
the absence of threats means that national defense will
seldom justify intervention abroad.* [8] Even further,
its proponents argue that the United States is not responsible for, and cannot aord the costs of, maintaining
world order.* [9] They also believe that the pursuit
of economic well-being is best left to the private sector,
and that the United States should not attempt to spread
its values because doing so increases resentment towards
the U.S. and in turn, decreases its security.* [9] In short,
neo-isolationism advises the United States to preserve its
freedom of action and strategic independence.* [9]
In more practical terms, the authors discuss how the implementation of a so-calledneo-isolationistgrand strategy would involve less focus on the issue of nuclear proliferation, withdrawal from NATO, and major cuts to the
United States military presence abroad. The authors see
a military force structure that prioritizes a secure nuclear
second-strike capability, intelligence, naval and special
operations forces while limiting the forward-deployment
of forces to Europe and Asia.* [8]
Posen and Ross identify such prominent scholars and
political gures as Earl Ravenal, Patrick Buchanan and
Doug Bandow.* [8]
Selective engagement
With similar roots in the realist tradition of international
relations, selective engagement advocates that the United
States should intervene in regions of the world only if
they directly aect its security and prosperity. The focus,
therefore, lies on those powers with signicant industrial
and military potential and the prevention of war amongst
those states. Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the United
States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which
have the greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is a primary source
59
of oil for much of the developed world. In addition to
these more particular concerns, selective engagement also
focuses on preventing nuclear proliferation and any conict that could lead to a great power war, but provides no
clear guidelines for humanitarian interventions.
The authors envision that a strategy of selective engagement would involve a strong nuclear deterrent with a
force structure capable of ghting two regional wars,
each through some combination of ground, air and sea
forces complemented with forces from a regional ally.
They question, however, whether such a policy could garner sustained support from a liberal democracy experienced with a moralistic approach to international relations, whether the United States could successfully differentiate necessary versus unnecessary engagement and
whether a strategy that focuses on Europe, Asia and the
Middle East actually represents a shift from current engagement.
In the piece, Barry Posen classied himself as a selective engagementadvocate, with the caveat that the
United States should not only act to reduce the likelihood
of great power war, but also oppose the rise of a Eurasian
hegemon capable of threatening the United States.* [10]
Robert J. Art argues that selective engagement is the
best strategy for the twenty-rst century because it is, by
denition, selective.* [11] It steers the middle course
between an isolationist, unilateralist course, on the one
hand, and world policeman, highly interventionist role,
on the other.* [11] Therefore, Art, concludes, it avoids
both overly restrictive and overly expansive denitions of
U.S. interests, nding instead a compromise between doing too much and too little militarily. Additionally, selective engagement is the best strategy for achieving both
realist goals preventing WMD terrorism, maintaining
great power peace, and securing the supply of oil; and liberal goalspreserving free trade, spreading democracy,
observing human rights, and minimizing the impact of
climate change.* [11] The realist goals represent vital interests and the liberal goals represent desirable interests.
Desirable interests are not unimportant, Art maintains,
but they are of lesser importance when a trade-o between them and vital interests must be made.* [12] Selective engagement, however, mitigates the eect of the
trade-o precisely because it is a moderate, strategic policy.
Cooperative security
The authors writethe most important distinguishing of
cooperative security is the proposition that peace is eectively indivisible.* [13] Unlike the other three alternatives, cooperative security draws upon liberalism rather
than realism in its approach to international relations.
Stressing the importance of world peace and international
cooperation, the view supposes the growth in democratic
governance and the use of international institutions will
60
hope overcome the security dilemma and deter interstate
conict. They propose that collective action is the most
eective means of preventing potential state and nonstate aggressors from threatening other states. Cooperative security considers nuclear proliferation, regional conicts and humanitarian crises to be major interests of the
United States.
The authors imagine that such a grand strategy would involve stronger support for international institutions and
agreements and the frequent use of force for humanitarian purposes. Were international institutions to ultimately
entail the deployment of a multinational force, the authors
suppose the United States' contribution would emphasize
command, control, communications and intelligence, defense suppression, and precision-guided munitions-what
they considered at the time to be the United States' comparative advantage in aerospace power.* [13] Collective
action problems, the problems of the eective formation of international institutions, the vacillating feelings
of democratic populations, and the limitations of arms
control are all oered by the authors as noted criticisms
of collective security.
Primacy
'Primacy holds that only a preponderance of U.S. power
ensures peace.'* [14] As a result, it advocates that the
United States pursue ultimate hegemony and dominate
the international system economically, politically and
militarily, rejecting any return to bipolarity or multipolarity and preventing the emergence of any peer competitor.
Therefore, its proponents argue that U.S. foreign policy
should focus on maintaining U.S. power and preventing
any other power from becoming a serious challenger to
the United States. With this in mind, some supporters of
this strategy argue that the U.S. should work to contain
China and other competitors rather than engage them. In
regards to humanitarian crises and regional conicts, primacy holds that the U.S. should only intervene when they
directly impact national security, more along the lines of
selective engagement than collective security. It does,
however, advocate for the active prevention of nuclear
proliferation at a level similar to collective security.
Implementation of such a strategy would entail military
forces at similar levels to those during the Cold War,
with emphasis on military modernization and research
and development. They note, however, that the quest
for primacy is likely to prove futile for ve reasons": the
diusion of economic and technological capabilities, interstate balancing against the United States, the danger
that hegemonic leadership will fatally undermine valuable
multilateral institutions, the feasibility of preventive war
and the dangers of imperial overstretch.* [15]
CONTENTS
generates positive economic externalities.* [16]One argument, which I label 'geoeconomic favoritism,' hypothesizes that the military hegemon will attract private capital
because it provides the greatest security and safety to investors. A second argument posits that the benets from
military primacy ow from geopolitical favoritism: that
sovereign states, in return for living under the security
umbrella of the military superpower, voluntarily transfer resources to help subsidize the cost of the economy.
The third argument postulates that states are most likely
to enjoy global public goods under a unipolar distribution
of military power, accelerating global economic growth
and reducing security tensions. These public goods benet the hegemon as much, if not more, than they do
other actors.* [16] Drezner maintains the empirical evidence supporting the third argument is the strongest,
though with some qualiers.Although the precise causal
mechanism remain disputed, hegemonic eras are nevertheless strongly correlated with lower trade barriers and
greater levels of globalization.* [17] However, Drezner
highlights a caveat: The cost of maintaining global public goods catches up to the superpower providing them.
Other countries free-ride o of the hegemon, allowing
them to grow faster. Technologies diuse from the hegemonic power to the rest of the world, facilitating catchup. Chinese analysts have posited that these phenomena,
occurring right now, are allowing China to outgrow the
United States.* [18]
Primacy vs. selective engagement

Barry Posen, director of the Security Studies Program at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, believes the
activist U.S. foreign policy that continues to dene U.S.
strategy in the twenty-rst century is an undisciplined,
expensive, and bloody strategythat has done more harm
than good to U.S. national security.* [19] It makes enemies almost as fast as it slays them, discourages allies
from paying for their own defense, and convinces powerful states to band together and oppose Washington's plans,
further raising the costs of carrying out its foreign policy.
*
[19] The United States was able to aord such adventurism during the 1990s, Posen argues, because American
power projection was completely unchallenged. Over the
last decade, however, American power has been relatively
declining while the Pentagon continues to depend on
continuous infusions of cash simply to retain its current
force structurelevels of spending that the Great Recession and the United States' ballooning debt have rendered
unsustainable.* [19]
Posen proposes the United States abandon its hegemonic

strategy and replace it with one of restraint. This translates into jettisoning the quest of shaping a world that is
satisfactory to U.S. values and instead advances vital naDaniel Drezner, professor of international politics at tional security interests: The U.S. military would go to
Tufts University, outlines three arguments oered by pri- war only when it must. Large troop contingents in unmacy enthusiasts contending that military preeminence precedentedly peaceful regions such as Europe would be

signicantly downsized, incentivizing NATO members
to provide more for their own security. Under such a
scenario, the United States would have more leeway in
using resources to combat the most pressing threats to its
security. A strategy of restraint, therefore, would help
preserve the country's prosperity and security more so
than a hegemonic strategy. To be sure, Posen makes clear
that he is not advocating isolationism. Rather, the United
States should focus on three pressing security challenges:
preventing a powerful rival from upending the global balance of power, ghting terrorists, and limiting nuclear
proliferation.* [19]
John Ikenberry of Princeton University and Stephen
Brooks and William Wohlforth, both of Dartmouth College, push back on Posen's selective engagement thesis,
arguing that American engagement is not as bad as Posen
makes it out to be. Advocates of selective engagement,
they argue, overstate the costs of current U.S. grand strategy and understate the benets. The benets of deep
engagementare legion. U.S. security commitments reduce competition in key regions and act as a check against
potential rivals. They help maintain an open world economy and give Washington leverage in economic negotiations. And they make it easier for the United States to
secure cooperation for combating a wide range of global
threats.* [20]
Ikenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth are not convinced
that the current U.S. grand strategy generates subsequent
counterbalancing. Unlike the prior hegemons, the United
States is geographically isolated and faces no contiguous
great power rivals interested in balancing it. This means
the United States is far less threatening to great powers
that are situated oceans away, the authors claim. Moreover, any competitor would have a hard time matching
U.S. military might. Not only is the United States so
far ahead militarily in both quantitative and qualitative
terms, but its security guarantees also give it the leverage
to prevent allies from giving military technology to potential U.S. rivals. Because the United States dominates
the high-end defense industry, it can trade access to its
defense market for allies' agreement not to transfer key
military technologies to its competitors.* [20]
61
rigidity or an eort to stie discussion about a range of
alternatives to the status quo. Selective engagement is
a strategy that sits in between primacy and isolationism
and, given growing multipolarity and American scal precariousness, should be taken seriously.Selectivity is not
merely an option when it comes to embarking on military interventions. It is imperative for a major power that
wishes to preserve its strategic insolvency. Otherwise,
overextension and national exhaustion become increasing
dangers.* [21] Carpenter thinks that o-loading U.S. security responsibility must be assessed on a case-by-case
basis. Nevertheless, the United States must refrain from
using military might in campaigns that do not directly
deal with U.S. interests.If a sense of moral indignation,
instead of a calculating assessment of the national interest, governs U.S. foreign policy, the United States will
become involved in even more murky conicts in which
few if any tangible American interests are at stake.* [21]
0.22.3 Limits
Strategy is consideredthe essential ingredient for making war either politically eective or morally tenable.
*
[22] Without strategy, power is aloose cannon and war
is mindless.* [22] Because strategy is necessary, however, does not mean that it is possible. Political scientist
Richard K. Betts has detailed some of the critiques raised
by skeptics regarding the feasibility and practicability of
strategy, explaining "[t]o skeptics, eective strategy is often an illusion because what happens in the gap between
policy objectives and war outcomes is too complex and
unpredictable to be manipulated to a specied end.* [23]
Beyond the diculty of organizing resources for eective grand strategy, Betts explores both the retrospective
fallacy of coherence the tendency to see the actions of
states as more coherent and purposeful than they actually
were or to assume particular actions and choices as more
decisive in the outcome of events than they actually were
and the prospective fallacy of control the tendency of
policymakers to believe they can exert far greater inuence over events than they can. Betts highlights 10 of the
skeptics' critiques that throw the predictability of strategy
into question.
Finally, when the United States wields its security leverage, the authors argue, it shapes the overall structure of
the global economy. Washington wins when U.S. allies
favor [the] status quo, and one reason they are inclined 0.22.4
to support the existing system is because they value their
military alliances.* [20]
0.22.5
See also
References
Ted Carpenter, senior fellow at the Cato Institute, believes that the proponents of primacy suer from the Notes
light-switch model,in which only two positions exist: on and o. Many, seemingly most, proponents [1] Gray, Colin: War, Peace and International Relations: An
of U.S. preeminence do not recognize the existence of
Introduction to Strategic History, Abingdon and New York:
options between current policy of promiscuous global inRoutledge 2007, p. 283.
terventionism and isolationism.* [21] Adherence to the
light switch model, Carpenter argues, reects intellectual [2] Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy London: Faber & Faber,
1967. 2nd rev. ed. p.322
62
[3] Murray et al. (1994). The Making of Strategy: Rulers,

States, and War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123.
[4] Ferrill, Arther. The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation
[5] Morton, Louis (1962). United States Army in World War
2: War in the Pacic, Strategy and Command: The First
Two Years. GPO. pp. 376386.
[6] Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). Strategies of Containment.
Oxford University Press.
[7] Posen, Ross, Barry R., Andrew L. (Winter 19961997).
Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy (PDF).
International Security, Vol. 21, No. 3: 553.
[8] Posen, Barry R.; Ross, Andrew L. (Winter 19961997).
Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy(PDF). International Security 21 (3): 1215. doi:10.2307/2539272.
International Security 21 (3): 11. doi:10.2307/2539272.
[11] Art, Robert J. (Winter 19981999). Geopolitics Updated: The Strategy of Selective Engagement. International Security 23 (3): 80. doi:10.2307/2539339. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
[12] Art, Robert (Winter 19981999).Geopolitics Updated:
The Strategy of Selective Engagement. International
Security 23 (3): 95. doi:10.2307/2539339. Retrieved 9
May 2013.
Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy(PDF). International Security 21 (3): 23, 29. doi:10.2307/2539272.
[14] Posen, Ross, Barry R., Andrew L. (Winter 19961997).
[15] Posen, Ross, Barry R., Andrew L.; Competing Visions for
U.S. Grand Strategy (Winter 19961997). International
Security 21 (3): 3243. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[16] Drezner, Daniel W. (Summer 2013). Military Primacy
Doesn't Pay (Nearly As Much As You Think)". International Security 38 (1): 58. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00124.
Retrieved 12 July 2013.
[17] Drezner, Daniel W. (Summer 2013). Military Primacy
Doesn't Pay (Nearly As Much As You Think)". International Security 38 (1): 70. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00124.
[18] Drezner, Daniel W. (Summer 2013).
Military
Primacy Doesn't Pay (Nearly As Much As You
Think)".
International Security 38 (1): 7273.
doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00124.
Retrieved 16 July
2013.
CONTENTS
[19] Posen, Barry (JanuaryFebruary 2013).Pull Back: The

Case for a Less Activist Foreign Policy. Foreign Aairs
92 (1): 116128, 117. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
[20] Brooks, Stephen; Ikenberry, John; Wohlforth, William
(JanuaryFebruary 2013).Lean Forward: In Defense of
American Engagement. Foreign Aairs 92 (1): pp.130
142, 137. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
[21] Carpenter, Ted (MarchApril 2013). Delusions of Indispensability. The National Interest (124): 4755. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
[22] Betts, Richard (2012). American Force: Dangers, Delusions, and Dilemmas in National Security. New York:
Columbia University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-23115122-1.
[23] Betts, Richard K. (Autumn 2000).
Is Strategy
an Illusion. International Security 25 (2): 550.
doi:10.1162/016228800560444. JSTOR 2626752., 5
[24] Betts, Richard (2012). American Force: Dangers, Delusions, and Dilemmas in National Security. New York:
Columbia University Press. pp. 232265. ISBN 9780-231-15122-1.

Robert J. Art, A Grand Strategy for America (Cornell)
Biddle, Stephen. American Grand Strategy After
9/11: An Assessment. 50pp. April 2005
Clausewitz, Carl von. On War
Fuller, J.F.C.. The Generalship of Alexander the
Great
Benjamin Isaac. The Limits of Empire: The Roman
Army in the East Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1992 (2nd rev. ed.)
Kolliopoulos. Grand Strategy of Ancient Sparta. Piotita Publications.
Kondilis, P. Theory of War
Kondilis, P. Power and Decision
Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy. London:Faber, 1967
(2nd rev. ed.)
Luttwak. The Grand strategy of the Roman Empire
Papasotiriou, Harry. Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire
Platias, A. International Relations and Grand Strategy in Thucydides
Posen, Barry P. Restraint: A New Foundation for
U.S. Grand Strategy, Cornell University Press, 2014
ISBN 978-0-8014-5258-1
0.24. JOINT TASK FORCE
63
Wright, Steven. The United States and Persian Gulf als and Commodores) or even Air Vice-Marshals (equivSecurity: The Foundations of the War on Terror, alent to Major Generals and Rear Admirals).
Ithaca Press, 2007 ISBN 978-0-86372-321-6
0.23.1 United States Army

0.22.7
External links
In the United States Army, certain formations (e.g., cur Peter Gowan interview on U.S. Grand Strategy since rent Special Forces and formerly some Air Defense Artillery, Field Artillery, Combat Engineer, Military In1945
telligence, Military Police, and Signal Corps units) are
structured similar to the Air Force Wing/Group structure.
0.23 Group (military aviation unit) These units are generally smaller than brigades, with 2 to
4 battalions and/or detachments attached to it.
A group is a military aviation unit, a component of
military organization and a military formation. Usage of 0.23.2 References
the terms group and wing dier from one country to another, as well as dierent branches of a defence force, in [1] See Ravenstein, Charles A. Organization of the Air Force,
Research Division, Albert F. Simpson Historical Research
some cases. Groups therefore vary considerably in size.
In many air services, a group is made up of two to four
squadrons and is usually commanded by a Lieutenant
Colonel, Commander or an ocer of equivalent rank. In
France and Germany, the precursors of the Arme de l'Air
and Luftwae formed groupes and Gruppen during the
early stages of World War I. The groups of the Arme de
l'Air usually comprise two escadrons, but sometimes only
one, or as many as four. Three German Staeln (similar
to the English language concept of squadrons) make
up a Gruppe.
In the United States Air Force (USAF) a group may consist of two or more squadrons. Prior to 1991, it was
not unusual for a USAF support group to have no subordinate squadrons, but merely be a larger unit than a
squadron. In such cases the group would not have a headquarters.* [1] Similarly, in the British Fleet Air Arm and
some other naval air services, a group usually consists of
three squadrons. In the United States Marine Corps, a
group consists of at least two squadrons. Two or more
groups form a wing.* [2]
Center, Maxwell AFB, AL, 1982, p. 41. For an example

of a support group that had no subordinate units for some
time, see 5th Combat Communications Group
[2] http://usmilitary.about.com/cs/airforce/a/aforganization.
htm
0.24 Joint Task Force

JTFredirects here. For other uses, see JTF (disambiguation).
A Joint Task Force is a "joint" (multi-service) ad hoc
military formation. The task force concept originated
with the United States Navy around the beginning of the
Second World War in the Pacic.
Combinedis the British-American military term for
multi-national formations.
CTF - Commander Task Force, sometimes ComIn the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and the air forces
bined Task Force
of many Commonwealth countries, a group is made up
of several wings, each of which controls two or more
CCTF - Commander Combined Task Force
squadrons, so that a group normally includes six to 10
squadrons, and is thus equivalent to a USAF wing. It is
CJTF - Combined Joint Task Force
also roughly equivalent to the "carrier air groups" formerly deployed by the United States Navy (USN), al- There are two ways in which a U.S. or U.S.-allied task
though the term is no longer used by the USN.
force may be assigned a number. The rst is the originally
RAF stations (air bases) are also controlled by a partic- naval scheme promulgated and governed by the U.S. Milular group, although Expeditionary Air Groups control itary Communications-Electronic Board, chaired by the
expeditionary air wings directly. Groups are directly sub- Joint Sta J6. Task force numbers allocated under this
ordinate to a command (or, historically, to a tactical air scheme form the majority of the listings below.
force).
The second is a by-product of the U.S. Army's proceWhen the RAF was formed, an ocer with the rank
of Group Captain (equivalent to Colonel and (Navy)
Captain) commanded such a unit, although by the time
of World War II, some groups were commanded by Air
Commodores (equivalent to Brigadiers/Brigadier Gener-
dure for forming task-organised forces for combat, differing from strictly doctrinally assigned table of organization and equipment organizations. A battalion, company or brigade commander has very wide latitude in selecting a task force name,* [1] though often the name of
64
CONTENTS
the commander is used (e.g. Task Force Faith). This Task Force 180.
has often resulted in derivations from the originator unit's
numerical designation being used. For example, when a
special operations aviation unit was being formed in the 0.24.4 Others
late 1970s, the original unit drew heavily on personnel
Task Force for Business and Stability Operations from the 158th Aviation. The designation chosen was
U.S. Department of Defense commercial facilitation
Task Force 158, which later grew to become the 160th
organization, not an operational task force.
Special Operations Aviation Regiment. Another example
comes from 2004 in Afghanistan. On 15 April 2004 the
Task Force 6-26 - USSOCOM or JSOC task force
headquarters of the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Division
arrived in Afghanistan and took command of CJTF-180
Task Force 777 - Egyptian special forces hostage
from the 10th Mountain Division. Lieutenant General
rescue unit
David Barno, commanding then decided to rename CJTF
Task Force Iron-Heavy Battalion mechanized Task
180 because the180designation had traditionally been
Force with the foundation being formed by Task
given to Joint task forces led by the Army's XVIII AirForce 1-41 Infantry and other 2nd Armored Diviborne Corps. Barno chose Combined Joint Task Force
sion(FWD)battalions during the 1st Gulf War. It
76 as the new name to evoke Americas history and the
*
served at the Battle of 73 Easting and the Battle of
democratic spirit of 1776. [2] The CFC-A commander
Norfolk.
was hoping that this new designation would highlight the
change in command at the operational level at a time when
Afghanistan appeared to be moving closer to democracy.
0.24.5 See also
No coordination appears to occur between U.S. Army

task forces designated in this way, and the USMCEB
Taskforce (disambiguation)
scheme. This has resulted in simultaneous designations
The Wire (JTF-GTMO)
being used at the same time. For example, Combined
Joint Task Force 76, was in use in Afghanistan in 2004,
but doubling up on the Task Force 76 designation used
for decades by Amphibious Force, United States Seventh 0.24.6 References
Fleet, in north Asia.
[1] See Larry Bond, 'Cauldron' (ction) or Hackworth, 'About

Face'.
0.24.1
Numbered USMCEB joint task

forces
Allied Communications Publication 113: Call Signs Book

for Ships in its Annex B lists allocations of task force
numbers from 1 to approximately 1000, allocated by
the United States Military Communications-Electronic
Board in blocks for use by the United States Department
of Defense and allies.
Norman Polmar notes in Ships and Aircraft of the U.S.
Fleet, 2005, that the task forces under the commanders of
the Atlantic and Pacic Fleet are mainly for contingency
purposes.* [3] They are employed for specic operations
and exercises.
0.24.2
Named joint task forces
Joint Task Force Shining Hope; Joint Task Force Eagle

Vista (1998 Presidential African visit)
0.24.3
United States Army and other nonUSMCEB task forces
These included Combined Joint Task Force 76,

Combined Joint Task Force 82, and Combined Joint
[2] Lieutenant General David W. Barno, interview by Center for Military History, 21 November 2006, 3132, in A
Dierent Kind of War.
[3] Norman Polmar, Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet,'
Naval Institute Press, 2005, p.37
[4] Puryear 1983, pp. 132133.
[5] National Archives and Records Administration, Federal
Record Group 374.5.2, accessed June 2013.
[6] Barton C. Hacker, 'Elements of Controversy'.
[7] Siegel, Adam B. (August 1996). The Intervasion of Haiti,
Professional Paper 539 (PDF). Center for Naval Analyses.
p. 12.
[8] Science Advisor, NAVEUR/NAVAF/Sixth Fleet, Science
and Technology Shortfalls, 26 June 2012, accessed January 2014.
[9] Globalsecurity.org, Patrol and Reconnaissance Force, Pacic
[10] CTF 84 Reserve Unit Established, October 5, 2005
[11] Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet
[12] Mud, Muscle and Miracles, 384.
[13] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2010SET/Deets.pdf
0.25. MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
65
[14] Larry Berman, Zumwalt: The Life and Times of Admiral

Elmo Russell BudZumwalt, Jr., Harper, 2012, 171.
[36] http://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/
Working_Paper_20.pdf, p.16
[15] This story was written by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jessica Vargas, TACAMO, Strategic Communications Wing One Public Aairs. Strategic Communications Wing One Holds Change of Command.
Navy.mil. Retrieved 2014-05-12.
[37] Heightened security results in Joint Task Force, 11 April

2002, defence.gov.au/news/raafnews
[16] Karen Smith et al., 'Is NAVSO Organized and Staed

to do its job?' Center for Naval Analysis, CRM
D0005057.A1, January 2002.
[17] p.370 (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-12.
[18] U.S. Navy online documentation
[19] WA Saunders, Joint Pub 5-00.2 Joint Task Force Planning
Guidance and Procedures: A Critical Review, 1992
[20] GlobalSecurity.org.
Operation Sea Signal,
GlobalSecurity.org website, 2008. Retrieved on October
19, 2008.
[21] http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/
underseawarfaremagazine/issues/archives/issue_44/
royal_navy.html
[22] Roberts, 344.
[23] Independent, Obituary: Admiral Sir Richard Fitch, 22
February 1994. Note that the Independent incorrectly lists
Ashmore's apppoinment at the time.
[24] Henn, Francis. A Business of Some Heat: The United Nations Force in Cyprus Before and During the 1974 Turkish
Invasion. Casemate Publishers, 2004, 295
[25] The Gulf Revisited - Why?, The Naval Review, 1990, and
Cdre Chris Craig account
[26] SUEZ WAR OF 1956. Godfreydykes.info. 1956-1105. Retrieved 2014-05-12.
[38] http://www.maltutty.com/content/Working%
20Documents/16b%20SETE%202011%20WTR%
20Workshop%20Presentation%20after.pdf
[39] http://www.army.gov.au/Our-work/
Community-engagement/Disaster-relief-at-home/
Operation-VIC-FIRE-ASSIST-2009
[40] WWII ammo to be rendered safe on joint mission - Keith Jackson & Friends: PNG ATTITUDE.
Asopa.typepad.com. 2011-10-20. Retrieved 2014-0512.
[41] Navy Wire, 1999.
[42] See Spirtas et al., 'What it takes,' 59-63.
[43] U.S. Army Cold Regions Test Center - History, accessed
June 2013.

Center for Naval Analysis, Joint Task Force Operations since 1983, CRM94-42, July 1994
Timothy M. Bonds, Myron Hura, Thomas-Durrell
Young, 'Enhancing Army Joint Force Headquarters
Capabilities,' Santa Monica, CA; RAND Corporation, 2010 - includes list of joint task forces
Roberts, John. Safeguarding the Nation: The Story
of the Modern Royal Navy. Seaforth Publishing,
2009. Includes mention of a number of RN task
groups.
[27] http://www.operationtelic.co.uk/order-of-battle/
Operation-Telic-3-Order-%20of-Battle.pdf
0.25 Military administration
[28] https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/file/137649/foi_christmas_
island_miscellaneous_docs.pdf
For other uses, see Military administration (disambiguation).
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
Military administration identies both the techniques

and systems used by military departments, agencies,
Andrew Preston (2012-09-15). and Royal Navy Bridge
Card, various editions. Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved and Armed Services involved in the management of the
armed forces. It describes the processes that take place
2014-05-12.
within military organisations outside of combat, particuOperation OCEAN SHIELD (2014-01-14).14 January larly in managing military personnel, their training, and
2014. Mc.nato.int. Retrieved 2014-05-12.
services they are provided with as part of their military
service.
In many ways military administration serves the
Operation VIC FIRE ASSIST, army.gov.au
same role as public administration in the civil society, and
AFTP 9(H), navy.gov.au
is often sited as a source of bureaucracy in the government as a whole. Given the wide area of application,
Australian Operations in Afghanistan, accessed April
military administration is often qualied by specic ar2014.
eas of application within the military, such as logistics
Commodore Timothy William BARRETT CSC RAN, administration, administration of doctrine development
ACT (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-12.
or military reform administration.* [1]
66
0.25.1
CONTENTS
Citations and notes
powder. It highlights the short outbursts of rapid change

followed by periods of relative stability.
[1] p.xxiv, Weber, Eliasson
0.26.1 Historiography of military history

0.25.2
References
Historiography is the study of the history and method of

Weber, Jerey A., Eliasson, Johan, Handbook of the discipline of history or the study of a specialised topic.
In this case, military history with an eye to gaining an acMilitary Administration, CRC Press, 2007
curate assessment of conicts using all available sources.
For this reason military history is periodised, creating
overlaying boundaries of study and analysis in which de0.26 Military history
scriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to
the inclination to minimize mention of failure and exagThis article is about the eld of study. For television gerate success. Military historians use Historiographical
channel of the same name, see Military History (TV analysis in an eort to allow an unbiased, contemporary
channel). For the book by John Keegan, see A History view of records.* [2]
of Warfare.
One military historian, Jeremy Black, in a recent work
Military history is a humanities discipline within the
scope of general historical recording of armed conict
in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and
international relationships.
Professional historians normally focus on military aairs
that had a major impact on the societies involved as well
as the aftermath of conicts, while amateur historians and
hobbyists often take a larger interest in the details of battles, equipment and uniforms in use.
mentioned some problems 21st century military historians face as an inheritance of their predecessors: Eurocentricity, a technological bias, a focus on leading military
powers and dominant military systems, the separation of
land from sea and recently air conicts, the focus on stateto-state conict, a lack of focus on politicaltaskingin
how forces are used.* [3]
If these challenges were not sucient for the military historians, the limits of method are complicated by the lack
of records, either destroyed or never recorded for its value
as a military secret that may prevent some salient facts
from being reported at all; scholars still do not know the
The essential subjects of military history study are
exact nature of Greek re for instance. Despite these limthe causes of war, the social and cultural foundations,
its, wars are some of the most studied and detailed perimilitary doctrine on each side, the logistics, leadership,
ods of human history.
technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these
changed over time. On the other hand, Just War Theory Military historians have often compared organization,
explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better tactical and strategic ideas, leadership, and national suplimit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to estab- port of the militaries of dierent nations.* [4]
lish a doctrine of military ethics.
As an applied eld, military history has been studied at
academies and service schools because the military command seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon
its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a battle,
so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past.
The discipline of military history is dynamic, changing
with development as much of the subject area as the societies and organisations that make use of it.* [1] The dynamic nature of the discipline of military history is largely
related to the rapidity of change the military forces, and
the art and science of managing them, as well as the frenetic pace of technological development that had taken
place during the period known as the Industrial Revolution, and more recently in the nuclear and information
ages.
0.26.2 Early historians

The documentation of military history begins with the
confrontation between Sumer (current Iraq) and Elam
(current Iran) c. 2700 BC near the modern Basra, and includes such enduring records as the Hebrew Bible. Other
prominent records in military history are the Trojan War
in Homer's Iliad (though its historicity has been challenged), The Histories by Herodotus (484 BC 425
BC) who is often called the father of history.* [5]
Next was Thucydides whose impartiality, despite being
an Athenian, allowed him to take advantage of his exile to research the war from dierent perspectives by
carefully examining documents and interviewing eyewitnesses.* [6] An approach centered on the analysis of a
leader was taken by Xenophon (430 BC - 355 BC) in
Anabasis, recording the expedition of Cyrus the Younger
into Anatolia.
An important recent concept is the Revolution in Military

Aairs (RMA) which attempts to explain how warfare
has been shaped by emerging technologies, such as gun- The records of the Roman Julius Caesar (100 BC 44
0.26. MILITARY HISTORY
67
BC) enable a comparative approach for campaigns such For settled agrarian civilizations, the infantry would beas Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Commentarii de Bello come the core of military action. The infantry started as
Civili.
opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders. The Greeks and early Romans used rigid, heavily armed phalanxes. The Macedonians and Hellenistic
0.26.3 Technological evolution
states would adopt phalanx formations with sarissa pikemen. The Romans would later adopt more exible maniples from their neighbors which made them extremely
successful in the eld of battle. The kingdoms of the
Warring States in East Asia also adopted infantry combat,
a transition from chariot warfare from centuries earlier.
Cavalry would become an important tool. In the Sicilian
Expedition, led by Athens in an attempt to subdue
Syracuse, the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became
crucial to the success of the Syracusans. Macedonian
Alexander the Great eectively deployed his cavalry
forces to secure victories. In battles such as the Battle
of Cannae of the Second Punic War, and the Battle of
Carrhae of the Roman-Persian Wars, the importance of
the cavalry would be repeated.
There were also horse archers, who had the ability to
shoot on horseback the Parthians, Scythians, Mongols,
and other various steppe people were especially fearsome
with this tactic. By the 3rd-4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted by the Eastern Roman Empire, Sassanids, Eastern Han Dynasty and Three
Kingdoms, etc.
Relief of Ramses II located in Abu Simbel ghting at the Battle

of Kadesh on a chariot.
Even in the First World War, cavalry was still considered important; the British mobilized 165,000 horses, the
Austrians 600,000, the Germans 715,000, and the Russians more than a million.* [8]
New weapons development can dramatically alter the face The early Indo-Iranians developed the use of chariots in
warfare. The scythed chariot was later invented in India
of war.
and soon adopted by the Persian Empire.
Chariots, pulled by animals like the onager, ox, donkey,
and later the horse, originated around 2000 BC. The char- War elephants were often deployed for ghting in ancient
iot was an eective, fast weapon; while one man con- warfare. They were rst used in India and later adopted
trolled the maneuvering of the chariot, a second bowman by both the Persians and Alexander the Great against one
could shoot arrows at enemy soldiers. These became cru- another. War elephants were also used in the Battle of
cial to the maintenance of several governments, including the Hydaspes River, and by Hannibal in the Second Punic
the New Egyptian Kingdom and the Shang Dynasty and War against the Romans.
the nation states of early to mid Zhou dynasty.
There were also organizational changes, made possible by
Some of the military unit types and technologies which better training and intercommunication. Combined arms
was the concept of using infantry, cavalry, and artillery in
were developed in the ancient world are:
a coordinated way.
Slinger
Hoplite
Auxiliaries
Infantry
Crossbowmen
Chariots
Cavalry
A Greek trireme
68
CONTENTS
Naval warfare was often crucial to military success. Early

navies used sailing ships without cannons; often the goal
was to ram the enemy ships and cause them to sink.
Knight (see also: Chivalry)
There was human oar power, often using slaves, built up

to ramming speed. Galleys were used in the 3rd millennium BC by the Cretans. The Greeks later advanced these
ships.
Pikeman
Crossbow
Samurai
Sipahi
In 1210 BC, the rst recorded naval battle was fought between Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites, and Cyprus,
which was defeated. In the Persian Wars, the navy be- Bows and arrows were often used by combatants. Egypcame of increasing importance.
tians shot arrows from chariots eectively. The crossbow
Triremes were involved in more complicated sea-land was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used a
*
operations. Themistocles helped to build up a stronger lot in the Middle Ages. [11] The English/Welsh longbow
Greek navy, composed of 310 ships, and defeated the from the 12th century also became important in the MidPersians at the Battle of Salamis, ending the Persian in- dle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the Hundred Years' War, even though the English
vasion of Greece.* [9]
were eventually defeated. The Battle of Crcy and the
In the First Punic War, the war between Carthage and Battle of Agincourt are excellent examples of how to deRome started with an advantage to Carthage because of stroy an enemy using a longbow. It dominated battleelds
their naval experience. A Roman eet was built in 261 for over a century.
BC, with the addition of the corvus that allowed Roman
soldiers on board the ships to board the enemy ships. The
bridge would prove eective at the Battle of Mylae, resulting in a Roman victory.
The Vikings, in the 8th century AD, invented a ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow, hence
called the Drakkar. The 12th century AD Song Dynasty
invented ships with watertight bulk head compartments
while the 2nd century BC Han Dynasty invented rudders
and sculled oars for their warships.
Fortications are important in warfare. Early hill-forts A small English Civil War-era cannon
were used to protect inhabitants in the Iron Age. They
were primitive forts surrounded by ditches lled with wa- In the 10th century, the invention of gunpowder led to
many new weapons that were improved over time. Black
ter.* [10]
powder was used in China since the 4th century, but it
Forts were then built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, was not used as a weapon until the 11th century.
and other available materials. Romans used rectangular
fortresses built out of wood and stone. As long as there Until the mid-15th century, guns were held in one hand,
have been fortications, there have been contraptions to while the explosive charge was ignited by the other hand.
break in, dating back to the times of Romans and earlier. Then came the matchlock, which was used widely until
around the 1720s. Leonardo da Vinci made drawings of
Siege warfare is often necessary to capture forts.
the wheel lock which made its own sparks. Eventually,
Some of the military unit types and technologies which the matchlock was replaced by the intlock.
were used in the medieval period are:
Cannons were rst used in Europe in the early 14th century, and played a vital role in the Hundred Years' War.
Artillery
The rst cannons were simply welded metal bars in the
form of a cylinder, and the rst cannonballs were made
Cataphract
of stone. By 1346, at the Battle of Crcy, the cannon had
Condottieri
been used; at the Battle of Agincourt they would be used
again.* [12]
Fyrd
At the beginning of the 16th century, the rst European
Rashidun
re ships were used. Ships were lled with ammable
materials, set on re, and sent to enemy lines. This tac Mobile guard
tic was successfully used by Francis Drake to scatter the
Spanish Armada at the Battle of Gravelines,* [13] and
Mamluk
would later be used by the Chinese, Russians, Greeks,
Janissary
and several other countries in naval battles.

Naval mines were invented in the 17th century, though
they were not used in great numbers until the American
Civil War. They were used heavily in the First and Second World Wars. Air-deployed naval mines were used to
mine the North Vietnamese port of Haiphong during the
Vietnam War. The Iraqi Navy of Saddam Hussein used
naval mines extensively during the Tanker War, as part of
the IranIraq War.
69
In the 1860s there were a series of advancements in ries.
The rst repeating rie was designed in 1860 by a company bought out by Winchester, which made new and improved versions. Springeld ries arrived in the mid-19th
century also. Machine guns arrived in the middle of the
19th century. Automatic ries and light machine guns
rst arrived at the beginning of the 20th century.
Also in the 1860s came the rst boats that would later
be known as torpedo boats. These were rst used in the
American Civil War, but generally were not successful.
Several Confederates used spar torpedoes, which were
bombs on long poles designed to attach to boats. In the
The Turtle was developed by David Bushnell during the later part of the 19th century, the self-propelled torpedo
American Revolution. Robert Fulton then improved the was developed. The HNoMS Rap was the world's rst
torpedo boat.
submarine design by creating the Nautilus.* [14]
At the start of the World Wars, various nations had developed weapons that were a surprise to their adversaries,
leading to a need to learn from this, and alter how to combat them. Flame throwers were rst used in the First
World War. The French were the rst to introduce the
armored car in 1902. Then in 1918, the British produced
the rst armored troop carrier. Many early tanks were
proof of concept but impractical until further development. In World War I, the British and French held a crucial advantage due to their superiority in tanks; the Germans had only a few dozen A7 V tanks, as well as 170
captured tanks. The British and French both had several hundred each. The French tanks included the 13 ton
Schneider-Creusot, with a 75 mm gun, and the British
had the Mark IV and Mark V tanks.* [15]
A 155 mm M198 howitzer ring a shell.
The rst navigable submarine was built in 1624 by
Cornelius Drebbel, it could cruise at a depth of 15 feet
(5 m). However, the rst military submarine was constructed in 1885 by Isaac Peral.
The Howitzer, a type of eld artillery, was developed in

the 17th century to re high trajectory explosive shells at
targets that could not be reached by at trajectory projectiles.
On December 17, 1903, the Wright Brothers performed

the rst controlled, powered, heavier-than-air ight; it
went 39 meters (120 ft). In 1907, the rst helicopter ew,
but it wasn't practical for usage. Aviation became important in World War I, in which several aces gained fame.
In 1911 an aircraft took o from a warship for the rst
time. It was a cruiser. Takeos were soon perfected, but
deck landings on a cruiser were another matter. This led
to the development of an aircraft carrier with a decent
unobstructed ight deck.
Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers.

Bayonet is named after Bayonne, France where it was rst
manufactured in the 16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to ght in hand-to-hand combat. General
Jean Martinet introduced the bayonet to the French army.
They were used a lot in the American Civil War, and con- Chemical warfare exploded into the public consciousness
tinued to be used in modern wars like the Invasion of Iraq. in World War I but may have been used in earlier wars
without as much human attention. The Germans used
Balloons were rst used in warfare at the end of the 18th
gas-lled shells at the Battle of Bolimov on January 3,
century. It was rst introduced in Paris of 1783; the rst
1915. These were not lethal, however. In April 1915,
balloon traveled over 5 miles (8 km). Previously military
the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly
scouts could only see from high points on the ground, or
lethal, and used it to great eect at the Second Battle of
from the mast of a ship. Now they could be high in the
Ypres.* [16]
sky, signalling to troops on the ground. This made it much
World War II gave rise to even more technology. The
more dicult for troop movements to go unobserved.
worth of the aircraft carrier was proved in the battles
At the end of the 18th century, iron-cased artillery rockbetween the United States and Japan like the Battle of
ets were successfully used militarily in India against the
Midway. Radar was independently invented by the Allies
British by Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore during
and Axis powers. It used radio waves to detect objects.
the Anglo-Mysore Wars. Rockets were generally inacMolotov cocktails were invented by General Franco in
curate at that time, though William Hale, in 1844, was
the Spanish Civil War, directing the Nationalists to use
able to develop a better rocket. The new rocket no longer
them against Soviet tanks in the assault on Toledo. The
needed the rocket stick, and had a higher accuracy.
70
CONTENTS
atomic bomb was developed by the Manhattan Project are more likely to survive. Weapons and armor were also
and dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, ulti- mass-produced to a scale that makes them quite plentiful
mately ending World War II.
throughout history, and thus more likely to be found in
During the Cold War, even though ghting did not ac- archaeological digs.
tually occur, the superpowers the United States and
the USSR engaged in a race to develop and increase
the level of technology available for military purposes.
In the space race, both nations attempted to launch human beings into space to the moon. Other technological
advances centered on intelligence (like the spy satellite)
and missiles (ballistic missiles, cruise missiles). Nuclear
submarine, invented in 1955. This meant submarines
no longer had to surface as often, and could run more
quietly. They evolved into becoming underwater missile
platforms. Cruise missiles were invented in Nazi Germany during World War II in the form of the V-1.
Such items were also considered signs of prosperity or

virtue, and thus were likely to placed in tombs and monuments to prominent warriors. And writing, when it existed, was often used for kings to boast of military conquests or victories.
For more details on this topic, see Ancient warfare.
Egypt began growing as an ancient power, but eventually

fell to the Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks,
Romans, Byzantines and Arabs.
Writing, when used by the common man, also tended to

record such events, as major battles and conquests constituted major events that many would have considered
worthy of recording either in an epic such as the Homeric
writings pertaining to the Trojan War, or even personal
writings. Indeed the earliest stories center on warfare, as
war was both a common and dramatic aspect of life; the
witnessing of a major battle involving many thousands of
soldiers would be quite a spectacle, even today, and thus
0.26.4 Periods of military history
considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art,
but also in realistic histories, as well as being a central elThe inuence of technology on military history, and ev- ement in a ctional work.
ident Eurocentrism are nowhere more pronounced than
in the attempt by the military historians to divide their Lastly, as nation states evolved and empires grew, the
subject area into more manageable periods of analysis. increased need for order and eciency lead to an inWhile general discipline of history subdivides history into crease in the number of records and writings. Ocials
Ancient history (Classical antiquity), Middle Ages (Eu- and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed
rope, 4th century 15th century), Early Modern period records and accounts involving any and all things con(Europe, 14th century 18th century), Modern era (Eu- cerning a matter such as warfare that in the words of Sun
rope, 18th century 20th century), and the Post-Modern Tzu wasa matter of vital importance to the state. For
(USA, 1949present), the periodisation below stresses all these reasons, military history comprises a large part
technological change in its emphasis, particularly the cru- of ancient history.
cial dramatic change during the Gunpowder warfare pe- Notable militaries in the ancient world included the
riod.
Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Ancient Greeks (noPeriodisation is not uniformly applied through time and tably the Spartans and Macedonians), Indians (notably
space, arming the claims of Eurocentrism from re- the Magadhas, Gangaridais, Gandharas and Cholas),
gional historians. For example, what might be described Early Imperial Chinese (notably the Qin and Han Dyas prehistoric warfare is still practised in a few parts of nasties), Xiongnu Confederation, Ancient Romans, and
the world. Other eras that are distinct in European his- Carthaginians.
tory, such as the era of medieval warfare, may have little The fertile crescent of Mesopotamia was the center
relevance in East Asia.
of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was
conquered by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians,
Assyrians and Persians. Iranians were the rst nation to
Ancient warfare
introduce cavalry into their army.* [17]
Much of what we know of ancient history is the history

of militaries: their conquests, their movements, and their
technological innovations. There are many reasons for
this. Kingdoms and empires, the central units of control
in the ancient world, could only be maintained through
military force. Due to limited agricultural ability, there
were relatively few areas that could support large communities, so ghting was common.
The earliest recorded battle in India was the Battle of

the Ten Kings. The Indian epics Mahabharata and
Ramayana are centered on conicts and refer to military
formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry.
Chanakya's Arthashastra contains a detailed study on ancient warfare, including topics on espionage and war elephants.
Weapons and armor, designed to be sturdy, tended to last Alexander the Great invaded Northwestern India and delonger than other artifacts, and thus a great deal of surviv- feated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River.
ing artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they The same region was soon re conquered by Chandragupta
71
Maurya after defeating the Macedonians and Seleucids.

He also went on to conquer the Nanda Empire and unify
Northern India. Most of Southern Asia was unied under his grandson Ashoka the Great after the Kalinga War,
though the empire collapsed not long after his reign.
Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami.
The Warring States era philosopher Mozi (Micius) and

his Mohist followers invented various siege weapons and
siegecraft, including the Cloud Ladder (a four-wheeled,
extendable ramp) to scale fortied walls during a siege
of an enemy city. The warring states were rst unied
by Qin Shi Huang after a series of military conquests,
creating the rst empire in China.
vasion of Italy by crossing the Alps. He famously won

the encirclement at the Battle of Cannae. However, after
Scipio invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow
and was defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the role
of Carthage as a power.
The Macedonians, underneath Philip II of Macedon and

Alexander the Great, invaded Persia and won several major victories, establishing Macedonia as a major power.
However, following Alexander's death at an early age, the
In China, the Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty had risen empire quickly fell apart.
and collapsed. This led to a Warring States period, in
Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rewhich several states continued to ght with each other bellion against the Etruscans. During the three Punic
over territory. Philosopher-strategists such as Confucius Wars, the Romans defeated the neighboring power of
and Sun Tzu wrote various manuscripts on ancient war- Carthage. The First Punic War centered on naval warfare (as well as international diplomacy).
fare. The Second Punic War started with Hannibal's in-
His empire was succeeded by the Han Dynasty, which

expanded into Central Asia, Northern China/Manchuria,
Southern China, and present day Korea and Vietnam.
The Han came into conict with settled people such as
the Wiman Joseon, and proto-Vietnamese Nanyue. They
also came into conict with the Xiongnu (Huns), Yuezhi,
and other steppe civilizations.
The Han defeated and drove the Xiongnus west, securing
the city-states along the silk route that continued into the
Parthian Empire. After the decline of central imperial
authority, the Han Dynasty collapsed into an era of civil
war and continuous warfare during the Three Kingdoms
period in the 3rd century AD.
After defeating Carthage the Romans went on to become

the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully campaigning in Greece, (Aemilius Paulus decisive victory
over Macedonia at the Battle of Pydna), in the Middle
East (Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus), in Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar) and defeating several
Germanic tribes (Gaius Marius, Germanicus). While Roman armies suered several major losses, their large population and ability (and will) to replace battleeld casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical
superiority enabled Rome to stay a predominant military
force for several centuries, utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much larger
tribalarmies of their foes (see Battles of Aquae Sextiae,
Vercellae, Tigranocerta, Alesia).
The Achaemenid Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus

the Great after conquering the Median Empire, NeoBabylonian Empire, Lydia and Asia Minor. His successor Cambyses went onto conquer the Egyptian Empire,
much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and
Libya. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after
defeating Darius III. After being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled by the
Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, which were the Roman
Empire's greatest rivals during the Roman-Persian Wars.
In 54 BC the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus

took the oensive against the Parthian Empire in the east.
In a decisive battle at Carrhae Romans were defeated
and the golden Aquilae (legionary battle standards) were
taken as trophies to Ctesiphon. The battle was one of the
worst defeats suered by the Roman Republic in its entire
history.
to protect its inhabitants, but the wall helped to facilitate

the spread of a plague that killed about 30,000 Athenians,
including Pericles. After a disastrous campaign against
Syracuse, the Athenian navy was decisively defeated by
By the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Romans had

expanded to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and to
Mesopotamia in the east and controlled Northern Africa
and Central Europe up to the Black Sea. However, Au-
While successfully dealing with foreign opponents, Rome

experienced numerous civil wars, notably the power
struggles of Roman generals such as Marius and Sulla
In Greece, several city-states rose to power, including during the end of the Republic. Caesar was also notable
Athens and Sparta. The Greeks successfully stopped two for his role in the civil war against the other member of
Persian invasions, the rst at the Battle of Marathon, the Triumvirate (Pompey) and against the Roman Senate.
where the Persians were led by Darius the Great, and the The successors of Caesar Octavian and Mark Anthony,
second at the Battle of Salamis, a naval battle where the also fought a civil war with Caesar's assassins (Senators
Greek ships were deployed by orders of Themistocles and Brutus, Cassius, etc.). Octavian and Mark Anthony eventhe Persians were under Xerxes I, and the land engage- tually fought another civil war between themselves to dement of the Battle of Plataea.
termine the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian emerged victorious and Rome was turned into an empire with a huge
The Peloponnesian War then erupted between the two
Greek powers Athens and Sparta. Athens built a long wall standing army of professional soldiers.
72
CONTENTS
relius marked the end of the Five Good Emperors, and by way of the Balkans were defeated by Byzantium and
Rome quickly fell into decline.
Bulgaria,* [18] the Arabs expanded to the Iberian PeninThe Huns, Goths, and other barbaric groups invaded sula in the west and the Indus Valley in the east. The
Rome, which continued to suer from ination and Abassids then took over the Arab Empire, though the
other internal strifes. Despite the attempts of Diocletian, Umayyads remained in control of Islamic Spain.
Constantine I, and Theodosius I, western Rome collapsed At the Battle of Tours, the Franks under Charles Martel
and was eventually conquered in 476. The Byzantine em- stopped short a Muslim invasion. The Abassids defeated
pire continued to prosper, however.
the Tang Chinese army at the Battle of Talas, but were
later defeated by the Seljuk Turks and the Mongols centuries later, until the Arab Empire eventually came to an
Medieval warfare
end after the Battle of Baghdad in 1258.
In China, the Sui Dynasty had risen and conquered the
For more details on this topic, see Medieval warfare.
Chen
Dynasty of the south. They invaded Vietnam
When stirrups came into use some time during the Dark
(northern Vietnam had been in Chinese control since the
Han Dynasty), ghting the troops of Champa, who had
cavalry mounted on elephants. After decades of economic turmoil and a failed invasion of Korea, the Sui
collapsed and was followed by the Tang Dynasty, who
fought with various Turkic groups, the Tibetans of Lhasa,
the Tanguts, the Khitans, and collapsed due to political fragmentation of powerful regional military governors
(jiedushi). The innovative Song Dynasty followed next,
inventing new weapons of war that employed the use of
Greek Fire and gunpowder (see section below) against
enemies such as the Jurchens.
Battle of Crcy (1346) between the English and French in the

Hundred Years' War.
The Mongols under Genghis Khan, gedei Khan,

Mngke Khan, and Kublai Khan conquered most of
Eurasia. They took over China, Persia, Turkestan, and
Russia. After Kublai Khan took power and created the
Yuan Dynasty, the divisions of the empire ceased to cooperate with each other, and the Mongol Empire was only
nominally united.
In New Zealand, prior to European discovery, oral histories, legends and whakapapa include many stories of battles and wars. Mori warriors were held in high esteem.
One group of Polynesians migrated to the Chatham Islands, where they developed the largely pacist Moriori
culture. Their pacism left the Moriori unable to defend
Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland
world. In China around the 5th century armies moved Mori in the 1830s.
from massed infantry to cavalry based forces, copying
the steppe nomads. The Middle East and North Africa They proceeded to massacre the Moriori and enslave the
*
*
used similar, if often more advanced, technologies than survivors. [19] [20] Warrior culture also developed in
the isolated Hawaiian Islands. During the 1780s and
Europe.
1790s the chiefs and alii were constantly ghting for
In Japan the Medieval warfare period is considered by power. After a series of battles the Hawaiian Islands were
many to have stretched into the 19th century. In Africa united for the rst time under a single ruler who would
along the Sahel and Sudan states like the Kingdom of become known as Kamehameha I.
Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and
weapons well after they had been supplanted in Europe.
Ages militaries were forever changed. This invention
coupled with technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics
and the role of cavalry and artillery.
In the Medieval period, feudalism was rmly implanted, Gunpowder warfare

and there existed many landlords in Europe. Landlords
For more details on this topic, see Gunpowder warfare.
often owned castles to protect their territory.
The Islamic Arab Empire began rapidly expanding
throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Central After gunpowder weapons were rst developed in Song
Asia, initially led by Rashidun Caliphate, and later under Dynasty China (see also Technology of Song Dynasty),
the Umayyads. While their attempts to invade Europe the technology later spread west to the Ottoman Empire,
73
from where it spread to the Safavid Empire of Persia and Modern warfare
the Mughal Empire of India. The arquebus was later
adopted by European armies during the Italian Wars of For more details on this topic, see Modern warfare.
the early 16th century.
This all brought an end to the dominance of armored
cavalry on the battleeld. The simultaneous decline of
the feudal system and the absorption of the medieval
city-states into larger states allowed the creation of professional standing armies to replace the feudal levies and
mercenaries that had been the standard military component of the Middle Ages.
In modern times, war has evolved from an activity steeped

in tradition to a scientic enterprise where success is valued above methods. The notion of total war is the extreme of this trend. Militaries have developed technological advances rivaling the scientic accomplishments of
any other eld of study.
However, it should be noted that modern militaries benet in the development of these technologies under the
funding of the public, the leadership of national governments, and often in cooperation with large civilian
groups, such as the General Dynamics and Lockheed
Martin corporations, in the United States. And as fortoThe period spanning between the 1648 Peace of Westtal war, it may be argued that it is not an exclusive pracphalia and the 1789 French Revolution is also known as
tice of modern militaries, but in the tradition of genocidal
Kabinettskriege (Princes' warfare) as wars were mainly
conict that marks even tribal warfare to this day.
carried out by imperial or monarchics states, decided by
cabinets and limited in scope and in their aims. They also What distinguishes modern military organizations from
involved quickly shifting alliances, and mainly used mer- those previous is not their willingness to prevail in conict by any method, but rather the technological variety
cenaries.
of tools and methods available to modern battleeld comOver the course of the 18th-19th centuries all military
manders, from submarines to satellites, from knives to
arms and services underwent signicant developments
nuclear warheads.
that included a more mobile eld artillery, the transition
from use of battalion infantry drill in close order to open Some of the military unit types and technologies which
order formations and the transfer of emphasis from the were developed in modern times are:
use of bayonets to the rie that replaced the musket, and
virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the uni Ammunition
versal dragoons, or mounted infantry.
Armory
In Africa, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, was the rst
African commander to use gunpowder on the continent
in the EthiopianAdal War, that lasted for fourteen years
(15291543).
Industrial warfare
Conscription
Grenadier
For more details on this topic, see Industrial warfare.
Sappers and Miners
As weaponsparticularly small armsbecame easier to

use, countries began to abandon a complete reliance on
professional soldiers in favor of conscription. Technological advances became increasingly important; while
the armies of the previous period had usually had similar weapons, the industrial age saw encounters such as
the Battle of Sadowa, in which possession of a more advanced technology played a decisive role in the outcome.
Marine
Conscription was employed in industrial warfare to increase the number of military personnel that were available for combat. This was used by Napoleon Bonaparte
in the Napoleonic Wars.
Global Information Grid
Total war was used in industrial warfare, the objective

being to prevent the opposing nation to engage in war.
William Tecumseh Sherman's "March to the Sea" and
Philip Sheridan's burning of the Shenandoah Valley during the American Civil War and the strategic bombing of
enemy cities and industrial factories during World War II
are examples of total warfare.
Aviation
Rieman
Special Forces
Naval Combatant
Active Electronically Scanned Array

Supercomputer
Space warfare
Drone warfare
Cyberwar
74
CONTENTS
World War I was sparked by the assassination of [8] Keegan, p. 73

Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to the mobilization
[9] Moerbeek, Martijn (January 21, 1998). The battle of
of Austria and Serbia. The Germans joined the AustriSalamis, 480 BC Accessed May 16, 2006.
ans to form the Central powers; the French, British, and
Russians formed the Allied powers. Following the Battle [10] The Medieval Castle. Accessed May 16, 2006
of the Marne and the outanking attempt of both nations
in the "Race to the Sea", trench warfare ensued, leaving [11] Selby, Stephen (2001). A Crossbow Mechanism with
Some Unique Features from Shandong, China. Accessed
the war in a great deadlock.
on May 17, 2006.
Major operations by the Germans at the Battle of Verdun and by the British and the French at the Battle of [12] Calvert, J.B. (February 19, 2006) Cannons and Gunpowder. Accessed on May 18, 2006
the Somme were carried out, and new technology like
tanks and chlorine gas were used. Following the USA's [13] Jorge. The InvincibleArmada. Accessed on May 18,
entrance into the war, the Germans and their allies were
2006.
eventually defeated.
World War II ensued after Germany's invasion of Poland,
forcing Britain and France to declare war. Germany
quickly defeated France and Belgium, later aided by Italy.
A hasty evacuation occurred at Dunkirk to save the Allied army from complete destruction. The Germans then
attacked the USSR and marched to take over the Soviet
resources, but were thwarted.
[14] Early Underwater Warfare. California Center for Military History. Accessed on May 18, 2006.
[15] Keegan, p. 410
[16] Keegan, pp. 197199
[17] Suren-Pahlav S., General Surena; The Hero of Carrhae
[18] s:Great Battles of Bulgaria
Meanwhile, Japan, who had already been at war with the

[19] Moriori - The impact of new arrivalsTe Ara EncycloChinese since 1937, had launched a surprise attack on
pedia of New Zealand
Pearl Harbor, leading the United States to join the Allied powers. In Europe, the Allies opened three fronts: in [20] Chatham Islands New Zealand A to Z
the west, after securing Normandy; in the east, aiding the
Soviet Union; and in the south, through Italy. Germany
eventually surrendered, upon which the Allies turned and 0.26.7 Further reading
focused troops to do island hopping. The dropping of the
Archer, I. John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig, and
atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to the surTimothy H. E. Travers. World History of Warfare
render of Japan and the end of the Second World War.
(2nd ed. 2008) 638pp
Worsening relationships between wartime Allies devel Black, Jeremy. Warfare in the Western World,
oped into the Cold War, reaching a climax during the
17751882 (2001) 240 pp.
Cuban Missile Crisis at the same time as the Sino-Indian
War. Hostilities never actually occurred, though the US
Black, Jeremy. Warfare in the Western World,
did kill in the communist states in the Korean War and
18821975 (2002), 256 pp.
the Vietnam War.
Chambers, John Whiteclay, ed. The Oxford Companion to American Military History (2000) online
at OUP
0.26.5
See also
0.26.6
[1] Cowley, Parker, p. xiii

[2] Morillo, Pevkovic, pp. 45
[3] Black, p. ix
[4] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conict from 1500 to 2000
(Random House, 1987)
[5] Herodotus: The father of history, Warburton
[6] Farah, Karls, pp. 137138
[7] Peters, Ralph.
New Glory:
Supremacy, 2005. p. 30
Expanding America's
Cowley, Robert, and Georey Parker, eds. The

Reader's Companion to Military History (2001) excellent coverage by scholars. Complete text online
free of 1996 edition
Dear, I. C. B., and M. R. D. Foot, eds. Oxford Companion to World War II (2005; 2nd ed. 2010) online
at OUP
Doughty, Robert, Ira Gruber, Roy Flint, and Mark
Grimsley. Warfare In The Western World (2 vol
1996), comprehensive textbook
Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the
Present (1977), 1465pp; comprehensive discussion
focused on wars and battles

Echevarria, Antulio J. Imagining Future War: The
West's Technological Revolution and Visions of Wars
to Come, 1880-1914 (2007)
Holmes, Richard, ed. The Oxford Companion to
Military History (2001) 1071pp; online at OUP
Jones, Archer, 2001, The Art of War in the Western World, University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780-252-06966-6
Keegan, John (1999). The First World War (9th
ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 0-37540052-4.
Kohn, George C. Dictionary of Wars (3rd ed. 2006)
704pp; very useful summary across world history
Karsten, Peter. ed., Encyclopedia of War and American Society (3 vols., 2005).
Lynn, John A. Battle: A Cultural History of Combat
and Culture (2003).
Parker, Georey, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated
History of Warfare (2008), good overview
Historiography
Barnett, Correlli, Shelford Bidwell, Brian Bond, and
John Terraine. Old Battles and New Defences: Can
We Learn from Military History? (1986). online
edition
Black, Jeremy. Determinisms and Other Issues,
Journal of Military History, 68 (Oct. 2004), 1217
32. in Project MUSE
Black, Jeremy. Rethinking Military History (2004)
online edition
Bucholz, Arden.Hans Delbruck and Modern Military History.The Historian vol 55#3 (1993) pp
517+.
Chambers II, John Whiteclay. The New Military
History: Myth and Reality, Journal of Military
History, 55 (July 1991), 395406
Charters, David A., Marc Milner, and J. Brent Wilson. eds. Military History and the Military Profession, (1992)
Citino, Robert M.Military Histories Old and New:
A Reintroduction, The American Historical Review
Vol. 112, no. 4 (October 2007), pp. 10701090
online version
Grimsley, Mark. Why Military History Sucks,
Nov. 1996, War Historian.org, online at
75
Karsten, Peter.The 'New' American Military History: A Map of the Territory, Explored and Unexplored, American Quarterly, 36 #3, (1984), 389
418 in JSTOR
Kohn, Richard H. The Social History of the
American Soldier: A Review and Prospectus for
Research, American Historical Review, 86 (June
1981), 55367. in JSTOR
Lee, Wayne E. Mind and MatterCultural Analysis in American Military History: A Look at the
State of the Field, Journal of American History,
93 (March 2007), 111642. Fulltext: History Cooperative and Ebsco
Lynn, John A. Rally Once Again: The Embattled
Future of Academic Military History, Journal of
Military History, 61 (Oct. 1997), 77789.
Mearsheimer, John J. Liddell Hart and the Weight of
History. (1988). 234 pp.
Messenger, Charles, ed. Reader's Guide to Military
History (Routledge, 2001), 948 pp; detailed guide
to the historiography of 500 topics excerpt and text
search
Morillo, Stephen. What is Military History (2006)
Moyar, Mark. The Current State of Military History, The Historical Journal (2007), 50: 225240
online at CJO
Murray, Williamson and Richard Hart Sinnreich,
eds. The Past as Prologue: The Importance of History to the Military Profession (2006).
Noe, Kenneth W., George C. Rable and Carol Reardon. Battle Histories: Reections on Civil War
Military StudiesCivil War History 53#3 2007. pp
229+. online edition
Porch, Douglas. Writing History in the 'End
of History' Era: Reections on Historians and the
GWOTJournal of Military History 2006 70(4):
1065-1079. on war on terror, 2001present
Reardon, Carol. Soldiers and Scholars: The U.S.
Army and the Uses of Military History, 18651920.
U. Press of Kansas 1990. 270 pp. ISBN 978-07006-0466-1.
Reid, Brian Holden. American Military History:
the Need for Comparative Analysis.Journal of
American History 2007 93(4): 11541157.
Reid, Brian Holden, and Joseph G. Dawson III, eds.,
Special Issue: The Vistas of American Military
History, 18001898, American Nineteenth Century History, 7 (June 2006), 139321.
76
CONTENTS
Spector, Ronald H. Teetering on the Brink of

Respectability.Journal of American History 2007
93(4): 11581160. online
Spiller, Roger. Military History and its Fictions.
Journal of Military History 2006 70(4): 10811097.
online
0.26.8
External links
H-WAR, daily discussion group for historians, With

book reviews and debates
International Bibliography of Military History of the
International Commission of Military History
Journal of Chinese Military History
War History Online
Society for Military History
Journal of Military History
Web Sources for Military History
Graduate programs in military history
List of Wars World History Database
A USMC cook prepares corn for an evening meal
Military History Encyclopedia
0.27.1 History
Military History The Canadian War Museum
The word logisticsis derived from the Greek adjective logistikos meaning skilled in calculating. The
rst administrative use of the word was in Roman and
Byzantine times when there was a military administrative ocial with the title Logista. At that time, the word
apparently implied a skill involved in numerical computations.
Military History Tours Keeping the Spirit Alive

Army Non-commissioned Ocer History
0.27 Military logistics

Military logistics is the discipline of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces.
In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with:* [1]
Design, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of
materiel.
Transport of personnel.
Acquisition or construction,
maintenance,
operation, and disposition of facilities.
Acquisition or furnishing of services.
Medical and health service support.
Historically supplies for an army were rst acquired by

foraging or looting, especially in the case of food and
fodder, although if traveling through a desolated region or
staying in one place for too long resources could quickly
be exhausted. A second method was for the army to
bring along what was needed, whether by ships, pack
animals, wagons or carried on the backs of the soldiers
themselves. This allowed the army some measure of selfsuciency, and up through to the 19th century most of
the ammunition a soldier needed for an entire campaign
could be carried on their person. However this method
led to an extensive baggage train which could slow down
the army's advance and the development of faster-ring
weapons soon outpaced an army's ability to supply itself.
Starting with the Industrial Revolution new technological, technical and administrative advances led to a third
method, that of maintaining supplies in a rear area and
transporting them to the front. This led to a logistical
revolutionwhich began in the 20th century and drasti-
0.27. MILITARY LOGISTICS
77
cally improved the capabilities of modern armies while 17th Century

making them highly dependent on this new system.* [2]
16th Century
Starting in the late sixteenth century armies in Europe
greatly increased in size, upwards of 100,000 or more
in some cases. This increase in size came not just in
the number of actual soldiers but also camp followers
- anywhere from half to one and a half the size of the
army itself - and the size of the baggage train - averaging one wagon for every fteen men.* [3] However very
little state support was provided to these massive armies,
the vast majority of which consisted of mercenaries. Beyond being paid for their service by the state, an act which
bankrupted even the Spanish Empire on several occasions, these soldiers and their commanders were forced
to provide everything for themselves. If permanently assigned to a town or city with a working marketplace, or
traveling along a well-established military route, supplies
could be easily bought locally with intendants overseeing the exchanges. In other cases an army traveling in
friendly territory could expect to be followed by sutlers,
although their supply stocks were small and subject to
price gouging, or a commissioner could be sent ahead to a
town to make arraignments, including quartering if necessary.* [4]
When operating in enemy territory an army was forced to
plunder the local countryside for supplies, a historical tradition meant to allow war to be conducted at the enemy's
expense. However with the increase in army sizes this
reliance on plunder became a major problem, as many
decisions regarding where an army could move or ght
were made based not on strategic objectives but whether
a given area was capable of supporting the soldiers' needs.
Sieges in particular were aected by this, both for any
army attempting to lay siege to a location or coming to its
relief. Unless a military commander was able to implement some sort of regular resupply a fortress or town with
a devastated countryside could be eectively immune to
either operation.* [4]
Conversely armies of this time had little need to maintain lines of communication while on the move, except
insofar as it was necessary to recruit more soldiers, and
thus could not be cut o from non-existent supply bases.
Although this theoretically granted armies freedom of
movement the need for plunder prevented any sort of sustained, purposeful advance. Many armies were further restricted to following waterways due to the fact that what
supplies they were forced to carry could be more easily
transported by boat. Artillery in particular was reliant
of this method of travel, since even a modest number of
cannons required hundreds of horses to pull overland and
traveled at half the speed of the rest of the army.* [5]
By the seventeenth century, the French under Secretary

of State for War Michel Le Tellier begun a series of military reforms to address some of these issues. Besides
ensuring that soldiers were more regularly paid and combating the corruption and ineciencies of private contractors, Le Tellier devised formulas to calculate the exact
amount of supplies necessary for a given campaign, created standardized contracts for dealing with commercial
suppliers, and formed a permanent vehicle-park manned
by army specialists whose job was to carry a few days'
worth of supplies while accompanying the army during
campaigns. With these arraignments there was a gradual
increase in the use of magazines which could provide a
more regular ow of supply via convoys. While the concepts of magazines and convoys was not new at this time,
prior to the increase in army sizes there had rarely been
cause to implement them.* [6]
Despite these changes French armies still relied on plunder for a majority of their needs while on the move. Magazines were created for specic campaigns and any surplus was immediately sold for both monetary gain and to
lessen the tax burden. The vehicles used to form convoys
were contracted out from commercial interests or requisitioned from local stockpiles. In addition, given warfare
of this era's focus on fortied towns and an inability to establish front lines or exert a stabilizing control over large
areas, these convoys often needed armies of their own
to provide escort. The primary benets of these reforms
was to supply an army during a siege. This was borne
out in the successful campaign of 1658 when the French
army at no point was forced to end a siege on account of
supplies, including the Siege of Dunkirk.* [6]
Le Tellier's son Louvois would continue his father's reforms after assuming his position. The most important
of these was to guarantee free daily rations for the soldiers, amounting to two pounds of bread or hardtack a
day. These rations were supplemented as circumstances
allowed by a source of protein such as meat or beans; soldiers were still responsible for purchasing these items outof-pocket but they were often available at below-market
prices or even free at the expense of the state. He also
made permanent a system of magazines which were overseen by local governors to ensure they were fully stocked.
Part of these magazines were dedicated to frontier towns
and fortresses to provide several months' worth of supplies in the event of a siege, while the rest were dedicated
to supporting French armies operating in the eld.* [7]
With these reforms French armies enjoyed one of the best
logistical systems in Europe, however there were still severe restrictions on its capabilities. Only a fraction of an
army's supply needs could be met by the magazines, requiring that it continue to use plunder. In particular this
was true for perishable goods or those too bulky to store
and transport such as fodder. The administration and
transportation of supplies remained inadequate and sub-
78
ject to the deprivations of private contractors. The primary aim of this system was still to keep an army supplied
while conducting a siege, a task for which it succeeded,
rather than an increased freedom of movement.* [8]
18th Century
The British were seriously handicapped in the American
Revolutionary War by the need to ship all supplies across
the Atlantic, since the Patriots prevented most local purchases. The British found a solution after the war by
creating the infrastructure and the experience needed
to manage an empire. London reorganized the management of the supply of military food and transport
that was completed in 179394 when the naval Victualling and Transport Boards undertook those responsibilities. It built upon experience the supply of the verylong-distance Falklands garrison (176772) to systematize needed shipments to distant places such as Australia,
Nova Scotia, and Sierra Leone. This new infrastructure
allowed Britain to launch large expeditions to the Continent during the French Revolutionary War and to develop
a global network of colonial garrisons.* [9]
19th Century
Napoleon Until the Napoleonic wars, the military supply was ensured by looting, requisition or private companies. In 1807, Napoleon created the rst Train regiments,
entirely dedicated to the supply and the transport of the
equipment. However Napoleon typically tried to live o
the countryhe called it war feeding war.However
it made his army vulnerable to the scorched earth policy conducted by the Russians in 1812, which burned the
food supplies Napoleon (and the Russian peasants) had
counted upon. The French system failed as well in Spain,
in the Peninsular wars, where the supplies found in the occupied territory were insucient for French needs. The
French scrambled to nd alternative sources in the face
of a guerrilla war that targeted supplies, and the British
blockade of Spanish ports. Logistical operations largely
took center stage in French strategy. The need to supply
a besieged Barcelona made it impossible to control the
province and ended French plans to incorporate Catalonia into Napoleon's Empire.* [10]
CONTENTS
disrupt the enemy's logistics by destroying trackage and
bridges.* [11]
During the Seven Weeks War of 1866, railways enabled
the swift mobilization of the Prussian Army, but the problem of moving supplies from the end of rail lines to units
at the front resulted in nearly 18,000 tons trapped on
trains unable to be unloaded to ground transport.* [12]
The Prussian use of railways during the Franco-Prussian
War is often cited as a prime example of logistic modernizations, but the advantages of maneuver were often
gained by abandoning supply lines that became hopelessly
congested with rear-area trac.* [13]
World War I
During World War I, unrestricted submarine warfare had
a signicant impact on the ability of Britain's allies to keep
shipping lanes open, while the great size of the German
Army proved too much for its railways to support except
while immobilized in trench warfare.* [14]
0.27.2 Modern developments

See also: airlift and sealift
Logistics, occasionally referred to as "combat ser-
Iraqi Army Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) specialist.
vice support", must address highly uncertain conditions.

While perfect forecasts are rarely possible, forecast models can reduce uncertainty about what supplies or services
will be needed, where and when they will be needed, or
the best way to provide them.
The rst theoretical analysis was by the Swiss writer,

Antoine-Henri Jomini, who studied the Napoleonic wars. Ultimately, responsible ocials must make judgments on
In 1838, he devised a theory of war on the trinity of strat- these matters, sometimes using intuition and scientically weighing alternatives as the situation requires and
egy, ground tactics, and logistics.
permits. Their judgments must be based not only upon
professional knowledge of the numerous aspects of logisRailways Railways and steamboats revolutionized lo- tics itself but also upon an understanding of the interplay
gistics by the mid-19th century.
of closely related military considerations such as strategy,
In the American Civil War (186165), both armies used tactics, intelligence, training, personnel, and nance.
railways extensively, for transport of personnel, supplies, However, case studies have shown that more quantitative,
horses and mules and heavy eld pieces. Both tried to statistical analysis are often a signicant improvement on
0.27. MILITARY LOGISTICS
79
the Berlin Airlift.
Military logistics has pioneered a number of techniques
that have since become widely deployed in the commercial world. Operations research grew out of WWII military logistics eorts. Likewise, military logistics borrows
from methods rst introduced to the commercial world.
Mobile workshop of the French Army.
The Kargil Conict in 1999 between India and Pakistan

also referred to as Operation Vijay (Victory in Hindi) is
one of the most recent examples of high altitude warfare in mountainous terrain that posed signicant logistical problems for the combating sides. The Stallion which
forms the bulk of the Indian Army's logistical vehicles
proved its reliability and serviceability with 95% operational availability during the operation.
0.27.3 Loss of Strength Gradient

Main article: Loss of Strength Gradient
Roll-on/roll-o ship USNS Pililaau during Joint Logistics Overthe-Shore (JLOTS) exercise.
Geographic distance is a key factor in military aairs.

The shorter the distance, the greater the ease with which
force can be brought to bear upon an opponent. This is
because it is easier to undertake the supply of logistics to
a force on the ground as well as engage in bombardment.
The importance of distance is demonstrated by the Loss
of Strength Gradient devised by Kenneth Boulding. This
shows the advantage of supply that is forward based.* [16]
0.27.4 U.S. Armed Forces classes of supply
human judgment. One such recent example is the use of

Applied Information Economics by the Oce of Naval
Research and the Marine Corps for forecasting bulk fuel Main article: Classes of supply
requirements for the battleeld.* [15]
logistics support is grouped
In major military conicts, logistics matters are often cru- The United States Military
into 10 classes of supply:* [17]
cial in deciding the overall outcome of wars. For instance, tonnage war - the bulk sinking of cargo ships - was Supply chain management in military logistics often deals
a crucial factor in World War II. The successful Allied with a number of variables in predicting cost, deterioraanti-submarine campaign and the failure of the German tion, consumption, and future demand. The US Military's
Navy to sink enough cargo in the Battle of the Atlantic al- categorical supply classication was developed in such
lowed Britain to stay in the war and establish the second a way that categories of supply with similar consumpfront against the Nazis; by contrast, the successful U.S. tion variables are grouped together for planning purposes.
submarine campaign against Japanese maritime shipping For instance peacetime consumption of ammunition and
across Asian waters eectively crippled its economy and fuel will be considerably less than wartime consumption
its military production capabilities. In a tactical scale, in of these items, whereas other classes of supply such as
the Battle of Ilomantsi, the Soviets had an overwhelming subsistence and clothing have a relatively consistent connumerical superiority in guns and men, but managed to sumption rate regardless of war or peace. Troops will alre only 10,000 shells against the Finnish 36,000 shells, ways require uniform and food. More troops will require
eventually being forced to abandon their heavy equipment equally more uniforms and food.
and ee the battleeld, resulting in a decisive Finnish vic- In the table above, each class of supply has a consumer.
tory. One reason for this was the successful Finnish ha- Some classes of supply have a linear demand relationship
rassment of Soviet supply lines.
- as more troops are added more supply items are needed
More generally, protecting one's own supply lines and attacking those of an enemy is a fundamental military strategy; an example of this as a purely logistical campaign for
the military means of implementing strategic policy was
- as more equipment is used more fuel and ammo is consumed. Other classes of supply must consider a third
variable besides usage and quantity: time. As equipment
ages more and more repair parts are needed over time,
80
CONTENTS
even when usage and quantity stays consistent. By recording and analyzing these trends over time and applying to
future scenarios, the US Military can accurately supply
troops with the items necessary at the precise moment
they are needed.* [18] History has shown that good logistical planning creates a lean and ecient ghting force.
Lack thereof can lead to a clunky, slow, and ill-equipped
force with too much or too little supply.
0.27.5
See also
0.27.6
References
Dupuy, R. Ernest; Trevor N. Dupuy (1970). The

Encyclopedia of Military History (revised ed.). New
York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-011139-9.
Eccles, Henry E. (1959). Logistics in the National
Defense. Harrisburg, Penn.: Stackpole Company.
ISBN 0-313-22716-0.
Kress, Moshe (2002). Operational Logistics: The
Art and Science of Sustaining Military Operations.
Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-70845.
Further reading
Notes
[1] AAP-6 2009, NATO Glossary of Terms and Denitions.
[2] Kress, pp.10-11
[3] Creveld, pp. 5-7
[4] Creveld, p. 8-10
[5] Creveld, pp.10-12
[6] Creveld, pp. 1720
[7] Creveld, pp. 21-22
[8] Creveld, pp.23-26
[9] Morriss, Roger.Colonization, Conquest, and the Supply
of Food and Transport: The Reorganization of Logistics
Management, 17801795,War in History, (July 2007),
14#3 pp 310324,
[10] Morgan, John.War Feeding War? The Impact of Logistics on the Napoleonic Occupation of Catalonia,Journal
of Military History, (Jan 2009), 73#1 pp 83116
[11] Huston, James A. online The Sinews of War: Army Logistics, 17751953 U.S. Army, 1966
[12] Creveld, p.84.
[13] Creveld, pp. 92108.
[14] Creveld, pp. 138141.
[15] Hubbard, Douglas. How to Measure Anything: Finding the
Value of Intangibles in Business, John Wiley & Sons, 2007
Ohl, John Kennedy (1994). Supplying the Troops:

General Somervell and American Logistics in World
War II. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois Press.
ISBN 0-87580-185-4. Biography of Brehon B.
Somervell, head of the United States Army's Army
Service Forces during World War II.
Prebili, Vladimir.Theoretical aspects of military
logisticsDefense and Security Analysis, June 2006,
Vol. 22 Issue 2, pp 159177
Thorpe, George C. (1917). Pure Logistics: The
Science of War Preparation. Kansas City, Mo.:
Franklin Hudson Pub. Co. OCLC 6109722.
Thorpe, George C. (1986) [1917]. George C.
Thorpe's Pure Logistics: The Science of War
Preparation. Stanley L. Falk (introduction).
Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press.
Thorpe, George C. (1997) [1917]. George C.
Thorpe's Pure Logistics: The Science of War
Preparation. Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press.
Thorpe, George C. (2002) [1917]. Pure Logistics: The Science of War Preparation. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacic.
ISBN 0-89875-732-0.
Huston, James A. (1966). The Sinews of War:
Army Logistics, 17751953. United States
Army. 755 pages. online.
[16] Boulding, Kenneth E. Conict and Defence: A General

Theory, Harper & Bros., 1962, p.262
[17] U.S. Army Field Manual 4-0 Combat Service Support
[18] Joint Logistics Analysis Tool)

Media related to Military logistics at Wikimedia
Commons
Bibliography
Creveld, Martin van (1977). Supplying War: Lo- 0.28 Military organization
gistics from Wallenstein to Patton. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21730- Military organization (or military organisation) is the
X.
structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to oer
0.28. MILITARY ORGANIZATION
81
military capability required by the national defense policy. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in
a nation's armed forces, though not considered military.
Armed forces that are not a part of military or paramilitary organizations, such as insurgent forces, often mimic
military organizations, or use ad hoc structures.
Military organization is hierarchical. The use of formalized ranks in a hierarchical structure came into
widespread use with the Roman Army. In modern
times, executive control, management and administration of military organization is typically undertaken by
the government through a government department within
the structure of public administration, often known as
a Ministry of Defense, Department of Defense, or A mixed aircraft and ship formation of military vehicles during
Department of War. These in turn manage Armed Ser- an exercise with USN and JASDF vehicles.
vices that themselves command combat, combat support
and service support formations and units.
Bangladesh: Army, Navy, Air Force, Border
Guards, Coast Guard
0.28.1
Executive control, management and

administration
The usually civilian or partly civilian executive control

over the national military organization is exercised in
democracies by an elected political leader as a member
of the government's Cabinet, usually known as a Minister
of Defense. (In presidential systems, such as the United
States, the president is the commander-in-chief, and the
cabinet-level defense minister is second in command.)
Subordinated to that position are often Secretaries for
specic major operational divisions of the armed forces
as a whole, such as those that provide general support services to the Armed Services, including their dependants.
Then there are the heads of specic departmental agencies responsible for the provision and management of specic skill- and knowledge-based service such as Strategy
advice, Capability Development assessment, or Defense
Science provision of research, and design and development of technologies. Within each departmental agency
will be found administrative branches responsible for further agency business specialization work.
0.28.2
Armed services
In most countries the armed forces are divided into three

or four Armed Services (also called branches): an army,
a navy, and an air force.
Many countries have a variation on the standard model of
three or four basic Armed Services. Some nations also
organize their marines, special forces or strategic missile
forces as independent armed services. A nation's coast
guard may also be an independent military branch of its
military, although in many nations the coast guard is a law
enforcement or civil agency. A number of countries have
no navy, for geographical reasons. Some other variations
include:
Brazil: Army, Navy, Air Force, Police, Fireghters

Canada: Army, Navy, Air Force
Chile: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police
Egypt: Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense
Greece: Army, Navy, Air Force
Germany: Army, Navy, Air Force, Joint Support
Service, Joint Medical Services
Hungary: Army, Air Force
India: Army, Navy, Air Force, Strategic Forces
Command, Coast Guard, Paramilitary Forces
Indonesia: Army, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard,
Police
Italy: Army, Navy, Air Force, Military Police
Norway: Army, Navy, Air Force, Home Guard,
Cyber Defence Force
Pakistan: Army, Navy, Air Force, Rangers, Frontier
Corps, Pakistan Coast Guard, Maritime Security
Agency, Gilgit Scouts, Pakistan National Guard,
Airports Security Force, Frontier Constabulary,
National Command Authority
Poland: Army, Navy, Air Force, Special Forces
People's Republic of China: Army, Navy, Air
Force, Strategic Missile Force
Republic of China: Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine
Corps, Reserve Force, Military Police
Russian Federation: Ground Forces, Navy, Air
Force plus three independent arms of service
(Strategic Missile Troops, Aerospace Defence
Troops and Airborne Troops)
82
CONTENTS
South Africa: Army, Navy, Air Force, Military

Health Service
Thailand: Army, Navy, Air Force
The Netherlands: Army, Navy, Air Force, Military
Police
Turkey: Land Forces, Air Force, Naval Forces,
Gendarmerie, Coast Guard, War Academies
United States: Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines,
Coast Guard
Venezuela: Army, Navy, Air Force, National
Guard, National Militia
In Japan, Lieutenant General J. Northcott CB MVO, Commander In Chief, British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF),
Vietnam: Army, Navy, Air Force, Border Guard, inspects the guard of honour at HQ 9th New Zealand Infantry
Brigade ; April 17th 1946.
Coast Guard
In larger armed forces the culture between the dierent
Armed Services of the armed forces can be quite dierheadquarters which is responsible to the national governent.
ment or the national military headquarters. It is not unMost smaller countries have a single organization that encommon for a nation's services to each consist of their
compasses all armed forces employed by the country in
own command (such as Land Component, Air Compoquestion. Third-world armies tend to consist primarily
nent, Naval Component, and Medical Component in the
of infantry, while rst-world armies tend to have larger
Belgian Army), but this does not preclude the existence
units manning expensive equipment and only a fraction
of commands which are not service-based.
of personnel in infantry units.
A formation is a composite military organization that inIt is worthwhile to make mention of the term joint. In
cludes a mixture of integrated and operationally attached
western militaries, a joint force is dened as a unit or forsub-units, and is usually combat-capable. A formation
mation comprising representation of combat power from
is dened by the US Department of Defense as two
two or more branches of the military.
or more aircraft, ships, or units proceeding together under a commander.* [2] Example of formations include:
divisions, brigades, battalions, wings, etc. Formation may
Internal security forces
also refer to tactical formation, the physical arrangement
*
Gendarmeries including equivalents such as Internal or disposition of troops and weapons. [3] Examples of
Troops, Paramilitary Forces and similar are an internal formation in such usage include: pakfront, panzerkeil,
security service common in most of the world, but un- testudo formation, etc.
common in Anglo-Saxon countries where civil police are A typical unit is a homogeneous military organization (eiemployed to enforce the law, and there are tight restric- ther combat, combat-support or non-combat in capabiltions on how the armed forces may be used to assist.* [1] ity) that includes service personnel predominantly from a
single arm of service, or a branch of service, and its administrative and command functions are self-contained.
0.28.3 Commands, formations, and units Any unit subordinate to another unit is considered its subunit or minor unit. It is not uncommon for unit and forMilitary formationredirects here. For the arrangement mation to be used synonymously, although formation is
or deployment of moving military forces, see Tactical for- rarely used for small units like platoon or company. Other
mation.
examples of units are: divisions, brigades, battalions, etc.
It is common, at least in the European and North Ameri- Dierent armed forces, and even dierent branches of
can militaries, to refer to the building blocks of a military service of the armed forces, may use the same name to
as commands, formations and units.
denote dierent types of organizations. An example is
In a military context, a command is a collection of units
and formations under the control of a single ocer. Although during the Second World War a Command was
also a name given to a battle group in the US Army,
in general it is an administrative and executive strategic
the squadron. In most navies a squadron is a formation of several ships; in most air forces it is a unit;
in the U.S. Army it is a battalion-sized cavalry unit; and
in Commonwealth armies a squadron is a company-sized
sub-unit.
0.28. MILITARY ORGANIZATION
0.28.4
83
Table of organization and equip- During World War II the Red Army used the same basic organizational structure. However, in the beginning
ment
A table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E)

is a document published by the U.S. Army Force Management Support Agency that prescribes the organization,
manning, and equipage of units from divisional size and
down, but also including the headquarters of Corps and
Armies.
many units were greatly underpowered and their size was

actually one level below on the ladder that is usually used
elsewhere; for example, a division in the early-WWII Red
Army would have been about the size of most nations'
regiments or brigades.* [4]* [5] At the top of the ladder,
what other nations would call an army group, the Red
Army called a front. By contrast, during the same period the German Wehrmacht Army Groups, particularly
on the Eastern Front, such as Army Group Centre signicantly exceeded the above numbers, and were more
cognate with the Soviet Strategic Directions.
It also provides information on the mission and capabilities of a unit as well as the unit's current status. A general
TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry)
rather than a specic unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In
this way, all units of the same branch (such as infantry)
follow the same structural guidelines.
Navies
Naval organization at the otilla level and higher is less

commonly abided by, as ships operate in smaller or larger
0.28.5 Modern hierarchy
groups in various situations that may change at a moment's notice. However there is some common terminolArmies
ogy used throughout navies to communicate the general
The following table gives an overview of some of the concept of how many vessels might be in a unit.
terms used to describe army hierarchy in armed forces Navies are generally organized into groups for a speacross the world. Whilst it is recognized that there are cic purpose, usually strategic, and these organizational
dierences between armies of dierent nations, many groupings appear and disappear frequently based on the
are modeled on the British or American models, or both. conditions and demands placed upon a navy. This conHowever, many military units and formations go back in trasts with army organization where units remain static,
history for a long time, and were devised by various mil- with the same men and equipment, over long periods of
itary thinkers throughout European history.
time.
For example, Corps were rst introduced in France in the
18th century, but have become integrated into the organization of most armies around the world. Readers interested in the detailed specics of a national army (including the British and American) should consult the relevant
entry for that country.
The ve-star ranks of Admiral of the Fleet and Fleet Admiral have largely been out of use since the 1990s, with
the exception of ceremonial or honorary appointments.
Currently, all major navies are commanded by an admiral (four-star rank) or vice-admiral (three-star rank) depending on relative size. Smaller naval forces, such as the
RNZN, or those navies that are eectively coastguards,
Rungs may be skipped in this ladder: for example, typically NATO forces skip from battalion to brigade. Like- are commanded by a rear-admiral, commodore or even a
captain.
wise, only large military powers may have organizations at the top levels and dierent armies and countries Aircraft carriers are typically commanded by a captain.
may also use traditional names, creating considerable Submarines and destroyers are typically commanded by
confusion: for example, a British or Canadian armored a captain or commander. Some destroyers, particularly
regiment (battalion) is divided into squadrons (compa- smaller destroyers such as frigates (formerly known as
nies) and troops (platoons), whereas an American cavalry destroyer escorts) are usually commanded by ocers
squadron (battalion) is divided into troops (companies) with the rank of commander. Auxiliary ships, including
corvettes, gunboats, minesweepers, patrol boats, military
and platoons.
Army, army group, region, and theatre are all large for- riverine craft, tenders and torpedo boats are usually commations that vary signicantly between armed forces in manded by lieutenant-commanders or lieutenants. Ususize and hierarchy position. While divisions were the tra- ally, the smaller the vessel, the lower the rank of the ship's
ditional level at which support elements (eld artillery, commander. For example, patrol boats are often comhospital, logistics and maintenance, etc.) were added to manded by ensigns, while frigates are rarely commanded
the unit structure, since World War II, many brigades now by an ocer below the rank of commander.
have such support units, and since the 1980s, regiments
also have been receiving support elements. A regiment
with such support elements is called a regimental combat
team in US military parlance, or a battle group in the UK
and other forces.
Historical navies were far more rigid in structure. Ships

were collected in divisions, which in turn were collected
in numbered squadrons, which comprised a numbered
eet. Permission for a vessel to leave one unit and join
another would have to be approved on paper.
84
CONTENTS
The modern U.S. Navy is primarily based on a number of

standard groupings of vessels, including the carrier strike
group and the Expeditionary Strike Group.* [7]
Additionally, Naval organization continues aboard a single ship. The complement forms three or four departments (such as tactical and engineering), each of which
has a number of divisions, followed by work centers.
to enforce law and order, refers specically only to the

US Army and US Air Force. The US Marines and Navy
are separately regulated, and the Coast Guard has a clear
law enforcement role in its peacetime status. The statecontrolled Army National Guard (technically a branch of
the US Army) is also excluded from the Posse Comitatus
Act. The Insurrection Act specically permits the President to use Federal military force to restore public order in
extreme emergency situations: this Act was implemented
during the Rodney King Riots in Los Angeles.
Air forces
[2] United States Department of Defense, DOD Dictionary
The organizational structures of air forces vary between

nations: some air forces (such as the United States Air
Force and the Royal Air Force) are divided into commands, groups and squadrons; others (such as the Soviet
Air Force) have an Army-style organizational structure.
The modern Royal Canadian Air Force uses Air Division as the formation between wings and the entire air
command. Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of
squadrons.
0.28.6
Task Force
A Task Force is a unit or formation created as a temporary grouping for a specic operational purpose. Aside
from administrative hierarchical forms of organization
that have evolved since the early 17th century in Europe,
ghting forces have been grouped for specic operational
purposes into mission-related organizations such as the
German Kampfgruppe or the U.S. Combat Team (Army)
and Task Force (Navy) during the Second World War,
or the Soviet Operational manoeuvre group during the
Cold War. In the British and Commonwealth armies the
battlegroup became the usual grouping of companies during the Second World War and the Cold War.
[3] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary

[4] " 1939. doklad-nko-8-39.shtml.
Armor.kiev.ua. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
[5] ( 1992 . ). . 2. .
1993 (in Russian). Guides.rusarchives.ru. Retrieved
2013-11-20.
[6] Group. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
[7] US Navy. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
[8] http://www.airpages.ru/ru/vvs1.shtml Red Army VVS
Organisation(rus)
0.29 Military strategy

Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented
by military organizations to pursue desired strategic
goals.* [1] Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy
when it appeared in use during the 18th century,* [2] was
seen in its narrow sense as the art of the general",* [3]
'the art of arrangement' of troops.* [4] Military strategy
deals with the planning and conduct of campaigns, the
movement and disposition of forces, and the deception
of the enemy.
Within NATO, a Joint Task Force (JTF) would be such

a temporary grouping that includes elements from more
than one armed service, a Combined Task Force (CTF)
would be such a temporary grouping that includes elements from more than one nation, and a Combined Joint
Task Force (CJTF) would be such a temporary grouping The father of Western modern strategic study, Carl von
that includes elements of more than one armed service Clausewitz, dened military strategy asthe employment
of battles to gain the end of war.B. H. Liddell Hart's
and more than one nation.
denition put less emphasis on battles, dening strategy
as the art of distributing and applying military means
to fulll the ends of policy.* [5] Hence, both gave the
0.28.7 See also
pre-eminence to political aims over military goals.
Command and control
Sun Tzu is often considered as the father of Eastern
military strategy and has inuenced greatly the Chinese,
Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese historical and modern war tactics.* [6]The Art of War by Sun Tzu grew in
popularity and saw practical use in Western society as
0.28.8 References
well. It continues to inuence many competitive endeav[1] In the United States it is a common misunderstanding that ors in Asia, Europe, and America including culture, poli*
*
*
their armed forces are totally prohibited from doing so tics, [7] [8] and business, [9] as well as modern warfare.
by the Posse Comitatus Act. This Act, which reserves The Eastern military strategy diers from the Western by
to Congress the power to employ Federal military force focusing more on asymmetric warfare and deception.* [6]
Military administration
0.29. MILITARY STRATEGY

Strategy diers from tactics, in that strategy refers to
the employment of all of a nation's military capabilities
through high level and long term planning, development
and procurement to guarantee security or victory. Tactics
is the military science employed to secure objectives dened as part of the military strategy; especially the methods whereby men, equipment, aircraft, ships and weapons
are employed and directed against an enemy.* [10]
0.29.1
Fundamentals
Military strategy is the planning and execution of the

contest between groups of armed adversaries. Strategy,
which is a subdiscipline of warfare and of foreign policy, is a principal tool to secure national interests. It is
larger in perspective than military tactics, which involves
the disposition and maneuver of units on a particular sea
or battleeld,* [11] but less broad than grand strategy otherwise called national strategy, which is the overarching strategy of the largest of organizations such as the
nation state, confederation, or international alliance and
involves using diplomatic, informational, military and
economic resources. Military strategy involves using military resources such as people, equipment, and information against the opponent's resources to gain supremacy
or reduce the opponent's will to ght, developed through
the precepts of military science.* [12]
85
Background
Military strategy in the 19th century was still viewed as
one of a trivium ofartsorsciencesthat govern the
conduct of warfare; the others being tactics, the execution
of plans and maneuvering of forces in battle, and logistics,
the maintenance of an army. The view had prevailed
since the Roman times, and the borderline between strategy and tactics at this time was blurred, and sometimes
categorization of a decision is a matter of almost personal
opinion. Carnot, during the French Revolutionary Wars
thought it simply involved concentration of troops.* [16]
Strategy and tactics are closely related and exist on the
same continuum, modern thinking places the operational
level between them. All deal with distance, time and
force but strategy is large scale, can endure through years,
and is societal while tactics are small scale and involve the
disposition of fewer elements enduring hours to weeks.
Originally strategy was understood to govern the prelude
to a battle while tactics controlled its execution. However, in the world wars of the 20th century, the distinction
between maneuver and battle, strategy and tactics, expanded with the capacity of technology and transit. Tactics that were once the province of a company of cavalry
would be applied to a panzer army.
It is often said that the art of strategies denes the goals

to achieve in a military campaign, while tactics denes
the methods to achieve these goals. Strategic goals could
beWe want to conquer area X, orWe want to stop
country Y's expansion in world trade in commodity Z";
while tactical decisions range from a general statement,
e.g. We're going to do this by a naval invasion of the
NATO's denition of strategy is presenting the man- North of country X,We're going to blockade the ports
ner in which military power should be developed and ap- of country Y, to a more specicC Platoon will attack
plied to achieve national objectives or those of a group while D platoon provides re cover.
of nations.* [13] Strategy may be divided into 'Grand
Strategy', geopolitical in scope and 'military strategy' that In its purest form, strategy dealt solely with military isconverts the geopolitical policy objectives into militarily sues. In earlier societies, a king or political leader was
achievable goals and campaigns. Field Marshal Viscount often the same person as the military leader. If he was
Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Sta and co- not, the distance of communication between the political
chairman of the Anglo-US Combined Chiefs of Sta and the military leader was small. But as the need of a
Committee for most of the Second World War, described professional army grew, the bounds between the politithe art of military strategy as: to derive from the [pol- cians and the military came to be recognized. In many
icy] aim a series of military objectives to be achieved: cases, it was decided that there was a need for a separato assess these objectives as to the military requirements tion.
they create, and the pre-conditions which the achieve- As French statesman Georges Clemenceau said, War
ment of each is likely to necessitate: to measure avail- is too important a business to be left to soldiers.This
able and potential resources against the requirements and gave rise to the concept of the grand strategy which ento chart from this process a coherent pattern of priori- compasses the management of the resources of an entire
ties and a rational course of action.* [14] Field-Marshal nation in the conduct of warfare. In the environment of
Montgomery summed it up thus Strategy is the art of the grand strategy, the military component is largely redistributing and applying military means, such as armed duced to operational strategy -- the planning and control
forces and supplies, to full the ends of policy. Tactics of large military units such as corps and divisions. As the
means the dispositions for, and control of, military forces size and number of the armies grew and the technology
and techniques in actual ghting. Put more shortly: strat- to communicate and control improved, the dierence beegy is the art of the conduct of war, tactics the art of ght- tweenmilitary strategyandgrand strategyshrank.
ing.* [15]
Fundamental to grand strategy is the diplomacy through
86
CONTENTS
which a nation might forge alliances or pressure another

nation into compliance, thereby achieving victory without
resorting to combat. Another element of grand strategy
is the management of the post-war peace.
8. Surprise (Strike the enemy at a time, at a place, or

in a manner for which he is unprepared)
9. Simplicity (Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and
clear, concise orders to ensure thorough understanding)
As Clausewitz stated, a successful military strategy may

be a means to an end, but it is not an end in itself.* [17]
There are numerous examples in history where victory
According to Greene and Armstrong, some strategists ason the battleeld has not translated into long term peace,
sert adhering to the fundamental principles guarantees
security or tranquility.
victory, while others claim war is unpredictable and the
general must be exible in formulating a strategy. Others
argue predictability is low, but could be increased if ex0.29.2 Principles
perts were to perceive the situation from both sides in the
conict.* [20] Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke
expressed strategy as a system of ad hoc expedients
by which a general must take action while under presJutland
sure. These underlying principles of strategy have survived relatively unscathed as the technology of warfare
has developed.
Arausio
Vercellae
Noreia
Aquae Sextiae
Military stratagem in the Maneuver against the Romans by

Cimbri and Teutons circa 100 B.C.
Strategy (and tactics) must constantly evolve in response

to technological advances. A successful strategy from one
era tends to remain in favor long after new developments
in military weaponry and matriel have rendered it obsolete. World War I, and to a great extent the American
Civil War, saw Napoleonic tactics ofoense at all costs
pitted against the defensive power of the trench, machine
gun and barbed wire. As a reaction to her World War I
experience, France entered World War II with a purely
defensive doctrine, epitomized by the impregnable
Maginot Line, but only to be completely circumvented
by the German blitzkrieg in the Fall of France.
Many military strategists have attempted to encapsulate a

successful strategy in a set of principles. Sun Tzu dened 0.29.3
13 principles in his The Art of War while Napoleon listed
115 maxims. American Civil War General Nathan Bedford Forrest had only one: to "[get] there rst with the
most men.* [18] The concepts given as essential in the
United States Army Field Manual of Military Operations
(FM 30) are:* [19]
Development
1. Objective (Direct every military operation towards a

clearly dened, decisive, and attainable objective)
2. Oensive (Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative)
3. Mass (Concentrate combat power at the decisive
place and time)
4. Economy of Force (Allocate minimum essential
Fortications have been of great importance to military strategy.
combat power to secondary eorts)
Shown here is the Chittorgarh Fort in Rajasthan, India.
5. Maneuver (Place the enemy in a disadvantageous

position through the exible application of combat
power)
Antiquity
6. Unity of Command (For every objective, ensure
The principles of military strategy emerged at least as far
unity of eort under one responsible commander)
back as 500 BC in the works of Sun Tzu and Chanakya.
7. Security (Never permit the enemy to acquire an un- The campaigns of Alexander the Great, Chandragupta
expected advantage)
Maurya, Hannibal, Qin Shi Huang, Julius Csar, Zhuge
87
Liang, Khalid ibn al-Walid and, in particular, Cyrus

the Great demonstrate strategic planning and movement.
Mahan describes in the preface to The Inuence of Sea
Power upon History how the Romans used their sea power
to eectively block the sea lines of communication of
Hannibal with Carthage; and so via a maritime strategy
achieved Hannibal's removal from Italy, despite never
beating him there with their legions.
average ve horses per man thus the entire army could

move with astounding rapidity. Moreover since horse
milk and horse blood were the staples of the Mongolian diet, Genghis' horse-herds functioned not just as his
means of movement but as his logistical sustainment. All
other necessities would be foraged and plundered. Khan's
marauders also brought with them mobile shelters, concubines, butchers, and cooks. Through maneuver and continuous assault, Chinese, Persian, Arab and Eastern EuEarly strategies included the strategy of annihilation,
and
exhaustion, attrition warfare, scorched earth action, ropean armies could be stressed until they collapsed,
were then annihilated in encirclement & pursuit.* [25]
blockade, guerrilla campaign, deception and feint. Ingenuity and adeptness were limited only by imagination, Compared to the armies of Genghis, nearly all other
accord, and technology. Strategists continually exploited armies were cumbersome and relatively static. It was not
ever-advancing technology. The word strategyitself until well into the 20th century that any army was able
derives from the Greek "" (strategia), oce to match the speed of deployment of Genghis's armies.
of general, command, generalship,* [21] in turn from When confronted with a fortied city, the Mongol imper"" (strategos), leader or commander of an atives of maneuver and speed required that it be quickly
army, general,* [22] a compound of "" (stratos), subdued. Here the terror engendered by the bloody repuarmy, host+ "" (agos), leader, chief,* [23] in tation of the Mongolians helped to intimidate and subdue.
turn from "" (ago),to lead.* [24] No evidence ex- So too did primitive biological warfare. A trebuchet or
ists of it being used in a modern sense in Ancient Greek, other type of ballista weapon would be used to launch
but we nd it in Byzantine documents from the 6th cen- dead animals and corpses into a besieged city, spreading
tury onwards, and most notably in the work attributed to disease and death, such as the Black Plague. If a particuEmperor Leo VI the Wise of Byzantium.
lar town or city displeased the Mongolian Khan, everyone
Middle Ages
in the city would be killed to set an example for all other

cities. This was early psychological warfare.
To refer to the nine strategic principles outlined above,
the Mongol strategy was directed towards an objective
(that schwerpunkt (main focus) being the morale & mental state of the opposing population) achieved through the
oensive; this oensive was itself characterized by concentration of force, maneuver, surprise, and simplicity.
Early Modern era
Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death
Genghis Khan and the Mongols As a counterpoint to

European developments in the strategic art, the Mongol
Emperor Genghis Khan provides a useful example.
Genghis' successes, and those of his successors, were
based on manoeuvre and terror. The main focus of
Genghis' strategic assault was the psychology of the opposing population. By steady and meticulous implementation of this strategy, Genghis and his descendants were
able to conquer most of Eurasia. The building blocks
of Genghis' army and his strategy were his tribal levies
of mounted archers, scorched earth-style methods, and,
equally essential, the vast horse-herds of Mongolia.
In 1520 Niccol Machiavelli's Dell'arte della guerra (Art

of War) dealt with the relationship between civil and military matters and the formation of grand strategy. In the
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden demonstrated advanced operational strategy that
led to his victories on the soil of the Holy Roman Empire.
It was not until the 18th century that military strategy was
subjected to serious study in Europe. The word was rst
used in German as "Strategie" in a translation of Leo's
work in 1777, shortly thereafter in French as "stratgie"
by Leo's French translator, and was rst attested in English 1810.* [26]
In the Seven Years' War (17561763), Frederick the

Great improvised astrategy of exhaustion(see attrition
warfare) to hold o his opponents and conserve his
Prussian forces. Assailed from all sides by France, Austria, Russia and Sweden, Frederick exploited his central position, which enabled him to move his army along
interior lines and concentrate against one opponent at a
time. Unable to achieve victory, he was able to stave
Each archer had at least one extra horse there was an o defeat until a diplomatic solution emerged. Freder-
88
ick's victoryled to great signicance being placed
on "geometric strategy" which emphasized lines of manoeuvre, awareness of terrain and possession of critical
strong-points.
Napoleonic
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars that followed revolutionized military strategy. The impact of this
period was still to be felt in the American Civil War and
the early phases of World War I.
With the advent of cheap small arms and the rise of the
drafted citizen soldier, armies grew rapidly in size to become massed formations. This necessitated dividing the
army rst into divisions and later into corps. Along with
divisions came divisional artillery; light-weight, mobile
cannon with great range and repower. The rigid formations of pikemen and musketeers ring massed volleys
gave way to light infantry ghting in skirmish lines.
Napoleon I of France took advantage of these developments to pursue a brutally eective strategy of annihilation(see scorched earth) that terrorized the populace
and cared little for the mathematical perfection of the geometric strategy. Napoleon invariably sought to achieve
decision in battle, with the sole aim of utterly destroying
his opponent, usually achieving success through superior
manoeuvre. As ruler and general he dealt with the grand
strategy as well as the operational strategy, making use of
political and economic measures.
CONTENTS
victory.
Napoleon used two primary strategies for the approach
to battle. His Manoeuvre De Derrire(move onto the
rear) was intended to place the French Army across the
enemy's lines of communications. This forced the opponent to either march to battle with Napoleon or attempt
to nd an escape route around the army. By placing his
army into the rear, his opponent's supplies and communications would be cut. This had a negative eect on enemy
morale. Once joined, the battle would be one in which
his opponent could not aord defeat. This also allowed
Napoleon to select multiple battle angles into a battle site.
Initially, the lack of force concentration helped with foraging for food and sought to confuse the enemy as to his
real location and intentions.
The indirectapproach into battle also allowed
Napoleon to disrupt the linear formations used by the allied armies. As the battle progressed, the enemy committed their reserves to stabilize the situation, Napoleon
would suddenly release the anking formation to attack
the enemy. His opponents, being suddenly confronted
with a new threat and with little reserves, had no choice
but to weaken the area closest to the anking formation
and draw up a battle line at a right angle in an attempt to
stop this new threat. Once this had occurred, Napoleon
would mass his reserves at the hinge of that right angle
and launch a heavy attack to break the lines. The rupture
in the enemy lines allowed Napoleon's cavalry to ank
both lines and roll them up leaving his opponent no choice
but to surrender or ee.
The second strategy used by Napoleon I of France when

confronted with two or more enemy armies was the use
of the central position. This allowed Napoleon to drive a
wedge to separate the enemy armies. He would then use
part of his force to mask one army while the larger portion
overwhelmed and defeated the second army quickly. He
would then march on the second army leaving a portion
to pursue the rst army and repeat the operations. This
was designed to achieve the highest concentration of men
into the primary battle while limiting the enemy's ability
to reinforce the critical battle. The central position had
a weakness in that the full power of the pursuit of the
enemy could not be achieved because the second army
Napoleon in Berlin (Meynier). After defeating Prussian forces needed attention.
at Jena, the French Army entered Berlin on 27 October 1806.
So overall the preferred method of attack was the ank
march to cross the enemy's logistics. Napoleon used the
While not the originator of the methods he used, central position strategy during the Battle of Waterloo.
Napoleon very eectively combined the relatively superior maneuver and battle stages into one event. Before
this, General Ocers had considered this approach to
Waterloo
battle as separate events. However, Napoleon used the
maneuver to battle to dictate how and where the battle
would progress. The Battle of Austerlitz was a perfect See also: Waterloo Campaign
example of this maneuver. Napoleon withdrew from a
strong position to draw his opponent forward and tempt Napoleon masked Wellington and massed against the
him into a ank attack, weakening his center. This al- Prussian army, and then after the Battle of Ligny was
lowed the French army to split the allied army and gain won, Napoleon attempted to do the same to the Al-
89
One notable exception to Napoleon's strategy of annihilation and a precursor to trench warfare were the Lines of
Torres Vedras during the Peninsular campaign. French
Armies lived o the land and when they were confronted
by a line of fortications which they could not out ank,
they were unable to continue the advance and were forced
to retreat once they had consumed all the provisions of the
region in front of the lines.
The Peninsular campaign was notable for the development of another method of warfare which went largely
unnoticed at the time, but would become far more common in the 20th century. That was the aid and encouragement the British gave to the Spanish to harass the French
behind their lines which led them to squander most of the
assets of their Iberian army in protecting the army's line
of communications. This was a very cost eective move
for the British, because it cost far less to aid Spanish insurgents than it did to equip and pay regular British army
units to engage the same number of French troops.
Map of the Waterloo campaign
As the British army could be correspondingly smaller it

was able to supply its troops by sea and land without having to live o the land as was the norm at the time. Further, because they did not have to forage they did not antagonise the locals and so did not have to garrison their
lines of communications to the same extent as the French
did. So the strategy of aiding their Spanish civilian allies in their guerrilla or 'small war' beneted the British
in many ways, not all of which were immediately obvious.
Clausewitz and Jomini
Clausewitz's On War has become the respected reference
for strategy, dealing with political, as well as military,
leadership. His most famous assertion being:
19th century musketeers from Wellington at Waterloo by Robert

Alexander Hillingford, 18 June 1815
War is not merely a political act, but also a

real political instrument, a continuation of policy carried out by other means.
lied/British army located just to the south of Waterloo.

His subordinate was unable to mask the defeated Prussian army, who reinforced the Waterloo battle in time to For Clausewitz, war was rst and foremost a political act,
and thus the purpose of all strategy was to achieve the
defeat Napoleon and end his domination of Europe.
political goal that the state was seeking to accomplish.
It can be said that the Prussian Army under Blcher used As such, Clausewitz famously argued that war was the
the maneuver de derrireagainst Napoleon who was continuation of politics by other means, and as such,
suddenly placed in a position of reacting to a new enemy argued that the amount of force used by the state would
threat.
and should be proportional to whatever the political aim
Napoleon's practical strategic triumphs, repeatedly lead- that the state was seeking to achieve via war. Clausewitz
ing smaller forces to defeat larger ones, inspired a whole further dismissed geometryas an insignicant factor
new eld of study into military strategy. In particular, in strategy, believing instead that ideally all wars should
his opponents were keen to develop a body of knowledge follow the Napoleonic concept of victory through a deciin this area to allow them to counteract a masterful indi- sive battle of annihilation and destruction of the opposing
vidual with a highly competent group of ocers, a Gen- force, at any cost. However, he also recognized that his
eral Sta. The two most signicant students of his work ideal of how war should be fought was not always practiwere Carl von Clausewitz, a Prussian with a background cal in reality and that limited warfare could inuence polin philosophy, and Antoine-Henri Jomini, who had been icy by wearing down the opposition through a "strategy
one of Napoleon's sta ocers.
of attrition".
90
CONTENTS
In contrast to Clausewitz, Antoine-Henri Jomini

dealt mainly with operational strategy, planning and
intelligence, the conduct of the campaign, and generalshiprather than statesmanship. He proposed
that victory could be achieved by occupying the enemy's
territory rather than destroying his army.
noeuvre, Moltke also exploited the telegraph for control

of large armies. He recognised the need to delegate control to subordinate commanders and to issue directives
rather than specic orders. Moltke is most remembered
as a strategist for his belief in the need for exibility and
that no plan, however well prepared, can be guaranteed
As such, geometric considerations were prominent in his to survive beyond the rst encounter with the enemy.
theory of strategy. Jomini's two basic principles of strat- Field Marshal Schlieen succeeded Moltke and directed
egy were to concentrate against fractions of the enemy German planning in the lead up to World War I. He adforce at a time and to strike at the most decisive objec- vocated the strategy of annihilationbut was faced by
tive. Clausewitz and Jomini are required reading for to- a war on two fronts against numerically superior opposition. The strategy he formulated was the Schlieen Plan,
day's military professional ocer.* [27]
defending in the east while concentrating for a decisive
victory in the west, after which the Germans would go
on to the oensive in the east. Inuenced by Hannibal's
Industrial age
success at the Battle of Cannae, Schlieen planned for a
single great battle of encirclement, thereby annihilating
The evolution of military strategy continued in the
his enemy.
American Civil War (186165). The practice of strategy
was advanced by generals such as Robert E. Lee, Ulysses Another German strategist of the period was Hans DelS. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman, all of whom brck who expanded on Clausewitz's concept oflimited
had been inuenced by the feats of Napoleon (Thomas warfareto produce a theory on thestrategy of exhausStonewallJackson was said to have carried a book of tion. His theory deed popular military thinking of the
time, which was strongly in favour of victory in battle,
Napoleon's maxims with him.)
yet World War I would soon demonstrate the aws of a
However, the adherence to the Napoleonic principles in
mindless strategy of annihilation.
the face of technological advances such as the long-range
infantry breechloader ries and minie ball guns generally At a time when industrialisation was rapidly changing
led to disastrous consequences for both the Union and naval technology, one American strategist, Alfred Thayer
Confederate forces and populace. The time and space Mahan, almost single-handedly brought the eld of naval
in which war was waged changed as well. Railroads en- strategy up to date. Inuenced by Jomini's principles of
abled swift movement of large forces but the manoeu- strategy, he saw that in the coming wars, where economic
vring was constrained to narrow, vulnerable corridors. strategy could be as important as military strategy, conSteam power and ironclads changed transport and com- trol of the sea granted the power to control the trade and
bat at sea. Newly invented telegraph enabled more rapid resources needed to wage war. Mahan pushed the concommunication between armies and their headquarters cept of the big navyand an expansionist view where
capitals. Combat was still usually waged by opposing di- defence was achieved by controlling the sea approaches
visions with skirmish lines on rural battleelds, violent rather than fortifying the coast. His theories contributed
naval engagements by cannon-armed sailing or steam- to the naval arms race between 1898 and 1914.
powered vessels, and assault on military forces defending
a town.
There was still room for triumphs for the strategy of ma- World War I
noeuvre such as Sherman's March to the Sea in 1864,
but these depended upon an enemy's unwillingness to entrench. Towards the end of the war, especially in defense of static targets as in the battles of Cold Harbor and
Vicksburg, trench networks foreshadowed World War I.
Many of the lessons of the American Civil War were forgotten, when in wars like the Austro-Prussian War or the
Franco-Prussian War, manoeuvre won the day.
In the period preceding World War I, two of the most inuential strategists were the Prussian generals, Helmuth
von Moltke and Alfred von Schlieen. Under Moltke
the Prussian army achieved victory in the Austro-Prussian
War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (187071), the
latter campaign being widely regarded as a classic example of the conception and execution of military strategy.
In addition to exploiting railroads and highways for ma-
At the start of World War I strategy was dominated by

the oensive thinking that had been in vogue since 1870,
despite the more recent experiences of the Second Boer
War (18991902) and Russo-Japanese War (190405),
where the machine gun demonstrated its defensive capabilities. By the end of 1914, the Western Front was
a stalemate and all ability to maneuver strategically was
lost. The combatants resorted to a "strategy of attrition".
The German battle at Verdun, the British on the Somme
and at Passchendaele were among the rst wide-scale battles intended to wear down the enemy. Attrition was timeconsuming so the duration of World War I battles often
stretched to weeks and months. The problem with attrition was that the use of fortied defenses in depth generally required a ratio of ten attackers to one defender,
or a level of artillery support which was simply not fea-

sible until late 1917, for any reasonable chance of victory. The ability of the defender to move troops using
interior lines prevented the possibility of fully exploiting
any breakthrough with the level of technology then attainable.
Perhaps the most controversial aspect of strategy in
World War I was the dierence among the British between the Westernviewpoint (held by Field Marshal
Haig) and the Eastern"; the former being that all eort
should be directed against the German Army, the latter
that more useful work could be done by attacking Germany's allies. The termKnocking away the propswas
used, perhaps as an unfortunate consequence of the fact
that all of Germany's allies lay south of (i.e. 'beneath')
her on the map. Apologists and defenders of the Western viewpoint make the valid point that Germany's allies
were more than once rescued from disaster or rendered
capable of holding their own or making substantial gains
by the provision of German troops, arms or military advisers, whereas those allies did not at any time provide a
similar function for Germany. That is, it was Germany
which was the prop, and her allies (particularly Bulgaria
and Austria-Hungary) did not suer signicant reverses
until Germany's ability to come to their aid was grossly
impaired.
On other fronts, there was still room for the use of strategy of maneuver. The Germans executed a perfect battle
of annihilation against the Russians at the Battle of Tannenberg (1914). In 1915 Britain and France launched
the well-intentioned but poorly conceived and ultimately
fruitless Dardanelles Campaign, combining naval power
and an amphibious landing, in an eort to aid their Russian ally and knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war.
The Palestine campaign was dominated by cavalry, which
ourished in the local terrain, and the British achieved
two breakthrough victories at Gaza (1917) and Megiddo
(1918). Colonel T. E. Lawrence and other British ocers led Arab irregulars on a guerrilla campaign against
the Ottomans, using strategy and tactics developed during
the Boer Wars.
World War I saw armies on a scale never before experienced. The British, who had always relied on a strong
navy and a small regular army, were forced to undertake
a rapid expansion of the army. This outpaced the rate of
training of generals and sta ocers able to handle such
a mammoth force, and overwhelmed the ability of British
industry to equip it with the necessary weapons and adequate high-quality munitions until late in the war. Technological advances also had a huge inuence on strategy: aerial reconnaissance, artillery techniques, poison
gas, the automobile and tank (though the latter was, even
at the end of the war, still in its infancy), telephone and
radio telegraphy.
91
ers on the other. Society and economy were mobilized
for total war. Attacks on the enemy's economy included
Britain's use of a naval blockade and Germany employing
submarine warfare against merchant shipping.
Unity of command became a question when the various
nation states began coordinating assaults and defenses.
Under the pressure of horrendously destructive German
attacks beginning on March 21, 1918, the Entente eventually settled under Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch. The
Germans generally led the Central Powers, though German authority diminished and lines of command became
confused at the end of the war.
World War I strategy was dominated by theSpirit of the
Oensivewhere generals resorted almost to mysticism
in terms of a soldier's personalattitudein order to break
the stalemate, this led to nothing but bloody slaughter as
troops in close ranks charged machineguns. Each side
developed an alternate thesis. The British under Winston
Churchill developed tank warfare with which they eventually won the war. The Germans developed a doctrine of autonomythe forerunner of both blitzkrieg and
modern infantry tactics using groups of Stormtroopers
who would advance in small mutually covering groups
from cover to cover with autonomyto exploit any
weakness they discovered in enemy defenses. Almost
all the blitzkrieg commanders of World War II, particularly Erwin Rommel were stormtroopers in World War
I. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Germany launched
and almost succeeded in a nal oensive, however the
new tactics of autonomy revealed a weakness in terms of
overall coordination and direction. The March oensive,
intended to drive a wedge between the French and British
armies, turn on the latter and destroy it, lost direction and
became driven by its territorial gains, its original purpose
neglected.
World War I ended when the ability of the German army
to ght became so diminished that Germany asked for
peace conditions. The German military, exhausted by
the eorts of the March oensives and dispirited by their
failure, was rst seriously defeated during the battle of
Amiens (811 August 1918) and the German homefront
entered general revolt over a lack of food and destruction
of the economy. Victory for the Entente was almost assured by that point, and the fact of Germany's military impotence was driven home in the following hundred days.
In this time, the Entente reversed the gains the Germans
had made in the rst part of the year, and the British Army
(spearheaded by the Canadians and Australians) nally
broke the Hindenburg defensive system.
Though his methods are questioned, Britain's Field Marshal Haig was ultimately proved correct in his grand
strategic vision: We cannot hope to win until we have
defeated the German Army.By the end of the war, the
More so than in previous wars, military strategy in World best German troops were dead and the remainder were
War I was directed by the grand strategy of a coalition of under continuous pressure on all parts of the Western
nations; the Entente on one side and the Central Pow- Front, a consequence in part of an almost endless supply
92
of fresh American reinforcements (which the Germans
were unable to match) and in part of industry at last supplying the weakened Entente armies with the repower to
replace the men they lacked (whilst Germany wanted for
all sorts of materials thanks to the naval blockade). Interior lines thus became meaningless as Germany had nothing more to oer its allies. The props eventually fell, but
only because they were themselves no longer supported.
The role of the tank in World War I strategy is often
poorly understood. Its supporters saw it as the weapon
of victory, and many observers since have accused the
high commands (especially the British) of shortsightedness in this matter, particularly in view of what tanks have
achieved since. Nevertheless, the World War I tank's limitations, imposed by the limits of contemporary engineering technology, have to be borne in mind. They were slow
(men could run, and frequently walk, faster); vulnerable
(to artillery) due to their size, clumsiness and inability to
carry armour against anything but rie and machine gun
ammunition; extremely uncomfortable (conditions inside
them often incapacitating crews with engine fumes and
heat, and driving some mad with noise); and often despicably unreliable (frequently failing to make it to their
targets due to engine or track failures). This was the factor behind the seemingly mindless retention of large bodies of cavalry, which even in 1918, with armies incompletely mechanised, were still the only armed force capable of moving signicantly faster than an infantryman
on foot. It was not until the relevant technology (in engineering and communications) matured between the wars
that the tank and the airplane could be forged into the
co-ordinated force needed to truly restore manoeuvre to
warfare.
Inter war
In the years following World War I, two of the technologies that had been introduced during that conict,
the aircraft and the tank, became the subject of strategic
study.
The leading theorist of air power was Italian general
Giulio Douhet who believed that future wars would be
won or lost in the air. The air force would carry the offensive and the role of the ground forces would be defensive only. Douhet's doctrine of strategic bombing meant
striking at the enemy's heartlandhis cities, industry and
communications. Air power would thereby reduce his
willingness and capacity to ght. At this time the idea
of the aircraft carrier and its capabilities also started to
change thinking in those countries with large eets, but
no-where as much as in Japan. The UK and USA seem
to have seen the carrier as a defensive weapon and their
designs mirrored this, the Japanese Imperial navy seem
to have developed a new oensive strategy based around
the power projection these made possible.
CONTENTS
tank battle at Cambrai, and his contemporary, B. H.
Liddell Hart, were amongst the most prominent advocates of mechanization and motorization of the army in
Britain. In Germany, study groups were set up by Hans
von Seeckt, commander of the Reichwehr Truppenamt,
for 57 areas of strategy and tactics to learn from World
War I and to adapt strategy to avoid the stalemate and
then defeat they had suered. All seem to have seen the
strategic shock value of mobility and the new possibilities
made possible by motorised forces. Both saw that the
armoured ghting vehicle demonstrated repower, mobility and protection. The Germans seem to have seen
more clearly the need to make all branches of the Army as
mobile as possible to maximise the results of this strategy.
It would negate the static defences of the trench and machine gun and restore the strategic principles of manoeuvre and oense. Nevertheless, it was the British Army
which was the only one truly mechanised at the beginning of the Second World War, the Germans still relying
on horse traction for a portion of their artillery.
The innovative German Major (later General) Heinz
Guderian developed the motorised part of this strategy
as the head of one of the Truppenamt groups and may
have incorporated Fuller's and Liddell Hart's ideas to amplify the groundbreaking Blitzkrieg eect that was seen
used by Germany against Poland in 1939 and later against
France in 1940. France, still committed to stationary
World War I strategies, was completely surprised and
summarily overwhelmed by Germany's mobile combined
arms doctrine and Guderian's Panzer Corps.
Technological change had an enormous eect on strategy, but little eect on leadership. The use of telegraph
and later radio, along with improved transport, enabled
the rapid movement of large numbers of men. One of
Germany's key enablers in mobile warfare was the use of
radios, where these were put into every tank. However,
the number of men that one ocer could eectively control had, if anything, declined. The increases in the size
of the armies led to an increase in the number of ocers.
Although the ocer ranks in the US Army did swell, in
the German army the ratio of ocers to total men remained steady.* [28]
World War II
German
Pre-war
The main strategic goals of inter-war Germany under were the re-establishment of Germany as a European great power* [29] and complete annulment of the
Versailles treaty. From the period of Nazi power beginning in 1933, Adolf Hitler's political goals for Germany
also included the accumulation of Lebensraum (Living space) for the Germanic raceand the destrucBritish general J. F. C. Fuller, architect of the rst great tion of Communism. The destruction of European jewry,
93
while not strictly a strategic objective, was a political goal

of the Nazi regime linked to their vision of a Germandominated Europe, and especially to the Generalplan Ost
for a depopulated east to be colonized by Germany.* [30]
USA and Germany declared war on the USA shortly afterwards. Through the summer and fall of 1942, German
strategy to win the war remained based on defeating the
USSR.
Until the mid-1930s, Germany's ability to realize these

goals was limited by her weakened military and economic
position. Hitler's strategy was to build up German military and economic strength through re-armament, while
seeking to avoid an early war by diplomatic engagement
with France, Britain and later, the Soviet Union (StalinHitler Pact). One by one, Hitler successfully repudiated the terms the Versailles treaty, using skilful diplomacy to avoid triggering war. After beginning with rearmament in 1935, he then completed the re-occupation
of the Rhineland in 1936, and then the diplomatic annexation of Austria (Anschluss) and Czechoslovakia in 1938
and 1939 (Munich Agreement). This risky political strategy proved initially successful, consolidating internal support for the regime and greatly strengthening Germany's
strategic position.
With the failure of the 1942 campaign in the east (Case

Blue), and the buildup of US forces in Africa and Britain,
Germany was on the strategic defensive from 1943 onwards. In the latter part of the war Germany attempted
to establish a peace negotiation position through limited
military victories. In the end of the war, after the failure
of the Battle of the Bulge, the nal military operations focused on permitting evacuation of civilians after reports
of atrocities on the Eastern Front.
But the 1939 annexation of the rump Czechoslovakia, in

violation of the Munich Agreement signed only months
before, forced a change in Franco-British policy from an
emphasis on avoiding war (Appeasement) to an emphasis
on war preparation, of which an important feature was the
declaration of Franco-British guarantees of Polish independence. When Germany invaded Poland in September
1939, Britain and France declared war.
British Since the Entente Cordiale which had won the

First World War, Britain's strategy for continental war
was based on alliance with France and later unsuccessful eorts to engage Fascist Italy and the USSR in an
eort to contain Germany. Confronted with the rise
of Hitler's power on the continent in 1933, and weakened economically by the Great Depression, Great Britain
sought initially to avoid or delay war through diplomacy (Appeasement), while at the same time re-arming
(Neville Chamberlain's European Policy). Emphasis for
re-armament was given to air forces with the view that
these would be most useful in any future war with Germany.
By 1939, Allied eorts to avert war had failed, and Germany had signed alliances with both Italy (Pact of Steel)
War strategy
and the USSR (MolotovRibbentrop Pact). In August
1939, in a nal eort to contain Germany, Britain and
Hitler's strategy for war is usually thought to be that laid France guaranteed Polish independence (Anglo-Polish
out in Mein Kampf, although there is a historigraphic de- military alliance).
bate regarding whether Hitler intended global or merely Upon the outbreak of war in September 1939, British
European conquest, or whether he even had a plan for war rearmament was not yet complete, although the Royal
in advance. (see Nazi foreign policy (historiographic deAir Force had been greatly expanded and programmes for
bate)). In Mein Kampf, Hitler had imagined a short war new aircraft and equipment such as radar defences were
against France, and then the conquest of the USSR. He
just coming to fruition. Britain remained incapable of ofhad wrongly assumed that Britain would be an ally in the fensive operations except for strategic bombing, and this
west against France, and so he did not foresee an enduring
was relatively ineective in the early war.
war in the west.
After the fall of France in mid 1940 and Italian entry
Once the Second World War began with France and into the war on the Axis side, Britain and her commonBritain as allies, German strategy was to win a short war wealth allies found themselves alone against most of Euin France and force Britain to the negotiation table. Af- rope. British strategy was one of survival, defending the
ter the conquest of France, Churchill's refusal to surren- British isles directly in the Battle of Britain and indirectly
der or negotiate on terms favorable for Germany put their by defeating Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic and
gamble in jeopardy. Germany could not match Britain the combined Axis powers in the North African Camon the open sea and had not prepared its army for oper- paign. Through this period, and until the German invaations across the Atlantic. Instead they hoped to strangle sion of the USSR in June 1941, there was no possibility
Britain's economy through success in the Battle of the At- of Britain winning the war alone, and so British Grand
lantic and Battle of Britain.
Strategy aimed to bring the USA into the war on the alIn June 1941, Germany invaded the USSR (Operation lied side. Prime Minister Churchill devoted much of his
Barbarossa) to preempt a possible Soviet attack. The diplomatic eorts to this goal. In August 1941, at the
campaign was planned to defeat the USSR in a single Atlantic Conference he met US President Roosevelt in the
summer / fall campaign, but failed to achieve any of its rst of many wartime meetings wherein allied war stratmajor objectives. In December 1941 Japan attacked the egy was jointly decided.
94
In December 1941, following the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbour, the United States entered the war. Britain
was now also at war with Imperial Japan, whose forces
inicted rapid defeats on British forces in Asia, capturing
Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore and Burma. Nevertheless, Churchill expressed the view that with the entry of
the USA into the war, ultimate victory was assured for
the Allies. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force. From this point onward,
the strategy of the Allies, other than the USSR, is better
addressed as joint Allied Strategy
European Allies In the December 1941, at the

Arcadia Conference, the Allied leaders agreed to the
"Germany rst" principle whereby Germany was to be
defeated rst, and then Japan. However, Allied land
forces would not be capable of invading the mainland of
Europe for years, even as Joseph Stalin pressed for the
western allies to alleviate pressure on the Eastern front.
Supporting the Soviet war eort was a signicant element of Allied strategy, and signicant aid was shipped
to the USSR through the Lend-Lease programme.
CONTENTS
Soviet Early Soviet strategy aimed to avoid or delay
war, while developing the central government's hold over
the state and expanding the industrial base. Soviet economy and military was weak, but rapidly expanding in an
intense industrialization process. The USSR had been
overtly hostile to Nazi Germany for most of the pre-war
period, but the failure of appeasement convinced Stalin
that the Allies were actively seeking a Nazi-Soviet war.
The Soviet government doubted that a war against Germany could be avoided. However, negotiations were continued in order to, at the very least, buy time and permit
the Soviets to secure the Soviet-German border through
expansion and pressure on strategically important states
perceived as possible German allies in a future war. The
signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact gave the USSR
freedom to, in its view, preempt hostile action from nations along its Western border.
The invasion in the Barbarossa campaign of 1941 came
earlier than expected to the Soviet leadership, resulting
in the catastrophic loss of over 4 million Soviet soldiers
killed or captured. Nevertheless, the USSR managed
to halt the German advance at the outskirts of Moscow
and Leningrad. With spies providing the certain knowledge that Japanese forces in the far east would not attack
Siberia, the Soviets were able to transfer large numbers of
experienced forces from the far east, and in the Winter of
1941/1942 they used them to counter-attack the German
Army Group Centre in front of Moscow.
Strategic warfare, and especially strategic bombing, was a

supporting component of Allied strategy. Through 1942
and 1943, the Allies gradually won the war at sea and
in the air, blockading Germany and subjecting her to a
strategic bombing campaign of increasing eectiveness
Strategic bombing during World War II.
As the army was being defeated and giving up ground
In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, the Al- in the initial assault, a gigantic operation was staged to
lies agreed to demand Axis unconditional surrender, a move economic capacity from the Western areas that
war aim which implied the physical occupation of Ger- were about to be overrun, to Eastern regions in the Urals
many with land forces. While building up strength for and central Asia that were out of reach of the Germans.
an invasion of continental Europe, the Allies pursued an Entire factories, including their labour force, were simindirect strategy by invading Europe from the South. Af- ply moved, and what couldn't be taken was destroyed
ter defeating Axis forces in North Africa (the invasion of ("Scorched earth"). As a result, even though huge terFrench North-Africa), Sicily and southern Italy were in- ritories were captured by the Germans, the production
vaded, leading to the defeat of Fascist Italy. Churchill es- potential of the Soviet economy was not correspondingly
pecially favoured a Southern strategy, aiming to attack the harmed, and the factories shifted to mass production of
soft underbellyof Axis Europe through Italy, Greece military equipment quickly. Even before the war, Soand the Balkans in a strategy similar to the First World viet industrialization had brought Soviet GDP to a level
War idea of knocking out the supports. Roosevelt roughly equivalent to Germany. Although a signicant
favoured a more direct approach through northern Eu- part of the urban population had been captured by Gerrope, and with the Invasion of Normandy in June 1944, many in the 1941 campaign, the Soviet economy immethe weight of Allied eort shifted to the direct conquest diately went to a total war footing and was soon outproducing the German economy in war materiel.
of Germany.
From 1944, as German defeat became more and more inevitable, the shape of post-war Europe assumed greater
importance in Allied strategy. At the Second Quebec
Conference in September 1944, the Allies agreed to partition and de-industrialize a defeated Germany so as to
render her permanently unable to wage war Morgenthau
Plan. After the war, this plan was abandoned as unworkable. At the Tehran Conference Allied strategy adopted
its nal major component with the acceptance of Soviet
conditions for a sphere of inuence in Eastern Europe, to
include eastern Germany and Berlin.
It quickly became apparent that the war in the east would

be pitiless and total. Soviet strategy was therefore aimed
at preserving the state, at whatever cost, and then the ultimate defeat and conquest of Germany. This strategy was
successful. By 1943, the USSR was condent in nal victory and new aim of Soviet strategy became securing a
favourable post-war Europe. At the Tehran Conference
of 1943, Stalin secured acquiescence to a Soviet sphere
in inuence from his western allies.

Japanese Japanese World War II strategy was driven
by two factors: the desire to expand their territories on
the mainland of Asia (China and Manchuria), and the
need to secure the supply of raw resources they didn't
have themselves, particularly oil. Since their quest after
the former (conquest of Chinese provinces) endangered
the latter (an oil boycott by the USA and its allies), the
Japanese government saw no other option than to conquer
the oil sources in South-East Asia. Since these were controlled by American allies, war with the USA was seen as
inevitable; thus, Japanese leaders decided it would be best
to deal a severe blow to the U.S. rst. This was executed
in the Pearl Harbor strike, crippling the American battle
eet.
95
rope. Fear from the north was so understated that at the
outbreak of open warfare with Japan, Australia itself was
extremely vulnerable to invasion (possible invasion plans
were considered by the Japanese high command, though
there was strong opposition). Australia's policy became
based entirely on domestic defense following the attacks
on Pearl Harbor and British assets in the South Pacic.
Defying strong British opposition, Australian Prime Minister John Curtin recalled most troops from the European
conict for the defense of the nation.
Australia's defensive doctrine saw a erce campaign
fought along the Kokoda track in New Guinea. This campaign sought to further stretch Japanese supply lines, preventing the invasion of the Australian mainland until the
arrival of fresh American troops and the return of seasoned Australian soldiers from Europe. This can be seen
as a variant of the war of attrition strategy, where the defender out of necessity had to hold the aggressor at a
semi-static defensive line, rather than falling back in the
face of superior numbers. This method is in stark contrast
to the Russian scorched earth policy against Napoleon
in 1812, where the defenders yielded home territory in
favour of avoiding open battle. In both cases the lack of
supplies was successful in blunting the assaults, following
exhaustive defensive eorts.
Japan hoped it would take America so long to rebuild,

by the time she was able to return in force in the Pacic,
she would consider the new balance of power a fait accompli, and negotiate a peace. However, the attack on
Pearl Harbor failed to destroy the crucial targets (aircraft
carriers and, most crucially for Japan's ability to hold island bases,* [31] submarines) and ignored others (oil tank
farms, power station), thus the U.S. Navy was not weakened enough to force withdrawal. The psychological effect also caused the U.S. population and armed forces to
fully mobilize for war. South-East Asia was quickly conquered (Philippines, Indochina, Malaysia and the Dutch
East Indies). After Japan's vital aircraft carrier force was
destroyed in the Battle of Midway, the Japanese had to Communist China's strategy
revert to a sti defense they kept up for the remainder of
the war.
The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong developed
a military strategy called people's war. It aimed at creating and maintaining support of the local population, and
American With both Japan and the US ghting twodraw the enemy deep into the interior where the force
front wars (against each other in the Pacic, and addiadopting the strategy would exhaust them through a mix
tionally the USA in Europe and the Japanese in China)
of guerrilla and conventional warfare.
the far greater American economic power enabled the US
forces to replace battle losses considerably faster and to The strategy was rst used by the Communists against the
eventually outgun the Japanese. In several aircraft car- forces of the Nationalist Government led by Chiang Kairier battles, the initiative was taken from the Japanese, shek in the Chinese Civil War in the 1930s. During and
and after the Battle of Midway, the Japanese navy was after the arduous Long March, the Communist forces,
rendered helpless, eectively giving the Americans vast who were dramatically reduced by physical exhaustion,
disease and warfare, were in danger of destruction by the
naval superiority.
pursuing Nationalist forces. Mao then convinced other
After the Japanese were forced into the defensive in the
high-ranking political ocers in the party to acquire the
second half of 1942, the Americans were confronted with
support of the local population whilst ghting their way
heavily fortied garrisons on small islands. They decided
northwards from the Nationalist forces. Shortly thereon a strategy of "island hopping", leaving the strongest
after he formulated the concept of people's war, promisgarrisons alone, just cutting their supply, and securing
ing land reform programs to the local populace and exebases of operation on the lightly defended isles instead.
cution of the local landlords in the areas the Communists
The most notable of these island battles was the Battle
control. Using this strategy not only prevented the Comof Iwo Jima, where the American victory facilitated the
munist leadership from collapsing, but also raised popuaerial bombing of the Japanese mainland, which culmilar support across China, which eventuallyallowed them
nated in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
to take total control over the Chinese mainland.
that forced Japan to surrender.
The people's war is not only a military strategy but also a
political one. In its original formulation by Mao Zedong,
Australian Australia's historical ties with Britain people's war exploits the few advantages that a small revmeant that with the commencement of World War II her olutionary movement has against a government's power
armies were sent overseas to contribute to battles in Eu- including a large and well-equipped army. People's war
96
strategically avoids decisive battles, since their tiny military force would easily be routed in an all-out confrontation with the governments army. Instead, it favours a
three-stage strategy of protracted warfare, engaging only
in carefully chosen battles that can realistically be won.
Relying on the local population and using small military
units, ensures that there are few problems concerning logistics and supplies.
In stage one, the revolutionary force sets up in a remote area with mountainous or otherwise dicult terrain
where its enemy is weak, and attempts to establish a local stronghold known as a revolutionary base area. As
it grows in power, it enters stage two, establishes other
revolutionary base areas, where it may exercise governing power and gain popular support through political programmes, such as land reform. Eventually in stage three,
the movement has enough strength to encircle and capture cities of increasing size, until nally it seizes power
in the entire country.
Within the Chinese Red Army, later to be called as the
People's Liberation Army, the concept of People's War
was the basis of strategy against the Japanese and Nationalist forces, and also against a hypothetical Russian invasion of China. The concept of people's war became less
important with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the
increasing possibility of conict with the United States
over Taiwan.
CONTENTS
countries, while elsewhere such as in Peru it has been
unsuccessful. The people's war in the Philippines that
was long since employed by the insurgent New People's
Army, however, made the Communist insurgency there
the longest in world history,.* [33] In India and Turkey
there are still ongoing insurgencies where the rebels use
this strategy.
Cold War
The strategy of the Cold War was that of containment
and it was a generation dominated by the threat of total
world annihilation through the use of nuclear weapons.
Deterrence was a part of containment via retributive intimidation from the risk of mutually assured destruction.
As a consequence it was also a war in which attacks were
not exchanged between the two main rivals, the United
States and the Soviet Union. Instead, the war was fought
through proxies. Instead of mainly being conned to Europe or the Pacic, the entire world was the battleeld,
with countries rather than armies acting as main players. The only constant rule was that troops of the Soviet Union and the United States could not overtly ght
with each other. Military strategy involved bipolar powers with global actors who could strike an opponent with
nationally debilitating destruction in a matter of minutes
from land, air, and sea.
The strategy was utilized in the early 1950s by the hastilyformed People's Volunteer Army during the Korean War,
to garner support from the local Korean populace to win
the war by driving the United Nations forces from the
peninsula. At the battles of Chongchon river valley and
Lake Changjin, the army employed guerrilla tactics in full
scale, following the people's war doctrine. However, as
they marched towards the South under Mao's stern orders after their decisive victories in northern Korea, they
were met by an indierent and sometimes hostile Southern population* [32] who, despite intimidation, were not
willing to help them. This prevented them from defeating
the UN forces in Korea and, after their hard-fought victory at the Third Battle of Seoul, they were beaten in the
open by UN forces in the conclusion of their Third Phase
Campaign. Later on the war turned into a stalemated twoyear confrontation between the opposing forces. Thus,
years after the war, the Chinese government began a series of army modernization and professionalization that
will radically change the concept of the strategy, and in
the 1980s and 1990s the concept of people's war was
changed to include more high-technology weaponry.
With the advent of weapons of mass destruction that

could decide a war by themselves, strategies shifted away
from a focus on the application of conventional weaponry
to a greater focus on Espionage and Intelligence assessment, especially after the exposure of the Atomic spies.
The people's war strategy was also employed in countries around the world such as Cuba, Nicaragua, Nepal,
Philippines, the United Kingdom (where the IRA was in
rebellion in Northern Ireland and applied this strategy
to urban warfare) and elsewhere. The people's war in
the rst three countries mentioned have been spectacularly successful, marking government transitions in these
Strategies during the Cold War also dealt with nuclear

attack and retaliation. The United States maintained a
policy of limited rst strike throughout the Cold War.
In the event of a Soviet attack on the Western Front,
resulting in a breakthrough, the United States would use
tactical nuclear weapons to stop the attack.
So, if the Warsaw Pact attacked using conventional
weapons, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
The dierence between tactics, strategy and grand strategy began to melt during the Cold War as command and
communication technologies improved to a greater extent, in rst world armed forces. The third world armed
forces controlled by the two superpowers found that grand
strategy, strategy and tactics, if anything, moved further
apart as the command of the armies fell under the control
of super power leaders.
American cold warriors like Dean Acheson and George
C. Marshall quickly recognized that the key to victory
was the economic defeat of the Soviet Union. The Soviet
Union had adopted an aggressive posture of Communist
expansionism following the end of World War II, with
the United States and its strong navy quickly nding that
it had to aggressively defend much of the world from the
Soviet Union and the spread of communism.
97
(NATO) would use tactical nukes. The Soviet Union Post Cold War
would respond with an all out nuclear attack, resulting
in a similar attack from the United States, with all the
See also: Asymmetric warfare and Network-centric
consequences the exchange would entail.
warfare
By contrast, Soviet strategy in the Cold War was dominated by the desire to prevent, at all costs, the recurrence
of an invasion of Russian soil. The Soviet Union nomi- Strategy in the post Cold War is characterized by a
nally adopted a policy of no rst use, which in fact was a number of potent powers in a multipolar array and has
posture of launch on warning.* [34] Other than that, the come to be dened by the hyperpower status of the
*
USSR adapted to some degree to the prevailing changes United States, [37] which is increasingly relying on adin the NATO strategic policies that are divided by peri- vanced technology to minimize casualties and improve
eciency. The technological leaps brought by the Digital
ods as:
*
Revolution are essential for this strategy.
[35]
Strategy of massive retaliation (1950s) (Russian:
)
Strategy of exible reaction (1960s) (Russian: )
Strategies of realistic threat and containment
(1970s) (Russian:
)
Strategy of direct confrontation (1980s) (Russian:
) one of the elements of which became the new highly eective
high-precision targeting weapons.
The gap in strategy today (from a Western viewpoint) is

in what the Americans call "asymmetric warfare": the
battle against guerrilla forces by conventional national
armed forces. The classical strategic triumvirate of politics/military/populace is very weak against protracted
warfare of paramilitary forces such as the Provisional
Irish Republican Army, Hezbollah, ETA, PKK, and AlQaeda. The ability of conventional forces to deliver utility (eect) from their hugely powerful forces is largely
nullied by the diculties of distinguishing and separating combatants from the civilian populace in whose company they hide. The use of the military by the politicians
to police areas seen as bases for these guerrillas leads to
them becoming targets themselves which eventually undermines the support of the populace from whom they
come and whose values they represent.
The primary eect of insurgent elements upon conventional force strategy is realized in the twofold exploitation
of the inherent violence of military operations. Conventional armies face political attrition for each action they
take. Insurgent forces can cause harm and create chaos,
whereby the conventional army suers a loss of condence and esteem; or they can drive the conventional elements into an attack which further exacerbates the civilFortunately for all sides, the all-out nuclear World War III ian condition.
between NATO and the Warsaw Pact did not take place.
The United States recently (April 2010) acknowledged a The militaries of today are largely set up to ght the
new approach to its nuclear policy which describes the 'last war' and hence have huge armoured and convenweapons' purpose as primarilyor fundamentally tionally congured infantry formations backed up by airforces and navies designed to support or prepare for these
to deter or respond to a nuclear attack.* [36]
forces.* [38] Many are today deployed against guerrillastyle opponents where their strengths cannot be used to
eect. The mass formations of Industrial War are often
seen as much less eective than the unconventional forces
that these organisations also possess. The new opponents
operate at a local level whereas Industrial armed forces
work at a much higher 'theatre' level. The nervous system of these new opponents is largely political rather than
military hierarchical and adapted to the local supporting
populace who hide them. The centre provides the political idea and driving logic perhaps with overall direction
and some funding. Local groups decide their own plans,
Current major security alliances:
raise much of their own funds and may be more or less
NATO, ESDP SCO, CSTO
aligned to the centre's aims. Defeat of forces when rePSC SADC
vealed does not disable this type of organisation, many
Strategic Defense Initiative (also known as Star
Wars) during its 1980s development (Russian:
)
which became a core part of the strategic doctrine
based on Defense containment.
98
CONTENTS
modern attack strategies will tend to increase the power [15] Field-Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, A History of Warfare, Collins. London, 1968
of the group they are intended to weaken. A new more
political strategy is perhaps more appropriate here with
[16] Chaliand (1994), p. 638,
military backing. Such a strategy has been illustrated in
the war between the IRA, though an adoption and codi- [17] Strachan, Hew (2007). Clausewitz in the twenty-rst cencation are unclear.
tury. Oxford University Press. p. 319. ISBN 978-0-19923202-4. Retrieved 2012-07-31.
Netwar
[18] Catton. Bruce (1971). The Civil War. American Heritage Press, New York. Library of Congress Number: 77119671.
A main point in asymmetric warfare is the nature of

paramilitary organizations such as Al-Qaeda which are [19] Headquarters, Department of the Army (27 February
involved in guerrilla military actions but which are not
2008). FM 30, Operations (PDF). Washington, DC:
traditional organizations with a central authority dening
GPO. pp. 432 439. ISBN 9781437901290. OCLC
their military and political strategies. Organizations such
780900309. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
as Al-Qaeda may exist as a sparse network of groups lacking central coordination, making them more dicult to [20] Kesten C. Greene and J. Scott Armstrong (2011 (forthcoming)). Role thinking: Standing in other people
confront following standard strategic approaches. This
s shoes to forecast decisions in conicts (PDF). Internew eld of strategic thinking is tackled by what is now
national Journal of Forecasting: . Check date values in:
dened as netwar.
|date= (help)
0.29.4
See also
[21] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A

Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
0.29.5
Notes
[22] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A

Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
[1] Gartner (1999), pp. 163,
[23] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
[2] Carpenter (2005), p. 25

[3] Matlo (1996), p. 11
[4] Wilden (1987), p. 235
[5] Liddell Hart, B. H. Strategy London:Faber, 1967 (2nd rev
ed.) p. 321
[6] Matti Nojonen, Jymyttmisen taito. Strategiaoppeja
muinaisesta Kiinasta. [Transl.: The Art of Deception.
Strategy lessons from Ancient China.] Gaudeamus, Finland. Helsinki 2009. ISBN ISBN 978-952-495-089-3.
[7] Scott, Wilson (7 March 2013), Obama meets privately
with Jewish leaders, The Washington Post (Washington,
DC), retrieved 22 May 2013.
[8] Obama to challenge Israelis on peace, United Press
International, 8 March 2013, retrieved 22 May 2013.
[9] Garner, Rochelle (16 October 2006), Oracle's Ellison Uses 'Art of War' in Software Battle With SAP,
Bloomberg, retrieved 18 May 2013.
[10] Strategy vs. Tactic. dien.com. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
[11] Headquarters, Department of the Army (27 February
2008). FM 30, Operations (PDF). Washington, DC:
GPO. ISBN 9781437901290. OCLC 780900309. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
[12] School of Advanced Air and Space Studies.
[13] AAP-6(V) NATO Glossary of Terms and Denitions
[14] British Defence Doctrine, Edition 3, 2008
[24] , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A GreekEnglish Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
[25] May (2007), p. 115.
[26] Heuser (2010), p. 4f.
[27] See U.S. Army War College http://www.carlisle.army.
mil/ and Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, U.K.
[28] See Martin Van Creveld's Fighting Power for more on this
topic.
[29] Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Bd. 2: Die
Errichtung der Hegemonie auf dem europischen Kontinent
[30] Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands Europe between
Hitler and Stalin. London: Vinatge books. pp. preface
page ixx. ISBN 978-0-09-955179-9.
[31] Parillo; Blair
[32] Shrader 1995, pp. 174175.
[33] Longest communist insurgency
[34] Beatrice Heuser,Warsaw Pact Military Doctrines in the
70s and 80s: Findings in the East German Archives,
Comparative Strategy Vol. 12 No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1993),
pp. 437-457.
[35] Pupkov, et al. Weapons of anti-missile defense of Russia
[36] http://www.defense.gov/npr/docs/NPR%20FACT%
20SHEET%20April%202010.pdf
0.30. MILITARY TACTICS
[37] The term was coined by French politician Hubert Vrdine.

See:International Herald Tribune,To Paris, U.S. Looks
Like a 'Hyperpower',February 5, 1999.
[38] The Utility of Force, General Sir Rupert Smith, Allen
Lane, London, 2005, ISBN 0-7139-9836-9
0.29.6
References
Carpenter, Stanley D. M., Military Leadership in the

British Civil Wars, 1642-1651: The Genius of This
Age, Routledge, 2005.
Chaliand, Grard, The Art of War in World History: From Antiquity to the Nuclear Age, University
of California Press, 1994.
Gartner, Scott Sigmund, Strategic Assessment in
War, Yale University Press, 1999.
Heuser, Beatrice, The Evolution of Strategy: Thinking War from Antiquity to the Present (Cambridge
University Press, 2010), ISBN 978-0-521-19968-1.
Matlo, Maurice, (ed.), American Military History:
1775-1902, volume 1, Combined Books, 1996.
99
Tomes, Robert R., US Defense Strategy from Vietnam to Operation Iraqi Freedom: Military Innovation and the New American Way of War, 1973
2003, Routledge Press, 2007.
0.30 Military tactics

Military tactics are the science and art of organizing a
military force, and the techniques for combining and using weapons and military units to engage and defeat an
enemy in battle.* [1] Changes in philosophy and technology have been reected in changes to military tactics; in
contemporary military science tactics are the lowest of
three planning levels: (i) strategic, (ii) operational, and
(iii) tactical. The highest level of planning is strategy,
how force is translated into political objectives, by bridging the means and ends of war. The intermediate level,
operational level, the conversion of strategy into tactics
deals with formations of units. In the vernacular, tactical decisions are those made to achieve the greatest, immediate value, and strategic decisions are those made to
achieve the greatest, overall value, irrespective of the immediate results of a tactical decision.
May, Timothy. The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System. Barnsley, 0.30.1
UK: Pen & Sword, 2007. ISBN 978-1844154760.
Concept
Wilden, Anthony, Man and Woman, War and

Peace: The Strategist's Companion, Routledge,
1987.
0.29.7
Further reading
The US Army War College Strategic Studies Institute publishes several dozen papers and books
yearly focusing on current and future military strategy and policy, national security, and global and regional strategic issues. Most publications are relevant to the International strategic community, both
academically and militarily. All are freely available to the public in PDF format. The organization
was founded by General Dwight D. Eisenhower after World War II.
Black, Jeremy, Introduction to Global Military History: 1775 to the present day, Routledge Press, 2005.
D'Aguilar, G.C., Napoleon's Military Maxims, free
ebook, Napoleon's Military Maxims.
Freedman, Lawrence. Strategy: A History (2013)
excerpt
Holt, Thaddeus, The Deceivers: Allied Military De- German World War I observation post disguised as a tree.
ception in the Second World War, Simon and Schuster, June, 2004, hardcover, 1184 pages, ISBN 0- Military tactics are both a science and an art. They answer
7432-5042-7.
the questions of how best to deploy and employ forces
100
CONTENTS
on a small scale.* [2] Some practices have not changed 0.30.4 External links
since the dawn of warfare: ambushes, seeking and turn Everycitizenasoldier.org - tactical principles
ing anks, maintaining reconnaissance, creating and using obstacles and defences, etc. Using ground to best
Contemporary Marine tactics for war ghting
advantage has not changed much either. Heights, rivers,
swamps, passes, choke points, and natural cover, can all
Napoleon's tactics and strategy
be used in multiple ways. Before the nineteenth century, many military tactics were conned to battleeld
Small Unit Actions during German Campaign in
concerns: how to maneuver units during combat in open
Russia
terrain. Nowadays, specialized tactics exist for many situations, for example for securing a room in a building.
What changes constantly is the technological dimension,
as well as the sociology of combatants. One might wish to
reect on the technological and societal dierences that
produced such varying types of soldier or warrior: Greek
Hoplite, Roman Legionary, Medieval Knight, TurkMongol Horse Archer, Chinese Crossbowman, British
Redcoat, or an Air Cavalry trooper. Each constrained
by his weaponry, logistics and social conditioning would
use a battleeld dierently, but would usually seek the
same outcomes from their use of tactics. In many respects the First World War changed the use of tactics as
advances in technology rendered prior tactics useless.* [3]
0.30.2
0.31 Naval eet
See also
References
A rare occurrence of a 5-country multinational eet, during

Operation Enduring Freedom in the Oman Sea. In four descending columns, from left to right: ITS Maestrale (F 570), FS
De Grasse (D 612); USS John C. Stennis (CVN 74), FS Charles
De Gaulle (R 91), FS Surcouf (F 711); USS Port Royal (CG-73),
HMS Ocean (L 12), USS John F. Kennedy (CV 67), HNLMS Van
Amstel (F 831); and ITS Luigi Durand de la Penne (D 560).
[1] Clausewitz, Carl (1832). On War.
A eet or naval eet is a large formation of warships,

and the largest formation in any navy. A eet at sea is the
direct equivalent of an army on land.
Great Stirrup Controversy

List of military tactics
0.30.3
Notes
[2] Rogers, Cliord J. (2006). Strategy, Operational Design, and Tactics. In Bradford, James C. International
Encyclopedia of Military History. New York: Routledge.
Fleets are usually, but not necessarily, permanent formations and are generally assigned to a particular ocean or
sea. Most eets are named after that ocean or sea, but the
convention in the United States Navy is to use numbers.
[3] Paddy Grith (1994). Battle Tactics of the Western Front:
The British Army's Art of Attack, 191618. Yale Univer- A eet is normally commanded by an admiral, who is ofsity Press. p. 20.
ten also a commander in chief, but many eets have been
or are commanded by vice admirals or even rear admirals. Most eets are divided into several squadrons, each
Bibliography
under a subordinate admiral. Those squadrons in turn are
Johnson, Rob, Michael Whitby, John France often divided into divisions. In the age of sail, eets were
(2010). How to win on the battleeld : 25 key tactics divided into van, centre and rear squadrons, named afto outwit, outank, and outght the enemy. Thames ter each squadrons place in the line of battle. In more
modern times, the squadrons are typically composed of
& Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-25161-4.
homogeneous groups of the same class of warship, such
Muhm, Gerhard. German Tactics in the Italian as battleships or cruisers.
Campaign.
Since many smaller navies only contain a single eet, the
Gerhard Muhm : La Tattica nella campagna ass
dItalia, in LINEA GOTICA AVAMPOSTO DEI
BALCANI, (Hrsg.) Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas, Roma 1993.
term the eet is often synonymous with the navy.

Multinational eets are not uncommon in naval history.
For example, several nations made up the Holy League
eet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. In modern times,
0.32. NAVY
101
NATO has formed standing combined eets and operations from several national navies such as Operation Active Endeavour.
See list of eets for individual eets.
0.31.1
The modern eet
Modern eets combine surface warships, submarines,

support ships and ship-based aircraft to conduct naval operations at sea. Generally understood to be the blue water,
or oceanic, green water or littoral versus the brown wa- INS Vikramaditya (R33) with a Sea Harrier aircraft in the
ter or coastal/riverine forces. The eets of larger navies Arabian Sea. It is the Indian Navy's largest aircraft carrier.
are usually divided into smaller numbered or named eets
based on geographic operating areas or on administrative
troops, or attack other navies, ports, or shore installagroupings of same type ships.
tions). The strategic defensive purpose of a navy is to
Modern eets are usually administrative units. Typically, frustrate seaborne projection-of-force by enemies. The
individual task forces are formed to conduct specic op- strategic task of the navy also may incorporate nuclear deerations.
terrence by use of Submarine-launched ballistic missiles.
Naval operations can be broadly divided between riverine
and littoral applications (brown-water navy), open-ocean
applications (blue-water navy), and something in between
0.32 Navy
(green-water navy), although these distinctions are more
NavalandNaval Forceredirect here. For other uses about strategic scope than tactical or operational division.
ofNaval, see Naval (disambiguation). For other uses In most nations, the term "naval", as opposed to "navy",
of Navy, see Navy (disambiguation).
is interpreted as encompassing all maritime military
A navy (or maritime force) is a eet of water- forces, e.g., navy, marine / marine corps, and coast guard
forces.
0.32.1 Etymology and meanings
The Spanish Armada ghting the English navy at the Battle of

Gravelines in 1588
borne military vessels (watercraft) and its associated

naval aviation, both sea-based and land-based. It is the
branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated
for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne,
riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and
related functions. It includes anything conducted by surface ships, amphibious ships, submarines, and seaborne
aviation, as well as ancillary support, communications,
training, and other elds; recent developments have included space-related operations. The strategic oensive
role of a navy is projection of force into areas beyond a
country's shores (for example, to protect sea-lanes, ferry
First attested in English in the early 14th century,* [1] the

wordnavycame via Old French navie,eet of ships
, from the Latin navigium, a vessel, a ship, bark, boat
,* [2] from navis, ship.* [3] The word navalcame
from Latin navalis, pertaining to ship";* [4] cf. Greek
(naus), ship,* [5] (nautes), seaman,
sailor.* [6] The earliest attested form of the word is in
the Mycenaean Greek compound word
, na-u-domo (*naudomoi), shipbuilders, written in Linear B
syllabic script.* [n 1] There is also a possible connection
to the tamil word Navai for boat/ship.
The word formerly denoted eets of both commercial
and military nature. In modern usage navyused
alone always denotes a military eet, although the term
"merchant navy" for a commercial eet still incorporates
the non-military word sense. This overlap in word senses
between commercial and military eets grew out of the
inherently dual-use nature of eets; centuries ago, nationality was a trait that unied a eet across both civilian and military uses. Although nationality of commercial vessels has little importance in peacetime trade other
than for tax avoidance, it can have greater meaning during
wartime, when supply chains become matters of patriotic
attack and defense, and when in some cases private vessels are even temporarily converted to military vessels.
102
CONTENTS
The latter was especially important, and common, before

20th-century military technology existed, when merely
adding artillery and naval infantry to any sailing vessel
could render it fully as martial as any military-owned vessel. Such privateering has been rendered obsolete in bluewater strategy since modern missile and aircraft systems
grew to leapfrog over artillery and infantry in many respects; but privateering nevertheless remains potentially
relevant in littoral warfare of a limited and asymmetric
nature.
cannon and ships with sucient capacity to carry the

large guns, navy warfare primarily involved ramming and
boarding actions. In the time of ancient Greece and the
Roman Empire, naval warfare centered on long, narrow
vessels powered by banks of oarsmen (such as triremes
and quinqueremes) designed to ram and sink enemy vessels or come alongside the enemy vessel so its occupants
could be attacked hand-to-hand. Naval warfare continued in this vein through the Middle Ages until the cannon became commonplace and capable of being reloaded
quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The
Chola Dynasty of medieval India was known as one of the
0.32.2 History
greatest naval powers of its time from 300 BC to 1279
AD. The Chola Navy, Chola kadarpadai comprised the
Main articles: Naval warfare and Naval history
naval forces of the Chola Empire along with several other
Naval warfare developed when humans rst fought from Naval-arms of the country. The Chola navy played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Tamil kingdom, including the conquest of the Sri Lanka islands, Kadaaram
(Present day Burma), Sri Vijaya (present day Southeast
Asia), the spread of Hinduism, Tamil architecture and
Tamil culture to Southeast Asia and in curbing the piracy
in Southeast Asia in 900 CE. In ancient China, large naval
battles were known since the Qin Dynasty (also see Battle
of Red Clis, 208), employing the war junk during the
Han Dynasty. However, China's rst ocial standing
navy was not established until the Southern Song Dynasty
in the 12th century, a time when gunpowder was a revolutionary new application to warfare.
The mass and deck space required to carry a large number of cannon made oar-based propulsion impossible, and
ships came to rely primarily on sails. Warships were designed to carry increasing numbers of cannon and naval
tactics evolved to bring a ship's repower to bear in a
broadside, with ships-of-the-line arranged in a line of battle.
HMS Victory, the oldest warship still in commission in the world.
The development of large capacity, sail-powered ships

carrying cannon led to a rapid expansion of European
navies, especially the Spanish and Portuguese navies
which dominated in the 16th and early 17th centuries,
and helped propel the age of exploration and colonialism.
The repulsion of the Spanish Armada (1588) by the English eet revolutionized naval warfare by the success
of a guns-only strategy and caused a major overhaul of
the Spanish Navy, partly along English lines, which resulted in even greater dominance by the Spanish. From
the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch cannibalized the Portuguese Empire in the East and, with the
immense wealth gained, challenged Spanish hegemony
at sea. From the 1620s, Dutch raiders seriously troubled Spanish shipping and, after a number of battles
which went both ways, the Dutch Navy nally broke the
long dominance of the Spanish Navy in the Battle of the
Downs (1639).
England emerged as a major naval power in the mid-17th

century in the rst Anglo-Dutch war with a technical vicDreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet of World War I.
tory. Successive decisive Dutch victories in the second
water-borne vessels. Prior to the introduction of the and third Anglo-Dutch Wars conrmed the Dutch mas-
0.32. NAVY
tery of the seas during the Dutch Golden Age, nanced
by the expansion of the Dutch Empire. The French Navy
won some important victories near the end of the 17th
century but a focus upon land forces led to the French
Navy's relative neglect, which allowed the Royal Navy
to emerge with an ever-growing advantage in size and
quality, especially in tactics and experience, from 1695.
Throughout the 18th century the Royal Navy gradually
gained ascendancy over the French Navy, with victories
in the War of Spanish Succession (17011714), inconclusive battles in the War of Austrian Succession (1740
1748), victories in the Seven Years' War (17541763),
a partial reversal during the American War of Independence (17751783), and consolidation into uncontested
supremacy during the 19th century from the Battle of
Trafalgar in 1805. These conicts saw the development
and renement of tactics which came to be called the line
of battle.
103
The Russian Navy was considered the third strongest in
the world on the eve of the Russo-Japanese War, which
turned to be a catastrophe for the Russian military in general and the Russian Navy in particular. Although neither party lacked courage, the Russians were defeated by
the Japanese in the Battle of Port Arthur, which was the
rst time in warfare that mines were used for oensive
purposes. The warships of the Baltic Fleet sent to the
Far East were lost in the Battle of Tsushima. A further
step change in naval repower occurred when the United
Kingdom launched HMS Dreadnought (1906), but naval
tactics still emphasized the line of battle.
The rst practical military submarines were developed in
the late 19th century and by the end of World War I had
proven to be a powerful arm of naval warfare. During
World War II, Nazi Germany's submarine eet of U-boats
almost starved the United Kingdom into submission and
inicted tremendous losses on U.S. coastal shipping. The
German battleship Tirpitz, a sister ship of the Bismarck,
was almost put out of action by miniature submarines
known as X-Craft. The X-Craft severely damaged her
and kept her in port for some months.
A major paradigm shift in naval warfare occurred with
the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto in
1940 and then at Pearl Harbor in 1941, the carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out
of sight and range of surface vessels. The Battle of Leyte
Gulf (1944) was arguably the largest naval battle in history; it was also the last battle in which battleships played
a signicant role. By the end of World War II, the carrier
had become the dominant force of naval warfare.
U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68)
The next stage in the evolution of naval warfare was the

introduction of metal plating along the hull sides. The
increased mass required steam-powered engines, resulting in an arms race between armor and weapon thickness and repower. The rst armored vessels, the French
Gloire and British HMS Warrior, made wooden vessels
obsolete. Another signicant improvement came with
the invention of the rotating turrets, which allowed the
guns to be aimed independently of ship movement. The
battle between the CSS Virginia and the USS Monitor
during the American Civil War (18611865) is often
cited as the beginning of this age of maritime conict.
World War II also saw the United States become by far

the largest Naval power in the world. In the late 20th
and early 21st centuries, the United States Navy possessed over 70% of the world's total numbers and total
tonnage of naval vessels of 1,000 tons or greater.* [11]
Throughout the rest of the 20th century, the United States
Navy would maintain a tonnage greater than that of the
next 17 largest navies combined. During the Cold War,
the Soviet Navy became a signicant armed force, with
large numbers of large, heavily armed ballistic missile
submarines and extensive use of heavy, long-ranged antisurface missiles to counter the numerous United States
carrier battle groups. Only 3 nations (United States,
France, and Brazil) presently operate CATOBAR carriers of any size, while Russia, China and India operate
sizeable STOBAR carriers (although all three are originally of Russian design). The UK is also currently constructing two Queen Elizabeth class carriers, which will
be the largest STOVL vessels in service, and India is currently building one Vikrant-class aircraft carrier and considering another. France is also looking at a new carrier,
probably using a CATOBAR system and possibly based
on the British Queen Elizabeth design.
104
0.32.3
CONTENTS
Operations
A "blue water navy" is designed to operate far from the

coastal waters of its home nation. These are ships capable of maintaining station for long periods of time in
deep ocean, and will have a long logistical tail for their
support. Many are also nuclear powered to save having to refuel. By contrast a "brown water navy" operates in the coastal periphery and along inland waterways,
where larger ocean-going naval vessels can not readily enter. Regional powers may maintain a "green water navy"
as a means of localized force projection. Blue water eets
may require specialized vessels, such as mine sweepers,
when operating in the littoral regions along the coast.
0.32.4 Traditions
HMS Invincible sails towards the Falkland Islands during the
Falklands War. The Falklands War was the largest naval conict
since World War II.
Main article: Naval tradition

A basic tradition is that all ships commissioned in a navy
US Navy ocers aboard the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72) monitor defense systems during maritime security
operations. Navies may conduct military operations other than
war.
A navy typically operates from one or more naval bases.

The base is a port that is specialized in naval operations,
and often includes housing, a munitions depot, docks for
the vessels, and various repair facilities. During times of
war temporary bases may be constructed in closer proximity to strategic locations, as it is advantageous in terms
of patrols and station-keeping. Nations with historically
strong naval forces have found it advantageous to obtain
basing rights in other countries in areas of strategic inter- Ship bell of ORP Iskra II - Polish Navy school tall ship
est.
Navy ships can operate independently or with a group,
which may be a small squadron of comparable ships, or a
larger naval eet of various specialized ships. The commander of a eet travels in the agship, which is usually
the most powerful vessel in the group. Prior to the invention of radio, commands from the agship were communicated by means of ags. At night signal lamps could
be used for a similar purpose. Later these were replaced
by the radio transmitter, or the ashing light when radio
silence was needed.
are referred to as ships rather than vessels, with the exception of submarines, which are known as boats. The prex
on a ship's name indicates that it is a commissioned ship.
An important tradition on board naval vessels of some
nations has been the ship's bell. This was historically used
to mark the passage of time, as warning devices in heavy
fog, and for alarms and ceremonies.
The ship's captain, and more senior ocers are piped
aboard the ship using a Boatswain's call.
0.32. NAVY
105
In the United States, the First Navy Jack is a ag that has

the words, Don't Tread on Meon the ag.
By English tradition, ships have been referred to as a
she. However, it was long considered bad luck to permit women to sail on board naval vessels. To do so would
invite a terrible storm that would wreck the ship. The only
women that were welcomed on board were gureheads
mounted on the prow of the ship.
Firing a cannon salute partially disarms the ship, so ring a cannon for no combat reason showed respect and
trust. As the tradition evolved, the number of cannon
red became an indication of the rank of the ocial be- INS Shivalik is a stealth frigate of the Indian Navy.
ing saluted.
0.32.5
Naval organization
Ships
for the voyage (rather than merchant cargo). Often, other

ships which were not built specically for warfare, such
as the galleon or the armed merchant ships in World War
II, did carry armaments. In more recent times, navy ships
have become more specialized and have included supply
ships, troop transports, repair ships, oil tankers and other
logistics support ships as well as combat ships. So long as
they are commissioned, however, they are allships...
Modern navy combat ships are generally divided into
seven main categories: aircraft carriers, cruisers,
destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines, and
amphibious assault ships.
There are also support
and auxiliary ships, including the oiler, minesweeper,
patrol boat, hydrographic and oceanographic survey ship
and tender. During the age of sail, the ship categories
were divided into the ship of the line, frigate, and
sloop-of-war.
Sejong the Great class destroyer of the Republic of Korea Navy
Typhoon class submarines are the largest submarines ever built.
Main article: Naval ship
Naval ship names are typically prexed by an abbreviation

indicating the national navy in which they serve. For a
list of the prexes used with ship names (HMS, USS, L,
etc.) see ship prex.
Today ships are signicantly faster than in former times,
thanks to much improved propulsion systems. Also, the
eciency of the engines has improved, in terms of fuel,
and of how many sailors it takes to operate them. In
World War II, ships needed to refuel very often. However, today ships can go on very long journeys without
refueling. Also, in World War II, the engine room needed
about a dozen sailors to work the many engines, however,
today, only about 45 are needed (depending on the class
of the ship). Today, naval strike groups on longer missions are always followed by a range of support and replenishment ships supplying them with anything from fuel
and munitions, to medical treatment and postal services.
This allows strike groups and combat ships to remain at
sea for several months at a time.
Boats
Historically, navy ships were primarily intended for war- The termboatrefers to small craft limited in their use
fare. They were designed to withstand damage and to by size and usually not capable of making lengthy indeinict the same, but only carried munitions and supplies pendent voyages at sea. The old navy adage to dieren-
106
CONTENTS
boats, line handling boats, buoy boats, aircraft rescue
boats, torpedo retrievers, explosive ordnance disposal
craft, utility boats, dive boats, targets, and work boats.
Boats are also used for survey work, tending divers, and
minesweeping operations. Boats for carrying cargo and
personnel are sometimes known as launches, gigs, barges
or shore party boats.
Units
Royal Canadian Navy's Orca class patrol vessel.
Naval forces are typically arranged into units based on the

number of ships included, a single ship being the smallest
operational unit. Ships may be combined into squadrons
or otillas, which may be formed into eets. The largest
unit size may be the whole Navy or Admiralty.
A task force can be assembled using ships from dierent

tiate between ships and boats is that boats are capable of eets for an operational task.
being carried by ships. (Submarines by this rule are ships
rather than boats, but are customarily referred to as boats
reecting their previous smaller size.)
Navies use many types of boat, ranging from 9-foot (2.7
m) dinghies to 135-foot (41 m) landing craft. They are Ships of the multinational eet Combined Task Force 150
powered by either diesels, out-board gasoline engines, or
waterjets. Most boats are built of aluminum, berglass,
or steel. Rigid-hulled inatable boats are also used.
Personnel
Patrol boats are used for patrols of coastal areas, lakes
and large rivers.
Despite their acceptance in many areas of naval service,
women sailors were not permitted to serve on board U.S.
submarines until the U.S. Navy lifted the ban in April
2010.* [12] The major reasons historically cited by the
U.S. Navy were the extended duty tours and close conditions which aord almost no privacy. The United Kingdom's Royal Navy has had similar restrictions. Australia,
Canada, Norway, and Spain previously opened submarine service to women sailors.* [13]
Ranks
Soviet PT-76 light amphibious tank moves down the ramp of an

Aist class hovercraft.
Landing craft are designed to carry troops, vehicles, or

cargo from ship to shore under combat conditions, to unload, to withdraw from the beach, and to return to the
ship. They are rugged, with powerful engines, and usually armed. There are many types in today's navies including hovercraft. They will typically have a power-operated
bow ramp, a cargo well and after structures that house
engine rooms, pilot houses, and stowage compartments.
These boats are sometimes carried by larger ships.
Chinese sailors, 2009
Special operations craft are high-speed craft used for insertion and extraction of special forces personnel and Main article: Naval ocer ranks
some may be transportable (and deployed) by air.
A navy will typically have two sets of ranks, one for
Boats used in non-combat roles include lifeboats, mail enlisted personnel and one for ocers.
0.32. NAVY
107
captain, but in charge of all the merchant vessels in the
convoy.
The most senior rank employed by a navy will tend to
vary depending on the size of the navy and whether it
is wartime or peacetime, for example, few people have
ever held the rank of Fleet Admiral in the U.S. Navy, the
chief of the Royal Australian Navy holds the rank of Vice
Admiral, and the chief of the Irish Naval Service holds the
rank of Commodore.
Newly commissioned ocers celebrate their new positions by

throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the a
U.S. Naval Academy graduation and commissioning ceremony.
0.32.6 Naval infantry

Main article: Marines
Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a cate-
Typical ranks for commissioned ocers include the following, in ascending order (Commonwealth ranks are
listed rst on each line; USA ranks are listed second in
those instances where they dier from Commonwealth
ranks):
Midshipman / Ensign / Corvette Lieutenant
Sub Lieutenant / Lieutenant Junior Grade / Frigate
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-theLine Lieutenant / Captain Lieutenant
Jaubert commandos of the French Navy demonstrating a mock,
Lieutenant Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/

seaborne assault on the support vessel Alcyon.
Corvette Captain
Commander (Commonwealth & USA)/ Frigate gory of infantry that form part of a state
s naval forces and
Captain
perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious
operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also per Captain (Commonwealth & USA)/ Ship-of-theform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from
Line Captain
naval operations.
Commodore / Flotilla Admiral (in USA only: Rear During the era of the Roman empire, naval forces inAdmiral (lower half))
cluded marine legionaries for maritime boarding actions.
These were troops primarily trained in land warfare, and
Rear Admiral (in USA only: Rear Admiral (upper
did not need to be skilled at handling a ship. Much later
half))
during the age of sail, a component of marines served
a similar role, being ship-borne soldiers who were used
Vice Admiral (Commonwealth & USA)
either during boarding actions, as sharp-shooters, or in
Admiral (Commonwealth & USA)
raids along shorelines.
Admiral of the Fleet (Commonwealth) / Fleet Ad- The Spanish Infantera de Marina was formed in 1537,
making it the oldest, current marine force in the world.
miral (USA) / Grand Admiral
The British, Royal Marines combine being both a
ship-based
force and also being specially trained in
Flag ocersinclude any rank that includes the word
commando-style
operations and tactics, operating in
admiral(or commodore in services other than the US
some
cases
separately
from the rest of the Royal Navy.
Navy), and are generally in command of a battle group,
The
Royal
Marines
also
have their own special forces unit.
strike group or similar otilla of ships, rather than a single ship or aspect of a ship. However, commodores can
also be temporary or honorary positions. For example,
during World War II, a Navy captain was assigned duty
as a convoy commodore, which meant that he was still a
In the majority of countries, the marine force is part of

the navy. The United States Marine Corps is a separate
armed service within the United States Department of the
Navy, with its own leadership structure.
108
0.32.7
CONTENTS
Naval aviation
Richmond, Herbert. National Policy and National Strength and other Essays. London:
Longman, Green and Co., 1928.
Sprout, Harold and Margaret Sprout. Toward
a New Order of Sea Power: American Naval
Policy ... 1918-1922. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1940.
Starr, Chester G., The Inuence of Sea Power
on Ancient History, 1989, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 0-19-505666-3
Tangredi, Sam, Globalization and Maritime
Power, 2002 - National Defense University,
ISBN 1-57906-060-9
Trafalgar 200 Through the Lens, ISBN 09553004-0-1
A Sea Harrier on the ight deck of an Indian Navy aircraft carrier in 2007.
Wombacher, Joerg and Joerg Felfe. (2012)

United We Are Strong: An Investigation into
Sense of Community among Navy Crews,
Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 38, No. 4
Main article: Naval aviation

In World War I several navies used oatplanes and ying
boats - mainly for scouting. By World War II the aircraft
carrier could carry bomber aircraft capable of attacking
naval and land targets as well as ghter aircraft for defence. Since World War II helicopters have been embarked on smaller ships in roles such as anti-submarine
warfare. Some navies have also operated land-based
patrol aircraft.
0.32.8
Woolley, Peter J. The Role of Strategy in

Great Power Decline,Naval War College Review. Vol. XLIX, no. 1 (1996). ISBN 1884733-06-9
Fiction:
Alan Lewrie series by Dewey Lambdin
AubreyMaturin series by Patrick O'Brian
Additional reading
Horatio Hornblower series by C. S. Forester

Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent
(Pseudonym of Douglas Reeman)
Non-ction:
Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft and Systems - Naval Institute Press. Published annually. Comprehensive.
Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean in the
Ancient World
Tom Clancy, The Hunt for Red October, Red

Storm Rising
Corbett, Sir Julian, Some Principles of Mar0.32.9

itime Strategy, 1911.
Hughes, Jr., Wayne P., Fleet Tactics and
Coastal Combat, 1999, Naval Institute Press,
ISBN 1-55750-392-3
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of British
Naval Mastery. New York: Scribner, 1976.
ISBN 0-394-54674-1
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, The Inuence of Sea
Power upon History, 1660-1783, 1918, Little
Brown, Boston.
Marder, Arthur. The Anatomy of British
Seapower. New York: Octagon Books, 1940.
Marder, Arthur. The Inuence of History on Sea Power: The Royal Navy and the
Lessons of 1914-1918,Pacic Historical Review. November, 1972.
See also
National navies:
The British East India Company's Marine or
Honourable East India Company's Marine, a
colonial precursor of the Indian Navy that existed from 1612 to 1686
Bombay Marine, a colonial precursor of the
Indian Navy that existed from 1686 to 1830
and from 1863 to 1877
Deutsche Marine, the German Navy
Her Majesty's Indian Marine, a colonial precursor of the Indian Navy that existed from
1877 to 1892
Koninklijke Marine, the Royal Dutch Navy
Marine nationale, the French Navy
0.33. NUMBERED AIR FORCE

Royal Indian Marine, a colonial precursor of
the Indian Navy that existed from 1892 to
1934
Blue-water navy
List of naval battles
109
[12] http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/
ALeqM5iIMxaTQ7lpX-Ow6grVziJ7ZKeNpQD9FVUPKG3
[13] http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2001/0102-09.htm
http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-1302.html * [1]
List of navies
Number of warships in service worldwide
List of submarine classes in service
List of naval ship classes in service
List of auxiliary ship classes in service
Modern naval tactics
Naval eet
Naval warfare

Naval Technology - News, projects, images and
white papers on the naval industry
NOSI (Naval Open Source Intelligence) - a library
of world naval operational news
Navy at Scottish Military Heritage Centre
[1] http://linguistlist.org/issues/26/26-1302.html
Navies of landlocked countries

Marines
0.32.10
Notes
[1] Found on the KN U 736, PY Na 568, PY Vn 865 and PY
Xn 990 tablets.* [7]* [8]* [9] Cf. .* [10]
References
[1] Harper, Douglas.navy. Online Etymology Dictionary.
[2] navigium. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin
Dictionary on Perseus Project.
0.33 Numbered Air Force

A Numbered Air Force (NAF) is a type of organization in the United States Air Force that is subordinate to
a Major Command (MAJCOM) and has assigned to it operational units such as wings, squadrons, and groups.* [1]
A Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) has the
additional role as an Air Force Component Command exercising command and control over air and space forces
supporting a Unied Combatant Command.* [2] Unlike
MAJCOMs, which have a management role, a NAF is a
tactical organization with an operational focus, and does
not have the same functional sta as a MAJCOM.* [2]
Numbered air forces are typically commanded by a major
general or a lieutenant general.
Numerical designations for Numbered Air Forces are

written out (e.g., Eighth Air Force instead of 8th Air
Force), but Arabic numerals are used in abbreviations
[4] navalis. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin (e.g., 8 AF).* [1]* [3] Units directly subordinate to a NAF
Dictionary on Perseus Project.
are generally numbered 6XX (where XX is the NAF
*
[5] . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek number). [1] For example, the 618th Air and Space Operations Center (Tanker Airlift Control Center) is a unit
English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
subordinate to the Eighteenth Air Force.
[3] navis. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
[6] in Liddell and Scott.
[7] The Linear B word na-u-do-mo. Palaeolexicon. Word

study tool of ancient languages.
[8] Raymoure, K.A. na-u-do-mo. Minoan Linear A &
Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean.
0.33.1 History
Numbered air forces began as named organizations in

the United States Army Air Corps before World War
*
[9] KN 736 U (unknown)".PY 568 Na (1)".PY 865 Vn II. [4] The rst four NAFs were established as the North+ fr. (Ci)".PY 990 Xn (unknown)". DMOS: Database east, Northwest, Southeast, and Southwest Air Districts
of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo.
on 19 October 1940 to provide air defense for the United
States.* [5] These Air Districts were redesignated as the
[10] .
1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Air Forces, respectively, on 26
[11] Weighing the US Navy Defense & Security Analysis, Vol- March 1941. The Arabic numerals were changed to
ume 17, Issue December 3, 2001 , pages 259 - 265
the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Air Forces on 18
110
CONTENTS
inated. This reorganization also reduced the number
of major commands, and eliminated the air divisions to
place numbered air forces directly in command of operational wings.
World War II Air Districts and Numbered Air Forces.
September 1942. Other organizations established during this period and that became Numbered air forces include the Philippine Department Air Force (became Fifth
Air Force), the Panama Canal Air Force (became Sixth
Air Force), the Hawaiian Air Force (became Seventh Air
Force), and the Alaskan Air Force (became Eleventh Air
Force).* [6] After World War II, the US Air Force continued to use both named and numbered air forces. While
named air forces were used in both tactical and support
roles, numbered air forces were generally employed only
in tactical roles.* [4]
As part of a peacetime restructuring in March 1946, the
United States Army Air Forces were reorganized into
three major operating commands: the Strategic Air Command (SAC), the Tactical Air Command (TAC), and the
Air Defense Command (ADC).* [7] These commands reected the basic air combat missions that evolved during the war, and each reported directly to General Carl
Spaatz, the Commanding General, Army Air Forces.
Numbered air forces served as an intermediate headquarters between these commands and the operational wings
and groups. Eleven of the sixteen wartime air forces remained. The Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces were assigned to SAC; the Third, Ninth, and Twelfth Air Forces
were assigned to TAC; and the First, Second, Fourth,
Tenth, Eleventh, and Fourteenth Air Forces were assigned to ADC. Second Air Force would later be transferred to SAC in 1949.* [8] The numbered air forces had
both operational and administrative authority, and existed
as a command level between major commands and air
divisions. Although variations existed, and number air
forces were often reassigned, this basic arrangement persisted throughout the Cold War.
The role of numbered air forces was again changed in

2006 with the implementation of the Component Air
Force (C-NAF) concept.* [10] Some numbered air forces
have an additional mission as the Air Force Component Command exercising command and control over air
and space forces supporting a Unied Combatant Command.* [2] C-NAFs have a second designation to identify their role. For example, First Air Force, a numbered
air force assigned to Air Combat Command, is designated as Air Force Northern (AFNORTH) in its role as
the air component of the United States Northern Command.* [11] Most C-NAFs have an Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) to provide command and control
of air and space operations for the supported combatant
commander.
0.33.2 List of Numbered Air Forces

The table below lists current and historical numbered air
forces of the US Air Force, their C-NAF designation (if
applicable), their current shield and station, and the major command (MAJCOM) to which they are currently assigned. Note that the lineage of some numbered air forces
is continued by non-NAF organizations (e.g., the 15th
Expeditionary Mobility Task Force continues the lineage
of the Fifteenth Air Force). Boldface indicates a NAF
or C-NAF that is currently active.
0.33.3 Named Air Forces

Named Air Forces operate at the same level as Numbered Air Forces. General Headquarters Air Force, the
rst named air force of the United States Army's air arm,
began operations in 1935. The GHQ Air Force became
the Air Force Combat Command in 1941. Several of the
numbered air forces began as named air forces.* [14]
Since World War II other named air forces have existed
in both operational and support commands. Air Forces
Iceland, and the Central, Eastern, Japan, and Western
Air Defense Forces, have provided air defense capability. The USAF Special Operations Force controlled operational special forces. The Crew, Flying, and Technical
Training Air Forces served Air Training Command both
in the air and on the ground. Pacic Air Force/FEAF
(Rear) controlled both operational and support forces
of Far East Air Forces. Air Materiel Force, European
Area, and Air Materiel Force, Pacic Area, on the other
hand, served primarily as logistical support establishments.* [14]
The role of numbered air forces changed in the 1990s

during the Air Force reorganization initiated by Air Force
Chief of Sta General Merrill McPeak. The goal of
the reorganization was to streamline, take layers out,
atten (Air Force) organizational charts, while at the
same time clarifying the roles and responsibilities of essential supporting functions.* [9] Numbered air forces
were reorganized into tactical echelons focused on oper- Currently, United States Air Forces Central provides airations, and their administrative sta functions were elim- power in support of the Global War on Terrorism.
0.34. OPERATIONAL LEVEL OF WAR
111
Source:* [14]
During the 18th and early 19th centuries, a synonymous

term of grand tactics was often applied to describe manoeuvring of troops not tactically engaged, while in the
0.33.4 See also
late 19th century and beyond the First World War a
term minor strategy was also in use,* [2] in fact into
Organizational structure and hierarchy of the United the Second World War by some military commentaStates Air Force
tors.* [3] The confusion over terminology was brought up
in professional military publications that sought to identify "...slightly dierent shades of meaning, such as minor
0.33.5 References
tactics, tactics, major tactics, minor strategy, major strategy, and grand strategy.* [4]
[1] AFI 38101, Air Force Organization. 16 March 2011.
[2] AFI 38-205, Manpower & Quality Readiness and Contingency Management. 18 June 2002.
[3] AFH 33-337, The Tongue and Quill. 1 August 2004.
[4] Ravenstein, Charles (1986). Organization and Lineage of
the United States Air Force. Washington, DC: Oce of
Air Force History.
Operational mobility, beginning as a concept during

the period of mechanisation of armed forces, became
a method of managing movement of forces by strategic
commanders from the staging area to their Tactical Area
of Responsibility.* [5]
0.34.1 History
[5] Schael, Kenneth (1991). The Emerging Shield: The Air

Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense, 1945
1960. Washington, DC: Oce of Air Force History.
At rst, the operational level of war was conceived by the

military theorists to describe the movement and logistics
[6] Air Force Historical Research Agency Numbered Air necessary for the coordinated concentration of many
units for an oensive. Operational warfare is considered
Forces
on a large enough scale that the tactical factors, such as
[7] Nalty, Bernard (1997). Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A line-of-sight and the time of day, are not recognizable,
History of the United States Air Force, Volume 1. Wash- but smaller than the strategic scale, where production,
ington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program.
politics, and diplomacy come into play.
[8] Factsheets : Second Air Force (AETC)
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Formations are of the operational level if they are able to

conduct operational movement on their own, that is opMcPeak, Merrill (1995). Selected Works: 19901994.
erating independently, and are of sucient size to be diMaxwell AFB, Alabama: Air University Press.
rectly handled or have a signicant impact on the enemy's
decision-making at the strategic level of the military camAFDD 2, Operations and Organization. 3 April 2007.
paign or even the war. These methods of conducting opFactsheets : 1st AF Mission. Accessed 29 January 2011. erational mobility were pioneered by the German Army
Air Force Announces Decision On Location Of 24th during the First World War and collaboratively developed
Air Force. Aero-News Network. Retrieved 13 August with the Soviet Red Army in the late 1920s and 1930s by
Mikhail Tukhachevsky who began to develop the concept
2009.
between 1925 and 1929 as the basis of the Red Army's
McCullough, Amy, ISR Agency Becomes 25th Air new eld manual for the conduct of war. It was signiForce, Air Force Magazine: Journal of the Air Force cantly tested and improved during the World War II by
Association, November 2014, Volume 97 No. 11, p. 22
the Wehrmacht during the initial phases of Operation
Ravenstein, Charles A. (1996), The Organization and Lin- Barbarossa, and by the Red Army for much of the rest
eage of the United States Air Force. United States Air of the war after the Battle for Moscow.
Force Historical Research Center ISBN 0-912799-17-X
[15] United States Air Forces Central Factsheet
0.34 Operational level of war
What constitutes the operational level has changed with

the size and function of armies. During the Second World
War, an operational-level formation was typically a corps
or army.
Curiously, the term was not widely used in the United
States or Britain before 19801981,* [6]* [7]* [8] when it
became much discussed and started to enter military doctrines and ocer combat training courses.* [9] In part, it
was popularised by its use in computer games, such as
The Operational Art of War.
In the eld of military theory, the operational level of

war (also called the operational art, as derived from
Russian: , or the operational
warfare) represents the level of command that coordinates the minute details of tactics with the overarching With the increase in combat power of individual units
goals of strategy.* [1]
during the Cold War era, an operational-level formation
112
CONTENTS
became a mechanised division, and in the post-Cold War,

the combat power of relatively small formations is today
as great as that wielded by larger formations in the past.
A brigade of some 6,000 personnel has emerged among
many militaries (notably the United States Army) as an
operational-level formation, replacing the division.
Military strategy
Military tactics
Naval strategy
Principles of War
Strategy
0.34.2
Role in battle
Operational mobility functions to implement the overall

strategy of an armed force by giving direction to tactical forces and providing them with the support needed
to reach their tactical objectives. Operational formations contain sucient assets to perform most or all military roles, and the Operational Manoeuvre Group of the
Soviet Army besides elements of the combat arms included logistic, medical, and often supporting air assets
such as armed helicopters from the overall military force,
and hence are fully capable of independent operation.
The tactical forces of the lowest level of operational units
perform actual engagement of the enemy and the commanders of these units are responsible for determining
how best to perform this combat task. Tactical decisions
such as where entrenchments will be placed on defense,
and the formations that attacking units will move in are
determined at this level.
0.34.4 Notes
[1] p.24, Simpkin
[2] p.218, Jablonsky
[3] p.28, Whitman
[4] p.3, Bundel
[5] p.64, National Research Council Sta
[6] Zabecki, David T.The German 1918 Oensives: A Case
Study in the Operational Level of War. pp. 2122. ISBN
9781134252251.
[7] The Operational Level of War. DIANE Publishing. p. v.
ISBN 9781428915749.
[8] Luttwak, Edward (1985). Strategy and History. p.
175. ISBN 9780887380655.
[9] p. 111, Stone
The lowest operational units dene the immediate objec- 0.34.5 References
tives of these tactical units within their zones of command
coordinating the oensive and defensive actions of the
Bundel, C. M., Col. FA, What is Strategy?", in
units as well as planning and applying supporting artillery
Infantry Journal, v.34, United States Infantry Assore as needed to accomplish those actions. Higher level
ciation, 1929
operational units such as divisions and corps will support
Glantz, D. M., Soviet military operational art: In
the lower level operational units with logistics and medpursuit of deep battle, Frank Cass, London, 1989
ical supplies, and have more extensive artillery and air
support assets at their disposal.
Jablonsky, David, Roots of Strategy: 4 Military Classics, Stackpole Books, 1999
These supporting res are concentrated at the higher level
in order that their striking power can be used where it is
needed most. In addition, these forces may order lower
level re support to be applied at particularly important
targets, through the technique known as Time on Target.
Toward the end of the Cold War, the United States Army
developed the doctrine known as AirLand Battle which
formalized U.S. operational doctrine around the concept
of mobile warfare. This doctrine sought to create a coherent and integrated practice of all aspects of operational
warfare from logistics to maneuver and the use of artillery
and air support.
0.34.3
See also
Grand strategy
Maskirovka
Military doctrine
National Research Council Sta, Reducing the Logistics Burden for the Army After Next: Doing
More With Less, Committee to Perform a Technology Assessment Focused on Logistics Support Requirements for Future Army Combat Systems, National Research Council (U.S.), National Academies
Press, 1999
Simpkin, Richard E., Deep battle: The brainchild of
Marshal Tuchachevskii, Brassey's Defence Publishers, London, 1987
Simpkin, Richard E, Race to the Swift: Thoughts on
Twenty-First Century Warfare, Brassey's, 2000
Stone, John, The Tank Debate: Armour and
the Anglo-American Military Tradition, Routledge,
2000
Whitman, J. E. A., How Wars are Fought: The
Principles of Strategy and Tactics, Oxford University
Press, 1941
0.36. PATROL
113
0.35 Operational manoeuvre group

The Operational manoeuvre group (OMG) was a
Soviet Army organisational maneuver warfare concept
created during the early 1950s to replace the Cavalry
mechanized group which performed the deep operations
on the Eastern Front during the Second World War.
The deep operations theory developed in cooperation
between the Red Army and Wehrmacht theorists in
the 1930s later inuenced the Blitzkrieg operations and
echelon-based doctrine.
In the Soviet Army doctrine the Operational Manoeuvre
Groups would be inserted to exploit a breakthrough by
a Front during a potential war against NATO in Europe.
In the Soviet doctrine, after the motor-rie units, heavily
supported by artillery, helicopters and Close Air Support
aircraft would have broken NATO front, the operational
manoeuvre groups would be inserted to exploit the break- UN Peacekeepers in Eritrea.
through using elements of, or whole tank armies.* [1]
At the Front level an Operational Manoeuvre Group could
include two tank divisions and three to ve motor-rie In military tactics, a patrol is a sub-subunit or small
tactical formation, sent out from a military organizadivisions.
tion by land, sea or air for the purpose of combat,
To counter the OMG's threat, NATO deployed a large reconnaissance, or a combination of both. The basic task
number of special forces units with the task of sabotag- of a patrol is to follow a known route at which sent to
ing and attacking the Rear Services (Russian 'tyl') logisti- investigate some feature of interest, or to ghting pacal depots (in particular fuel) to slow the OMG advance, trols (US combat patrol), sent to nd and engage the enpermitting NATO units to counter-attack the base of the emy. A patrol can also mean a small cavalry or armoured
insertion sector as was the practice of German comman- unit, subordinate to a troop or platoon. A patrol usually
ders during the Second World War.
comprises a section or squad of mounted troopers, or two
AFVs (often tanks).
0.35.1
Notes
[1] pp.139-186, Simpkin
0.36.2 Law enforcement
In non-military law enforcement, patrol ocers are uniformed police ocers assigned to monitor specied ge0.35.2 References
ographic areasthat is, to move through their areas at
regular
intervals looking out for any signs of problems
Simpkin, Richard E. Race to the Swift: Thoughts on
of
any
kind.
They are the ocers most commonly enTwenty-First Century Warfare. Brassey's, 2000.
countered by the public, as their duties include responding to calls for service, making arrests, resolving disputes,
taking crime reports, and conducting trac enforcement,
0.36 Patrol
and other crime prevention measures. A patrol ocer
is often the rst to arrive on the scene of any incident;
For other uses, see Patrol (disambiguation).
what such an ocer does or fails to do at the scene can
greatly inuence the outcome of any subsequent investiA patrol is commonly a group of personnel, such as gation. The patrol ocer, as the person who is in the eld
police ocers or soldiers, that are assigned to monitor daily, is often closest to potential crime and may have developed contacts who can provide information.
a specic geographic area.
This is also often referred to as a beat.
0.36.1
Military
See also: Patrolling
The Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment, a randomized

control trial conducted by Temple University, has shown
that foot patrols reduce crime.* [1] With the resources to
patrol 60 locations, researchers identied the highest violent crime corners in the city, using data from 2006 to
2008. Police commanders designed 120 foot patrol areas
around these corners, and stratied randomization was
114
CONTENTS
An emerging trend within patrol is the supplement of basic police patrol with that of private security agencies.
The privatization of police is explored in James Pastor's
book The Privatization of Police in America: An Analysis
and Case Study.* [2]
0.36.3 Etymology
From French patrouiller from Old French patouiller (to
paddle, paw about, patrol) from patte (a paw).* [3]
0.36.4 Non-law enforcement patrols

Schools
Some elementary schools use the term patrol to refer
to students who are selected to monitor safety in the
classroom or to those students who assist crossing guards
with safety of children crossing busy streets. Another
common term for this use of patrol is hall monitor.
Scouting
A patrol performed by United States Secret Service ocers.
In Scouting, a patrol is six to eight Scouts (youth members) under the leadership of one of their number who
is appointed Patrol Leader and supported by a Second or
Assistant Patrol Leader. This is the basic unit of a Scout
troop. The Patrol method is an essential characteristic of
Scouting by which it diers from all other organizations,
using the natural dynamics of the gang for an educational
purpose.* [4]
0.36.5 References
[1] Public Health Law Research
US Border Patrol agent monitoring the US-Canada border in

Montana
[2] Pastor, James. The Privatization of Police in America: An

Analysis and Case Study. McFarland & Company, 2003.
[3] Harper, Douglas. patrol (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 6 June 2012.
used to assign pairs of foot patrols with similar crime rates [4] Thurman, John (1950) The Patrol Leader's Handbook,
as either a comparison or a target area. Ocers generThe Boy Scouts Association, London (pp. 4-10)
ally patrolled in pairs with two pairs assigned to each foot
patrol. After three months, relative to the comparison
areas, violent crime decreased 23%.
Ocial records of police activities during the intervention
period reveal the following in the target areas:
Drugrelated incident detections increased 15%
Pedestrian stops increased 64%
Vehicle stops increased 7%
Arrests increased 13%
0.37 Platoon
This article is about a type of military unit. For other
uses, see Platoon (disambiguation).
A platoon is a military unit typically composed of more
than two squads/sections. Platoon organization varies depending on the country and the branch, but typically a
platoon consists of around 15 to 30 soldiers.
0.37. PLATOON
115
Use as a ring unit
The platoon was originally a ring unit rather than an organization. The system was said to have been invented by
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1618.* [3] In the French
Army in the 1670s, a battalion was divided into 18 platoons who were grouped into three rings"; each platoon in the ring either actually ring or reloading.* [4]
The system was also used in the British, Austrian, Russian and Dutch armies.* [5]
0.37.2 Modern usage
Standard NATO military map symbol for a friendly infantry platoon.
A platoon is often led by a lieutenant, and is the smallest

military unit typically led by a commissioned ocer.
On 1 October 1913, under a scheme by General Sir Ivor

Maxse, the regular battalions of the British Army were
reorganised from the previous eight companies to a four
company structure, with each company having four platoons as separate units each commanded by a lieutenant
with a platoon sergeant as his deputy. Each platoon was
divided into four sections, each commanded by a corporal.* [6] Due to a shortage of ocers, a non commissioned
ocer rank of Platoon Sergeant Major was introduced
from 1938 to 1940 for experienced non-commissioned
ocers who were given command of platoons.
In some armies, platoon is used throughout the branches

of the army. In others, such as the British Army and other
Commonwealth armies, platoons are associated with the
infantry. In a few armies, such as the French Army, a
platoon is specically a cavalry unit, and the infantry use
sectionas the equivalent unit.
Australian organization
A unit of several platoons is often called a company.
0.37.1
Early usage
Etymology
In the Australian Army, an infantry platoon has 24

soldiers organized into three eight-man sections plus a
lieutenant as platoon commander and a sergeant as platoon second in command, accompanied by a platoon radioman and medic (full strength of twenty-eight men). A
section comprises eight soldiers led by a corporal with a
lance corporal as second in command. Each section has
two reteams of four men, one led by the corporal and the
other by the lance corporal. Each reteam (also called
a brickby Australian soldiers) has one soldier with
a F89A1 light machine gun and the other three armed
with F88 assault ries. One rie is equipped with an attached M203 grenade launcher for the grenadier's role,
while another has a C79 optical sight for the designated
marksman role. Though recently, the designated marksman of an Australian reteam has been issued the HK417
in Afghanistan and possibly afterwards. The platoon may
also have three MAG 58 general-purpose machine guns,
one M2 Browning heavy machine gun or a Mk 19 grenade
launcher at its disposal.
According to Merriam-Webster,The term was rst used

in the 17th century to refer to a small body of musketeers
who red together in a volley alternately with another platoon.* [1] The word came from the 17th-century French
peloton, from pelote meaning a small ball. The sux "oncan be an augmentative sux in French, but on the
other hand is generally a diminutive sux in relationship
to animals, so the original intention in forming peloton
from pelote is not clear. Nonetheless it is documented* [2]
that it took the meaning of a group of soldiers ring a volley together, while a dierent platoon reloaded. This implies an augmentative intention in the etymology. Since
soldiers were often organised in two or three lines, which
were supposed to re volleys together, this would have
normally meant platoons organised with the intention of
British organization
a half or a third of the company ring at once.
The modern French word peloton, when not meaning pla- In the British Army, a rie platoon from an infantry
toon, can refer to the main body of riders in a bicycle race company consists of three sections of eight men, plus a
(as opposed to any riders ahead or behind the main body). signaller (radio operator), a platoon sergeant (a Sergeant),
Pelote itself originally comes from the low Latinpilotta the platoon commander (either a second lieutenant or
from Latin pila, meaning ball, and the French lieutenant) and a mortar man operating a light mortar (full
sux "-onderives from the Latin sux "-onus.
strength of 27 men and one ocer). This may not be the
116
case for all British Infantry units, since the 51mm mortars are not part of the TOE post-Afghanistan.* [7] Under
Army 2020, a platoon in the Heavy Protected Mobility
Regiments will consist of around 30 soldiers in four Masti/FRES UV vehicles.* [8]
Each section is commanded by a corporal, with a lance
corporal as second-in-command and six Riemen divided
into two four-man reteams. Support Weapons platoons
(such as mortar or anti-tank platoons) are generally larger
and are commanded by a captain with a Colour Sergeant
or WO2 as 2ic. Some sections are seven man teams.
An armoured platoonis known as a Troop.
Bangladeshi organization
CONTENTS
a warrant ocer WO III or a lieutenant. An ocer was
referred to asplatoon commander, while a WO III in
the same position was called aPlatoon Sergeant Major
or PSM.* [9]
Colombian organization
Within the Colombian Army, a training platoon (in Spanish pelotn) is often commanded by a higher-ranking soldier known as a dragoneante, who is selected for his excellence in discipline and soldiering skills. However, a
dragoneante is still a soldier and can be removed from
his position if his commander sees t. For combatant platoons (platoons engaged in combat with guerrilla rebels),
a corporal or sergeant would be the most likely commander.
In the Bangladesh Army, infantry regiments have platoons commanded by a major or a captain, assisted by
two to four lieutenants (or combination of lieutenants French organization
and Junior Commissioned Ocers) and at least two
sergeants. The platoon strength is typically 30 to 50 sol- In the French military, a peloton is a unit of cavalry or
diers.
armor corresponding to the platoon, equivalent in size to
These platoons are equipped with at least one heavy an infantry section, and commanded by a lieutenant or
machine gun, rocket launcher or anti-tank gun, with sergeant. It may also mean a body of ocers in training
the crews of these weapons commanded by a corporal. to become noncommissioned ocers, sous-ociers or ofIn addition, there are at least two light machine guns, cers (peloton de caporal, peloton des sous-ociers). Fieach commanded by a lance corporal. Each soldier is nally,peloton d'excutionis the French term for a ring
armed with an automatic or semi-automatic rie and all squad.
commissioned ocers carry a side arm.
Georgian organization
Canadian organization
In the Canadian Army, the infantry Platoon Commander is a Lieutenant or Second Lieutenant, assisted by a
Platoon Warrant (who may hold the rank of Warrant Ofcer, but is often a Sergeant). It is usually divided into
three eight man sections and a heavy weapons detachment
which will deploy a GPMG, and a Carl Gustav, depending
on mission requirements. Sections are commanded by a
Sergeant or Master Corporal with a Master-Corporal or
Corporal in the second in command, or 2IC, position; six
of the eight soldiers in a section will carry C7 or C8 assault ries tted with either optics or a grenade launcher
and two members will carry C9 LMG's. A section is broken into two assault groups of four men, with one LMG
and three assault ries, similar to the British and Australian organization.
Three to ve infantry platoons will make up a typical infantry company, sometimes with a heavy weapons or support platoon in addition. Specialist platoons, like reconnaissance, or recce, platoons, that may be attached
to a battalion may be led by a Captain and assisted by a
Warrant Ocer. Some very large specialist platoons will
actually have a Lieutenant as the second-in-command. In
many corps, platoon-sized units are called troops instead.
The Georgian Armed Forces equivalent of the platoon is

the so-called Ozeuli. Translated, it meansGroup of 20,
but has no more connection whatsoever with the number.
It has been transferred into modern usage from medieval
army reforms of the Georgian king David the Builder.
Originally, it was meant to be a small detachment of exactly 20 men to be led by a leader of corresponding rank.
Almost all smaller formations are based on the designations of those reforms, which originally suggested tactical exibility by keeping the size of small units in round
numbers (10, 20, 100). Battalions and brigades were not
aected by that system. It is unknown whether that usage
was abandoned in 1820s or earlier, but in present days a
Georgian platoon still calledOzeuilihas a similar size
to that of other armies. Normally for infantry it has 32
men, but can vary depending on the type of unit.
German organization
The German Army equivalent of the platoon is the Zug

(same word as for a train), consisting of a Zugtrupp
( platoon troopor platoon headquarters squad), of four to six
men, and three squads (Gruppen) of eight to eleven men
each. An Oberfeldwebel (Sergeant rst class) is in
Prior to 1940, a platoon might be commanded by either charge of the Zugtrupp. The Zugtrupp provides support
0.37. PLATOON
117
APC driver and the APC gunner.
Each squad and the platoon headquarters is equipped with
an BTR-80 Armoured personnel carrier. In total, the platoon comprises 29 soldiers, of whom eight are vehicle
crew.
New Zealand organization
In the New Zealand Army, an Infantry Platoon is commanded by a 2nd Lieutenant or a Lieutenant, with a Platoon Sergeant, a Platoon Signaller and a medic (where
relevant) comprising the Platoon Headquarters. The Platoon is sub-divided into three section of between 7-10
Platoon (Zugin German) of the German Bundeswehr
soldiers, each commanded by a Corporal with a LanceCorporal as the Section 2iC. Each section can be subfor the platoon leader and acts as a reserve force (such as divided into two re-teams, commanded by the Section
Commander and 2iC respectively, as well as normal two
two additional snipers or an anti-tank weapon crew).
man Scout, Rie and Gun Teams.
Three Zge make up a Kompanie (company), with
the rst platoon usually commanded by a Kompanieof- There are three Platoons in a Rie Company, which is
zier
( company-grade ocer), an Oberleutnant
( rst commanded by a Major, and three Rie Companies in an
lieutenant) or Leutnant (second lieutenant), who Infantry Battalion, which is commanded by a Lieutenantis also the Kompanie's second-in-command. The second Colonel. An Infantry Battalion will also contain an orand third Zug are led by experienced NCOs, usually a ganic Support Company (Mortars, Machine-Guns etc.)
Hauptfeldwebel (master sergeant). In the rst pla- and a Logistics Company (Transport and Stores).
toon, the platoon leader's assistant is a Hauptfeldwebel;
in the second and third platoons, the assistant is an OberSingapore organization
feldwebel. Each squad is led by an Oberfeldwebel, and
its size corresponds to the typical passenger capacity of
In the Singapore Army, a platoon is a Lieutenant's bilits squad vehicle (either wheeled or armoured). Another
let. However, in practice, a Second Lieutenant is usuof these vehicles is used for the Zugtrupp. Sergeants of
ally appointed and then eventually promoted. A typical
inferior rank act as assistant squad leaders in the other
infantry platoon consists of three seven-man sections of
squads.
riemen and a machine gun team, both commanded by
A Fallschirmjgerzug (airborne infantry platoon) has Third Sergeants, a platoon sergeant and a platoon medic
special operations responsibilities, and has command po- for a total of 27 soldiers. Beginning in 1992, the Sinsitions one rank higher than corresponding positions in gapore Armed Forces has allowed warrant ocers to be
a standard infantry platoon. A captain (Hauptmann) is appointed as platoon commanders.
the platoon leader, assisted by a rst lieutenant and each
squad has a second lieutenant or a master sergeant in
charge, often supported by a long-service sergeant or Thai organization
skilled senior corporal.
In the Royal Thai Army, a platoon is commanded by either a Lieutenant or Second Lieutenant, assisted by a Platoon Sergeant, usually of the rank of sergeant major. In
Hungarian organization
infantry units, rie platoons are generally made up of ve
In the Hungarian Armed Forces, a Rie Platoon is com- squads (three rie squads, one machine gun squad and
manded by either a 2nd Lieutenant or a 1st Lieutenant, command squad).
with a Platoon Sergeant (with the rank of Sergeant Major), a Platoon Signaller, an APC driver and an APC gunner comprising the Platoon Headquarters. There is also United States organization
in the HQ's TO&E a designated marksman rie - either
United States Army
an SVD or a Szp sniper rie.
The Platoon is sub-divided into three squads, each with
eight soldiers. Each squad is commanded by a Sergeant.
His/her deputy has an RPG, there are also two soldiers
with PKM machine guns, two with AK-63 assault ries
- one is an RPG grenadier, the other is the Medic - the
Historical Background From the the 1700s up until the late 1800s, an infantry platoon in US use was a
half companycommanded by a lieutenant, assisted by
two sergeants and two corporals (later increased to three
118
sergeants, to include a platoon sergeant, and four corporals). The sergeants, assisted by the corporals, led the two
sections (half-platoons) of the platoon. Depending on the
time period, the platoon could include from as few as 28
privates to as many as 44, with 14 to 22 privates per section. The corporals, and the sergeant, prior to the increase
to two corporals per section, led the two squads of the section. The squads were primarily a non-tactical, sub-unit
used mainly for drill (marching practice, formations, ceremonies, etc.) andhouse-keepingmatters, such as interior guard duty, billeting, messing, fatigue details (i.e.,
working parties), etc. Indeed, the sections, as well as the
platoons, were primarily administrative sub-units of the
company, since tactically the company seldom employed
in other than as a massed formation. The standard procedure, once the company had marched into its position
in the line of battle, was for the company to form facing
the enemy as two ranks, by platoon, one behind the other.
The commanding ocer (a captain), and the one to three
lieutenants, serving as platoon leaders and the executive
ocer (again depending on the time period) would direct
the ghting, leading from the front in the attack and on the
anks in the defense (the executive ocer and the rst
sergeant were normally positioned behind the battle line
so as to assist the company commander in overseeing the
company and managing the rear (company trains, casualties, enemy prisoners, non-combatants, deserters, etc).
The sergeants acted as le closers, working the line
by putting men forward to replace casualties in the front
rank, encouraging men to re, reload, move forward, etc.
and, if need be, physically assisting or restraining men
who refused to move forward or attempted to ee. The
corporals, physically led by example (much like modern
re team leaders) by taking their place in the line with
their privates and ghting alongside them. Cavalry platoons had a similar organization to the infantry, but with
fewer men; platoons rarely exceeded around 33 men, including the lieutenant, sergeants and corporals.
Field artillery platoons, led by a lieutenant (who rode his
own horse), with two or three to a battery, normally consisted of two gun sections. Each gun section was led by a
sergeant (who also rode his own horse) and consisted of
two half sections led by a corporal. One half section contained the gun and its implements, its limber (including
one ammunition chest) and four to six horses (depending
on gun weight and available horses), and several members of the gun crew. The corporal and one or two privates rode on the horses pulling the limber, while a couple of privates rode on the ammunition chest lid seat. The
other half section consisted of the caisson (which carried
two ammunition chests, tools, spare parts, baggage, and
a spare wheel) with its limber (again with one ammunition chest), pulled by four to six horses, and two spare
horses (when available) tethered to the rear of the caisson, and the remainder of the gun crew with the corporal
and privates riding the horses or sitting on the several ammunition chests lid seats as described above. In total, the
eld artillery platoon (at full strength of men, horses, and
CONTENTS
equipment) consisted of a lieutenant, two sergeants, four
corporals, 24 privates, 31 horses, four limbers, two caissons, two eld guns, two spare wheels, plus ammunition,
implements, tools, spare parts, and baggage.
Modern Use In the United States Army,* [10] Rie
Platoons are normally composed of 42 soldiers. They
are led by a Platoon Leader (PL), usually a second lieutenant (2LT), and with a Platoon Sergeant (PSG), usually a Sergeant First Class (SFC, E-7). Rie Platoons
consist of three nine-man Rie squads and one nine-man
Weapons squad, each led by a Sta Sergeant (E-6). The
Platoon Headquarters includes the PL, PSG, the PL's
Radio-Telephone Operator (RTO), Platoon Forward Observer (FO), the FO's RTO and the Platoon Medic.
Platoon of the U.S. Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps In the United States Marine Corps, rie platoons nominally (per TO) consist of
43 Marines and are led by a platoon commander, usually
a second lieutenant (O-1), assisted by a platoon sergeant,
a sta sergeant (E-6). The platoon headquarters also includes a platoon guide, a sergeant (E-5), who serves as the
assistant platoon sergeant and a messenger (Pvt or PFC).
Rie platoons consist of three rie squads of 13 men each,
led by a sergeant (E-5). In the attack (especially if part
of the assault echelon) or in a deliberate defense, rie
platoons are usually augmented with a two-man mortar
forward observer team and are often reinforced with a
seven-man machinegun squad and/or a four-man assault
weapons squad.
A weapons platoon will usually have a rst lieutenant
(O-2) and a gunnery sergeant (E-7) due to the generally
larger number of Marines (up to 69 in the 81mm mortar platoon) in these platoons (the heavy machinegun platoon being the exception with only 28 members) and the
more complex weapon systems employed. A rie company weapons platoon has a 60mm mortar section of 13
Marines with three M224 LWCMS 60mm mortar squads,
an assault section of 13 Marines and six SMAW rocket
launchers divided into three squads of two teams each,
0.37. PLATOON
and a medium machine gun section of 22 Marines and
six M240G general-purpose machine guns divided into
three squads of two teams each. The infantry battalion
weapons company consists of three heavy weapons platoons: 81mm mortar, heavy machinegun (.50cal HMG
and 40mm AGL), and antiarmor (Javelin missile and Antitank TOW missile). Each of these three platoons is divided into sections. Three sections of two squads each
in the heavy machinegun platoon, two sections of four
squads each in the 81mm mortar platoon, one section of
two squads with four teams each in the Javelin missile
section, and one section of four squads with two teams
each in the antitank TOW missile section. Marine rie or
weapons platoons would also have from one to four Navy
hospital corpsmen assigned along with the Marines.
119
of three 9-man rie squads mounted in three vehicles. In
both BMP and BTR squads, the driver and vehicle gunner stayed with the vehicle when the rest of the squad dismounted, and one squad in the platoon would have one of
their rieman armed with an SVD sniper rie. There was
either one empty seat in each BTR or two empty seats in
each BMP to accommodate the platoon leader and assistant platoon leader.* [11]
Tank platoons prior to the late 1980s consisted of a platoon headquarters squad and three tank squads, each consisting of one T-64, T-72 or T-80 tank for 12 personnel
and 4 tanks total; platoons that used the older T-54, T55 or T-62s added another crewmember for a total of 16.
However, tank units operating in Eastern Europe began
to standardize their platoons to just two tank squads, for
Platoons are also used in reconnaissance, light armored a total of 3 tanks and 9 personnel.* [12]* [13]
reconnaissance (scout dismounts), combat engineer, law
enforcement (i.e., military police), Marine Security
Force Regiment (MSFR), and Fleet Antiterrorism Secu- 0.37.3 See also
rity Team (FAST) companies.
In armored vehicle units, platoons consist of sections con Platoon (lm)
taining two or three vehicles and their crews:
tank and light armored reconnaissance platoons con0.37.4 References
sist of two sections, each containing two tanks/light
armored vehicles and crews
[1] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/platoon
assault amphibian vehicle (AAV) platoons consist of
four sections, each containing three AAVs and crews
[2] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/platoon
combat engineer assault breacher sections consist of

two CEV assault breacher vehicles and crews
[3] p.250 Curtis, Thomas The London Encyclopaedia: Or,

Universal Dictionary of Science, Art, Literature, and Practical Mechanics... Volume 9 T. Tegg, 1829
In low altitude air defense (LAAD) batteries, the ring

platoons consist of three sections, each consisting of a
section leader and ve two-man Stinger missile teams.
In artillery batteries, the ring platoon consists of six artillery sections, each contaning one gun with its crew and
prime mover (i.e., a truck to tow the artillery piece and
transport the gun crew and baggage).
United States Air Force The United States Air Force
has a similarly sized and congured unit called a ight. A
Flight usually ranges from a dozen people to over a hundred, or typically four aircraft. The typical ight commander is a Captain. The typical ight chief is a Master
Sergeant. Letter designations can be used, such as Alpha
Flight, Bravo Flight, etc.
[4] p.486 Lynn, John A. Giant of the Grand Sicle: The

French Army, 1610-1715 Cambridge University Press,
14/12/2006
[5] p.404 Nimwegen, Olaf Van The Dutch Army and the
Military Revolutions, 1588-1688 Boydell & Brewer,
21/10/2010
[6] p.25 Gudmundsson, Bruce The British Expeditionary
Force 1914-15 Osprey Publishing, 10/12/2005
[7] http://www.janes.com/article/29502/
british-army-infantry-to-revert-to-81-mm-mortar
[8] http://www.scribd.com/doc/229240244/
UK-Army-Combat-Capability-for-the-Future
[9] Table of Ranks and Responsibilities. Canadian Soldiers. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
[10] US Army Table of Organization
USSR organization
A motorised rie platoon in the Soviet Armed Forces

[12] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organiwas mounted in either BTR armoured personnel carriers
zation and Equipment, Paragraph 4-15
or BMP infantry ghting vehicles, with the former being
more numerous into the late 1980s. Both were led by a [13] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organization and Equipment, Paragraph 4-108
platoon leader and assistant platoon leader and consisted
120
CONTENTS
0.37.5
External links
"Platoon".
1911.
0.38.1 Historical origin
Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).
0.38 Regiment
This article is about regiments in military
ground forces. For regiments in air forces, see
Aviation Regiment (disambiguation).
Standard NATO symbol for a regiment of several battalions, indicated by the III. The shape, colour and pattern indicate friendly
infantry.
A regiment is a title used by some military units. The size

of a regiment varies markedly, depending on the country
and the arm of service.
Originally the term regimentsimply denoted a large
body of men under a single leader.* [1] Historically, in the
17th century, a full-strength regiment was hypothetically
a thousand men commanded by a colonel.
Today, there is no set size for a unit calling itself a regiment, which may be:
The French term rgiment entered military usage in

Europe at the end of the 16th century, when armies
evolved from collections of retinues who followed
knights, to formally organised, permanent military forces.
At that time, regiments were usually named after their
commanding colonels, and disbanded at the end of the
campaign or war; the colonel and his regiment might recruit from and serve several monarchs or countries. Later,
it was customary to name the regiment by its precedence
in the line of battle, and to recruit from specic places,
called cantons. The oldest regiments which still exist,
and their dates of establishment, include the Spanish 9th
Light Infantry Regiment Soria (originally the Tercio
de Npoles)* [2] (1505), Swedish Life Guards (1521), the
British Honourable Artillery Company (1537) and the
King's Own Immemorial Regiment of Spain, rst established in 1248 during the conquest of Seville by King
Ferdinand the Saint.* [3]
In the 17th century, brigades were formed as units combining infantry, cavalry, and artillery that were more effective than the older, single-arms regiments; in many
armies, brigades replaced regiments.
By the beginning of the 18th century, regiments in most
European continental armies had evolved into permanent
units with distinctive titles and uniforms, each under the
command of a colonel. When at full strength an infantry
regiment normally comprised two eld battalions of about
800 men each. In some armies an independent regiment
with a smaller amount of companies was labelled a demiregiment.* [4] A cavalry regiment numbered 600 to 900
troopers, making up a single entity.* [5] On campaign,
these numbers were soon reduced by casualties and detachments and it was sometimes necessary to amalgamate
regiments or to withdraw them to a depot while recruits
were obtained and trained.
Less than a battalion-equivalent, e.g. Household

With the widespread adoption of conscription in EuroCavalry Mounted Regiment
pean armies during the nineteenth century, the regimen A battalion-equivalent, e.g. 3rd Foreign Infantry tal system underwent modication. Prior to World War
I, an infantry regiment in the French, German, Russian,
Regiment
and other smaller armies would comprise four battalions,
A number of battalions, e.g. Royal Regiment of each with a full strength on mobilization of about 1,000
Scotland, 2nd Infantry Regiment (United States)
men. As far as possible, the separate battalions would be
An entire arm of service; in several Commonwealth garrisoned in the same military district, so that the regicountries, the entire artillery arm is often titledreg- ment could be mobilized and campaign as a 4,000 strong
iment(e.g. the Regiment of Artillery), and may linked group of sub-units. A cavalry regiment by contrast
made up a single entity of up to 1,000 troopers. A notable
then be sub-divided into eld regiments.
exception to this practice was the British line infantry sys Several battalions grouped together with or without tem where the two regular battalions constituting a regicombat support and/or combat service support units ment alternated betweenhomeandforeignservice
similar to a brigade
and seldom came together as a single unit.
0.38. REGIMENT
121
For example, a regiment might include dierent types of
battalions (e.g. infantry or artillery) of dierent origins
(e.g. regular or reserve).
The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers on parade in England
0.38.2
Regimental system
In the regimental system, each regiment is responsible for

recruiting, training, and administration; each regiment is
permanently maintained and therefore the regiment will
develop its unique esprit de corps because of its unitary
history, traditions, recruitment, and function. Usually,
the regiment is responsible for recruiting and administrating all of a soldier's military career. Depending upon
the country, regiments can be either combat units or administrative units or both.
This is often contrasted to the continental system
adopted by many armies. In the continental system, the
division is the functional army unit, and its commander
is the administrator of every aspect of the formation: his
sta train and administer the soldiers, ocers, and commanders of the division's subordinate units. Generally,
divisions are garrisoned together and share the same installations: thus, in divisional administration, a battalion
commanding ocer is just another ocer in a chain of
command. Soldiers and ocers are transferred in and out
of divisions as required.
Within the regimental system, soldiers, and usually ocers, are always posted to a tactical unit of their own regiment whenever posted to eld duty. In addition to combat
units, other organizations are very much part of the regimental family: regimental training schools, serving members onextra-regimental employment, regimental associations (retirees), bands and associated cadet groups.
The aspects that an administrative regiment might have
in common include a symbolic colonel-in-chief (often a
member of the royal family), a colonel of the regiment or
"honorary colonel" who protects the traditions and interests of the regimental family and insists on the maintenance of high standards, battle honours (honours earned
by one unit of an administrative regiment are credited to
the regiment), ceremonial uniforms, cap badges, peculiarities of insignia, stable belts, and regimental marches
and songs. The regiment usually has a traditionalhome
stationor Regimental depot, which is often a historic
garrison that houses the regimental museum and regimental headquarters. The latter has a modest sta to support
regimental committees and administer both the regular
members and the association(s) of retired members.
Advantages and disadvantages
The regimental system is generally admired for the esprit

de corps it engenders in its units' members, but eorts
to implement it in countries with a previously-existing
continental system usually do not succeed. The system
presents diculties for military planners, who must deal
with the problems of trying to keep soldiers of a regiment together throughout their careers and of administering separate garrisons, training and mess facilities. The
regimental community of serving and retired members
often makes it very dicult for planners to restructure
Some regiments recruited from specic geographical arforces by moving, merging or re-purposing units.
eas, and usually incorporated the place name into the regimental name. In other cases, regiments would recruit In those armies where the continental system exists, the
from a given age group within a nation (e.g. Zulu Impis), regimental system is criticised as parochial and as creatan ethnic group (e.g. the Gurkhas), or foreigners (e.g. the ing unnecessary rivalry between dierent regiments. The
French Foreign Legion). In other cases, new regiments question is also raised as to whether it is healthy to dewere raised for new functions within an army; e.g. the velop soldiers more loyal to their regiment than to the milFusiliers, the Parachute Regiment (British Army), and itary in general. Regiments recruited from areas of political ferment (such as Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Quebec,
the U.S. Army 75th Ranger Regiment.
India, etc.), tend to perform particularly well because of
Disadvantages of the regimental system are hazardous the loyalty their members exhibit to the regiments. Genregimental competition, a lack of interchangeability be- erally, the regimental system is found to function best
tween units of dierent regiments, and more pronounced in countries with small-to medium-sized military forces
"old boy networks" within the military that may hamper where the problems of administering vast numbers of
eciency and fairness.
personnel are not as prevalent. The regimental system
A key aspect of the regimental system is that the regiment works particularly well in an environment in which the
or battalion is the fundamental tactical building block. prime role of the army consists of small-scale police acThis ows historically from the colonial period, when bat- tions and counterinsurgency operations, requiring protalions were widely dispersed and virtually autonomous, longed deployment away from home. In such a situation,
but is easily adapted to a number of dierent purposes. co-ordination between regiments is rarely necessary, and
122
CONTENTS
the esprit de corps of the regiment provides an emotional

substitute for the sense of public approval that an army
receives at home. This is particularly relevant to British
experience during the days of the empire, where the army
was virtually continuously engaged in low-intensity conict with insurgents, and full-scale warfare was the exception rather than the rule.
A regimental system can also foster close links between
the regiment and the community from which it is recruited. This sense of community 'ownership' over local
regiments can be seen in the public outcry over recent
regimental amalgamations in the United Kingdom. On
the other hand, recruitment from a single community can
lead to a concentrated and potentially devastating local
impact if the regiment takes heavy casualties.
imately 600 soldiers, in addition to one or more reserve

battalions. Canadian battalions are employed tactically
and administratively within mechanized brigade groups
for regular units, or light brigade groups for reserve units.
In Australia, there is but one administrative infantry regiment in the regular army: the Royal Australian Regiment, consisting of all seven regular infantry battalions in
the Army, including mechanized, motorized, light, and
parachute infantry. The Australian Army Reserve also
has state-based infantry regiments which administer the
reserve infantry battalions.
In Pakistan, the word regiment is an administrative

grouping. While individual battalions may have dierent roles (for example dierent battalions of the Frontier
Force Regiment may be mechanized infantry, paratroop
Further, the regimental system oers the advantage of infantry, or mountain troops), the regiment is considered
grouping like units together for centralized administra- to encompass all of them.
tive, training, and logistical purposes, thereby creating an
economies of scaleeect and its ensuing increased efBritish Army
ciency.
An illustrative example of this is the modular integration employed by the United States Marine Corps, which
can take elements from its regimentally grouped forces
and specically tailor combined arms task forces for a
particular mission or the deployed Marine Expeditionary
Units (MEU). This is achievable partially because of
the Marines mission adaptability, exibility, philosophy,
shared culture, history and overall esprit de corps, which
allows for near seamless interoperability.* [6]
0.38.3
See also: List of British Army regiments (1881), List

of British Army regiments (1962), List of British Army
Regiments (1994) and List of British Army Regiments
(2008)
The modern British regimental system came about as a
Commonwealth armies
In the British Army and armies modeled on it (such as the

Australian, the New Zealand, the Canadian, the Indian
and the Pakistani), the term regiment is used confusingly
in two dierent ways: it can mean an administrative
identity and grouping, or a tactical unit. In the former
Dominion of Newfoundland, Regimentwas used to
describe the entirety of the ghting armed forces, such as
the Royal Newfoundland Regiment.
In the Commonwealth countries listed above, the large
administrative regiment has been the normal practice for
many years. In the case of India, large regiments
of four to ve battalions date from 1923 and, since the
1950s, many of these have expanded even further. As an
example, the Punjab Regiment has expanded from four
battalions in 1956 to its present strength of 20, while, in
Pakistan, several regiments have over 50 battalions.
In Canada, the regiment is a formation of one or more
units; existing almost exclusively for reasons of heritage,
the continuance of battle honors and esprit de corps. Most
Canadian infantry regiments are reserve units composed
entirely of one under-strength battalion of between 100250 soldiers. The three regular force infantry regiments
each consist of three regular force battalions of approx-
Regimental badge of the Scots Guards.
result of the 19th century Cardwell Reforms.

In the British Army, for most purposes, the regiment is
the largestpermanentorganisational unit. Above regimental level, organisation is changed to meet the tasks
at hand. Because of their permanent nature, many regiments have long histories, often going back for centuries: the oldest British regiment still in existence is the
Honourable Artillery Company, established in 1537. The
Royal Scots, formed in 1633, was the oldest infantry regiment. It now forms part of the Royal Regiment of Scot-
0.38. REGIMENT
123
land.* [7]
Canadian Artillery. In Britain, the Royal Regiment of

In the United Kingdom, there existed until recently a Artillery works in the same way.
number of administrativedivisionsin the infantry that
encompassed several regiments, such as the Guards Di- Infantry
vision, the former Scottish Division (now a single regiment), or the Light Division (now also compressed into a Administrative infantry regiments are composed of one
multi-battalion single regiment). The reduction and con- or more battalions. When a regiment has only one battalsolidation of British infantry regiments that began in the ion, the battalion may have exactly the same name as the
late 1950s and concluded in 2006 has resulted in a system regiment. For example, The North Saskatchewan Regiof administrative regiments each with several battalions, ment is the only battalion in the administrative regiment
a band, a common badge and uniform etc.
of the same name. When there is more than one battalIn the British regimental system, the tactical regiment or ion, they are distinguished by numbers, subsidiary titles or
battalion is the basic functional unit and its command- both. In Britain, every infantry battalion bears a number,
ing ocer more autonomous than in continental systems. even if it is the only remaining battalion in the regiment
Divisional and brigade commanders generally do not im- (in that case it is the 1st Battalion, with the exception of
merse themselves in the day-to-day functioning of a bat- The Irish Regiment of Canada, which has a 2nd Battalion
talion they can replace the commanding ocer but will only). Until after the Second World War, every regiment
not micro-manage the unit. The regimental sergeant ma- had at least two battalions. Traditionally, the regular batjor is another key gure, responsible to the CO for unit talions were the 1st and 2nd Battalions, the militia (later
Special Reserve) battalion was the 3rd Battalion, and the
discipline and the behaviour of the NCOs.
Army Reserve battalions were the 4th Battalion, the 5th
It should however be noted that amalgamations beginning Battalion and up. A few regiments had up to four regular
in the late 1950s and ending in 2006 have diluted the battalions and more than one militia battalion, which disBritish regimental system through the now almost univer- rupted the numbering, but this was rare. For this reason,
sal adoption oflarge regimentsfor the infantry of the although the regular battalion today (if there is only one)
Army. As of 2014, only thirteen line infantry regiments will always be the 1st Battalion, the TA battalions may
survive, each comprising up to six of the former battalions have non-consecutive numbers.
that previously had separate regimental status. Only the
ve Guards regiments retain their historic separate iden- In practice, it is impossible to exercise all the administrative functions of a true regiment when the regiment
tities.
consists of a single unit. Soldiers, and particularly ocers, cannot spend a full career in one battalion. Thus in
Armour
the Armoured Corps, the traditional administrativeregimenttends to play more of a ceremonial role, while in
Armoured regiments in Canada since the end of the practice, its members are administered by their corps or
Second World War have usually consisted of a single tac- branchas in the Artillery. Thus soldiers and ocers
tical regiment. During the 1960s, three Canadian reg- can serve in many dierent regiments, changing hat
iments had both regular and militia components, which badges without too much concern during their career. Inwere disbanded shortly after unication in 1968. Cur- deed, in the artillery, all regiments wear the same badge.
rently, one regiment is organised with two tactical regiments, 12* e Rgiment blind du Canada and 12* e Rgiment blind du Canada (Milice) are both part of the ad- Corps
ministrative regiment 12* e Rgiment blind du Canada.
The only administrative armoured regiment of the British The British Army also has battalion-sized tactical regiArmy that consists of more than one tactical regiment is ments of the Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals,
the Royal Tank Regiment, which currently has two (1 and Army Air Corps, Royal Logistic Corps, and Royal Mili2 RTR), and once had many more. These two tactical reg- tary Police.
iments will soon be amalgamated into a single regiment.

Artillery
All of a nation's artillery units are considered part of a single administrative regiment, but there are typically several tactical artillery regiments. They are designated by
numbers, names or both. For example, the tactical regiments 1st Regiment, Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, 7th
Toronto Regiment, RCA and many others are part of the
single administrative regiment The Royal Regiment of
See also: Category:Infantry divisions of the United States

Army
The United States Army was also once organized into
regiments, but in the 20th century the division became the
tactical and administrative unit. Industrial management
techniques were used to draft, assemble, equip, train and
then employ huge masses of conscripted civilians in very
short order, starting with minimal resources.
124
CONTENTS
1st Marine Regiment. Marine regiments are commanded
by colonels and are usually composed of three to ve battalions.
The United States Marine Corps deploys battalions from
its regiments in Marine Expeditionary Units or MEUs.
However, a USMC regiment may deploy en masse as
the ground combat element of a Marine Expeditionary
Brigade or MEB. When attached to the MEB the regiment is reinforced and redesignated a Regimental Combat Team (RCT) or a Regimental Landing Team (RLT).
The Puerto Rican 65th Infantry Regiment's bayonet charge

against a Chinese division during the Korean War.
Historically, a regiment consisted of four, later three

battalions and the regiment headquarters (HQ) company.
Training, administration and even tactical employment
was centered at divisional level. Many, but not all combat
support and logistics was also concentrated at that level.
A new system, the Combat Arms Regimental System,
or CARS, was adopted in 1957 to replace the old regimental system. CARS uses the Army's traditional regiments as parent organizations for historical purposes, but
the primary building blocks are divisions, brigades, and
battalions. Each battalion carries an association with a
parent regiment, even though the regimental organization
no longer exists. In some brigades several numbered battalions carrying the same regimental association may still
serve together, and tend to consider themselves part of
the traditional regiment when in fact they are independent battalions serving a brigade, rather than a regimental, headquarters.
The CARS was replaced by the United States Army Regimental System (USARS) in 1981.
There are exceptions to USARS regimental titles, including the Armored Cavalry Regiments (now defunct) and
the 75th Ranger Regiment created in 1986. On 1 October 2005, the word regimentwas formally appended
to the name of all active and inactive CARS and USARS
regiments. So, for example, the 1st Cavalry ocially became titled the 1st Cavalry Regiment.
0.38.5
See also: List of United States Marine Corps regiments

The Marine Corps is divided into numbered regiments.
Regardless of their purpose, marine regiments are always
referred to generically as Marinesor Marine Regiments never asMarine Rie RegimentorMarine
Artillery Regiment.For example, a marine would consider himself to be a member of the 12th Marines or the
0.38.6 Russian Army

The regiments (Russian: )* [8] of the Russian
Army, and armed forces inuenced by Russia consist of
battalions (Russian: ), in the infantry or tank
troops, divisions (Russian: ) in the artillery
troops, and squadrons (Russian: ) in aviation
troops. Land forces regiments also include support units
companies (Russian: ) and/or platoons (Russian:
).
0.38.7 Soviet Armed Forces

Motorised Rie Regiment
The Motorised Rie Regiment was one of the basic tactical units within the Soviet Armed Forces, totaling around
2,500 ocers and other ranks. While normally operating as part of a Motorised Rie Division or Tank Division, it was capable of short-term independent operations. By the late 1980s, it consisted of a regimental headquarters in command of three Motorised Rie Battalions, each numbering around ve hundred personnel and
equipped with either BMP infantry ghting vehicles or
BTR armoured personnel carriers, and one Tank Battalion, typically consisting of thirty-one T-64, T-72 or T-80
tanks, although older models were present in units outside
the European Theater of Operations. These were supported by a battalion of eighteen 122mm artillery pieces,
either the self-propelled 2S1 Gvozdika in BMP regiments
or towed D-30 howitzers in BTR regiments, though some
BTR regiments also used the 2S1, with additional re
support from the organic mortar battery in each infantry
battalion. Additional combat support came in the form
of an air defence missile and artillery company with four
SA-9 or SA-13s and four ZSU-23-4 or 2S6 Tunguskas,
an antitank missile battery with nine BRDM-mounted
AT-3 Sagger or AT-5 Spandrel launchers, a reconnaissance company mounted on BMPs, BRDMs and motorbikes and an engineer company. Other non-combat formations included a signals company, chemical protection
platoon, material support company, maintenance company, and regimental medical point.* [9]
0.38. REGIMENT
Tank Regiment
The Tank Regiment was found in both Motorised Rie Divisions and Tank Divisions, with slight organisational dierences depending between the two. By the
late 1980s, Tank Regiments operating as part of Motorised Rie Divisions contained slightly over 1,100 ofcers and other ranks while those operating within Tank
Divisions contained over 1,600. A regimental headquarters oversaw command of three Tank Battalions of thirtyone tanks each, typically T-64, T-72, or T-80 tanks although some units used older models, and an artillery
battalion of eighteen 2S1 Gvozdika self-propelled howitzers, with some using the older towed D-30 howitzer.
Tank Regiments operating as part of a Tank Division
included a fth combat battalion of motorised infantry,
identical to those in BMP-equipped Motorised Rie Regiments. Combat support and combat service support subunits were the same as in Motorised Rie Regiments with
the exception of the antitank missile battery.* [10]* [11]
Artillery Regiment
125
tenance company and chemical protection platoon.* [13]
Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment
Antiaircraft artillery (AAA) regiments in the late 1980s
took the place of SAM regiments in divisions which
were assigned to rear areas. These were equipped with
twenty-four S-60 57mm Anti Aircraft Guns organised
into four ring batteries. Each ring battery along with
the regimental headquarters were also equipped with
three MANPADs, either the SA-7 Grail, SA-14 Gremlin or SA-16 Gimlet. Additional subunits include a command and control battery and service battery.* [14]
0.38.8 Irish Army

The Irish Army eld artillery units are called regiments.
They are divided into batteries and together the regiments
form the Artillery Corps.
Air Defence units are organised as a single regiment with
individual batteries stationed around the country.
The Artillery Regiment was used to provide re support, but diered depending on whether it was part of a 0.38.9 See also
Motorised Rie Division or Tank Division. The artillery
Demi-brigade
regiment of an MRD consisted of three battalions of eighteen 2S3 Akatsiyas each and a battalion of eighteen BM Military organization
21 Grads, numbering just under 1,300 personnel total,
while a TD artillery regiment had one less battalion of
Regimental combat team
2S3s and a little over one thousand personnel total. This
was the standard model by the late 1980s, however not all
Regimental depot
artillery regiments had yet to conformed to it and one or
Regimental police
more of the battalions might have used older weapon systems like the D-30 howitzer. Each regiment was led by
a command control battery and included an artillery reconnaissance battery, motor transport company, mainte- 0.38.10 References
nance company, regimental medical point, chemical pro[1] Page39, Vol XXIII, Encyclopdia Britannica, 11th Editection platoon and supply and service platoon.* [12]
tion
SAM Regiment
The SAM regiment was an important part of a Motorised
Rie Division or Tank Division's eort to envelop the
battleeld in an extensive air defence network. Numbering a little over ve hundred personnel total, the SAM
regiment consisted of a regimental headquarters in charge
of twenty SA-6 Gainfuls organised into ve missile ring batteries; most were SA-6a platforms although since
1979 a limited number of SA-6bs were also deployed and
some regiments used the SA-8 Gecko as an alternative.
Each missile battery, along with the regimental headquarter and missile technical battery, were also equipped
with three MANPADs, either the SA-7 Grail, SA-14
Gremlin or SA-16 Gimlet. Besides the missile technical battery, other support subunits included an artillery
reconnaissance battery, motor transport company, main-
[2] VILLATORO, MANUEL P. (23 July 2014). El regiment ms antiguo de Europa empez siendo un tercio espaol y combati contra Napolen">El regiment ms antiguo de Europa empez siendo un tercio espaol y combati contra Napolen. abc. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
[3] Historia del Regimiento Inmemorial del Rey n* o 1
http://www.ejercito.mde.es/unidades/Madrid/rinf1/
Historial/index.html
[4] p. 72 Westcote, Thomas A View of Devonshire in MDCXXX: With a Pedigree of Most of Its Gentry W. Roberts,
1845 - Devon (England) [5] Christopher Duy, pages 110 & 121 The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, ISBN 1-85326-690-6
[6] Flynn, G.J. (June 2010). Lt. General (PDF). Marine
Corps Operating Concepts (Third Edition): 24. Retrieved
May 4, 2013.
126
[7] These claims are contested on various points of precedence; see FAQ: Regiments, in general and especially:
FAQ: Oldest Regiment in the British Army
[8] the word had common etymology with the Scandinavian
flk that in the ancient times meant something akin to a
gathering of armed people
[10] US Army, FM 100-2-3 The Soviet Army: Troops, Organisation and Equipment, 4-46
CONTENTS
geography is concerned, the regions and subregions are
described by the discipline of ethnography.
A region has its own nature that could not be moved. The
rst nature is its natural environment (landform, climate,
etc.). The second nature is its physical elements complex
that were built by people in the past. The third nature
is its socio-cultural context that could not be replaced by
new immigrants.
0.39.1 Globalization
0.39 Region
For other uses, see Region (disambiguation).
Map of the Earth
Global regions distinguishable from space, and are therefore clearly distinguished by the two basic terrestrial environments, land and water. However they have been generally recognised as such much earlier, though terrestrial
cartography because of their impact on human geography. They are divided into largest of land regions, known
as continents, and the largest of water regions known as
oceans. There are also signicant regions that do not belong to either of these classications, such as archipelago
regions that are littoral regions, or earthquake regions that
are dened in geology.
In geography, regions are areas broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human-impact
characteristics (human geography), and the interaction
of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly
described by their imprecisely dened, and sometimes
transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where
jurisdiction areas such as national borders are clearly dened in law.
With one exception, Australia, continents are not dened
Apart from the global continental regions, there are by their human geography.
also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the
oceans, and discrete climates above the land and water
masses of the planet. The land and water global regions
are divided into subregions geographically bounded by
large geological features that inuence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features.
Continental regions
As a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of

regions is important and widely used among the many
branches of geography, each of which can describe areas
in regional terms. For example, ecoregion is a term used
in environmental geography, cultural region in cultural
geography, bioregion in biogeography, and so on. The
eld of geography that studies regions themselves is called
regional geography.
Continental regions are usually based on broad experiences in human history and attempts to reduce very large
areas to more manageable regionalisation for the purpose
of study. As such they are conceptual constructs, usually
lacking distinct boundaries. Oceanic division into maritime regions are used in conjunction with the relationship to the central area of the continent, using directions
of the compass. Some continental regions are dened by
the major continental feature of their identity, such as the
Amazon basin, or the Sahara, which both occupy a significant percentage of their respective continental land area.
In the elds of physical geography, ecology,

biogeography, zoogeography, and environmental geography, regions tend to be based on natural features such as
ecosystems or biotopes, biomes, drainage basins, natural
regions, mountain ranges, soil types. Where human
To a large extent, major continental regions are mental constructs created by considering an ecient way to
dene large areas of the continents. For the most part,
the images of the World are derived as much from academic study s the media, or from personal experience of
0.39. REGION
127
global exploration. They are a matter of collective hu- surface have changed over geologic time, palaeogeograman knowledge of its own planet, and attempts to better phers have coined various names for ancient regions that
understand their environments.
no longer exist, from very large regions such as the supercontinents Rodinia, Pangaea, and Pannotia, to relatively
small regions like Beringia. Other examples include the
Regional geography
Tethys Ocean and Ancylus Lake. Palaeogeographic continental regions that include Laurentia, Proto-Laurasia,
Main article: Regional geography
Laurasia, Euramerica (the Old Red Continent), and
Gondwana.The Paleogeographic region is also where paRegional geography is a branch of geography that studies leontologist nd answers in history.
regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a prevailing
descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or
dene the uniqueness or character of a particular region, 0.39.3 Regions in human geography
which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the Main article: Human geography
proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.
Regional geography is also considered as a certain ap- Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses
proach to study in geographical sciences (similar to on the study of patterns and processes that shape human
quantitative or critical geographies, for more information interaction with various discrete environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic
see History of geography).
aspects among others that are often clearly delineated.
While the major focus of human geography is not the
physical landscape of the Earth (see physical geography),
0.39.2 Geographical regions
it is hardly possible to discuss human geography withGeographical regions are representative of the diverse out referring to the physical landscape on which human
sub-disciplines found in the discipline of Geography. activities are being played out, and environmental geogThey are, based on the discipline, dened by the data raphy is emerging as a link between the two. Regions of
collected through boundary transition that can vary from human geography can be divided into many broad catethousands of kilometers at continental level to a few kilo- gories, such as:
meters at local level, that for example describes areas of
distinct ethnicity habitats.
The United Nations Statistics Division has identied
a scheme* [1] a systematic classication of macrogeographic regions (continents), and sub-continental
subregions, and selected socioeconomic groupings.
Cultural geography
Demography
Development geography
Economic geography
Regions in physical geography
Ethnography
Main article: Physical geography
Geopolitics
Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography of regions as an Earth science. It aims
to understand the physical lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, pedosphere, and global ora and fauna patterns (biosphere) of specic regions, subregions, clusters
and locales. Physical regions are usually described by
surface geological formations, hydrological and littoral
surface features, discrete landscape features, and unique
ora and fauna distribution that are not clearly delineated,
and are separated by often wide transitional boundaries.
Health geography
Palaeogeographic regions
Palaeogeography is the study of ancient geologic environments. Since the physical structures of the Earth's
Historical geography
Language geography
Religion geography
Social geography
Time geography
Tourism geography
Transportation geography
Urban geography
128
CONTENTS
Historical regions
examples of regions created by a government or tourism

bureau include the United Kingdom's Lake District* [4]
The eld of historical geography involves the study of and California's Wine Country.* [5] great plains region
human history as it relates to places and regions, or, inversely, the study of how places and regions have changed
Natural resource regions
over time.
D. W. Meinig, a historical geographer of America, describes many historical regions in his book The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500
Years of History. For example, in identifying European
source regionsin early American colonization eorts,
he denes and describes the Northwest European Atlantic
Protestant Region, which includes sub-regions such as the
Western Channel Community, which itself is made of
sub-regions such as the English West Country of Cornwall,
Devon, Somerset, and Dorset.
In describing historic regions of America, Meinig writes
of The Great Fisheryo the coast of Newfoundland
and New England, an oceanic region that includes the
Grand Banks. He rejects regions traditionally used in describing American history, like New France, West Indies, the Middle Colonies, and the individual colonies
themselves (Province of Maryland, for example). Instead
he writes of discrete colonization areas,which may
be named after colonies, but rarely adhere strictly to political boundaries. Historic regions of this type Meinig
writes about includeGreater New Englandand its major sub-regions ofPlymouth,
New Haven shores(including parts of Long Island),Rhode Island(orNarragansett Bay),the Piscataqua,
Massachusetts Bay,
Connecticut Valley,and to a lesser degree, regions in
the sphere of inuence of Greater New England, Acadia(Nova Scotia),Newfoundland and The Fishery/The
Banks.
Natural resources often occur in distinct regions. Natural

resource regions can be a topic of physical geography or
environmental geography, but also have a strong element
of human geography and economic geography. A coal
region, for example, is a physical or geomorphological
region, but its development and exploitation can make it
into an economic and a cultural region. Some examples
of natural resource regions include the Rumaila Field,
the oil eld that lies along the border or Iraq and Kuwait
and played a role in the Gulf War; the Coal Region of
Pennsylvania, which is a historical region as well as a
cultural, physical, and natural resource region; the South
Wales Coaleld, which like Pennsylvania's coal region is
a historical, cultural, and natural region; the Kuznetsk
Basin, a similarly important coal mining region in Russia; Kryvbas, the economic and iron ore mining region
of Ukraine; and the James Bay Project, a large region of
Quebec where one of the largest hydroelectric systems in
the world has been developed.
Religious regions
Sometimes a region associated with a religion is given a

name, like Christendom, a term with medieval and renaissance connotations of Christianity as a sort of social
and political polity. The term Muslim world is sometimes
used to refer to the region of the world where Islam is
dominant. These broad terms are very vague when used
Other examples of historical regions include Iroquoia,
to describe regions.
Ohio Country, Illinois Country, and Rupert's Land.
Within some religions there are clearly dened regions.
The Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England,
the Eastern Orthodox Church, and others, dene eccleTourism region
siastical regions with names such as diocese, eparchy,
ecclesiastical provinces, and parish.
Main article: Tourism region
For example, the United States is divided into 32 Roman
Catholic ecclesiastical provinces. The Lutheran Church
A tourism region is a geographical region that has been
Missouri Synod is organized into 33 geographic districts,
designated by a governmental organization or tourism buwhich are subdivided into circuits (the Atlantic District
reau as having common cultural or environmental charac(LCMS), for example). The Church of Jesus Christ of
teristics. These regions are often named after a geographLatter-day Saints uses regions similar to dioceses and
ical, former, or current administrative region or may have
parishes, but uses terms like ward and stake.
a name created for tourism purposes. The names often evoke certain positive qualities of the area and suggest a coherent tourism experience to visitors. Countries, Political regions
states, provinces, and other administrative regions are often carved up into tourism regions to facilitate attracting In the eld of political geography regions tend to be based
visitors.
on political units such as sovereign states; subnational
Some of the more famous tourism regions based units such as provinces, counties, townships, territories,
on historical or current administrative regions include etc.; and multinational groupings, including formally deTuscany* [2] in Italy and Yucatn* [3] in Mexico. Famous ned units such as the European Union, the Association
0.39. REGION
of Southeast Asian Nations, and NATO, as well as informally dened regions such as the Third World, Western
Europe, and the Middle East.
129
Tanzania
Togo (rgion)
Trinidad and Tobago (Regional Corporation)
Administrative regions
The word regionis taken from the Latin regio (derived from regere, to rule), and a number of countries
have borrowed the term as the formal name for a type
of subnational entity (e.g., the regin, used in Chile). In
English, the word is also used as the conventional translation for equivalent terms in other languages (e.g., the
(oblast), used in Russia alongside with a broader
term ).
The Canadian province of Qubec also uses theadministrative region(rgion administrative).

Scotland had local government regions from 1975 to
1996.
In Spain the ocial name of the autonomous community of Murcia is Regin de Murcia. Also, some
single-province autonomous communities such as Madrid
use the term regin interchangeably with comunidad
autnoma.
The following countries use the term region(or its

cognate) as the name of a type of subnational administra- Two ln (counties) in Sweden are ocially called 'regions': Skne and Vstra Gtaland, and there is currently
tive unit:
a controversial proposal to divide the rest of Sweden into
Belgium (in French, rgion; in German, Region; the large regions, replacing the current counties.
Dutch term gewest is often translated asregion) The government of the Philippines uses the term region(in Filipino, rehiyon) when it's necessary to group
Chad (rgion, eective from 2002)
provinces, the primary administrative subdivision of the
country. This is also the case in Brazil, which groups its
Chile (regin)
primary administrative divisions (estados;states) into
grandes regies (greater regions) for statistical purposes,
Congo (rgion)
while Russia uses (economic reCte d'Ivoire (rgion)
gions) in a similar way, as does Romania and Venezuela.
Denmark (eective from 2007)

England (not the United Kingdom as a whole)
Eritrea
France (rgion)
Ghana
The government of Singapore makes use of the term

"region" for its own administrative purposes.
The following countries use an administrative subdivision
conventionally referred to as a region in English:
Bulgaria, which uses the (oblast)
Guinea (rgion)
Russia, which uses the (oblast'), and for

some regions the (krai)
Guinea-Bissau (regio)
Ukraine, which uses the (oblast')
Guyana
Slovakia (kraj)
Hungary (rgi)
Italy (regione)
Madagascar (rgion)
China has ve (zzhq) and two (or

; tbixngzhngq), which are translated as
"autonomous region" and "special administrative region",
respectively.
Mali (rgion)
Namibia
New Zealand
Peru (regin)
Portugal (regio)
Philippines (rehiyon)
Senegal (rgion)
Local administrative regions There are many relatively small regions based on local government agencies
such as districts, agencies, or regions. In general, they
are all regions in the general sense of being bounded spatial units. Examples include electoral districts such as
Washington's 6th congressional district and Tennessee's
1st congressional district; school districts such as Granite
School District and Los Angeles Unied School District; economic districts such as the Reedy Creek Improvement District; metropolitan areas such as the Seattle
130
CONTENTS
metropolitan area, and metropolitan districts such as

the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater
Chicago, the Las Vegas-Clark County Library District,
the Metropolitan Police Service of Greater London, as
well as other local districts like the York Rural Sanitary
District, the Delaware River Port Authority, the Nassau
County Soil and Water Conservation District, and CTRAN.
full name of the military formation is Army Region. The

size of an Army Region can vary widely but is generally
somewhere between about 1 million and 3 million soldiers. Two or more Army Regions could make up an
Army Theater. An Army Region is typically commanded
by a full General (US four stars), a Field Marshal, or
General of the Army (US ve stars), or Generalissimo
(Soviet Union). Due to the large size of this formation,
its use is rarely employed. Some of the very few examples
of an Army Region are each of the Eastern, Western, and
Traditional or informal regions
southern (mostly in Italy) fronts in Europe during World
War II. The military map unit symbol for this echelon of
The traditional territorial divisions of some countries are formation (see Military organization and APP-6A) conalso commonly rendered in English asregions. These sists of six Xs.
informal divisions do not form the basis of the modern
administrative divisions of these countries, but still dene
and delimit local regional identity and sense of belonging.
0.39.4 See also
Examples include:
Finland
Autonomous region
Japan
Committee of the Regions
Korea
Continent
Norway (landsdeler)
Continental fragment
Romania
Slovakia
Functional region
Euroregion
Latin names of regions
Military district
A functional region or Nodal region, is a region that has

Regional district
a dened core that retains a specic characteristic that
diminishes outwards. To be considered a Functional re Regionalism (disambiguation)
gion, at least one form of spatial interaction must oc Regional municipality
cur between the center and all other parts of the region.
A functional region is organized around a node or focal
Subcontinent
point with the surrounding areas linked to that node by
transportation systems, communication systems, or other
Submerged continents
economic association involving such activities as manufacturing and retail trading. A typical functional region
Subregion
is a metropolitan area (MA) as dened by the Bureau
of Census. For example, the New York MA is a func Supercontinent
tional region that covers parts of several states. It is linked
by commuting patterns, trade ows, television and radio
United Nations geoscheme
broadcasts, newspapers, travel for recreation and entertainment. Other functional regions include shopping regions centered on malls, area served by branch banks, and
0.39.5 Notes
ports.
[1] Unstats.un.org
Military regions
[2] Turismo.intoscana.it. Retrieved 2009-11-25
See also: Military district

In military usage, a region is shorthand for the name
of a military formation larger than an Army Group and
smaller than an Army Theater or simply Theater. The
[3] Visitmexico.com, Retrieved 2009-11-25

[4] Lakedistrict.gov.uk, Retrieved 2009-11-25
[5] Winecountry.com, Retrieved 2009-11-25
0.40. SECTION (MILITARY UNIT)
0.39.6
References
131
0.40.1 Commonwealth
Bailey, Robert G. (1996) Ecosystem Geography. Australian Army

New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-94586-5
Under the new structure of the infantry platoon, sec Meinig, D.W. (1986). The Shaping of America:
tions are made up of eight men divided into two fourA Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of Hisman reteams. Each reteam consists of a team leader
tory, Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492-1800. New
(corporal/lance-corporal), a scout with enhanced optics,
Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03548a grenadier with an M203 and an LSW operator with an
9
F89 Minimi light support weapon.
0.39.7
External links
Typical re team structure:
At the start of World War I, the Australian Army used

Map and descriptions of hydrologic unit regions of a section that consisted of 27 men including the section
commander, who was a non-commissioned ocer holdthe United States
ing the rank of sergeant.* [1]
Federal Standards for Delineation of Hydrologic
During World War II, a rie section comprised ten solUnit Boundaries
diers with a corporal in command with a lance-corporal
as his second-in-command. The corporal used an M1928
Physiographic regions of the United States
Thompson submachine gun, while one of the privates
used a Bren gun. The other eight soldiers all used No.1
Mk.3 Lee-Eneld ries with a bayonet and scabbard.
0.40 Section (military unit)
They all carried two or three No.36 Mills bomb grenades.
Standard NATO military map symbol to Section
PostWorld War II and indicative for the Vietnam

War a rie section consisted of ten personnel comprising: a command & scout group (three people
two sub-machineguns/M16A1 and a L1A1 SLR); a gun
group (three people an M60 machine gun and two
L1A1 SLRs) and a rie group (four people L1A1
SLRs).* [2]* [3]
British Army
Squad sized unit
(8-12 soldiers)
Platoon sized unit

(up to 39 soldiers)
The British Army section now consists of eight

soldiers* [4] made up of a Corporal as the section commander, a Lance-Corporal as his second-in-command (
2IC) and six privates. Three sections together form a
platoon. In conventional warfare, the section is split into
two four-man reteams (CharlieandDelta), commanded by the corporal and lance-corporal respectively.
Second World War and after The Rie Section
of a Second World War Infantry Battalion was generally formed of 10 men;* [5] a Corporal as the section
leader with six privates with Lee Eneld ries forming
a rie group, and a light machine gun group of a Lancecorporal, a gunner with the Bren gun and aloadercarrying a spare barrel and extra ammunition.
With the switch from .303 to 7.62mm NATO in the

1950s until the introduction of 5.56 mm calibre weapons
A section is a military sub-subunit in some armies. In in the late 1980s, the typical section was armed with and
many armies, it might be a squad of 2-3 reteams (i.e. organized around the 7.62 mm L7 GPMG (general purseven to twelve soldiers). However, in France and armies pose machine gun). The section was typically divided
based on the French model, it is the sub-division of a com- into two groups": a rie group and a gun group.
pany (equivalent to a platoon).
The rie group comprised the Section Commander (CorInfantryfriendly / own armed forces
132
poral) with an L1A1 SLR, the Anti-Tank gunner with the
84mm Carl Gustav and a 9mm SMG, the Anti-Tank No
2 with spare 84mm rounds and an L1A1 and two riemen with L1A1s. The gun group was commanded by the
section 2IC (Lance Corporal) with an L1A1, and comprised the gunner with the GPMG and the gun No 2 with
an L1A1.
All section tactics were basically designed to bring the gun
to bear on the enemy and support the gun; once the gun
had suppressed the enemy (winning the reght), the
rie group would assault and destroy the enemy position
with the gun providing re until the last safe moment.
CONTENTS
level in recognition that the 5.56mm proved inadequate
in Afghanistan. The L86A2 LSW is now almost entirely
unused by Infantry Sections, due to the implementation
of the L110A1 (FN Minimi) and L129A1 Sharpshooter
rie.
Canadian Forces
The Canadian Army also uses the section, which is
roughly the same as its British counterpart, except that it
is led by a sergeant, with a master corporal as the secondin-command. The section is further divided into assault
groups, which are equivalent to the British reteams (four
soldiers). They are designated Assault Group 1 and Assault Group 2. Assault groups are broken down to even
smaller reteams, normally consisting of two soldiers,
designated Alpha, Bravo, Charlie and Delta. Alpha and
Bravo make up Assault Group 1; Charlie and Delta make
up Assault Group 2.
This organization was abandoned in favour of reteams

when 5.56 mm assault ries and SAWs were introduced
in the late 1980s. These were the L85 IW and the longerbarrelled L86 LSW (Light support weapon). The repower of the team has now been extended by the L110A1
LMG. The LSW is now generally used as a designated
marksman's rie and the LMG is the belt fed weapon for
laying down suppressing re. Each re team has two IW, The section commander will have overall control of the
one with an underslung grenade launcher, one LSW and section, and is assigned to Assault Group 1, Alpha Team.
one LMG.
His 2nd in command will be in command of Assault
Group 2, and is assigned to Delta team.
Current Organisation An infantry section now con- In a normal rie section, the focus is around the pair of
C9 LMGs(Light Machine Gun) that are carried by Bravo
sists of:
and Delta teams, one in each team. This results in a forCharlie Fireteam:
mation of Bravo, Alpha, Charlie, Delta, with Bravo and
Delta providing re support with the C9s, Alpha as the
Corporal, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rie.
command element and Charlie as the assault team.
Rieman, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rie with
40mm underslung grenade launcher.
0.40.2 Danish Army
Rieman, armed with an L110A1 5.56mm light maIn the Danish Army, the section consists of two squads,
chine gun.
usually commanded by a Sergeant First Class. Sec Rieman, armed with an L86A2 5.56mm light sup- tions are usually highly specialized support units providport weapon.
ing heavy weapons support, EOD support etc.
Delta Fireteam:
Lance Corporal, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rie.
0.40.3 French Army
In the French Army, a section is the sub-division of

a company (equivalent to a platoon) in traditional foot
Rieman, armed with an L85A2 5.56mm rie with arms (e.g. infantry, engineering). In traditionally horsemounted arms of the French Army (e.g. armour), the
40mm underslung grenade launcher.
sub-division of a company is a peloton (platoon). The
Rieman, armed with an L110A1 5.56mm light ma- French equivalent of the British Army section is called a
chine gun.
Groupe de Combat (Combat Group). French squads are
divided into a 300-meter reteam armed with FAMAS
Rieman, armed with an L86A2 5.56mm light sup5.56 mm assault ries and carrying an AT4 anti-tank
port weapon.
weapon and a 600-meter reteam with an FN Minimi,
another FAMAS and a personal grenade launcher.
Some units operating in Afghanistan reintroduced the
GPMG as a section gun, on the scale of one per re team,
meaning that only two L85A2s were carried per section 0.40.4 Singapore Army
and both are tted with the UGL. This practice may be
altered following the introduction of the L129A1 Sharp- Singapore Army's infantry section consists of seven men
shooter rie, bringing 7.62mm weapons back to Section led by a Third Sergeant and assisted by a Corporal as 2IC.
0.40. SECTION (MILITARY UNIT)
133
The section is divided into a 3-man group, which ing of the squads and teams that man the crew-served
includes the section commander, and two 2-man groups. weapons.
The weapons carried include two light anti-tank weapons, Weapons platoon, rie company:
two section automatic weapons (SAW), and two grenade
launchers.
a machine gun section, consisting of a section leader
and three machine gun squads, each containing two
machine gun teams of three men each
a LWCMS mortar section, consisting of a section
Historically, a section of US Infantry was a half plaleader and three 60mm mortar squads, each containtoon(the platoon itself being ahalf company). The
ing one mortar and four man crew
section was led by a sergeant assisted by one or (later)
two corporals and consisted of a total of from 12-24 sol an assault section, consisting of a section leader and
diers, depending on the time period. In the US Cavalry,
three assault squads, each containg two assault teams
a section was roughly equivalent to a squad in the US
of two men each
Infantry. In Armor, Armored Cavalry, Mechanized Infantry, and Stryker Infantry units, a section consists of
two tanks/armored vehicles, with two sections to a pla- Weapons company, infantry battalion:
toon. The platoon leader, leads one section and the platoon sergeant leads the other. Some branches, such as
an 81mm mortar platoon, consisting of two 81mm
Air Defense Artillery and Field Artillery, use the term
mortar sections, each containing four 81mm morsection to denote a squad-sized unit that may act indetar squads of six men each and an eight-man section
pendently of each other in the larger platoon formation.
headquarters.
(I.e., the Firing Platoon consists of several gun sections,
which are the basic ring elements of the unit.) The sec an antiarmor platoon, consisting of a Javelin section,
tion is used as an administrative formation and may be
containing a section leader and two Javelin squads,
bigger than the regular squad formation often overseen
each having two teams of two men each, and an antiby a Sta Sergeant.
tank (TOW) section, containing a section leader and
four antitank squads, each having a squad leader and
two TOW teams of two men each
0.40.6 United States Marine Corps
The USMC employs sections as intermediate tactical
echelons in infantry, armored vehicle units (individual
vehicles being the base tactical element), and low altitude air defense (LAAD) units, and as the base tactical element in artillery units. Infantry sections can consist of as few as eight Marines (heavy machinegun section) to as many as 32 in an 81-mm mortar section. In
headquarters, service, and support units throughout the
USMC (CE, GCE, ACE, and LCE), sections are used
as functional sub-units of headquarters or platoons. For
example, the intelligence section (S-2) of a battalion or
squadron headquarters; the communications-electronics
maintenance section, communication platoon, regimental
headquarters company; armory section, Marine aviation
logistics squadron. In Marine aircraft squadrons, section
is also used to designate a ight of two or three aircraft
under the command of a designated section leader. Some
sections, such as weapons platoon sections are led by a
sta non-commissioned Ocer (SNCO), usually a sta
sergeant. Tank and other armored vehicle sections, as
well as service and support sections, may be led by either
an ocer, usually a lieutenant (or a CWO, in the case of
service and support units), or a SNCO ranging from sta
sergeant to master sergeant. Headquarters and aircraft
sections are always led by a commissioned ocer.
a heavy machine gun (HMG) platoon, consisting of

three HMG sections, each having two HMG squads
of four men each.
In armored vehicle units, platoons consist of sections consisting of individual vehicles and their crews:
tank and light armored reconnaissance platoons consist of two sections, each containing two tanks/light
armored vehicles and crews
assault amphibian vehicle (AAV) platoons consist
of four sections, each containing three AAV's and
crews
combat engineer assault breacher sections consist of
two CEV assault breacher vehicles and crews
In low altitude air defense (LAAD) batteries, the ring
platoons consist of three sections, each consisting of a
section leader and ve two-man Stinger missile teams.
In artillery batteries, the ring platoon consists of six artillery sections, each containing one gun with its crew and
prime mover (i.e., a truck to tow the artillery piece and
In infantry units, weapons platoons have sections consist- transport the gun crew and baggage.)
134
0.40.7
CONTENTS
Other
some armies or platoon structure (up to 39 soldiers) e.g.

in France, and not to be confused with Squadron.
In some air forces, a section is also a unit containing two In military terminology, a squad is a sub-subunit led by
or three aircraft, commanded by a Lieutenant.
The USAF uses the term element, in lieu of section,
to designate units of two or three aircraft in a ight.
In the German Luftwae in the Second World War, this
would have been called a Rotte, (in the Soviet Union Red
Air Force it would have been called a zveno or para). Two
sections made up a ight, called a Schwarm, with three
ights, along with headquarters and support personnel,
comprising a Stael.
A section is also the name for a shift or team of police ocers in various police forces, particularly in the
Commonwealth. The term is no longer used in the British
police, in which it originated and where it was the group
of ocers headed by a Sergeant.
0.40.8
See also
Infantry Minor Tactics

Second World War Canadian Rie Section
Contubernium
0.40.9
References
[1] Ryan, Alan (2003). Putting Your Young Men in the Mud:
Change, Continuity and the Australian Infantry Battalion.
Land Warfare Studies Centre Working Papers. Working
Paper No. 124. Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory:
Land Warfare Studies Centre. p. 11. ISBN 0-642-295956.
[2] Military Organisation and Structure Army: Detailed
Structure. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 20 May
2011.
[3] PART 5 Battalion Organisational Structure 1965
1972. .4RAR Museum. Retrieved 20 May 2011.
[4] http://www.army.mod.uk/join/22071.aspx
[5] Kennedy, Gary. British Infantry Battalion, June 1944
Rie Company. Battalion Organisation during the Second World War. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
Standard NATO military map symbol for a friendly infantry

Squad.
a non-commissioned ocer* [1] that is subordinate to an

infantry platoon. In countries following the British Army
tradition (Australian Army, Canadian Army, and others),
this organization is referred to as a section. In most
armies, a squad consists of eight to fourteen soldiers,* [2]
and may be further subdivided into reteams.
The equivalent to squad is the Gruppe, a sub-unit of
8 to 12 soldiers, in the German Bundeswehr, Austrian
Bundesheer and Swiss Army.
Presentation
Standard NATO symbol squad (7 or 8 12 soldiers) in
NATO armed forces:
two single dots ( squad in general); respectively
a lying rectangle with two dots above (squad as single sub-unit) on military maps
0.41.1 Organization
United States
0.40.10
External links
Historically, a squadin the US Army was a sub-unit

of a section, consisting of from as few as two soldiers to
canadiansoldiers.com article on the history of the Inas many as 12, and was primarily used for drill purposes,
fantry Section.
the smallest tactical sub-unit being the section, which was
also known as a half-platoon (the platoon itself being a
half company). Depending upon the time period, the
0.41 Squad
squadleadercould be a sergeant (in sections with only
one corporal, who led the second squad), a corporal, or
For other uses, see Squad (disambiguation).
even aseniorprivate. In 1891, the US Army ocially
Not to be confused with Section, which might have sub- dened a rie squadas consisting of seven privates
unit structure (7 to 12 soldiers, equivalent to squad) in and one corporal.* [3]
0.41. SQUAD
In the United States Army, a squad is composed of
two reteams of four soldiers each, as well as a squad
leader who is a Sta Sergeant. A Military Police squad
is composed of three teams of three. In the United
States Marine Corps, a rie squad is typically composed
of three reteams of four Marines and a squad leader
who is typically a Sergeant or Corporal. Other types of
USMC infantry squads include: machinegun (7.62mm),
heavy machinegun (.50 cal. and 40mm), LWCMS mortar
(60-mm), 81-mm mortar, assault weapon (SMAW), antiarmor (Javelin missile), and anti-tank (TOW Missile).
These squads range from as few as four Marines to as
many as seven, depending upon the weapon system with
which the squad is equipped. Squads are also used in
reconnaissance, light armored reconnaissance (scout dismounts), combat engineer, law enforcement (i.e., military police), Marine Security Force Regiment (MSFR),
and Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team (FAST) companies. In the US Air Force Security Forces a squad is
made up of three re teams of four members each led
by a Senior Airman or Sta Sergeant and either a Sta
Sergeant or Tech Sergeant squad leader.
135
company tasks, as well as Hazardous Materials (Hazmat)
mitigation and other specialty rescue functions. FDNY's
ve Rescuecompanies primarily mitigate technical
and heavy rescue incidents, and operate as a pure special
rescue unit. Squads and Rescues within the FDNY are
part of the departments Specialty Operations Command
(SOC).
In other departments, a squad is a name given to a type of
apparatus that delivers Emergency Medical Services, and
is staed by reghter/EMT's or reghter/paramedics.
This type of service delivery is common in the greater
Los Angeles area of California, and was made famous in
the 1970s show Emergency!, where the ctional Squad 51
highlighted the lives of two reghter/paramedics of the
LACoFD.
Chinese National Revolutionary Army to 1949
The squad, , or NAE NAE YEET section was the basic

unit of the National Revolutionary Army (the Republic of
China), and would usually be 14 men strong. An infantry
squad from an elite German-trained division would ideally have one light machine gun and 10 ries, but only one
USSR
of the three squads in a non-elite Central Army division
would have a light machine gun. Furthermore, the regular
In the Soviet Armed Forces a motorised rie squad was
provincial army divisions had no machine guns at all.* [5]
mounted in either a BTR armoured personnel carrier
or BMP infantry ghting vehicle, with the former being more numerous by the late 1980s. BTR rie squads
0.41.2 Leadership
consisted of a Squad Leader/BTR Commander, Senior
Rieman/Assistant Squad Leader, a Machine Gunner
A squad is led by an NCO known as a Squad Leader.
armed with an RPK-74, a Grenadier armed with an RPGHis/her second in command is known as an Assistant
7, a Rieman/Assistant Grenadier, a Rieman/Medic,
Squad Leader. In Britain and in the Commonwealth,
a Rieman, a BTR Driver/Mechanic and a BTR Mathese appointments are known as Section Commander
chine Gunner. BMP rie squads consisted of a Squad
and Section 2IC (second in command), respectively.
Leader/BMP Commander, Assistant Squad Leader/BMP
Gunner, a BMP Driver/Mechanic, a Machine Gunner
armed with an RPK-74, a Grenadier armed with an RPG- Squad leader
7, a Rieman/Assistant Grenadier, a Rieman/Medic, a
Senior Rieman and a Rieman all armed with AKMs This article is about the military role. For the board
or AK-74s. Within a platoon the Rieman in one of game by Avalon Hill, see Squad Leader.
the squads was armed with an SVD sniper rie. In both
BTR and BMP squads the vehicle's gunner and driver
stayed with the vehicle while the rest of the squad dis- In the military, a squad leader is a non-commissioned
ocer who leads a squad of typically 9 soldiers (US
mounted.* [4]
Army: squad leader and two reteams of 4 men each)
or 13 Marines (US Marine Corps: squad leader and three
Fire Service in the United States
reteams of 4 men each) in a rie squad, or 3 to 8 men in
a crew-served weapons squad. In the United States Army
A squad is a term used in the US Fire and EMS services the TO&E rank of a rie squad leader is sta sergeant (Eto describe several types of units and/or emergency ap- 6, or OR-6) and in the United States Marine Corps the TO
paratus. Oftentimes, the names Squadand Rescue rank is sergeant (E-5, or OR-5), though a corporal may
Squadare used interchangeably, however the function of also act as a squad leader in the absence of sucient numthe squad is dierent from department to department. In bers of sergeants. Squad leaders of crew-served weapons
some departments, aSquadand aRescueare two dis- squads range from corporal through sta sergeant, detinct units. This is the case in New York City, where the pending upon the branch of service and type of squad.
FDNY operates seven squads. These specialenhanced In some armies, notably those of the British Commonengine companies perform both truckand engine wealth, in which the term section is used for units of this
136
CONTENTS
size, the NCO in charge, which in the British Army and

Royal Marines is normally a Corporal (OR-4), is termed
a section commander.
Royal Netherlands Army: sergeant

Royal Netherlands Marines: Corporal
Ranks
Russian Army: Junior Sergeant or Sergeant
Typical ranks for squad leaders are:
Spanish Army (pelotn): Cabo 1, Sargento

Swedish Army: Sergeant, First Sergeant
Swiss Army:
Korporal)
Wachtmeister
(before
2004:
Turkish Army: avu

U.S. Army: Sta Sergeant or Sergeant
U.S. Marine Corps: Sergeant or Corporal
0.41.3 Other military uses

A Romanian squad of a TAB-77 APC. This is a typical Soviet arrangement, with a PK general purpose machine gun and a RPK
light machine gun in the center and two soldiers with AK-47 assault ries and one RPG-7 grenade launcher on the anks. Another soldier provides liaison or extra repower where needed.
A squad can also be an ad hoc group of soldiers assigned

to a task, for example, a ring squad.
The Canadian Forces Manual of Drill and Ceremonial denes a squad as a small military formation of less than
platoon size which is adopted to teach drill movements.
(escouade)"* [6] However, the Manual provides direction
Australian Army: Corporal
for drill movements to be taught inmovements,
parts,
orstages.* [6] The format of the commands in the manAustrian Army: Wachtmeister
ual has given rise to a prevalent belief in the CF that these
Brazilian Army: In the Brazilian Army, a Grupo de stages are called squads. This groupthink has such
Combate is a platoon subdivision and is commanded strength that phrases such as for ease of learning, this
movement is broken down into 'squads'", are commonly
by a third sergeant, as in a U.S. Army squad.
used during periods of drill instruction. In actuality, were
British Army: Corporal
the lesson being given to a platoon, company or parade,
Canadian Army (Arme canadienne): Sergeant or the word squadwould be replaced by the appropriate
unit. Thus, these stages, parts, or movements should not
Master Corporal
be referred to as squads.
Danish Army: Sergeant
Estonian Defence Forces: Seersant (reserve unit) or

0.41.4
Nooremveebel (professional unit)
See also
Finnish Army: Alikersantti or Kersantti (Corporal

or Sergeant)
Contubernium
German Army: Feldwebel or Oberfeldwebel (previously Unterozier / Unterfeldwebel; until 1945

Obergefreiter in the Wehrmacht or SS-Rottenfhrer
in the Waen-SS)
Death squad
Israeli Defence Force: Sergeant (Saml) or Sta

Sergeant (Samr)
Norwegian Army: Sergeant (NOC is corporal and
leads the light machine gun re team of the squad).
Portuguese Army: the esquadra (squad) is led by a
cabo (corporal).
Execution by ring squad

Military organizations
Military science
Organization of Canadian Army rie sections during
World War II
Squadron
0.42. SQUADRON (ARMY)
0.41.5
137
References
[1] Squad/Section. Gruntsmilitary.com. Retrieved 201310-17.

[2] US Army Chain of Command. Usmilitary.about.com.
2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-10-17.
[3] http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/060/60-3-1/
cmhPub_60-3-1.pdf
[5] :
Battle of Shanghai
Chinese Program on the
[6] The Canadian Forces Manual of Drill and Ceremonial.

Retrieved 13 June 2010.
0.41.6
External links
0.42 Squadron (army)
companies, and the battalion was an administrative designation used only in garrison. The reorganizations converted companies to troops and battalions to squadrons,
and made squadrons tactical formations as well as administrative ones.
0.42.2 Commonwealth
In the British Army and many other Commonwealth
armies, a squadron is the counterpart of an infantry company or artillery battery. A squadron is a sub-unit of a
battalion-sized formation (usually a regiment), and is usually made up of two or more troops.* [1]* [2]
The designation is also used for company-sized units in
the Special Air Service, Special Reconnaissance Regiment, Honourable Artillery Company, Royal Engineers,
Royal Corps of Signals, Royal Army Medical Corps,
Royal Marine Commandos and Royal Logistic Corps,
and in the now defunct Royal Corps of Transport.
Squadrons are commonly designated using letters or numbers (e.g. No. 1 Squadron or A Squadron). In some
For other uses, see Squadron.
British Army units it is a tradition for squadrons to also
Not to be confused with Squad.
be named after an important historical battle in which the
A squadron was historically a cavalry subunit, a com- regiment has taken part. In some special cases, squadrons
can also be named after a unique honour which has been
bestowed on the unit.
0.42.3 France
The modern French Army is composed of troupes pied
(foot soldiers including infantry and combat engineers)
and troupes cheval (mounted soldiers such as armored
cavalry units, and transportation units). Nowadays, the
term escadron (squadron) is used to describe a company
(compagnie) of mounted soldiers but, for a long time, a
cavalry escadron corresponded to an infantry battalion,
Polish squadron in 183031
both units regrouping several companies (battalion and
escadons were tactical units while the companies were
pany sized military formation. The term is still used to administrative units).* [3] The term compagnie has been
refer to modern cavalry units but can also be used as a discontinued and replaced by escadron in cavalry units
designation for other arms and services. In some coun- since 1815 and in transportation units since 1968.
tries, like Italy, the battalion-level cavalry unit is called In themounted armsa captain (three galons, or braids)
"Squadron Group".
in charge of an escadron is thus called a chef d'escadron
0.42.1
United States
In the modern United States Army, a squadron is an

armored cavalry, air cavalry, or other reconnaissance unit
whose organizational role parallels that of a battalion and
is commanded by a lieutenant colonel.
Prior to the revisions in the US Army structure in
the 1880s, US Cavalry regiments were divided into
(which is a title, not a rank). However, his superior in the

hierarchy (four galons) has the rank of chef d'escadrons
(the equivalent rank in infantry units being chef de bataillon). After 1815 (in fact around 1826), the army began to write chef d'escadrons with an s in cavalry units to
reect the fact that this ocer who used to be in charge
of one squadron* [4] (several companies before 1815) was
now in charge of several squadrons (i.e., companies). In
other mounted branches (such as gendarmerie and artillerie), chef d'escadron is still spelled without s.
138
CONTENTS
0.42.4
Sweden
In the Swedish cavalry askvadronmeans a unit with the

same size as a "kompani" in the rest of the army (about
a hundred men). Even Jger and MP units may have
squadrons.
0.42.5
Norway
The Norwegian army operates with units called eskadroner (pl.), typically a company-equivalent unit, generally in armoured cavalry units although not always.
The 2nd Battalion, Brigade Nord, has a companyequivalent unit called kavalerieskadronen, orthe cavalry
squadron. It serves as the main reconnaissance unit in
the battalion. Like the mechanized infantry units, it wears
the distinct khaki-coloured beret of the battalion instead
of the normal black for cavalry units.
The Armoured Battalion (Panserbataljonen) has the majority of its constituents labeled eskadroner. Including the
Cavalry Squadron, the Armoured Squadron and the Assault Squadrons. It also includes the battalion's Support
element, the Combat Support Squadron. Its members are
also referred to as dragoons, reecting the nature of the
unit.
[4] Prior to 1776, a two-company squadron was led by the

most senior of its two captains. The single-company
squadron of 1766 was led by a captain assisted by acaptain in second. Then, when the cavalry went back
to two-company squadrons in 1788, the rank of Chef
d'escadronwas created but discontinued after a few years
and, when re-instated, the chef d'escadron (without s) became a superior ocier, typically in charge of two or
more squadrons during the napoleonic wars while individual squadrons were again led by their senior captain. Then,
when the company was abolished in 1815, squadrons were
led (as in 1776) by a captain assisted by a second-captain
while a chef d'escadron (without s) was in charge of several squadrons. A few years later (around 1826), the cavalry got into the habit of spelling chef d'escadrons with an
s.
0.43 Squadron (aviation)

For other uses, see Squadron.
A squadron in air force, army aviation, or naval avi-
The Telemark Battalion also has a number of units

labelled eskadroner.
This includes the Armoured
Squadron, the Cavalry Squadron and the Combat Support Squadron.
Kampeskadronen (no:Kampeskadronen) (roughly translated toThe Battle Squadron), a Squadron consisting of
two Mechanized Infantry Platoons, mounted on CV90's,
one Armoured Platoon with Leopard 2's and a Combat
Service Support Unit. It's soldiers referred to as dragoons
and consisting mostly of conscripted troops. Used as OPFOR in exercise operations with other parts of the Norwegian Army.
0.42.6
[1] Squadron. Oxford Dictionaries.com. Retrieved 24

December 2012.
A United States Air Force F-86 Sabre squadron during the

Korean War, 1951.
ation is mainly a unit comprising a number of military

aircraft and their aircrews, usually of the same type, typically with 12 to 24 aircraft, sometimes divided into three
or four ights, depending on aircraft type and air force.
Land based squadrons equipped with heavier type aircraft
such as long-range bombers, or cargo aircraft, or air refueling tankers have around 12 aircraft as a typical authorization, while most ghter equipped units have an authorized number of 18 to 24.
In most armed forces, two or more squadrons will form a

group or a wing. Some air forces (including the Royal Air
[2] Jobson, Christopher (2009). Looking Forward, Looking Force, Royal Netherlands Air Force, German Air Force,
Back: Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army. Republic of Singapore Air Force, and United States Air
Wavell Heights, Queensland: Big Sky Publishing. pp. 92 Force) also use the term squadrons for non-ying ground
93. ISBN 9780980325164.
units (e.g., radar squadrons, missile squadrons, aircraft
maintenance squadrons, security forces squadrons, civil
[3] Before 1776, depending on the period, a cavalry squadron
engineering squadrons, medical squadrons, etc.).
was made up of two to four compagnies. From 1776 to
1788, a squadron was composed of a single larger
company but the French Army then reverted to a twocompany squadron that although deemed not optimal
by many ocers lasted until 1815 when King Louis
XVIII merged the two organizations and abolished the
term companyin the cavalry.
0.43.1 United States military air services

For more details on U.S. Navy squadrons, see Dictionary
of American Naval Aviation Squadrons.
0.44. SQUADRON (NAVAL)
In contrast to United States Air Force units where ying

organizations are separate from supporting administrative
and aircraft maintenance organizations, ying squadrons
in U.S. Naval Aviation (United States Navy and United
States Marine Corps) typically contain both embedded
administrative support functions and organizational level
aircraft maintenance functions, plus all their associated
personnel as part of the total squadron manning.
139
A squadron, or naval squadron, is a signicant group
of warships which is nonetheless considered too small to
be designated a eet. A squadron is typically a part of a
eet. Between dierent navies there are no clear dening
parameters to distinguish a squadron from a eet (or from
a otilla), and the size and strength of a naval squadron
varies greatly according to the country and time period.
Groups of small warships, or small groups of major warships, might instead be designated otillas by some navies
according to their terminology. Since the size of a naval
squadron varies greatly, the rank associated with command of a squadron also varies greatly.
In United States Marine Corps Aviation the nomenclature squadronis also used to designate all battalionequivalent, aviation support organizations.
These
squadrons include: wing headquarters, tactical air com- Before 1864 the entire eet of the Royal Navy was dimand, air control, air support, aviation logistics, wing vided into three squadrons, the red, the white, and the
blue. Each Royal Navy squadron alone was more powsupport, and wing communications squadrons.
erful than most national navies. Today, a squadron
Also in contrast to USAF ying units, sea-based and land- might number three to ten vessels, which might be
based U.S. Naval Aviation squadrons (USN + USMC) major warships, transport ships, submarines, or small
rarely have more than 12 aircraft authorized/assigned at craft in a larger task force or a eet. A squadron
any one time.
may be composed of one type of ship of various types
Although part of U.S. naval aviation, United States Coast tasked with a specic mission such as coastal patrol,
Guard aviation units are centered around an air station blockade, or minesweeping. In the United States Navy,
versus a squadron or group/wing organizational structure. the term squadron has always been used for formations
The one exception to this is the Coast Guard's Helicopter of destroyers and submarines.
Interdiction Squadron (HITRON), which is engaged primarily in counter-narcotics (CN) interdiction operations.
0.44.1 Command element
In U.S. Army Aviation, ying units may be organized in

battalions or squadrons (air cavalry only) reporting to an A eet is usually commanded by a ag ocer such as a
aviation brigade.
vice admiral or a rear admiral, but squadrons are sometimes commanded by commodores or simply the most senior captain (often the same thing), depending on the importance of the command. A large squadron will some0.43.2 Others
times be divided into two or more divisions, each of
An escadron is the equivalent unit in France's Arme de which might be commanded by a subordinate captain.
l'Air. It is normally subdivided into escadrilles of eight Like a eet, a squadron is usually, but not necessarily,
a permanent formation.
aircraft.
In the Air Training Corps of the United Kingdom and
many Commonwealth nations, a Squadron is a group of 0.44.2
cadets who parade regularly.
Squadron types
In the U.S. Civil Air Patrol, a squadron is the basic ad- There are several types of squadron:
ministrative unit.
Independent squadrons. In eect, these are formaIn the Swedish Air Force a squadron (helikopterskvadron)
tions that are too small to be called a eet. Indepenis a detachment from theHelicopter Wing(Helikopterdent squadrons may be assigned to and named after a
*
ottiljen). [1]
particular ocean or sea, and the admiral commanding the squadron may be the naval commander in
chief in that theatre.
0.43.3
References
[1] Helikopterottiljen (Swedish)
0.44 Squadron (naval)

For other uses, see Squadron (disambiguation).
Temporary sub-divisions of a eet. In the Age of

Sail, eets were divided into van, centre, and rear
squadrons, named after each's place in the line of
battle. A temporary detachment from a eet would
also be called a squadron.
Permanent battle formations. As warships evolved
during the 19th century, larger warships began to
140
CONTENTS
The 2nd Battle Squadron of the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet during the First World War. From left to right: King George V,
Thunderer, Monarch, and Conqueror.
be formed into and trained as permanent, numbered squadrons of the same class of warship such as
the 5th Battle Squadron of the Royal Navy's Grand
Fleet. U.S. Navy squadron types have included Battleship Squadrons, Cruiser Squadrons (CruRons),
Destroyer Squadrons (DesRons), Escort Squadrons,
Transport Squadrons (TransRons),* [1] and Submarine Squadrons (SubRons).
In modern navies, squadrons have tended to become administrative units. Most navies began to abandon the
squadron as a tactical formation during the Second World
War. The need to provide capital ships with the antisubmarine protection of a destroyer screen and air cover
from an aircraft carrier led to the increasing use of the
carrier battle group, or ad hoc task forces, composed of
whichever ships were available for a particular operation.
An organisation chart depicting the New Zealand Army's top level

T/O as at 2007. The chart uses the NATO Military Symbols for
Land Based Systems to depict the dierent kinds of units in the
Army at this time.
of Defense which prescribes the organization, stang,

and equippage of units. Also used in acronyms as 'T/O'
and 'T/E'.
As warships have grown larger, the term squadron has It also provides information on the mission and capabiligradually replaced the term otilla for formations of ties of a unit as well as the unit's current status. A general
destroyers, frigates and submarines in many navies.
TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry)
rather than a specic unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In
this way, all units of the same branch (such as Infantry)
0.44.3 See also
follow the same structural guidelines.
Division (naval)
0.45.1 Army
0.44.4
References
In the U.S. Army, there are four basic types of TOEs:
[1] OPNAV 29-P1000
0.44.5
External links
Squadron. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-0830.
The Base Table of Organization and Equipment

(BTOE)
An organizational design document based on
current doctrine and available equipment. It
shows the basics of a unit's structure and their
wartime requirements (both for personnel and
equipment).
0.45 Table of organization and

equipment
The Objective table of organization and equipment

(OTOE)
A table of organization and equipment (TOE or

TO&E) is a document published by the U.S. Department
An updated form of the BTOE, usually formed

within the last year. It is a fully modern doc-
0.46. TASK FORCE

ument and is up to date with current policies
and initiatives.
141
0.46 Task force
Taskforceand Task groupredirect here. For the

A Modication table of organization and equipment sociological and anthropological use, see Action group
(MTOE)
(sociology). For other uses, see Taskforce (disambiguation).
A document that modies a Basic TOE
(BTOE) in regard to a specic unit. Used
when a unit's needs are substantially dierent A task force (TF) is a unit or formation established to
work on a single dened task or activity. Originally introfrom the BTOE.
duced by the United States Navy, the term has now caught
on for general usage and is a standard part of NATO ter A Table of distribution and allowances (TDA)
minology. Many non-military organizations now create
A type of temporary TOE that is applicable to task forcesor task groups for temporary activities that
a specic mission. Used in an instance when might have once been performed by ad hoc committees.
there is no applicable TOE.
Each TOE has a unique number that identies it. When 0.46.1 Naval
changes are needed, a table is not modied, instead, a new
The concept of a naval task force is as old as navies, but
table is drafted from scratch.
the term came into extensive use originally by the United
States Navy around the beginning of 1941, as a way to
increase operational exibility. Prior to that time the as0.45.2 Marine Corps
sembly of ships for naval operations was referred to as
eets, divisions, or on the smaller scale, squadrons, and
Marine T/O&Es are based on a generic template for each
otillas.
specic type and size of unit, for example, a weapons
company of an infantry battalion, or a heavy helicopter Before World War II ships were collected into divisions
squadron. These templates are then modied as needed derived from the Royal Navy's divisionof the line
by the individual unit. The Marine Corps also relies on of battle in which one squadron usually remained unother documents to report what personnel and equipment der the direct command of the Admiral of the Fleet, one
squadron was commanded by a Vice Admiral, and one by
a unit actually possesses.
a Rear Admiral, each of the three squadrons ying dierThe T/O section denotes every authorized billet within
ent coloured ags, hence the terms agship and ag oa unit by rank and Military Occupational Specialty recer. The ag of the Fleet Admiral's squadron was red, the
quired to fulll the necessary duties. The T/E section deVice Admiral's was white and the Rear Admiral's blue.
notes authorized equipment by National Stock Number
(The namesVice(possibly from advanced) andRear
and quantity.
might have derived from sailing positions within the line
at the moment of engagement.) In the late 19th century
ships were collected in numbered squadrons, which were
0.45.3 See also
assigned to named (such as the Asiatic Fleet) and later
numbered eets.
A task force can be assembled using ships from dierent divisions and squadrons, without requiring a formal
Military doctrine
and permanent eet reorganization, and can be easily dissolved following completion of the operational task. The
Military science
task force concept worked very well, and by the end of
Military unit
World War II about 100 task forces had been created in
the U.S. Navy alone.
Order of battle
United States Navy
0.45.4
External links and sources
U.S. Army TOE

TRADOC Regulation 71-15
What is a TOE (WWII example)
These are temporary organizations composed of particular ships, aircraft, submarines, military land forces, or
shore service units, assigned to fulll certain missions.
The emphasis is placed on the individual commander of
the unit, and references to CTFare common. CTF is
an abbreviation for Commander, Task Force.
142
In the U.S. Navy, task forces as part of numbered eets
have been assigned a two-digit number. In March
of 1943, Cominch [Commander-in-Chief, United States
Fleet, Admiral Ernest J. King] instituted the system of
numbering all eets, assigning the even numbers to the
Atlantic and the odd to the Pacic. This resulted in adding
eet designations to the titles of the various forces in the
theater: Naval Forces, Europe, became the Twelfth Fleet;
South Atlantic Force the Fourth Fleet; and Naval Forces,
Northwest African Waters, the Eight Fleet. The Atlantic
Fleet, itself, was designated the Second Fleet. The standardization of eet designation led to a denite system
in task force designation.* [1] A force was numbered with
two digits - the rst being that of the eet from which the
force was taken and the second indicating the sequence
in that eet. Task group within a force were numbered
by an additional digit separated from the TF number by
a decimal point. To indicate a task unit within a group,
another decimal point and digit were added. Thus, the
third task unit of the fth task group of the second task
force of the Sixth Fleet would be numbered 62.5.3.
This arrangement was typically abbreviated, so references like TF 11 are commonly seen. Likewise the force
is broken down as following: task force, task group, task
unit, and task element. In addition, a task force could be
broken into several task groups,* [2] identied by decimal points, as in TG 11.2, and nally task units, as in TU
11.2.1. Individual ships are task elements, for example
TE 11.2.1.2 would be the second ship in TU 11.2.1.
Note that there is no requirement for uniqueness over
time. The United States Seventh Fleet used TF 76 in
World War II, and o Vietnam, and continued to use
TF70-79 numberings throughout the rest of the twentieth century, and up to 2012.
CONTENTS
Task Force 77 - including in the Battle o Samar.
'Tay 3', or Task Unit 77.4.3, gained signicant
fame during this portion of the larger Battle of Leyte
Gulf. Task Force 77 continued in existence, and was
the large Carrier Task Force in the Sea of Japan during the Korean War, and in the Gulf of Tonkin during the Vietnam War.
Task Force 80
Task Force 88
Task Force 129 during the Bombardment of Cherbourg, 1944
The U.S. Navy has used numbered task forces in the same
way since 1945. The U.S. Department of Defense often
forms a Joint Task Force if the force includes units from
other services. Joint Task Force 1 was the atomic bomb
test force during the post-World War II Operation Crossroads.* [3]
In
naval
terms,
the
multinational
Australian/US/UK/Canadian/NZ Combined Communications Electronics Board mandates through Allied
Communications Publication 113 (ACP 113) the
present system, which allocated numbers from TF 1 to
apparently TF 999.* [4] For example, the Royal Navy's
Illustrious battle group in 2000 for Exercise Linked
Seas, subsequently deployed to Operation Palliser, was
Task Group 342.1.* [5] The French Navy is allocated the
series TF 470474, and Task Force 473 has been used
recently for an Enduring Freedom task force deployment
built around the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle
(R91). Task Force 142 is the U.S. Navy's Operational
Test and Evaluation Force.
Some US Navy task forces during the Second World War:

Royal Navy
Task Force 1 in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. Used as
Army/Navy Joint Task Force 1 during Operation Earlier in the Second World War, the British Royal Navy
Crossroads and then as Task Force 1 during had devised its own similar system of Forces, which were
assigned a letter rather than a number. For example,
Operation Sea Orbit (solely U.S. Navy).
the force stationed at Gibraltar was known as Force H,
Task Forces 2-10 in the U.S. Atlantic Fleet.
the force stationed at Malta was known as Force K, and
the force stationed at Singapore in December 1941 was
Task Force 11
known as Force Z.
Task Force 16
During the Falklands War in 1982 Royal Navy assembled a Task Force to achieve sea and air supremacy in
Task Force 17
the Total Exclusion Zone, before the amphibious forces
arrived. The Argentine Navy formed three lesser Task
Task Force 31
Groups (Grupo de Tareas) for pincer movements.
Task Force 34
Task Force 38 of aircraft carriers in the Central Pa- 0.46.2
cic
Army
Task Force 58 of aircraft carriers in the Central Pa- In the U.S. Army, a task force is a battalion-sized (usually,
although there are variations in size) ad hoc unit formed
cic
by attaching smaller elements of other units. A company Task Force 61
sized unit with an armored or mechanized infantry unit
0.47. THEATER (WARFARE)

attached is called a company team. A similar unit at the
brigade level is called a brigade combat team (BCT), and
there is also a similar Regimental combat team (RCT).
In the British Army and the armies of other
Commonwealth countries, such units are known as
battlegroups.
0.46.3
143
part in, often resulting in a climatic battle against
the villain of the story arc.
In the TV series Hawaii Five-O, StevenSteveMcGarrett created the so-called Five-O Task Force
which was group of state police based in Hawaii,
hence Hawaii Five-O.
Government
In government or business a task force is a temporary organization created to solve a particular problem. It is considered to be a more formal ad hoc committee.
0.46.6 See also

Joint Task Force
A taskforce, or more-commonly task force, is a spe Task Force Consulting SAS, Task Force Consulting
cial committee, usually of experts, formed expressly for
SAS Ocial website
the purpose of studying a particular problem. The task
force usually performs some sort of an audit to assess the
current situation, then draws up a list of all the current
0.46.7 References
problems present and evaluates which ones merit xing
and which ones are actually xable. The task force would
[1] HyperWar, Chapter 4: Fleet Administration, accessed
then formulate a set of solutions to the problems and pick
August 2012
the bestsolution to each problem, as determined by
some set of standards. For example, a task force set up
[2] Group. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
to eliminate excessive government spending might consider a bestsolution to be one that saves the most
[3] Nichols, K.D. (1987). The Road to Trinity. New York:
money. Normally, the task force then presents its ndMorrow. ISBN 068806910X.
ings and proposed solutions to the institution that called
for its formation; it is then up to the institution itself to
[4] Combined Communication Electronics Board (Septemactually act upon the task force's recommendations.
ber 2004). Annex A: Task Force Allocations (PDF).
0.46.4
Other data regarding US task forces
Some task forces are named after their commander,

such as Dunsterforce.
ACP 113(AF) Call Sign Book for Ships. Joint Chiefs of

Sta. pp. A1A2 (197198). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 28, 2008. Retrieved 12 October
2010.
[5] Operations in Sierra Leone, August 9, 2000, Jane's Defence Weekly.
Task Force Tarawa, the name given the 2nd Marine

Expeditionary Brigade during the 2003 invasion of
Iraq Operation Iraqi Freedom. They were a Marine
Air-Ground Task Force commanded by Brigadier 0.46.8 Further reading
General Richard Natonski, attached to the I Marine
Expeditionary Force.
Timothy M. Bonds, Myron Hura, Thomas-Durrell
Young, 'Enhancing Army Joint Force Headquarters
Task Force Leatherneck is the name given the 2nd
Capabilities,' Santa Monica, CA; RAND CorporaMarine Expeditionary Brigade during their 2009 option, 2010 - includes list of joint task forces
erations in Afghanistan as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. They are a Marine Air-Ground
Task Force commanded by Brigadier General Larry
Nicholson, assigned to work under the International
Security Assistance Force.
0.47 Theater (warfare)

For other uses, see Theatre of War (disambiguation).
0.46.5
Task forces in popular culture
In warfare, a theater (US English) or theatre (British

In Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, some of the
English) is an area or place in which important military
main characters are from an elite, international speevents occur or are progressing.* [1]* [2] A theater can incial operations task force called Task Force 141.
clude the entirety of the air, space, land and sea area that
In City of Heroes, a task force was a large-scale story is or that may potentially become involved in war operaarc of several missions in which 38 players took tions.* [3]
144
0.47.1
CONTENTS
Theater of war
nental geographic territories with their bordering maritime areas, islands, adjacent coasts* [5] and airspace.
In his book On War, Carl von Clausewitz denes the term The division of large continental and maritime areas asas one that:
sists in determining the limits within which the plans for
operation of strategic military groups of forces are developed, allowing conduct of military operations on speDenotes properly such a portion of the
cic signicant strategic directions known as fronts which
space over which war prevails as has its boundwere named in accordance to their theater of operations,
aries protected, and thus possesses a kind of
for example Southwestern Front (Russian Empire), 1st
independence. This protection may consist in
Ukrainian Front, Northern Front (Soviet Union). In a
fortresses, or important natural obstacles prepeacetime due to loss of a strategic direction fronts were
sented by the country, or even in its being septransformed into military regions (districts) responsible
arated by a considerable distance from the rest
for an assigned section of operations.
of the space embraced in the war. Such a
portion is not a mere piece of the whole, but
The Russian term is , teatr voena small whole complete in itself; and consenykh deistvii, abbreviated , TVD.
quently it is more or less in such a condition
that changes which take place at other points
in the seat of war have only an indirect and no
0.47.4 United States
direct inuence upon it. To give an adequate
idea of this, we may suppose that on this porThe term theater of operationswas dened in the
tion an advance is made, whilst in another quar[American] eld manuals as the land and sea areas to
ter a retreat is taking place, or that upon the one
be invaded or defended, including areas necessary for
an army is acting defensively, whilst an oenadministrative activities incident to the military operasive is being carried on upon the other. Such
tions (chart 12). In accordance with the experience of
a clearly dened idea as this is not capable of
World War I, it was usually conceived of as a large land
universal application; it is here used merely to
mass over which continuous operations would take place
indicate the line of distinction.* [4]
and was divided into two chief areas-the combat zone,
or the area of active ghting, and the communications
zone, or area required for administration of the theater.
0.47.2 Theater of operations
As the armies advanced, both these zones and the areas
into which they were divided would shift forward to new
Theater of operations (TO) is a sub-area within a theater
geographic areas of control.* [6]
of war. The boundary of a TO is dened by the commander who is orchestrating or providing support for specic
combat operations within the TO.* [2]
0.47.5 Images and diagrams
Theater of operations are divided into strategic directions
or military regions depending whether it's a war or peace Clicking onto image/diagram creates enlargement.
time. The United States Armed Forces split into Unied Combatant Commands (regions) that are assigned to
a particular theater of military operations. Strategic direction is a group of armies also known as task (eld)
forces or battlegroups.
Also in the US Armed Forces the term of strategic is often associated with missile command (troops) dropping
word missile out of use such as the United States Strategic Command. However it is an important strategic command that could be eectively deployed in any theater of
military operations. A strategic command or direction in
Unied Combatant Command
general essence would combine a number of tactical military formations or operational command. In modern military, a strategic command is better known as a combat
command that may be a combination of army groups.
0.47.6 See also
0.47.3
Soviet and Russian Armed Forces
For example a large geographic subdivision used by the

Soviet and Russian Armed Forces to classify the conti-
Battlespace
China Burma India Theater
European Theater of Operations
0.48. TROOP
145
0.48 Troop
For other uses, see Troop (disambiguation).
A troop is a military sub-subunit, originally a small for-
K Troop, US 9th Cavalry
Chart 12.- Typical organization of a theater of operations as envisaged by War Department Doctrine, 1940
European Theatre of World War II

Locus of control
Unied Combatant Command
Western Theater of the American Civil War
Formations of the Soviet Army
0.47.7
mation of cavalry, subordinate to a squadron. In many

armies a troop is the equivalent element to the infantry
section or platoon. Exceptions are the Royal Horse Artillery and the US Cavalry, where troop are subunits and
refers to an infantry company or artillery battery.
A cavalry soldier of private rank is called a trooper in
many Commonwealth armies (abbreviated Tpr, not to be
confused with trouper).
A related sense of the term troops refers to members of
the military collectively, as in the troops; see Troop (disambiguation).
In some countries, like Italy, the company-level cavalry
unit is called "Squadron".
References
[1] Denition of theatre noun (MILITARY) from Cambridge Dictionary Online: Free English Dictionary and
Thesaurus. Dictionary.cambridge.org. Retrieved 201108-31.
0.48.1 Troops in various forces

Today, a troop is dened dierently in dierent armed
forces.
In the Australian Army a troop is the equivalent of a pla-
[2] Theater (warfare) - denition of Theater (warfare) by toon sized element in units of certain corps, those bethe Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia ing:* [1]
. Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
[3] http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/
THEATREOFWAR
[4] Carl Von Clausewitz, On War. Clausewitz.com. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
[5] See (),
(.), (), 1984
(.), 863 (). (.), 30
(.), . 732;
[6] Chapter VII: Prewar Army Doctrine for Theater. History.amedd.army.mil. Retrieved 2011-08-31.
Royal Australian Armoured Corps

Royal Australian Engineers
Royal Australian Corps of Signals
Australian Army Aviation
Royal Australian Corps of Transport
Royal Australian Survey Corps (now disbanded)
Special Air Service Regiment (SASR)
146
The SASR is the only unit in the Royal Australian Infantry Corps to use the term troop to refer to its platoon
size elements. SASR troops are also unusual as they are
commanded by a captainmost troop/platoon sized elements are commanded by a lieutenant. In all cases, units
which refer to platoon sized elements as troops refer to
company-sized elements as squadrons and battalion-sized
elements as regiments. Privates in the RAAC and SASR
hold the ranktrooper, however this is not the case for
any other Corps/units which use the term troops.* [2]
CONTENTS
In the Russian Imperial Army (cavalry) troop was equivalent to a squadron (Russian eskadron) or sotnia (Cossack
formation).
0.48.2 Troops in civilian organizations

In the United States, state police forces are often regionally divided into troops. This usage came about
from these organizations modelling themselves on the US
Army, and especially the older cavalry units. For this
same reason the state police and highway patrol personnel of most states are known as trooperrather than
ocer.
In Scouting, a troop is a unit made up of scouts or guides
from the same locality under a leader. In the case of
Guides, the term companyis used more often, and
was used by the founder in his rst books about guiding.
0.48.3 References
12th Royal Lancers on manoeuvres.
In the British Army the denition of a troop varies by

corps.
Household Cavalry and Royal Armoured Corps:
Three or four armoured ghting vehicles commanded by a subaltern, i.e. eectively the same level
element as an infantry platoon. A unit of two to
four guns or launchers, or an equivalent headquarters unit. In the Royal Horse Artillery, a troop used
to be the equivalent to a battery in other artillery
units.
Royal Engineers, Royal Corps of Signals, Royal Logistic Corps, Special Air Service and Honourable
Artillery Company: A unit equivalent in size to a
platoon in other corps, divided into sections or patrols.
Other army corps do not use the term.
In the Royal Marines, a troop is the equivalent to an army
platoon; a carryover from the organisation of the British
Commandos in World War II.
In the Canadian Army, a troop is the equivalent of a platoon within the armoured, artillery, engineer, and signals
branches. Two to four troops comprise the main elements
of a squadron.
In the United States Army, in the cavalry branch, a troop
is the equivalent unit to the infantry company, commanded by a captain and consisting of three or four platoons, and subordinate to a squadron (battalion). Companies were renamed troops in 1883.* [3]
[1] Jobson, Christopher (2009). Looking Forward, Looking

Back: Customs and Traditions of the Australian Army.
Wavell Heights, Queensland: Big Sky Publishing. p. 93.
ISBN 9780980325164.
[2] Jobson 2009, p. 15.
[3] http://www.25thida.com/4thcav.html
0.49 United States Air Force

USAFredirects here. For other uses, see USAF
(disambiguation).
The U.S. Air Forceredirects here. For the song, see
The U.S. Air Force (song).
The United States Air Force (USAF) is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces
and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was
formed as a separate branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947.* [6]
It is the most recent branch of the U.S. military to be
formed, and is the largest and one of the world's most
technologically advanced air forces. The USAF articulates its core functions as Nuclear Deterrence Operations, Special Operations, Air Superiority, Global Integrated ISR, Space Superiority, Command and Control,
Cyberspace Superiority, Personnel Recovery, Global
Precision Attack, Building Partnerships, Rapid Global
Mobility and Agile Combat Support.* [7]
The U.S. Air Force is a military service within the
Department of the Air Force, one of the three military
departments of the Department of Defense. The USAF
is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who
0.49. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE

is appointed by the President with the advice and consent
of the Senate. The highest-ranking military ocer in the
Department of the Air Force is the Chief of Sta of the
Air Force who exercises supervision over Air Force units,
and serves as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Sta. Air
Force combat forces and mobility forces are assigned, as
directed by the Secretary of Defense, to the Combatant
Commanders, and neither the Secretary of the Air Force
nor the Chief of Sta have operational command authority over them.
147
The stated mission of the USAF today is to y, ght,
and win in air, space, and cyberspace.* [10]
Vision
The United States Air Force will be a trusted and reliable
joint partner with our sister services known for integrity
in all of our activities, including supporting the joint mission rst and foremost. We will provide compelling air,
space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant
commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force
resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and
Power for the nation.* [10]
The U.S. Air Force provides air support for surface

forces* [8] and aids in the recovery of troops in the eld.
As of 2012, the service operates more than 5,638 military
aircraft, 450 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has
a $140 billion budget with 309,339 active duty personnel, 185,522 civilian personnel, 71,400 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 106,700 Air National Guard per- Core functions
sonnel.* [3]
Recently, the Air Force rened its understanding of the
core duties and responsibilities it performs as a Military
Service Branch, streamlining what previously were six
0.49.1 Mission, vision, and functions
distinctive capabilities and seventeen operational functions into twelve core functions to be used across the docMissions
trine, organization, training, equipment, leadership, and
According to the National Security Act of 1947 (61 Stat. education, personnel, and facilities spectrum. These core
functions express the ways in which the Air Force is par502), which created the USAF:
ticularly and appropriately suited to contribute to national
security, but they do not necessarily express every aspect
In general the United States Air
of what the Air Force contributes to the nation. It should
Force shall include aviation forces
be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are
both combat and service not othernot doctrinal constructs.* [11]
wise assigned. It shall be organized,
trained, and equipped primarily for
prompt and sustained oensive and
Nuclear Deterrence Operations The purpose of Nudefensive air operations. The Air
clear Deterrence Operations (NDO) is to operate, mainForce shall be responsible for the
tain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capreparation of the air forces necpability to deter an adversary from taking action against
essary for the eective prosecution
vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US
of war except as otherwise assigned
should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear opand, in accordance with integrated
tions. The sub-elements of this function are:* [11]
joint mobilization plans, for the exAssure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the
pansion of the peacetime compoAir Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike opnents of the Air Force to meet the
erations mission as well as from specic actions taken to
needs of war.
assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuad8062 of Title 10 US Code denes the purpose of the ing others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the
means to deliver them, contributes to promoting secuUSAF as:* [9]
rity and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, dierent deterrence strategies are required to deter
to preserve the peace and security, and provide for
various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or
the defense, of the United States, the Territories,
non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains
Commonwealths, and possessions, and any areas ocand presents credible deterrent capabilities through succupied by the United States;
cessful visible demonstrations and exercises which assure
allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries
to support national policy;
from actions that threaten US national security or the pop to implement national objectives;
ulations and deployed military forces of the US, its allies
*
to overcome any nations responsible for aggressive and friends. [11]
acts that imperil the peace and security of the United Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly
and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear
States.
148
in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt
an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the
President may authorize a precise, tailored response to
terminate the conict at the lowest possible level and lead
to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter
further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either the Continental United States,
within a theater of operations, or both to eectively deter
the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st
century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force
should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate
and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and eectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives.
Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates
all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of
performance.* [11]
Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and eectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and
military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats
inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments.
The Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within
the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high
standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety
program. This program applies to materiel, personnel,
and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and
control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use
(a Broken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to
pursue safe, secure and eective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies,
and the American people must be highly condent of the
Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use.
This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of
the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control,
communications; eective nuclear weapons security; and
robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO
function.* [11]
CONTENTS
First F-35 Lightning II of the 33rd Fighter Wing arrives at Eglin

AFB
Oensive Counterair (OCA) is dened asoensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft,
missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures
and systems both before and after launch, but as close to
their source as possible(JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred
method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense.* [11]
Defensive Counterair (DCA) is dened asall the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and
destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate
or attack through friendly airspace(JP 1-02). A major
goal of DCA operations, in concert with OCA operations,
is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active
defense is the employment of limited oensive action
and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to
the enemy(JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and air breathing threat defense, and encompasses
point defense, area defense, and high value airborne asset
defense. Passive defense is measures taken to reduce
the probability of and to minimize the eects of damage
caused by hostile action without the intention of taking
the initiative(JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility,
Air Superiority Main articles: Air supremacy and Air counter-measures, and stealth.* [11]
superiority ghter
Airspace control is a process used to increase operaAir Superiority is that degree of dominance in the air
battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea,
air, and special operations forces at a given time and place
without prohibitive interference by the opposing force
(JP 1-02).* [11]
tional eectiveness by promoting the safe, ecient, and

exible use of airspace(JP 1-02). It promotes the safe,
ecient, and exible use of airspace, mitigates the risk
of fratricide, enhances both oensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as
a whole. It both deconicts and facilitates integration of
joint air operations.* [11]
149
Space Superiority Further information: Militarisation vehicles; maintaining and sustaining spacecraft on-orbit,
of space and Space warfare
rendezvous and proximity operations; disposing of (inSpace superiority is the degree of dominance in space cluding de-orbiting and recovering) space capabilities;
and reconstitution of space forces, if required(JP 102).* [11]
Cyberspace Superiority Main article: Cyberwarfare
Cyberspace Superiority isthe operational advantage in,
through, and from cyberspace to conduct operations at a
given time and in a given domain without prohibitive interference(AFDD 3-12, Cyberspace Operations).* [11]
Cyberspace Force Application is combat operations in,
through, and from cyberspace to achieve military objectives and inuence the course and outcome of conict by
U.S. Air Force airmen from the 720th STG jumping out of a C- taking decisive actions against approved targets. It will
130J Hercules aircraft during water rescue training in the Florida incorporate computer network attack (CNA), computer
network exploitation (CNE), and may involve aspects of
panhandle
inuence operations. It is highly dependent on ISR, fused
activiof one force over another that permits the conduct of op- all-source intelligence, sophisticated attribution
*
ties,
situational
awareness,
and
responsive
C2.
[11]
erations by the former and its related land, sea, air, space,
and special operations forces at a given time and place This is the passive, active, and dynamic employment of
without prohibitive interference by the opposing force capabilities to respond to imminent or on-going actions
(JP 1-02). Space superiority may be localized in time against Air Force or Air Force-protected networks, the
and space, or it may be broad and enduring. Space su- Air Force's portion of the Global Information Grid, or
periority provides freedom of action in space for friendly expeditionary communications assigned to the Air Force.
forces and, when directed, denies the same freedom to Cyberspace defense incorporates CNE, computer netthe adversary.* [11]
work defense (CND), and CNA techniques and may
Space Force Enhancement is dened as thecombat sup- be a contributor to inuence operations. It is highly
port operations and force-multiplying capabilities deliv- dependent upon ISR, fused all-source intelligence, auered from space systems to improve the eectiveness of tomated indications and warning, sophisticated attribusituational awareness, assessment,
military forces as well as support other intelligence, civil, tion/characterization,
*
and commercial users. This mission area includes: intel- and responsive C2. [11]
ligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance; integrated tactical warning and attack assessment; command, control,
and communications; positioning, navigation, and timing;
and environmental monitoring(JP 1-02).* [11]
Space Force Application is dened ascombat operations
in, through, and from space to inuence the course and
outcome of conict. This mission area includes ballistic
missile defense and force projection(JP 1-02).* [11]
Cyberspace Support is foundational, continuous, or responsive operations ensuring information integrity and
availability in, through, and from Air Force-controlled infrastructure and its interconnected analog and digital portion of the battle space. Inherent in this mission is the
ability to establish, extend, secure, protect, and defend
in order to sustain assigned networks and missions. This
includes protection measures against supply chain components plus critical C2 networks/communications links
and nuclear C2 networks. The cyberspace support mission incorporates CNE and CND techniques. It incorporates all elements of Air Force Network Operations,
information transport, enterprise management, and information assurance, and is dependent on ISR and all-source
intelligence.* [11]
Space Control is dened as operations to ensure freedom of action in space for the US and its allies and, when
directed, deny an adversary freedom of action in space.
This mission area includes: operations conducted to protect friendly space capabilities from attack, interference,
or unintentional hazards (defensive space control); operations to deny an adversary's use of space capabilities (offensive space control); and the requisite current and predictive knowledge of the space environment and the oper- Command and Control Main article: Command and
ational environment upon which space operations depend control
(space situational awareness)" (JP 1-02).* [11]
Space Support is dened as operations to deploy and Command and control is the exercise of authority and
sustain military and intelligence systems in space. This direction by a properly designated commander over asmission area includes: launching and deploying space signed and attached forces in the accomplishment of
150
the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment,
communications, facilities, and procedures employed by
a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and
controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment
of the mission(JP 1-02). This core function includes
all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated
with air, space, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat
support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and
tactical objectives.* [11]
At the Strategic Level Command and Control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and
guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in
turn provide the direction for developing overall military
objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and
strategy for each theater.* [11]
At the Operational Level Command and Control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within
theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes
are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives.* [11]
CONTENTS
ods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range
of Military Operations (ROMO).* [11]
Processing and exploitation is the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production
of intelligence(JP 2-01). It provides the ability, across
the ROMO, to transform, extract, and make available
collected information suitable for further analysis or action.* [11]
Analysis and production is the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source
data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements(JP 201). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a nished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness.* [11]
Dissemination and Integration is the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of
the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions(JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to
military and national decision makers.* [11]
Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual

battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of Global Precision Attack Further information:
war deals with how forces are employed, and the specics Precision bombing and Strategic bombing
of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. Global Precision Attack is the ability to hold at risk
The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's
intent and desired eects by gaining and keeping oensive
initiative.* [11]
Global Integrated ISR Main article: Intelligence,

surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance
Global Integrated Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of
the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the
globe to conduct current and future operations.* [11]
Planning and Directing is the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and
issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies(JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence
Support to Military Operations). These activities enable
the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision makers.* [11]
Combat Controllers participating in Operation Enduring Freedom provide air trac control to a C-130 taking o from a remote aireld.
or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of

munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and
precise eects across multiple domains.* [11]
Strategic Attack is dened as oensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives.
These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or
Collection isthe acquisition of information and the pro- will to engage in conict, and may achieve strategic obvision of this information to processing elements(JP 2- jectives without necessarily having to achieve operational
01). It provides the ability to obtain required information objectives as a precondition(AFDD 370, Strategic Atto satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and meth- tack).* [11]

Air Interdiction is dened as air operations conducted
to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear eectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC
objectives. Air lnterdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of
each air mission with the re and movement of friendly
forces is not required(AFDD 3-03, Counterland Operations).* [11]
151
assets, and capabilities throughout the ROMO at a chosen
initiative, speed, and tempo.* [11]
Aviation Foreign Internal Defense operations directly execute US security and foreign policy as lead airpower
elements that shape the battleeld and conduct stability
operations to enable global reach and strike. This is accomplished by applying the mission set (assess, train, advise, and assist foreign aviation forces) across a continuum of operating venues described as indirect assistance,
direct assistance (not including combat) and combat operations.* [11]
Battleeld Air Operations is a unique set of combat
proven capabilities (combat control, pararescue, combat weather, and tactical air control party) provided by
regular and reserve component special operations forces
(SOF) Battleeld Airmen who integrate, synchronize,
and control manned and unmanned capabilities to achieve
tactical, operational, and strategic objectives.* [11]
Command and Control is the exercise of the commander's authority and direction over assigned and attached
forces by trained, organized, and equipped C2 elements.
Operational C2 elements consist of personnel and equipA Pararescueman from the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron ment with specialized capability to plan, direct, coordiprovides medical attention to a wounded Afghan
nate, and control forces in the conduct of joint/combined
special operations.* [11]
Close Air Support is dened as air action by xed- and
rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in Information Operations is the integrated employment of
close proximity to friendly forces and which require de- the capabilities of inuence operations, electronic wartailed integration of each air mission with the re and fare operations, and network warfare operations, in conmovement of those forces(JP 1-02). This can be as cert with specied integrated control enablers, to ina pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture uence, disrupt, corrupt, or usurp adversarial human
decision making while protecting one's
(ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the and automated
*
own.
[11]
*
ROMO. [11] Today the USAF believes that it accomplishes the CAS mission better than anyoneactually Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance is the syndoes.* [12]
chronization and integration of platforms and sensors
with the planning and direction, collection, processing
and exploitation, analysis, and production and disseminaSpecial Operations Special Operations are operation processes. These activities provide actionable intellitions conducted in hostile, denied, or politically sensi- gence, weather, environmental awareness, and prediction
tive environments to achieve military, diplomatic, infor- across all SOF command echelons.* [11]
mational, and/or economic objectives employing mili- Military Information Support Operations are planned optary capabilities for which there is no broad conventional erations to convey selected information and indicators to
force requirement. These operations may require covert, foreign audiences to inuence their emotions, motives,
clandestine, or low-visibility capabilities. Special opera- objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of fortions are applicable across the ROMO. They can be con- eign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.
ducted independently or in conjunction with operations The purpose of military information support operations is
of conventional forces or other government agencies and to induce or reinforce foreign attitudes and behavior famay include operations through, with, or by indigenous vorable to the originator's objectives.* [11]
or surrogate forces. Special operations dier from conventional operations in degree of physical and political Precision Strike provides CCDRs with an integrated carisk, operational techniques, mode of employment, inde- pability to nd, x, track, target, engage, and assess tarpendence from friendly support, and dependence on de- gets using a single weapons system or a combination of
tailed operational intelligence and indigenous assets(JP systems. This includes close air support, air interdiction,
and armed reconnaissance missions.* [11]
1-02).* [11]
Agile Combat Support is the capability to eectively cre- Specialized Air Mobility is the conduct of rapid, global
ate, prepare, deploy, employ, sustain, and protect Air inltration, exltration, and resupply of personnel, equipForce Special Operations Command (AFSOC) Airmen, ment, and materiel using specialized systems and tac-
152
CONTENTS
tics. These missions may be clandestine, low visibility, Aeromedical Evacuation is the movement of patients
or overt and through hostile, denied, or politically sensi- under medical supervision to and between medical treattive airspace.* [11]
ment facilities by air transportation(JP 1-02). JP 4Specialized Refueling is the conduct of rapid, global refu- 02, Health Service Support, further denes it as the
eling using specialized systems and tactics. This includes xed wing movement of regulated casualties to and beaerial refueling of vertical lift aircraft and ground refu- tween medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or
eling during forward arming and refueling point opera- contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained extions. These missions may be clandestine, low visibility, plicitly for this mission.Aeromedical evacuation forces
can operate as far forward as xed-wing aircraft are able
or overt and in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive ento conduct airland operations.* [11]
*
vironments. [11]
Personnel Recovery Personnel Recovery (PR) is deRapid Global Mobility Main article: Airlift
Rapid Global Mobility is the timely deployment, em- ned as the sum of military, diplomatic, and civil efforts to prepare for and execute the recovery and reintegration of isolated personnel(JP 1-02). It is the ability of the US government and its international partners
to eect the recovery of isolated personnel across the
ROMO and return those personnel to duty. PR also enhances the development of an eective, global capacity to
protect and recover isolated personnel wherever they are
placed at risk; deny an adversary's ability to exploit a nation through propaganda; and develop joint, interagency,
and international capabilities that contribute to crisis response and regional stability.* [11]
An F-16 in OpFor colors soars over the Alaska Range in 2010
ployment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment

of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It
provides joint military forces the capability to move from
place to place while retaining the ability to fulll their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach
foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the
Rescuemen of the USAFP, 58th Rescue Squadron exercise recovinitiative through speed and surprise.* [11]
Airlift is operations to transport and deliver forces and
materiel through the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives(AFDD 317, Air Mobility
Operations). The rapid and exible options aorded by
airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and
time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence
that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis.* [11]
Air Refueling is the refueling of an aircraft in ight by
another aircraft(JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier.
It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot
around the world with less dependence on forward staging
bases or overight/landing clearances. Air refueling signicantly expands the options available to a commander
by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and exibility of receiver aircraft.* [11]
ering a downed pilot
Combat Search and Rescue is the tactics, techniques,

and procedures performed by forces to eect the recovery
of isolated personnel during combat(JP 1-02). Combat search and rescue is the primary Air Force recovery
method utilized to conduct PR taskings.* [11]
Civil Search and Rescue is the use of aircraft, surface craft, submarines, and specialized rescue teams and
equipment to search for and rescue distressed persons
on land or at sea in a permissive environment(JP 102).* [11]
Disaster Response can be described as the capability to
support and assist US government agencies and embassies
during national and international disasters with rapidly
deployable and exible air/ground rescue forces.* [11]
Humanitarian Assistance Operations areprograms conducted to relieve or reduce the results of natural or manmade disasters or other endemic conditions such as human pain, disease, hunger, or privation that might present

a serious threat to life or that can result in great damage
to or loss of property. Humanitarian assistance provided
by US forces is limited in scope and duration. The assistance provided is designed to supplement or complement
the eorts of the host nation civil authorities or agencies
that may have the primary responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance(JP 1-02).* [11]
153
Recover the Total Force includes preparing forces to remain in place, redeploy, relocate, and be reconstituted
to prescribed levels of readiness; restoring operating locations and/or environments to planned conditions; protecting the dynamic levels of force structure; and ensuring
Air Force mission elements can be eectively applied at
the direction of national leadership.* [11]
Medical evacuation refers to dedicated medical evacuation platforms staed and equipped to provide en route
medical care using predesignated tactical and logistic
aircraft, boats, ships, and other watercraft temporarily
equipped and staed with medical attendants for en route
care. Casualty evacuation involves the unregulated movement of casualties aboard ships, land vehicles, or aircraft
(JP 4-02, Health Service Support).* [11]
Agile Combat Support Agile Combat Support (ACS)

is the ability to eld, protect, and sustain Air Force forces
across the ROMO to achieve joint eects.* [11]
Ready the Total Force includes organizing, training, and
equipping forces; establishing quality of life and maintaining core security; and elding and planning for the use
of operational and support forces to meet global mission
requirements.* [11]
Prepare the Battlespace includes assessing, planning, and
posturing for rapid employment; prepositioning resources F-15E Strike Eagles of the 48th Fighter, Statue of Liberty
Wing training at RAF Lakenheath, UK operated by United
and conditioning specic theaters and/or contingency loStates Air Forces in Europe (USAFE)
cations in a manner to meet closure timing; and establishing sustainment levels for potential operations.* [11]
Building Partnerships Building Partnerships is dePosition the Total Force includes preparing to deploy, described as airmen interacting with international airmen
ploying, receiving, and bedding down tailored and pri- and other relevant actors to develop, guide, and sustain reoritized forces; establishing initial operations and sup- lationships for mutual benet and security. Building Partport cadres in a joint operations area; distributing pre- nerships is about interacting with others and is therefore
positioned resources; establishing initial reachback con- an inherently inter-personal and cross-cultural undertaknectivity; securing operating locations; and preparing for ing. Through both words and deeds, the majority of inmission operations.* [11]
teraction is devoted to building trust-based relationships
Protecting the Total Force key focus areas include per- for mutual benet. It includes both foreign partners as
sonnel, critical assets, and information. These areas are well as domestic partners and emphasizes collaboration
the persistent detection and understanding of threats in with foreign governments, militaries and populations as
the operational environment and the timely dissemination well as US government departments, agencies, industry,
of accurate decisions, warnings and taskings to protect and NGOs. To better facilitate partnering eorts, Airmen should be competent in the relevant language, reagainst attacks and/or threats.* [11]
*
Employ Combat Support Forces includes engaging sup- gion, and culture. [11]
Communicate refers to developing and presenting information to domestic audiences to improve understanding.
It is also the ability to develop and present information
to foreign adversary audiences to aect their perceptions, will, behavior and capabilities in order to further
security and/or shared global security interSustain the Total Force includes producing assured ca- US national
*
[11]
ests.
pacities and levels of support; accomplishing the long
term mastery of an operational environment (peacetime Shape refers to conducting activities to aect the percepand wartime) requiring persistent and eective materiel tions, will, behavior, and capabilities of partners, military
and personnel support through both local and reachback forces, and relevant populations to further U.S. national
security or shared global security interests.* [11]
processes.* [11]
port forces in support of mission operations; initializing,
launching, recovering, and regenerating operational elements; executing support through supporting-supported
relationships; and commencing reachback operations to
strategic levels of support.* [11]
154
0.49.2
CONTENTS
History
Main article: History of the United States Air Force

The U.S. War Department created the rst antecedent of
the U.S. Air Force in 1907, which through a succession
of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced
toward eventual separation 40 years later. In World War
II, almost 68,000 U.S airmen died helping to win the war;
only the infantry suered more enlisted casualties.* [13]
In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but
ocials wanted formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on on 26 July 1947 by President Harry S Truman, which established the Department
of the Air Force, but it was not not until 18 September
1947, when the rst secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart
Symington was sworn into oce that the Air Force was
ocially formed.* [14]* [15]
The act created the National Military Establishment (renamed Department of Defense in 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely
the Department of the Army, the Department of the
Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air
Force.* [16] Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army (for landbased operations), the Navy (for sea-based operations
from aircraft carriers and amphibious aircraft), and the
Marine Corps (for close air support of infantry operations). The 1940s proved to be important in other ways
as well. In 1947, Captain Chuck Yeager broke the sound
barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a
new era of aeronautics in America.* [17]
Aviation Section, Signal Corps 18 July 1914 20

May 1918
Division of Military Aeronautics (20 May 1918 to
24 May 1918)
U.S. Army Air Service (24 May 1918 to 2 July
1926)
U.S. Army Air Corps (2 July 1926 to 20 June 1941)
and
U.S. Army Air Forces (20 June 1941 to 18 September 1947)
Recent history
During the early 2000s, the USAF fumbled several high
prole aircraft procurement projects, such as the missteps
on the KC-X program. Winslow Wheeler has written
that this pattern represents failures of intellect and
much more importantly ethics.* [18] As a result the
USAF eet is setting new records for average aircraft age
and needs to replace its eets of ghters, bombers, airborne tankers, and airborne warning aircraft, in an age of
restrictive defense budgets.* [19] Finally in the midst of
scandal and failure in maintaining its nuclear arsenal, the
civilian and military leaders of the air force were replaced
in 2008.* [20]
Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the
improvement of Basic Military Training (BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become
longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase.
This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places
the trainees in a surreal environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle
the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the
other portions include defending and protecting their base
of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing
search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI)
act as mentors and enemy forces in a deployment exercise.* [21]
In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force

(RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned
Roundels that have appeared on U.S. aircraft
to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty per1.) 5/19172/1918
sonnel to 316,000.* [22] The size of the active duty force
2.) 2/19188/1919
in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was
3.) 8/19195/1942
at the end of the rst Gulf War in 1991.* [23] However,
4.) 5/19426/1943
the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 per5.) 6/19439/1943
sonnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of
6.) 9/19431/1947
combatant commanders and associated mission require7.) 1/1947
ments.* [22] These same constraints have seen a sharp re*
The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air duction in ight hours for crew training since 2005 [24]
and the Deputy Chief of Sta for Manpower and PersonForce are:
nel directing Airmen's Time Assessments.* [25]
Aeronautical Division, Signal Corps 1 August 1907
18 July 1914
On 5 June 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, accepted the resignations of both the Secretary of the Air
155
Force, Michael Wynne, and the Chief of Sta of the

United States Air Force, General T. Michael Moseley.
Gates in eect red both men for systemic issues associated with declining Air Force nuclear mission focus
and performance.This followed an investigation into two
embarrassing incidents involving mishandling of nuclear
weapons: specically a nuclear weapons incident aboard
a B-52 ight between Minot AFB and Barksdale AFB,
and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan. The resignations were also the culmination of disputes between the Air Force leadership, populated primarily by non-nuclear background ghter pilots,
versus Gates.* [26] To put more emphasis on nuclear as- The F-117 Nighthawk was a stealth attack aircraft (retired from
sets, the USAF established the nuclear-focused Air Force service in April 2008).
Global Strike Command on 24 October 2008.* [27]
Forces
On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure
plan that cut ghter aircraft and shifted resources to better
support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.* [28]
On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned
Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force
UAS plans through 2047.* [29] One third of the planes
that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be
unmanned.* [30]
In 2011, the Air Force disallowed the wear of so-called
Friday Name Tagsby aircrew personnel on ight suits
and ight jackets per the new dress and appearance standards.* [31] This has been a tradition regarding call signs
that dated to World War I.* [32]
Conicts
Cold War
Korean War
Vietnam War
Operation Eagle Claw (1980 Iranian hostage rescue)
Operation Urgent Fury (1983 US invasion of
Grenada)
Operation El Dorado Canyon (1986 US Bombing of
Libya)
Operation Just Cause (19891990 US invasion of
Panama)
Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm (1990
1991 Persian Gulf War)
Operation Southern Watch (19922003 Iraq no-y
zone)
Operation Deliberate Force (1995 NATO bombing
in Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Operation Northern Watch (19972003 Iraq no-y
zone)
Operation Desert Fox (1998 bombing of Iraq)
Operation Allied Force (1999 NATO bombing of
Yugoslavia)
Operation Enduring
Afghanistan War)
Freedom
(2001present
The SR-71 Blackbird was a Cold War reconnaissance plane.
Operations Iraqi Freedom and New Dawn (2003

2011 Iraq War)
The United States has been involved in many wars, conicts and operations using military air operations. Air
combat operations before, and since the ocial conception of the USAF include:
Operation Odyssey Dawn (2011 Libyan no-y zone)

Operation Inherent Resolve (2014-15 intervention
against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant)
World War I* [33] as Aviation Section, U.S. Signal In addition since the USAF dwarfs all allied air forces,
it often provides support for allied forces in conicts to
Corps and United States Army Air Service
which the United States is otherwise not involved, for ex World War II* [33] as United States Army Air ample the 2013 French campaign in Mali.* [34]
156
CONTENTS
Humanitarian operations
Administrative organization
The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitar- The Department of the Air Force is one of three miliian operations. Some of the more major ones include the tary departments within the Department of Defense, and
following:* [35]
is managed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary
of Defense. The senior ocials in the Oce of the Sec Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles), 19481949
retary are the Under Secretary of the Air Force, four
Operation Safe Haven, 19561957
Assistant Secretaries of the Air Force and the General
Operations Babylift, New Life, Frequent Wind, and Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with
the advice and consent of the Senate. The senior uniNew Arrivals, 1975
formed leadership in the Air Sta is made up of the Chief
of Sta of the Air Force and the Vice Chief of Sta of
Operation Provide Comfort, 1991
the Air Force.
Operation Sea Angel, 1991
The directly subordinate commands and units are named
Operation Provide Hope, 19921993
Field Operating Agency (FOA), Direct Reporting Unit
(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating
Operation Provide Promise, 1992-1996
Agency.
Operation Unied Assistance, December 2004 The Major Command (MAJCOM) is the superior hierApril 2005
archical level of command. Including the Air Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has
ten major commands. The Numbered Air Force (NAF)
is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, fol Operation Tomodachi, 12 March 2011 1 May lowed by Operational Command (now unused), Air Di2011
vision (also now unused), Wing, Group, Squadron, and
Flight.
Operation Unied Response, 14 January 2010
present
Budget sequestration
Headquarters Air Force
Due to the Budget sequestration in 2013, the USAF was
forced to ground many of its squadrons. The Commander
Oce of the Secretary of the Air Force, The

of Air Combat Command, General Mike Hostage indiPentagon, Arlington County, Virginia
cated that the USAF must reduce its F-15 and F-16 eets
and eliminate platforms like the A-10 in order to focus
The Air Sta, The Pentagon, Arlington

on a fth-generation jet ghter future.* [36] In response to
County,
Virginia
squadron groundings and ight time reductions, many Air
Force pilots have opted to resign from active duty and enter the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard while
Major Commands (Force Structure)
pursuing careers in the commercial airlines where they
can nd ight hours on more modern aircraft.* [37]
Air Combat Command (ACC), headquarSpecic concerns include a compounded inability for the
tered at Joint Base Langley-Eustis, Virginia
Air Force to replace its aging eet, and an overall reduction of strength and readiness.* [38] The USAF attempted
First Air Force, headquartered at Tyndall

to make these adjustments by primarily cutting the Air
Air
Force
Base, Panama City, Florida
National Guard and Air Force Reserve aircraft eets and
their associated manpower, but Congress reversed this
Ninth Air Force, headquartered at Shaw

initiative and the majority of the lost manpower will come
Air
Force
Base, Sumter, South Carolina
from the active forces.* [39] However, Congress did allow
for $208 million of reprogramming from eet moderniza
Twelfth Air Force, headquartered at
tion to enable some portion of the third of the grounded
Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arieet to resume operations.* [40]
zona
0.49.3
Organization
Main articles: Structure of the United States Air Force

and Department of the Air Force structure
Twenty-Fifth Air Force, headquartered

at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas
United States Air Forces Central, headquartered at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina
United States Air Force Warfare Center, headquartered at Nellis Air Force Base,
Nevada
Tenth Air Force, headquartered at the

Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort
Worth, Texas
Air Education and Training Command

(AETC), headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio,
Texas
Twenty-Second Air Force, headquartered at Dobbins Air Reserve Base, Marietta,

Georgia
Air Reserve Personnel Center, headquartered at Buckley Air Force Base, Aurora,
Colorado
Second Air Force, headquartered at

Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi
Nineteenth Air Force, headquartered at

Joint Base San Antonio, Texas
Air
University,
at Maxwell-Gunter Air
Montgomery, Alabama
Wilford Hall Medical Center, headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas
Air Force Recruiting Service, headquartered at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas
headquartered
Force Base,
Air Force Global Strike Command

(AFGSC), headquartered at Barksdale Air
Senior Airman Nayibe Ramos runs through a checklist in April
Force Base, Louisiana
Eighth Air Force, headquartered at

Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
Twentieth Air Force, headquartered at

Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, Cheyenne,
Wyoming
2005 during Global Positioning System satellite operations. The

operations center here controls a constellation of 29 orbiting
satellites that provides navigation data to military and civilian
users worldwide. Airman Ramos is a satellite system operator for
the 2d Space Operations Squadron at Schriever AFB, Colorado.
Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC),

headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Dayton, Ohio
157
Air Force Life Cycle Management

Center, headquartered at Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio
Air Force Test Center, headquartered at
Edwards Air Force Base, Palmdale, California
Air Force Nuclear Weapons Center,
headquartered at Kirtland Air Force Base,
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Fourteenth Air Force, headquartered at

Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc, California
Twenty-Fourth Air Force, headquarters

at Joint Base San Antonio, Texas
Space and Missile Systems Center,

headquartered at Los Angeles Air Force Base,
El Segundo, California
Air Force Network Integration Center,

headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois
Air Force Research Laboratory, headquartered at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,

Dayton, Ohio
Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC), headquartered at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia
Air Force Space Command (AFSPC), headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado
Springs, Colorado
Air Force Special Operations Command

(AFSOC), headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Florida
Fourth Air Force, headquartered at

March Air Reserve Base, California
Special Operations Training Center,

headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Mary Esther,
Florida
158
CONTENTS
at McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base,
Knoxville, Tennessee
The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 30
September 2006, are the following:* [41]
Active duty forces
Several aircraft in a squadron at Hurlburt Field, December 2005.

6th Special Operations Squadron personnel and their aircraft.
The two closest are UH-1Ns; the white aircraft on the left is a
C-47T Turboprop conversion (the USAF is still ying the C-47);
the white plane on the right is an Antonov An-26 (a Russian turboprop transport aircraft), and the helicopter in the back is a Mi-8
(a Russian helicopter).
57 ying wings, eight space wings, and 55 nonying wings

nine ying groups, eight non-ying groups
134 ying squadrons, 43 space squadrons
Air Force Reserve Command
35 ying wings, one space wing
Air Mobility Command (AMC), headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Belleville, Illinois
Eighteenth Air Force, headquartered at

Scott Air Force Base, Belleville, Illinois
United States Air Force Expeditionary Center, headquartered at Joint Base

McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey
four ying groups

67 ying squadrons, six space squadrons
Air National Guard
87 ying wings
101 ying
squadrons
squadrons,
four
space
The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g.,

U.S. Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a
Africa (USAFE), headquartered at Ramstein Air total of 302 ying squadrons.* [42]
Base, Germany
Third Air Force, headquartered at Operational organization

Ramstein Air Base, Germany
Main article: List of active United States Air Force
Pacic Air Forces (PACAF), headquartered aircraft squadrons
at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam, Hawaii

The organizational structure as shown above is responsiFifth Air Force, headquartered at Yokota ble for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of aerospace units for operational missions. When
Air Base, Japan
required to support operational missions, the Secretary
Seventh Air Force, headquartered at of Defense (SECDEF) directs the Secretary of the Air
Osan Air Base, South Korea
Force (SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative
Eleventh Air Force, headquartered alignment to the operational command of a Regional

at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Combatant Commander (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC,
Anchorage, Alaska
AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally
employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise,
Air National Guard (ANG)
AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Re
First Air Force, headquartered at Tyndall gional CCDR.
Air Force Base, Panama City, Florida
Air National Guard Readiness Cen- Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force

ter, headquartered at Joint Base Andrews,
Choppedunits are referred to as forces. The top-level
Maryland
structure of these forces is the Air and Space Expedi
I.G. Brown Air National Guard Train- tionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force
ing and Education Center, headquartered presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment

of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of
a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and
AFFOR/A-sta, and an Air Operations Center (AOC).
As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders
(JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR),
the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force
possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area
of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the
Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC).
159
communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics
technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public
aairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,
security forces, and search and rescue specialties.* [43]
Beyond combat ight crew personnel, perhaps the most

dangerous USAF jobs are Explosive Ordnance Disposal
(EOD), Combat rescue ocer, Pararescue, Security
Forces, Combat Control, Combat Weather, Tactical Air
Control Party, and AFOSI agents, who deploy with
infantry and special operations units who disarm bombs,
rescue downed or isolated personnel, call in air strikes and
set up landing zones in forward locations. Most of these
are enlisted positions augmented by a smaller number of
commissioned ocers. Other career elds that have seen
increasing exposure to combat include civil engineers, veCommander, Air Force Forces
hicle operators, and Air Force Oce of Special InvestiThe Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the gations (AFOSI) personnel.
senior USAF ocer responsible for the employment of Nearly all enlisted career elds areentry level, meanair power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAF- ing that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees
FOR has a special sta and an A-Sta to ensure assigned are able to choose a particular eld, or at least a eld beor attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and fore actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC
trained to support the operational mission.
at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they
learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of
Air Operations Center The Air Operations Center Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for
(AOC) is the JFACC's Command and Control (C2) cen- nearly all enlisted technical training.
ter. Several AOCs have been established throughout the
Air Force world-wide. These centers are responsible for Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1
planning and executing air power missions in support of (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while
3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of
JFC objectives.
training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over 10 separate divisions, sometimes taking
Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons
students close to two years to complete. Ocer technical
training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by
The AETF generates air power to support COCOM ob- AFSC, while ight training for aeronautically-rated ojectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air cers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last
Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are respon- well in excess of one year.
sible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJUSAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, nonCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions,
commissioned ocers, and commissioned ocers, and
launching and recovering these forces, and eventually reranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the comturning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control
missioned ocer rank of General (O-10). Enlisted proSystems control employment of forces during these mismotions are granted based on a combination of test
sions.
scores, years of experience, and selection board approval
while ocer promotions are based on time-in-grade and
a promotion selection board. process Promotions among
0.49.4 Personnel
enlisted personnel and non-commissioned ocers are
generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia
The classication of any USAF job for ocers or enlisted
chevrons. Commissioned ocer rank is designated by
airmen is the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC).
bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to
AFSCs range from ocer specialties such as pilot, four stars (one to ve stars in war-time).
combat systems ocer, missile launch ocer, intelligence ocer, aircraft maintenance ocer, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other elds,
to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from Commissioned ocers
ight combat operations such as a gunner, to working
in a dining facility to ensure that members are properly Main article: United States Air Force ocer rank
fed. There are additional occupational elds such as com- insignia
puter specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew,
160
CONTENTS
The commissioned ocer ranks of the USAF are divided

into three categories: company grade ocers, eld grade
ocers, and general ocers. Company grade ocers are
those ocers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while eld grade
ocers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general
ocers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above.* [44]
the warrant ocer level, although this was not publicly

acknowledged until years later. The Air Force stopped
appointing warrant ocers in 1959,* [46] the same year
the rst promotions were made to the new top enlisted
grade, Chief Master Sergeant. Most of the existing Air
Force warrant ocers entered the commissioned ocer
Air Force ocer promotions are governed by the Defense ranks during the 1960s, but small numbers continued to
Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980 and its exist in the warrant ocer grades for the next 21 years.
companion Reserve Ocer Personnel Management Act The last active duty Air Force warrant ocer, CWO4
(ROPMA) for ocers in the Air Force Reserve and the James H. Long, retired in 1980 and the last Air Force
Air National Guard. DOPMA also establishes limits on Reserve warrant ocer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in
the number of ocers that can serve at any given time 1992.* [47] Upon his retirement, he was honorarily proin the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second moted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever
lieutenant to rst lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after to hold this grade.* [46] Barrow died in April 2008.* [48]
two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant ocer
rst lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully ranks, while still authorized by law, are not used.
completing another two years of service, with a selection
rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection Enlisted airmen
board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and
general are contingent upon nomination to specic general ocer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval.
During the board process an ocer's record is reviewed
by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center at
Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. At the
10 to 11 year mark, captains will take part in a selection
board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on
board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the
Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel
is similar and occurs approximately between the thirteen
year (for ocers who were promoted to major earlybelow the zone) and the fteen year mark, where a certain
percentage of majors will be selected below zone (i.e.,
early), in zone (i.e., on time) or above zone (i.e.,
late) for promotion to lieutenant colonel. This process Pararescuemen and a simulatedsurvivorwatch as an HH-60G
Pave Hawk helicopter comes in for a landing.
will repeat at the 16 year mark (for ocers previously
promoted early to major and lieutenant colonel) to the 21
Main article: United States Air Force enlisted rank
year mark for promotion to full colonel.
insignia
The Air Force has the largest ratio of general ocers to
total strength of all of the U.S. armed forces and this ratio
has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk Enlisted members of the USAF have pay grades from E1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted). While all USAF
from its Cold War highs.* [45]
military personnel are referred to as Airmen, the term also
refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are
below the level of non-commissioned ocers (NCOs).
Warrant ocers
Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through
Although provision is made in Title 10 of the United E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are furStates Code for the Secretary of the Air Force to ap- ther subdivided into NCOs(pay grades E-5 and E-6)
point warrant ocers, the Air Force does not currently and Senior NCOs(pay grades E-7 through E-9); the
use warrant ocer grades, and is the only one of the term Junior NCOis sometimes used to refer to sta
and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and EU.S. Armed Services not to do so. The Air Force inher- sergeants
*
[49]
6).
ited warrant ocer ranks from the Army at its inception
in 1947, but their place in the Air Force structure was
never made clear. When the Congress authorized the creation of two new senior enlisted ranks in 1958, Air Force
ocials privately concluded that these two new super
gradescould ll all Air Force needs then performed at
The USAF is the only branch of the U.S. military where

NCO status is achieved when an airman reaches the pay
grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., a Corporal
in the Army* [50] and Marine Corps, Petty Ocer Third

Class in the Navy and Coast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a Senior Airman wearing three stripes without a star
or a Sergeant (referred to asBuck Sergeant), which was
noted by the presence of the central star and considered
an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a Senior Airman
who has completed Airman Leadership School can be a
supervisor according to the AFI 36-2618.
161
earned after working in a missile system maintenance or
missile operations capacity for at least one year.
Training
Main article: United States Air Force Basic Military
Training
All non-prior service enlisted Airmen attend Basic Military Training (BMT) at Lackland Air Force Base in San
Antonio, Texas for 7 1/2 weeks. The Air Force acMain article: Uniforms of the United States Air Force
cepts the basic training programs of other U.S. military
branches in lieu of BMT for airmen who enlist having
The rst USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed completed prior service in the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine
and patented "Uxbridge Blueafter Uxbridge 1683 Corps or Coast Guard.
Blue, developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge
Worsted Company.* [51] The current Service Dress Uni- Ocers may be commissioned upon graduation from
form, which was adopted in 1993 and standardized in the United States Air Force Academy, upon gradua1995, consists of a three-button, pocketless coat, similar tion from another college or university through the Air
to that of a men'ssport jacket(with silverU.S.pins Force Reserve Ocer Training Corps (AFROTC) proon the lapels, with a silver ring surrounding on those of gram, or through the Air Force Ocer Training School
enlisted members), matching trousers, and either a ser- (OTS). OTS, previously located at Lackland AFB, Texas
vice cap or ight cap, all in Shade 1620, Air Force until 1993 and located at Maxwell Air Force Base in
Blue(a darker purplish-blue). This is worn with a light Montgomery, Alabama since 1993, in turn encompasses
blue shirt (Shade 1550) and Shade 1620 herringbone pat- two separate commissioning programs: Basic Ocer
terned necktie. Enlisted members wear sleeve insignia on Training (BOT), which is for line-ocer candidates of
both the jacket and shirt, while ocers wear metal rank the active-duty Air Force and the U.S. Air Force Reserve;
insignia pinned onto the coat, and Air Force Blue slide- and the Academy of Military Science (AMS), which is for
on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned line-ocer candidates of the Air National Guard. (The
to Base Honor Guard duties wear, for certain occasions, term line ocerderives from the concept of the line
a modied version of the standard service dress uniform, of battle and refers to an ocer whose role falls somebut with silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the where within theLine of the Air, meaning combat or
addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), wheel cap combat-support operations within the scope of legitimate
with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device, and a silver aigu- combatants as dened by the Geneva Conventions.)
illette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and The Air Force also provides Commissioned Ocer
accoutrement.
Training (COT) for ocers of all three components who
The Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) became the sole au- are direct-commissioned to non-line positions due to their
thorized utility uniform (except the ight suit for air, mis- credentials in medicine, law, religion, biological sciences,
sile and space crews) of the USAF on 1 November 2011. or healthcare administration. Originally viewed as a
The ABU replaced the Battle Dress Uniform (BDU) pre- knife and fork schoolthat covered little beyond basic
wear of the uniform, COT in recent years has been fully
viously worn by all U.S. military forces.
integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses
extensive coursework as well as eld exercises in leaderAwards and badges
ship, condence, tness, and deployed-environment operations.
Main articles: Awards and decorations of the United
States Air Force and Badges of the United States Air
Force
Air Force Fitness Test Main article: United States
Air Force Fitness Assessment
Uniforms
In addition to basic uniform clothing, various badges

are used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or
qualication-level for a given assignment. Badges can
also be used as merit-based or service-based awards.
Over time, various badges have been discontinued and
are no longer distributed. Authorized badges include the
Shields of USAF Fire Protection, and Security Forces,
and the Missile Badge (or pocket rocket), which is
The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed

to test the abdominal circumference, muscular
strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory
tness of airmen in the USAF. As part of the Fit to Fight
program, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical
tness assessment; the new tness program was put into
eect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which
162
CONTENTS
A-10 Thunderbolt II ground-attack aircraft

USAF members training at Lackland AFB
as close air support to ground forces, their role is tactical

rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle
the USAF had used for several years had been replaced rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear.
in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based
The A-10 had been projected to be retired by 2019 and
on performance consisting of four components: waist
replaced by the F-35, but the A-10 eet might possibly be
circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile
retained through upgrades until at least 2028. The AC(2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of
130J is currently under development and is scheduled to
100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference
replace all current AC-130 variants. The AC-130W's are
as 20%, and both strength test counting as 10% each.
former MC-130W Combat Spear aircraft.
A passing score is 75 points. Eective 1 July 2010, the
AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment
A-10C Thunderbolt II
Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel may
test once a year if he or she earns a score above a 90%.
AC-130J Ghostrider
Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on
each one of these test will not get you a passing score
AC-130U Spooky II
of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a
AC-130W Stinger II
failure for the entire test.
0.49.5
Aircraft inventory
B Strategic bombers
Main article: List of active United States military aircraft

The U.S. Air Force has over 5,638 aircraft in service as
of September 2012.* [52] Until 1962, the Army and Air
Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while
the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962,
these were unied into a single system heavily reecting
the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to United
States Department of Defense aerospace vehicle designation. The various aircraft of the Air Force include:
B-2 Spirit stealth strategic bomber
A Ground attack
The ground-attack aircraft of the USAF are designed to
attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as
close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground
forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not possible with
bomber aircraft listed below. They are typically deployed
In the US Air Force, the distinction between bombers,

ghters that are actually ghter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred. Many attack aircraft, even ones
that look like ghters, are optimized to drop bombs, with
very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Many ghter
aircraft, such as the F-16, are often used as 'bomb trucks',
despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the
163
B-1B Lancer supersonic strategic bomber
one meaningful distinction at present is the question of

range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable
of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas
ghter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater'
missions in and around the immediate area of battleeld
combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling, which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations. The US, Russia, and the
People's Republic of China operate strategic bombers.
C-17 Globemaster III, the USAF's newest and most versatile

transport plane
The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s,

its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. The B-52 Stratofortress airframe
design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960
and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service C-5 Galaxy heavy airlift
for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in
service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of
service for any aircraft. Plans for successors to the current strategic bomber force remain only paper projects,
and political and funding pressures suggest that they are
likely to remain paper-bound for the foreseeable future.
B-1B Lancer
B-2A Spirit
B-52H Stratofortress
C Cargo transport
The Air Force can provide rapid global mobility, which
lies at the heart of U.S. strategy in this environment
without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As U.S. forces stationed overseas
continue to decline, global interests remain, making the
unique mobility capabilities of the USAF even more in
demand. Air mobility is a national asset of growing importance for responding to emergencies and protecting
American interests around the globe.
Cargo and transport aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by
a variety of methods to any area of military operations
CV-22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft
around the world, usually outside of the commercial ight

routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the
USAF Air Mobility Command are the C-130 Hercules,
C-17 Globemaster III, and C-5 Galaxy. These aircraft
are largely dened in terms of their range capability as
strategic airlift (C-5), strategic/tactical (C-17), and tactical (C-130) airlift to reect the needs of the land forces
they most often support. The CV-22 is used by the Air
Force for the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrainfollowing radar. Some aircraft serve specialized transportation roles such as executive/embassy support (C-12),
Antarctic Support (LC-130H), and USSOCOM support
164
CONTENTS
(C-27J, C-145A, and C-146A). The WC-130H aircraft

are former weather reconnaissance aircraft, now reverted
to the transport mission.
EC-130J Commando Solo
Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were

specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air)
and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of
existing civilian aircraft.
E-4B Nightwatch
E-3B, E-3C and E-3G Sentry
E-8C JSTARS
E-9A Widget
E-11A
C-5A, C-5B, C-5C and C-5M Galaxy

C-12C, C-12D, C-12F and C-12J Huron
F Fighter
C-17A Globemaster III

C-27J Spartan
C-130H, LC-130H, and WC-130H Hercules
C-130J and C-130J-30 Super Hercules
C-145A Skytruck
C-146A Wolfhound
CV-22B Osprey
E Special electronic missions
F-22 Raptor stealth air superiority ghter
E-3 Sentry airborne warning and control system
F-15E Strike Eagle strike ghter
The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent

an advantage in the EMS and ensure friendly, unimpeded
access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep
airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called The Eye in
the Sky.The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the
dierent variants to include Electronic Warfare/Jamming
(EC-130H), Psychological Operations/Communications
(EC-130J), Airborne Early Warning and Control (E-3),
Airborne Command Post (E-4B), ground targeting radar
(E-8C), range control (E-9A), and communications relay
(E-11A)
EC-130H Compass Call
The ghter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and

maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for airto-air combat. Many of these ghters have secondary
ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as
ghter-bombers (e.g., the F-16 Fighting Falcon); the term
ghteris also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft. Other missions include interception of bombers and other ghters, reconnaissance,
and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air
Demonstration squadron, the Thunderbirds, while a small
number of both man-rated and non-man-rated F-4 Phantom II are retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as Full Scale
Aerial Targets (FSAT) or as part of the USAF Heritage
Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being
replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft

converted to QF-16 conguration. The USAF has 2,025
ghters in service as of September 2012.* [52]
F-15C and F-15D Eagle
F-15E Strike Eagle
165
KC-46A Pegasus
KC-135R and KC-135T Stratotanker
M Multi-mission
F-16C and F-16D Fighting Falcon

F-22A Raptor
F-35A Lightning II
H Search and rescue
These aircraft are used for search and rescue and combat
search and rescue on land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH60U are replacement aircraft for Gmodels that have
been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH60W helicopters are under development to replace both
the Gand Umodel Pave Hawks.
HC-130N and HC-130P Combat King
HC-130J Combat King II
HH-60G and HH-60U Pave Hawk
K Tanker
MC-12W Liberty at Beale AFB
Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for

global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct inltration, exltration, resupply, and refueling for
SOF teams from improvised or otherwise short runways.
The MC-130J is currently being elded to replace H
and Pmodels used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) role.
MC-130H Combat Talon II
MC-130J Commando II
MC-130P Combat Shadow
MC-12W Liberty
KC-10 Extender tri-jet air-to-air tanker
The USAF's aerial refueling aircraft are derivatives of

civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily
for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom,
and can be equipped withprobe and droguerefueling
systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in largescale operations and also used in normal operations; ghters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesserknown tankeraircraft. This makes these aircraft an
essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the
U.S. force projection. The KC-46A Pegasus is currently
undergoing testing projected to start elding in 2016.
KC-10A Extender
MQ-9 unmanned aerial vehicle
Q Multi-mission Remote Piloted Aircraft

Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance
aircraft, but some were tted with weaponry (such as the
MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellre air-toground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV).
MQ-1B Predator
MQ-9B Reaper
166
CONTENTS
O Observation
These aircraft are modied to observe (through visual or
other means) and report tactical information concerning
composition and disposition of forces. The OC-135 is
specically designed to support the Treaty on Open Skies
by observing bases and operations of party members under the 2002 signed treaty.
OC-135B Open Skies
R Reconnaissance
RQ-170 Sentinel stealth unmanned aerial vehicle reconnaissance
aircraft
T Trainer
The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots,
combat systems ocers, and other aircrew in their duties.
T-1A Jayhawk
Lockheed U-2 spy plane
T-6A Texan II
T-38A, T-38B, T-38C and AT-38B Talon

The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for
monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no arma Diamond T-52A
ment. Although the U-2 is designated as a 'utility' aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the dierent variants to include TG - Trainer Gliders
general monitoring (RC-26B), Ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), Electronic Intelligence gathering (RCSeveral gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for
135U), Signal Intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and
cadet ying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy.
high altitude surveillance (U-2)
RC-26B
RC-135S Cobra Ball
RC-135U Combat Sent
RC-135V and RC-135W Rivet Joint
TG-10B, TG-10C and TG-10D

TG-15A
TG-15B
U-2S Dragon Lady

U Utility
Q Reconnaissance Remote Piloted Aircraft
Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed
for at the time. For example, a Huey may be used to transSeveral unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance
port personnel around a large base or launch site, while it
aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recan also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all
cently, the RPAs have been seen to oer the possibility
around use aircraft.
of cheaper, more capable ghting machines that can be
used without risk to aircrews.
U-28A
RQ-4A Global Hawk
UH-1N Iroquois
RQ-11 Raven
RQ-170 Sentinel
UV-18B Twin Otter
167
0.49.6 Culture
The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily
driven by pilots and so the pilots of various aircraft types
have driven its priorities over the years. At rst there
was a focus on bombers (driven originally by the Bomber
Maa), followed by a focus on ghters (Fighter Maa and
following).* [54]* [55]* [56]
In response to the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear
weapons incident, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates accepted in June 2009 the resignations of Secretary of the
Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Sta of the
Air Force General T. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, General Norton A. Schwartz, a former tactical
VC-25A (Air Force One)
airlift and special operations pilot was the rst ocer appointed to that position who did not have a background as
a ghter or bomber pilot.* [57] The Washington Post reV VIP sta transport
ported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle
system of the USAF, particularly in the ofThese aircraft are used for the transportation of Very the rigid class
*
cer
corps.
[58]
Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the
President, Vice President, Cabinet secretaries, govern- In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals
ment ocials (e.g., senators and representatives), the in the Air Force's missile launch ocer ocer commuJoint Chiefs of Sta, and other key personnel.
nity, Secretary of the Air Force Deborah Lee James admitted that there remained a systemic problemin the
USAF's management of the nuclear mission.* [59]
VC-25A (two used as Air Force One)
Daniel L. Magruder, Jr denes USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.* [60]
C-21A Learjet
Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. adds that the
C-32A and C-32B
U.S. Air Force's culture also includes an egalitarianism
bred from ocers perceiving themselves as their service's
C-37A and C-37B
principal warriorsworking with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard
C-38A Courier
crew of their aircraft. Air Force ocers have never felt
C-40B and C-40C
they needed the formal social distancefrom their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of
W Weather reconnaissance
its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its ofThese aircraft are used to study meteorological events
cers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being prisuch as hurricanes and typhoons.
marily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted
force did go into harm's way, such as members of multi WC-130J Hurricane Hunter
crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in
tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat
WC-135C and WC-135W Constant Phoenix
dierent kind of ocer/enlisted relationship than exists
elsewhere in the military.* [61]
Undesignated foreign aircraft used by Special OperCultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been
ations Squadrons
cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in needed UAV
operators.* [62] In spite of an urgent need for UAVs or
CN-235-100* [53] (427th Special Operations
drones to provide round the clock coverage for American
Squadron)
troops during the Iraq War,* [63] the USAF did not establish a new career eld for piloting them until the last year
of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus
LGM - Ballistic Missile
again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,* [64]
LGM-30G Minuteman III Intercontinental Ballistic and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of
Missile
drone programs.* [65] Paul Scharre has reported that the
C-20A, C20B, C20C, C-20G and C20H
168
CONTENTS
cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept

both services from adopting each other's drone handing
innovations.* [66]
Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from the Royal
Air Force (e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as the U.S.
Army Air Service, U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S.
Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from
Friday Name Tagsin ying units to an annual Mustache Month.The use of challenge coins is a recent innovation that was adopted from the U.S. Army
while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force
is theroof stomp, practiced by Air Force members to
welcome a new commander or to commemorate another
event, such as a retirement.
List of active United States military aircraft

List of United States Air Force installations
List of United States Airmen
List of U.S. Air Force acronyms and expressions
National Museum of the United States Air Force
Project Blue Book USAF's UFO investigation
(19471969)
United States Air Force Band
United States Air Force Chaplain Corps
United States Air Force Combat Control Team
United States Air Force Medical Service
Slogans and creeds
United States Air Force Thunderbirds
The United States Air Force has had numerous recruiting slogans including No One Comes Closeand Uno 0.49.8 References
Ab Alto (One From On High). For many years, the
U.S. Air Force usedAim Highas its recruiting slogan; [1] http://www.airforce.com/learn-about/history/part2/ Missions Part Two: Air Power Comes of Age in World War
more recently, they have used Cross into the Blue,
II, U.S. Air Force.
We've been waiting for youandDo Something Amaz*
*
ing, [67]Above All, [68] and the newest one, as of [2] Air Force Personnel Center - Air Force Personnel De7 October 2010, considered a call and response, Aim
mographics. af.mil.
highfollowed with the response,Fly-Fight-Win* [69]
Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own slo- [3] http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/
Magazine%20Documents/2012/May%202012/
gan(s). Information and logos can usually be found on
*
0512facts_figs.pdf
the wing, group, or squadron websites. [70]
The Air Force Core Values are: Integrity rst,Service before self, Excellence in all we do.* [71] The
Airman's Creed is a statement introduced in early 2007
to summarize the culture of the Air Force.
[4] Aim High ... Fly-Fight-Win to be Air Force motto

USAF. United States Air Force. 7 October 2010.
Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved
19 October 2010.
To help further knowledge of their mission and functions,

the Air Force has also produced videos, such asSetting
the Conditions for VictoryandHow We Fight,* [72]
to outline the Air Force role in the war on terrorism and
how the service succeeds in its domains of air, space, and
cyberspace. The Above All campaign continues to support the message of air, space and cyberspacedominance.* [68]
[5] The Air Force Flag (PDF). Air Force Historical Research Agency. United States Air Force. 24 March 2007.
Retrieved 27 March 2009.
0.49.7
[8] Air Force Core Functions
See also
Air Force Association

Air Force Combat Ammunition Center
Air Force Knowledge Now
Civil Air Patrol - auxiliary of the USAF
Company Grade Ocers' Council
Department of the Air Force Police
[6] United States Air Force (September 2009). The U.S.

Air Force. United States Air Force website. Washington,
DC: U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
[7] 2010 United States Air Force Posture Statement. USAF,
9 February 2010.
[9] 10 USC 8062. Law.cornell.edu. 1 October 2009.

Retrieved 30 August 2010.
[10] Air Force Welcome Page (2011). . Retrieved 28 December 2011.
[11] Air Force Basic Doctrine, Organization, and Command
(AFDD1 14 October 2011)
[12] Davenport, Christian (12 April 2014).Air Force plan to
get rid of A-10s runs into opposition. www.stripes.com.
The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
[13] Robert Pitta, Gordon Rottman, Je Fannell (1993). "US

Army Air Force (1)". Osprey Publishing. p.3. ISBN 185532-295-1
[14] The Air Force Fact Sheet. U.S. Air Force. Retrieved
30 December 2014.
[15] National Security Act of 1947. U.S. Intelligence Community, October 2004. Retrieved 14 April 2006.
[16] U.S. Department of State. National Security Act of 1947.
Retrieved 3 October 2010.
[17] Wildsmith, Snow (2012). Joining the United States Air
Force. United States of America: McFarland. p. 56.
ISBN 978-0-7864-4758-9.
[18] Francis, Mike.The gang that couldn't y straight.The
Oregonian, 22 November 2010
[19] Bennett, John T.Panetta Selects Trusted Hand for New
Air Force Chief. U.S. News & World Report, 14 May
2012.
[20] Thompson, Loren. New Air Force Chief Must Reverse
Service's Downward Spiral/" Forbes Magazine, 6 August
2012.
[21] Air Force Basic Military Training - Home. af.mil.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[22] Needed: 200 New Aircraft a Year, Air Force Magazine,
October 2008.
[23] 2008 USAF Almanac: People (PDF). AIR FORCE
Magazine. Retrieved 2 September 2011. 1991: 510,000;
2007: 328,600
[24] 2008/0108scarce.aspx Scarce Flying Hours
[25] This story was written by Maj. Timothy Farr. Airmen's
time tour makes follow-up visits. Af.mil. Archived from
the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
[26] Washington watch, AIR FORCE Magazine, July 2008,
Vol. 91 No. 7, pp. 8.
[27] Chavanne, Bettina H.USAF Creates Global Strike Command. Aviation Week, 24 October 2008.
[28] Plan reshapes U.S. air power. Airforcetimes.com.
[29] This story was written by Gerry J. Gilmore. Unmanned
aircraft take on increased importance. Af.mil. Archived
from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 30 August
2010.
[30] 7 October 2009(7 October 2009). Future U.S. Defense Needs in a High Technology Present Up Front
Blog Brookings Institution. Brookings.edu. Retrieved
30 August 2010.
[31] Air Force Personnel Center dress. Afpc.af.mil. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
[32] Olds, Robin (2010). Fighter Pilot. New York: St Martin's
Press.
169
[33] Air Force Pamphlet 36-2241. USAF, 1 July 2007.

[34] ""USAF to help transport French troops to Mali."". airforcetimes.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[35] The primary source for the humanitarian operations of the
USAF is the United States Air Force Supervisory Examination Study Guide (2005)
[36] Tegler, Eric (28 October 2013). ACC Gen. Mike
Hostage Says Recapitalization Is Best of Bad Options
. www.defensemedianetwork.com. Defense Media Network. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
[37] Shoop, Tom (November 14, 2013). Fanning: Air Force
Having Trouble Keeping Pilots, and Pay Isn't the Problem. www.defenseone.com. National Journal Group,
Inc. Retrieved 15 January 2014.
[38] Air Forces aging eet gets no relief from budget cuts
. daytondailynews.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[39] Ignatius, David (1 July 2013). Politics tops public interest. www.heraldtribune.com. HeraldTribune. Retrieved
14 July 2013.
[40] AF lifts grounding of combat squadrons, Thunderbirds
. Military Times. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[41] 2007 USAF Almanac: Major Commands(PDF). AIR
FORCE Magazine. Archived from the original (PDF) on
16 February 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
[42] 2007 USAF Almanac: USAF Squadrons By Mission
Type(PDF). AIR FORCE Magazine. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
[43] Air Force Specialty Code Information, United States Air
Force, July 2008.
[44] United States Air Force ocer rank insignia
[45] Schwellenbach, Nick. Brass Creep and the Pentagon:
Air Force Leads the Way As Top Oender. POGO, 25
April 2011.
[46] Warrant Ocer Programs of Other Services. United
States Army Warrant Ocer Association. Retrieved 18
March 2007.
[47] Warrant Ocers of the US Military. Militaryranks.us.
16 November 2006. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
[48] Air
National
Guard
Retired
Fire
Chiefs.
[https://www.angrfc.us:453/11/?no_cache=1&tx_
ttnews{[}tt_news{]}=9&tx_ttnews{[}backPid{]}=10&
cHash=b341eff1cf CWO4 Bob Barrow"]. Retrieved
27 January 2009.
[49] Department of Defense Enlisted Rank Insignias. Defenselink.mil. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
[50] However, the Army has dual ranks at the E-4 paygrade
with Specialists not considered NCOs. Since the 1980s,
the Army corporal rank has come to be awarded infrequently and is rarely found in modern units.
170
CONTENTS
[51] Getting the Blues, by Tech. Sgt. Pat McKenna. Air

Force Link. Archived from the original on 2 February
2007. Retrieved 24 September 2007.
[52] USAF Almanac, The Air Force in Facts and Figures
(PDF). Air Force Magazine. May 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
[53] Photos: Airtech CN-235 Aircraft Pictures. Airliners.net. 23 December 2004. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
[69] Aim High ... Fly-Fight-Win. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
[70] US Air Force Mottos. Military-quotes.com. Retrieved 4
June 2006.
[71] Our Mission Learn About The U.S. Air Force. AirForce.com.
[72] "'Setting the Conditions for Victory' video premieres online. USAF, 3 October 2007
[54] Air Force Culture and Conventional Strategic Airpower

. Stormingmedia.us. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
References to U.S. Army predecessors of today's U.S. Air
[55] Thompson, Mark (8 July 2013).The Air Force's Future
May Be in Drones, But Its Generals Won't Be. www.
time.com. Time Inc. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
Force are cited under their respective articles.
[56] Worden, Michael (November 1997). The Rise of the

Fighter Generals. www.dtic.mil. Air University Press.
Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Ocial USAF site
[57] Barnes, Julian E.; Spiegel, Peter (10 June 2008). A

dierent type of Air Force leader. Los Angeles Times.
Air Force Blue Tube page on youtube.com
[58] Combat Generation: Drone operators climb on winds

of change in the Air Force. The Washington Post. 27
February 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
[59] Everstine, Brian (29 January 2014). James: AF is addressing 'systemic' problem in nuclear force. airforcetimes.com. Gannett Government Media. Retrieved 29
January 2014.
Ocial USAF Recruiting site
Air Force Live ocial blog

Other
Searchable database of Air Force historical reports
USAF emblems
USAF Communications Troops
[60] http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/journal/docs-temp/
272-magruder.pdf
Members of the US Air Force on RallyPoint
[61] Understanding Airmen: A primer for soldiers(PDF).

Retrieved 13 December 2011.
Aircraft Investment Plan, Fiscal Years (FY) 2011

2040, Submitted with the FY 2011 Budget
[62] US Air Force Lacks Volunteers To Operate Drones.

Defense News. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
National Commission on the Structure of the Air

Force: Report to the President and the Congress of
the United States
[63] Whitlock, Craig (November 13, 2013). Drone combat

missions may be scaled back eventually, Air Force chief
says. www.washingtonpost.com (The Washington Post).
Retrieved 14 May 2014.
[64] Wasserbly, Daniel (12 May 2014).AUVSI 2014: USAF
looking to rene RPA training regime, reduce accidents.
www.janes.com (IHS Jane's Defence Weekly). Retrieved
14 May 2014.
Works by or about United States Air Force at

Internet Archive
0.50 War
This article is about war in general. For other uses, see

War (disambiguation) and The War (disambiguation).
War is a state of armed conict between autonomous organizations (such as states and non-state actors) or coalitions of such organizations. It is generally characterized
[66] Scharre, Paul (29 July 2014).How to Lose the Robotics
by extreme collective aggression, destruction, and usually
Revolution. warontherocks.com (War on the Rocks).
high mortality. The set of techniques used by a group to
carry out war is known as warfare. An absence of war is
[67] ""Do Something Amazingweb site. Dosomethinga- usually called "peace.
[65] Cox, Matthew (Apr 24, 2014). Air Force Criticized for
Mismanaging Drone Program. www.military.com (A
Monster Company). Retrieved 14 May 2014.
mazing.com. Retrieved 30 August 2010.

[68] Air Force rolls out new advertising campaign, Airforcetimes.com, 20 February 2008. Retrieved 23 April
2012
While some scholars see warfare as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature,* [1] others argue that it is
only a result of specic socio-cultural or ecological circumstances.* [2]
0.50. WAR
171
The English word war derives from the late Old English
(c.1050) words wyrre and werre; the Old French werre;
the Frankish werra; and the Proto-Germanic werso. The
denotation of war derives from the Old Saxon werran,
Old High German werran, and the German verwirren:
to confuse, to perplex, and to bring into confusion.* [9] Another posited derivation is from the Ancient
Greek barbaros, the Old Persian varhara, and the Sanskrit varvar and barbara. In German, the equivalent is
Krieg; the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian term forwar
is guerra, derived from the Germanic werra ght
(
, tumult).* [10] Etymologic legend has it that the Romanic

peoples adopted a foreign, Germanic word forwar, to
avoid using the Latin bellum, because, when sounded, it
tended to merge with the sound of the word bello (beautiful).
The scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology (/plmldi/ pah-l-MAHL--jee), from the
Greek polemos, meaningwar, and -logy, meaningthe
study of.
0.50.2 Types
The War by Tadeusz Cyprian (1949), a photograph in the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw showing ruins of
Poland's capital in the aftermath of World War II
In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths down from 72,000

deaths in 1990.* [3] The deadliest war in history, in terms
of the cumulative number of deaths since its start, is the
Second World War, with 6085 million deaths, followed
by the Mongol conquests.* [4] Proportionally speaking,
the most destructive war in modern history is the War
of the Triple Alliance, which took the lives of over 60%
of Paraguay's population, according to Steven Pinker. In
2003, Richard Smalley identied war as the sixth (of
ten) biggest problems facing humanity for the next fty
years.* [5] War usually results in signicant deterioration
of infrastructure and the ecosystem, a decrease in social
spending, famine, large-scale emigration from the war
zone, and often the mistreatment of prisoners of war or
civilians.* [6]* [7]* [8] Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant casualties.
0.50.1
Main article: Types of war

War must entail some degree of confrontation using
weapons and other military technology and equipment by
armed forces employing military tactics and operational
art within a broad military strategy subject to military logistics. Studies of war by military theorists throughout
military history have sought to identify the philosophy of
war, and to reduce it to a military science.
Etymology
Ruins of Guernica (1937). The Spanish Civil War was one of
Europe's bloodiest and most brutal civil wars.
Mural of War (1896), by Gari Melchers
Modern military science considers several factors before

a national defence policy is created to allow a war to commence: the environment in the area(s) of combat operations, the posture that national forces will adopt on the
commencement of a war, and the type of warfare that
troops will be engaged in.
172
Asymmetric warfare is a conict between two populations of drastically dierent levels of military capability or size. Asymmetric conicts often result in
guerrilla tactics being used to overcome the sometimes vast gaps in technology and force size.
Chemical warfare involves the intentional use of
chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a chemical
weapon was principally used during World War I,
and resulted in an estimated 1.3 million casualties,
including 100,000260,000 civilians. Tens of thousands or more civilians and military personnel died
from chemical weapon eects such as scarring of
the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in
the years after the Great War ended.* [11] Various
treaties have sought to ban its further use. Nonlethal chemical weapons, such as tear gas and pepper
spray, are widely used, sometimes with deadly effect.
CONTENTS
0.50.3 Behaviour and conduct

The behaviour of troops in warfare varies considerably,
both individually and as units or armies. In some circumstances, troops may engage in genocide, war rape
and ethnic cleansing. Commonly, however, the conduct
of troops may be limited to posturing and sham attacks,
leading to highly rule-bound and often largely symbolic
combat in which casualties are much reduced from that
which would be expected if soldiers were genuinely violent towards the enemy.* [14] Situations of deliberate
dampening of hostilities occurred in World War I by
some accounts, e.g., a volley of gunre being exchanged
after a misplaced mortar hit the British line, after which
a German soldier shouted an apology to British forces,
eectively stopping a hostile exchange of gunre.* [15]
Other examples of non-aggression, also from World War
I, are detailed in "Good-Bye to All That.These include
spontaneous ceaseres to rebuild defences and retrieve
casualties, alongside behaviour such as refusing to shoot
at enemy during ablutions and the taking of great risks
(described as 1 in 20) to retrieve enemy wounded from
the battleeld. The most notable spontaneous ceasere
of World War I was the Christmas truce.
Civil war is a war where the forces in conict belong

to the same nation or political entity and are vying
for control of or independence from that nation or
The psychological separation between combatants, and
political entity.
the destructive power of modern weaponry, may act to
override this eect and facilitate participation by com Conventional warfare is an attempt to reduce the batants in the mass slaughter of combatants or civilians.
enemy's capability through open battle. It is a de- The unusual circumstances of warfare can incite apparclared war between existing states in which nuclear, ently normal individuals to commit atrocities.* [16] Socibiological, or chemical weapons are not used or only ologists and historians often view dehumanization as censee limited deployment in support of conventional tral to war.
military goals and maneuvers.
0.50.4 History
Globalizing war refers to a form of war which extends beyond the national or regional boundaries of Main article: Military history
the immediate combatants to have implications for In prehistorical post-Paleolithic societies, war likely conthe whole planet.* [2] An obvious example of this
form of war is World War II, but others such as the
Vietnam War also qualify. Globalizing war thus includes world war- with that category tending to be
restricted by convention to the two main examples.
Transnational war, a cognate concept, refers to wars
fought locally, but with implications or hostilities
across the boundaries of nation-states* [12]
Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear
weapons are the primary, or a major, method of coercing the capitulation of the other side, as opposed
to a supporting tactical or strategic role in a conventional conict.
The percentages of men killed in war in eight tribal societies, and
Europe and the U.S. in the 20th century. (Lawrence H. Keeley,
Archeologist)
Unconventional warfare, the opposite of conventional warfare, is an attempt to achieve military victory through acquiescence, capitulation, or clandes- sisted of small-scale raiding. One half of the people
found in a Nubian cemetery dating to as early as 12,000
tine support for one side of an existing conict.
0.50. WAR
years ago had died of violence.* [17] Since the rise of the
state some 5,000 years ago,* [18] military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder
and the acceleration of technological advances led to
modern warfare. According to Conway W. Henderson,
One source claims that 14,500 wars have taken place
between 3500 BC and the late 20th century, costing 3.5
billion lives, leaving only 300 years of peace (Beer 1981:
20).* [19]
173
and mutilated during an attack on their village a century and a half before Columbus's arrival (ca. AD 1325)'
".* [24]
It is problematic however to suggest that people in past

societies were any more violent than people are today.
Martin and colleagues in their recent book have pulled
together some of the foremost researchers studying violence in the past to show that though there may have been
events like massacres in the past, the frequency and maniIn War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, a profes- festation of warfare vary greatly both within and between
sor at the University of Illinois, says that approximately cultures.
9095% of known societies throughout history engaged
in at least occasional warfare,* [20] and many fought constantly.* [21]
Japanese samurai attacking a Mongol ship, 13th century

According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the Indian
Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 whites
and 30,000 Indians.* [25]
In Western Europe, since the late 18th century, more than

150 conicts and about 600 battles have taken place.* [26]
During the 20th century, war resulted in a dramatic intensication of the pace of social changes, and was a crucial
catalyst for the emergence of the Left as a force to be
reckoned with.* [27]
F-15E deploys ares during a ight over Afghanistan, 12

November 2008
Recent rapid increases in the technologies of war, and

therefore in its destructiveness (see mutual assured destruction), have caused widespread public concern, and
have in all probability forestalled, and may altogether prevent the outbreak of a nuclear World War III. At the end
of each of the last two World Wars, concerted and popular eorts were made to come to a greater understanding
of the underlying dynamics of war and to thereby hopefully reduce or even eliminate it altogether. These eorts
materialized in the forms of the League of Nations, and
its successor, the United Nations.
Keeley describes several styles of primitive combat such

as small raids, large raids, and massacres. All of these
forms of warfare were used by primitive societies, a nding supported by other researchers.* [22] Keeley explains
that early war raids were not well organized, as the participants did not have any formal training. Scarcity of re- Shortly after World War II, as a token of support for this
sources meant that defensive works were not a cost eec- concept, most nations joined the United Nations. During
tive way to protect the society against enemy raids.* [23] this same post-war period, with the aim of further deleWilliam Rubinstein wrote that Pre-literate societies, gitimizing war as an acceptable and logical extension of
even those organised in a relatively advanced way, were foreign policy, most national governments also renamed
renowned for their studied cruelty ... 'archaeology yields their Ministries or Departments of War as their Ministries
evidence of prehistoric massacres more severe than any or Departments of Defense, for example, the former US
recounted in ethnography [i.e., after the coming of the Department of War was renamed as the US Department
Europeans]'. At Crow Creek, South Dakota, as noted, ar- of Defense.
chaeologists found a mass grave of 'more than 500 men, In 1947, in view of the rapidly increasingly destructive
women, and children who had been slaughtered, scalped, consequences of modern warfare, and with a particu-
174
lar concern for the consequences and costs of the newly
developed atom bomb, Albert Einstein famously stated,
I know not with what weapons World War III will be
fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and
stones.* [28]
Mao Zedong urged the socialist camp not to fear nuclear war with the United States since, even if half of
mankind died, the other half would remain while imperialism would be razed to the ground and the whole world
would become socialist.* [29]
The Human Security Report 2005 documented a signicant decline in the number and severity of armed conicts
since the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. However, the evidence examined in the 2008 edition of the
Center for International Development and Conict Management'sPeace and Conictstudy indicated that the
overall decline in conicts had stalled.* [30]
Throughout history
Main article: Wars
CONTENTS
The Spanish naval victory of the Battle of Lepanto,
1571, the last battle to be fought primarily between
galleys
Battle of White Mountain, 1620, an early battle in
the Thirty Years' War
The Four Days' Battle, 14 June 1666, during the
Second Anglo-Dutch War
The Battle of Poltava (1709), a decisive battle between Russian and Swedish troops
Depicting French Cuirassiers charging onto the
British squares during the Battle of Waterloo
The 20th Foot at the Battle of Inkerman, Crimean
War, 1854
American Civil War, Union captures Fort Fisher,
1865
2nd Canadian Division soldiers score key WW1 victory in the Battle of Vimy Ridge, April 1917
A Soviet soldier waving a ag in victory at the Battle
of Stalingrad, the largest, deadliest battle in history.
Nine largest (by death toll) Main article: List of wars

by death toll
Canadian Army in Operation Overlord on D-Day at

Juno Beach, June 1944.
Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of

life, have been waged in the last century. These are the 0.50.5 Eects
two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese
Nations customarily measure the 'costs of
War (which is sometimes considered part of World War
war'
in dollars, lost production, or the number
II, or overlapping with that war). Most of the others inof
soldiers
killed or wounded. Rarely do
volved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of
military
establishments
attempt to measure
World War II, being 60 million plus, surpasses all other
the
costs
of
war
in
terms
of individual human
war-death-tolls. This may be due to signicant recent
suering.
Psychiatric
breakdown
remains
advances in weapons technologies, as well as recent inone
of
the
most
costly
items
of
war
when
creases in the overall human population.
expressed
in
human
terms.
*
[31]
No More Heroes, Richard Gabriel* [26]
Historic famous battles
Greek hoplite and persian warrior depicted ghting, On military personnel
on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC
The Battle of Tewkesbury (1471) during the Wars of Military personnel subject to combat in war often suffer mental and physical injuries, including depression,
the Roses in England
posttraumatic stress disorder, disease, injury, and death.
A cattle raid during the Swabian War (Luzerner
Schilling)
In every war in which American soldiers
have fought in, the chances of becoming a
The Battle of Ravenna, in which France defeated the
psychiatric casualty of being debilitated for
Spaniards on Easter Sunday in 1512
some period of time as a consequence of the
stresses of military life were greater than the
Swiss and Landsknecht pikemen ght at "push of
chances of being killed by enemy re.
pike" during the Italian Wars
No More Heroes, Richard Gabriel* [26]
Russo-Polish war, Battle of Orsha in 1514
0.50. WAR
Disability-adjusted life year for war per 100,000 inhabitants in

2004* [44]
no data
less than 100
100200
200600
6001000
10001400
14001800
18002200
22002600
26003000
30008000
80008800
more than 8800
175
One-tenth of mobilised American men
were hospitalised for mental disturbances
between 1942 and 1945, and after thirty-ve
days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them
manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying
degrees.
1418: Understanding the Great War,
Stphane
Audoin-Rouzeau,
Annette
Becker* [26]
Additionally, it has been estimated that anywhere from

18% to 54% of Vietnam war veterans suered from Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder.* [14]
Based on 1860 census gures, 8% of all white American
males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18%
in the South.* [45] The war remains the deadliest conict
in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000
military personnel. United States military casualties of
war since 1775 have totaled over two million. Of the
60 million European military personnel who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million
were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously
injured.* [46]
The Apotheosis of War (1871) by Vasily Vereshchagin
During World War II, research conducted by US Army

Brigadier General S.L.A. Marshall found that, on average, only 15% to 20% of American riemen in WWII
combat red at the enemy.* [14] In Civil War Collectors Encyclopedia, F.A. Lord notes that of the 27,574
discarded muskets found on the Gettysburg battleeld,
nearly 90% were loaded, with 12,000 loaded more than
once and 6,000 loaded 3 to 10 times. These studies
suggest that most military personnel resist ring their
weapons in combat, that as some theorists argue human beings have an inherent resistance to killing their fellow human beings.* [14] Swank and Marchands WWII
study found that after sixty days of continuous combat,
98% of all surviving military personnel will become psychiatric casualties. Psychiatric casualties manifest themselves in fatigue cases, confusional states, conversion hysteria, anxiety, obsessional and compulsive states, and
character disorders.* [14]
Why?, from The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra),

by Francisco Goya, 181215. A collection of depictions of the
brutalities of the Napoleonic-Peninsular War.
The remains of dead Crow Indians killed and scalped by Sioux

c. 1874
176
CONTENTS
traded between France and Germany on three dierent
occasions.
Typically speaking, war becomes very intertwined with

the economy and many wars are partially or entirely based
on economic reasons. Some economists believe war can
stimulate a country's economy (high government spending for World War II is often credited with bringing the
USA out of the Great Depression by most Keynesian
Les Grandes Misres de la guerre depict the destruction un- economists) but in many cases, such as the wars of Louis
XIV, the Franco-Prussian War, and World War I, warleashed on civilians during the Thirty Years' War.
fare serves only to damage the economy of the countries
involved. For example, Russia's involvement in World
During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow, more French War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it almilitary personnel died of typhus than were killed by the most collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the
Russians.* [47] Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Neman on 25 June 1812, less than 40,000 returned. More
military personnel were killed from 15001914 by typhus
than from military action.* [48] In addition, if it were not World War II One of the starkest illustrations of the
for modern medical advances there would be thousands eect of war upon economies is the Second World War.
more dead from disease and infection. For instance, dur- The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations ining the Seven Years' War, the Royal Navy reported that creased their production of war materials to serve the war
it conscripted 184,899 sailors, of whom 133,708 died of eort.* [56] The nancial cost of World War II is estidisease or were 'missing'.* [49]
mated at about a trillion U.S. dollars worldwide, making
*
*
It is estimated that between 1985 and 1994, 378,000 peo- it the most costly war in capital as well as lives. [57] [58]
ple per year died due to war.* [50]
By the end of the war, the European economy had

collapsed with 70% of the industrial infrastructure destroyed.* [59] Property damage in the Soviet Union inOn civilians
icted by the Axis invasion was estimated at a value of
679 billion rubles. The combined damage consisted of
See also: Civilian casualties
complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns,
70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850
Most wars have resulted in signicant loss of life, along industrial establishments, 40,000 mi (64,374 km) of railwith destruction of infrastructure and resources (which road, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000
*
may lead to famine, disease, and death in the civilian schools, and 43,000 public libraries. [60]
population). During the Thirty Years' War in Europe, the
population of the Holy Roman Empire was reduced by 15
to 40 percent.* [51]* [52] Civilians in war zones may also On the arts
be subject to war atrocities such as genocide, while survivors may suer the psychological aftereects of wit- War leads to forced migration causing potentially large
displacements of population. Among forced migrants
nessing the destruction of war.
there are usually relatively large shares of artists and other
Most estimates of World War II casualties indicate that types of creative people, causing so the war eects to be
around 60 million people died, 40 million of which were particularly harmful for the countrys creative potential
civilians.* [53] Deaths in the Soviet Union were around in the long-run.* [61]
27 million.* [54] Since a high proportion of those killed
were young men who had not yet fathered any children, War is further argued to have a direct impact on artistic
population growth in the postwar Soviet Union was much output, as it disrupts the production processes and distribution of artworks. Since creativity in the arts is often an
lower than it otherwise would have been.* [55]
expression of intense feeling, and as war aects the frame
of mind of an artist, it has a negative eect on an artists
On the economy
individual life-cycle output.* [62]
See also: Military Keynesianism
Once a war has ended, losing nations are sometimes required to pay war reparations to the victorious nations.
In certain cases, land is ceded to the victorious nations.
For example, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has been
It is not uncommon that during Wars, cultural institutions,

such as libraries, are seen astargets in themselves; their
elimination was a way to denigrate and demoralize the
enemy population.It is important to know about and
understand the impact such destruction can have on a society because in an era in which competing ideologies
fuel internal and international conict, the destruction of
0.50. WAR
libraries and other items of cultural signicance is neither
random nor irrelevant. Preserving the worlds repositories of knowledge is crucial to ensuring that the darkest
moments of history do not endlessly repeat themselves.
*
[63]
0.50.6
Factors ending a war
177
overwhelming military force as an attempt to prevent further harm to life and property. For example, the Empire
of Japan gave an unconditional surrender to the Allies after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see
Surrender of Japan) and the preceding massive strategic
bombardment of Japan. A settlement or surrender may
also be obtained through deception or blung.
Many other wars, however, have ended in complete destruction of the opposing territory, such as the Battle of
Carthage of the Third Punic War between the Phoenician
city of Carthage and Ancient Rome in 149 BC. In 146
BC the Romans burned the city, enslaved its citizens, and
razed the buildings.
Some wars or aggressive actions end when the military
objective of the victorious side has been achieved. Others do not, especially in cases where the state structures do
not exist, or have collapsed prior to the victory of the conqueror. In such cases, disorganised guerilla warfare may
continue for a considerable period. In cases of complete
surrender conquered territories may be brought under the
permanent dominion of the victorious side. A raid for the
purpose of looting may be completed with the successful
capture of goods. In other cases an aggressor may decide
to end hostilities to avoid continued losses and cease hostilities without obtaining the original objective, such as
happened in the IranIraq War.
Some hostilities, such as insurgency or civil war, may persist for long periods of time with only a low level of military activity. In some cases there is no negotiation of any
ocial treaty, but ghting may trail o and eventually
stop after the political demands of the belligerent groups
have been reconciled, a political settlement has been negotiated, the combatants are gradually killed or decide the
conict is futile, or the belligerents cease active military
engagement but still threaten each other. A good example is the Chinese Civil War which was essentially over
by 1950, but in the second half of the 20th century the
American and Filipino troops surrender to the Japanese at People's Republic of China began ghting to isolate the
Bataan.
Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) diplomatically, and still sporadically threatens the island with
The political and economic circumstances, in the peace an invasion. For this reason, some historians consider the
that follows war, usually depend on the facts on the war not ended but continuing.
ground. Where evenly matched adversaries decide that
the conict has resulted in a stalemate, they may cease
hostilities to avoid further loss of life and property. They 0.50.7 Ongoing conicts
may decide to restore the antebellum territorial boundaries, redraw boundaries at the line of military control, Main article: List of ongoing military conicts
or negotiate to keep or exchange captured territory. Negotiations between parties involved at the end of a war
There are currently dozens of ongoing armed conicts
often result in a treaty, such as the Treaty of Versailles of
around the world, the deadliest of which is the Syrian
1919, which ended the First World War.
Civil War.
A warring party that surrenders or capitulates may have
little negotiating power, with the victorious side either
imposing a settlement or dictating most of the terms of 0.50.8 Eorts to limit or stop wars
any treaty. A common result is that conquered territory
is brought under the dominion of the stronger military Main article: Anti-war movement
power. An unconditional surrender is made in the face of See also: Aestheticization of violence
178
CONTENTS
Religious groups have long formally opposed or sought
Execution at Verdun at the time of the mutinies of 1917, when

parts of the French Army refused to conduct further oensive
operations
to limit war as in the Second Vatican Council document

Gaudiem et Spes:Any act of war aimed indiscriminately
at the destruction of entire cities of extensive areas along
with their population is a crime against God and man himself. It merits unequivocal and unhesitating condemnation.* [64]
Anti-war movements have existed for every major war
in the 20th century, including, most prominently, World
War I, World War II, and the Vietnam War. In the
21st century, worldwide anti-war movements occurred
ever since the United States invaded Afghanistan and
Iraq. In 2001, the US government decided to invade
Afghanistan to ght against international terrorism that
caused the September 11 attacks. Protests opposing the
War in Afghanistan occurred in cities in Europe, Asia,
and all over the United States. Organizations like Stop
the War Coalition, based in the United Kingdom, work
on campaigning against the war. They raise awareness of
the war, organize demonstrations, and lobby the governments.* [65] Signicant worldwide opposition to the Iraq
War also exists. Critics oppose the war based on the argument of violation of sovereignty, absence of the UN
approval, and perceived illegitimacy.
The Mexican Drug War, with estimated casualties of
40,000 since December 2006, has been recently facing
a fundamental opposition.* [66] In 2011, the movement
for peace and justice has started a popular middle-class
movement against the war. It has won the recognition
of President Calderon, who started the war, but has not
ended it.* [67]
The Ottoman campaign for territorial expansion in Europe in

1566, Crimean Tatars as vanguard. The Tatars essentially
sought booty, especially slaves.
dertaking the war. For example, in the Third Punic

War, Rome's leaders may have wished to make war with
Carthage for the purpose of eliminating a resurgent rival,
while the individual soldiers may have been motivated by
a wish to make money. Since many people are involved,
a war may acquire a life of its own from the conuence of
many dierent motivations. An interpretation of the ancient Jewish commentary (BeReshit Rabbah) on the ght
between Cain and Abel in Genesis 4 (Parashot BeReshit
XXII:7) states that there are three universal reasons for
wars: (A) Economics, (B) Power, and (C) Religion.* [69]
As the strategic and tactical aspects of warfare are always
changing, theories and doctrines relating to warfare are
often reformulated before, during, and after every major war. Carl von Clausewitz said, 'Every age had its own
kind of war, its own limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions.'* [70] The one constant factor is war
s employment of organized violence and the resultant destruction of property and/or lives that necessarily follows.
Governments also use the method of disarmament to stop

and prevent the cost of war.
Psychoanalytic psychology
Dutch psychoanalyst Joost Meerloo held that, War is
often...a mass discharge of accumulated internal rage
(where)...the inner fears of mankind are discharged in
There is no scholarly agreement on which are the most mass destruction.* [71] Thus war can sometimes be a
common motivations for war.* [68] Motivations may be means by which man's own frustration at his inability to
dierent for those ordering the war than for those un- master his own self is expressed and temporarily relieved
0.50.9
Theories for motivation
0.50. WAR
179
via his unleashing of destructive behavior upon others. In

als, April 18, 1946* [76]
this destructive scenario, these others are made to serve as
the scapegoat of man's own unspoken and subconscious
Evolutionary
frustrations and fears.
Other psychoanalysts such as E.F.M. Durban and John See also: Prehistoric warfare
Bowlby have argued that human beings are inherently vi- Several theories concern the evolutionary origins of warolent.* [72] This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement
and projection where a person transfers his or her
grievances into bias and hatred against other races, religions, nations or ideologies. By this theory, the nation
state preserves order in the local society while creating an
outlet for aggression through warfare. If war is innate to
human nature, as is presupposed and predetermined by
many psychological theories, then there is little hope of
ever escaping it.
The Italian psychoanalyst Franco Fornari, a follower of
Melanie Klein, thought that war was the paranoid or pro- Increasing population and constant warfare among the Maya
jectiveelaborationof mourning.* [73] Fornari thought city-states over resources may have contributed to the eventual
that war and violence develop out of ourlove need: our collapse of the Maya civilization by AD 900.
wish to preserve and defend the sacred object to which
we are attached, namely our early mother and our fusion
with her. For the adult, nations are the sacred objects
that generate warfare. Fornari focused upon sacrice as
the essence of war: the astonishing willingness of human
beings to die for their country, to give over their bodies
to their nation.
Despite Fornari's theory that man's altruistic desire for
self-sacrice for a noble cause is a contributing factor towards war, in history only a tiny fraction of wars have
originated from a desire for war from the general populace.* [74] Far more often the general population has been
reluctantly drawn into war by its rulers. One psychological theory that looks at the leaders is advanced by Maurice
Walsh.* [75] He argues that the general populace is more
neutral towards war and that wars only occur when leaders with a psychologically abnormal disregard for human
life are placed into power. War is caused by leaders that
seek war such as Napoleon and Hitler. Such leaders most
often come to power in times of crisis when the populace
opts for a decisive leader, who then leads the nation to
war.
Naturally, the common people don't want
war; neither in Russia nor in England nor in
America, nor for that matter in Germany. That
is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders
of the country who determine the policy and
it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy or a fascist dictatorship or a Parliament or a Communist dictatorship. ... the people can always be
brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is
easy. All you have to do is tell them they are
being attacked and denounce the pacists for
lack of patriotism and exposing the country to
danger. It works the same way in any country.
Hermann Gring at the Nuremberg tri-
Women and priests retrieve the dead bodies of Swabian soldiers just outside the city gates of Constance after the battle of
Schwaderloh. (Luzerner Schilling)
fare. There are two main schools: One sees organized

warfare as emerging only in or after the Mesolithic as a
result of complex social organization and greater population density and competition over resources; the other
school sees human warfare as a more ancient practice that
derives from common animal tendencies, such as territoriality and sexual competition.* [77]
The latter school argues that since warlike behavior
patterns are found in many primate species such as
chimpanzees,* [78] as well as in many ant species,* [79]
180
CONTENTS
group conict may be a general feature of animal social

behavior. Some proponents of the idea argue that war,
while innate, has been intensied greatly by developments
of technology and social organization such as weaponry
and states.* [80]
Psychologist and linguist Steven Pinker in his book The
Blank Slate claims that raiding or warfare between groups
of humans in the ancestral environment was often benecial for the victors. This includes gaining control over
scarce resources as well as the women of the defeated or
raided group. He argues that various features of modern
warfare such as alliances between groups and preemptive
wars were likely part of these conicts. In order to have
a credible deterrence against other groups (as well as on
an individual level), it was important to have a reputation for retaliation, causing humans to develop instincts
for revenge as well as for protecting a group's (or an individual's) reputation ("honor"). In The Better Angels of
Our Nature Pinker argues that the development of the
state and the police have dramatically reduced the level
of warfare and violence compared to the ancestral environment. Whenever the state breaks down, which can be
very locally such as in poor areas of a city, humans again
organize in groups for protection and aggression and concepts such as violent revenge and protecting honor again
become extremely important.
Ashley Montagu strongly denied universalistic instinctual
arguments, arguing that social factors and childhood socialization are important in determining the nature and
presence of warfare. Thus, he argues, warfare is not a
universal human occurrence and appears to have been a
historical invention, associated with certain types of human societies.* [81] Montagu's argument is supported by
ethnographic research conducted in societies where the
concept of aggression seems to be entirely absent, e.g.
the Chewong and Semai of the Malay peninsula.* [82]
Bobbi S. Low has observed correlation between warfare
and education, noting that societies where warfare is commonplace encourage their children to be more aggressive.* [83]
Crofoot and Wrangham have argued that warfare, if dened as group interactions in whichcoalitions attempt to
aggressively dominate or kill members of other groups
, is a characteristic of most human societies. Those in
which it has been lackingtend to be societies that were
politically dominated by their neighbors.* [84]
Economic
War can be seen as a growth of economic competition
in a competitive international system. In this view wars
begin as a pursuit of markets for natural resources and
for wealth. While this theory has been applied to many
conicts, such counter arguments become less valid as
the increasing mobility of capital and information level
the distributions of wealth worldwide, or when consid-
Kuwaiti oil wells on re, during the Gulf War, 1 March 1991
ering that it is relative, not absolute, wealth dierences

that may fuel wars. There are those on the extreme right
of the political spectrum who provide support, fascists in
particular, by asserting a natural right of a strong nation to
whatever the weak cannot hold by force.* [85]* [86] Some
centrist, capitalist, world leaders, including Presidents of
the United States and US Generals, expressed support for
an economic view of war.
Is there any man, is there any woman, let
me say any child here that does not know that
the seed of war in the modern world is industrial and commercial rivalry?
Woodrow Wilson, September 11, 1919,
St. Louis.* [87]
I spent 33 years and four months in active
military service and during that period I spent
most of my time as a high class muscle man for
Big Business, for Wall Street and the bankers.
In short, I was a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism.
Major General Smedley Butler (simultaneously the highest ranking and most decorated
United States Marine (including two Medals of
Honor) and Republican Party primary candidate for the United States Senate) 1935.* [88]
The enemy aggressor is always pursuing

a course of larceny, murder, rapine and barbarism. We are always moving forward with
high mission, a destiny imposed by the Deity to
regenerate our victims, while incidentally capturing their markets; to civilise savage and senile and paranoid peoples, while blundering accidentally into their oil wells. John T. Flynn,
conservative American author, 1944.* [89]
For the corporation executives, the military
metaphysic often coincides with their interest
in a stable and planned ow of prot; it enables
0.50. WAR
181
Demographic
Demographic theories can be grouped into two classes,
Malthusian theories and youth bulge theories.
Belligerents of the Second Congo War, with all sides taking advantage of the anarchy to plunder the Congo's natural resources.
them to have their risk underwritten by public money; it enables them reasonably to expect
that they can exploit for private prot now and
later, the risky research developments paid for
by public money. It is, in brief, a mask of the
subsidized capitalism from which they extract
prot and upon which their power is based.
C. Wright Mills, Causes of World War 3,
1960.
In the councils of government, we must
guard against the acquisition of unwarranted
inuence, whether sought or unsought, by the
militaryindustrial complex. The potential for
disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and
will persist.
Dwight Eisenhower, Farewell Address,
January 17, 1961.
U.S. Marine helicopter on patrol in Somalia as part of the Unied

Task Force, 1992
Malthusian Malthusian theories see expanding population and scarce resources as a source of violent conict.
Pope Urban II in 1095, on the eve of the First Crusade,
spoke:
For this land which you now inhabit, shut
in on all sides by the sea and the mountain
peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furnishes food enough for its
cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and
devour one another, that you wage wars, and
that many among you perish in civil strife. Let
hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let
your quarrels end. Enter upon the road to the
Holy Sepulchre; wrest that land from a wicked
race, and subject it to yourselves.* [91]
This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to

be called the Malthusian theory of war, in which wars are
Marxist
caused by expanding populations and limited resources.
The Marxist theory of war is quasi-economic in that it Thomas Malthus (17661834) wrote that populations alstates that all modern wars are caused by competition for ways increase until they are limited by war, disease, or
*
resources and markets between great (imperialist) pow- famine. [92]
ers, claiming these wars are a natural result of the free This theory is thought by Malthusians to account for the
market and class system. Part of the theory is that war will relative decrease in wars during the past fty years, espeonly disappear once a world revolution, over-throwing cially in the developed world, where advances in agriculfree markets and class systems, has occurred. Marxist ture have made it possible to support a much larger popuphilosopher Rosa Luxemburg theorized that imperialism lation than was formerly the case, and where birth control
was the result of capitalist countries needing new markets. has dramatically slowed the increase in population.
Expansion of the means of production is only possible
if there is a corresponding growth in consumer demand.
Since the workers in a capitalist economy would be un- Youth bulge Youth bulge theory diers signicantly
able to ll the demand, producers must expand into non- from Malthusian theories. Its adherents see a combinacapitalist markets to nd consumers for their goods, hence tion of large male youth cohorts as graphically repredriving imperialism.* [90]
sented as ayouth bulgein a population pyramid with
182
CONTENTS
Median age by country. A youth bulge is evident for Africa, and

to a lesser extent for South and Southeast Asia and Central America.
a lack of regular, peaceful employment opportunities as

a risk pool for violence.
While Malthusian theories focus on a disparity between
a growing population and available natural resources,
youth bulge theory focuses on a disparity between noninheriting, 'excess' young males and available social positions within the existing social system of division of
labour.
Contributors to the development of youth bulge theory
include French sociologist Gaston Bouthoul,* [93] U.S.
sociologist Jack A. Goldstone,* [94] U.S. political scientist Gary Fuller,* [95]* [96]* [97] and German sociologist
Gunnar Heinsohn.* [98] Samuel Huntington has modied
his Clash of Civilizations theory by using youth bulge theory as its foundation:
I don't think Islam is any more violent than
any other religions, and I suspect if you added
it all up, more people have been slaughtered by
Christians over the centuries than by Muslims.
But the key factor is the demographic factor.
Generally speaking, the people who go out and
kill other people are males between the ages of
16 and 30.
During the 1960s, 70s and 80s there were
high birth rates in the Muslim world, and this
has given rise to a huge youth bulge. But the
bulge will fade. Muslim birth rates are going down; in fact, they have dropped dramatically in some countries. Islam did spread by
the sword originally, but I don't think there is
anything inherently violent in Muslim theology.* [99]
Palestinian militant with an M16 rie, 2009
when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a nation belong to

theghting agecohorts from 15 to 29 years of age. It
will follow periods with total fertility rates as high as 48
children per woman with a 1529-year delay.
A total fertility rate of 2.1 children born by a woman during her lifetime represents a situation in which the son
will replace the father, and the daughter will replace the
mother, accounting for a small proportion of deaths to
factors such as illness and accidents. Thus, a total fertility
rate of 2.1 represents replacement level, while anything
below represents a sub-replacement fertility rate leading
to population decline.
Total fertility rates above 2.1 will lead to population
growth and to a youth bulge. A total fertility rate of 48
children per mother implies 24 sons per mother. Consequently, one father has to leave not 1, but 2 to 4 social
positions (jobs) to give all his sons a perspective for life,
which is usually hard to achieve. Since respectable positions cannot be increased at the same speed as food,
textbooks and vaccines, many angry young mennd
themselves in a situation that tends to escalate their adolescent anger into violence: they are
1. Demographically superuous,
2. Might be out of work or stuck in a menial job, and
3. Often have no access to a legal sex life before a career can earn them enough to provide for a family.
See: Hypergamy, Waithood.
Youth Bulge theories represent a relatively recent development but seem to have become more inuential in guiding U.S. foreign policy and military strategy as both Gold- The combination of these stress factors according to
*
stone and Fuller have acted as consultants to the U.S. Heinsohn [101] usually heads for one of six dierent exGovernment. CIA Inspector General John L. Helgerson its:
referred to youth bulge theory in his 2002 report The
National Security Implications of Global Demographic
1. Emigration (non-violent colonization")
Change.* [100]
2. Violent crime
According to Heinsohn, who has proposed youth bulge
theory in its most generalized form, a youth bulge occurs
3. Rebellion or putsch
0.50. WAR
183
Youth bulge theories have been criticized as leading to
racial, gender and age discrimination.* [113]
Rationalist
Mexican soldiers detain cartel suspects in Michoacn, 2007
4. Civil war and/or revolution

5. Genocide (to take over the possessions of the slaughtered)
6. Conquest (violent colonization, frequently including U.S. soldiers directing artillery on enemy trucks in A Shau Valley,
genocide abroad).
April 1968.
Religions and ideologies are seen as secondary factors
that are being used to legitimate violence, but will not lead
to violence by themselves if no youth bulge is present.
Consequently, youth bulge theorists see both pastChristianistEuropean colonialism and imperialism and today's Islamistcivil unrest and terrorism as results of
high birth rates producing youth bulges* [102] with the
Israeli-occupied Gaza Strip now being seen as another example of youth-bulge-driven violence.
Among prominent historical events that have been linked
to the existence of youth bulges is the role played by
the historically large youth cohorts in the rebellion and
revolution waves of early modern Europe, including the
French Revolution of 1789,* [103] and the importance of
economic depression hitting the largest German youth cohorts ever in explaining the rise of Nazism in Germany in
the 1930s.* [104] The 1994 Rwandan Genocide has also
been analyzed as following a massive youth bulge.* [105]
While the implications of population growth have been
known since the completion of the National Security
Study Memorandum 200 in 1974,* [106] neither the U.S.
nor the WHO have implemented the recommended measures to control population growth to avert the terrorist threat. Prominent demographer Stephen D. Mumford attributes this to the inuence of the Catholic
Church.* [107]
Rationalist theories of war assume that both sides to a

potential war are rational, which is to say that each side
wants to get the best possible outcome for itself for the
least possible loss of life and property to its own side.
Given this assumption, if both countries knew in advance
how the war would turn out, it would be better for both of
them to just accept the post-war outcome without having
to actually pay the costs of ghting the war. This is based
on the notion, generally agreed to by almost all scholars
of war since Carl von Clausewitz, that wars are reciprocal, that all wars require both a decision to attack and also
a decision to resist attack. Rationalist theory oers three
reasons why some countries cannot nd a bargain and instead resort to war: issue indivisibility, information asymmetry with incentive to deceive, and the inability to make
credible commitments.* [114] Issue indivisibility occurs
when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining because the thing over which they are ghting cannot be
shared between them, only owned entirely by one side
or the other. Religious issues, such as control over the
Temple Mount in Jerusalem, are more likely to be indivisible than economic issues.
A bigger branch of the theory, advanced by scholars of international relations such as Georey Blainey, is that both
sides decide to go to war and one side may have miscalculated. Looking at wars in history he argues, war is
usually
the outcome of a diplomatic crisis which cannot
Youth Bulge theory has been subjected to statistical analbe
solved
because both sides have conicting estimates of
*
ysis by the World Bank, [108] Population Action Internatheir
bargaining
power.* [115]
*
tional, [109] and the Berlin Institute for Population and
Development.* [110] Detailed demographic data for most Some scholars focus on information asymmetry with incountries is available at the international database of the centives to misrepresent. The two countries may not
United States Census Bureau.* [111] Statistic data about agree on who would win a war between them, or whether
historical development of demographic and economic pa- victory would be overwhelming or merely eked out, berameters over the last 200 years for each country can be cause each side has military secrets about its own capabilvisualized at Gapminder.* [112]
ities. They will not avoid the bargaining failure by sharing
184
their secrets, since they cannot trust each other not to lie
and exaggerate their strength to extract more concessions.
For example, Sweden made eorts to deceive Nazi Germany that it would resist an attack ercely, partly by playing on the myth of Aryan superiority and by making sure
that Hermann Gring only saw elite troops in action, often dressed up as regular soldiers, when he came to visit.
CONTENTS
ory, for example, the Peace War Game, not a wargame as
such, rather a simulation of economic decisions underlying war.
The rationalist theory focused around bargaining is currently under debate in the eld. The Iraq War proved to
be an anomaly that undercuts the validity of applying rationalist theory to some wars.* [121]
Political science
The statistical analysis of war was pioneered by Lewis
Fry Richardson following World War I. More recent
databases of wars and armed conict have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project, Peter Brecke and
the Uppsala Conict Data Program.
The following subsections consider causes of war from
system, societal, and individual levels of analysis. This
kind of division was rst proposed by Kenneth Waltz in
Man, the State, and War (1959) and has been often used
by political scientists since then.* [122]* :143
U.S. Marines direct a concentration of re at the enemy, Vietnam,

8 May 1968
System-level theories There are several dierent

international relations theory schools. Supporters of
realism in international relations argue that the motivaThe American decision to enter the Vietnam War was tion of states is the quest for security, and conicts can
made with the full knowledge that the communist forces arise from the inability to distinguish defense from ofwould resist them, but did not believe that the guerrillas fense, which is called the security dilemma.* [122]* :145
had the capability to long oppose American forces.
Within the realist school as represented by scholars
Thirdly, bargaining may fail due to the states' inability such as Henry Kissinger and Hans Morgenthau, and the
to make credible commitments.* [116] In this scenario, neorealist school represented by scholars such as Kenneth
the two countries might be able to come to a bargain that Waltz and John Mearsheimer, two main sub-theories are
would avert war if they could stick to it, but the benets
of the bargain will make one side more powerful and lead
1. Balance of power theory: States have the goal of
it to demand even more in the future, so that the weaker
preventing a single state from becoming a hegeside has an incentive to make a stand now.
mon. Wars result if the would-be hegemon doesn't
Within the rationalist tradition, some theorists have suggested individuals engaged in war suer a normal level of
cognitive bias,* [117] but are still as rational as you and
me.* [118] According to philosopher Iain King,Most
instigators of conict overrate their chances of success,
while most participants underrate their chances of injury....* [119] King asserts thatMost catastrophic military decisions are rooted in GroupThink" which is faulty,
but still rational.* [120]
back down from trying to acquire power. According to this view, an international system with
more equal distribution of power is more stable,
and movements toward unipolarity are destabilizing.* [122]* :147 However, evidence has shown that
power polarity is not actually a major factor in the
occurrence of wars.* [122]* :147148
2. Power transition theory: Hegemons take control and
impose stabilizing conditions on the world order, but
they eventually decline, and wars occur when a declining hegemon either is challenged by another rising power or aims to preemptively suppress the new
rising power.* [122]* :148 On this view, unlike for
balance-of-power theory, wars become more probable when power is more equally distributed. This
power preponderancehypothesis has empirical
support.* [122]* :148
Rationalist explanations of war can be critiqued on a

number of grounds. The assumptions of cost-benet calculations become dubious in the most extreme genocidal
cases of World War II, where the only bargain oered in
some cases was innitely bad. Rationalist theories typically assume that the state acts as a unitary individual,
doing what is best for the state as a whole; this is problematic when, for example, the country's leader is beholden
to a very small number of people, as in a personalistic
dictatorship.
While these two theories appear to contradict each other,
Rationalist theories are usually explicated with game the- they could both be correct depending on the system. For
0.50. WAR
185
instance, balance-of-power theory might better describe

Europe's history, while power-transition theory might
better describe the world overall.* [122]* :148
Liberals in international relations cite other factors as
relevant to conicts, such as trade. If two countries
have a protable trading relationship, it's assumed that
war would hurt both of them economically, making it
less attractive. Realists respond that military force may
sometimes be at least as eective as trade at achieving economic benets, especially historically if not as
much today.* [122]* :149 Also, trade can create dependence that allows for coercion, which can escalate conict.* [122]* :150 Empirical data on the relationship of
trade to peace are mixed, and moreover, some evidence
suggests that countries at war don't necessarily trade less Morning after the Battle of Waterloo, by John Heaviside Clark,
1816
with each other.* [122]* :150
Societal-level theories
cumstances, and those who believe that war is sometimes

necessary and can be moral.
There are two dierent aspects to ethics in war, according to the most prominent and inuential thought on justice and war: the Just War Theory.* [126]* [127] First is
jus ad bellum (literally translated as right to war),
which dictates which unfriendly acts and circumstances
justify a proper authority in declaring war on another nation. There are six main criteria for the declaration of a
just war: rst, any just war must be declared by a lawful
authority; second, it must be a just and righteous cause,
with sucient gravity to merit large-scale violence; third,
the just belligerent must have rightful intentions namely,
that they seek to advance good and curtail evil; fourth,
a just belligerent must have a reasonable chance of success; fth, the war must be a last resort; and sixth, the
Democratic peace theory suggests that democracies ends being sought must be proportional to means being
are less likely to go to war with each other.
used.* [128]* [129]
Diversionary theory, also known as the scapegoat
hypothesis, suggests that politicians may use war
to distract or rally together domestic popular support.* [122]* :152 This idea is supported by literature showing that outgroup hostility enhances ingroup bonding, and a signicant domestic rally
eecthas been demonstrated when conicts begin.* [122]* :152153 However, studies looking for
increased use of force as a function of need for internal political support are more mixed.* [122]* :152
153 US war-time presidential popularity surveys
taken during the presidencies of several recent US
leaders have supported diversionary theory.* [123]
Individual-level theories These theories suggest that

dierences in people's personalities, decision-making,
emotions, belief systems, and biases are important in determining whether conicts get out of hand.* [122]* :157
For instance, it has been proposed that conict is modulated by bounded rationality and various cognitive biases,* [122]* :157 such as prospect theory.* [124]
Other relevant factors can include ethic, moral, and religious dierences, including declarations of independence by certain groups.
0.50.10
War ethics
Once a just war has been declared, the second standard,

or aspect, is put into eect. Jus in bello, which literally
translates toright in war, are the ethical rules of conduct when conducting war. The two main principles in jus
in bello are proportionality and discrimination. Proportionality regards how much force is necessary and morally
appropriate to the ends being sought and the injustice suffered.* [130] The principle of discrimination determines
who are the legitimate targets in a war, and specically
makes a separation between combatants, who it is permissible to kill, and non-combatants, who it is not.* [130]
Failure to follow these rules can result in the loss of legitimacy for the just war belligerent, and so thereby forfeit
the moral right and justice of their cause.* [127]
The Just War standard is as old as Western Civilization
itself, and still has signicant impact on thinking about
the morality of wars and violence today.* [132] Just War
Theory was foundational in the creation of the United Nations and in International Law's regulations on legitimate
war.* [125]
The seeming contradiction between warfare and morality

has led to serious moral questions, which have been the
subject of debate for thousands of years.* [125] The debate in the West, generally speaking, has two main viewpoints: Pacists, who believe that war is inherently immoral and therefore is never justied regardless of cir- These two positions generally cover the broad philosoph-
186
CONTENTS
0.50.11 See also

Outline of war
General reference
Undeclared war
Colonial war
Religious war
Breakaway states
In besieged Leningrad. Hitler ordered that Moscow and
Leningrad were to be razed to the ground; their inhabitants were
to be annihilated or driven out by starvation. These intentions
were part of the 'General Plan East'. The Oxford Companion to World War II.* [131]
ical and ethical bents of mainstream society. However,

there are several theories on and about war which are in
the minority in culture, but which, because of the inuence they have had in recent history, demand mention
here. These strains of thought on human society and war
can be broken up into two main camps: Marxist and Fascist, both of which view war as purely practical.
Casus belli
Fault line war
Horses in warfare
War cycles
Nuclear war
World peace marathon
War as metaphor
Marxism, and other such historicist ideals, hold that his- War-related lists
tory advances through a set of dialectics (as stated by
Heinrich Moritz Chalybus: thesis, antithesis, synthe List of battles
sis). Marx, and his followers, in particular held that his List of battles and other violent events by death toll
tory advances through violence. MarxismLeninism, in
fact, held the belief that outright incitement to violence
List of battles by death toll
and war was necessary to topple capitalism and free the
proletariat. In these theories, the question of ethics has
List of invasions
no place, as the value of the war is entirely dependent on
whether it advances the revolution or synthesis.
Lists of wars
Fascism, and the ideals it encompasses, such as
List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death
Pragmatism, racism, and social Darwinism, hold that vi*
*
toll
olence is good. [133] [134] Pragmatism holds that war
and violence can be good if it serves the ends of the peo List of ongoing conicts
ple, without regard for universal morality. Racism holds
that violence is good so that a master race can be estab List of orders of battle
lished, or to purge an inferior race from the earth, or both.
Social Darwinism thinks that violence is sometimes nec List of terrorist incidents
essary to weed the unt from society so that civilization
List of war crimes
can ourish. These are broad archetypes for the general
position that the ends justify the means. Social Darwin List of wars by death toll
ism as elaborated by the late U.S. sociologist and social
evolutionist, William Sumner, states competition, conict, inequality, and hierarchy is natural and good as it allows able-bodied and intelligent individuals and societies 0.50.12 References
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WAR THEORY AND THE RECENT U.S. AIR STRIKES
AGAINST IRAQ. Gonzaga Journal of International Law.
[127] Codevilla, Seabury, Angelo, Paul (1989). War: Ends and
Means. New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 304. ISBN 0465-09067-2.
[128] Aquinas, Thomas. Part II, Question 40. The Summa
Theologica. Benziger Bros. edition, 1947. Retrieved August 1, 2011.
Georey Blainey. The Causes of War (1973)

Barzilai Gad, Wars, Internal Conicts and Political
Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996).
Chagnon, N. The Yanomamo, Holt, Rinehart &
Winston,1983.
Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976), On War (Princeton
and New Jersey: Princeton University Press)
Codevilla, Angelo and Seabury, Paul, War: Ends
and Means (Potomac Books, Revised second edition by Angelo Codevilla, 2006)
Codevilla, Angelo, No Victory, No Peace (Rowman
and Littleeld, 2005)
Fornari, Franco (1974). The Psychoanalysis of War.
Tr. Alenka Pfeifer. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor Press.
Fry, Douglas. 2004. Conclusion: Learning from
Peaceful Societies.In Keeping the Peace, Graham
Kemp, editor. New York: Routledge.
Fry, Douglas P., 2005, The Human Potential for
Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions
about War and Violence, Oxford University Press.
Fry, Douglas. 2009. Beyond War. Oxford University Press.
Gat, Azar 2006 War in Human Civilization, Oxford
University Press.
0.51. WEAPON
Heinsohn, Gunnar, Shne und Weltmacht: Terror im
Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen (Sons and Imperial
Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations),
Orell Fssli (September 2003), available online as
free download (in German)
Howell, Signe, and Roy Willis. 1990. Societies at
Peace: Anthropological Perspectives. London: Routledge.
James, Paul; Friedman, Jonathan (2006).
Globalization and Violence, Vol. 3: Globalizing
War and Intervention. London: Sage Publications.
James, Paul; Sharma, RR (2006). Globalization and
Violence, Vol. 4: Transnational Conict. London:
Sage Publications.
Keegan, John, (1994) A History of Warfare, (Pimlico)
Keeley, Lawrence. War Before Civilization, Oxford
University Press, 1996.
Kelly, Raymond C., 2000, Warless Societies and the
Origin of War, University of Michigan Press.
Kemp, Graham, and Douglas Fry. 2004. Keeping
the Peace. New York: Routledge.
191
Small, Melvin; Singer, Joel David (1982). Resort
to arms: international and civil wars, 18161980.
Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-1776-7.
Smith, David Livingstone (February 2009). The
Most Dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the
Origins of War. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-31253744-9.
Sponsel, Leslie, and Thomas Gregor. 1994. Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence. Lynne Rienner
Publishing.
Strachan, Hew (2013), The Direction of War.
Turchin, P. 2005. War and Peace and War: Life Cycles of Imperial Nations. New York, NY: Pi Press.
Van Creveld, Martin The Art of War: War and Military Thought London: Cassell, Wellington House
Walzer, Michael (1977) Just and Unjust Wars (Basic
Books).
Wade, Nicholas. Before the Dawn, Penguin: New
York 2006.
Zimmerman, L. The Crow Creek Site Massacre: A
Preliminary Report, US Army Corps of Engineers,
Omaha District, 1981.
Kolko, Gabriel (1994). Century of War: Politics,

Conicts, and Society since 1914. New York, NY:
0.50.13
The New Press. ISBN 978-1-565-84191-8.
Lebow, Richard Ned 2008, A Cultural Theory of International Relations Cambridge University Press.
Lindemann, Thomas 2010, Causes of War. The
Struggle for Recognition Colchester, ECPR Press
External links
War zone safety travel guide from Wikivoyage
0.51 Weapon
Maniscalco, Fabio (2007). World heritage and war:

linee guida per interventi a salvaguardia dei beni culturali nelle aree a rischio bellico. Massa. ISBN 97888-87835-89-2. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
For other uses, see Weapon (disambiguation). See

Military technology for a comprehensive list of weapons
and doctrines.
Weaponsand Weaponryredirect here. For the
2012 Lostprophets album, see Weapons (album). For the
McIntosh, Jane. 2002. A Peaceful Realm: The 2007 lm, see Weapons (lm). For the radio program,
Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Oxford, UK: see Weaponry (radio program).
Westview Press.
Metz, Steven and Philip R. Cuccia, 2011, Dening A weapon, arm, or armament is any device used in orWar for the 21st Century, Strategic Studies Institute, der to inict damage or harm to living beings, structures,
U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1-58487-472-0 or systems. Weapons are used to increase the ecacy
and eciency of activities such as hunting, crime, law
Montagu, Ashley. 1978. Learning Nonaggression.
enforcement, self-defense, and warfare. In a broader conNew York: Oxford University Press.
text, weapons may be construed to include anything used
Otterbein, Keith, 2004, How War Began. College to gain a strategic, material or mental advantage over an
adversary.
Station TX: Texas A&M University Press.
Pauketat, Timothy. North American Archaeology While just about any ordinary objects such as sticks,
stones, cars, or pencils can be used as weapons, many
2005. Blackwell Publishing.
are expressly designed for the purpose ranging from
Pearson, Richard. 2004. New Perspectives on simple implements such as clubs, swords and guns, and
Jomon Society.Bulletin of the International Jomon to complicated modern intercontinental ballistic missiles,
biological and cyberweapons.
Culture Conference, Vol. 1.
192
0.51.1
CONTENTS
History
Main article: History of weapons
Prehistoric
The development of metal tools, beginning with copper

during the Copper Age (about 3,300 BC) and followed
shortly by bronze led to the Bronze Age sword and similar
weapons.
The rst defensive structures and fortications appeared
in the Bronze Age,* [8] indicating an increased need for
security. Weapons designed to breach fortications followed soon after, for example the battering ram was in
use by 2500 BC.* [8]
Although early Iron Age swords were not superior to
their bronze predecessors, once iron-working developed,
around 1200 BC in Sub-Saharan Africa,* [9]* [10] iron
began to be used widely in weapon production* [11]
Domestication of the horse and widespread use of spoked
wheels by ca. 2000 BC,* [12] led to the light, horse-drawn
chariot. The mobility provided by chariots were important during this era. Spoke-wheeled chariot usage peaked
around 1300 BC and then declined, ceasing to be militarily relevant by the 4th century BC.* [13]
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads,

chisels, and polishing tools.
The use of objects as weapons has been observed

among chimpanzees,* [1] leading to speculation that early
hominids rst began to use weapons as early as ve
million years ago.* [2] However, this can not be conrmed using physical evidence because wooden clubs,
spears, and unshaped stones would not have left an unambiguous record. The earliest unambiguous weapons
to be found are the Schninger Speere: eight wooden
throwing spears dated as being more than 300,000 years
old.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7]
Cavalry developed once horses were bred to support the

weight of a man. The horse extended the range and increased the speed of attacks.
Ships built as weapons or warships such as the trireme
were in use by the 7th century BC.* [14] These ships were
eventually replaced by larger ships by the 4th century BC.
Middle Ages
Ancient and classical
A four-wheeled ballista drawn by armored cataphract horses, c.

400.
Ancient weapons were evolutionary improvements of late

neolithic implements, but then signicant improvements
in materials and crafting techniques created a series of
revolutions in military technology:
This picture shows medieval weapons utilized by the Mughal

Army.
European warfare during the middle ages was dominated

by elite groups of knights supported by massed infantry
(both in combat and ranged roles). They were involved
in mobile combat and sieges which involved various siege
weapons and tactics. Knights on horseback developed
0.51. WEAPON
193
The bayonet is used as both knife and polearm.
The age of edged weapons ended abruptly just before

World War I with ried artillery. Howitzers were able to
destroy masonry fortresses and other fortications. This
single invention caused a Revolution in Military Aairs
(RMA) and established tactics and doctrine that are still
in use today. See Technology during World War I for a
detailed discussion.
An important feature of industrial age warfare was
technological escalation innovations were rapidly
matched through replication or countered by yet another
tactics for charging with lances providing an impact on innovation. The technological escalation during World
the enemy formations and then drawing more practi- War I (WW I) was profound, producing armed aircraft
cal weapons (such as swords) once they entered into the and tanks.
melee. Whereas infantry, in the age before structured formations, relied on cheap, sturdy weapons such as spears This continued in the inter-war period (between WW I
and billhooks in close combat and bows from a distance. and WW II) with continuous evolution of all weapon sysAs armies became more professional, their equipment tems by all major industrial powers. Many modern milwas standardized and infantry transitioned to pikes. Pikes itary weapons, particularly ground-based ones, are relare normally seven to eight feet in length, in conjunction atively minor improvements of weapon systems developed during World War II. See military technology during
with smaller side-arms (short sword).
World War II for a detailed discussion.
In Eastern and Middle Eastern warfare, similar tactics
were developed independent of European inuences.
Modern
The introduction of gunpowder from the Far East at the
end of this period revolutionized warfare. Formations
of musketeers, protected by pikemen came to dominate
open battles, and the cannon replaced the trebuchet as the
dominant siege weapon.
Ancient Chinese cannon displayed in the Tower of London.
Early modern
The European Renaissance marked the beginning of the
implementation of rearms in western warfare. Guns and
rockets were introduced to the battleeld.
Firearms are qualitatively dierent from earlier weapons
because they release energy from combustible propellants
such as gunpowder, rather than from a counter-weight
or spring. This energy is released very rapidly and can
be replicated without much eort by the user. Therefore even early rearms such as the arquebus were much
more powerful than human-powered weapons. Firearms
became increasingly important and eective during the
16th century to 19th century, with progressive improvements in ignition mechanisms followed by revolutionary
changes in ammunition handling and propellant. During the U.S. Civil War various technologies including the
machine gun and ironclad warship emerged that would
be recognizable and useful military weapons today, particularly in limited conicts. In the 19th century warship
propulsion changed from sail power to fossil fuel-powered
steam engines.
The Vickers was the successor to the Maxim gun and remained
in British military service for 79 consecutive years.
Since the mid-18th century North American FrenchIndian war through the beginning of the 20th century,
human-powered weapons were reduced from the primary
weaponry of the battleeld yielding to gunpowder-based
weaponry. Sometimes referred to as the Age of Ries,* [15] this period was characterized by the development of rearms for infantry and cannons for support,
as well as the beginnings of mechanized weapons such
as the machine gun, the tank and the wide introduction
of aircraft into warfare, including naval warfare with the
introduction of the aircraft carriers.
194
CONTENTS
the point of being able to ensure the destruction of the entire planet (see nuclear holocaust) then a new tactic had
to be developed. With this realization, armaments development funding shifted back to primarily sponsoring the
development of conventional arms technologies for support of limited wars rather than nuclear war.* [16]
0.51.2 Classication
The new assault rie CZ-805 BREN (produced in Czech Republic
and Slovakia).
By user
- what person or unit uses the weapon
World War I marked the entry of fully industrialized

warfare as well as weapons of mass destruction (e.g.,
chemical and biological weapons), and weapons were developed quickly to meet wartime needs. Above all, it
promised to the military commanders the independence
from the horse and the resurgence in maneuver warfare
through extensive use of motor vehicles. The changes that
these military technologies underwent before and during
the Second World War were evolutionary, but dened the
development for the rest of the century.
World War II however, perhaps marked the most frantic
period of weapons development in the history of humanity. Massive numbers of new designs and concepts were
elded, and all existing technologies were improved between 1939 and 1945. The most powerful weapon invented during this period was the atomic bomb, however many more weapons inuenced the world in dierent ways.
Nuclear age and beyond
Personal weapons (or small arms) designed to be

used by a single person.
Light weapons 'man-portable' weapons that may
require a small team to operate. The 1997 UN
Panel of Governmental Experts originally listed
heavy machine guns, hand-held under-barrel and
mounted grenade launchers, portable anti-aircraft
guns, portable anti-tank guns, recoil-less ries,
portable launchers of anti-tank missile and rocket
systems; portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile
systems (MANPADS); and mortars of calibers of
less than 100 mm.* [17]
Heavy weapons typically mounted or selfpropelled explosive weapons that are larger than
light weapons (see SALW).
Hunting weapon primarily for hunting game animals for food or sport
Infantry support weapons larger than personal
weapons, requiring two or more people to operate
correctly.
Fortication weapons mounted in a permanent installation, or used primarily within a fortication.
Usually high caliber.
Mountain weapons for use by mountain forces or
those operating in dicult terrain. This includes
modications of existing weapons for paratroopers.
Vehicle weapons to be mounted on any type of
combat vehicle.
The unmanned aerial vehicle CBP's MQ-9 Guardian.
Since the realization of Mutually Assured Destruction

(MAD), the nuclear option of all-out war is no longer
considered a survivable scenario. During the Cold War
in the years following World War II, both the United
States and the Soviet Union engaged in a nuclear arms
race. Each country and their allies continually attempted
to out-develop each other in the eld of nuclear armaments. Once the joint technological capabilities reached
Railway weapons designed to be mounted on railway cars, including armored trains.

Aircraft weapons carried on and used by some type
of aircraft, helicopter, or other aerial vehicle.
Naval weapons mounted on ships and submarines.
Space weapons are designed to be used in or
launched from space.
Autonomous weapons are capable of accomplishing a mission with limited or no human intervention.
0.51. WEAPON
By function
- the construction of the weapon and principle
of operation
195
By target
- the type of target the weapon is designed to
attack
Antimatter weapons (theoretical) would combine

matter and antimatter to cause a powerful explosion.
Anti-aircraft weapons target missiles and aerial vehicles in ight.
Archery weapons operate by using a tensioned string

and bent solid to launch a projectile.
Anti-fortication weapons are designed to target enemy installations.
Artillery are rearms capable of launching heavy

projectiles over long distances.
Anti-personnel weapons are designed to attack people, either individually or in numbers.
Biological weapons spread biological agents, causing

disease or infection.
Anti-radiation weapons target sources of electronic

radiation, particularly radar emitters.
Chemical weapons, poisoning and causing reactions.
Anti-satellite weapons target orbiting satellites.
Energy weapons rely on concentrating forms of energy to attack, such as lasers or sonic attack.
Anti-ship weapons target ships and vessels on water.
Explosive weapons use a physical explosion to create

blast concussion or spread shrapnel.
Anti-submarine weapons target submarines and

other underwater targets.
Firearms use a chemical charge to launch projectiles.
Anti-tank weapons are designed to defeat armored

targets.
Improvised weapons are common objects, reused as

weapons, such as crowbars and kitchen knives.
Area denial weapons target territory, making it unsafe or unsuitable for enemy use or travel.
Incendiary weapons cause damage by re.
Hunting weapons are civilian weapons used to hunt

animals.
Non-lethal weapons are designed to subdue without

killing.
Infantry support weapons are designed to attack various threats to infantry units.
Magnetic weapons use magnetic elds to propel projectiles, or to focus particle beams.
0.51.3 Legislation
Mle weapons operate as physical extensions of the

user's body and directly impact their target.
The production, possession, trade and use of many
weapons are controlled. This may be at a local or central
Missiles are rockets which are guided to their tar- government level and in some cases is governed by interget after launch. (Also a general term for projectile national treaty.
weapons).
Examples of such controls include:
Nuclear weapons use radioactive materials to create
nuclear ssion and/or nuclear fusion detonations.
Primitive weapons make little or no use of technological or industrial elements.
Ranged weapons (unlike Mle weapons), target a
distant object or person.
Rockets use chemical propellant to accelerate a projectile
Suicide weapons exploit the willingness of their operator to not survive the attack.
The right of self-defense

Knife legislation
Air gun laws
Gun law
Arms tracking laws
Arms control treaties
Space Preservation Treaty
196
CONTENTS
0.51.4
See also
Arms industry
List of martial arts weapons
List of practice weapons
Lists of weapons
Military technology
Riot control
Toy weapon
Weapon mount
0.51.5
References
[1] Pruetz, J. D.; Bertolani, P. (2007). Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, Hunt with Tools. Current
Biology 17 (5): 4127. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042.
PMID 17320393.
[2] Weiss, Rick (February 22, 2007) Chimps Observed
Making Their Own Weapons, The Washington Post
[3] Thieme, Hartmut and Maier, Reinhard (eds.) (1995)
Archologische Ausgrabungen im Braunkohlentagebau
Schningen. Landkreis Helmstedt, Hannover.
[12] Wheel and Axle Summary. BookRags.com. 201011-02. Retrieved 2011-06-13.

[13]Science Show: The Horse in History. abc.net.au. 199911-13. Retrieved 2011-06-13.
[14] The Trireme (1/2)". Mlahanas.de. Retrieved 2011-0613.
[15] p.263, Hind
[16] Estabrooks, Sarah (2004). Funding for new nuclear
weapons programs eliminated. The Ploughshares Monitor 25 (4). Report on congressional refusal to fund additional nuclear weapons research.There was a guy named
Henry Bond he was around 74 years old
[17] 1997 Report of the Panel of Governmental Experts on
Small Arms. un.org. 27 August 1997. Retrieved 6 August 2012.

The dictionary denition of weapon at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Weapon at Wikiquote
Media related to Weapons at Wikimedia Commons
0.52 Wing (military aviation unit)
[4] Thieme, Hartmut (2005). Die ltesten Speere der Welt

Fundpltze der frhen Altsteinzeit im Tagebau Schningen. Archologisches Nachrichtenblatt 10: 409417.
In military aviation, a wing is a unit of command. In most

military aviation services, a wing is a relatively large formation of planes. In Commonwealth countries a wing
[5] Baales, Michael; Jris, Olaf (2003). Zur Altersstel- usually comprises three squadrons, with several wings
lung der Schninger Speere. Erkenntnisjger. Kultur forming a group (around 10 squadrons). Each squadron
und Umwelt des frhen Menschen. Verentlichungen des will contain around 20 planes.
Landesamtes fr Archologie Sachsen-Anhalt (Festschrift
Dietrich Mania) 57: 281288.
[6] Jris, O. (2005) Aus einer anderen Welt Europa zur

Zeit des Neandertalers. In: N. J. Conard et al. (eds.):
Vom Neandertaler zum modernen Menschen. Ausstellungskatalog Blaubeuren. pp. 4770.
0.52.1 Commonwealth usage

Origins
On its establishment in 1912, the British Royal Flying

Corps (RFC) was intended to be an inter-service, combined force of the British Army and Royal Navy. Given
the rivalry that existed between the army and navy, new
terminology
was used, in order to avoid marking the corps
[8] Gabriel, Richard A.; Metz, Karen S.A Short History of
out as having an army or navy ethos. While the term
War. au.af.mil. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
winghad been used in the cavalry, its more general
[9] Miller, D. E.; Van Der Merwe, N. J. (2009). Early use predominated. Accordingly, the wordwing, with
Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Re- its allusion of ight, was chosen as the term of subdivision
cent Research. The Journal of African History 35: 136.
and the corps was split into a Military Wing(i.e. an
doi:10.1017/S0021853700025949. JSTOR 182719.
army wing) and a Naval Wing. Each wing consisted
[10] Stuiver, Minze; Van Der Merwe, N.J. (1968).Radiocar- of a number of squadrons (the termsquadronalready
bon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa being used by both the Army and the Navy).
[7] Thieme, H. (1997).
Lower Palaeolithic hunting
spears from Germany. Nature 385 (6619): 807.
doi:10.1038/385807a0.
. Current Anthropology.
[11] Gabriel, Richard A.; Metz, Karen S. A Short History
of War Iron Age Revolution. au.af.mil. Retrieved
2010-01-08.
By 1914, the naval wing had become the Royal Naval

Air Service, and gained its independence from the Royal
Flying Corps. In 1915, the Royal Flying Corps had signicantly expanded and it was felt necessary to create
0.52. WING (MILITARY AVIATION UNIT)
197
organizational units which would control two or more such as 16 Wing at CFB Borden and 1 Wing at CFB
squadrons; the term wingwas re-used for these new Kingston) were re-designated Wing Commanders (or Wg
organizational units.
Comd). As well as continuing their functions as the comThe Royal Flying Corps was amalgamated with the Royal manding ocers of the bases they were assigned to, they
Naval Air Service in 1918, creating the Royal Air Force. also serve as formation commanders to all squadrons and
The RFC usage of wing was maintained in the new ser- units duly assigned to them by 1 CDN AIR DIV HQ and
AIRCOM HQ (regardless if they are physically located
vice.* [1]
on the base in question or elsewhere; as witness 12 Wing
in Nova Scotia, which has one unit, 443 Maritime Helicopter Squadron, based at Patricia Bay near CFB EsCurrent use
quimalt in British Columbia, on the other side of the
In most Commonwealth air forces, as well as some others, country from Shearwater).
a wing is usually made up of three or four squadrons. In
these air forces a wing is inferior to a group. Originally
all wings were usually commanded by a wing comman- 0.52.3 United States Air Force usage
der (equivalent to a lieutenant colonel). From World War
II onwards, operational ying wings have usually been
commanded by group captains (equivalent to colonels),
whereas ground-based wings have continued to be commanded by wing commanders.
A wing may also be used for non-ying units, such as the
infantry forces of the RAF Regiment, (in which a wing
equates to a battalion). Additionally, RAF stations are
administratively divided into wings.
In 2006, expeditionary air wings were established at the
RAF's main operating bases. These expeditionary air
wings consist of the deployable elements of the main operating base and other supplementary forces. Expeditionary air wings may be subordinated to an expeditionary
air group.
In the British Air Training Corps, a wing consists of a
number of squadrons within a designated geographical
area, usually named after the county in which it is based.
In this context, a wing is inferior to a "region" which is
made up of six wings. In all, there are 36 Air Training
Corps wings in six regions within the United Kingdom,
each of which is commanded by a RAFVR(T) wing commander.
0.52.2
Canadian usage
While the original pre-unication Royal Canadian Air

Force followed the British pattern, the modern Royal
Canadian Air Force is an example of a Commonwealth
air force which does not follow British usage. The size
of a wing (base) follows US usage (see below); it varies
greatly and may comprise personnel numbering in the
thousands.
In the 1990s, the Canadian Forces Air Command (the
post-1968 RCAF until 2011) altered the structure of
those bases under its control, declaring them to be Wings
under the overall control of 1 Canadian Air Division in
Winnipeg. For instance, CFB Trenton in Ontario was
redesignated 8 Wing Trenton. The base commander of
these bases (as well as other wings whose headquarters
were stood up on bases not controlled by Air Command,
Diagram of a typical US Air Force wing organizational structure.
By comparison, in the United States Air Force, a wing is

normally the organizational tier below a Numbered Air
Force. Most USAF wings are commanded by a Colonel,
but some are commanded by Brigadier Generals. USAF
wings structured to fulll a mission from a specic base,
and contain a headquarters and four groups: an operations group, a maintenance group, a medical group and
a mission support group. Such a wing is referred to as
a Combat Wing Organization, which is comparable to a
brigade in the US Army. Other wings, such as Air Expeditionary Wings, exist for various other purposes, and
their scope may extend to one base, one theater or worldwide.
In United States Air Force usage, a military organization
above a squadron level (group, wing, division, command,
air force) is an establishment, while that of a squadron and
lower (squadron, ight, detachment) is a unit.* [2]
The U.S. Army Air Service/U.S. Army Air Corps/U.S.
Army Air Forces wings that existed before 1947 are not
comparable with the wings of the USAF. World War II
wings, for example, were very large administrative and
198
operational organizations that usually controlled several
combat groups and numerous service organizations, often
located at widely scattered locations. Many of the World
War II wings were redesignated as air divisions after the
war. Modern wings, as we know them, began their existence with a service test of combat wings in 1947-1948.
These wings were temporary Table of Distribution (T/D)
organizations, each having a combat group (the only Table of Organization establishment of the wings), an airdrome group, a maintenance and supply group, and a station medical group. In 1948, at the end of the service
test, HQ USAF replaced these T/D wings with permanent
Table of Organization and Equipment (constituted) combat wings having a combat group, an air base group,
maintenance and supply group, and a medical group.
CONTENTS
0.52.4 U.S. Naval Aviation and Civil Air

Patrol
The United States Navy follows the British structure in
that a Wing is an administrative formation commanding two or more squadrons of aircraft that are based on
land. Several Wings are combined into a Naval Air Force.
The several wings assigned to each Fleet Naval Air Force
contol the wing's type squadrons. A Carrier Air Wing
(CVW, formerly known as a Carrier Air Group) consists
of several squadrons and is an operational formation that
is based on an aircraft carrier. The squadrons of a CVW
are also assigned to administrative type wings (such as
Strike Fighter Wing Atlantic). Naval Air Forces are commanded by either a Rear Admiral (Upper Half) or a Vice
Admiral and wings are commanded by Captains, with the
title of Commodore. Carrier Air Wings are commanded
by either a Navy Captain or a USMC Colonel with the
title of CAG(Commander, Air Group), a legacy title
from the former Carrier Air Groups.
"Constituted combat wings are always numbered in a single series beginning with Arabic 1st.Examples: 1st
Fighter Wing, 21st Space Wing, and the Strategic Air
Command's 509th Bomb Wing. All constituted wings
have one, two, or three digits in their numerical designations.
In the United States Marine Corps, a wing is an overIn many cases, the numerical designation of the wing all command, equivalent to a Marine Division, consistcame from the combat group that preceded it and became ing of at least two Marine Aircraft Groups, a Marine Air
an integral part of the post-World War II wing. In other Control Group (MACG), a Marine Wing Headquarters
words, when the 14th Fighter Wing (later, 14th Flying Squadron (MWHS), and a Marine Wing Headquarters
Training Wing) came into existence, it received the 14th (the Wing Commander and his sta). Being equivalent
numerical designation from the 14th Fighter Group which to a division in size, its commander is usually a Major
had already existed for a number of years and which be- General.
came the wings combat component. At the same time, In the Civil Air Patrol, there are 52 wings (each of the
the other component establishments, and units of these 50 states plus Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico). Each
establishments, also received the 14th numerical desig- wing supervises the individual groups and squadrons,
nations, aligning each of them directly to the 14th Wing. which are the basic operational unit of the organization.
The tactical squadrons of the combat group, however, re- Some wings, for example Delaware Wing have only one
tained their separate and distinct numerical designations. group due to the small size of the wing.
The Air Force has three basic types of wings: operational, air base, and specialized mission. According to
Air Force Instruction 38-101 (1994):
0.52.5
an operational wing is a wing that has an operations
group and related operational mission activity assigned to it. When an operational wing performs
the primary mission of the base, it usually maintains
and operates the base. In addition, an operational
wing is capable of self-support in functional areas
like maintenance, supply, and munitions, as needed.
When an operational wing is a tenant organization,
the host command provides it with varying degrees
of base and logistics support.
Equivalents in other countries
Most other Western air forces tend to follow the USAF

nomenclature, with squadrons coming directly under
groups. Immediately above this however, some air forces
have foreign terms which are equivalent to a USwing.
For example: Geschwader in the German Luftwae; Polk
(Regiment) in Russia, see Aviation Regiment; Stormo in
Italy; and escadre in pre-World War II French Air Force,
which is also the ocial French translation of a wing in
modern-day Canadian Forces.
An air base wing usually maintains and operates a German usage

base, and often provides functional support to a major command headquarters.
Main article: Organization of the Luftwae (193345)
A specialized mission wing may be either a host wing The World War II German Luftwae used Geschwader,
or a tenant wing and performs a specialized mission Gruppe, Stael similar towing, group, squadronof the
United States Army Air Forces of the same era.
such as intelligence or training.
0.52. WING (MILITARY AVIATION UNIT)
0.52.6
Footnotes
[1] Command Development_P

[2] Strategic Air Command An Organizational History, The
Battermix Publishing Company, and Organizational History Branch, Research Division, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Organization descriptions
199
Chapter 1
undened
1.1 Ammunition
The purpose of ammunition is to project force against

a selected target. However, the nature of ammunition
use also includes delivery or combat supporting munitions
For the Chamillionaire EP, see Ammunition (EP).
such as pyrotechnic or incendiary compounds. Since the
Ammoredirects here. For other uses, see Ammo (disdesign of the cartridge, the meaning has been transferred
ambiguation).
to the assembly of a projectile and its propellant in a sinAmmunition (colloquially shortened to ammo) is
gle package.
Ammunition involves the application of re to targets,
general use of weapons by personnel, explosives and
propellants, cartridge systems, high explosive projectiles
(HE), warheads, shaped charge forms of attack on armour and aircraft, carrier projectiles, fuzes, mortar ammunition, small arms ammunition, grenades, mines, pyrotechnics, improved conventional munitions, and terminally guided munition.
1.1.1 Glossary
A belt of 0.50 caliber ammunition loaded to an M2 Browning.

Every fth round with a red tip is an M20 (armour piercing incendiary tracer).
Box of ammunition from rst half of the 20th century. From the
Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection
propellant and projectile, or broadly anything that can

be used in combat including bombs, missiles, warheads,
landmines, naval mines, and anti-personnel mines. The
word comes from the French la munition which is all material used for war. The collective term for all types of
ammunition is munitions.
200
A round, is a single unit of ammunition. For a

modern small arms cartridge this is the combination
of bullet, propellant, primer and cartridge case in a
single unit.
Aroundis a term synonymous with a single cartridge containing a projectile, propellant, primer and
casing.
1.1. AMMUNITION
201
Large caliber cannon often re explosive-lled

projectiles known as shells, non-explosive projectiles may be used for practice (see artillery).
Large numbers of small projectiles intended to be
red all at once in a single discharge are also called
shot; hand-held guns designed for this type of ammunition are generally known as shotguns.
Duds are fully loaded ordnance that fail to function as intended. A cartridge that fails to re in the
weapon is known as a misre. A partially functioning round is named a hang re. Dud ammunition,
unexploded ordnance (UXO), is regarded as highly
dangerous, and most safety ocials inform civilians
to report nding of any large-bore duds to the local
police or military.
Dum-dum rounds were early attempts to cause
contact-initiated expansion. Many were leadnose Cannonballs from the American Civil War
bullets with Xmarks cut across the nose.
Abombor more specically a guided or unguided
bomb (also called aircraft bombs or aerial bombs)
typically refers to airdropped, unpowered explosive
weapons. Mines, warheads used in guided missiles
and rockets are also referred to as bomb-type ammunition.* [1]
Historical (c. World War I)
These general conditions apply to the storage of ammunition in fortresses. Here the positions for the magazine
and ammunition stores are so chosen as to aord the
best means of protection from an enemy's re. Huge
earth parapets cover these buildings, which are further
strengthened, where possible, by traverses protecting the
entrances. For the purpose of lling, emptying, and examining cannon cartridges and shell, a laboratory is generally provided at some distance from the magazine. The
various stores for explosives are classied into those under magazine conditions (such as magazines, laboratories,
and cartridge stores) and those with which these restrictions need not be observed (such as ammunition and shell
stores). The interior walls of a magazine are lined, and the
oors laid so that there may be no exposed iron or steel.
At the entrance, there is a lobby or barrier, inside which
persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes
for a special suit, and their boots for a pair made without
nails. In an ammunition or shell store these precautions
need not be taken except where the shell store and the adjacent cartridge store have a common entrance; persons
entering may do so in their ordinary clothes. A large work
may have a main magazine and several subsidiary magazines, from which the stock of cartridges is renewed in
the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns or in
the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The
same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the
shell stores, expense stores, and recesses.
The supply of ammunition are either for guns forming the

movable armament or for guns placed in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of guns and
howitzers of small and medium caliber, and it is necessary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell
stores close to the available positions. They can generally be constructed to form part of the permanent work in
the projected face of traverses or other strong formations,
and should be arranged for a twenty-four hour supply of
ammunition. These stores are relled from the main magazine every night under cover of darkness. Light railways
join the various positions. The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into groups of two or
three guns each, and usually each group will require but
one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell store
and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for
the especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store the cylinders containing the cartridges are so
placed and labeled that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immediately selected.
In the shell store, the common shell are separated from the
armour-piercing or shrapnel. Each nature of projectile
is painted in a distinctive manner to render identication
easy. The fuzes and tubes are placed in the general store
with the tools and accessories belonging to the guns. The
gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns of
the group by numerals; thus A/1 is number one gun of
group A. The magazine and shell stores are also indicated
by the group letter, and so that mistakes, even by those
unaccustomed to the fort, may be avoided, the passages
are pointed out by nger posts and direction boards. For
the immediate service of each gun, a few cartridges and
projectiles are stored in small receptacles (called cartridge
and shell recesses respectively) built in the parapet as near
the gun position as practicable. In some cases, a limited
number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the
parapet if this is conveniently situated near the breech of
202
the gun and not exposed to hostile re.
In order to supply the ammunition suciently rapidly for
the ecient service of modern guns, hydraulic, electric,
or hand-power, hoists are employed to raise the cartridges
and shell from the cartridge store and shell store to the gun
oor, whence they are transferred to a derrick or loading
tray attached to the mounting for loading the gun.
Projectiles for BL guns above 6 inch (152 mm) calibre
are stored in shell stores ready lled and fuzed standing
on their bases, except shrapnel and high-explosive shell,
which are fuzed only when about to be used. Smaller
sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers, each layer
pointing in the opposite direction to the one below to prevent injury to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in
brass corrugated cases or in zinc cylinders. The corrugated cases are stacked in layers in the magazine with the
mouth of the case towards a passage between the stacks,
so that it can be opened and the cartridges removed and
transferred to a leather case when required for transport
to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to the
gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid
removal of the empty cylinders.
CHAPTER 1. UNDEFINED
systems may be dicult to appreciate; but forces in the
ght see the accuracy as just another survival tool against
the enemy. A single cluster bomb, deliverable by any of
the above systems, can sow softball-sized bomblets across
a 100-yard (90-m) American footballsized eld in sucient density to kill any personnel, even penetrating sandbagged trenches and body armour.
Operation Desert Storm saw widespread usage of cluster
bombsthe Iraqi forces called them "steel rain". There is
little doubt that their usage is also seen as a psychological
tool. The aforementioned bomblets are armed upon dispersal by the spinning action which is hastened by a design
resembling a softball with small wings.
1.1.2 Design
The design of the ammunition is determined by its purpose; anti-personnel ammunition is often designed to
break up or tumble inside the target, in order to maximize the damage done. Anti-personnel shells contain
shrapnel and are designed to explode in mid-air, so its
fragments will spread over a large area. Armor-piercing
ammunition tends to be hard, sharp, and narrow, often with lubrication. Incendiary projectiles include a
material such as white phosphorus which burns ercely.
Tracer ammunition emits light as it travels, allowing the
gunner to see the path of bullets in ight while using a
machine gun.
The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress

depends on questions of policy and location, the degrees
of resistance the nature of the works and personnel could
reasonably be expected to give, and nally on the nature
of the armament. That is to say, for guns of large calibre
three hundred to four hundred rounds per gun might be
sucient, while for light QF guns it might amount to one Popular types of military rie and machine gun ammunition include the 5.45 mm, 5.56 mm, and 7.62 mm.
thousand or more rounds per gun.
Main battle tanks use KE-penetrators to combat other
MBTs and armoured ghting vehicles, and HE-Frag
(High Explosive-Fragmentation) for soft targets such as
Modern era
infantry.
1.1.3 Components
Female ordnance workers inspecting cartridge cases in Los Angeles, 1943

Preparing 105mm M119 howitzer ammunition: powder propel-
Modern ammunition includes not only shells for tube lant, cartridge and shell with fuze.
artillery and mortars, but increasingly aircraft-delivered
bombs, smart bombs, rockets and other explosive-bearing The components of ammunition intended for ries and
projectiles. The destructive power and lethality of these munitions may be divided into these categories:
1.1. AMMUNITION
explosive materials and propellants
projectiles of all kinds
cartridges
Fuzes
Main article: Fuze (munitions)
The termfuzeis used, by English speakers, to denote
detonators for explosives, dierentiating it from fuses
, which are either circuit breakers or a means of transmitting re (e.g. the fuse on a recracker).
Common artillery fuzes include point detonating, delay,
time, and proximity. Point detonating fuzes detonate
upon contact with the target. Delay fuzes are designed to
penetrate a target before detonating. Time fuzes, as the
name implies, detonate a certain time after being red in
order to achieve a burst at a specic time after being red.
Proximity fuzes contain a radio transceiver activated after
ring to detonate the projectile when the signal reected
from the ground reaches a certain strength, e.g. 7 meters
above the ground. Fuzes are usually armed by the acceleration of the projectile imparted by ring and usually
arm several meters after clearing the bore of the weapon.
1.1.4
Storage
203
the infantry generally carries, in pouches, bandoliers, etc.,
one hundred rounds of small-arms ammunition (S.A.A.),
and it is usual to supplement this, when an action is imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below).
Every reduction in the caliber (size) of the rie's ammunition means an increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of the Martini-Henry ammunition weighed 10 pounds 10 ounces (4.8 kg); the same
weight gives 155 rounds of 0.303 in (7.7 mm) ammunition and at 0.256 in (6.5 mm) the number of rounds is still
greater. The regimental reserves were historically carried
in six S.A.A. carts and on eight pack animals. The six
carts are distributed, one as reserve to the machine gun,
three as reserve to the battalion itself, and two as part
of the brigade reserve, which consists therefore of eight
carts. The brigade reserve communicates directly with
the brigade ammunition columns of the artillery (see below). The eight pack animals follow the eight companies
of their battalion. These, with two out of the three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the ring line, the
remaining cart being with the reserve companies. Men
also are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous
that picked men only are detailed. Gallantry displayed
in bringing up ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The amount of S.A.A. in regimental
charge is 100 rounds in the possession of each soldier,
2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, and 16,000 to 17,600
in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 4000 rounds
with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fth cart.
Currently, every army of an internationally recognized

See ammunition dump and magazine for discussion of country (except those who rely on others for defense, such
modern ammunition storage facilities.
as Andorra) has adopted assault ries as the main infantry
weapon.
1.1.5
For rearms
In western (NATO) forces, the 7.62 mm NATO round

has been mostly replaced by the lighter 5.56 mm NATO
round, which is better suited for automatic re than the
larger round and allows each soldier to carry more ammunition. The larger caliber ammunition is still retained
where range and weight of shot is important, e.g. machine
guns and sniper ries.
Other nations, especially forces with former ties to the
Soviet Union tend to use ries related to or developed
from the AK-47 with similar sized rounds to the NATO
ones. In 7.62x39mm and 5.45x39mm for assault ries and 7.62x54mmR for sniper ries and light machine
guns.
1.1.6 Ordnance
Main article: Shell (projectile)
Artillery ordnance ammunition is classied in three
types: xed, semi-xed and separate loading. Fixed and
Various rie cartridges compared to the height of a US$1 bill.
semi-xed ammunition (rounds) appear in the form of a
projectile mated with a cartridge case which contains the
Ammunition for infantry refers to the ammunition carried propellant and they resemble small arms rounds. The difby a typical foot (infantry) soldier. Someone serving in ference between xed and semi-xed ammunition is that
204
M107 Shells
is used: the projectile and propelling charge are supplied

and loaded separately. The projectile is rammed home
in the chamber, the powder charge(s) are loaded (usually
by hand), then the breech is closed and the primer is inserted into the primer holder on the back the breech. Separate loading ammunition is typically used on 155 mm
and larger howitzers. Several propellant types are available for 155 mm howitzer.
Modern 120 mm tank gun cartridges with dierent projectiles
All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in

the fuze well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special
fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed and a fuze is screwed
in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by
the re direction center and carried out by the gun crew.
The armaments tted to early tanks were contemporary

eld or naval artillery pieces and used the same ammunition. When tank versus tank combat became more important, and specic tank guns did not exist, it became
common to adapt anti-aircraft guns (artillery) which red
shells of high velocity, which were needed for high altitude targets. As the armour applied to tanks increased,
ammunition for tank use paralleled that of anti-tank guns.
Current tank gun ammunition is a single xed round (
shelland charge combined in a single piece) for quick
loading, the propellant is in a combustible case, thus
Base cap of a combustible cartridge from a 120mm tank gun.
negating empty shell casings. The primary anti-armor
(anti-tank) warhead is the sabot round, a shaped charge
the latter allows the propellant charge to be adjusted.* [2] or sensor fuzed warhead.
The canister is outtted with a primer on its base which
res upon contact from the ring pin. Gunpowder, precision machined to burn evenly, is contained inside of
cloth bags that are numbered. US/NATO 105 mm howitzers use semi-xed ammunition, containing seven powder bags referred to as increments or charges. Putting the
powder in bags allows the howitzer crew to remove the increments when ring at closer targets. The unused increments are disposed of by analysing burning in a powder
pit at a safe distance from the guns.
The tank made horse cavalry obsolete, and while an infantryman could deal with a horse-mounted enemy, new
weapons were needed to defeat a tank or other armored
ghting vehicle. The rst anti-tank weapons given to the
infantrymen were based upon small arms; for example the
anti-tank rie. As even the later designs of tanks carried
more armour, the limit of a man-portable rie that could
re a round with sucient kinetic energy to penetrate the
armour was reached.
The introduction of the shaped charge warhead gave the

Above a certain size, semi-xed rounds are impracticable; infantryman a weapon that used chemical energy rather
the weight of the whole assembly is too much to be car- than kinetic to penetrate armour in a focused manner,
ried eectively. In this case separate loading ammunition which made them more eective than large grenades.
1.1. AMMUNITION
When propelled by a rocket, the shaped charge gained
range as well. Weapons such as the US Bazooka and
German Panzerfaust, although bulky, were suitable for infantry usethough they were designed to be short ranged
weapons, which simplied accuracy for striking a vehicle's weak points.
After World War 2, the advent of the missile delivered
both great range and accuracy and provided infantry with
a weapon that could reliably destroy the heaviest tanks at
long distances.
Today's infantryman can deploy sophisticated multispectral man-portable surface-to-air missiles equipped
with the ability to reject decoys and defeat countermeasures.
205
ships are typically much greater than that at which land
warfare is observed. However, many exceptions can occur. The targets are also generally machines, not men.
Naval ammunition is therefore optimized for great velocity (to reach those great ranges, to hit aircraft ying at altitude and also with the benet of reducing the lead that
has to be applied to hit a distant moving target) and to
disable said machines, rather than rending human esh.
Naval gun ammunition of World War II vintage came in
two main varieties, armor-piercing shells to attack hardened warships or high explosive incendiary shells (with
point detonating fuses to start res on ships, or mechanical time fuses designed to fragment and create clouds of
shrapnel to defeat aircraft). With the demise of the armored warship, contemporary naval gun ammunition is
solely the high explosive variety, but new fuses and guidance options are available to increase lethality, especially
against high speed missile or aircraft threats.
Since aircraft are relatively light in weight, and delicate in

construction, this, combined with their highly ammable
fuel, made aircraft more susceptible to fatal damage since
their rst mass usage in World War I; sometimes being
brought down by single bullet, when striking something
1.1.8 Field supply
vital in the airplane. The main weaknesses of ammunition provided to infantry to deal with aircraft were limWith every successive improvement in military arms
ited range and small warheads; both due to the necessity
there has necessarily been a corresponding modication
of maintaining man-portable weapons.
in the method of supplying ammunition and in the quanAn example of a modern surface-to-air missile for in- tity required to be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons
fantry is the FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS (Man Portable were the principal implements of battle, there was no such
Air Defence System), provided as an all-up round in a need. But in the Middle Ages, the archers and crosscanister it is attached to a launcher unit and is ready to bowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended
expend. Numerous other missiles in this class exist from in action, and during a siege, stone bullets of great size,
dierent nations of origin. Infantry machine guns and ri- as well as heavy arrows, were freely used. The missiles
es may improve their ability against aircraft by utilising of those days were however interchangeable, and at the
tracer ammunition, to allow the aimer to better gauge the Battle of Towton (1461), part of the Wars of the Roses,
lead aim necessary to strike his target.
the commander of the Yorkist archers induced the enemy
Weapons developed primarily for anti-tank roles can add to loose arrows in order to obtain them for future use, simproximity fusing to increase the probability of a kill by ilarly to a story in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
having the warhead detonate nearby the target without (). This interchangeability of war material was
even possible for many centuries after the invention of
having to make contact.
rearms. At the Battle of Liegnitz (1760) a general ocer was specially commissioned by Frederick II of Prussia to pack up and send away, for Prussian use, all the
1.1.7 Naval
muskets and ammunition left on the eld of battle by the
defeated Austrians.
In earlier periods of warfare, captured material was often
utilized. In the First Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese
went so far as to prepare beforehand spare parts for the
Chinese guns they expected to capture. By the end of the
19th century, it was rare to nd a modern army trusting
to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only instance of the practice from that time was that of the 1891
Chilean Civil War in which the army of one belligerent
was almost totally dependent upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges. What was possible
with weapons of comparatively rough make is no longer
to be thought of in the case of modern arms.
Battleship ammunition
After World War II, the widespread availability of massproduced small arms have resulted in many conicts in
The ranges at which engagements are conducted by war- which both sides use the same weapons (e.g. the AK-
206
47) and ammunition types, making captured ammunition the Vietnam War, Project Eldest Son was a U.S. eort
once again a potentially important consideration.
to leak sabotaged AK-47 ammunition to the Vietcong.
The tactic was likely also used by Soviet forces in the
Afghan civil war in the 1980s. In the most recent phase
of that war, U.S. forces have sabotaged mortar rounds
1.1.9 Environmental problems
intended for use by the insurgent Taliban. And in the onAs of 2013, lead-based ammunition production is the going Syrian civil war, the tactic has been reported to be
*
second largest annual use of lead in the US, accounting for used by government forces. [9]
over 60,000 metric tons consumed in 2012, second only
to the manufacture of storage batteries.* [3] Lead bullets
that miss their target or remain in an unretrieved carcass 1.1.11 See also
or body become a persistent toxicant in the environment.
Ammunition box
Waterfowl or other birds may ingest the lead and poison
themselves with the neurotoxicant. Since 1991, US fed Ammunition column
eral law forbids lead shot in waterfowl hunts, and 30 states
*
have some type of restriction. [4] For humans eating wild
Ammunition dump
game, lead-based ammunition is a signicant source of
Armor-piercing shot and shell
lead exposure.* [5]
In December 2014, a federal appeals court denied a lawsuit by environmental groups that the EPA must use the
Toxic Substances Control Act to regulate lead in shells
and cartridges. The groups sought EPA to regulatespent
lead, yet the court found EPA could not regulate spent
lead without also regulating cartridges and shells.* [6]
The U.S. military has been replacing lead with copper
as a slug in their green bullets. Two green ammunition
cartridges are the 5.5645mm NATO M855A1 and the
MK281 40 mm grenade. Switching to the 5.56 mm green
bullet, the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round, or
EPR, in 2010 has eliminated nearly 2,000 tons of lead
from the waste stream.* [7] U.S. Army representatives at
a 2013 House Armed Services Committee hearing have
credited the 5.56mm M855A1 Enhanced Performance
Roundclose tothose of a 7.62mm in its performance
capabilities.* [8]
Breaching round
Bullet
Cartridge (rearms)
Expanding bullet
Explosive material
Fuse (explosives)
Full metal jacket bullet
Handloading
High explosive incendiary
Hollow-point bullet
Howitzer
1.1.10
Sabotage
International Ammunition Association
As an unconventional warfare tactic, parties to an armed

conict may attempt to supply ammunition to their opponents that has been sabotaged such that some rounds
explode when red, disabling the weapon and killing or
injuring its user. Apart from the direct damage so inicted, this tactic has the advantage of undermining the
enemy's condence in their ammunition supply. Sabotaging ammunition is not without drawbacks, however: it
involves the supply of some working ammunition to the
enemy, and it incurs the risk that the sabotaged ammunition may nd its way to friendly troops. Over time, the
enemy may also become aware of the deception and nd
ways to identify the sabotaged rounds.* [9]
KE munition
Because of its indiscriminate nature, the use of sabotaged

ammunition is not widespread in warfare, and its legality
under the laws of warfare is uncertain.* [9] It has, however, found use in several modern conicts. In World War
II, it was used by the British and German forces. During
Shell (projectile)
Lead shot
List of handgun cartridges
List of rie cartridges
Naval artillery
Proximity fuze
Rheological ammunition
Rotation of ammunition
Tracer ammunition
Tubes and primers for ammunition
1.2. AUTOMATIC RIFLE
1.1.12
207
References
This article incorporates text from a publication

now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed.
(1911). "Ammunition". Encyclopdia Britannica
(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[1] Aircraft ordnance (PDF). United States Naval
Academy. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
[2] Michael Green; Gladys Green (2000). Weapons of Patton's Armies. Zenith Imprint. pp. 52. ISBN 978-161060-774-2. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
[3] USGS (January 2013).Mineral Industry Surveys, Lead
. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
[4] Michael Todd (October 14, 2013). Gunning for Lead
Bullets. Pacic Standard. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
[5] Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition in the Environment - A Consensus Statement of Scientists. University of California, Santa Cruz: Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology,. 22 March 2013. Retrieved 30
December 2014.
[6] Zack Colman (December 23, 2014).EPA can't regulate
lead bullets, says federal court. Washington Examiner.
[7] Audra Calloway (1 July 2013). Picatinny ammo goes
from regular to unleaded. Army.mil. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
2nd Lt. Val Browning with the Browning Automatic Rie in

France during World War I.
1.2.1 History
The world's rst automatic rie was the Italian CeiRigotti. Introduced in 1900, these 6.5mm Carcano
or 7.6553mm gas-operated, selective-re, carbines attracted considerable attention at the time.* [1]* [2] They
[9] Chivers, C. J. (19 October 2012).Syrians Place Booby- used 10, 20 and 50 round detachable box magazines.* [2]
Trapped Ammunition in Rebels
Guns. New York Times. Unfortunately, they had several failings, including freRetrieved 20 October 2012.
quent jams and erratic shooting.* [2] In the end, no Army
took an interest in the design and the rie was abandoned
before it could be further developed.* [2]
[8] Scott R. Gourley (May 7, 2013). U.S. Army Touts
M855A1 Round Performance 'Close to' a 7.62. Defense
Media Network. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
1.1.13
External links
Ammunition at the Open Directory Project.

European Ammunition Box Translations
International Ammunition Association
1.2 Automatic rie
The Browning Automatic Rie (BAR) was one of the rst

practical automatic ries. The BAR made its successful
combat debut in World War I and approximately 50,000
were made before the war came to an end.* [3]* [4] The
BAR arose from the concept of Walking Fire, an
idea urged upon the Americans by the French who used
the Chauchat light machine gun to fulll that role.* [5] The
BAR never entirely lived up to the designers hopes; being neither a rie nor a machinegun.* [6] For its day,
though, it was a brilliant design produced in record time
by John Browning, and it was bought and used by many
countries around the world. It was the standard squad
light automatic of the U.S. infantry during World War II
and saw use in every theater of war.* [7]The US forces
abandoned the BAR in the middle 1950s, though it was
retained in reserve stocks for several years; it survived in
smaller countries until the late 1970s.* [8]
An automatic rie is a type of magazine-fed rie that

uses either its recoil or a portion of the gas propelling
the projectile to remove the spent cartridge case, cock the
rie, load a new cartridge and re again repeatedly, as
long as the trigger is held down or until the magazine is
exhausted. Automatic ries are distinguished from semiautomatic ries in their ability to re more than one shot
in succession once the trigger is pulled. Many automatic
ries are select-re weapons which are capable of ring The FG 42 was a selective re automatic rie produced
in fully automatic and semi-automatic modes, or in some in Germany during World War II. The weapon was decases, even being capable of burst-re.
veloped specically for the use of the Fallschirmjger
208
airborne infantry in 1942 and was used in limited numbers until the end of the war. It served as a squad automatic rie in much the same role as the Browning BAR. It
was considered one of the most advanced weapon designs
of World War II,* [9]* [10] the FG 42 inuenced postwar small arms development and most of its design was
copied by the US Army when they developed the M60
GPMG.* [11]
signers reached the same conclusion as the Germans and
Soviets: an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small caliber, high velocity cartridge.* [24]
However, senior American commanders having
faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean
War,* [25]* [26]* [27]* [28]* [29] insisted that a single
powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could
not only be used by the new automatic rie, but by
the new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in
concurrent development.* [30]* [31] This culminated in
the development of the 7.6251mm NATO cartridge
and the M14 rie* [30] which was basically an improved
select-re M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine.* [32]
The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG.* [30] Its NATO
partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 ries, as well
as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.
The Germans were the rst to pioneer the assault rie concept, during World War II, based upon research
that showed that most reghts happen within 400 meters and that contemporary ries were over-powered for
most small arms combat. The Germans sought to develop a select-re intermediate powered rie combining
the repower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and
range of a rie. This was done by shortening the standard 7.9257mm cartridge to 7.9233mm and giving it
a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed The FN FAL is a 7.6251mm NATO, selective re, aufor more controllable automatic re. The result was the tomatic rie produced by the Belgian armaments manuSturmgewehr 44.* [12]* [13]* [14]* [15]
facturer Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (FN). During the
Like the Germans, the Soviets were inuenced by ex- Cold War it was adopted by many North Atlantic Treaty
perience showing most combat happens within 400 me- Organization (NATO) countries, most notably with the
ters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned British Commonwealth as the L1A1. It is one of the
by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed most widely used ries in history, having been used by
with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault ries.* [16]* [17] The So- more than 90 countries.* [33] The FAL was predomiviets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that nantly chambered for the 7.62mm NATO round, and beafter World War II, they held a design competition to de- cause of its prevalence and widespread use among the
velop an assault rie of their own.* [18]* [19] The win- armed forces of many western nations during the Cold
ner was the AK-47.* [15] It was nalized, adopted and War it was nicknamed The right arm of the Free
entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the World".* [34]
early 1950s.* [17] Its repower, ease of use, low pro- The H&K G3 is a 7.6251mm NATO, selective re, auduction costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the tomatic rie produced by the German armament manRed Army's new mobile warfare doctrines.* [17] The AK- ufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH (H&K) in collabora47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with tion with the Spanish state-owned design and developthe USSR and the blueprints were shared with several ment agency CETME (Centro de Estudios Tcnicos de
friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing Materiales Especiales).* [35] The rie proved successful
out among these with the Type 56).* [17]
in the export market, being adopted by the armed forces
of over 60 countries.* [36] After WWII, German technicians involved in developing the Sturmgewehr 45, continued their research in France at CEAM. The StG45 mechanism was modied by Ludwig Vorgrimler and Theodor
Ler at the Mulhouse facility between 1946 and 1949.
Vorgrimler later went to work at CETME in Spain and developed the line of CETME automatic ries based on his
improved Stg45 design. Germany eventually purchased
the license for the CETME design and manufactured the
Heckler & Koch G3 as well as an entire line of weapons
After World War II, the United States military started
looking for a single automatic rie to replace the M1 built on the same system, one of the most famous being
the MP5 SMG.
Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic
Rie, M3 Grease Gun and Thompson submachine The rst confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14
gun.* [15] However, early experiments with select-re (assault rie vs battle rie) came in the early part of the
versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.* [21] Vietnam War. Battleeld reports indicated that the M14
During the Korean War, the select-re M2 Carbine was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not
largely replaced submachine guns in US service.* [22] Al- carry enough ammo to maintain re superiority over the
though, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine AK-47.* [37] A replacement was needed: A medium beround was underpowered.* [23] American weapons de- tween the traditional preference for high-powered ries
The U.S. Army was inuenced by combat experience
with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and
M1 carbine, which enjoyed a signicant advantage over
enemies armed primarily with bolt-action ries.* [20] Although U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans
and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional
views and preference for high-powered semi-automatic
ries.* [15]
1.2. AUTOMATIC RIFLE
209
such as the M14, and the lightweight repower of the M2 caliber, high velocity cartridges.
Carbine.
In 1977, Austria introduced the 5.5645mm Steyr AUG
As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 bullpup rie, often cited as the rst successful bullpup rirequest by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of e, nding service with the armed forces of over twenty
the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to de- countries. It was highly advanced for the 1970s, comvelop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-re rie weigh- bining in the same weapon the bullpup conguration, a
ing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round maga- polymer housing, dual vertical grips, an optical sight as
zine.* [15] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a stan- standard, and a modular design. Highly reliable, light,
dard U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a and accurate, the Steyr AUG showed clearly the potenvelocity in excess of the speed of sound, while match- tial of the bullpup layout. In 1978, France introduced
ing or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine the 5.5645mm FAMAS bullpup rie. In 1985, the
cartridge.* [38]
British introduced the 5.5645mm L85 bullpup rie. In
This request ultimately resulted in the development of a the late 1990s, Israel introduced the Tavor TAR-21 and
scaled-down version of the Armalite AR-10, called AR- China's People's Liberation Army's (the world's largest
15 rie.* [39]* [40]* [41] However, despite overwhelming army) adopted QBZ-95. By the turn of the century, the
evidence that the AR-15 could bring more repower to bullpup design had achieved world-wide acceptance.
bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of
the new rie.* [41] In January 1963, Secretary of Defense 1.2.2 Gallery
Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 pro M1918A2 Browning Automatic Rie
duction.* [41] At the time, the AR-15 was the only rie
available that could fulll the requirement of a universal
Both early (top) and late-war (bottom) variants of
infantry weapon for issue to all services. After modicathe FG 42.
tions (Most notably: the charging handle was re-located
The German StG 44, the rst assault rie manufacfrom under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear
tured in signicant numbers
*
of the receiver), [40] the new redesigned rie was subse*
*
quently adopted as the M16. [41] [42]
An AK-47 with machined receiver
In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO
M1 Garand Rie and M1 Carbine
forces adopt the 5.56x45mm cartridge.* [43] This shift
represented a change in the philosophy of the military's
U.S. M14 rie, advanced by the proponents of the
long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of
battle rie concept
the 1970s, other armies were looking at assault rie type
weapons. A NATO standardization eort soon started
British L1A1 (FN FAL)
and tests of various rounds were carried out starting
Norwegian AG-3 (HK G3)
in 1977.* [43] The U.S. oered the 5.5645mm M193
round, but there were concerns about its penetration in
American 5.5645mm M16A1
the face of the wider introduction of body armor.* [15] In
the end the Belgian 5.5645mm SS109 round was cho Russian 5.4539mm AK-74M rie
sen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980.* [43] The SS109
The Steyr AUG was one of the rst bullpup ries to
round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new
enter widespread use.
stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long
range performance and improved penetration (speci FAMAS G2 with bayonet
cally, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet
*
at 600 meters). [15]
British SA-80 (L85A1) rie in 1996.
During the 1970s, the USSR developed the AK-74 and
Israeli Tavor 21
the 5.45x39mm cartridge, which has similar physical
characteristics to the U.S. 5.5645mm cartridge.* [44]
China's People's Liberation Army's QBZ-95
Also during the 1970s, Finland, Israel, South Africa and
Sweden introduced AK type ries in 5.5645mm.* [45]
During the 1990s, the Russians developed the AK- 1.2.3 See also
101 in 5.5645mm NATO for the world export mar Semi-automatic rie
ket.* [46]* [47] In addition, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Poland and former countries of Yugoslavia
Assault rie
have also rechambered their locally produced AK vari*
*
ants to 5.56mm NATO. [48] [49] The adoption these
Battle rie
cartridges cemented the world-wide trend toward small
Marksman rie
210
Sniper rie
Light machine gun
Squad automatic weapon
List of rearms
1.2.4
References
[1] http://www.forgottenweapons.com/
early-semiauto-rifles/cei-rigotti/
[2] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by
Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000.
page 260
[3] Hogg, Ian V., and Weeks, John. Military Small Arms of
the 20th Century 7th Edition Krause Publications 2000
, p.285, US Automatic Rie, Caliber .30in M1918M1922 (Brownings)".
[4] The Browning Automatic Rie. Robert Hodges. Osprey
Publishing. 2012. pages 1213
[15] Major Thomas P. Ehrhart Increasing Small Arms Lethality in Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry HalfKilometer. US Army. 2009
[16] Chapter 1. Symbol of violence, war and culture.
oneworld-publications.com
[17] Weapon Of Mass Destruction. Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-19.
[18] History of AK-47 Gun The Gun Book Review. Popular
Mechanics (2010-10-12). Retrieved on 2012-02-09.
[19] Scribd. Scribd. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[20] Richard R. Hallock, Colonel (retired) of US Army M16
Case Study March 16, 1970
[21] http://www.nramuseum.com/media/940585/m14.pdf
|CUT DOWN in its Youth, Arguably Americas Best
Service Rie, the M14 Never Had the Chance to Prove
Itself. By Philip Schreier, SSUSA, September 2001, p
24-29 & 46
[22] Gordon Rottman (2011). The M16. Osprey Publishing.
p. 6. ISBN 978-1-84908-690-5.
[23] Arms of the Chosin Few. Americanrieman.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-23.
[24] Donald L. Hall An eectiveness study of the infantry rie
(PDF). Report No. 593. Ballistic Research Laboratories.
Maryland. March 1952 (released March 29, 1973)
[25] Fanaticism And Conict In The Modern Age, by Matthew
Hughes & Gaynor Johnson, Frank Cass & Co, 2005
[26] An Attempt To Explain Japanese War Crimes. Pacicwar.org.au. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[27] South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu. History.army.mil. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[28] HyperWar: The Big 'L'-American Logistics in World War
II. Ibiblio.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
[29] The Logistics of Invasion. Almc.army.mil. Retrieved on
2011-11-23.
[9] Senich, Peter: The German Assault Rie: 19351945,

page 239. Paladin Press, 1987.
[30] Col. E. H. Harrison (NRA Technical Sta) New Service

Rie (PDF). June 1957
[10] Miller, David: Fighting Men of World War II: Axis Forces :
Uniforms, Equipment and Weapons, page 104. Stackpole
Books, 2007.
[31] Anthony G Williams Assault Ries And Their Ammunition: History and Prospects. Quarry.nildram.co.uk (revised 3 February 2012). Retrieved on 2011-11-23.
[11] Bishop, Chris: The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World

War II, page 217. Sterling Publishing, 2002.
[32] M14 7.62mm Rie. Globalsecurity.org (1945-09-20).

Retrieved on 2011-11-23.
[12] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide, Ian Hogg & Terry Gander, HarperCollins Publisher, 2005, p.287
[13] Machine Carbine Promoted: MP43 Is Now Assault Rie StG44, WWII Tactical and Technical Trends, No. 57,
April 1945. Lone Sentry. 2007-05-10. Retrieved 201208-23.
[14] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition,
2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.243
[33] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005 page 275
[34] Bishop, Chris. Guns in Combat. Chartwell Books, Inc
(1998). ISBN 0-7858-0844-2.
[35] Woniak, Ryszard: Encyklopedia najnowszej broni palnej
tom 2 G-, page 7. Bellona, 2001.
[36] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005 page 288
1.3. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN
211
[37] Lee Emerson M14 Rie History and Development. October 10, 2006
[38] Hutton, Robert (ed.), The .223, Guns & Ammo Annual
Edition, 1971.
[39] Ezell, Edward Clinton (1983). Small Arms of the World.
New York: Stackpole Books. pp. 4647. ISBN 978-088029-601-4.
[40] Peter G. Kokalis Retro AR-15. nodakspud.com
[41] Danford Allan Kern The inuence of organizational culture on the acquisition of the m16 rie. m-14parts.com.
A thesis presented to the Faculty of the US Army Command and General Sta College in partial fulllment of
the requirements for the degree MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE, Military History. Fort
Leavenworth, Kansas 2006
US Marine Corps Designated Marksman, armed with the

Designated Marksman Rie (DMR), derived from an M14 rie
with a telescopic sight.
[42] Report of the M16 rie review panel. Department of the

Army. dtic.mil. 1 June 1968
are trained in quick and precise shooting, but unlike the

more specialized truesniper, they are also attached
to an infantry reteam and intended to lay down accurate
rapid re at valuable targets as needed, thus extending the
Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications 2000. reach of the reteam.
[43] Per G. Arvidsson Weapons & Sensors. NATO Army Armaments Group
page 271
pages 235, 258, 274, 278
1.3.1 DM / sniper dierences

Main articles: Sniper team and Fire team
[46] LEGION Ltd. the producer of high-quality rearms

with period artistic treatment (threading, engraving, incrustation) and improved nishing. izhmash.ru
The DM role diers signicantly from that of a specially

trained sniper. A sniper is a specialist highly trained in
eldcraft,
who carries out a range of ISTAR-specic mis[47] http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?
sions
independent
of others, and more specialized than
smallarms_id=256 |The Kalashnikov AK-101 is an
export assault rie in operational service withat least nine standard infantry tasks. In contrast, a DM is a soldier
who has received some additional marksmanship trainnations worldwide
ing. Within a reteam, the DM's role is to provide an
[48] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. by additional capability to the infantry platoon, which is the
ability to engage targets at greater ranges than the other
pages 233, 257, 266, 296
members of the squad or section.* [1]
[49] http://www.arsenal-bg.com/defense_police/5.56_
arsenal_assault_rifle_ar-m1_ar-m1f.htm | Arsenal
AR-M1 5.56mm assault rie
1.3 Designated marksman

The designated marksman (DM) or squad designated
marksman (SDM) is a military marksman role in an
infantry squad. The term sniper was used in Soviet
doctrine although the soldiers using the Dragunov SVD
were the rst to use a specically designed designated
marksman's rie. The analogous role in the Israeli army
is sharpshooter.
The DM operates as an integral member of the infantry

platoon, providing a niche capability contributing to the
overall repower of the platoon in the same way as a
grenadier with a rie-mounted grenade launcher, allowing the team to have a better chance against groups of
enemies and armored vehicles; or the automatic rieman
who employs the squad/section machine gun to lay down
suppressing re for an amount of area denial to the enemy.* [2] The DM weapon provides a capability to the
infantry platoon in the shape of increased precision at a
greater range than that provided by the standard infantry
rie, by virtue of its sighting system and/or larger caliber.
By comparison, the sniper role is much more specialized
with very comprehensive selection, training and equipment.* [3]
The DM's role is to supply rapid accurate re on enemy

targets at ranges up to 550 yards (500 m) with a rie capa- Snipers are ordinarily equipped with specialized,
ble of semi-automatic re called a designated marksman purpose-built bolt-action or semi-automatic sniper ries
rie equipped with a telescopic sight. Like snipers, DMs or anti-materiel ries; while DMs are often equipped
212
with accurized battle ries or assault ries tted with

optical sights and heavy barrels.
Snipers are mainly employed for targets at ranges from
500 metres (550 yd) up to more than 2,000 metres (2,190
yd) using ries with larger caliber ammunition. DMs are
utilized for targets at ranges between 250 and 500 metres
(270 and 550 yd) using a rie chambered with standardissue rie ammunition. In addition, snipers often take a
xed strategic position and camouage themselves (e.g.
with a Ghillie suit), while a DM will tactically move with
his unit and is otherwise equipped in the same way as
other members of the infantry platoon.* [1]
1.3.2
Equipment
Ries
Main article: Designated marksman rie
The designated marksman is intended to ll the gap beSR-25 in Australian service.
tween the typical infantry rie and longer-range sniper ries. The typical service rie is intended for use at ranges
up to 500 meters while sniper ries are generally used at amongst its four-man infantry sections.* [6]
ranges of 1,000 meters and greater. Designated marksman ries are designed to ll this gap, typically being emBritish military
ployed at ranges of 250 to 500 metres (270 to 550 yd).
In some cases, the designated marksman rie is simply an
accurized version of the standard service rie (e.g. Mk 12
SPR) while in other cases, the rie is a larger caliber rie
design.
Recently, the role of the L86A2 Light Support Weapon

has been in the designated marksman role due to its increased range of up to 1000m while also capable of giving accurate automatic re, now usually delivered by the
Regardless of which of the three categories a designated Minimi. The Royal Marines and United Kingdom Special
marksman rie ts into, it retains semi-automatic ring Forces also use the HK417 rie in the designated markscapability and a magazine capacity of 1030 rounds de- man role.
pending on the rearm in question.
On 28 December 2009 the UK Ministry of Defence announced the adoption of the L129A1 rie made by Lewis
Machine & tool of the US for use as a semi automatic DM
Sidearm
rie, ring the 7.62mm NATO round, providing accurate
re of up to 900m as an urgent operational requirement
Designated marksmen will carry whichever service pistol
in Afghanistan.* [7]
is specied in their unit's TOE for their billet or MOS, if
one is specied or available at all.
Indian Army
1.3.3
Worldwide use
The Indian Army uses a locally manufactured licensed

variant of the SVD Dragunov in the Designated MarksAustralian Army
man role. The Dragunov is used in conjunction with the
INSAS family of weapons to give exibility and striking
A typical Australian Army reteam of four soldiers will power at short to mid range reghts, to Indian Army ininclude a scout employing a F88S Austeyr (5.56 NATO) fantry units engaged with opposing forces.
tted with an enhanced optic device, usually either an
ACOG or ELCAN C79. Additionally, 7.62 mm marksman ries (SR-25s) are employed by the maneuver sup- Israel Defense Forces (IDF)
port teams in the platoon.* [4] However HK417 ries
have been procured by the Army as a substitute for The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) implemented signicant
the F88S during operations in Afghanistan and possi- changes to sharpshooting doctrine in the 1990s. Docbly thereafter.* [5] The SASR also uses the Mk 14 EBR trine, training program, and courseware were completely
1.3. DESIGNATED MARKSMAN
213
500m range. The 82nd ABN DIV deployed with designated marksmen, trained on the M-4 using ACOG's with
great success out to 600m, some 82nd ABN units were
issued M14s. The U.S. Army 3rd Infantry Division saw
limited use of a modied M16 which was accurized in a
manner similar to the SAM-R, unocially designated the
AMU Squad Designated Marksman Rie (SDM-R) This
rie was designed for engagements up to 1000m.
The U.S. Army DM also uses the predecessor of the M16
rie, the M14, in certain infantry line units. These are
commonly equipped with Leupold optics, a Sage stock
and are designated the M14SE Crazy Horse.* [9]
SR-25 rie
United States Navy The United States Navy SEAL

Teams employs SDM ries in roughly the same manner as
the Marine Corps and Army, although there is no specic
Designated Marksmanrole in a SEAL platoon. Known
used weapons include, but are not limited to, the Mk
14 Mod 0 Enhanced Battle Rie, M110 Semi-Automatic
Sniper System, MK11/SR-25, the MK12 Mod X, the
much elusive "SEAL Recon Rie" and in some cases even
regular M14 Ries tted with optical scopes.
Soviet snipers
Main article: Snipers of the Soviet Union
Although referred to as snipers, the Soviet Union

and its allies have since World War II employed speciallyequipped and trained sharpshootingsoldiers at a section ("squad") level to increase the range of their section
rewritten and snipers were issued the bolt-action M24 to 1,000 meters (1,100 yd). This is commonly accepted
SWS instead of the M14 rie. A major change was the as the rst example of what came to be known as a desintroduction of a new battle profession the designated ignated marksman as opposed to a true sniper.* [10]
marksman ( ,kala sa'arin Hebrew) intended
to improve the accuracy and repower of an infantry pla- Since 1963 these soldiers have been equipped with the
toon and compromise between the role of a sniper and Dragunov SVD rie that shares all the characteristics
an assault rieman. These soldiers were generally called typical of a designated marksman rie (Semi-automatic
squad snipersto describe their role. They are armed re, telescopic sight, chambered for standard military riwith SR-25 rie and sharpshooter variations of the IMI e cartridge).
Tavor TAR-21 (STAR-21), M16A2E3 and M4 carbine.
The IMI Tavor STAR-21 designated marksman variant
(Guatemalan Navy special forces).
1.3.4 See also

United States Armed Forces
Related military roles
United States Marine Corps The U.S. Marines use
M14s which are rebuilt at Marine Corps Base Quantico
and designated as Designated Marksman Ries, which are
being replaced by M39 Enhanced Marksman Rie.* [8]
The Corps also utilizes two dierent adaptations of the
M16 assault rie: the Squad Advanced Marksman Rie
(SAM-R), and the Mk 12 Mod 1 SPR.
United States Army The 101st ABN (Air Assault)
Division recognized the need for a Squad Designated
Marksman, when they encountered res beyond the 300-
Soviet sniper, the Soviet equivalent of a Designated

Marksman.
Sniper, more specialized military marksmen.
Ries
Dragunov Sniper Rie
M21, the scoped and accurized version of the M14.
214
United States Army Squad Designated Marksman

Rie
U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rie
U.S. Marine Corps Squad Advanced Marksman Rie
United States Navy Mark 12 Mod X Special Purpose Rie
SR-25, designed by Knight's Armament Company
1.4 FGM-148 Javelin

For the British Javelin missile, see Javelin surface-to-air
missile.
The FGM-148 Javelin is a United Statesmade manportable re-and-forget anti-tank missile elded to replace the M47 Dragon anti-tank missile in US service.* [7]
1.4.1 Overview
Javelin is a re-and-forget missile with lock-on before

launch and automatic self-guidance. The system takes a
top-attack ight prole against armored vehicles (attack[1] Stirling, Robert (18 December 2012). Special Forces ing the top armor, which is generally thinner), but can
Sniper Skills. Osprey Publishing. pp. 163165. ISBN also take a direct-attack mode for use against buildings.
This missile also has the ability to engage helicopters in
978-1-78200-765-4.
the direct attack mode.* [7] It can reach a peak altitude
[2] Dougherty, Martin J. Sniper: SAS and Elite Forces Guide: of 150 m (500 ft) in top-attack mode and 60 m in directSniping skills from the world's elite forces. Amber Books re mode. It is equipped with an imaging infrared seeker.
Ltd. pp. 5456. ISBN 978-1-909160-38-5.
The tandem warhead is tted with two shaped charges: a
precursor warhead to detonate any explosive reactive ar[3] Halberstadt, Hans (18 March 2008). Trigger Men: mor and a primary warhead to penetrate base armor.
1.3.5
References
Shadow Team, Spider-Man, the Magnicent Bastards, and

the American Combat Sniper. St. Martin's Press. p. 87.
ISBN 978-1-4299-7181-2.
[4] Australia Defense Force news February 2010
[5]
[6]
The missile is ejected from the launcher so that it reaches

a safe distance from the operator before the main rocket
motors ignite; a "soft launch arrangement.* [8] This
makes it harder to identify the launcher; however, backblast from the launch tube still poses a hazard to nearby
personnel. Thanks to this re and forgetsystem, the
ring team may change their position as soon as the missile has been launched, or prepare to re on their next
target while the rst missile is still in the air.* [6]
The missile system is most often carried by a two man

team consisting of a gunner and an ammo bearer, although it can be red with just one person if necessary.
While the gunner aims and res the missile, the ammo
[8] Pushies, Fred (15 November 2011). MARSOC: U.S. Ma- bearer scans for prospective targets, watches for threats
rine Corps Special Operations Command. MBI Publishing such as enemy vehicles and troops, and ensures personCompany. pp. 113115. ISBN 978-1-61059-750-0.
nel and obstacles are clear of the missile's back blast.
[7] UK selects 7.62 mm Sharpshooter weapon for Afghan
ops. www.janes.com. 2009-12-28. Retrieved 2009-0125.
[9] Kokalis, Peter (2005). M14 reborn: Crazy Horse and

the Romanian Option. Shotgun News 50 (12): 2022,
24, 26.
1.4.2 Development
In 1983, the United States Army introduced its AAWSM (Advanced Anti-Tank Weapon SystemMedium) requirement and, in 1985, the AAWS-M was approved for
development. In August 1986, the Proof-of-Principle
(POP) phase of the development began, with a $30 million contract awarded for technical proof demonstrators:
Ford Aerospace (laser-beam riding), Hughes Aircraft
Missile System Group (imaging infra-red combined with
a ber-optic cable link) and Texas Instruments (imag Field Manual 322.9; Rie Marksmanship See ing infra-red).* [9] In late 1988, the POP phase ended
Chapter 7, Section VII Squad Designated Marks- and, in June 1989, the full-scale development contract
man Training
was awarded to a joint venture of Texas Instruments and
[10] Cutshaw, Charles Q. (2011). Tactical Small Arms of the
21st Century: A Complete Guide to Small Arms From
Around the World. Iola, Wisconsin: Gun Digest Books.
p. 259. ISBN 1-4402-2482-X.
1.4. FGM-148 JAVELIN
215
Martin Marietta (now Raytheon and Lockheed-Martin). program (an additional test phase of the so-called Product
The AAWS-M received the designation of FGM-148.
Verication Test),* [10] which included live rings with
In April 1991, the rst test-ight of the Javelin succeeded, the full-rate conguration weapon.
and in March 1993, the rst test-ring from the launcher
succeeded. In 1994, low levels of production were authorized,* [7] and the rst Javelins were deployed with US
Army units in 1996.* [7]
Per initiatives and as a DT&E function, the Institute for

Defense Analyses (IDA) and the Defense Department's
Director of Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E)
became involved in three development test activities, including: 1) reviewing initial operational test and evaluation plans; 2) monitoring initial operational test and
evaluation; and 3) structuring follow-on test and evaluaTest and evaluation
tion activities. The results of these eorts detected problems (training included) and corrected signicant probDevelopment test and evaluation (DT&E) is conducted to
lems which led to modied test plans, savings in test costs,
demonstrate that the engineering design and development
and GAO satisfaction.
process is complete. It is used to reduce risk, validate and
qualify the design, and ensure that the product is ready for
government acceptance. The DT&E results are evaluated Qualication testing
to ensure that design risks have been minimized and the
system will meet specications. The results are also used The Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS) is a moto estimate the systems military utility when it is in- bile test set for Javelin All-Up-Round (AUR) and the
troduced into service. DT&E serves a critical purpose Command Launch Unit (CLU). It can be congured to
in reducing the risks of development by testing selected functionally test the AUR or the CLU individually or
high-risk components or subsystems. DT&E is the gov- both units in a mated tactical mode. This mobile unit
ernment developing agency tool used to conrm that the may be repositioned at the various environmental testing
system performs as technically specied and that the sys- facilities. The mobile system is used for all phases of
tem is ready for eld testing.
Javelin qualication testing. There is also a non-mobile
DT&E is an iterative process of designing, building, test- JETS used for stand-alone CLU testing. This system is
ing, identifying deciencies, xing, retesting, and repeat- equipped with an environmental chamber and is primaring. It is performed in the factory, laboratory, and on the ily used for Product Verication Testing (PRVT). Capaproving ground by the contractors and the government. bilities include: Javelin CLU testing; Javelin AUR testing;
in various enContractor and government testing is combined into one Javelin Mated Mode testing; Javelin testing
*
vironmental
conditions;
and
CLU
PRVT.
[11]
integrated test program and conducted to determine if the
performance requirements have been met and to provide The All-up-Round Test Sets includes: Extreme temdata to the decision authority.
perature testing; Missile tracker testing (Track rate erThe General Accounting Oce (GAO) published a re- ror, Tracking sensitivity); Seeker/focal plane array testing
port questioning the adequacy of Javelin testing. The re- (Cool-down time, Dead/defective pixels, Seeker identiport, calledArmy AcquisitionJavelin Is Not Ready for cation); Pneumatic leakage; Continuity measurements;
Multiyear Procurement, opposed entering into full-rate Ready time; and Guidance sections (Guidance comproduction in 1997 and expressed the need for further mands, Fin movement).
operational testing due to the many redesigns undergone.
In 1995, Secretary of Defense William Perry had set forth 1.4.3 Components
ve new operational test initiatives. These included: 1)
getting operational testers involved early in development; Missile
2) use of modeling and simulation; 3) integrating development and operational testing; 4) combining testing and
training; and 5) applying concepts to demos and acquisitions.
The late-phase development of the Javelin retroactively
beneted from the then new operational test initiatives set
forth by the Secretary of Defense, as well as a further test
conducted as a consequence of the Army's response to
the GAO report. Before the Milestone III decision, and
before elding to 3rd Battalion 75th Ranger Regiment at
Fort Benning (also Army Rangers, Special Forces, airborne, air assault, and light infantry), the Javelin was subjected to limited parts of the ve operational test and eval- Missile components.
uation initiatives, as well as a portability operational test
216
on missile conditions (target lock check), ESAF initiates
nal arming to enable the warheads for detonation upon
target impact. When the missile strikes the target, ESAF
enables the tandem warhead function (provide appropriate time between the detonation of the precursor charge
and the detonation of the main charge).
US Marine carrying a Javelin missile during Operation

Moshtarak in Marjeh, Afghanistan 2010
Warhead The Javelin missiles tandem warhead is a

HEAT type.* [7] This round utilizes an explosive shaped
charge to create a stream of superplastically deformed
metal formed from trumpet-shaped metallic liners. The
result is a narrow high velocity particle stream that can
penetrate armor.
Though the Javelin tandem HEAT warhead has proven efcient at destroying tanks, most threats it was employed
against in Iraq and Afghanistan were weapon crews and
teams, buildings, and lightly armored and unarmored vehicles. To make the Javelin more useful in these scenarios, the Aviation and Missile Research, Development,
and Engineering Center developed a multi-purpose warhead (MPWH) for the FGM-148F. While it is still lethal
against tanks, the new warhead has a naturally fragmenting steel warhead case that provides double the eectiveness against personnel due to enhanced fragmentation.
The MPWH does not add weight or cost and has a lighter
composite missile mid-body to enable drop-in replacement to current Javelin tubes.* [12]* [13]
The Javelin counters the advent of explosive reactive armor (ERA). ERA boxes or tiles lie over a vehicles main
armor and explode when struck by a warhead. This explosion does not harm the vehicles main armor, but
causes steel panels to y across the path of the HEAT
rounds narrow particle stream, disrupting its focus leaving it unable to cut through the main armor. The Javelin
uses two shaped-charge warheads in tandem. The weak,
smaller diameter HEAT precursor charge pushes through
the ERA without setting it o, and punches a channel
through it for the much larger diameter HEAT warhead,
which then penetrates the targets primary armor.
A two-layered molybdenum liner is used for the precursor
and a copper liner for the main warhead.
To protect the main charge from the explosive blast,
shock, and debris caused by the impact of the missile's
nose and the detonation of the precursor charge, a blast
shield is used between the main and precursor charge.
This was the rst composite material blast shield and the
rst that had a hole through the middle to provide a jet
that is less diuse.
A newer main charge liner produces a higher velocity jet.
While making the warhead smaller, this change makes
it more eective, leaving more room for propellant for
the main rocket motor, and thus increasing the missile's
range.
Electronic arming and fusing, called Electronic Safe
Arming and Fire (ESAF), is used. The ESAF system enables the ring and arming process to proceed, while imposing a series of safety checks on the missile. ESAF cues
the launch motor after the trigger is pulled. When the
missile reaches a key acceleration point (indicating that it
has cleared the launch tube), the ESAF initiates a second
arming signal to re the ight motor. After another check
U.S. soldier ring Javelin.
Propulsion Most rocket launchers require a large clear

area behind the gunner to prevent injury from backblast.
To address this shortcoming, without increasing recoil
to an unacceptable level, the Javelin system uses a soft
launch mechanism. A launch motor using conventional
rocket propellant ejects the missile from the launcher, but
stops burning before the missile clears the tube. The ight
motor is ignited only after a delay to allow for sucient
clearance from the operator. To save weight, the two motors are integrated with a burst disc between them; it is
designed to tolerate the pressure of the launch motor from
one side, but to easily rupture from the other when the
ight motor ignites. Both motors use a common nozzle,
with the ight motor's exhaust owing through the expended launch motor. Because the launch motor casing
remains in place, an unusual annular (ring-shaped) igniter
is used to start it; a normal igniter would be blown out
the back of the missile when the ight motor ignited and
could injure the operator. Since the launch motor uses
217
a standard NATO propellant, the presence of lead betaresorcinol as a burn rate modier causes an amount of
lead and lead oxide to be present in the exhaust; for this
reason, gunners are asked to hold their breath after ring.
connection is broken and coolant gas is supplied internally

by an onboard argon gas bottle. The gas is held in a small
bottle at high pressure and contains enough coolant for
the duration of the ight of approximately 19 seconds.
In the event that the launch motor malfunctions and the

launch tube is overpressurizedfor example, if the rocket
gets stuck the Javelin missile includes a pressure release system to prevent the launcher from exploding. The
launch motor is held in place by a set of shear pins, which
fracture if the pressure rises too high and allow the motor
to be pushed out the back of the tube.
The seeker is calibrated using a chopper wheel. This device is a fan of 6 blades: 5 black blades with very low IR
emissivity and one semi-reective blade. These blades
spin in front of the seeker optics in a synchronized fashion such that the FPA is continually provided with points
of reference in addition to viewing the scene. These reference points allow the FPA to reduce noise introduced
by response variations in the detector elements.
Seeker As a re-and-forget missile, after launch the

missile has to be able to track and destroy its target without the gunner. This is done by coupling an on-board
imaging IR system (dierent from CLU imaging system)
with an on-board tracking system.
The gunner uses the CLU
s IR system to nd and identify
the target then switches to the missiles independent IR
system to set a track box around the target and establish
a lock. The gunner places brackets around the image for
locking.
The seeker stays focused on the target
s image continuing
to track it as the target moves or the missiles ight path
alters or as attack angles change. The seeker has three
main components: focal plane array (FPA), cooling and
calibration and stabilization.
Stabilization The platform on which the seeker is

mounted must be stabilized with respect to the motion of
the missile body and the seeker must be moved to stay
aligned with the target. The stabilization system must
cope with rapid acceleration, up/down and lateral movements. This is done by a gimbal system, accelerometers,
spinning-mass gyros (or MEMS), and motors to drive
changes in position of the platform. The system is basically an autopilot. Information from the gyros is fed to
the guidance electronics which drive a torque motor attached to the seeker platform to keep the seeker aligned
with the target. The wires that connect the seeker with
the rest of the missile are carefully designed to avoid inducing motion or drag on the seeker platform.
Focal plane array (FPA) Main article: Staring array

The seeker assembly is encased in a dome which is transparent to long-wave infrared radiation. The IR radiation
passes through the dome and then through lenses that focus the energy. The IR energy is reected by mirrors on to
the FPA. The seeker is a two-dimensional staring FPA of
64x64 MerCad (HgCdTe) detector elements.* [14] The
FPA processes the signals from the detectors and relays a Top attack ight prole.
signal to the missiles tracker.
The staring array is a photo-voltaic device where the incident photons stimulate electrons and are stored, pixel by
pixel, in a readout integrated circuits attached at the rear
of the detector. These electrons are converted to voltages
which are multiplexed out of the ROIC on a frame-byframe basis.
Cooling/Calibration The FPA must be cooled and calibrated. The CLUs IR detectors are cooled using a
Dewar ask and a closed-cycle Stirling engine. But there
is insucient space in the missile for a similar solution.
So, prior to launch, a cooler mounted on the outside of the
launch tube activates the electrical systems in the missile
and supplies cold gas from a Joule-Thomson expander to
the missile detector assembly while the missile is still in
the launch tube. When the missile is red, this external
Direct attack ight path.
Tracker The tracker is key to guidance/control for an

eventual hit. The signals from each of the 4,096 detector elements (64x64 pixel array) in the seeker are passed
to the FPA readout integrated circuits which reads then
creates a video frame that is sent to the tracker system
for processing. By comparing the individual frames the
218
tracker determines the need to correct so as to keep the

missile on target. The tracker must be able to determine
which portion of the image represents the target. The target is initially dened by the gunner who places a congurable frame around it. The tracker then uses algorithms
to compare that region of the frame based on image, geometric, and movement data to the new image frames being sent from the seeker, similar to pattern recognition
algorithms. At the end of each frame the reference is updated. The tracker is able to keep track of the target even
though the seekers point of view can change radically
in the course of ight.
To guide the missile, the tracker locates the target in the
current frame and compares this position with the aim
point. If this position is o center, the tracker computes
a correction and passes it to the guidance system, which
makes the appropriate adjustments to the four movable
tail ns, as well as six xed wings at mid-body. This is
an autopilot. To guide the missile, the system has sensors
that check that the ns are positioned as requested. If
not, the deviation is sent back to the controller for further
adjustment. This is a closed-loop controller.
There are three stages in the ight managed by the tracker:
1) an initial phase just after launch; 2) a mid-ight phase
that lasts for most of the ight; and 3) a terminal phase Command Launch Unit.
in which the tracker selects the sweet spot for the point
of impact. With guidance algorithms, the autopilot uses
data from the seeker and tracker to determine when to
transition the missile from one phase of ight to another.
Depending on whether the missile is in top attack or direct
attack mode, the prole of the ight can change signicantly. The top attack mode requires the missile to climb
sharply after launch and cruise at high altitude then dive
on the top of the target (curveball). In direct attack mode
(fastball), the missile cruises at a lower altitude directly
at target. The exact ight path which takes into account
the range to the target is calculated by the guidance unit.
Launch Tube Assembly
Both men carry a disposable tube called the Launch Tube
Assembly which houses the missile and protects the missile from harsh environments. The tube also has built in
electronics and a locking hinge system that makes attachment and detachment of the missile to and from the Command Launch Unit a very quick and simple process.
CLU after action.
Command Launch Unit
are no longer required to stay in constant contact with

armored personnel carriers and tanks with thermal sights.
This makes infantry personnel more exible and able to
perceive threats they would not otherwise be able to detect. In 2006, a contract was awarded to Toyon Research
Corporation to begin development of an upgrade to the
CLU enabling the transmission of target image and GPS
location data to other units.* [15]
The gunner carries a reusable Command Launch Unit (in

addition to the Launch Tube Assembly) more commonly
referred to as a CLU (pronounced clue). The CLU
is the targeting component of the two part system. The
CLU has three views which are used to nd, target, and
re the missile. The CLU may also be used separately
from the missile as a portable thermal sight. Infantry
Day Field of View The rst view is a 4 magnication

day view. It is mainly used to scan areas for light during
night operation, because light is not visible in the thermal
views. It is also used to scan following sunrise and sunset,
when the thermal image is hard to focus due to the natural
rapid heating and/or cooling of the Earth.

WFOV (Wide Field of View) The second view is the
4x magnication night view, and shows the gunner a thermal representation of the area viewed. This is also the
primary view used due to its ability to detect infrared
radiation and nd both troops and vehicles otherwise
too well hidden to detect. The screen shows a green
scaleview which can be adjusted in both contrast and
brightness. The inside of the CLU is cooled by a small
refrigeration unit attached to the sight. This greatly increases the sensitivity of the thermal imaging capability
since the temperature inside the sight is much lower than
that of the objects it detects. Due to the sensitivity this
causes, the gunner is able tofocusthe CLU to show a
very detailed image of the area being viewed by showing
temperature dierences of only a few degrees. The gunner operates this view with the use of two hand stations
similar to the control stick found in modern cockpits. It
is from this view that the gunner focuses the image and
determines the area that gives the best heat signature on
which to lock the missile.
NFOV (Narrow Field of View) The third eld of view
is a 12x thermal sight used to better identify the target
vehicle. Once the CLU has been focused in WFOV, the
gunner may switch to NFOV for target recognition before
activating Seeker FOV.
219
modernized electronics.* [13]
1.4.4 Training
A great familiarity of each control and swift operation
needs to be achieved before the unit can be deployed efciently. American troops are trained on the system at the
Infantry School in Fort Benning, Georgia, for two weeks.
The soldiers are taught basic care and maintenance, operation and abilities, assembly and disassembly, and the
positions it can be red from. Soldiers are also taught to
distinguish between a variety of vehicle types even when
only a rough outline is visible. The soldiers must accomplish several timed drills with set standards before being qualied to operate the system in both training and
wartime situations. There are also smaller training programs set up on most Army bases that instruct soldiers
on the proper use of the system. At these courses, the
training program might be changed in small ways. This
is most commonly only minor requirements left out due to
budget, the amount of soldiers vs. simulation equipment,
and available time and resources. Both types of training
courses have required prociency levels that must be met
before the soldier can operate the system in training exercises or wartime missions.
1.4.5 Advantages and disadvantages
Seeker Field of View Once the best target area is chosen, the gunner presses one of the two triggers and is au- Advantages
tomatically switched to the fourth view; the Seeker FOV,
which is a 9x magnication thermal view. This process
is similar to the automatic zoom feature on most modern
cameras. This view is also available along with the previously mentioned views, all of which may be accessed
with press of a button. However, it is not as popular as a
high magnication view takes longer to scan a wide area.
This view allows the gunner to further aim the missile and
set the guidance system housed inside the actual missile.
It is when in this view that information is passed from the
CLU, through the connection electronics of the Launch
Tube Assembly, and into the missile's guidance system.
If the gunner feels uncomfortable with ring the missile,
he can still cycle back to the other views without having to
re the missile. When the gunner is comfortable with the
target picture, he pulls the second trigger and establishes
a lock. The missile launches after a short delay.
Javelin's backblast
Lightweight CLU The U.S. Army is developing a new

CLU as an improvement over the Block I version. The
new CLU is 70 percent smaller, 40 percent lighter, and
has a 50 percent battery life increase. Features of the
lightweight CLU are: a long-wave IR sensor; a highdenition display with improved resolution; integrated
handgrips; a ve megapixel color camera; a laser point
that can be seen visibly or through IR; a far target locator
using GPS, a laser rangender, and a heading sensor; and
The portable system is easy to separate into main components and easy to set up when needed. Compared to
more cumbersome anti-tank weapon systems, the dierence is noticeable. For example, a TOW requires a heavy
tripod stand, a bulky protective case for the thermal sight,
a larger, longer launch tube, and requires much more time
to assemble and prepare. The Javelin (although still very
heavy) is lighter than the other missiles and their necessary parts.
220
Although the CLU's thermal imaging may hinder aiming,

its thermal targeting allows the Javelin to be a re-andforget system. This gives the rer an opportunity to be
out of sight and possibly moving to a new angle of re, or
out of the area, by the time the enemy realizes they are
under attack. This is much safer than using a wire-guided
system where the rer must stay stationary to guide the
missile into the target.
1.4.6 Combat history
Another advantage is the Javelin's power at impact. The

missile's tandem shaped charge warhead is made to penetrate reactive armor. With the top attack mode, it has
an even greater ability to destroy the tank because it can
attack where most tanks are weakest.* [7]
During the War in Afghanistan, the Javelin was used effectively in counter-insurgency (COIN) operations. Initially, soldiers perceived the weapon as unsuited for
COIN operations due to its destructive power, but trained
gunners were able to make precision shots against enemy
positions with little collateral damage. The Javelin lled a
niche in U.S. weapons systems against DShK heavy machine guns and B-10 recoilless ries; weapons like the
AT4 and M203 had good eects but insucient range,
medium and heavy machine guns and grenade launchers
had greater range but insucient eects, and heavy mortars had good range and eects but poor precision. The
Javelin, as well as the TOW, had enough range, power,
and accuracy to counter stando engagement tactics employed by enemy weapons. With good locks, the missile
is most eective against vehicles, caves, fortied positions, and individual personnel; if enemies were inside a
cave, a Javelin red into the mouth of the cave would destroy it from the inside, which was not possible from the
outside using heavy mortars. The psychological eect of
the sound of a Javelin ring sometimes caused insurgents
to disengage and ee their position. Even when not ring,
the Javelin's CLU was commonly used as a man-portable
surveillance system.* [19]
The soft launch capability of the Javelin allows it to have

only a minimal backblast area. In addition to reducing
the visible launch signature from the enemy, this enables
the Javelin to be red from inside structures with minimal
preparation, which gives the Javelin advantages in urban
ghting over the widely used AT4 (which has a very large
backblast area, although this is lessened in the AT4 CS).
A large backblast area would seriously injure personnel if
red from inside an unprepared structure, and may betray
the location of the launch to enemy observers.
The missile also has a greater range than the US ATGM
it replaces, the M47 Dragon.* [7]
Disadvantages
The Javelin was used by US Army and Marine Corps and

Australian Special Forces in the 2003 Invasion of Iraq* [7]
on Iraqi Type 69 and Lion of Babylon tanks. In one short
engagement, a platoon of U.S. special forces soldiers
equipped with Javelins destroyed two T-55 tanks, eight
armored personnel carriers, and four troop trucks.* [18]
The main drawback of the complete system (missile,

tube, and CLU) is its 49.2 lb (22.3 kg) total weight. The 1.4.7 Users
system is designed to be portable by infantry on foot
Australia: 92 launchers.* [20]

and weighs more than that originally specied by the US
Army requirement.* [16]
Bahrain: 13 launchers.* [21]

Another drawback of the system is the reliance on a
thermal view to acquire targets. The thermal views are
Czech Republic: Purchased 3 launchers and

not able to operate until the refrigeration component has
12 missiles for its special forces (intended for use
cooled the system. The manufacturer estimates 30 secin Afghanistan).* [22]
onds until this is complete, but depending on the ambient
temperature, this process may take much longer.
Estonia: 120 launchers and 350 missiles will be

taken
into service by 2016.
Also, Javelin launchers and missiles are rather expensive. In 2002 a single Javelin command launch unit cost
$126,000, and each missile cost around $78,000.* [17]
The operator of the complex has no opportunity to correct

the ight of the rocket after launch (when the target heat
contrasts poorly with the terrain, the missile can miss).
Javelin, with an eective range of 2,500 m is not able
to exceed the range of its international predecessors and
competitors; MILAN 3,000 m, Swingre 4,000 m, TOW
4,200 m and Kornet-EM 8,000 m. This is due to the
IIR CLU having diculties acquiring targets at extended
rangesthe missile is capable of reaching 4,750 m.
France: 76 launchers and 260 missiles for use

in Afghanistan.* [23] Was replacing MILAN antitank missile,* [24] no follow-on order in favor of the
missile moyenne porte (MMP).* [25]
Georgia* [26]
Indonesia* [27]
Ireland; Irish Army, replaced MILAN antitank missile.* [28]
221
United Kingdom: In January 2003, the UK

Ministry of Defence announced that it had decided
to procure Javelin for the Light Forces Anti-Tank
Guided Weapon System (LFATGWS) requirement.
It entered UK service in 2005 replacing the MILAN
and Swingre systems.* [7]* [39]* [40]
United States: In 2003, the United States

General Accounting Oce (GAO) reported that
the Army could not account for 36 Javelin command launch units totaling approximately $2.8 million.* [41] The New York Times later reported supply
chain problems at military armories and warehouses
in 2004 and expressed concerns of weapons falling
into enemy hands.* [42]
Failed bids
A Norwegian soldier with the FGM-148 Javelin.
Jordan: 30 launchers and 116 missiles were received in 2004, and another 162 JAVELIN Command Launch Units (CLUs), 18 Fly-to-Buy Missiles, 1,808 JAVELIN Anti-Tank Guided Missiles
and other support equipment was ordered in 2009.
The estimated cost is $388 million.* [29]
Lithuania: 40 launchers.* [30]
New Zealand: 24 launchers* [31]
Norway: 100 launchers and 526 missiles. Delivered from 2006, in use from 2009.* [32]
India: India had planned to buy some of the systems o-the-shelf and a much larger number was to
be indigenously manufactured under licensed production.* [43] But, the plan to go in for the American FGM-148 Javelin ATGMs had virtually been
shelvedbecause of Washington's reluctance to provide full military knowhowlicensed transfer of
technology (ToT)"to allow India to indigenously
manufacture thetank killersin large numbers after an initial o-the-shelf purchase.* [44] In September 2013, the U.S. proposed co-development of the
next version of the Javelin with India as a way to
deepen defense ties between the two countries.* [45]
In 2014 the United States oered to transfer fourthgeneration technology for the missile, an improvement over the previous third generation.* [46] However, India chose to buy the Israeli Spike missile in
October 2014 instead of the Javelin.* [47]
Germany Germany Army
1.4.8 See also
Oman: 30 launchers.* [33]

Qatar: In March 2013, Qatar requested the
sale of 500 Javelin missiles and 50 command launch
units.* [34] The deal was signed in March 2014.* [35]
Saudi Arabia
Taiwan: In 2002, Taiwan bought 360 Javelin
missiles and 40 launcher units for $39 million. The
contract also included training devices, logistics support, associated equipment and training.* [36] In
2008, the United States issued a congressional notication for the sale of a further 20 launchers and
182 more missiles.* [37]
United Arab Emirates* [38]
MBT LAW
Spike (missile)
Type 01 LMAT
9K115-2 Metis-M
Shershen
HJ-12
Missile Moyenne Porte (MMP)
List of missiles
222
1.4.9
References
Notes
[1] United States Department Of Defense Fiscal Year 2015
Budget Request Program Acquisition Cost By Weapon
System (PDF). Oce Of The Under Secretary Of
Defense (Comptroller)/ Chief Financial Ocer. March
2014. p. 60.
[2] 40,000 Javelin Missiles Delivered and Counting PRNewswire.com, 2 December 2014
[3]
[4] Javelin Portable Anti-Tank Missile - Army Technology
. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
[5] Javelin Man-Portable Anti-Tank Missile Demonstrates
Extended Range Capability - Deagel.com, February 6,
2013
[6] Javelin Antitank Missile
[21] Bahrain Requests 160 Javelins & 60 CLUs

[22] A-report (Czech) (archived from the original on 2009-0227)
[23] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 136 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group
[24] France replacing Milan Strategypage.com
[25] France Orders Anti-Tank Missile from MBDA - Defensenews.com, 5 December 2013
[26] Georgia to buy weapons from US: Voice of Russia
[27] Indonesia & Jordan; Javelin missile order - Dmilt.com,
May 26, 2013
[28] Jones, Richard D. Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009/2010.
Jane's Information Group; 35 edition (January 27, 2009).
ISBN 978-0-7106-2869-5.
[29] Jordan to buy Javelin anti-tank missiles from USA of
worth $388 million : Defense news
[7] Javelin Portable Anti-Tank Missile - Army Technology [30] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 174 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group
. army-technology.com. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
[8] Javelin Antitank Missile
[9] Jane's Weapon Systems 19881989 page 153

[10] JAVELIN, Redstone Arsenal (archived from http://www.
redstone.army.mil/history/systems/JAVELIN.html the
original on 2001-02-15)
[11] Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS), Redstone
Technical Test Center (RTTC) (archived from the original on 2008-01-26)
[12] Javelin warhead redesigned for future threats - Theredstonerocket.com, 3 July 2012
[34] Qatar Requests Sales of 500 Javelin Anti-Tank Missile
Rounds and 50 Launch Units - Deagel.com, March 28,
2013
[35] $23.9B in Deals Announced on Last Day of DIMDEX Defensenews.com, 27 March 2014
[13] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2013PSAR_13/hicks.pdf
[14] 64 64 LWIR Focal Plane Assembly (FPA) Highly Linear, Rapid Operation Staring Array, Raytheon. (archived
from the original on 2009-02-27)
[15] 262 Phase I Selections from the 06.2 Solicitation.
Archived from the original on 2007-09-27.
[36] Lockheed Martin press release (archived from the original

on 2007-03-27)
[37] Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Oce in
the United States JAVELIN Guided Missile Systems
(PDF). DSCA. 2008-10-03. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
[16] Raytheon/Lockheed Martin FGM-148 Javelin
[17] Javelin Medium Anti-armor Weapon System. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
[39] MOD press release
[18] THE STRUGGLE FOR IRAQ: COMBAT; How Green

Berets Beat the Odds at an Iraq Alamo By THOM
SHANKER Published: September 22, 2003, New York
Times
[19] Javelin in Afghanistan: The Eective Use of an Anti-Tank
Weapon for Counter-Insurgency Operations
[40] Javelin Medium Range Anti-tank Guided Weapon

[41] Abate, Tom (2003-05-18). Military waste under re /
trillion missing Bush plan targets Pentagon accounting
. The San Francisco Chronicle.
[42] Schmitt, Eric; Thompson, Ginger (2007-11-11).Broken
Supply Channel Sent Arms for Iraq Astray. The New
York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
[20] The World Defence Almanac 2010 page 418 ISSN 07223226 Monch Publishing Group. Australia was one of the [43] Pandit, Rajat (2010-08-17).India to order large number
rst countries that the US government gaveunrestricted
of Javelin anti-tank missiles from US. The Times Of
India.
permission for the export of the Javelin.
1.5. FORCE MULTIPLICATION
223
Deception
[44] Pandit, Rajat (2012-11-29). Israel pips US in anti-tank

guided missile supply to India. The Times Of India.
Military strategy, such as the Fabian

strategy
[45] United States and India could start the co-development of

new version of Javelin anti-tank missile - Armyrecognition.com, 22 September 2013
[46] RAGHUVANSHI, VIVEK (16 August 2014). Too
Early To Assess Indo-US Defense Ties.
www.
defensenews.com (Gannett). Retrieved 16 August 2014.
[47] India will purchase 8,000 Israeli Spike anti-tank guided
missiles and 300 units of launchers - Armyrecognition.com, 26 October 2014
Military tactics, such as force concentration

Some factors may inuence one another, e.g. enhanced
technology improving morale or geographical features allowing deception.
It seems clear that force multiplication existed before

anyone had a name for it. While the Mongols used
swarming tactics coordinated by non-electronic commuBibliography
nications, such simple tactics nevertheless made them notably eective. In the Middle Ages, stakes were often
driven into the ground to protect archers from mounted
men-at-arms. This is an example of combined arms
, a doctrinal development and another example of force
Javelin, Lockheed Martin (archived from the origi- multiplication.
nal on 2008-01-20)
When World War I aviators rst greeted their opponents
Designation Systems
with friendly waves, no one realized the multiplicative effect of tactical air reconnaissance. However, after the
FAS article on Javelin
command on both sides became aware of how powerful
it could be, aviators started shooting at each other. At rst
Javelin tank killer
they did so with ries and then with purpose-built aircraft
AAWS-M: from the DRAGON to today's guns.
JAVELIN Story
Javelin Lockheed Martin Anti-tank infrared guided 1.5.1
missile on armyrecognition.com
1.5 Force multiplication

Force multiplication, in military usage, refers to an attribute or a combination of attributes which make a given
force more eective than that same force would be without it. The expected size increase required to have the
same eectiveness without that advantage is the multiplication factor. For example, if a certain technology like
GPS enables a force to accomplish the same results of a
force ve times as large but without GPS, then the multiplier is ve. Such estimates are used to justify an investment cost for force multipliers. A force multiplier refers
to a factor that dramatically increases (hencemultiplies
) the eectiveness of an item or group.
Some common force multipliers are:
Morale
Technology
Geographical features
Weather
Recruitment through diplomacy
Training and experience
Fearsome reputation
Doctrinal changes
In the First World War, the Germans experimented with

what were called storm tactics, where a small group
of highly trained soldiers (stormtroopers) would open
a salient through which much larger forces could penetrate. This met with only limited success, breaking
trough the rst lines of defence but lacking the staying
power to break the opposing forces entirly while the 1939
Blitzkrieg, which broke through with coordinated mechanized ground forces with aircraft in close support, was
vastly more eective.
Towards the end of World War II, the German army
introduced kampfgruppe combat formations that were
composed of whatever units happened to be available.
Though poor quality ones generally constituted the major part of them, they often performed successfully because of their high degree of exibility and adaptability. Mission-type tactics, as opposed to extremely specic directives that give no discretion to the junior commander, are widely used by modern militaries now due to
their force multiplication. Originating from German concepts of Auftragstaktik, these tactics may be developing
even more rapidly in the concept of network-centric warfare, where subordinate commanders receive information
not only from their own commanders, but from adjacent
units.
A dierent paradigm was one of the results of the theories of John Boyd, the high-low mixin which a large
224
number of less expensive aircraft, coupled with a small

number of extremely capablesilver bulletaircraft, had
the eect of a much larger force. Boyd's concept of quick
action is based on the repeated application of the Boyd
loop, consisting of the steps
Observe: make use of the best sensors
and other intelligence available
Orient: put the new observations into a
context with the old
Decide: select the next action based
on the combined observation and local
knowledge
Act: carry out the selected action, ideally
while the opponent is still observing your
last action.
Boyd's concept is also known as the OODA Loop, and is
a description of the decision-making process that Boyd
contended applies to business, sports, law enforcement
and military operations. Boyd's doctrine is widely taught
in the American military, and one of the aims of network
centric warfare is to get inside his OODA loopthat
is, to go from observation to action before the enemy can
get past orientation, preventing him from ever being able
to make an eective decision or put it into action. Small
unit leadership is critical to this, and NCW's ability to
disseminate information to small unit leaders enables such
tactics.
heading, location of friendlies, enemy defensive re, best

egress heading if hit by enemy re, and other pertinent
data. Usually the ghters would set up a circle, called a
wheel or wagon wheel, over the FAC, and wait for him
to mark the target. Once the target was marked, the ight
leader would attack rst.
1.5.2 Psychology
Napoleon is well known for his commentThe moral is to
the physical as three to one.* [3] Former United States
Secretary of State and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
Sta Colin Powell has said: Perpetual optimism is a
force multiplier.* [4] Morale, training, and ethos have
long been known to result in disproportionate eects on
the battleeld.
Psychological warfare can target the morale, politics, and
values of enemy soldiers and their supporters to eectively neutralize them in a conict.
1.5.3 Technology
In the First World War, there were two abortive experiments where, had the high commands had the imagination to realize the potential use of new weapons, there
could have been a massive breaking of the stalemate of
trench warfare. The rst was the large-scale German use
of chemical weapons at the Second Battle of Ypres, and
the second was the large-scale British use of tanks at the
Battle of Cambrai in 1917. Either of these new attack
methods could have opened an enormous breach in the
enemy lines, but failed, as did the Battle of the Crater in
the American Civil War.
Network-centric warfare can provide additional information and can help prevent friendly re, but also allows
swarm tactics* [1] and the seizing of opportunities by
subordinate forces. These are a realization of Boyd's theories. (Rand-Edwards-2000 pg. 2) denes " a swarming case is any historical example in which the scheme
of maneuver involves the convergent attack of ve (or
more) semiautonomous (or autonomous) units on a tar- Bombers
geted force in some particular place. Convergentimplies an attack from most of the points on the compass. At one extreme, a stealth aircraft like the Northrop GrumAnother version of swarmingis evident in air-to- man B-2 Spirit strategic bomber can attack a target withground attack formations in which the attack aircraft do out needing the large numbers of escort ghter aircraft,
not approach from one direction, at one time, or at the electronic-warfare aircraft, Suppression of Enemy Air
same altitude, but schedule the attacks so each one re- Defenses, and other supporting aircraft that would be
quires a Boyd-style OODA iteration to deal with a new needed were conventional bombers used against the same
threat.* [2] Replacement training units (RTU) weren- target.
ishing schoolsfor pilots that needed to know not just
the school solution, but the actual tactics being used in
Vietnam. Referring to close air support, In the RTU,
new pilots learned the rules of the road for working with a
Forward air controller (FAC). The hardest part was nding the small aircraft as it circled over the target area.
The fast-moving ghters used directional nding/steering
equipment to get close enough to the slow, low FAC until someone in the ight could get an eyeball on hima
tally-ho. Once the FAC was in sight, he would give the
ghters a target briengtype of target, elevation, attack
Whether or not the aircraft have low observability,

precision-guided munitions (PGM) give an immense
multiplication. The Thanh Hoa Bridge in North Vietnam had been only mildly damaged by approximately
800 sorties by aircraft armed with conventional Unguided
bombs, but had one of its spans destroyed by a 12plane mission, of which 8 carried laser-guided bombs.
Two small subsequent missions, again with laser-guided
bombs, completed the destruction of this target. Precision guided munitions are one example of what has been
called the Revolution in Military Aairs. In World War
1.6. GRENADIER
225
II, British night bombers could hit, at best, an area of a be photographed, ctitious radio trac generated by a
city.
small number of specialists, and the Double Cross Sys*
Modern PGMs commonly put a bomb within 310 me- tem. [7] Double Cross referred to turning all surviving
ters of its target (see Circular error probable), and German spies in the UK into double agents, who sent back
most carry an explosive charge signicant enough that convincing reports that were consistent with the decepthis uncertainty is eectively voided. See the use of tion programs being conducted by the London Controlheavy bombers in direct support of friendly troops in ling Section.
Afghanistan, using the technique of Ground-Aided Precision Strike.
Fighter combat
1.5.6 See also

Asymmetric warfare
Fighter aircraft coordinated by an AWACS control aircraft, so that they can approach targets without being re C4ISTAR
vealed by their own radar, and who are assigned to take
specic targets so that duplication is avoided, are far more
eective than an equivalent number of ghters dependent 1.5.7 References
on their own resources for target acquisition.
In exercises between the Indian and US air forces, the Indian pilots had an opportunity to operate with AWACS
control, and found it extremely eective.* [5] India has
ordered AWACS aircraft, using Israeli Phalcon electronics on a Russian airframe, and this exercise is part of their
preparation. Ocer and pilot comments included definitely was a force multiplier. Giving you an eye deep
beyond you... We could pick up incoming targets
whether aircraft or missiles almost 400 kilometers away.
It gives a grand battle coordination in the air.
1.5.4
Creating local forces
The use of small numbers of specialists to create larger

eective forces is another form of multiplication. The
basic A Team of US Army Special Forces is a 12-man
unit that can train and lead a company-sized unit (100200 men) of local guerrillas. While it is not clear when
the term force multiplierrst appeared in the military literature, the use of small teams to raise much larger
guerrilla units was among the rst uses of the term.
1.5.5
Deception
Deception can produce the potential eect of a much

larger force. The ctitious First United States Army
Group (FUSAG) was portrayed to the World War II
Germans as the main force for the invasion of Europe.
Operation Bodyguard* [6] successfully gave the impression that FUSAG was to land at the Pas de Calais, convincing the Germans that the real attack at Normandy
was a feint. As a result of the successful deception, the
Normandy force penetrated deeply, in part, because the
Germans held back strategic reserves that they thought
would be needed at the Pas de Calais, against what was
a nonexistent force. FUSAG's existence was suggested
by the use of decoy vehicles that the Allies allowed to
[1] Sean J. A. Edwards (2000). Swarming on the Battleeld:

Past, Present, and Future. Rand monograph MR-1100.
Rand-Edwards-2000.
[2] Anderegg, CG (2001). Sierra Hotel: Flying Air Force
Fighters in the Decade after Vietnam (PDF). US Air
Force History and Museums Program. Anderegg-2001.
[3] Maxims of Napoleon.
[4] The Candidate of Dreams. Time magazine. 1995-0313. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
[5] On AWACS, IAF pilots match US counterparts. 200511-17. AWACS-IAF-2005.
[6] Brown, Anthony Cave (1975). Bodyguard of Lies: The
Extraordinary True Story Behind D-Day. HarperCollins.
ISBN 0-06-010551-8.
[7] Masterman, J. C. The Double-Cross System in the War of
19391945. Ballantine, 1982. ISBN 0-345-29743-1.
1.6 Grenadier
For other uses, see Grenadier (disambiguation).
A grenadier (from French, derived from the word
grenade* [1]) was originally a specialized soldier, rst established as a distinct role in the mid-to-late 17th century, for the throwing of grenades and sometimes assault operations. At that time grenadiers were chosen
from the strongest and largest soldiers. By the 18th century, the throwing of grenades was no longer relevant, but
grenadiers were still chosen for being the most physically
powerful soldiers and would lead assaults in the eld of
battle. Grenadiers would also often lead the storming of
fortication breaches in siege warfare, although this role
was more usually fullled by all-arm units of volunteers
called forlorn hopes, and might also be fullled by sappers
or pioneers.
226
Attack of Prussian grenadiers 1745
Chartrand, Lt. Col. Jean Martinet introduced the idea

of having men detailed to throw grenades in the Rgiment
du Roi in 1667. In May 1677 the English Army ordered
that two soldiers of every Guards Regiment were to be
trained as grenadiers; in April 1678 it was ordered that a
company of grenadiers be added to the senior eight regiments of foot of the army.* [3] On 29 June of that year the
diarist John Evelyn saw them at a war games encampment
at Hounslow, near London:
Now were brought into service a new sort
of soldier called Grenadiers, who were dexterous in inging hand grenadoes, every one having a pouch full ; they had furred caps with
coped crowns like Janizaries, which made them
look very erce, and some had long hoods
hanging down behind, as we picture fools.
Their clothing being likewise piebald, yellow
and red.* [4]
1.6.2 Grenades
Grenadier of the Old Guard c1812 by douard Detaille
Certain countries such as France (Grenadiers Cheval

de la Garde Impriale) and Argentina (Regiment
of Mounted Grenadiers) established units of Horse
Grenadiers and for a time the British Army had Horse
Grenadier Guards. Like their infantry grenadier counterparts, these horse-mounted soldiers were chosen for their
size and strength (heavy cavalry).
1.6.1
Origins
The concept of throwing grenades may go back to the

Ming Dynasty, when Chinese soldiers on the Great Wall
were reported to be using this weapon. The earliest references to these grenade-throwing soldiers in Western
armies come from Austria and Spain. References also appear in England during the English Civil War. However,
it was King Louis XIV of France who made the grenadier
an ocial type of soldier and company during his army
reforms late in the 17th century.* [2] According to Ren
The rst grenades were small iron spheres lled with

gunpowder fused with a length of slow-match, roughly
the size of a cricket ball or a baseball. The grenadiers had
to be tall and strong enough to hurl these heavy objects
far enough so as not to harm themselves or their comrades, and disciplined enough to stand at the forefront of
the ght, light the fuse and throw at the appropriate moment to minimize the ability of an enemy to throw the
grenade back. Understandably, such requirements led to
grenadiers being regarded as an elite ghting force.
1.6.3 Early distinctions of dress and equipment

The wide hats with broad brims characteristic of infantry
during the late 17th century were discarded and replaced
with caps. This was originally to allow the grenadier to
sling his musket over his back with greater ease while
throwing grenades (initially, only these troops were provided with slings). Additionally, a brimless hat permitted the grenadier greater ease in throwing the grenade
overhand. By 1700, grenadiers in the English and other
1.6. GRENADIER
227
was, however, to draw on steady veterans for appointment
to individual vacancies in a grenadier company (one of
the eight companies comprising each regiment). The traditional criterion of size was only resorted to when newly
raised regiments required a quick sorting of a mass of new
recruits.* [5] Transferral to a grenadier company generally
meant both enhanced status and an increase in subsistence
pay.* [6]
French mounted grenadiers of Louis XV
armies had adopted a cap in the shape of a bishop's mitre,

usually decorated with the regimental insignia in embroidered cloth. In addition to grenades, they were equipped
with contemporary longarms. The uniform included a
belt tube that held the match for lighting the fuse, a feature that was retained in later grenadier uniforms.
Whether for reasons of appearance or reputation,

grenadiers tended to be the showpiece troops of their respective armies. In the Spanish Army of the early 19th
century, for example, grenadier companies were excused
routine duties such as town patrols but were expected to
provide guards at the headquarters and residences of senior ocers. When a regiment was in line formation the
grenadiers were always the company which formed on
the right ank. In the British Army, when trooping the
colour, the "British Grenadiers March" is played no matter which regiment is on the parade ground, as the colour
party stands at the right-hand end of the line, as every regiment formerly had a company of grenadiers at the right
of their formation.
1.6.5 Headgear
1.6.4
Elite status in the 18th century
18th century Prussian grenadier caps (Grenadiermtze).
As noted above, grenadiers were distinguished by their

head-gear from the ordinary musketeers (or Hatmen) who
made up the bulk of each regiment of foot. While there
British grenadiers, distinguished by their mitre caps, acting as were some exceptions, the most typical grenadier headassault troops at the Battle of Bunker Hill. However, in 1768
dress was either the mitre cap or the bearskin. Both bethe mitre cap pictured here had in fact been replaced within the
gan
to appear in various armies during the second half of
British Army by a bearskin.
the 17th century because grenadiers were impeded by the
Grenade usage declined signicantly in the early 18th wide brimmed infantry hats of the period when throwing
century, a fact that can be attributed to the improved ef- grenades.
fectiveness of massive infantry line tactics and intlock The cloth caps worn by the original grenadiers in Eutechnology. However, the need for elite assault troops re- ropean armies during the 17th century were frequently
mained, and the existing grenadier companies were used trimmed with fur.* [7] The practice fell into disuse unfor this purpose. As noted, above average physical size til the second half of the 18th century when grenadiers
had been considered important for the original grenadiers in the British, Spanish and French armies began wearing
and, in principle, height and strength remained the basis high fur hats with cloth tops and, sometimes, ornamental
of selection for these picked companies. In the British front plates. The purpose appears to have been to add to
regiments of foot during the 18th century the preference the apparent height and impressive appearance of these
228
troops both on the parade ground and the battleeld.* [8]
The mitre cap, whether in stiened cloth or metal, had
become the distinguishing feature of the grenadier in the
armies of Britain, Russia, Prussia and most German states
during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Spanish,
Austrian and French grenadiers favoured high fur hats
with long coloured cloth hoods ("bags") to them. The
mitre was gradually replaced by bearskin hats in other
armies and by 1914 it only survived in three regiments
of the Prussian and Russian Imperial Guards. Russian
grenadiers had worn their brass fronted mitre hats on active service until 1809 and some of these preserved for
parade wear by the Pavlovsky Guards until 1914 still had
dents or holes from musket balls. Some have survived for
display in modern museums and collections.
While Northern-European armies such as Britain, Russia, Sweden and various German states (perhaps most famously Prussia) wore the mitre cap, southern countries
such as France, Spain, Austria, Portugal and various Italian states preferred the bearskin. By 1768 Britain had
adopted the bearskin.* [9]
1.6.6 Grenadier companies

From the 17th Century* [11] to the mid 19th centuries
the Footor infantry regiments of the British and several other armies comprised ten companies; eight of them
Battalionor Centrecompanies, and two Flank
Companiesconsisting of one Grenadier and one Light
or Light Infantry Company.* [12] In the United States an
Act of Congress made on 8 May 1792 directed that for
every infantry battalion there should be one company of
grenadiers, riemen, or light infantry.* [13]
On occasion the grenadier and light companies could
bebrigadedtogether into separate grenadier and light
infantry battalions for assaults or skirmishing respectively.* [14]
Each of the line infantry regiments of the Austrian Army

of this period included a grenadier division of two companies, separate from the fusilier companies which made up
the bulk of the unit. The grenadier companies were frequently detached from the parent regiment and grouped
into composite grenadier battalions for a particular cam*
The shape and appearance of fur hats diered accord- paign or purpose. [15]
ing to period and country. While France used smaller The Russian Imperial Army of the 18th century followed
bearskins, Spain preferred towering ones with long ow- a dierent line of development. Prior to 1731 grenadiers
ing bags, and while Britain had its tall cloth mitres made up ve separate regiments. These were disbanded
with lacing and braiding, Russia would sport equally tall prior to the outbreak of war with Turkey and picked inleather helmets with brass front-plates. The rst head- fantrymen were transferred to one of two grenadier comdresses were fairly low, and in the case of Spain and panies incorporated in each (two-battalion) line infantry
Austria sometimes contained elements from both mitres regiment. In 1756 each of these grenadier companies
and bearskins. At the beginning of the 18th century and was brought together in four permanent grenadier regibriey during the 1770s, French grenadiers wore tricorne ments.* [16] This policy of maintaining a separate corps
hats, rather than either the mitre or fur cap. Gradually, of grenadiers continued until the Russian Revolution of
both began to increase in size and decoration, now show- 1917.
ing devices such as pompoms, cords, badges, front-plates,
With the standardisation of training and tactics, the need
plumes, braiding and also various national heraldic symfor separate grenadier companies at regimental level had
bols.
passed by the mid-19th century and the British, French
By the advent of the Napoleonic Wars, both mitres and and Austrian armies phased out these sub-units between
fur hats had begun to fall out of use in favour of the shako. 1850 and 1862.
Two major exceptions were France's Grande Arme (although in 1812, regulations changed grenadier uniforms
to those more similar to the ones of fusiliers, except in
guard regiments) and the Austrian Army. After the Battle 1.6.7 Grenadier regiments
of Friedland in 1807, because of their distinguished performance, Russia's Pavlovsk Regiment were allowed to The term grenadier was retained or adopted by various
keep their mitre caps and were admitted to the Imperial elite infantry units, including Potsdam Grenadiers, the
Granatieri di Sardegna (Grenadiers of Sardinia) in Italy,
Guard.
the Foot Grenadiers, Fusilier-Grenadiers, TirailleurDuring the Napoleonic Wars, British grenadiers had norGrenadiers and Horse Grenadiers of the French Impemally worn the bearskin only for full dress when at home,
rial Guard, the Imperial Russian Grenadier Leib Guards
since the fur was found to deteriorate rapidly on overRegiment, Britain's Grenadier Guards and the 101st
seas service.* [10] Following their role in the defeat of the
Grenadiers. The latter was part of the British Indian
French Old Guard at the Battle of Waterloo, the 1st Foot
Army and claimed to be the rst and oldest grenadier regGuards was renamed the Grenadier Guards and all comiment (as opposed to grenadier companies) in the British
panies of the regiment adopted the bearskin. All British
Empire. In 1747 the grenadier companies of a number
infantry grenadiers retained the fur headdress for parade
of disbanded French infantry regiments were brought todress until shortly before the Crimean War, where it was
gether to form a single permanent unit - the Grenadiers
only worn by foot guard regiments.
de France.
1.6. GRENADIER
229
1.6.8 Modern usage

In modern times, regiments using the name grenadiers
are eectively indistinguishable from other infantry, especially when hand grenades, RPGs, and other types of
explosive arms have become standard-issue weaponry;
however, such regiments retain at least the tradition of
their elite past. Grenadier can also refer to soldiers utilizing grenade launchers, including those mounted on ries.
During World War I a proposal to designate specialist
grenade launching units in the British Army as grenadiers
was vetoed by the Grenadier Guards who considered that
they now had exclusive rights to the ancient distinction,
and the term bomberwas substituted.
During World War I, German troops referred to as
pioneers, who were early combat engineers or sappers and
stormtroopers began using two types of hand grenades
in trench warfare operations against the French to clear
opposing trenches of troops. The more eective of the
two was the so-calledpotato masherStielhandgranate,
which were stick grenades.* [18]
Horse Grenadiers of the French Imperial Guard during the Battle
of Eylau by douard Detaille.
During the American Revolution of 1775-1783, the Connecticut 1st Company Governor's Foot Guards and the
11th Regiment of Connecticut Militia had grenadier
companies.
. New York City also had a Grenadier
unit , as did South Carolina - the elite 1st South Carolina
Regiment, raised and commanded by Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney.
In Mexico Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna created the
Grenadier Guards of the Supreme Power on 7 Dec 1841.
The formation remained in service until 1847.* [17]
The term Panzergrenadier was adopted in the German

Wehrmacht to describe mechanized heavy infantry elements whose greater protection and mobility allowed
them to keep pace with (and provide intimate protection
to) armoured units and formations. This designation reects the traditional role of grenadiers as shock troops.
The term in today's Bundeswehr refer to mechanized infantry.
When parachute units were rst created in the United
States Army, the Air Corps desired them to be under their
control and to be designated air grenadiers.* [19]
The last known unit to serve as grenadiers, and employing grenades as their weapons, was a special Grenadier
brigadeformed by the Red Army within the 4th Army
during the Tikhvin defensive operation in October 1941.
It was a measure taken because of lack of rearms, and
the commander of the brigade was appropriately General
Major G.T. Timofeyev who had served in one of the Russian Imperial Army's grenadier regiments during the First
World War.* [20]
A Toronto militia unit was renamed the 10th Royal

Grenadiers in 1881, then later became the Royal Regiment of Canada.
In the Vietnam War US squads usually had at least one
In 1914 the Imperial German and Russian Armies in- soldier whose role was that of a grenadier. He was usually
cluded a number of grenadier regiments. In the Rus- armed with an M79 grenade launcher, although towards
sian Army these comprised the Grenadier Guards Regi- the end of the war it was replaced with an XM148 grenade
ment as well as the Grenadier Corps of sixteen regiments. launcher underslinging an M16 rie in very small numFive regiments of the Prussian Guard were designated bers. In infantry squads the grenadier was dedicated to
as Garde-Grenadiers and there were an additional four- his weapon, meaning that he usually carried only the M79
teen regiment of grenadiers amongst the line infantry of and a Colt 1911 side arm. In some cases, grenadiers were
the German Empire. In both the Russian and German not even issued this sidearm. The M79 was designed to
armies the grenadier regiments were considered a historic bridge the gap between the maximum throwing range of a
elite, distinguished by features such as plumed helmets grenade and the minimum distance of mortar re. It also
in full dress, distinctive facings (yellow for all Russian allowed the use of various rounds, notably high explogrenadiers) or special braiding. Their role and training sive, buckshot, echette, smoke grenades and parachute
however no longer diered from that of the rest of the ares. Modern US squads have continued the concept of
the grenadier armed with an M203 grenade launcher or
infantry.
230
M320 attached to an M16 or M4.
Argentina
The Argentine Army still maintains a prestigious unit
known as the Horse Grenadiers Regiment (Regimiento de
Granaderos a Caballo)--actually a squadron-strength formationwhich serves as the Presidential ceremonial escort and guard unit. The regiment was founded in 1903
as a recreation of a unit which existed from 1813 to 1826
under the leadership of national hero General Jos de San
Martn.
The 10th Royal Grenadiers later became the Royal Regiment of Canada with tradition surviving in a grenadier
company.
Chile
The same case of the Mounted Grenadier Regiment in

Argentina also applies to its western neighbor Chile.
The 1st Armored Cavalry Regiment Grenadiers
(Regimiento de Caballeria Blindada n.1 Granaderos
) of the Chilean Army is active since 1827, has fought in
every major battle of the Chilean Army in the 19th cenUnlike most other units which carried the title of tury and since 1840 and 1907 has served as the Escort
grenadiers, the Argentine Grenadiers are a cavalry unit, Regiment to the President of Chile in every important
and continue to mount horses for ceremonial purposes, as national occasion. This regiment is named after General
Manuel Bulnes Prieto, the founder of the regiment, who
well as carrying lances and cavalry sabers.
led the Chilean Army to victory in the War of the PeruBolivia Confederation in the crucial Battle of Yungay in
Belgium
1839, which signaled the confederation's demise.
The Chilean Grenadiers' uniforms are similar to the full
Feldgrau uniforms of the Chilean Army, but adapted for
the cavalry, and like their Argentine counterparts, carry
lances but not cavalry sabers, which are reserved for ofcers and the mounted colors guard escort.
Ecuador
TheTarqui Grenadiersserve as the Presidential Escort
Squadron for the President of Ecuador. The unit stands
guard at Quito's Carondelet Palace and retains the uniform worn during the Battle of Tarqui of 1829.
France
Grenadiers, Belgium
See:
Regiment Carabiniers Prins Boudewijn
Grenadiers
The Belgian Army retains two regiments of grenadiers
based in Brussels. First raised in 1837 from companies drawn from the line infantry of the newly independent kingdom, these troops served with distinction in
both World Wars. In peacetime they had a ceremonial
role which corresponded to that of royal guards in other
armies. In 1960 the historic blue and red full dress worn
prior to World War I was reintroduced for limited wear,
although the tall bearskin headdress is now made of synthetic material.
While the French army has not included any grenadiers

since 1870, the grenade badge is still a distinctive mark
of the Foreign Legion, the National Gendarmerie and the
French Customs which was a military unit until 1940.
Germany
Grenadier is the lowest rank (OR-1) in the Heeresanteil
(en: army part) of the Wachbataillon der Bundeswehr
(Bundeswehr guard battalion). Furthermore, in the German Bundeswehr Panzergrenadier (armoured grenadier)
is the lowest rank (OR-1) in the Panzergrenadieretruppe
(en: mechanized infantry).
India
Canada
The Canadian Grenadier Guards is one of the longest
serving units in the Canadian reserve, it still continues today, both in its reserve role and as a ceremonial guard at
Rideau Hall among other places of symbolic importance.
The Grenadiers is a regiment of the Indian Army, formerly known as the 4th Bombay Grenadiers when part
of the British Indian Army. It is the oldest active and
continuing Grenadier regiment in the Commonwealth of
Nations.
1.6. GRENADIER
Italy
231
The modern Dutch Army maintains a regiment of Guard
Grenadiers who retain the bearskin headdress of the early
19th century. This regiment has been amalgamated with
the Jager Guards to form the "Garderegiment Grenadiers
en Jagers" Two of its companies are Jagers (riemen), the
other two are grenadiers; it wears the maroon beret and
is an air assault and para trained unit.
Norway
In the Norwegian Army, grenadier (Norwegian:
grenader) is used as a rank, the lowest enlisted below
sergeant, to distinguish professional soldiers from
conscripts. The grenadiers are employed for positions
requiring more experience and/or professional presence.
Fully professionalised units, such as the Telemark
Battalion, serve in international operations.
Sweden
The 1st Grenadiers of Sardinia regiment
The 1st Grenadiers of Sardinia regiment (Reggimento

Granatieri di Sardegna) is currently part of the mechanized infantry brigade with the same name in the Italian
Army. This unit traces its history back to a guards regiment raised in 1659 and is made up predominantly of one
year volunteers. Historically, as the senior regiment in
the Piedmontese and Italian armies the Grenadiers of Sardinia took the tallest recruits* [21] of each intake. On ceremonial occasions the Italian Grenadiers parade in their
19th century blue uniforms and fur headdresses. The 1st
Grenadiers of Sardinia regiment is currently (2010) the
only infantry regiment of the Italian Army with two battalions (1st Assiettaand 2nd CengioGrenadiers
battalions), and it is likely that in the near future its 2nd
battalion will be detached to re-activate the 2nd Sardinia
Grenadiers Regiment.
The Grenadier Company is the honor guard of the

Swedish Army Life Guards for state ceremonies. Their
uniform includes bearskin hats, and white baldrics (cross
belts) that originally carried the fuses used to light
grenades. The grenadiers bear The King's own Life Company banner which was presented to the unit in 1868 by
Karl XV's consort, Queen Louise.* [22]
Switzerland
Main article: Swiss Grenadiers
In the Swiss Army, the Grenadiers form well trained
mechanised infantry units. They are used for especially
challenging operations and are initially trained in Isone,
a secluded, mountainous region in the South of Switzerland. The Swiss Grenadiers specialize in urban warfare,
guerrilla warfare, anti-terrorist operations, commando
tactics, sniper missions, hand to hand combat, and other
special operations.
United Kingdom
Mexico
The Grenadier Guards are one of the ve prestigious regIn Mexico, Grenadiers (Granaderos) are armored special- iments of foot guards, all of which retain the bearskin
ist police units used for anti-riot duties and other security headdress originally associated with grenadiers.
roles.
The Grenadier Guards are ocially recognized as the
most senior regiment of foot guards, although this is not
recognized by the Coldstream Guards, who are an older
Netherlands
regiment founded six years earlier. The older age of the
Coldstream Guards is not recognized as seniority because
Main article: Grenadiers' and Ries Guard Regiment
they were originally serving parliament, so the Grenadier
Guards have a longer service to the crown.* [23]
232
[6] Stuart Reid, page 18 British Redcoat 1740-93, ISBN

1-85532-554-3
[7] W.Y. Carman, page 35,British Military Uniforms from
Contemporary Pictures, Hamlyn Publishing 1968
[8] Military Uniforms of the World: Preben Kannil SBN
71370482 9
[9] Liliane and Fred Funcken, page 83 L'Uniforme et les
Armes des Soldats de la Guerre en Dentelle, ISBN 2203-14315-0
A British grenadier in traditional dress
United States
[10] W.Y. Carman, page 112British Military Uniforms from

Contemporary Pictures, Hamlyn Publishing Group 1968
[11] p.4 Fraser, David The Grenadier Guards Osprey Publishing, 01/07/1989
[12] p.39 Logusz, Michael O. With Musket and Tomahawk:
The Saratoga Campaign and the Wilderness War of 1777
Casemate Publishers, 19/05/2010
[13] p.xxxv Miller, A.E. printer The Militia System of SouthCarolina: ..., 1835
[14] p.143 Kirke, Charles Red Coat, Green Machine: Continuity in Change in the British Army 1700 to 2000 Continuum
International Publishing Group, 28/12/2009
[15] Philip Haythornthwaite, page 5 Austrian Army of the
Napoleonic Wars (1): Infantry, ISBN 0-85045-689-4
[16] Angus Konstan, pages 16-17Russian Army of the Seven
Years War (1)", ISBN 1 85532 585 3
Marine grenadier
[17] p.42 Chartrand, Rene Santa Anna's Mexican Army 182148 Osprey Publishing, 25/03/2004
A typical United States Army reteam consists of four

soldiers, with the designated grenadier being equipped [18] p.36, Gudmundsson, Hyland
with an M4/M16 with the M203 grenade launcher (or
newer M320 grenade launcher) slung under the barrel and [19] p.5 Rottman, Gordon US Army Airborne 1940-90 Osprey
Publishing, 18/09/2012
providing limited high-angle re over 'dead space'.* [24]
The United States Marine Corps reteams include a
team leader who also works as the M203 grenadier
1.6.9
See also
The British Grenadiers
1.6.10
References
[1] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/grenadier
[2] Ren Chartrand, page 18 Louis XIV's Army, ISBN
0850458501
[3] p.34 Tincey, John The British Army 1660-1704 Osprey
Publishing, 31/03/1994
[4] Evelyn. The Diary of John Evelyn From 1641 to 1705/6
[5] Stuart Reid, page 16 British Redcoat 1740-93, ISBN
1-85532-554-3
[20] Alexei Valeriyevich Isayev, Cauldrons of 41': History of

the Great Patriotic War which we didn't know, Yauza,
Moscow, 2005 (Russian)
[21] David Nicolle, page 21The Italian Army of World War
I, ISBN 1-84176-398-5
[22] http://www.kungahuset.se: The Wedding - The Guards
Battalion
[23] Major R.M. Barnes, page 26A History of the Regiments
& Uniforms of the British Army, First Sphere Books
1971,
[24] US Army Field Manual 3-21.8 (Infantry Rie Platoon and
Squad, formerly FM 7-8)]
1.6.11 Sources
Gudmundsson, Bruce I., Hyland, William,
Stormtroop Tactics: Innovation in the German
Army, 1914-1918, Greenwood Publishing Group,
Incorporated, 1995
1.7. INFANTRY
1.6.12
233
External links
The Grenadiers
French Grenadiers, Chasseurs and Fusiliers of the
Napoleonic Wars
1.7 Infantry
Foot soldierredirects here. For other uses of foot
soldier, see Foot soldier (disambiguation). For the
computer game, see Infantry (computer game).
Infantry is the branch of a military force that ghts on
foot. As the troops who are intended to engage, ght, and
defeat the enemy in face-to-face combat, they bear the
brunt of warfare and typically suer the greatest number of casualties. Historically, as the oldest branch of
the combat arms, the infantry are the tip of the spear of
a modern army, and continually undergo training that is
more physically stressful and psychologically demanding
than that of any other branch of the combat arms.
Ancient Greek infantry: The GrcoPersian wars (449499 BC)

featured the light infantry slinger or peltast, and the heavy infantry hoplites; the shield of the hoplite had an anti-arrow curtain, meant to thwart the archer.
the branch of the combat arms, the term Infantry derives from the French Infanterie, which, in turn, is derived from the Italian Fanteria and ultimately from the
Latin Infantera; the individual-soldier term Infantryman (1837) was not coined until the 19th century. Historically, before the invention and the introduction of
rearms to warfare, the foot soldiers of previous eras
armed with blunt and edged weapons, and a shieldalso
are considered and identied as infantrymen.
The term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which
boasted the rst professional standing army seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint
royal princes (Infantes) to military commands, and the
men under them became known as Infanteria.
Early 20th-century infantry: The Royal Irish Ries at the Battle

of the Somme (JulyNovember 1916) during the First World War
(191418).
Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served
infantry support weapons that provide greater and more
sustained repower. The transport and delivery techniques of modern infantrymen to engage in battle include
marching, mechanised transport, airborne (by parachute
or by helicopter) and amphibious landing from the sea.
In the Western world, during the GrcoRoman

Antiquity (8th7th centuries BC), and during the Middle
Ages (AD 4761453), infantry soldiers were categorized,
characterised, and identied according to the type of
weapons and armour with which they were armed, thus
heavy infantry (hoplite) and light infantry (Greek peltasts,
Roman velites). Since the application of rearms to warfare, the classications of infantrymen have changed to
reect their formations on the battleeld, such as line
infantry, and to reect the modes of transporting them
to the battleeld, and the tactics deployed by specic
types of combat units, such as mechanized infantry and
airborne infantry.
1.7.2 Combat role

1.7.1
History and etymology
Main article: History of infantry

In English, the 16th-century term Infantry (ca. 1570s)
describes soldiers who walk to the battleeld, and there
engage, ght, and defeat the enemy in direct combat,
usually to take and occupy the terrain. As describing
As a branch of the armed forces, the role of the infantry

in warfare is to engage, ght, and kill the enemy at close
rangeusing either a rearm (rie, pistol, machine gun),
an edged-weapon (knife, bayonet), or bare hands (close
quarters combat)as required by the mission to hand;
thus
234
1.7.3 Organization
20th-century infantry: Australian infantry at Tobruk, Libya, in

1941, during the Second World War (193945).
in the Australian Army and New Zealand Army the

role of the infantry is to seek out and close with
the enemy, to kill or capture him, to seize and hold
ground, to repel attack, by day or night, regardless
of season, weather or terrain.* [1]
19th-century infantry: Brigadier General Wineld Scott leads

American line infantry into the Battle of Chippawa (5 July 1814)
in Canada, during the AngloAmerican War of 1812(181215).
Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations

to be employed in battle. These have been developed over
time, but remain a key element to eective infantry development and deployment. Until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in
closely organized formations up until the actual moment
in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry isto
of contact with the enemy. This was necessary to allow
*
*
close with, and destroy the enemy. [2] [3]
commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while
maneuvering, as well as allowing ocers to retain disci in the U.S. Army, the infantry closes with the enpline amongst the ranks.
emy, by means of re and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by re, With the development of machine guns and other
weapons with increased repower, it became necessary
close combat, and counterattack.* [4]
to disperse soldiers in infantry units to make them less
in the U.S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is vulnerable to such weapons. From World War I, it was
to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy with recognized that infantry were most successfully employed
re and maneuver, and to repel the enemy assault by when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terrain, and evade detection in ways not possible for other
re and close combat.* [5]
weapons such as vehicles. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications
Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th equipment and greater focus on small unit training.
century, artillery has become an increasingly dominant
force on the battleeld. Since World War I, combat air- Among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium
craft and armoured vehicles have also become dominant. infantry.This refers to infantry which are less heavily
However, the most eective method for locating all en- armed and armored than heavy infantry, but more so than
emy forces on a battleeld is still the infantry patrol, and it light infantry. In the early modern period, medium inis the presence or absence of infantry that ultimately de- fantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of
termines whether a particular piece of ground has been body armour up until the 20th century. In the United
captured or held. In 20th and 21st century warfare, in- States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry functions most eectively as part of a combined fantry, since they are heavierthan light infantry but
arms team including artillery, armour, and combat air- lighterthan mechanized infantry.
craft. Studies have shown that of all casualties, 50% or
more were caused by artillery; about 10% were caused by
machine guns; 25% by rie re; and 1% or less by hand 1.7.4 Doctrine
grenades, bayonets, knives, and unarmed combat combined. Several infantry divisions both Allied and Axis Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry
in the European theatre of WWII suered higher than forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles,
100% combat and non combat casualties and some above and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard
200%, meaning that the number of service personnel that and fast rules.
became casualties was greater than the sum of the divi- Doctrine provides a very common frame of reference
across the military forces, allowing the infantry to funcsions' available service positions at full strength.
1.7. INFANTRY
235
tion cooperatively in what are now called combined arms

operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks. Doctrine links theory, history,
experimentation, and practice. Its objective is to foster
initiative and creative thinking in the infantry's tactical
combat environment.
Attack operations are the most basic role of the infantry,

and along with defense, form the main stances of the infantry on the battleeld. Traditionally, in an open battle, or meeting engagement, two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their
infantry and other units opposite each other. Then one
or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy
Doctrine provides the infantry with an authoritative body force. The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance
into an enemy-held objective, most frequently a hill, river
of statements on how infantry forces conduct operations
and provides a common lexicon for use by infantry plan- crossing, city or other dominant terrain feature, and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the obners and leaders.
jective.
Until the development of eective artillery doctrines, and
more recently precision guided air delivered ordnance, Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them
the most recent important role of the infantry has been because of the high number of casualties suered while
as the primary force of inicting casualties on the enemy advancing to close with and destroy the enemy while unthrough aimed re. The infantry is also the only combat der enemy re. In mechanized infantry the armored perarm which can ultimately decide whether any given tacti- sonnel carrier (APC) is considered the assaulting posical position is occupied, and it is the presence of infantry tion. These APCs can deliver infantrymen through the
that assures control of terrain. While the tactics of em- front lines to the battle and in the case of infantry
ployment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the ghting vehiclescontribute supporting repower to engage the enemy. Successful attacks rely on sucient
infantry have not.
force, preparative reconnaissance and battleeld prepaRetractions to the Infantry Concept: Although it has ration with bomb assets. Retention of discipline and cobeen argued that infantrymen and infantry tactics are an hesion throughout the attack is paramount to success. A
antiquated and careless use of military manpower and re- subcategory of attacks is the ambush, where infantrymen
sources, the infantryman has proven quite capable against lie in wait for enemy forces before attacking at a vulnermany units, some much more technological and modern. able moment. This gives the ambushing infantrymen the
For instance, light infantry has proven to be extremely combat advantage of surprise, concealment and superior
eective against tank units by being able to take advan- ring positions, and causes confusion. The ambushed unit
tage of a tank's limited eld of re and sight by swarm- does not know what it is up against, or where they are ating enemy armor units and utilizing anti-armor rockets at tacking from.
long range or grenades in close quarters. Furthermore,
air bombardment that can atten entire cities has been Defense operations are the natural counter to attacks, in
shown to be completely useless against a dug in infantry which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enforce. (see Battle of Stalingrad 19421943) Even an oc- emy forces attempting to dislodge the defender. Defencupying enemy police force has sometimes been shown sive posture oers many advantages to the infantry, into be a poor match against a clandestine infantry that cluding the ability to use terrain and constructed fortihas secreted itself away in a civilian population. (see cations to advantage; these reduce exposure to enemy re
French Resistance WWII, Iraqi Insurgency in Fallujah, compared with advancing forces. Eective defense relies
on minimizing losses to enemy re, breaking the enemy's
American Revolution)
cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.
1.7.5
Operations
Canadian army reserve infantrymen train in urban operations.
Patrol is the most common infantry mission. Full-scale

attacks and defensive eorts are occasional, but patrols
are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry
moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to locate
the enemy and destroy them when found. Patrols are used
not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy
inltration or insurgencies are possible.
Pursuit is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of withdrawing enemy forces which are not capable of eectively engaging friendly units, before they can build their
strength to the point where they are eective. Infantry
traditionally have been the main force to overrun these
units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue
enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in partic-
236
ular), where faster forces, such as armoured vehicles are tion. This is usually the best time for infantry units to inteincapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.
grate replacements into units and to maintain equipment.
Escort consists of protecting support units from ambush, Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness
particularly from hostile infantry forces. Combat support should improve. However, the unit must be ready for deunits (a majority of the military) are not as well armed ployment at any point.
or trained as infantry units and have a dierent mission.
Therefore, they need the protection of the infantry, particularly when on the move. This is one of the most important roles for the modern infantry, particularly when
operating alongside armored vehicles. In this capacity,
infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring
terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush
friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for
attack by the heavier units.
Construction can be undertaken either in reserve or on

the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for
construction of eld positions, roads, bridges, airelds,
and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often
given this assignment because of the physical quantity of
strong men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's
morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness
and perform other missions. More often, such jobs are
given to specialist engineering corps.
Base defense Infantry units are tasked to protect certain
areas like command posts or airbases. Units assigned to
this job usually have a large number of military police
attached to them for control of checkpoints and prisons.
Raid/Hostage Rescue Infantry units are trained to
quickly mobilise, inltrate, enter and neutralise threat
forces when appropriate combat intelligence indicates to
secure a location, rescue or capture high prole targets.
Canadian soldiers of the Royal 22* e Rgiment.
Urban Combat Urban combat poses unique challenges

to the combat forces. It is one of the most complicated
type of operations an infantry unit will undertake. With
many places for the enemy to hide and ambush from, infantry units must be trained in how to enter a city, and
systematically clear the buildings, which most likely will
be booby trapped, in order to kill or capture enemy personnel within the city. Care must be taken to dierentiate innocent civilians who often hide and support the enemy from the nonuniformed armed enemy forces. Civilian and military casualties both are usually very high.* [6]
Maneuver operations consume much of an infantry unit's

time. Infantry, like all combat arms units, are often maneuvered to meet battleeld needs, and often must do so
under enemy attack. The infantry must maintain their
cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their
usefulness when they reach their objective. Traditionally,
infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but
mechanised or armoured infantry often uses trucks and 1.7.6
armored vehicles for transport. These units can quickly
disembark and transition to light infantry, without vehicles, to access terrain which armoured vehicles can't effectively access.
Day to day service
Reconnaissance/intelligence gathering Surveillance

operations are often carried out with the employment of
small recon units or sniper teams which gather information about the enemy, reporting on characteristics such
as size, activity, location, unit and equipment. These infantry units typically are known for their stealth and ability to operate for periods of time within close proximity
of the enemy without being detected. They may engage
high prole targets, or be employed to hunt down terrorist
cells and insurgents within a given area. These units may
also entice the enemy to engage a located recon unit, thus
disclosing their location to be destroyed by more powerful
German Army mechanized infantry (Panzergrenadiers) on an
friendly forces.
alert post during an exercise in 2006.
Reserve assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security op- Because of an infantryman's duties with rearms, exploerations are usually maintained in case of enemy inltra- sives, physical and emotional stress, physical violence, ca-
1.7. INFANTRY
237
sualties and deaths are not uncommon in both war and in

peacetime training or operations. It is a highly dangerous
and demanding combat service and in World War II military doctors concluded that even physically unwounded
soldiers were psychologically worn out after about 200
days of combat.
1.7.7 Equipment and training
The physical, mental and environmental operating demands of the infantryman are high. All of the combat necessities such as ammunition, weapon systems,
food, water, clothing and shelter are carried on the backs
of the infantrymen, at least in light role as opposed to
mounted/mechanised. Combat loads of over 36 kg (80
lbs) are standard, and greater loads in excess of 45 kg
(100 lbs) are very common. , These heavy loads, combined with long foot patrols of over 40 km (25 mi) a day,
in any climate from 43 to 29 C (109 to 20 F) in temperature, require the infantryman to be in good physical
and mental shape. Infantrymen live, ght and die outdoors in all types of brutal climates, often with no physical shelter. Poor climate conditions adds misery to this
already demanding existence. Disease epidemics, frostbite, heat stroke, trench foot, insect and wild animal bites
are common along with stress disorders and these have
on multiple occsions caused more casualties than enemy
action.* [7]
The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with

the development of military technology and tactics in
general, but certain constants remain regarding the design
and selection of this equipment. Primary types of equipment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and
special, mission specic equipment. Infantry tactics have
become much more involved, and yet must be learned
and rehearsed until they become second nature when the
infantry soldier is stumbling with fatigue and in the middle of the "fog of war.Spreading out, making use of
cover and concealment, monitoring team-mates and leaders, and watching for the enemy must all become instinctive and simultaneous.
In the past infantrymen were just a mass of hastily trained

conscripts hastily armed with whatever could be quickly
provided. In modern times, the infantryman can be a
highly trained and equipped specialist in his own right.
Despite the hardships, infantrymen are expected to continue with their combat missions despite death and injury
of friends, fear, despair, fatigue and bodily injury.
U.S. Army Rangers, Vietnam, 1969.
Some infantry units are considered Special Forces. The

earliest Special Forces commando units were more highly
trained infantrymen, with special weapons, equipment
and missions. Special Forces units recruit heavily from
regular infantry units to ll their ranks.
Foreign and domestic militaries typically have a slang
term for their infantrymen. In the U.S. military, the
slang term among both Marine and Army infantrymen
for themselves is grunt.In the British Army, they are
thesquaddies.The infantry is a small close-knit community, and the slang names are terms of endearment that
convey mutual respect and shared experiences.
A French infantryman wearing a FLIN suit electronically linked

to a modied FAMAS
Infantry weapons have included all types of personal

weapons, i.e., anything that can be handled by individual
soldiers, as well as some light crew-served weapons that
can be carried. During operations, especially in modern
238
times, the infantry often scavenge and employ whatever
weapons and equipment they can acquire from both friend
and foe, in addition to those issued to them by their available supply chain.
Infantry of ancient times through the Renaissance
wielded a wide array of non-gunpowder weaponry. Infantry formations used all sorts of melee weapons, such as
various types of swords, axes, and maces; shock weapons,
such as spears and pikes; and ranged weapons such as
javelins, bows, and slings. Their crew-served weapons
were the ballista and the battering ram. Infantry of these
premodern periods also wore a variety of personal body
armour, including chain mail and cuirasses. Many of the
premodern infantry weapons evolved over time to counter
these advances in body armor, such as the falchion and
crossbow, which were designed to pierce chain mail armor and wound the underlying body.
Modern infantrymen may be trained to use equipment
in addition to their personal ries, such as hand guns or
pistols, shotguns, machine guns, anti-tank missiles, antipersonnel mines, other incendiary and explosive devices,
bayonets, GPS, map and compass, encrypted communications equipment, booby traps, surveillance equipment,
night vision equipment, sensitive intelligence documents,
classied weapon systems and other sensitive equipment.
Protective equipment and survival gear
as the impracticality of armouring large numbers of men
who were not expected to ght in close quarters where it
would be most useful. As rearms became more powerful
and armour became less useful against gunre, the ratio
of gunners to pikemen increased, until the advent of the
bayonet rendered the latter entirely obsolete. While it became clear to most military leaders that the pikeman was
now outdated, some armies stubbornly clung to the pike,
though pikemen, too, would abandon their armour, until only specialized and prestigious cavalry units retained
any signicant armour coverage; the infantryman from
this point went entirely unarmoured. The return to the
use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend
against high explosive fragmentation and concussion, and
further developments in materials led to eective bulletdefeating body armour such as Kevlar, within the weight
acceptable for infantry use.
Beginning in the Vietnam War, the use of personal body
armour has again become widespread among infantry
units. Infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas
masks, counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these
protective measures add to the weight an infantryman
must carry, and may decrease combat eciency. Modern
militaries are struggling to balance the value of personal
body protection versus the weight burden and ability to
move under such weight.
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers require for day-to-day survival in the combat environment.
These include basic environmental protections, medical
supplies, food, and sundries. As the amount of equipment
a soldier can carry is very limited, eorts have been made
to make equipment light and compact. Equipment is carried in tactical gear (such as ALICE), which should be
comfortable to wear for extended periods of time, hamper movement as little as possible and be compatible with
other things a soldier can be expected to carry, such as
eld radios and spare ammunition. Infantry have suered
high casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation
often in excess of the casualties suered from enemy
attacks. Better equipment of troops to protect against
these environmental factors greatly reduces these rates
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force infantry wearing helmets and of loss. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the
camouage, 2006.
entrenching toolbasically a folding spadewhich can
be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also
Infantry protective gear includes all equipment designed in a variety of other daily tasks and even as a weapon.
to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protective gear comprises personal armor of some type. An- Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which
cient and medieval infantry used shields and wore leather may or may not be carried, depending on the mission and
and metal alloys for armour, as defense against both mis- the level of equipment of an army. Communications gear
sile and hand-to-hand weapons. With the advent of eec- has become a necessity, as it allows eective command of
tive rearms such as the arquebus, large numbers of men infantry units over greater distances, and communication
could be quickly trained into eective ghting forces, and with artillery and other support units. In some units, indisuch armour became thicker while providing less over- vidual communications are being used to allow the greatall coverage to meet the threat of early rearms, which est level of exibility. Engineering equipment, including
could only pierce this armour at close range. Gener- explosives, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carally, only pikemen were armoured in this fashion; gun- ried by the infantry or attached specialists. A variety of
ners went largely unarmoured, due to the expense as well other gear, often relating to a specic mission, or to the
1.7. INFANTRY
particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be
carried by infantry units.
1.7.8
Other infantry
Infantry in air forces, such as the Royal Air Force Regiment and the Royal Australian Air Force Aireld Defence
Guards, are used primarily for ground-based defence of
air bases and other, air force facilities. They also have a
number of other, specialist roles, including Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) defence and
training other, air force personnel in basic ground defence
tactics.
Naval infantry, commonly known as marines, are a category of infantry that form part of a state
s naval forces and
perform roles on land and at sea, including amphibious
operations, as well as other, naval roles. They also perform other tasks, including land warfare, separate from
naval operations.
1.7.9
Descriptions of infantry
239
Let us be clear about three facts: First, all battles
and all wars are won, in the end, by the infantryman. Secondly, the infantryman always bears the
brunt; his casualties are heavier, he suers greater
extremes of discomfort and fatigue than the other
[combat] arms. Thirdly, the art of the infantryman
is less stereotyped, and far harder to acquire in modern war, than that of any other arm.Field Marshal Earl Wavell* [9]
I love the infantry, because they are the underdogs.
They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They
have no comforts, and they even learn to live without
the necessities; and, in the end, they are the guys that
wars can't be won without.Ernie Pyle* [10]
Im convinced that the infantry is the group in the
army which gives more, and gets less, than anybody
else.Up Front (1945), by Bill Mauldin* [11]
Never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor
how justied, is not a crime. Ask the infantry, and
ask the dead.Ernest Hemingway* [12]
The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm
[of the army] where the weapon is the man, himself.C.T. Shortis* [13]
The army's infantry is its most essential component. Even today, no army can take and hold
any ground without the use of infantry.George
Nafziger* [14]
Aerial bombardment can obliterate, but only infantry can occupy. a Finnish Army ocer,
Operation Allied Force (1999), Kosovo.
U.S. Army infantrymen in a reght with Taliban guerrillas, Kunar Province, Afghanistan (31 March 2011).
There is no beating these [British and Spanish]

troops, in spite of their generals. I always thought
they were bad soldiers, now I am sure of it. I had
turned their right, pierced their centre, and, everywhere, victory was mine but they did not know
how to run!" Field Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult,
Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811), the Peninsular
War (180814).
Americans in 1950 rediscovered something that
since Hiroshima they had forgotten: you may y
over a land forever; you may bomb it, atomize it,
pulverize it and wipe it clean of life but if you desire to defend it, protect it, and keep it for civilization, you must do this on the ground, the way the
Roman legions did, by putting your young men into
the mud.Military historian T.R. Fehrenbach
Canadian Army infantrymen from 3PPCLI search for al-Qaeda

and Taliban guerrillas north of Qualat, Afghanistan.
Ah, yes, mere infantry poor beggars. ...

Plautus* [8]
1.7.10 See also

Airborne infantry
Light infantry
240
Line Infantry
Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol
Mounted infantry
School of Infantry
Naval Infantry
Air force infantry and special forces units
1.7.11
Citations and notes
[1] Royal Australian Corps of Infantry at www.army.gov.au

[2] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-392-001/FP-001 The
Infantry Battalion in Battle, Volume 1
[3] Canadian Forces Publication B-GL-301-002/FP-001 The
battle Group in Operations, Change 2, 1992-02-03.
[4] FM7-8, Infantry Rie Platoon and Squad
[5] MOS 0311
[6] The United States Army's Preparedness to Conduct Urban
Combat: A Strategic Priority, pp. 23
[7] http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/other_pub/
LoadCarriagePDF.pdf
[8] p. 156, Heinl
[9] In Praise of Infantry, by Field Marshal Archibald Wavell,
1st Earl Wavell, The Times, Thursday, 19 April 1945
[10] p. 257, Tobin
[11] p. 5, Mauldin & Ambrose
[12] p. 262, Trogdon
The New York Times, Maj Gen C T Shortis, British

Director of Infantry, 4 February 1985
Heinl, Robert Debs, Dictionary of Military and
Naval Quotations, Plautus in The Braggart Captain
(3rd century CE), Naval Institute Press, Annapolis,
1978
Nafziger, George, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia,
Presidio Press, 1998
McManus, John C. Grunts: inside the American infantry combat experience, World War II through Iraq
New York, NY: NAL Caliber. 2010 ISBN 978-0451-22790-4 plus Webcast Author Lecture at the
Pritzker Military Library on September 29, 2010

Historic lms and photos showing Infantries in
World War I at europeanlmgateway.eu
In Praise of Infantry, by Field-Marshal Earl Wavell;
First published inThe Times,Thursday, 19 April
1945.
Photographic history of the U.S. Army's 1st Air
Cavalry Division LRRP / Rangers in Vietnam 1968.
The Lagunari SerenissimaRegiment KFOR:
KFOR Chronicle.
Twenty-second and Last Patrol: A Struggle against
Bad Luck"---a U.S. Army LRRP / Ranger team's
experience during the Vietnam War.
Web Version of U.S. Army Field Manual 3-21.8
The Infantry Rie Platoon and Squad.
[13] The New York Times, Shortis

[14] p. 13, Nafziger
1.8 M14 rie
M14 rie, ocially the United States Rie, 7.62 mm,

M14,* [5] is an American selective re automatic rie that
res 7.6251mm NATO (.308 Winchester) ammunition.
English, John A., Gudmundsson, Bruce I., On In- It gradually replaced the M1 Garand in U.S. Army serfantry, (Revised edition), The Military Profession vice by 1961 and in U.S. Marine Corps service by 1965.
series, Praeger Publishers, London, 1994 ISBN 0- It was the standard issue infantry rie for U.S. military
275-94972-9
personnel in the contiguous United States, Europe, and
The Times, Earl Wavell, Thursday, 19 April 1945 In South Korea*from 1959 until it was replaced by the M16
rie in 1970. [6] The M14 was used for U.S. Army, Navy
Praise of Infantry
and Marine Corps basic and advanced individual training
Tobin, James, Ernie Pyle's War: America's Eyewit- (AIT) from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s.
ness to World War II, Free Press, 1997
The M14 was the last American "battle rie" (weapons
1.7.12
References
that re full-power rie ammunition, such as the 7.6251

mm) issued in quantity to U.S. military personnel. The
rie remains in limited service in all branches of the
Trogdon, Robert W., Ernest Hemingway: A Literary U.S. military as an accurized competition weapon, a
Reference, Da Capo Press, 2002
ceremonial weapon by honor guards, color guards, drill
Mauldin, Bill, Ambrose, Stephen E., Up Front, W.
W. Norton, 2000
1.8. M14 RIFLE
241
teams, and ceremonial guards, and sniper rie/designated only minimal funds available, the earliest T44 prototypes
marksman rie. The M14 serves as the basis for the M21 simply used T20E2 receivers tted with magazine ller
and M25 sniper ries.
blocks and re-barreled for 7.62 mm NATO, with the long
operating rod/piston of the M1 replaced by the T47's gas
cut-o system.* [8] Lloyd Corbett, an engineer in Earle
1.8.1 History
Harvey's rie design group, added various renements to
the T44 design, including a straight operating rod and a
Early development
bolt roller to reduce friction.* [8]
The M14 was developed from a long line of experimental weapons based upon the M1 rie. Although the M1
was among the most advanced infantry ries of the late
1930s, it was not a perfect weapon. Modications were
already beginning to be made to the basic M1 rie's design during the last months of World War II. Changes
included adding fully automatic ring capability and replacing the 8-round en bloc clips with a detachable box
magazine holding 20 rounds. Winchester, Remington,
and Springeld Armory's own John Garand oered different conversions. Garand's design, the T20, was the
most popular, and T20 prototypes served as the basis for
a number of Springeld test ries from 1945 through the
early 1950s.* [7]
T25 prototype
In 1945, Earle Harvey of Springeld Armory designed

a completely dierent rie, the T25, for the new T65
.30 Light Rie cartridge [7.6249mm] at the direction
of Col. Rene Studler, then serving in the Pentagon.* [8]
The two men were transferred to Springeld Armory in
late 1945, where work on the T25 continued.* [8] The
T25 was designed to use the T65 service cartridge, a
Frankford Arsenal design based upon .30-06 cartridge
case used in the M1 service rie, but shortened to the
length of the .300 Savage case.* [8] Although shorter than
the .30-06, with less powder capacity, the T65 cartridge
retained the ballistics and energy of the .30-06 due to the
use of a recently developed ball powder made by Olin
Industries.* [8]* [9] After experimenting with several bullet designs, the T65 was nalized for adoption as the
7.6251mm NATO cartridge.* [8] Olin Industries later
marketed the cartridge on the commercial market as the
commercial .308 Winchester round.* [8] After a series of
revisions by Earle Harvey and other members of the .30
Light Rie design group following the 1950 Ft. Benning
tests, the T25 was renamed the T47.* [8]
Infantry Board Service Rie trials
Experimental T47 rie
The T44 participated in a competitive service rie competition conducted by the Infantry Board at Ft. Benning,
Georgia against the Springeld T47 (a modied T25) and
the T48, a variant of Fabrique Nationale's Fusil Automatique Leger (French for Light Automatic Rie).* [10] The T47, which did not have a bolt roller
and performed worse in dust and cold weather tests than
either the T44 or the T48, was dropped from consideration in 1953.* [8] During 195253, testing proved the T48
and the T44 roughly comparable in performance, with
the T48 holding an advantage in ease of eld stripping
and dust resistance, as well as a longer product development lead time.* [8]* [10] A Newsweek article in July
1953 hinted that the T48/FAL might be selected over
the T44.* [8]* [11] During the winter of 195354, both
ries competed in the winter rie trials at U.S. Army facilities in the Arctic.* [10]* [12] Springeld Armory engineers, anxious to ensure the selection of the T44, had
been specially preparing and modifying the test T44 ries for weeks with the aid of the Armory's Cold Chamber, including redesign of the T44 gas regulator and custom modications to magazines and other parts to reduce friction and seizing in extreme cold.* [10]* [12] The
T48 ries received no such special preparation, and in
the continued cold weather testing began to experience
sluggish gas system functioning, aggravated by the T48's
close-tting surfaces between bolt and carrier, and carrier and receiver.* [8]* [10]* [12] FN engineers opened the
gas ports in an attempt to improve functioning, but this
caused early/violent extraction and broken parts as a result of the increased pressures.* [8]* [10]* [12] As a result,
the T44 was ranked superior in cold weather operation to
the T48.* [10] The Arctic Test Board report made it clear
that the T48 needed improvement and that the U.S. would
not adopt the T48 until it had successfully completed another round of Arctic tests the following winter.* [8]* [10]
In contrast, the T44 prototype service rie was not principally designed by any single engineer at Springeld Armory, but rather was a conventional design developed on
a shoestring budget as an alternative to the T47.* [8] With In June 1954, funding was nally made available to manu-
242
facture newly fabricated T44 receivers specially designed

for the shorter T65 cartridge.* [8] This one change to the
T44 design saved a pound in rie weight over that of the
M1 Garand.* [8] Tests at Ft. Benning with the T44 and
T48 continued through the summer and fall of 1956.* [8]
By this time, the T48/FAL ries had been so improved
that malfunction rates were almost as low as the T44.* [8]
In the end, the T44 was selected over the T48/FAL primarily because of weight (T44 was a pound lighter), simplicity with fewer parts, the T44's self-compensating gas
system, and the argument that the T44 could be manufactured on existing machinery built for the M1 rie (this
later turned out to be unworkable).* [8]* [10]* [12]* [13] In
1957, the U.S. formally adopted the T44 as the U.S. infantry service rie, designated M14.* [8]
Production contracts
Initial production contracts for the M14 were awarded
to the Springeld Armory, Winchester, and Harrington
& Richardson.* [14] Thompson-Ramo-Wooldridge Inc.
(TRW) would later be awarded a production contract for
the rie as well.* [14] 1,376,031 M-14 service ries were A U.S. soldier with an M14 watches as supplies are dropped in
Vietnam during 1967.
produced from 1959 to 1964.* [14]
National Match M14 Springeld Armory produced
6,641 new M14 NM ries in 1962 and 1963, while
TRW produced 4,874 new M14 NM ries in 1964.* [14]
Springeld Armory later upgraded 2,094 M14 ries in
1965 and 2,395 M14 ries in 1966 to National Match
specications, while 2,462 M14 ries were rebuilt to National Match standards in 1967 at the Rock Island Arsenal.* [14] A total of 11,130 National Match ries were
delivered by Springeld Armory, Rock Island Arsenal,
and TRW during 19621967.* [14]
30 June '65). The Springeld archive also indicates the

1.38 million ries were acquired for just over $143 million, for a unit cost of about $104.* [1]* [2]
Deployment
The rie served adequately during its brief tour of duty

in Vietnam.* [15] Though it was unwieldy in the thick
brush due to its length and weight, the power of the 7.62
mm NATO cartridge allowed it to penetrate cover quite
well and reach out to extended range, developing 2,560
ftlbf (3,463 J) of muzzle energy. However, there were
several drawbacks to the M14. The traditional wood
stock of the rie had a tendency to swell and expand
in the heavy moisture of the jungle, adversely aecting accuracy. Fiberglass stocks were produced to resolve this problem, but the rie was discontinued before
very many could be distributed for eld use. Also, because of the M14's powerful 7.6251 mm cartridge, the
weapon was deemed virtually uncontrollable in fully automatic mode, so most M14s were permanently set to semiautomatic re only to avoid wasting ammunition in combat.* [16]* [17]* [18]
After the M14's adoption, Springeld Armory began

tooling a new production line in 1958, delivering the rst
service ries to the U.S. Army in July 1959. However,
long production delays resulted in the 101st Airborne Division being the only unit in the Army fully equipped with
the M14 by the end of 1961. The Fleet Marine Force nally completed the change from M1 to M14 in late 1962.
Springeld Armory records reect that M14 manufacture
ended as TRW, fullling its second contract, delivered its
nal production increment in Fiscal Year 1965 (1 July '64
The M14 was developed as a means of taking the place

of four dierent weapons systemsthe M1 rie, the M1
Carbine, the M3Grease Gunand the M1918 Browning
Automatic Rie (BAR). It was thought that in this manner the M14 could simplify the logistical requirements
of the troops by limiting the types of ammunition and
parts needed to be supplied. It proved to be an impossible task to replace all four, and the weapon was even
deemed completely inferiorto the World War II M1
in a September 1962 report by the comptroller of the
Department of Defense.* [19] The cartridge was too pow-
Production M14 ries made by Springeld Armory and

Winchester used forged receivers and bolts milled from
AISI 8620 steel, a low-carbon molybdenum-chromium
steel.* [14] Harrington & Richardson M-14 production
used AISI 8620 steel as well, except for ten receivers
milled from AISI 1330 low-carbon steel and a single receiver made from high-nickel-content alloy steel.* [14]
1.8. M14 RIFLE
243
A rare M14 presentation model, serial #0010
erful for the submachine gun role and the weapon was
simply too light to serve as a light machine gun replacement for the BAR.* [20]
An Army marksman in Fallujah, Iraq, using an M14 with a

Leupold LR/T 1040 mm M3 scope
Replacement
The M14 remained the primary infantry weapon in Vietnam until it was replaced by the M16 in 19661967,
though combat engineer units kept them several years
longer. Further procurement of the M14 was abruptly
halted in late 1963 due to the above-mentioned Department of Defense report which had also stated that the AR15 (soon to be M16) was superior to the M14 (DOD did
not cancel FY 1963 orders not yet delivered). After the
report, a series of tests and reports by the U.S. Department of the Army followed that resulted in the decision
to cancel the M14.* [19] The M16 was then ordered as
a replacement for the M14 by direction of Secretary of
Defense Robert McNamara in 1964, over the objection
of those Army ocers who had backed the M14 (other
factions within the Army research and development community had opposed the M14 and the 7.6251 mm round
from the start). Though production of the M14 was ofcially discontinued, some disgruntled troops managed
to hang on to them while deriding the early model M16
as a frail and under-powered "Mattel toy* [21] that was
prone to jam. In late 1967, the U.S. Army designated the
M16 as the Standard Arie, and the M14 became
a Limited Standardweapon. The M14 rie remained
the standard rie for U.S. Army Basic Training and troops
stationed in Europe until 1970.* [22]
tico called the Designated Marksman Rie (DMR). It is

intended for use by security teams (SRTs, FAST companies), and Marine Scout Snipers in the cases where a
semi-automatic rie would be more appropriate than the
standard bolt-action M40A1/A3 rie. The USMC Rie Team uses the M14 in shooting competitions. Although the M14 was phased out as the standard-issue rie
by 1970, M14 variants are still used by various branches
of the U.S. Military as well as other armed forces, especially as a sniper rie and as a designated marksman
rie, due to its excellent accuracy and eectiveness at
long range. Special active units such as the OPFOR units
of the Joint Readiness Training Center use M14s. Few
M14s were in use in the Army until the Afghanistan and
Iraq Wars. Since the start of these conicts, many M14s
have been employed as designated marksman and sniper
ries. These are not M21 ries, but original production
M14s. Common modications include scopes, berglass
stocks, and other accessories.* [24] A 2009 study conducted by the U.S. Army claimed that half of the engagements in Afghanistan occurred from beyond 300 meters
(330 yd).* [25] America's 5.5645 mm NATO service ries are ineective at these ranges; this has prompted the
reissue of thousands of M14s.* [26]
The U.S. Army also converted several thousand M14s

into the M21 sniper rie, which remained standard issue
for this purpose until the adoption of the M24 SWS in
1988.
In 1969, tooling for the M14 was sold to Taiwan and
later many ries were exported to Baltic countries and
Israel.* [23]
Post-1970 U.S. military service
In the mid-1990s, the Marine Corps chose a new rie for A USMC Designated Marksman Rie (DMR) in use
Designated Marksman (sniper) use, an M14 modied by
the Precision Weapons Shop in Marine Corps Base Quan- The 1st Battalion of the 3rd United States Infantry Regi-
244
A Gunner's Mate using an M14 rie to re a shot line from the

USS Carter Hall to USNS Lewis and Clark.
mentThe
(
Old Guard) in the Military District of Washington is the sole remaining regular U.S. Army combat
eld unit where the M14 is still issued as the standard rie, along with a chromed bayonet and an extra wooden
stock with white sling for military funerals, parades, and
other ceremonies. The United States Air Force Honor
Guard uses a version of the M14.* [27] The U.S. Navy
Ceremonial Guard and Base Honor Guards also use the
M14 for 3-volley salutes in military funerals. It is also
the drill and parade rie of the United States Military
Academy, United States Naval Academy, United States
Air Force Academy, The Citadel, Norwich University,
Virginia Military Institute, and North Georgia College
and State University.* [28] U.S. Navy ships carry several
M14s in their armories. They are issued to sailors going
on watch out on deck in port, and to Backup Alert Forces.
The M14 is also used to shoot a large rubber projectile
to another ship when underway to start the lines over for
alongside refueling and replenishment.* [29]
Various sniper variants have been used by the United
States Navy SEALs, often mistaken with M21 in the
overt literature, only one of them has received a standard name in the U.S. military designations system: the
M25, developed by the Special Forces. SEALs also use
the Mk 14 Mod 0 Enhanced Battle Rie (EBR) for closequarters battle and in a designated marksman role. "Delta
Force" units are known to have used M14 sniper variants. According to Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War, the well-known account of the Battle of Mogadishu, Sergeant First Class Randy Shughart, used an
M14 for sniping from helicopters to provide support re
to ground troops.* [30]
The U.S. Army Special Forces (Green Berets) have
made some use of the M25 spotter rie. The M25
was developed in the late 1980s within the 10th Special Forces Group, which was charged to support Special
Forces sniper weapons as well as the Special Operations
Target Interdiction Course (SOTIC). The M25 was rst
planned as a replacement for the old M21, but after the
Army adoption of the M24 SWS as its standard sniper
A SEAL operator with an M14 rie participating in maritime interdiction enforcement during Operation Desert Storm.
rie, the M25 was intended to be used by spotters of the

sniper teams, while the snipers would use the bolt-action
M24.
The M14 has remained in service longer than any U.S.
infantry rie surpassing that of the Springeld M1903
rie, it also holds the distinction of serving as the standard infantry rie of the U.S. Army for a second shortest
span of time than almost any other service rie, only surpassed by the short lived US Krag-Jrgensen ries and
carbines.* [31]
Service with other nations

The Philippine government issues M14 ries, as well as
M1 carbines, M1 ries and M16 ries, to their civilian
defense forces and to various cadet corps in their service
academies. The Greek Navy also uses the M14.
M14 production Springeld tooling and assembly line
was sold in 1967 to the Republic of China (Taiwan), who
in 1968 began producing their Type 57 Rie. The State
Arsenal of the Republic of China produced over 1 million
of these ries from 1969 to the present. Other than the
surface nish dierence it is essentially a US rie. It is
still used by the reserves and as a backup defense weapon
and used for airport guards.
1.8. M14 RIFLE

In China, Norinco have produced M14 variants in the past
for export, which were sold in the U.S. prior to the enactment of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. Ries made by Poly Technologies
were imported to the US in the 1980s but were banned
from further import in 1989 by the rst Bush Administration.* [32] They are currently being sold in Canada, Italy
and New Zealand only.* [33] They have been marketed
under the M14S* [34] and M305* [35] names.
1.8.2
245
(ventilated) hand guards were furnished but proved too
fragile for military use. These were replaced by the solid
synthetic part still in use, usually in dark brown, black or
a camouage pattern.
Riing
Rie design
A U.S. soldier scans for activity during a combat patrol in

Afghanistan, 2009.
Standard M14 riing has right-hand twist in 1:12 inches

with 4 grooves.
A U.S. soldier demonstrates shooting an M14 rie to Iraqi Highway Patrol (IHP) police ocers during training in Iraq, 2006.
Receiver markings
Stamped into receiver heel:
U.S. Rie
7.62-MM M14
Springeld Armory (or commercial contractor
name)
Serial number
Stock
The M14 rie was rst furnished with a walnut stock, then
with birch and nally with a synthetic (berglass) stock,
which was adopted for use in damp jungle environments
in Vietnam, since the wood versions would often become
warped and swollen with moisture. The stock was also tted with a hinged shoulder rest for improved user comfort
when ring from a prone position.* [36] Original equipment walnut and birch stocks carry the Department of
Defense acceptance stamp or cartouche (an arc of three
stars above a spread-winged eagle). These stocks also carried a proof stamp, a P within a circle, applied after successful test-ring.
Ries manufactured through late 1960 were provided
with walnut handguards. Thereafter synthetic, slotted
Accessories
Although M14 rie production ended in 1964, the limited
standard status of the weapon resulted in the continued
manufacture of accessories and spare parts into the late
1960s and beyond.
M6 bayonet with M8A1 sheath
M2 Bandoleer (Has 6 pockets, each containing 2
5-round Mauser-type clips for a total of 60 rounds,
and a pouch for a magazine ller. The sling was adjustable and was held in place with a matte-black
steel safety pin). Standard Operating Procedure was
for the operator to use up the ammunition in the
bandoleers before using the loaded magazines in the
ammo pouches. The pockets' stitching could be
ripped out to allow the bandoleer to carry 6 preloaded 20-round magazines.
Sling [The service rie used a one-piece cotton or
nylon webbing sling and the competition and sniping
variants use the standard M1907 two-piece leather
sling]
Cleaning kit (contained in the stock's butt-trap) included: a combination tool, ratchet chamber brush,
plastic lubricant case, brass bore brush, four cleaning rod sections, cleaning rod case, and a cleaning
rod patch-holding tip.
M5 winter trigger and winter safety
246
M12 blank ring attachment and M3 breech shield
M14E1 The M14E1 was tested with a variety of folding stocks to provide better maneuverability and the like
Mauser-style Cartridge clip (holds ve cartridges)
for armored infantry, paratroopers and others. No variant
Magazine ller (orspoon) for charging detached was standardized.
magazines externally. (The M14 has a groove over
the action that allows the operator to place a loaded
clip and top o the attached magazine internally M14E2/M14A1 Selective re version of the standard
through the open action).
M14 used as a squad automatic weapon. Successor to
the short-lived M15 rie. The developmental model was
M1956 Universal Small Arms Ammunition Pouch,
known as the M14E2. First designated as M14E2 when it
First Pattern (could hold 2 20-round M14 magawas issued in 1963 and redesignated as M14A1 in 1966.
zines horizontally).
It had a full pistol-gripped in-line stock to control recoil,
M1956 Universal Small Arms Ammunition Pouch, a plastic upper forend to save weight, a muzzle brake, the
Second Pattern (could hold 3 20-round M14 mag- BAR rie sling, an M2 bipod, and a folding metal vertical
azines vertically).
foregrip mounted under the forend of the stock. Although
M1961 ammunition magazine pouch. (Could carry an improvement over the M14 when in full-auto, it was
1 20-round M14 magazine. The bottom of the still hard to control.
pouch contained eyelets for attaching a First Aid

Pouch or 3-cell (6 pocket) Grenade Carrier that
M14M (Modied)/M14NM (National Match) The
could tie down around the thigh.)
M14M is a semi-automatic only version of the stan M1967 ammunition magazine pouch. (Could carry dard M14 that was developed for use in civilian rie
2 20-round M14 magazine.)
marksmanship activities such as the Civilian Marksmanship Program. M14M ries were converted from ex M2 bipod
isting M14 ries by welding the select-re mechanism
M76 grenade launcher bracket
to prevent full-automatic ring. The M14NM (National
Match) is an M14M rie built to National Match accuracy
M15 grenade launcher sight
standards.
Mk 87 Mod 0/1 line (rope) throwing kit
The M14M and M14NM ries are described in a (nowobsolete) Army regulation, AR 920-25, Ries, M14M
and M14NM, For Civilian Marksmanship Use,dated 8
Types of sights
February 1965. Paragraph 2, among other things, stated
that the Director of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax Divi Rear peep, front blade, metric
sion, Internal Revenue Service, Department of the Trea Rear National Match peep with hood, front National sury (predecessor to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
Match blade, metric
Firearms, and Explosives) had ruled that M14M and
M14NM ries so modied would not be subject to the
1934 National Firearms Act (NFA) and, as such, could
1.8.3 Variants and related designs
be sold or issued to civilians. However, with the passage
of the Gun Control Act of 1968, the NFA was amended to
Military
prohibit sales of previously modied automatic weapons
such as the M14M and M14NM to civilians.
M15 The M15 was a modied M14 developed as a replacement for the .30-06 M1918 Browning Automatic
Rie for use as a squad automatic weapon. It added a
heavier barrel and stock, a hinged buttplate, a selector M14 SMUD Stand-o Munition Disruption, used by
switch for fully automatic re, and a bipod. The sling Explosive Ordnance Disposal personnel to destroy unexwas from the BAR. Like the M14, it was chambered for ploded ordnance. Essentially an M14 National Match rie with scope.
7.6251mm NATO.
Firing tests showed that the M14, when equipped with the
selector switch, hinged buttplate and bipod, performed as
well as the M15. As a result, the M15 was dropped and
the modied M14 became the squad automatic weapon.
Accuracy and control problems with this variant led to the
addition of a pistol grip, a folding rubber covered metal
foregrip and a muzzle stabilizer. The nal design was designated as the M14A1.
Mk 14 EBR
Rie
Main article: Mk 14 Enhanced Battle
The Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rie is a more tactical version of the M14, with a shorter 18-inch barrel, a retractable stock and multiple rails for more accessories.
1.8. M14 RIFLE
247
the standard M14. These are the more standard sniper
rie variants of the M14.
Commercial production
A soldier using a M14 EBR-RI equipped with a Sage M14ALCS

chassis stock provides security in Iraq, 2006.
M14 Tactical Modied M14 using the same stock as

the Mk 14 but with a 22 inch barrel and a Smith Enterprise muzzle brake, used by the U.S. Coast Guard.
M14 Designated Marksman Rie Main article:
United States Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rie
Designated marksman version of the M14, used by the
U.S. Marine Corps. Replaced by the M39 Enhanced
Marksman Rie.
M39 Enhanced Marksman Rie Main article: M39
Enhanced Marksman Rie
A U.S. Border Patrol Agent with M14 during a law enforcement
Modied M14 DMR tted with the same stock as Mk memorial service
14, used by the U.S. Marine Corps. Being replaced by
the M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System.* [37]
Armscorp M14 From 1987 to 1994, Armscorp of
America or Armscorp USA produced investment-cast
semi-auto M14 receivers. During the rst year of producThe M89SR is an M14 in bullpup conguration rst in- tion, Armscorp receivers were supplied by Smith Mantroduced by Sardius in the 1980s. Later produced by ufacturing of Holland, Ohio, which were heat treated
Technical Equipment International (TEI) for the Israel and nish machined by Armscorp. From 1988 to 1994,
a few receivers with an 'S' serial number prex were
Defense Forces
made of stainless steel. From approximately 1994 until
2008, Armscorps receiver castings were supplied by the
Lamothermic Corporation of Brewster, New York.
AWC G2A Sniper Rie Main article: AWC G2
M89SR Model 89 Sniper Rie Main article: M89SR
AWC G2A Sniper Rie is a modied M14 with bullpup

stock designed by Lynn McWilliams and Gale McMillian CAR 14 A product of Troy Industries the CAR 14
in the late 1990s. Produced and delivered for testing at (Carbine Assault Rie 14) is a smaller and lighter tactical version of the M14. Its barrel is 12.5 inches long and
the Fort Bragg sniper school.
it weighs 7.9 pounds. The rie has select re ability, a
threaded ash suppressor for a silencer, a tactical rail on
M21, M25 sniper ries The M21 and M25 are accur- top for sights and other attachments, and the operating
ized sniper rie versions, built to closer tolerances than rod cover.
248
Federal Ordnance From 1984 to 1991, Federal Ordnance of South El Monte, California sold a semi-auto
version of the M14 rie.* [38] Initially named the M14
or M14A, the rie utilized an aftermarket semi-auto receiver tted with surplus USGI M14 parts.* [38] All receivers were machined from castings of AISI 8620 alloy steel. Except for the rst fty receivers, the castings
were supplied by Electro Crisol Metal, S.A. of Santander,
Spain, then imported to the US for heat treatment, nish machining, and exterior phosphate treatment. M14
and M14A receivers were heat-treated using the carburizing process by a rm in Santa Ana, California, followed
by nish machining on a CNC machine at Federal Ordnance in South El Monte.* [38] Federal Ordnance M14
and M14A receivers were heat-treated and carburized
according to USGI M14 requirements.* [38] Each completed production rie was proof red, then tested for
functioning by ring three rounds.* [38] USGI parts and
bolts were used extensively in Federal Ordnance ries
through at least serial number 88XX.* [38] In 1989, Federal Ordnance renamed the rie the M14SA and M14CSA.
Ries in the 93XX serial range and higher have modied
receivers designed to accept Chinese-made bolts, barrels,
and other parts owing to a shortage of original USGI
components.* [38] Approximately 51,000 complete Federal Ordnance M14 ries and 60,000 or more receivers
were manufactured before production was halted in late
1991.* [38]
La France Specialties M14K The M14K is a commercial version of the M14 designed and built by Timothy
F. LaFrance of La France Specialties of San Diego, California, most using forged receivers produced by Smith
Enterprise of Tempe, Arizona. This rie has a custommade short barrel with a custom-made ash suppressor,
shortened operating rod, and employs a unique gas tube
system. Fully automatic versions have a removable ash
suppressor. Semi-automatic versions (of which very few
were made) have a silver-brazed ash hider to comply
with the requirement that Title I rearms have a 16barrel. Most M14Ks employ the M60 gas tube system. Some
late-model M14Ks employ a custom-designed and manufactured gas system. Both are intended to control the rate
of re in fully automatic mode. The rear sight is a custommade National Match type aperture, and the front sight
is a custom-made narrow blade, wing-protected sight to
take advantage of the additional accuracy aorded by the
special barrel.
The stocks and handguards on M14Ks are shortened versions of the GI birch or walnut stock, but make use of
the original front ferrule. The front sling mount is relocated slightly to rear, to accommodate the shortened
stock. Most handguards are of the solid, berglass variety (albeit shortened), but a limited number were made
with shortened wood handguards. The steel buttplate was
deleted in favor of a rubber recoil pad, which greatly
reduces perceived recoil. A limited number of M14Ks
were manufactured with the BM-59 Alpine / Para folding stock. These too had the shortened stocks and handguards, making for an extremely compact package especially suited to vehicular and airborne operations. A couple of M14Ks were built for SEAL Team members using
the tubular folding stock assembly on a cut-down M14E2
stock found on some of the Team's full-size M14s prior
to adoption of the Sage International EBR stock for M14
applications. These are by far one of the rarest variants
of the M14K.
Norinco The Chinese rm Norinco manufactures two
versions of the M14 rie known as the M14S or
M305.* [39] These ries have been banned from importation (1989 for all Polytech ries) and (1994 for Norinco
ries) to the U.S., due to a Clinton era prohibition on Chinese made weapons, but are commonly sold in Canada
which has no such restrictions.
Polytech Industries Polytech Industries of China
made an unlicensed version of the M14 rie known as the
M14S. Polytechs, unlike Norinco ries, were all banned
in the 1989 rearm importation ban by the President
George HW Bush administration.* [40]
Smith Enterprise, Inc Smith Enterprise Inc. was originally founded as Western Ordnance in 1979 by Richard
Smith in Mesa, Arizona and the company made numerous types of ries, but specialized in the M1 Garand
and M14 platforms.* [41] In 1993, Western Ordnance reformed as Smith Enterprise and has built and rebuilt numerous M14 ries for the US Military and the militaries
of Colombia, Canada and other nations.* [42]* [43]
The U.S. Department of Defense has contracted Smith
Enterprise to build and modify M14 ries for use by soldiers, Marines and sailors in Iraq and Afghanistan.* [44]
Smith Enterprise played a major part in the M14 rie modernization projects for various US military units
which resulted in the development of the U.S. Navy Mark
14 Enhanced Battle Rie.* [42]* [45]* [46] The company's
history included originally making forged receivers for
M14 ries and briey switching to investment casting.* [41] Smith stopped making receivers for a few years,
but reentered the market with receivers machined from
bar stock in 2002.* [42]
In 2003 Smith Enterprise Inc. created its version of the
M14 Enhanced Battle Rie known as the MK14 Mod 0,
type SEI. The rie used a medium heavy weight 18.0
barrel and was used as a basis to create the US Navy's
Mark 14 Mod 0 with Springeld Armory, Inc. being
tasked to supply the necessary machinery in cooperation with the Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division.* [42] SEI builds an improved M14 gas cylinder
as a component of their specialized ries and a part for
the military to upgrade older ries. The gas cylinder is
1.8. M14 RIFLE
249
assigned the NATO Stock Number: NSN 1005-00-7908766.* [47]
Costa Rica* [54]
Dominican Republic* [54]
Springeld Armory Springeld Armory, Inc. of

Geneseo, IL, produces a semi-automatic-only version of
the M14 rie. The standard rie is known as the M1A.
The company produces several variations of the basic rie with dierent stocks, barrel weights, barrel lengths,
and other optional features. The Springeld M1A and its
model variants have been widely distributed in the U.S.
civilian market and have seen use by various law enforcement agencies in the U.S. Springeld Armory, Inc. also
produce the SOCOM series and the Scout Squad Rie,
based on the short-barreled version of the M14. The SOCOM 16 comes with provisions to mount a red dot sight
and the SOCOM II adds railed handguards to the package. Springeld Armory's M21 tactical is a civilian version of the M21 Sniper Weapon System currently in use
by the U.S. military.* [48]
Ecuador* [54]
El Salvador* [54]
Eritrea* [54]
1.8.4
Users
Ethiopia* [54]
Greece: Hellenic Navy.
Afghanistan: Used by members of the Afghan

National Army presidential guard for ceremonial
duties.* [49]* [50]
Argentina: Used by Argentine soldiers of C

Company, Regimento (Especial) de Infanteria 25 in
the Falklands War at the Battle of Goose Green and
San Carlos.* [16]
Australia: small quantities of XM21 sniper

variants were issued by the Australian Army
in the Vietnam War. M14 EBRs were also
elded by Australian special operations forces in
Afghanistan.* [51]* [52]* [53]
Haiti: Used by Haitian security forces in the

2004 Haitian coup d'tat.* [16]
Honduras* [54]
Israel: Used as sniper rie with eventual conversion and production as M89SR.* [16]* [57]
Laos
Lithuania: Lithuanian Armed Forces.* [58]
Morocco
Niger* [54]
Philippines* [54]
Poland: Polish Navy.
San Marino: Used by the Fortress Guard

Corps.* [59]
South Korea: Unknown number provided by

the U.S. in 1960s under military assistance program.* [60] And nowadays most of the M14s were
scrapped and small numbers are used for ceremonial duties.* [61]
Taiwan: Made under license as the Type

57.* [16]
A soldier with an M14 equipped with a Sage M14ALCS chassis

stock.
Estonia: Adopted by Estonian military as

marksman's rie, modied by E-Arsenal called the
Tpsuspss M14-TP (Precision Rie M14-PR), with
heavy barrel, bipod, synthetic stock, and optical 4X
sight.* [55]* [56]
Tunisia* [54]
United States: Uses the M14SE, manufactured
by Smith Enterprise Inc., in SDM roles* [62] and has
purchased M14s from other manufacturers. Also
uses M14s custom built or modied in military armories, such as the M39 Enhanced Marksman Rie. The M14 is issued to crew members on Military
Sealift Command vessels.* [63] The rie is also used
by the U.S. Border Patrol and by the Park Rangers
of U.S. National Park Service.* [64]
Colombia* [54]
Ukraine: seen recently in Ukrainian Army.
South Vietnam
Venezuela* [65]
250
1.8.5
See also
List of battle ries

Springeld Armory M1A
Table of handgun and rie cartridges
1.8.6
References
[1] Scott A. Du; John M. Miller (C.W.O.) (1996). The M14

owner's guide and match conditioning instructions. S.A.
Du Publications. pp. 2021. ISBN 978-1-888722-079. Retrieved 27 September 2011.
[2] R. Blake Stevens (June 1991). Us Rie M14: From John
Garand to the M21. Collector Grade Publications. p.
245. ISBN 978-0-88935-110-3. Retrieved 27 September 2011.
[3] Miller, David (2001). The Illustrated Directory of 20th
Century Guns. Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 1-84065245-4.
[4] Picatinny: Products. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
[5] Headquarters, Department of the Army. TM 9-1005223-10, Operator's Manual for Rie, 7.62-mm, M14,
W/E (1005-589-1271); Rie, 7.62-MM, M14A1, W/E
(1005-072-5011); Bipod, Rie, M2 (100571 16202)
w/ Change 2. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Department of the Army, 1973
[6] FM 23-8, 1969
[7] Lewis, Jack (2007). A short-lived replacement. Gun
Digest Book of Assault Weapons (7 ed.). Iola, Wisconsin:
Gun Digest Books. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-4402-2652-6.
[8] Rayle, Roy E., Random Shots: Episodes In The Life Of
A Weapons Developer, Bennington, VT: Merriam Press,
ISBN 978-1-4357-5021-0 (2008), pp. 1722, 9595
[9] M14 rie / Mk.14 Mod.0 Enhanced Battle rie (USA)
world.guns.ru
[10] Stevens, R. Blake, The FAL Rie, Collector Grade Publications, ISBN 0-88935-168-6, ISBN 978-0-88935-168-4
(1993)
[11]Washington Trends: National AairsNewsweek, Vol.
42, 20 July 1953, p. 20
[12] The T48 Automatic Rie: The American FAL, Crufer.com, retrieved 24 April 2012
[13] Hatcher, Julian S. (Maj. Gen.), Hatcher's Notebook, Harrisburg, PA: The Stackpole Company (1962), p. 496.
[14] Emerson, Lee, M-14 Rie History & Development, (Text
Only Edition), (2009), pp. 11, 29, 37, 60-72
[15] Weapons of the Vietnam War. 173rdairborne.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
[16] Emerson, Lee. M14 Rie History. imageseek.com, 10
October 2006.
[17] M14 rie / Mk.14 Mod.0 Enchanced [sic] Battle rie

(USA) world.guns.ru
[18] Kevin Dockery (4 December 2007). Future Weapons.
Penguin. pp. 45. ISBN 978-0-425-21750-4. Retrieved
27 September 2011.
[19] An Analysis of the Infantry's Need for an Assault Submachine Gun, page 9
[20] Gordon Rottman (2011). The M16. Osprey Publishing.
p. 6. ISBN 978-1-84908-690-5.
[21] Rose, p. 387
[22] Ibp Usa; USA Int'l Business Publications (1 May 2007).
Philippines Army Weapon Systems Handbook. Int'l Business Publications. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4330-6198-1. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
[23] Tong, David.US Rie, cal. 7.62mm, M14. Retrieved
13 December 2013.
[24] CF-162.appn.part1 (PDF). Retrieved 2008-09-08.
[25] study. U.S. Army, 2009.
[26] http://www.americanrifleman.org/articles/
US-sniper-war-in-afghanistan/
[27] AF Honor Guard Training Guide (5.2.1)". U.S. Air
Force.
[28] Ordnance Notes by Stoner SEAL/MST Weapons Vietnam. Warboats.org. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
[29] United States. Bureau of Naval Personnel (1965). Naval
Airborne Ordnance. Norfolk, VA: US Navy. p. 220.
[30] James H. Willbanks (2011). America's Heroes: Medal of
Honor Recipients from the Civil War to Afghanistan. ABCCLIO. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-59884-393-4.
[31] Chris Bishop (15 August 1996). The M14 Battle Rie
. The vital guide to combat guns and infantry weapons.
Airlife. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-85310-539-5.
[32] M14 Type Ries. Retrieved on September 24, 2008.
[33] Polytech M14 Rie. Retrieved on September 24, 2008.
[34] Norinco M14S. Archived from the original on 200709-28. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
[35] Norinco M305. Archived from the original on 200709-28. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
[36] http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/docrepository/fm23_8_1965.
pdf M14 Departement of the Army Field Manual
[37] Lamothe, Dan (March 17, 2011). Corps elding new
semi-automatic sniper rie. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
[38] Emerson, Lee, M14 Rie History and Development, Fifth
Edition, Vols. 2, 4 (2011)
[39] Walker, Robert E. (26 November 2012). Cartridges and
Firearm Identication. CRC Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-14665-0206-2. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
1.8. M14 RIFLE
251
[40] Shideler, Dan (14 April 2010). The Ocial Gun Digest
Book of Guns & Prices 2010: Ries, Pistols & Shotguns.
Iola, Wisconsin: Gun Digest Books. p. 710. ISBN 9781-4402-1454-7. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
[41] Thompson, Jim (2001). The Classic M1 Garand: An Ongoing Legacy For Shooters And Collectors. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. p. 16. ISBN 9781581602609.
[42] Cutshaw, Charles Q (2006). New-era M14 alleviates
reliability issues. Jane's International Defense Review:
IDR (Jane's Information Group) 39: 87. ISSN 0020-6512.
[43] Poyer (2006), p. 21
[44] Poyer, Joe (2006). The M14-Type Ries: A Shooter's
and Collector's Guide, 3rd Edition. Tustin, California:
North Cape Publications Inc. pp. 3738. ISBN 9781882391424.
[45] Peterson, Phillip (30 November 2010). Gun Digest
Buyer's Guide to Tactical Ries. Iola, Wisconsin: Gun Digest Books. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-4402-1793-7. Retrieved
2 April 2013.
[46] Peterson, Phillip (28 February 2011). Gun Digest Buyer's
Guide to Assault Weapons. Iola Wisconsin: F&W Media.
p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4402-2672-4. Retrieved 2 April
2013.
[47] NSN 1005-00-790-8766. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
[48] Springeld Armory. Springeld Armory. Retrieved on
2011-09-27.
[49] Photo in The Guardian. Retrieved on 21 February 2015.
[50] Photo in The Blaze. Retrieved on 21 February 2015.
[51] http://img829.imageshack.us/img829/5735/
benjaminrobertssmithsas.jpg
[52] SAGE M14 EBR, M1A, Mk14, MOD 0, MOD 1, MOD
2, M39 EMR, M4, SOCOM II, TACOM-RI, M14ALCS,
PMRI, EBR,: Mk14 Mod 0 / Australian SASR soldier
Receives VC. Sageebr.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
[53] Illegal parameters. 111.125.172.46. Retrieved on 201109-27.
[54] Jones, Richard (2009). Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009
2010. Jane's Information Group. pp. 893901. ISBN
0-7106-2869-2.
[55] Eesti Kaitsevgi Tehnika Tpsuspss M14-TP. Mil.ee.
[60] M14 rie / Mk.14 Mod.0 Enchanced Battle rie (USA)".

World Guns.
[61]
. Retrieved on September 24, 2008.

(Korean)
[62] M14SE Crazy Horse and MK14 SEI Ries: Smith Enterprise, Inc. Smithenterprise.com. Retrieved on 2011-0927.
[63] Capt. Kelly Sweeney (OctoberNovember 2008).
Mariners need to be able to defend themselves against
pirates. Professional Mariner. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
[64] Goodwin, Liz (2012-02-28). Fighting drugs and border
violence at Arizonas Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument: What about the rangers M14 rie, Yogi?". The
Ticket/Yahoo News. Retrieved 17:35, Tuesday February 28, 2012 (UTC). Check date values in: |accessdate=
(help)
[65] Gander, Terry J.; Hogg, Ian V. Jane's Infantry Weapons
1995/1996. Jane's Information Group; 21 edition (May
1995). ISBN 978-0-7106-1241-0.

Du, Scott A., John M. Miller, and contributing
editor David C. Clark. The M14 Owner's Guide
and Match Conditioning Instructions. Export, Penn.:
Scott A. Du Publications, 1996. ISBN 1-88872207-X.
Murphy, Edward F. The Hill Fights: The First Battle
of Khe Sanh. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 2003.
ISBN 0-89141-747-8.
Pisor, Robert L. The End of the Line: The Siege of
Khe Sanh. New York: W.W. Norton & Company,
Inc., 2002. ISBN 0-393-32269-6.
Rose, Alexander. American Rie: A Biography.
New York: Bantam Dell Publishing, 2008. ISBN
978-0-553-80517-8.
Stevens, R. Blake. U.S. Rie M14: From John
Garand to the M21. Toronto: Collector Grade Publications, Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-88935-110-4.
[56] World Infantry Weapons: Estonia.

Worldinventory.googlepages.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
How the M14 7.62 Rie Operates - US Army Training Film on YouTube
[57] Modern Firearms' TEI M89SR Page.

September 24, 2008.
Retrieved on
Field Manual No. 23-8 U.S. Rie, 7.62mm, M14

and M14E2 (1965)
[58] (Lithuanian) Lietuvos kariuomen :: Ginkluot ir karin

technika Automatiniai autuvai Automatinis autuvas
M-14. Kariuomene.kam.lt (2009-04-17). Retrieved on
2011-09-27.
Guide to National Match Accurizing as Performed

by U.S. Army Shooting Team Gunsmiths
[59] San Marino Changing of the Guards. VirtualTourist.>
The M14/M1A Magazine FAQ
Modern Firearms Site
252
Dierent's M1A Site

U.S. Rie, cal. 7.62mm, M14
7.62 NATO Battle Ries
M14 Rie Pictures
Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide (FILM) M14
Squad automatic weapon(.wmv)
M14 at the Internet Movie Firearms Database
close range or near friendly troops), an under-barrel system has the advantage of allowing its user to also carry a
rie, and to easily switch between the two.
A new grenade launcher, the M320, will eventually replace the M203 in the United States Army. The United
States Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard, and Navy
will continue to use the older M203.* [4] The M320 features an advanced day/night sight, a double action ring mechanism (as opposed to the M203's single action)
as well as other benets, such as an unobstructed sideloading breech.* [5]
1.9.2 Uses
1.9 M203 grenade launcher

This article is about the under-barrel grenade launcher.
For the highway in Michigan, see M-203 (Michigan
highway).
The M203 is a single shot 40 mm under-barrel grenade
launcher designed to attach to a rie. It uses the
same rounds as the older stand-alone M79 break-action
grenade launcher, which utilizes the High-Low Propulsion System to keep recoil forces low. Though versatile,
and compatible with many rie models, the M203 was
originally designed for the U.S. M16 and its variant, the
M4 Carbine. The launcher can also be mounted onto a
C7, a Canadian version of the M16 rie, however, this
requires the prior removal of the bottom handguard.
The M203 grenade launcher is intended to be used as

close re support against point and area targets. The
round is designed to be eective at breaking through windows and exploding inside, blowing up doors, producing
multiple casualties, destroying bunkers or emplacements,
and damaging or disabling soft-skinned vehicles. In the
Vietnam war, U.S. Navy and Coast Guard personnel on
boats would lob M203 grenades into the water (using the
M79 grenade launcher), to preemptively attack Viet Cong
swimmers (sappers) attempting to plant explosives on
anchored or moored U.S. water craft.
Its primary purpose is to engage enemies in dead space

that cannot be reached by direct re. A well-trained
M203 gunner can use his weapon to suppress the enemy,
based on movement and sight. In addition, the M203 can
be used as a crowd control weapon when equipped with
Stand-alone variants of the M203 exist,* [3] as do versions the M651 Tactical CS (tear gas) grenade. Classied as
designed specically for many other ries. The device at- an anti-personnel weapon, the M203 is not intended to
taches under the barrel, the launcher trigger being in the be used against armored or heavy vehicles.
rear of the launcher, just forward of the rie magazine.
The rie magazine functions as a hand grip when ring
the M203. A separate sighting system is added to ries 1.9.3 Rounds
tted with the M203, as the rie's standard sights are not
matched to the launcher. The version tted to the Canadian C7 has a sight attached to the side of the launcher,
either on the left or right depending on the user's needs.
1.9.1
History
The M203 was the only part of the army's Special Purpose Individual Weapon (SPIW) project to go into production. The M203 has been in service since 1969 * [1]
and was introduced to U.S. military forces during the
early 1970s, replacing the older M79 grenade launcher
and the conceptually similar Colt XM148 design. However, while the M79 was a stand-alone weapon (and usually the primary weapon of troops who carried it), the
M203 was designed as an under-barrel device attached to
an existing rie. Because the size and weight of 40 mm
ammunition limits the quantities that can be carried on
patrol, and because a grenade is often not an appropriate
weapon for a given engagement (i.e. when the target is at
An M16A2 rie equipped with an M203 grenade launcher lies in

the grass near some of the types of 40 mm ammunition available
for use with the M203. The cartridges are, from left to right,
multiple projectile, practice, green star are, white star are, red
star are and high explosive dual purpose.
The M203 is able to re a variety of dierent rounds
1.9. M203 GRENADE LAUNCHER

for many purposes. According to the U.S. ARMY FIELD
MANUAL FM 3-22.31 40-MM GRENADE LAUNCHER,
M203,* [6] there are 8 dierent rounds for the M203:
253
8. (M576)* [12] Buckshot Round. This round is olive
drab with black markings. Though it is a multipurpose round, it is most eective in thick vegetated
areas or for room clearing. Inside, it has 20 metal
pellets, each weighing 24 grains, with a muzzle velocity of 269 meters per second. The round has no
mechanical-type fuse.* [13]
1. (M433) High-Explosive. Dual Purpose Round. The

HEDP round has an olive drab aluminum skirt with a
steel cup attached, white markings, and a gold ogive
(head of the round). It penetrates at least 5 cm (2
inches) when red straight at steel armor at 150 meters or less, or, at a point target, it arms between 14 1.9.4 Components
and 27 meters, causes casualties within a 130-meter
The M203 Grenade launcher system comes with a variety
radius, and has a kill radius of 5 meters.* [7]
of components, usually including the launcher, adaptors
2. (M406) High-Explosive Round. The HE round has for attachment to assault ries, and leaf sights (which can
an olive drab aluminum skirt with a steel projectile be used with the rie's front sight post). M203s can also
attached, gold markings, and a yellow ogive. It arms come with quadrant sights, mounting to a MIL-STD 1913
between 14 and 27 meters, produces a ground burst Rail, or to the carrying handle of an M16 rie.
that causes casualties within a 130-meter radius, and
has a kill radius of 5 meters.* [8]
1.9.5 Variants
3. (M583A1) Star Parachute Round. This round is

white impact or bar alloy aluminum, with black
markings. It is used for illumination and signals and
is lighter and more accurate than comparable handheld signal rounds. The parachute attached to the
round deploys upon ejection to lower the candle at 7
feet per second. The candle burns for about 40 seconds. A raised letter on the top of the round denotes
M16A2 with an M203
the color of the parachute.* [8]
4. (M585) White Star Cluster Round. This round is
white impact or bar aluminum alloy, with black
markings. The attached plastic ogive has ve raised
dots for night identication. The round is used for
illumination or signals. It is lighter and more accurate than comparable handheld signal rounds. The
individual stars burn for about 7 seconds during free
fall.* [9]
M4A1 with an M203A2
5. (M713) Ground Marker Round. This round is light

green impact aluminum with black markings. It is
used for aerial identication and for marking the location of soldiers on the ground. It arms between 15
and 45 meters. If a fuse fails to function on impact,
the output mixture provided in the front end of the
delay casing backs up the impact feature. The color
of the ogive indicates the color of the smoke.* [9]
There are numerous variants of the M203 manufactured

in the U.S., and throughout the world, for various applications. These vary chiey in the length of the barrel,
attachment type, and quick detach (QD) capability.
The standard M203 is intended for permanent attachment

to the M16A1, M16A2 and M16A3 ries, and utilizes a
12 inch ried barrel. The M203 unmodied to an A1/A2
6. (M781) Practice Round. Used for practice, this series will not t on the M4 Carbine series.
round is blue zinc or aluminum, with white mark- The U.S. M203A1 has a barrel of 12 inches, while the
ings. It produces a yellow or orange signature on SOPMOD M203A1 has a 9 inch barrel. The M203A1
impact, arms between 14 and 27 meters, and has a is intended for use with the M4 and M4A1 Carbine, and
danger radius of 20 meters.* [10]
uses a special bracket mount consisting of three screws
7. (M651) CS Round. This round is gray aluminum
with a green casing and black markings. Though it
is a multipurpose round, it is most eective for riot
control and in Urban Operations. It arms between
10 and 30 meters and produces a white cloud of CS
gas on impact.* [11]
and lacing wire. Only M203A2's consist of a Quick Release Bracket.

The Canadian M203A1 by Diemaco (now Colt Canada)
is a similar design with a dierent mounting system that
does not require mounting points of the same prole
as the M16A1 rie's.* [14] The weapon's 9 inch barrel
254
slides further forward than the standard American models, which allows longer rounds to be loaded.* [14] This
model is identiable by the increased distance between
the grenade launcher's barrel axis and the rie's.* [14]
This weapon may no longer be in production, but is still
in use.
The M203A2 is intended for use with the M4 Series/M16A4 and now also authorized on the M16A2 Rie as the MWS (Modular Weapon System). Using standard 12 inch barrels, the grenade launcher is intended for
use in concert with the Knight's Armament Company M5
RAS. The M5 MWS Rail System became authorized in
December 2008 for the M16A2 Rie. An advantage of
this system is the use of range-nding optics to make precise targeting easier.
The M203PI system is used for attachment of the M203
to other ries, including, but not limited to, the Steyr
AUG, Heckler & Koch G3 and other ries, and even the
MP5 sub-machine gun. Most of these other companies
have since devised 40mm grenade launchers custom integrated with the weapon.
The M203 DAX has a double-action trigger and longer
breech opening to accommodate less-lethal rounds.
The M203 and M203A1 are currently manufactured
by AIRTRONIC USA, Inc. of Elk Grove Village,
Illinois for the U.S. Department of Defense under contract numbers W52H09-06-D-0200 and W52H09-06-D- Female Israeli soldier with an IMI Tavor tted with the M203
grenade launcher
0225. Each contract is for up to 12,000 units. Each unit
is shipped with hand guard, leaf sight and quadrant range
sight. The contracts unit prices vary from $840 to $1,050
each. The production rate is 1,500 units per month. The
M203PI is manufactured for both the U.S. Department
of Defense and for commercial sales to law enforcement
agencies both in the United States and abroad, and for
foreign military sales by RM-Equipment Inc. of Miami,
Florida.
The Turkish MKEK made T-40 grenade launcher is
based on the M203.* [15]
1.9.6
Users
Argentina
Albania Albanian Land Force 3 April 2015
Afghanistan* [16]
An Australian F88 Austeyr rie with a short barreled M203

grenade launcher.
Canada: Canadian Forces: M203A1 variant

produced by Colt Canada (formerly Diemaco prior
to 2005).* [18]* [19]
Czech Republic: Bushmaster M203 used with

the Bushmaster M4A3 carbine issued to Czech special forces.* [20]
Australia:
M203PI variant for F88
Austeyr,* [17] and M203A1 for M4A1 carbines.
Austria: M203PI variant.* [17]
Brazil* [17]
Brunei* [17]
Denmark* [21]
Cameroon* [17]
East Timor
255
Pakistan: Used by the Pakistan Army.* [25]
Panama* [17]
South Korean Daewoo K2 rie w/ K201.
Philippines* [17] Also created by the Floro

International Corporation as the FIC M203 in
2008.* [26]* [27]
Qatar* [17]
Saudi Arabia
Singapore* [17]
South Korea: A locally-manufactured clone,

designated K201, is deployed on the K2 assault rie.* [17]
Ecuador* [17]
Egypt* [22]
El Salvador* [17]
Sri Lanka* [17]
France* [23]
Sweden* [17]
Gabon* [17]
Thailand* [17]
Greece* [17]
Turkey* [17]
Guatemala [17]
Honduras* [17]
United Arab Emirates* [17]
India* [17]
United Kingdom: Special Air Service
United States* [17]
Indonesia: Locally produced by PT Pindad as

SPG-1.* [17]
Iraq
1.9.7 Civilian ownership in the United

States
Ireland; Irish Army specialist units, including
the Army Ranger Wing (ARW).* [17]* [24]
Israel* [17]
Italy* [17]
Jordan* [17]
Kuwait* [17]
Lebanon* [17]
Liberia* [17]
Malaysia* [17]
Myanmar* [17]
Mexico* [17]
Netherlands
New Zealand: M203PI variant.* [17]
Oman* [17]
In the United States, M203 grenade launcher attachments

tted with the standard ried 40mm barrel are classied
as Destructive Devicesunder the National Firearms
Act part 26 U.S.C. 5845, 27 CFR 479.11,* [28] because
they are a non-sportingrearm with a bore greater
than one-half inch in diameter. M203s are on the civilian
NFA market but are limited as most manufacturers have
quit selling to the civilian markets. New M203 Launchers sell for approximately $2,000 plus a $200 transfer
tax, and new manufacture 40mm training ammunition is
available for $5 to $10 per cartridge, as of March 2011.
High explosive 40mm grenades are available for $400 to
$500 per cartridge; however, they are exceedingly rare
on the civilian market, as each grenade constitutes a Destructive Device on its own, and must be registered with
the Federal government, requiring payment of a $200 tax
and compliance with storage regulations for high explosives. There are also sub-caliber adapters available for the
40mm M203 (and M79) grenade launchers, which will allow the use of standard 12 gauge shotgun shells* [29] and
.22 Rimre ammo.* [30]
256
Number
of
lands............................................................6
right hand twist
b. Ammunition.
Caliber............................................................................40
mm
Weight.............................................................................About
227 grams (8 ounces)
c. Operational Characteristics.
Action.............................................................................Single
shot
Sights:
Front..........................................................................Leaf
sight assembly
Rear...........................................................................Quadr
sight
Chamber
pressure.........................................................206,325
kilopascals (35,000 psi)
Muzzle
velocity..............................................................76
mps (250 fps)
Range qualication with an M203.
1.9.8
Data
The following technical data for the M203/M203A1

grenade launcher comes directly from the U.S. ARMY
FIELD MANUAL FM 3-22.31 40-MM GRENADE
LAUNCHER, M203.* [31]
a. Weapon.
Length:
Maximum range.............................................................About
400 meters (1,312 feet)
Maximum eective range:
Fire-team
sized
area
target................................350 meters
(1,148 feet)
Vehicle or weapon point target.........................150 meters (492
feet)
Minimum safe ring range (HE):
Training.....................................................................130
meters (426 feet)
Combat......................................................................31
meters (102 feet)
Rie and grenade launcher (overall)........................99.0 cm (39 inches)

Minimum
arming
Barrel only................................................................30.5
range.................................................About
cm (12 inches)
14 to 38 meters (46 to 125 feet)
Riing............................................................................25.4
Rate of re......................................................................5
cm (10 inches)
to 7 rounds per minute
Weight:
Minimum
combat
load...................................................36
HE rounds
Launcher,
unloaded.................................................1.4
kg (3.0 pounds)
Note: some data diers for versions that attach to the M4 Car Launcher,
loaded.....................................................1.6bine.
kg (3.5 pounds)
The 40 mm grenades used in the M203 (40 46 mm) are
Rie and grenade launcher, both fully not the same as those used by the Mk 19 grenade launcher
loaded......5.0 kg (11.0 pounds)
(40 53 mm), which are red at a higher velocity)
1.9.9
Gallery
257
1.9.11 References
Diagram of a High-Explosive Dual Purpose

grenade.
[1] Heckler&Koch. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
40mm Practice grenades
[3] Knight's Armament. Military. Knight's Armament.

Retrieved 5 November 2014.
Inside view of a spent casing for a 40mm grenade,

showing the internal pressure chamber for the highlow pressure system.
Navy sailor loading M203 with a high explosive
round
[2] M203 40mm Grenade Launcher.
[4] Army smart grenades can sense walls - Armytimes.com,

10 January 2015
[5]XM320 Grenade Launcher Module And XM26 Modular
Accessory Shotgun System - Army Magazine.
[6] John Pike.FM 3-22.31. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
Loading an M203 attached to an M16A1 with a

practice round.
A U.S. Marine takes aim with an M16A2 tted with
the M203 40 mm grenade launcher.
M4 carbine w/ M203A1 (9barrel), US Navy
Seabees in Afghanistan 2010.
1.9.10
See also
Grenadier
Rie grenade
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
United States 40 mm grenades
Other under-barrel grenade launchers
AG36 - widely used grenade launcher from Heckler
& Koch
M320 - US Army M203 successor and AG36 derived
army/fm/3-22-31/chap3.htm#3-2
U.S.
ARMY
LAUNCHER, M203...page 3-8
U.S.
ARMY
U.S.
ARMY
U.S.
ARMY
U.S.
ARMY
LAUNCHER, M203...page 3-11 & 3-12
[12] Fliiby : Digital Content Publishing and Monetization.
Fliiby. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
army/fm/3-22-31/chap3.htm#3-2 US Army Technical
Manual TM 43-0001-28 Ammunition Data Sheets page
6-33
FN40GL - FN Herstal Mk 13 Mod 0 developed for

[14] Diemaco M203A1. Retrieved on January 5, 2008.
FN SCAR and US SOCOM
[15] Weapon. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
MEI HELLHOUND - 40mm ammunition develop[16] Afghan National Security Forces Order of Battle
ment
(PDF). Long War Journal. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
GP-25 - 40mm under-barrel grenade launcher for

Kalashnikov series ries
Related
[17] Jones, Richard D. Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009/2010.

Jane's Information Group; 35 edition (January 27, 2009).
ISBN 978-0-7106-2869-5.
[18] http://www.army.gc.ca/lfwa/photos_tfa_Feb06.asp
KAC Masterkey - under-barrel shotgun
[19] http://www.army.gc.ca/land-terre/news-nouvelles/
story-reportage-eng.asp?id=517
M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System (MASS)

- under-barrel shotgun
[20] http://www.army.cz/assets/files/9334/zbrane_definit.
pdf
258
[21] http://forsvaret.dk/hok/documents/hok/040927-041122/
041101_hks_nlw_folder.pdf
[22] Modern Firearms. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
[23] Modern Firearms. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
being judged the most eective of a number of candidate weapons to address the lack of automatic repower
in small units. The M249 provides infantry squads with
the heavy volume of re of a machine gun combined with
accuracy and portability approaching that of a rie.
The M249 is gas operated and air-cooled. It has a quickchange barrel, allowing the gunner to rapidly replace an
overheated or jammed barrel. A folding bipod is attached
[25] M203.
near the front of the gun, though an M192 LGM tripod
is also available. It can be fed from both linked ammuni[26] Archive for Floro FIC M203 40 mm under-barrel
grenade-launcher (Philippines), Light support weapons. tion and STANAG magazines, like those used in the M16
Jane's Information Group. 2010-09-09. Retrieved 2010- and M4. This allows the SAW gunner to use rieman's
magazines as an emergency source of ammunition in the
09-09.
event that he runs out of linked rounds. However, this
[27] FIC M203 40 mm under-barrel grenade launcher, ocial will often cause malfunctions where the magazine spring
page on the manufacturer's website Retrieved on Septem- has diculty feeding rounds quickly enough to match the
ber 11, 2010
SAW's high cyclic rate.
[24] Army Weapons - M203 Grenade Launcher. Retrieved
5 November 2014.
[28] ATF NFA Handbook, Chapter 2.

[29] 12ga. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
[30] RANDY SHIVAK - PRODUCTS.
November 2014.
Retrieved 5
[31] John Pike. FM 3-22.31 Chapter 3. Retrieved 5

November 2014.
1.9.12
External links
M249s have seen action in every major conict involving

the United States since the U.S. invasion of Panama in
1989. Soldiers are generally satised with the weapon's
performance, though there have been reports of clogging
with dirt and sand. Due to the weight and age of the
weapon, the United States Marine Corps is elding the
M27 Infantry Automatic Rie with plans to partially replace the M249 in Marine Corps service.* [3]
The M249 is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a
Squad Assault Weapon.* [4]* [5]
Media related to M203 at Wikimedia Commons

U.S. Army Field Manual 3-22.31
1.10.1 Development
M433 40mm Cartridge High-explosive dual purpose (HEDP) round specs

Martin Electronics, Inc. Home Page - 40 mm Ammunition
Gun World - M203
The Infantry's Explosive Punch (Asian Military Review article)
BatesandDittus.com - Manufacturer of civilian version
1.10 M249 light machine gun
A U.S. Marine using a rst-generation M249 SAW from its bipod

during the Persian Gulf War in February 1991.
The M249 light machine gun (LMG), formerly designated the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW),
and formally written as Light Machine Gun, 5.56 mm,
M249, is the American adaptation of the Belgian FN
Minimi, a light machine gun manufactured by the Belgian
company FN Herstal (FN). The M249 is manufactured
in the United States by the local subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC in South Carolina and is widely used in
the U.S. Armed Forces (it's the US Army's default machine gun). The weapon was introduced in 1984 after
In 1965, the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps' primary

machine guns were the M2 Browning and M60. The M2
was a large-caliber heavy machine gun, usually mounted
on vehicles or in xed emplacements.* [6] The M60 was a
more mobile medium machine gun intended to be carried
with the troops to provide heavy automatic re.* [7] Both
were very heavy weapons and usually required a crew
of at least two to operate eciently.* [8] The Browning
automatic rie, the army's main individual machine gun
since its introduction in World War I, was phased out in
1.10. M249 LIGHT MACHINE GUN

1957 with the introduction of the M14 rie, which had a
fully automatic mode.* [9] Designated riemenin every squad were ordered to use their weapons on the fully
automatic setting, while other troops were required to use
their rie's semi-automatic mode on most occasions to increase accuracy and conserve ammunition.* [10] Because
the M14 and M16 ries had not been designed with sustained automatic re in mind, they often overheated or
jammed.* [10] The 20-round and 30-round magazines of
these weapons also limited their sustained automatic effectiveness when compared to belt-fed weapons.* [6]
The Army decided that an individual machine gun,
lighter than the M60, but with more repower than the
M16, would be advantageous; troops would no longer
have to rely on ries for automatic re.* [11] Through
the 1960s, the introduction of a machine gun into the
infantry squad was examined in various studies.* [12]
While there was a brief irtation with the concept of a
echette- or dart-ring Universal Machine Gun during
one study, most light machine gun experiments concentrated on the Stoner 63 light machine gun, a modular
weapon which could be easily modied for dierent purposes.* [13]* [14] The Stoner 63 LMG saw combat for a
brief period in Vietnam with the USMC, and later on a
wider scale with the U.S. Navy SEALs.* [14]
In 1968, the Army Small Arms Program developed plans
for a new 5.56 mm caliber LMG, though no funds were allocated (5.56 mm ammunition was viewed as underpowered by many in the armed forces). Studies of improved
5.56 mm ammunition, with better performance characteristics, began.* [15] The earliest reference to studies of
other caliber cartridges for the LMG did not appear until 1969.* [16] In July 1970, the U.S. Army nally approved development of an LMG, with no specied caliber. At this time, the nomenclature Squad Automatic
Weapon(SAW) was introduced.* [12] Actual design of
alternative cartridges for the LMG did not begin until July
1971. A month later, Frankford Arsenal decided upon
two cartridge designs for the new LMG: a 6 mm cartridge and a new 5.56 mm cartridge with a much larger
case.* [17] Neither design was nalized by March 1972,
when the Army published the specications document
for the planned SAW.* [18] The 6 mm cartridge design
was eventually approved in May that year.* [19] Prior to
July 1972, SAW development contracts were awarded to
Maremont, Philco Ford, and the Rodman Laboratory at
Rock Island Arsenal. These companies produced designs
with Army designations XM233, XM234 and XM235 respectivelyX denoting experimental. Designs were
required to have a weight of less than 9.07 kg (20 lb) including 200 rounds of ammunition, and a range of at least
800 meters (2,600 ft).* [20]* [21]
259
(FN) Minimi; and the HK 23A1. The initial round of
tests ended in December 1974.* [20] In February 1976,
the Minimi and Rodman XM235 SAW were selected for
further development. At this time, opinions of the 6 mm
cartridge were beginning to sour due to the logistical implications of providing yet another ammunition type to
the infantry.* [22] In June, it was requested that the SAW
specications document be revised to emphasize standard
5.56 mm ammunition. In October, the requested revisions were approved, and bids were solicited for the conversion of the Rodman XM235 to 5.56 mm. Production
of the converted XM235 was awarded to Ford Aerospace,
and its designation was changed to XM248.* [23] A new
M16 HBAR variant, the XM106, was developed in 1978,
and soon after, Heckler & Koch lobbied to include a
5.56 mm conversion of its HK 21A1 (instead of the standard 7.62 mm NATO ammunition it was built for) in future SAW testing. The latter model was designated the
XM262. At this time, the Minimi received the designation XM249.* [24] Testing of the four candidates resumed
in April 1979.* [25]
In May 1980, the FN XM249 was selected as the best
choice for future development on the grounds of performance and cost, while the HK XM262 reportedly came
a close second.* [25] In September, FN was awarded a
maturity phasecontract for further development of
the XM249,* [26] and testing of the new weapon began
in June 1981.* [27] The ocial adoption took place on
February 1, 1982.
The new gun entered U.S. Army service as the M249
squad automatic weapon in 1984, and was adopted by
the U.S. Marine Corps a year later. The U.S. production model has a dierent butt from that of the regular Minimi.* [28] It is manufactured in the FN factory in
Columbia, South Carolina.* [29]
Although found to be reliable and accurate, the M249 was

considered to present unacceptable hazards in the form of
an exposed hot barrel and sharp edges. There were also
complaints that the front sight required special adjustment tools. On August 23, 1985, then-U.S. Under Secretary of the Army James R. Ambrose suspended M249
production pending the development of the product improvement program (PIP) intended to x these problems.* [30] Congress deleted funds for the M249 from
the Fiscal Year 1986 defense budget, then retroactively
set aside the program's prior year's funds from the M249
program for other purposes, including retirement and pay
raises. Over 1,100 M249s already issued were to remain
in use, but be retrotted with the PIP kit when it became
available. Over 7,000 remaining M249s were to stay in
storage at depots until corrective changes could be made.
The PIP kit was eventually developed and implemented,
When the time came for developmental and operational and production of the M249 resumed.* [28] In 1994 the
testing of the SAW candidates, three 5.56 mm candidate M249 squad automatic weapon was re-designated the
weapons were included with the 6 mm candidates: the M249 light machine gun.* [31]
M16 HBAR, a heavy-barrel variant of the M16 designed
for prolonged ring; the Fabrique Nationale de Herstal
260
1.10.2
Design details
1.10.3 Operational history
A U.S. Marine ring an M249 from an M122A1 at a training

range in November 2003.
The M249 is a belt-fed light machine gun.* [11] It res

the 5.5645 mm NATO cartridge, usually a combination
of one M856 tracer and four M855 ball cartridges fed
from M27 linked belts. Belts are typically held in a hard The dierent rounds that can be successfully loaded into the
plastic or soft canvas box attached to the underside of the M249 SAW
weapon.* [11]
The M249 LMG entered service in 1984 as the M249
It res from an open bolt and is gas operated. When SAW. Initial reactions to the gun were mixed: it fulthe trigger is pulled, the bolt and bolt carrier move for- lled the light machine gun role well when red from
ward under the power of the recoil spring. A cartridge is the ground, but was not as eective when red from the
stripped from the belt, chambered, and discharged, send- shoulder or hip.* [34] It was praised for its extreme duraing a bullet down the bore. Expanding propellant gases bility and massive repower, though a number of areas for
are diverted through a hole in the barrel into a chamber. improvement were highlighted: the blank ring attachThis pressure moves a piston providing the energy to ex- ment tted poorly, the bipod was very weak and broke
tract and eject the spent casing as well as advance the easily, the sling attachment was awkward, and there were
belt and compress the recoil spring, thus preparing for many slots and gaps which accumulated dirt.* [35] Some
subsequent shots. At 1,041 mm (41 in) long and 7.5 kg claimed that the heavy-barrelled version of the M16 rie
(17 lb) in weight (10 kg (22 lb) including a 200-round was a more eective light machine gun.* [36]* [37]
belt and plastic ammo box), the M249 is a cumbersome
The M249 SAW was not used heavily before the 1991
weapon.* [29]
Gulf War, though it has been used in every major U.S.
The barrel has a riing twist rate of one turn in 180 mm conict since. American personnel in Somalia in 1993,
(7 in). Because ring heats up the bore, the air-cooled Bosnia in 1994, Kosovo in 1999, Afghanistan in 2001
barrel is equipped with a mechanism to remove and re- and Iraq since 2003 have been issued M249s. Surplace the barrel assembly with a spare.* [29] A folding bi- plus weapons were donated to Bolivia, Colombia and
pod with adjustable legs is attached near the front of the Tunisia.* [38]
weapon, though there are provisions for hard-mounting
to a M192 Lightweight Ground Mount tripod or vehicle Tactically, SAWs are either carried with a maneuvering
stamount. The M249 provides accuracy approaching that unit and red while handheld, or positioned to remain
*
[8]
The
tionary
and
provide
covering
re
for
other
units.
of a rie, combined with the sustained volume of re of
a machine gun. Its original gas regulator oered two dif- usual load of ammunition carried for the weapon is 1,000
ferent gas port sizes, allowing cyclic rates of re of 725 rounds in 5 200-round belts, although up to 500 extra
*
rounds per minute (r/min) or 1,000 r/min. The latter set- rounds generally get loaded into 100 round soft boxes. [2]
ting was intended for adverse conditions such as an excessively dirty rearm or cold weather. The two-position gas Persian Gulf War
regulator was discarded as part of a product improvement
program. Sustained rate of re, the rate of re at which 929 M249 SAWs were issued to personnel from the U.S.
the gunner can re continuously without overheating, is Army and USMC during the Persian Gulf War. Alapproximately 850 r/min.* [11]
though exposure to combat was scarce, M249 gunners
who were involved in ghting mainly used their weapons
to provide cover re for friendly maneuvering troops from
261
xed positions, rather than maneuvering with them.* [39]

There were many complaints about the weapons clogging
up with sand after prolonged use in the desert environment.* [40]
Afghanistan
The standard squad automatic weapon in Afghanistan is
the M249 with PIP kit, which serves alongside its heavier
counterpart, the M240 machine gun. Almost every eightman squad deployed is issued two M249s. Most M249s
were given a collapsible buttstock immediately prior to
the invasion to reduce length and make the weapons more
practical for parachuting and close-quarters combat.* [41]
Special Operations troops typically favor the shorter Para
version of the weapon, which weighs much less.* [2]
been called into question by reports of enemy soldiers still

ring after being hit multiple times.* [43] As in previous
conicts, the sandy environment causes the M249s and
other weapons to clog up and jam if they are not cleaned
very regularly.* [40]
Operation Iraqi Freedom PEO Soldier Lessons Learned, a
report on the performance of weapons in the Iraq War,
was published by Lieutenant Colonel Jim Smith of the
U.S. Army on May 15, 2003. Smith spoke positively of
the M249, claiming that it provided the requisite repower at the squad level as intended. He praised the
SPW variant, noting that its short barrel and forward
pistol grip allowed for very eective use of the SAW in
urban terrain. At the National Defense Industrial Association in 2007, LTC Al Kelly of the 1st Battalion, 17th
Infantry gave a presentation describing the M249 as havinggood range, excellent reliabilityand anexcellent
tracer. He said that a cloth pouch was preferred over
the plastic box for holding linked ammunition, and that
knock-down power is poor but is compensated by rate
of re.* [44]
A report entitled Lessons Learned in Afghanistan was

released by Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Dean and SFC
Sam Newland of the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Center in
2002. They found that 54% of SAW gunners had problems maintaining their weapons, and 30% reported the
gun rusted easily. Soldiers reported ammunition boxes
rattling and falling o. 80% percent of soldiers surveyed
were pleased with the weapon's accuracy and lethality, yet
only 64% claimed they werecondent in their weapon
. Weapons clogging up with sand in the desert seems to
be the main complaint.* [42]
Iraq War
A cloth pouch (in UCP camo) used for holding belts of linked
ammunition, this one being capable of holding up to 200 rounds.
The PIP and Para versions of the M249 have also been
used in the Iraq war since the invasion. By 2004, many
M249s had been in service for almost twenty years and
were becoming increasingly unreliable. Soldiers were requesting replacements and new features, and there are reports of soldiers holding their weapons together with duct
tape.* [40] The lethality of the 5.56 mm ammunition has
In December 2006, the Center for Naval Analyses released a report on U.S. small arms in combat. The CNA
conducted surveys on 2,608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past 12 months. Only
troops who red their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate. 341 troops were armed with M249
SAWs, making up 13 percent of the survey. 71 percent
of M249 users (242 troops) reported they were satised
with the weapon. 40 percent of users preferred feeding
the SAW with the soft 100-round pouch, while 21 percent
chose the soft and hard 200-round pouches each. 60 percent (205 troops) were satised with handling qualities
such as handguards, size, and weight. Of the 40 percent
dissatised, just under half were with its weight. M249
users had the lowest levels of satisfaction with weapon
maintainability at 70 percent (239 troops), most due to
diculty in removing and receiving small components
and poor corrosion resistance. The SAW had the highest levels of stoppages at 30 percent (102 troops), and 41
percent of those that experienced a stoppage said it had
a large impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and
re-engage their target. 65 percent (222 troops) did not
need their machine guns repaired while in theater. 65
percent (222 troops) were condent in the M249's reliability, dened as level of soldier condence their weapon
will re without malfunction, and 64 percent (218 troops)
were condent in its durability, dened as level of soldier
condence their weapon will not break or need repair.
Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their own maintenance. 60 percent of M249
users oered recommendations for improvements. 17
percent of requests were for making the weapon lighter,
and another 17 percent was for more durable belt links
and drums, as well as other modications such as a collapsible stock.* [45]
262
1.10.4
Variants
M249 PIP The product improvement program kit replaced the original steel tubular stock with a plastic stock based upon the shape of the heavier M240
machine gun. The change in stocks allowed for the
addition of a hydraulic buer system to reduce recoil.* [46] In addition, the dual gas port settings were
reduced to only one; variants with the product improvement kit can no longer re at a higher cyclic
speed. A handguard was added above the barrel to
prevent burns, and the formerly xed carrying handle was swapped for a folding unit. Certain parts
were beveled or chamfered to prevent cutting sol- In November 2009, a U.S. Army Ranger armed with a Mk 46
diers' hands and arms. Other changes involved the machine gun provides overwatch security on an objective during
a mission during the Iraq War.
bipod, pistol grip, ash suppressor, and sights.* [47]
Over the years, additional modications have been
introduced as part of the Soldier Enhancement Promounted in vehicles or use M16 magazines. Pigram and Rapid Fielding Initiative. These include
catinny rails were added to the feed cover and forean improved bipod, 100 and 200 round fabricsoft
arm for the mounting of optics, lasers, vertical forepackmagazines (to replace the original plastic amgrips, and other M4 SOPMOD kit accessories. The
munition boxes), and picatinny rails for the feed tray
SPW also has a detachable bipod. The SPW's
cover and forearm so that optics and other acceslightweight barrel is longer than that of the Para
sories may be added.* [41]* [48]
model, giving it a total length of 908 mm (36 in)
and a weight of 5.7 kg (13 lb).* [29]
A fully improvedU.S. Army-issue M249, circa July 2010.
Mk 46 Mod 0 This is a variant of the special purpose weapon adopted by USSOCOM. The program,
which led to both the Mk 46 and Mk 48, was
headed by the US Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWAR). Like the SPW, the carrying handle, magazine insertion well, and vehicle
mounting lugs have been removed to save weight.
However, the Mk 46 retains the standard M249
plastic buttstock instead of the collapsible buttstock
used on the SPW. The Picatinny rail forearm also
diers slightly from the SPW. The Mk 46 has the
option of using the lighter SPW barrel or a thicker,
uted barrel of the same length.* [49]
M249 Paratrooper The M249 Paratrooper, often

Mk 48
called Para, is a compact version of the
gun with a shorter barrel and sliding aluminum
buttstock, so-called because of its intended use by Main article: Mk 48 machine gun
airborne troops. It is much shorter and considerably
lighter than the regular M249 at 893 mm (35
This is a 7.6251 mm NATO version of the
in) long and 7.1 kg (16 lb) in weight.* [33] The
Mk 46, used by USSOCOM, when a heavier
Army's Rapid Fielding Initiative is in the process of
cartridge is required.* [49] It is ocially classireplacing the original collapsible buttstock with an
ed as an LWMG (Light Weight Machine Gun)
adjustable model based loosely on the design of the
and was developed as a replacement for the Mk
M4 carbine buttstock.
43 Mod 0/1. The M60 based machine guns
are a great deal more portable than the heavier
M249 Special Purpose Weapon This lightweight and
M240 based designs used elsewhere in the US
shorter version of the M249 is designed to meet
military in the infantry medium machine gun
USSOCOM special operations forces requirements.
role. However the M60 based designs have a
The carrying handle, magazine insertion well, and
long history of insucient reliability. Trials
vehicle mounting lug all have been removed to reconducted through the mid-1990s led the US
duce weight. As a result, the SPW cannot be
Army to replace its M60 with M240B GPMGs.

The M240B however, weighs in at 27.5 lb
and is about 49long with the standard barrel. NAVSPECWAR was reluctant to give up
the increased portability of the M60 (22.5 lb,
37.7OAL with the shortest Assault Barrel) designs in spite of the M240's increased
reliability. A request was put in for a new machine gun in 2001, and FN responded with a
scaled up version of the M249 weighing in at
18.5 lb with an OAL of 39.5. The new
design achieved much better reliability than the
M60-based weapons while bettering its light
weight and maintaining the same manual of
arms as the already in-use M249. USSOCOM
was slated to begin receiving deliveries of the
new gun in August 2003.* [50]
1.10.5
Future
An extensive maintenance program intended to extend

the service lives of M249s has been carried out to refurbish ries, especially units that suered from wear due
to heavy use. In particular the warping of the receiver
rails on the early-models was a defect that occurred in
heavily used rst-generation M249s. This defect however has been completely eliminated on later models and
is no longer present on the current-issue M249, which has
reinforced rails and full-length welding rather than spot
welding.
The U.S. Marine Corps tested the M27 Infantry Automatic Rie, a lighter, magazine-fed rie to supplement
and partially replace the M249. With plans to buy up
to 4,100 IARs to complement and partially replace its
10,000 M249s (of which 8,000 will remain in service)
held at platoon level,* [51] it has acquired 450 of the
Heckler & Koch HK416based weapons for testing.* [3]
The U.S. Army does not plan to introduce the IAR.
Colonel Robert Radclie of the U.S. Army Infantry Research and Development Center stated that an automatic
rie with a magazine would lower the eectiveness and
repower of a squad. While the Marine Corps has 13man squads, the Army organizes its soldiers into squads
of nine and needs considerably more repower from the
squad machine gunners to make up the dierence. The
U.S. Army does, however, want to replace aging M249s
with newer weapons.* [51] They are currently working
on replacing the M249's buttstock with a redesigned adjustable stock.* [52] The U.S. Army is also looking to replace the M249 with the LSAT light machine gun.
263
Daewoo Precision Industries K3
1.10.7 Notes
[1] Al-Balaa, Nadine; Nina Akel Khalil (15 January 2010),
( in Arabic), Lebanese
Armed Forces, retrieved 15 January 2010
[2] Military Analysis Network, M249 Light Machine Gun.
[3] Lamothe, Dan (July 2, 2010). Conway eyes additional
testing for auto-rie. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 2
July 2010.
[4] Boe, David (August 1, 1997). Mission Continues
(PDF). The Talon 3 (31) (Eagle Base, Tuzla, BosniaHerzegovina: 1st Infantry Division (Task Force Eagle)
Public Aairs Oce). p. 6. Retrieved November 27,
2013. Sitting atop the platoon leader's HMMWV, the 20year-old soldier mans a Squad Assault Weapon and monitors trac at the crossroads.
[5] Lewis, Jack (September 12, 2007). Ken Ramage, ed. The
Gun Digest Book of Assault Weapons (7th ed.). Iola, Wisconsin: Gun Digest Books. pp. 14, 74, 156, 245. ISBN
978-1-4402-2652-6. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
When it comes to machine guns, FNH USA is turning out
copies of the M249 Squad Assault Weapon (SAW) that
has been in the US military inventory for several decades.
[6] Willbanks 2004, p. 179
[7] Willbanks 2004, p. 131
[8] U.S. Army 1992, A-1 Rie platoon.
[9] Jones 2005
[10] U.S. Army 2003, 79 Automatic or burst re.
[11] Bonds and Miller 2002, p. 451.
[12] Ezell 1983, p. 91
[13] U.S. Army 1968, pp. 1822
[14] Ezell 1983, p. 89
[15] U.S. Army 1968, pp. 36, 4142
[16] U.S. Army Weapons Command Future Weapons Systems
Division 1969
[17] Woodin Laboratory 1980, p. 1
[18] Ezell 1983, pp. 92, 95
[19] Woodin Laboratory 1980, pp. 56
[20] Ezell 1983, p. 95
1.10.6
See also
[21] United States Army Center of Military History 1974, p.

176
FN Minimi
[22] Ezell 1983, pp. 9697, 100
IMI Negev
[23] Ezell 1983, p. 98
H&K MG4
[24] Ezell 1983, pp. 96, 102
264

240
[26] Ezell 1983, pp. 103104
243
43
[29] Crawford 2003, p. 17
[30] Ezell 1988, p. 415
[31] U.S. Army 1994, Preface.
1.10.8 References
Bonds, Ray; Miller, David (2002), The Illustrated
Directory of Modern American Weapons, Zenith Imprint, ISBN 0-7603-1346-6
Boutwell, Jerey; Klare, Michael T. (1999), Light
Weapons and Civil Conict: Controlling the Tools
of Violence, Rowman & Littleeld, ISBN 0-84769485-2
Bruning, John R (2006), The Devil's Sandbox: With
the 2nd Battalion, 162nd Infantry at War in Iraq,
Zenith Imprint, ISBN 0-7603-2394-1
Cargile, Cannon C (2001),M249 SAW?", Marine
Corps Times
[32] (Russian)
http://topwar.ru/
16311-sovetskiy-edinyy-pulemet-pkm-i-ego-novye-modifikacii.
Cordesman, Anthony H (2003), The Iraq War:
html
[33] Crawford 2003, p. 56
[34] Eby 2001
[35] Savage 2002
[36] Cargile 2001
[37] Grundy 2001
[38] Boutwell & Klare 1999, p. 70
[39] U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command 1993
[40] Bruning 2006, p. 61
[41] Jane's Information Group 1996
[42] Exum 2004, p. 170
Strategy, Tactics, and Military Lessons, Greenwood

Publishing Group, ISBN 0-275-98227-0
Cox, Matthew (September 15, 2008), So Long,
SAW?", Marine Corps Times, retrieved December
26, 2008
Crawford, Steve (2003), Twenty-rst Century Small
Arms: The World's Great Infantry Weapons, Zenith
Imprint, ISBN 0-7603-1503-5
Eby, JL (2001), M249 employment concepts,
Marine Corps Times
Exum, Andrew (2004), This Man's Army: A Soldier's Story from the Front Lines of the War on Terrorism, Gotham, ISBN 1-59240-063-9
Ezell, Edward C. (1983), Small Arms of the World
(12th ed.), Stackpole Books, ISBN 0-88029-601-1
[44] Smith 2003
Ezell, Edward C. (1988), Small Arms Today (2nd

ed.), Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, ISBN 08117-2280-5
[45] http://images.military.com/pix/defensetech/cna_m4_
study_d0015259_a2.pdf
Grundy, Ray (2001),The M249 light machinegun

in the automatic rie role, Marine Corps Times
[46] FNH USA website, M249 description.
Jane's Information Group (1994), PIP M249 machinegun completes acceptance, Jane's International Defence Review, retrieved April 4, 2009
[43] Cordesman 2003, p. 383

[49] Pushies 2004, p. 88
[50] Popenker, Maxim, Modern Firearms Mk 48 model 0
7.62 mm Lightweight Machinegun (USA), retrieved 200904-29
[51] Cox 2008
[52] Fort Benning Soldiers evaluate redesigned buttstock for
M-240B, M-249
Jane's Information Group (1996), Stiening infantry support, Jane's International Defence Review, retrieved February 10, 2009
Jane's Information Group (1998), United States
M249 Upgrades, Jane's International Defence
Review
Jones, Colonel Charles A. (December 12, 2005),
Phased out in 1960s, M14 was 'very reliable', Army
Times
1.11. M27 INFANTRY AUTOMATIC RIFLE
265
Pushies, Fred J (2004), Weapons of the Navy Seals, 1.10.9 External links
Zenith Imprint, ISBN 0-7603-1790-9
Manufacturer's Website
Savage, David (2002),The M249 squad automatic
U.S. Army M249 Fact File
weapon, Small Arms in the Marine Corps, retrieved
December 7, 2008
FAS Military Analysis NetworkM249 SAW
Willbanks, James H. (2004), Machine Guns: An
Illustrated History of Their Impact, ABC-CLIO,
ISBN 1-85109-480-6
Woodin Laboratory (JanuaryFebruary 1980),
Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW) Cartridge
Development at Frankford Arsenal (19711972)",
The International Cartridge Collector (289290):
17
Modern FirearmsFN Minimi/M249

Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide (FILM) FN
M249 SAW Presentation (mpeg)
1.11 M27 Infantry Automatic Rie
The M27 Infantry Automatic Rie (IAR) is a

lightweight, magazine-fed 5.56mm weapon used by the
Government publications
United States Marine Corps. It is intended to enhance
an automatic rieman's maneuverability, and it is based
U.S. Army (2003), FM 322.9: Rie Marksman- on the Heckler & Koch 416. The U.S. Marine Corps is
ship, Army Field Manual
planning to purchase 6,500 M27s to replace a portion of
the M249 light machine guns currently employed by au U.S. Army (1992), FM 78: Infantry Rie Platoon
tomatic riemen within Infantry and Light Armored Reand Squad, Army Field Manual
connaissance Battalions. Approximately 8,00010,000
M249s
will remain in service at the company level
U.S. Army (1994), FM 23-14: M249 light machine
to
be
used
at the discretion of company commanders.
gun in the automatic rie role, Army Field Manual
The United States Army does not plan to purchase the
U.S. Army (1968), Report of the M16 Rie Review IAR.* [2]* [3]* [4]
Panel. Volume 11, Appendix 10. The Army Small
Arms Program (PDF), OCLC 227968366
1.11.1 History
U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical

Command (1993), Legacy in the Sand: The U.S. Background
Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm In 1985, the U.S. Marine Corps adopted the M249 Squad
(PDF), ISBN 0-7881-0475-6
Automatic Weapon, one year after the U.S. Army. Procurement was a service-level decision because the weapon
United States Army Center of Military History
was adopted by the Army with a contract method the
(1974), Department of the Army Historical SumMarines could use. While the belt-fed M249 was portable
mary: Fiscal Year 1972, OCLC 22718661
and had a high volume of re, it was heavy for its role.
United States Army Center of Military History Gunners could not keep pace with riemen and the cum(1983), Department of the Army Historical Sum- bersome light machine gun was not suited for Military
Operations on Urban Terrain.* [5]
mary: Fiscal Year 1980
(1988), Department of the Army Historical Sum- IAR
mary: Fiscal Year 1981, OCLC 22718868
In 1999, a universal need statement was issued for an In United States Army Center of Military History fantry Automatic Rie (IAR). Around 2000, the 1st Ma(1995), Department of the Army Historical Sum- rine Divisions 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines Regiment
conducted initial limited IAR trials which showed the demary: Fiscal Year 1986, OCLC 46408620
sire for a light automatic rie. Experiences in Iraq and
Smith, Jim (2003), Operation Iraqi Freedom PEO Afghanistan continued requests for formal recommendaSoldier Lessons Learned, U.S. Army Natick Soldier tions. The universal need statement spent six years going
Center
through the procurement process when it was given ofstatus in early 2005 and capabilities were
U.S. Army Weapons Command Future Weapons cial program
*
[5]
drawn
up.
Systems Division (1969), A Methodology for Choosing the Best Caliber for a Light Infantry Machinegun, The Infantry Automatic Rie program began on 14 July
OCLC 227554622
2005, when the Marine Corps sought information from
266
manufacturers. Objectives sought by the weapon included: portability and maneuverability, reduction of visual identication of an automatic weapon to the enemy, strengthening the gunner's participation in counterinsurgency situations, and maintaining a high volume of
re. An initial requirement for a 100-round capacity
magazine at minimum was dropped in favor of the 30round STANAG magazine because at the start of testing,
available 100-round magazines were unreliable. It had to
be 5.5645mm caliber with non-linked ammunition so as
to achieve commonality with service ries.* [6]* [5]
ply the IAR during a reght. Also, the SAW had been
battle-proven and the Army was not pursuing the IAR
concept.* [5]
In December 2009, the Heckler & Koch model beat out

the other three nalists, and entered the nal ve months
of testing.* [10]* [11] It was designated as the M27 in the
summer of 2010,* [12] coincidentally sharing a designation with the M27 link it would not use, but instead it
was named after 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines, who were
testing with automatic ries since before September 11,
2001.* [13]
expected to carry all 22 magazines, they are provided to

the units so that a determination can be made at the unit
level on what the individual combat load should look like.
It will undoubtedly vary by unit, based on the evaluations
conducted by the four infantry battalion and one light armored reconnaissance battalion that were issued quantities of the M27 for the LUE. Though program ocials are
aware that switching from the belt-fed M249 will result
in a loss of suppressive re capabilities, Charles Clark III,
of the Marine Corps' Combat Development and Integration oce cites the substantially increased accuracy of the
M27 as a signicant factor in replacing the M249.* [17]
After the Marine Corps Operational Test and Evaluation Activity supervised a round of testing at MCAGCC
Twentynine Palms, Fort McCoy, and Camp Shelby (for
dust, cold-weather, and hot-weather conditions, respectively), limited elding began for 458 IARs to four infantry battalions (one per each Marine Expeditionary
Force and one reserve) and one light armored reconnaissance battalion; all of which deployed to Afghanistan in
In 2006, contracts were issued for sample weapons to 2011.* [15]* [16]
Fabrique Nationale d'Herstal (providing an IAR variant In May 2011, General James Amos of the U.S. Marine
of the FN SCAR), Heckler & Koch (with a variant of the Corps approved the termination of a Limited User EvalHK416), and Colt Defense, which provided two compet- uation (LUE), and the replacement of the M249 LMG by
ing designs. Companies that attempted to compete but the M27. Fielding of the approximately 6,500 M27 units
were not accepted as nalists for testing include Land is expected to be completed in the summer of 2013, for a
Warfare Resources Corporation, which competed with cost of $13 million. M27 gunners will be equipped with
the M6A4 IAR,* [7]* [8] Patriot Ordnance Factory,* [3] around 22 of the 30-round magazines already in use with
and General Dynamics Armament and Technical Prod- the M16 and M4 Carbine. Twenty-two magazines will
ucts with the CIS Ultimax 100 MK5 (marketed as the approximate the prescribed individual combat load of a
GDATP IAR).* [9]
M249 SAW gunner, and although the M27 gunner is not
Suppressive re
An M27 IAR displayed at the NDIA Joint Armaments Conference

in May 2010.
While Marine Corps Systems Command was optimistic

about operational testing, former Commandant of the
Marine Corps General James T. Conway remained skeptical that the reduced repower at the reteam-level was
a viable option.* [14] He felt that while less accurate, the
M249 was a belt-fed LMG, which an automatic rie was
unlikely to provide re superiority over. A magazine-fed
rie would have to reload more often and not be able to
sustain ring. Squad members that carry additional magazines for the gunner may be in a position unable to sup-
A U.S. Marine practices ring an M27 IAR on fully automatic

re in April 2012.
The notion that the M27 represents a reduction in suppressive re has spawned considerable debate among proponents of the M249 SAW within the infantry, and those
who advocate that a lighter, more maneuverable, and ac-
1.11. M27 INFANTRY AUTOMATIC RIFLE
267
curate weapon is sucient to support oensive operations at the squad level. It is debatable, in fact, that program ocials actually concede a loss of suppressive re
capabilities, as the only statements of concern over this
concept were made by General Conway.
accuracy to be a huge improvement over the SAW, despite the loss of sustained ring. With a shrinking budget, the Marine Corps is looking at ways to implement
the IAR as a multipurpose weapon. Suggestions include
use as an automatic rie and as a designated marksman
*
Beyond the increased accuracy another proposed bene- rie. [19] Additionally, the free-oated barrel oers im2 MOA compared with
t of the M27 over the M249 are that it is in many re- proved accuracy at approximately
*
[20]
4.5MOA
for
M16A4
ries.
spects a modied M4 rie as used by the rest of the squad.
This makes it far more suitable for operating indoors and
in other cramped situations where its reduced size and 1.11.3 Design
weight make it faster and easier to handle. Although not
ideal for close quarters ghting, it is far better in this function than the M249.
With a SAW, the doctrine of re suppression was the
sound of continuous re with rounds landing close to the
enemy. While the M249's volume of re may be greater,
it is less accurate. Experienced troops who have dealt
with incoming re are less likely to take cover from incoming rounds if they are not close enough. With an
IAR, the doctrine is less volume of re is needed with
better accuracy. Fewer rounds need to be used and automatic riemen can remain in combat longer and in more
situations.* [5]
1.11.2
Combat reviews
A U.S. Marine armed with an M27 tted with a Harris bipod and
a 3.5x SAW Day Optic covers his team in Afghanistan in March
2012.
1st Battalion 3rd Marines were deployed to Afghanistan

in April 2011 with 84 IARs. Former SAW gunners initially did not like the M27, but appreciated it as time went
on. It weighed 9 lb loaded, compared to 22 lb for an
M249, which was a signicant dierence when on 5-hour
long missions. Gunners said it wastwo weapons in one,
being able to re single shots accurately out to 800 meters
and have full automatic re. It also blended in with standard M16-style service ries, so the enemy did not know
who was a machine gunner. The battalion leadership also
saw the M27 as better at preventing collateral damage,
as it is more controllable on automatic than the M249.
Concern of volume of re loss was made up for through
training courses developed in December 2010. With the
M249 SAW, the idea of suppression was volume of re
and the sound of the machine gun. With the M27 IAR,
the idea of suppression shifts to engaging with precision
re, as it has rie accuracy at long range and automatic
re at short range. Shooters transitioned from long-range
precision re at 700 meters to short-to-medium suppressive re at 200 meters, both while in the prone position.
Some gunners in combat have been used as designated
marksmen. An M27 gunner with one aimed shot has the
eect of three or four automatic shots from the SAW, and
still has the option of a heavier volume with an accurate
grouping.* [18]
The M27 is based on the Heckler & Koch HK416, which

in turn derives from the M4 carbine and Heckler & Koch
G36.* [21] It features a gas-operated short-stroke piston
action with a rotating bolt. The free-oating barrel is surrounded by MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rails for use with
accessories and optics. The simpler gas-piston rie system reduces the amount of time it takes to resolve malfunctions on the IAR compared with the M249.* [13] The
M27 is so similar to the standard M16A4 that its bolt carrier can t into one and chamber a round. Conversely, an
M16 bolt carrier cannot t into an M27.* [1] Alternate
calibers other than 5.56 mm are being considered for the
M27.* [5]
Marines issued with the M27 enjoy its familiarity with

the M4-style weapons in service. It is friendlier to troops
due to its cleaner, lightweight system having fewer moving parts and jams. IAR gunners consider the rie-grade
The M27 draws ammunition from a standard 30 round

STANAG magazine. Due to its role, high capacity magazines of between 50 and 100 rounds are being explored.* [13] The M27 has been successfully test red
Use
The IAR will be distributed one per four-man reteam,
three per squad, 28 per company, 84 per infantry
battalion, and 72 per Light Armored Reconnaissance
Battalion,* [22] with 4,476 total for the Marine Corps.
Nine M249s will still be available per company in reserve.* [13]* [18]
Magazine
268
with the Armatac SAW-MAG 150 round drum maga- 1.11.6 References
zine.* [23] The improved STANAG magazine with the
tan-colored anti-tilt follower is favored over the previous [1] M27 First Impressions - Therearmblog.com, 20 April
2013
version with the green follower because it can be inserted
more easily and the anti-tilt follower can handle high rates
[2] Lamothe, Dan (February 4, 2009).Marines to test, evalof automatic re with less chance of malfunction. While
uate 4 auto-rie models. Marine Corps Times. Rea rieman normally carries seven 30-round magazines, an
trieved 2 July 2010.
IAR gunner has to carry up to 16, and may carry as many
as 21, due to its role and automatic rate of re. The mag- [3] Cox, Matthew (September 15, 2008). So long, SAW?".
Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
azine well has a ared opening that aids in magazine insertion, but a PMAG 30 GEN M2 magazine cannot be inserted due to the frontal plastic bevel on the PMAG.* [1] [4] Corps to Replace SAW With Automatic Rie.
Military.com. 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
Because the M27 cannot be fed from the widely used M2
PMAG magazines that M4s or M16 ries in the squad [5] From BAR to IAR How the Marines Finally Got Their
could take, the Marines banned the polymer PMAG for
Infantry Automatic Rie - SAdefensejournal.com, 20
issue on November 26, 2012 to prevent interchangeabilNovember 2012
ity issues.* [24] In response, Magpul began the process of
arranging verication and ocial testing for their newer [6] 10Non-developmental, 5.56mm, Infantry Automatic
Rie (IAR)". FedBizOpp. July 14, 2005. Retrieved 20
PMAG 30 GEN M3 magazine, which is compatible with
*
August
2010.
both the M27 and M16-series ries. [25]
[7] M6A4. LWRC. 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
Accessories
The M27 is essentially an HK416 with accessories required by the Marine Corps.* [26] The standard optic is
the Trijicon ACOG Squad Day Optic (SDO), ocially
designated the Sight Unit, SU-258/PVQ Squad Day Optic. It is a 3.535 machine gun optic that has a Ruggedized Miniature Reex (RMR) sight screwed on top for
close-quarters engagements under 100 meters. Created
for the SAW, the day optic oers slightly less magnication, but longer eye relief than the ACOG Rie Combat Optic (RCO) on M16s and M4s. The longer relief
helps reduce injury risk from recoil.* [1]* [18] It is issued
with the Vickers Combat Applications sling and rail sling
mounts, AIM Manta Rail Covers, Harris bipod, KAC
backup iron sights, a foregrip, and bayonet lug.* [27] The
M27 initially had a Grip Pod, which is a foregrip with
bipod legs inside, but it was later replaced by a separate
foregrip and bipod.* [5]
1.11.4
See also
Colt Automatic Rie

Steyr AUG HBAR
Individual Carbine
RPK
L86 LSW
QBB-95
M1918 BAR
1.11.5
Notes
[1] Based on American AR-15 platform
[8] Richard Machowicz (15 November 2007). Opening

Round. Future Weapons. Season 3. Discovery Channel.
Retrieved 3 February 2011.
[9] Crane, David (October 21, 2008). GDATP IAR (Infantry Automatic Rie)/Ultimax 100 MK5 LMG/SAW
(Photos!)". Defense Review. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
[10] Lamothe, Dan (December 4, 2009).H&K is frontrunner
in IAR competition. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved
16 December 2009.
[11] Lamothe, Dan (December 3, 2009). Corps chooses
H&K to make SAW replacement. Marine Corps Times.
[12] Lamothe, Dan (July 2, 2010). Conway eyes additional
testing for auto-rie. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 2
July 2010.
[13] Marines swap repower for accuracy with IAR Marinecorpstimes.com, June 29, 2011
[14] Lamothe, Dan (April 19, 2010). Corps may eld infantry auto-rie this fall. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
[15] Lamothe, Dan (August 9, 2010). SAW replacement set
for real world testing. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved
10 August 2010.
[16] Infantry Automatic Rie: Update on a Marine Corps
Priority Weapon System. MCOTEA Journal. United
States Marine Corps. August 2009. p. 9. Retrieved 27
October 2010.
[17] Corps to Replace SAW With Automatic Rie.
Military.com. 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
[18] IAR wins over skeptical Marine infantrymen MarineCorpstimes.com, 19 July 2011
1.12. M320 GRENADE LAUNCHER MODULE
[19] M249 Light Machine Gun: Endangered species for

Marines in Afghanistan - Dvidshub.net, November 12,
2012
[20] Sanborn, James K. (February 16, 2015). Deadlier ries and ammo may be on the way. Marine Corps
Times. Gannett Company. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
A free oating barrel could improve the M16A4 from a
4.5 minute-of-impact rie to a 2 MOI rie, putting it on
par with the M27 Infantry Automatic Rie, which uses a
free oating barrel, said Chief Warrant Ocer 5 Vince
Pope, the Marine gunner who directs the Marksmanship
Doctrine and Programs Management Section at Quantico.
[21] Crane, David (December 4, 2009). U.S. Marine
Corps Selects Heckler & Koch Infantry Automatic Rie (HK IAR) Candidate as Replacement for FN M249
SAW/LMG. defensereview.com. Retrieved 20 August
2010.
[22] M27 IAR - Marinesmagazine.mil, May 16, 2012
269
1.12 M320 Grenade

Module
Launcher
M320 Grenade Launcher Module (GLM) is the U.S.

military's designation for a new single-shot 40 mm
grenade launcher system to replace the M203* [1]* [2] for
the U.S. Army, while other services will keep using the
older M203. The M320 uses the same High-Low Propulsion System as the M203.
In 2004, the U.S. Army announced a requirement for a
commercial o-the-shelf 40 mm grenade launcher. It had
to be more reliable, ergonomic, accurate, and safer than
the M203. It had to be able to re all 40 mm low-velocity
grenades, but be loaded from the breech to accept future
longer projectiles. Heckler & Koch's submission was selected in May 2005.* [3]
After the U.S. Army at Picatinny Arsenal conducted a

competitive bidding process for a new 40 mm grenade
launching system, Heckler & Koch was awarded a con[24] Marine Corps bans popular rie magazines - Marinecorp- tract to provide the XM320 beginning in 2006. The
stimes.com, November 26, 2012
M320 was developed from but is not identical to the
Heckler & Koch AG36 (a key distinguishing feature be[25] Magpul speaks out on the Marine Corps polymer maga- ing the addition of a folding foregrip ahead of the trigger
zine ban - Militarytimes Gearscout.com, November 30, for use when the weapon is in stand-alone conguration,
2012
a feature the AG36 lacks).* [4] The M320 entered production in November 2008.
[23] Armatac SAW-MAG for USMCs HK M27 IAR - Defensereview.com, June 8, 2010
[26] Breakdown: M27 IAR vs. HK416 - Militarytimes.com/

Gearscout, October 24, 2011
The unit was ocially elded in July 2009 at Fort Bragg

by the 1st Brigade Combat Team, 82nd Airborne Divi[27] The U.S. Marine CorpsNew M27 IAR - SAdefensejour- sion.* [5]
nal.com, September 10, 2012
1.12.1 Overview

from websites or documents of the United States
The M320 has three major parts: a grenade launcher with
Marine Corps.
ried barrel, Day/Night Sight (DNS) produced by Insight
Technology, Inc and a hand held Laser Range Finder
Curtis, Rob (December 2, 2009). H&K wins
(LRF). Some of the benets are:
Marine Corps IAR contract with HK416 variant.
Military Times. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
The M320 can be used in two ways. It can be attached to the M16 assault rie and the M4 carbine,
United States Navy press release regarding Contract
and even the Hungarian modernized AK-63MF at#3928
taching under the barrel forward of the magazine, or
it can be used dismounted with a stock attached as
M27 Infantry Automatic Rie. the Firearms
a stand alone model.
Blog. Retrieved 20 August 2010. |rst1= missing
|last1= in Authors list (help)
The Day/Night Sight allows the grenadier to eectively engage the enemy in the dark.
Popenker, Maxim (2010).Heckler-Koch HK M27
IAR Infantry Automatic Rie (USA / Germany)".
The M320 is based on the earlier Heckler & Koch AG-C,
World Guns. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
but with some Army-specic modications. It includes
Custis, Jon, Major USMC (2011). The Infantry a folding foregrip and shorter barrel for a more comAutomatic Rie: Closing the last 5 yards. Marine pact package. The sights had to be recongured to shoot
Corps Gazette Volume 95 Number 6. Retrieved 18 accurately with the slightly dierent ballistics from the
June 2011.
shorter barrel length. The system is lighter than the M203
270
The M320 with electronic targeting system mounted on the M4

carbine.
A U.S. Army soldier training with an M320 mounted on an M4

carbine
and does not require specic mounting hardware. Breech

loading allows the grenadier to load a shell while keeping commercial vendors produced 167 holsters each. The
the sight on target.* [3]
SEP used the buy-try-decideconcept, which allows
The sights on the M320 are located to the side of the the Army to test the functionality of equipment withlauncher. This avoids the problems that the M203 had out spending much time on research and development.
with its sight design. The M203's sights were mounted Soldiers from the 75th Ranger Regiment were given a
on top of the launcher and could interfere with the rie's dozen holsters and went through standardized tests in
sights and they had to be attached separately. This meant mid-May 2013, after which they lled out surveys. The
two separate operations had to be performed when adding next step was to test them with an entire brigade. As of
the grenade launcher to the weapon, and since the sights July 2013, the holsters were being evaluated by soldiers
were not integral to the M203, they had to be re-zeroed in Afghanistan. Project ocials were to make a recomevery time the launcher was reattached to the rie. The mendation to Fort Benning by the beginning of scal year
*
LRF helps eliminate range estimation errors common in 2014. [6]
shots greater than 100 meters, thus increasing rst round The U.S. Army ARDEC began development of a 40 mm
hit probability.
airburst fuse in 2011 to improve the ability of grenade
The M320 can re all NATO high-explosive, smoke, and launchers like the M320 to engage targets in delade.
illumination grenades. Its breech opens to the side, allow- Called Small Arms Grenade Munitions (SAGM), they
ing it to re a variety of newer rounds which are longer, double the lethality of the standard M433 grenade round
in particular certain non-lethal rounds, such as Federal by adding a smallsmartfuse sensor that detonates in the
Laboratories' exact impact(brand name) non-lethal air to hit targets in cover or behind obstacles. The airburst
function is similar to the XM25 CDTE, which has an onsponge batons or sponge grenades.
board laser system to determine the distance to the target,
The M320 operates in double action mode, with an am- but SAGM is considered complementary to the XM25
bidextrous safety. In case of misre, the M320 operator rather than competing against it, as the XM25 provides
merely has to pull the trigger again. The M203 used a direct re while the M320 res indirectly. Engineers insingle action mode, which cocks the weapon as the bar- tegrated sensors and logic devices to scan and lter the enrel is opened. The M203 operator has to open the barrel vironment and then autonomously airburst the fuse withby unlocking it and pushing forward to cock the weapon out needing to be told to by the rer, thereby not requiring
and then re-close the barrel, then pull the trigger again. the soldier to carry extra weapon accessories. SAGM enThe problem with this is that in opening the barrel, the ables soldiers to accurately incapacitate personnel targets
grenade is designed to eject and the operator must ensure in delade at ranges between 50 to 500 meters. The round
that it does not fall to the ground.
is engineered with three ring modes: airburst, point detThe M320 has the ability to re detached from a rie. onation, and self-destruct. A successful demonstration
Soldiers have reported diculties carrying it unmounted, occurred in November 2013.* [7] Although the SAGM
as its one-point sling does not hold it securely. Carry- sensor does not need a laser rangender or any pre-re
ing by the sling would cause it to bounce around and programming sequence, it does require some skill by the
sometimes be dragged through dirt. Soldiers wanted to user to aim and re the round correctly so that it can decarry the M320 in a holster to provide protection, rather tect the wall or obstruction to detonate in the air. The
than just putting it in their rucksack. The Natick Sol- SAGM is to undergo evaluation in July 2015 and, if sucdier Systems Center began the M320GL Holster Soldier cessful, it will transition into an ocial Army program of
Enhancement Program (SEP) in November 2012. Three record by the end of the year.* [8]
1.13. M4 CARBINE
271
The weapon's introduction is not without criticism. The [9] http://kitup.military.com/2010/05/

soldiers-perspective-the-m320-grenade-launcher.html
pistol grip tends to catch on things and the trigger
tends to make the weapon shake in the hands of oper[10] http://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2008/12/05/
ators.* [9] One downside of the weapon includes its in40mm-m320-grenade-launcher-will-be-replace-m203-next-year/
creased overall weight; new features, such as sights and
laser rangenders, increase the weapon's weight to 5 lbs.
Fuller, BG Peter N.; COL Douglas A. Tamilio (18
One soldier in Afghanistan reported "In Afghanistan we
May 2010). Project Manager Soldier Weapons
leave the 320s behind, worthless, too heavy/bulky and unBrieng for NDIA (PDF). PEO Soldier. United
reliable. Bring back the M203". Another critique of the
States Army. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
weapon is cost. At $3,500 per unit, the M320 is three
times the price of its M203 predecessor.* [10] Given this,
This article incorporates public domain
the United States Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard,
material from websites or documents of the
and Navy will continue to use the older M203 and new
United States Army.
ones continue to remain in production. One of the reasons for the expense dierence is competitive. Only
Heckler & Koch manufacture the M320. Multiple man- 1.12.4 External links
ufacturers including Colt, Lewis Machine & Tool and
Airtronic produce the M203.
XM320 40 mm Grenade Launcher Module (GLM)
Fact sheet
1.12.2
See also
KAC Masterkey
M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System
AG36 / AG-C / EGLM / XM320 grenade launcher

page on Modern Firearms site
M320 on GlobalSecurity.org
XM320 page on HK USA site
Rie grenade
Under-slung Grenade Launcher
1.13 M4 carbine
Related Lists:
M4A1and Colt M4redirect here. For other uses,

List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed see M4 (disambiguation).
Forces
List of crew served weapons of the US Armed The M4 carbine is a family of rearms that was derived
Forces
from earlier carbine versions of the M16 rie, which was
in turn derived from the original AR-15 rie that Eugene
United States 40 mm grenades
Stoner designed and ArmaLite manufactured. The M4 is
a shorter and lighter variant of the M16A2 assault rie. It
is a gas-operated, magazine-fed, selective re, shoulder1.12.3 References
red weapon with a telescoping stock and 14.5 in (370
[1]XM320 Grenade Launcher Module And XM26 Modular mm) barrel to ease close quarters combat. Like the rest
Accessory Shotgun System. Army Magazine.
of the M16 family, it res the .223 caliber, or 5.56 mm
NATO round.
[2] Product Manager Individual Weapons
The M4 has selective re options including semiautomatic and three-round burst (like the M16A2 and
M16A4), while the M4A1 has the capability to re fully
[4] AG36 / AG-C / EGLM / XM320 grenade launcher. automatic instead of three-round burst (like the M16A1
and M16A3). They are also capable of mounting the
Modern Firearms.
M203 grenade launcher. The distinctive step in their bar[5] MacLeod, Spc. Michael J. Bragg GIs 1st to Field rel is for mounting the M203 with the standard hardware.
[3] History of the Heckler & Koch 40mm Grenade Launcher
- SAdefensejournal.com, 24 August 2011
Grenade Launcher. Military.com, 8 July 2009

[6] Natick develops holster for M320 grenade launcher Army.mil, 25 July 2013
[7] Enhanced grenade lethality: On target even when enemy
is concealed - Army.mil, 4 September 2014
[8] ARDEC's airburst round to begin evaluation this summer
- Army.mil, 8 December 2014
The M4 carbine is heavily used by the U.S military. It will

eventually replace the M16 rie for most combat units in
the United States Army.* [7] The winner of the Individual
Carbine competition was planned to supplement the M4
carbine in U.S. Army service;* [8] however, the army cancelled the Individual Carbine competition without selecting a replacement rie and instead plans to equip soldiers
with the improved M4A1.* [9]
272
1.13.1
History
Following the adoption of the M16 rie, carbine variants were also adopted for close quarters operations. The
CAR-15 family of weapons served through the Vietnam
War. However, these carbines had design issues, asthe
barrel length was halvedto 10 inches whichupset the
ballistics, reducing its range and accuracy and led to
considerable muzzle ash and blast, so that a large ash
suppressor had to be tted.* [10] Nevertheless, as a
short-range weapon it is quite adequate and thus, (despite)
its caliber, (the XM177 Commando) is classed as a
submachine gun.* [10] In 1988, Colt began work on a
new carbine design called the XM4 combining the best
features of the Colt Commando and M16A2 ries.
The benets of this, however, have come under scrutiny

from both the military and civilian rearms community.* [17]* [18] According to a PDF detailing the M4
Carbine improvement plans released by PEO Soldier, the
direct impingement system would only be replaced after reviews were done comparing the direct impingement
system to commercial gas piston operating system to nd
out and use the best available operating system in the U.S.
Army's improved M4A1.* [19]
In September 2010, the Army announced it would buy

12,000 M4A1s from Colt Firearms by the end of 2010,
and would order 25,000 more M4A1s by early 2011. The
service branch planned to buy 12,000 M4A1 conversion
kits in early 2011. In late 2011 the Army bought 65,000
more conversion kits. From there the Army had to decide
*
The XM4 was given a longer 14.5-inch barrel with the if it would upgrade all of its M4s. [20]
M16A2's 1:7 inch rie twist, to use the heavier 62- On 21 April 2012, the U.S. Army announced to begin
grain M855 rounds. The extended barrel improved the purchasing over 120,000 M4A1 carbines to start reequipXM4's ballistics, reduced muzzle blast and gave the XM4 ping front line units from the original M4 to the new
the ability to mount a bayonet and the M203 grenade M4A1 version. The rst 24,000 were to be made by
launcher. The XM4 was also given the M16A2's im- Remington Arms Company. Remington was to proproved rear sight and cartridge deector, as well as other duce the M4A1s from mid-2013 to mid-2014.* [21] Afminor renements. In 1994, the U.S. military ocially ter completion of that contract, it was to be between Colt
accepted the XM4 into service as the M4 Carbine to re- and Remington to produce over 100,000 more M4A1s
place the M16A2.* [11] The M4 carbine has also replaced for the U.S. Army. Because of eorts from Colt to sue
most submachine guns and selected handguns in U.S. mil- the Army to force them not to use Remington to proitary service,* [11] as it res more eective rie ammuni- duce M4s, the Army reworked the original solicitation
tion that oers superior stopping power and is better able for new M4A1s to avoid legal issues from Colt.* [22] On
to penetrate modern body armor.
16 November 2012, Colt's protest of Remington receivThe United States Marine Corps has ordered its ocers
(up to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel) and sta noncommissioned ocers to carry the M4 carbine instead of
the M9 handgun.* [12] This is in keeping with the Marine
Corps doctrine, Every Marine a rieman.The Marine Corps, however, chose the full-sized M16A4 over
the M4 as its standard infantry rie. United States Navy
corpsmen E5 and below will also be issued M4s instead
of the M9.* [13] While ordinary riemen in the Marine
Corps are armed with M16A4s, M4s are elded by troops
in positions where a full-length rie would be too bulky,
including vehicle operators and reteam and squad leaders. As of 2013, the U.S. Marine Corps has 80,000 M4
Carbines in their inventory.* [14]* [15]
Improved M4
ing the M4A1 production contract was dismissed.* [23]

Instead of the contract being re-awarded to Remington,
the Army awarded the contract for 120,000 M4A1 carbines worth $77 million to FN Herstal on 22 February
2013.* [24]* [25] The order is expected to be completed
by 2018.* [26]
Army upgrades The M4 product improvement program (PIP) is the eort by the U.S. Army to modernize its
eet of M4 service ries. Phase I consists of converting
and replacing regular M4s with the M4A1 version. This
variant of the rie is fully automatic and has a heavier
barrel, and is given ambidextrous re controls. Phase II
of the PIP explored developing a new bolt carrier. 11 designs were submitted. The competition was scheduled to
conclude in summer 2013, but ended in April 2012. Over
six months of testing revealed that the current bolt carrier assembly outperformed the competing designs, especially in the areas of reliability, durability, and high-temp
and low-temp tests. Phase II also includes a competition
for a free-oating forward rail assembly. The Army may
award contracts to up to three nalists in early 2013, with
the selection of a nal winner in early 2014. If the Army
determines that the winning rail system should be procured, delivery of new rail is anticipated by the summer
of 2014.* [27]
On 1 July 2009, the U.S. Army took complete ownership

of the M4 design.* [16] This allowed companies other
than Colt to compete with their own M4 designs. The
Army planned on elding the last of its M4 requirement in
2010.* [16] On 30 October 2009, Army weapons ocials
proposed a series of changes to the M4 to Congress. Requested changes included an electronic round counter that
records the number of shots red, a heavier barrel, and
possibly replacing the direct impingement system with a
gas piston system.
In March 2015, the Army launched a market survey to
1.13. M4 CARBINE
see what the small-arms industry could oer to further
enhance the M4A1 to an M4A1+" standard. Several
upgrade options include an extended forward rail that will
allow for a free-oated barrel for improved accuracy with
a low-prole gas block that would do away with the traditional triangular xed front sight, removable front and
rear ip-up back-up iron sights, a coyote tan or neutral
colorrail for reduced visual detection, a more eective ash suppressor/muzzle brake, an improved charging
handle, and a new single-stage trigger module.* [28]
273
look at the developing state of small arms technology,
but with no immediate desire to engage in another
competition.* [31]
1.13.2 Design
Replacement attempts
Main article: Individual Carbine
See also: M16 Future Replacement
The carbine variant of the XM8 rie was canceled in
2005.
On 13 November 2008, the U.S. Army hosted an
Invitation-only Industry Day regarding a potential future replacement for the M4 carbine. Nineteen companies provided displays and briengs for military ocials.
The weapons displayed included the Barrett REC7 PDW,
Remington ACR, FN SCAR, Heckler & Koch HK416,
Heckler & Koch XM8, LWRC M6A4, Robinson Arms
XCR, SIG 556, as well as Colt's own improved version of
the M4, the Colt ACC-M. The goal of the Industry Day
was to provide ocials with knowledge as to the current
state of the art, which assisted the writing of a formal requirements document.* [29]
The possible successor to the M4 carbine in the U.S.
Army was the Individual Carbine.* [8] This program was
to provide a new carbine for the Army, while the USMC
decided to stay with the M4 for carbine use.* [20] The
original draft solicitation for industry bids was released
in February 2011, and proposals were submitted by October 2011. Phase I began in November 2011 with no
test rings. Phase II began the following spring, stressing
accuracy, reliability, and long-term durability. Weapons
that met requirements were to move on to Phase III.* [30]
The solicitation called for a non-developmental weapon;
competitors were to submit rie designs they already had
available, rather than work with the Army to develop a
new weapon.* [31]
The Defense Department's Inspector General reevaluated the Individual Carbine program in March
2013 and launched an audit to see if the $1.8 billion
acquisition process was worth replacing the M4.* [32] On
13 June 2013, the Army canceled the Individual Carbine
competition without selecting a winning rie,* [9] as
none of the Carbines tested met the needed specications
to continue.* [33] The decision means the M4A1 will
remain the U.S. Army standard-issue rie.* [9] The
Army had 483,000 M4/M4A1 Carbines in inventory at
the time, with a maximum authorized acquisition level
of 503,000 weapons.* [34] The Army will continue to
M4 with M68 Close Combat Optic and AN/PAQ-4
The M4 and its variants re 5.5645mm NATO

ammunition (and .223 Remington ammunition) and are
gas-operated, magazine-fed, selective re rearms with
either a multi-position telescoping stock or a xed A2 or
LE tactical stock.* [35]
The M4 is a shorter and lighter variant of the M16A2
rie, with 80% parts commonality.* [36] The 20% of
the parts that are not interchangeable include the buer
spring and weight, barrel, and gas tube due to the shorter
carbine length. Original M4 models had a at-ended telescoping stock, but newer models are now equipped with
a redesigned telescoping stock that is slightly larger with
curvature at the end.* [37] The M4 is similar to much earlier compact M16 versions, such as the 1960s-era XM177
family. Some of those visual designs are obvious in both
weapons.
As with many carbines, the M4 is handy and more convenient to carry than a full-length rie. The price is slightly
inferior ballistic performance compared to the full-size
M16, with its 5.5(14 cm) longer barrel. This becomes
most apparent at ranges of 200 yards and beyond.
While the M4's maneuverability makes it a candidate
for non-infantry troops (vehicle crews, clerks and sta
ocers), it also makes it ideal for close quarters battle
(CQB). The M4, along with the M16A4, have mostly replaced the M16A2 in the Army and Marines. The U.S.
Air Force, for example, has transitioned completely to
the M4 for Security Forces squadrons, while other armed
personnel retain the M16A2. The US Navy uses M4A1s
for Special Operations and by vehicle crews.
Some features of the M4 and M4A1 compared to a fulllength M16-series rie include:
274
CCO. EOTech holographic weapon sights are part of the
SOPMOD II package. Visible and IR (infrared) lights of
various manufacturers are also commonly attached using
various mounting methods. As with all versions of the
M16, the M4 accepts a blank-ring attachment (BFA)
for training purposes.
Feedramps M4 feedramps are extended from the barrel extension into the upper receiver. This can help alleviate feeding problems which may occur as a result of the
increased pressure of the shortened gas system of the M4.
This problem is primarily seen in full-auto applications.
The M4 with the newer, redesigned telescoping stock
Compact size
Shortened barrel 14.5 in (370 mm), which includes
the shorter carbine gas system.
Telescoping buttstock
However, there have been some criticisms of the carbine,
such as lower muzzle velocities and louder report due to
the shorter barrel, additional stress on parts because of
the shorter gas system, and a tendency to overheat faster
SOPMOD (Special Operations Peculiar Modication) Block I
than the M16A2.
Accessories
SOPMOD Block I U.S. Special Operations Command

(USSOCOM) developed the Special Operations Peculiar Modication (SOPMOD) Block I kit for the carbines used by units under its jurisdiction. The kit features an M4A1, a Rail Interface System (RIS) handguard developed by Knight's Armament Company, a
shortened quick-detachable M203 grenade launcher and
leaf sight, a KAC sound suppressor, a KAC back-up
rear sight, an Insight Technologies AN/PEQ-2A visible
laser/infrared designator, along with Trijicon's ACOG
TA-01NSN model and Reex sights, and a night vision
sight. This kit was designed to be congurable (modular)
for various missions, and the kit is currently in service
with special operations units.
An M4A1 just after ring, with an ejected case in mid-air; the

M203 and M68 CCO are attached.
Like all the variants of the M16, the M4 and the M4A1
can be tted with many accessories, such as night vision devices, suppressors, laser pointers, telescopic sights,
bipods, either the M203 or M320 grenade launchers, the
M26 MASS shotgun, forward hand grips, and anything
else compatible with a MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rail.
Other common accessories include the AN/PEQ-2,
Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight (ACOG), and M68 M4A1 SOPMOD Block II in Afghanistan 2012.
1.13. M4 CARBINE
275
SOPMOD Block II A second-generation SOPMOD adding the Rail Adapter System (RAS) turns the weapon
kit (now known as SOPMOD II) includes innovative op- into the M4 MWS or Modular Weapon System.
tics, such as the Elcan Specter DR, Trijicon's ACOG TA31 ECOS model, and the Eotech 553. Block II uses the
RIS II rails manufactured by Daniel Defense in both a 9.5 M4A1
and 12.5 length.
The M4A1 carbine is a fully automatic variant of the
basic M4 carbine intended for special operations use.
The M4A1 has a S-1-F(safe/semi-automatic/fully
1.13.3 Variants
automatic) trigger group, while the M4 has a S-1-3
For more details on M4 carbine variants, see AR-15 (safe/semi-automatic/3-round burst) trigger group. The
M4A1 is used by almost all U.S special operation units
variants.
including, but not limited to, Marine Force Recon, Army
Rangers, Army Special Forces, Navy SEALs, United
Except for the very rst delivery order, all U.S. military- States Air Force Pararescue and Air Force Combat Conissue M4 and M4A1 carbines possess a at-top NATO trol Teams. The M4A1 is especially favored by counterM1913-specication (Picatinny) rail on top of the terrorist and special forces units for close quarters combat
receiver for attachment of optical sights and other aim- and urban warfare because of the carbine's compact reing devices Trijicon TA01 and TA31 Advanced Com- power. It has a maximum eective range of about 500 to
bat Optical Gunsights (ACOG), EOTech 550 series holo- 600 meters (550660 yd).* [6] The fully automatic trigger
graphic sights, and Aimpoint M68 Close Combat Optic gives a more consistent trigger pull, which leads to better
(M68 CCO) being the favorite choices and a detach- accuracy.* [9] According to Mark A. Westrom, owner of
able rail-mounted carrying handle. Standards are the Colt ArmaLite, Inc., automatic re is better for clearing rooms
Model 920 (M4) and 921 (M4A1).
than burst re.* [30]
Variants of the carbine built by dierent manufacturers In the last few years, M4A1 carbines have been ret or
are also in service with many other foreign special forces received straight from factory with barrels with a thicker
units, such as the Australian Special Air Service Regi- prole under the handguard. This is for a variety of reament (SASR). While the SASR uses weapons of essen- sons such as heat dissipation during full-auto, and accutially the same pattern built by Colt for export (Colt uses racy as a byproduct of barrel weight. These heavier barrel
dierent models to separate weapons for the U.S. military weapons are also tted with a heavier buer known as the
and those for commercial/export purposes), the British H2. Out of three sliding weights inside the buer, the H2
SAS uses a variant on the basic theme, the Colt Canada possesses two tungsten weights and one steel weight, ver(formerly Diemaco) C8SFW.
sus the standard H buer, which uses one tungsten weight
M4 MWS (Modular Weapon System)
M4 MWS (Modular Weapon System) shown with various accessories including M203 grenade launcher, RIS foregrip, removable carry handle/rear sight assembly, AN/PEQ-4 laser system,
M68 CCO reex sight, and the AN/PVS-4 night vision optics
Colt Model 925 carbines were tested and tted with the
Knight's Armament Corporation (KAC) M4 RAS under the designation M4E2, but this designation appears
to have been scrapped in favor of mounting this system to existing carbines without changing the designation.
The U.S. Army Field Manual species for the Army that
and two steel weights. These weapons, known by Colt as

the Model 921HB (for Heavy Barrel), have also been designated M4A1, and as far as the government is concerned
the M4A1 represents both the 921 and 921HB.
Conversion of M4s to the M4A1 began in 2014, the
start of all U.S. Army forces being equipped with the
automatic variant.* [38] Though in service with special
forces, combat in Afghanistan showed the need for providing automatic suppression res during re and movement for regular soldiers. The 101st Airborne Division
began elding new-built M4A1s in 2012, and the U.S.
1st Infantry Division became the rst unit to convert their
M4s to M4A1-standard in May 2014. Upgrades included
a heavier barrel to better dissipate heat from sustained automatic ring, which also helps the ries use the M855A1
EPR that has higher proof pressures and puts more strain
on barrels. The full-auto trigger group has a more consistent trigger pull, whereas the burst group's pull varies on
where the re control group is set, resulting in more predictable and better accuracy on semi-automatic re. Another addition is an ambidextrous selector lever for easier use with left-handed shooters. The M4-M4A1 conversion only increases weapon weight from 7.46 lb (3.38
kg) to 7.74 lb (3.51 kg), counting a back-up iron sight,
forward pistol grip, empty magazine, and sling. Each
276
carbine upgrade costs $240 per rie, for a total cost of
$120 million for half a million conversions. 300 conversions can be done per day to equip a brigade combat team
per week, with all M4A1 conversions to be completed by
2019.* [39]* [40]
Mark 18 CQBR
An M4A1 with a Close Quarter Battle Receiver. The barrel length

is 10.3 inches.
Main article: Close Quarters Battle Receiver

The Mk 18 Close Quarters Battle Receiver is an M4A1
with a 10.3-inch barrel upper receiver.* [41] Current contractors for the Mark 18 are Colt and Lewis Machine &
Tool (LMT) NSN 1005-01-527-2288.
Enhanced M4
For the Individual Carbine competition, Colt submitted their Enhanced M4 design, also known as the Colt
Advanced Piston Carbine (APC). The weapon has a
suppression-ready uted barrel, which is lighter and cools
better than previous M4 barrels. It is claimed to have
markedly betteraccuracy. To improve reliability, Colt
used an articulating link piston (ALP) whichreduces the
inherent stress in the piston stroke by allowing for deection and thermal expansion.* [42] In traditional gas piston operating systems, the force of the piston striking the
bolt carrier can push the bolt carrier downwards and into
the wall of the buer tube, leading to accelerated wear
and even chipped metal. This is known as carrier tilt.
The ALP allows the operating rod to wiggle to correct
for the downward pressure on the bolt and transfers the
force straight backwards in line with the bore and buer
assembly, eliminating the carrier tilt. This relieves stress
on parts and helps to increase accuracy.* [43] The Individual Carbine competition was canceled before a winning
weapon was chosen.* [9]
it calls Commandos. Originally, Commandos were assembled from whatever spare parts are available, so
Model 733 Commandos could have A1-style upper receivers with case deectors or A2-style upper receivers,
and M16A1-prole 1:7 or M16A2-prole 1:7 barrels.
Depending on the specic models, Commandos may
have had three-position re control groups (safe/semiautomatic/three-round burst), or four-position having
both full-automatic and burst. The modern Model 933
has a attopreceiver, with a removable carrying
handle and a MIL-STD-1913 Picatinny rail, with semiautomatic and automatic re. The Model 935 Commando has the features of the Model 933, but has threeround burst re instead of automatic. Though originally
called the M16A2 Commando, Colt markets them as the
M4 Commando.
Armwest LLC M4
In 2014, American rearms designer Jim Sullivan provided a video interview regarding his contributions to the
M16/M4 family of ries when working for Armalite. A
noted critic of the M4 he illustrates the deciencies found
in the rie in its current conguration. In the video, he
demonstrates hisArm West LLC modied M4, with
enhancements he believes necessary to rectify the issues
with the weapon. Proprietary issues aside the weapon
is said to borrow features in his prior development, the
Ultimax. Sullivan has stated (without exact details as to
how) the weapon can re from the closed bolt in semiautomatic and switch to open bolt when ring in fully
automatic improving accuracy. The weight of the cyclic
components of the gun have been doubled (while retaining the weapons weight at less than 8 pounds). Compared to the standard M4 which in automatic res 750950 rounds a minute, the rate of re of the Arm West M4
is heavily reduced both to save ammunition and reduce
barrel wear, the reduced rate also renders the weapon
more controllable and accurate in automatic ring.* [44]
1.13.4 Performance
The M4 Carbine has been used for close quarters operations where the M16 would be too long and bulky to use
eectively. It has been a compact, light, customizable,
and accurate weapons platform. This has come at the
cost of reliability and maintainability. Failure to mainM4 Commando
tain the M4 causes malfunctions. This became apparent
as it saw continued use in the sandy environments of Iraq
Though Colt has focused its attention on carbines with and Afghanistan.* [45] Despite this, in post-combat sur14.5-inch barrels and ries with 20-inch barrels, Colt con- veys, 94 percent of soldiers rated the M4 as an eective
tinues to make carbines with 11.5-inch barrels, which weapons system.* [46]
1.13. M4 CARBINE
277
Early feedback
2007 dust test
By late 2002, 89 percent of U.S. troops reported they

were condent with the M4, but they had a range of problems. 34 percent of users said the handguards rattled and
became excessively hot when ring, and 15 percent had
trouble zeroing the M68 Close Combat Optic. 35 percent added barber brushes and 24 percent added dental
picks to their cleaning kits. There were many malfunctions, including 20 percent of users experiencing a double
feed, 15 percent experiencing feeding jams, and 13 percent saying that feeding problems were due to magazines.
20 percent of users were dissatised with weapon maintenance. Some had trouble locking the magazine into the
weapon and having to chamber a round in order to lock
the magazine. Soldiers also asked for a larger round to be
able to kill targets with one shot. New optics and handguards made usage of the M4 easier, and good weapon
maintenance reduced the number of misfeeds.* [47]
In the fall 2007, the Army tested the M4 against three

other carbines in "sandstorm conditionsat Aberdeen
Proving Ground, Maryland: the Heckler & Koch XM8,
Fabrique Nationale de Herstal SOF Combat Assault Rie (SCAR) and the Heckler & Koch HK416. Ten of
each type of rie were used to re 6,000 rounds each,
for a total of 60,000 rounds per rie type.* [52] The M4
suered far more stoppages than its competitors: 882
stoppages, 19 requiring an armorer to x. The XM8
had the fewest stoppages, 116 minor stoppages and 11
major ones, followed by the FN SCAR with 226 stoppages and the HK416 with 233.* [53]* [54] The Army was
quick to point out that even with 863 minor stoppages
termed class onestoppages which require 10 seconds or less to clear andclass twostoppages which require more than ten seconds to clearthe M4 functioned
well, with over 98 percent of the 60,000 total rounds ring without a problem. The Army said it planned to improve the M4 with a new cold-hammer-forged barrel to
give longer life and more reliable magazines to reduce
the stoppages. Magazine failures caused 239 of the M4's
882 failures. Army ocials said the new magazines could
be combat-ready by spring if testing went well.* [55] The
Army began issuing an improved STANAG magazine in
March 2009.* [49]* [50] The Army claimed that the M4
only suered 296 stoppages, and that the high number
reported could be attributed to discrepancies in the scoring process. If a certain number of malfunctions were
found to be the result of a broken part, some of the
stoppages counted could be eliminated in the nal report. Colt also claimed that the testing conditions were
unfair to the M4. Factors including the M4s used being taken from the Army inventory while the other ries
were provided directly from the manufacturers, and the
carbine's burst re operation when the others had fully
automatic ring modes brought the validity of the results
into question.* [56] There were three extreme dust tests
performed in 2007. In the Summer 2007 test, the M4
carbine stopped 882 times. The Fall 2007 results were
very dierent from the other two tests; the M4 carbine
had 148 class 1 stoppages due to rie malfunctions and
148 class 1 stoppages due to magazine stoppages. The
full-size M16 rie had a total of 61 stoppages during the
same extreme dust test.* [57]
2006 CNA report

In December 2006, the Center for Naval Analyses released a report on U.S. small arms in combat. The CNA
conducted surveys on 2,608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past 12 months. Only
troops who red their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate. 917 troops were armed with M4
Carbines, making up 35 percent of the survey. 89 percent of M4 users (816 troops) reported they were satised with the weapon. 90 percent (825 troops) were satised with handling qualities such as handguards, size,
and weight. M4 users had the highest levels of satisfaction with weapon performance, including 94 percent
(862 troops) with accuracy, 92 percent (844 troops) with
range, and 93 percent (853 troops) with rate of re. Only
19 percent of M4 users (174 troops) reported a stoppage, while 82 percent of those that experienced a stoppage said it had little impact on their ability to clear the
stoppage and re-engage their target. 53 percent of the
M4 users (486 troops) never experienced failures of their
magazines to feed. 81 percent (743 troops) did not need
their ries repaired while in theater. 80 percent (734
troops) were condent in the M4's reliability, dened as
level of soldier condence their weapon will re without
malfunction, and 83 percent (761 troops) were condent
in its durability, dened as level of soldier condence
their weapon will not break or need repair. Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing
their own maintenance. 54 percent of M4 users oered
recommendations for improvements. 20 percent of requests were for greater bullet lethality, and 10 percent was
better quality magazines, as well as other minor recommendations. Some M16 users expressed their desire to
be issued the M4.* [48] Some issues have been addressed
with the issuing of the improved STANAG magazine in
March 2009,* [49]* [50] and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round in June 2010.* [51]
Reliability
In early 2010, two journalists from the New York
Times spent three months with soldiers and Marines in
Afghanistan. While there, they questioned around 100
infantrymen about the reliability of their M4 Carbines, as
well as the M16 rie. Troops did not report to be suering reliability problems with their ries. While only 100
troops were asked, they fought at least a dozen intense
engagements in Helmand Province, where the ground is
covered in ne powdered sand (called moon dustby
278
troops) that can stick to rearms. Weapons were often

dusty, wet, and covered in mud. Intense reghts lasted
hours with several magazines being expended. Only one
soldier reported a jam when his M16 was covered in mud
after climbing out of a canal. The weapon was cleared
and resumed ring with the next chambered round. Furthermore, a Marine Chief Warrant Ocer reported that
with his battalion's 700 M4s and 350 M16s, they've had
no issues.* [58]
The reliability of the M4 has increased as the design was
upgraded. In 1990, the M4 was required to re 600
mean rounds between stoppages using M855 ammunition. In 2013, the current M4A1 version can re 1,691
mean rounds between stoppages using M855A1 ammunition.* [59]
Gas piston
Bushmaster M4 Type Carbine is a popular example.

Civilian models are sometimes colloquially referred to as
M4gery(/mfrdri/,* [62] a portmanteau ofM4
and forgery). Colt had maintained that it retains sole
rights to the M4 name and design. Other manufacturers had long maintained that Colt had been overstating its
rights, and that M4had now become a generic term
for a shortened AR-15. In April 2004, Colt led a lawsuit against Heckler & Koch and Bushmaster Firearms,
claiming acts of trademark infringement, trade dress infringement, trademark dilution, false designation of origin, false advertising, patent infringement, unfair competition, and deceptive trade practices. Heckler & Koch
later settled out of court, changing one product's name
fromHK M4toHK416. However, on December 8,
2005, a District court judge in Maine granted a summary
judgment in favor of Bushmaster Firearms, dismissing all
of Colt's claims except for false advertising. On the latter claim, Colt could not recover monetary damages. The
court also ruled thatM4was now a generic name, and
that Colt's trademark should be revoked.* [63]
Complicating the Army search for higher reliability in the

M4 is a number of observations of M4 gas piston alternatives that suer unintended design problems. The rst is
that many of the gas piston modications for the M4 iso1.13.6 Users
late the piston so that piston jams or related malfunction
require the entire weapon be disassembled, such disas
Albania:Used only by Albanian Land Force
sembly cannot be performed by the end user and requires
2015
a qualied armorer to perform out of eld, whereas any
malfunction with the direct-impingement system can be
Afghanistan: Used only by Afghan Army comxed by the end user in eld. The second is that gas pismandos.* [64]* [65] M4s sold as part of a 2006
ton alternatives use an o-axis operation of the piston
Foreign Military Sales package.* [66] Additional
that can introduce carrier tilt, whereby the bolt carrier
M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales packfails to enter the buer tube at a straight angle, resultage.* [67]
ing in part wearing. The third is that the use of a sound
Australia: Used by the Special Operations

suppressor results in hot gases entering the chamber, reCommand, Clearance Divers.* [68] and Police Tacgardless of a direct-gas impingement or gas piston design
tical Groups* [69]
choice. The gas-piston system also causes the rearm to
become proprietary to the manufacturer, making modi
Bosnia & Herzegovina: M4A1s used by the
cations and changes with parts from other manufacturers
*
*
military
and air guard units.* [67]
dicult. [18] [60] The argument for a gas piston is that
it would reduce fouling; while the argument against it is
Bangladesh: Used by Bangladesh Paracomthat it would increase weight and reduce accuracy. The
mandos,
Dhaka Metropolitan Police SWAT teams
Enhanced M4 uses an articulating link piston operating
and
Special
Warfare Diving And Salvage* [70]* [71]
system. An array of rearms accessory makers have offered gas piston conversion kits. The claimed benets
Bahrain: M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Miliinclude superior reliability and performance and elimitary Sales package.* [67]
nation of carrier tilt.
1.13.5
Belize: M4s/M4A1s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign Military Sales package.* [66]
Brazil: Used by Military Police of Rio de

Janeiro State,* [72] the Brazilian Federal Police and
Special Forces of the Brazilian Army and Brazilian
Navy.* [73]
Trademark issues
The M4 was developed and produced for the United

States government by Colt Firearms, which had an exclusive contract to produce the M4 family of weapons
through 2009. However, a number of other manufacturers oer M4-like rearms. Colt previously held a
U.S. trademark on the term M4.* [61] Many manufacturers have production rearms that are essentially
identical to a military M4, but with a 16barrel. The
Canada: C8 rie.* [74]

Cameroon: Sent as support against the Boko
Haram
1.13. M4 CARBINE
279
Croatia: User since 2003, several hundred purchased for Croatian ISF contingent as well as special
forces in Croatia.* [75]
Jordan: M4s sold as part of a 2007 Foreign

Military Sales package.* [77] Additional M4s sold as
a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67]
Czech Republic: Bushmaster M4A3 B.M.A.S.

is used by (601st Special forces group, Military police, 43rd Airborne mechanized battalion) of Czech
Army.* [76]
Kenya: Kenyan special forces were observed

using M4s while responding to the 2013 Westgate
centre shooting.* [94]
Colombia: M4A1s as part of a 2008 Foreign

Military Sales.* [67]
Ecuador: M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military

Sales package.* [67]
El Salvador: M4s sold as part of a 2007 Foreign

Military Sales package.* [77] Additional M4s sold as
a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67]
Georgia: Bushmaster AR-15 and M4 for police and military. Producing own analogue variant
of the M4A1 (G5 rie) by Scientic Technical Center Delta.* [78]* [79]* [80]
Greece: Used by EKAM, All SF Army, Navy,

Airforce units.* [81]
Hong Kong: KAC SR-16 by Special Duties

Unit of the Hong Kong Police Force* [82]
Hungary: M4A1 SOPMOD by Hungarian MH

34th Bercsnyi Lszl special operation battalion
*
[83]
India: M4A1s as part of a 2008 Foreign Military Sales.* [67] M4A1 is used by the Mizoram
Armed Police, and Force One of the Mumbai Police.* [84]* [85]
Indonesia: Used by Detachment 88 Counterterrorism Police Squad operators.* [86] Also used by
Komando Pasukan Katak (Kopaska) tactical diver
group and Komando Pasukan Khusus (Kopassus)
special forces group.* [87]
Iraq: Used by the Iraqi Army.* [88] Main

weapon of the Iraqi National Counter-Terrorism
Force.* [89]
Israel: Sold as part of a January 2001 Foreign

Military Sales package to Israel.* [90]
Italy: Special Forces* [91] and Carabinieri Regiment Tuscania* [92]
Jamaica: M4s sold as part of a 2007 Foreign

Military Sales package.* [77]
Japan: M4A1s as part of a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67] M4A1 SOPMOD ries are
in use by the Japanese Special Forces Group.* [93]
Kurdistan Peshmerga
Kuwait:* [95]* [96]
Lebanon: M4 components being sold to

Lebanese special forces.* [97] M4/M4A1s sold as a
2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67]
Libya: Newly reformed Public Security " interior ministry forces seen with M4s
in Tripoli* [98]
Macedonia: M4s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67]
Malaysia: Made under license by SME Ordnance Sdn Bhd.* [99] Used by special forces of the
Malaysian Armed Forces, along with special forces
of the Royal Malaysia Police.* [100] Standard issue
rie of the Malaysian Armed Forces
Nepal: Sold as part of a 2005 Foreign Military

Sales package.* [101]
New Zealand: Used by NZSAS operators and

the police Special Tactics Group.* [102]* [103]
Pakistan: M4A1 variant used by Special Services Group of the Pakistan Army.* [104]* [105]
Panama: M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67]
Philippines: M4/M4A1s sold as a 2008

Foreign Military Sales package.* [67] Two variants of the M4 carbine are made by Floro International Corporation, consisting of the M4A1
5.56mm Rie and the M4A1 Model-C 5.56mm Rie.* [106]* [107] The Philippines ordered 63,000 R4
ries from Remington Arms; these are to be used
by the Philippine Army and the Philippine Marine
Corps.* [108]* [109]
Poland: Used by Wojska Specjalne military

unit JW Grom.* [110]
Portugal: Used by Marines special forces DAE

(Destacamento de Aces Especiais).* [111]
Serbia: Used by various police units.* [112]

Singapore: Used by the Singapore Armed
Forces Commando Formation.* [113]
280
Taiwan: Used by Republic of China Army and 1.13.7 See also

National Police Agency* [114]
Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
Thailand: M4A1s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign Military Sales package.* [66]
Heckler & Koch HK416, a competing M4-based

weapon
Tonga: M4/M4A1s sold as a 2008 Foreign Military Sales package.* [67]
SIG SG 516, an M16-based rie
Turkey: Produced under licence by Sarslmaz

Arms.* [2] Used by Turkish Armed Forces* [115]
Brown Enhanced Automatic Rie, a competing

M16/M4-based weapon
United Arab Emirates: Purchased 2,500 M4

carbines in 1993.* [116]
R5 RGP, an AR-15 variant
United Kingdom:Used by Special Air Service 1.13.8 References

(SAS). The M4A1 SOPMOD carbines also in use
[1] SabahDaily. Intruders photo in Sabah (in Malay).
by 22 SAS.* [117]
United States* [74]

Yemen: M4s sold as part of a 2006 Foreign
Military Sales package.* [66]
U.S. civilian ownership
LWRC M6, a competing M4-based weapon
[2] David Watters. The 5.56 X 45mm: 2005. Retrieved

2010-03-10.
[3] Curtis, Rob (2012-04-20). U.S. Army places order
for 24,000 M4A1 carbines with Remington. Militarytimes.com. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
[4] Colt M4 Carbine Technical Specications. Colt.
[5] Colt Weapon Systems. 2011-06-16. Archived from
Sales of select-re or full automatic M4s by Colt are rethe original on 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2011-12-17.
stricted to military and law enforcement agencies. Only
under special circumstances can a private citizen own [6] M-4 Carbine. U.S. Army Fact Files. United States
Army. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
an M4 in a select-re or fully automatic conguration.
While many machine guns can be legally owned with a
[7] Small ArmsIndividual Weapons(PDF). 3 November
proper tax stamp from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
2010. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
Firearms and Explosives, an amendment to the Firearm
Owners Protection Act of 1986 barred the transfer to [8] Fuller, BG Peter N.; COL Douglas A. Tamilio (18 May
2010). Project Manager Soldier Weapons Brieng for
private citizens of machine guns made or registered in
NDIA (PDF). PEO Soldier. United States Army. Rethe U.S. after May 19, 1986. The only exception was
trieved 28 October 2010.
for Special Occupational Taxpayers (SOT): licensed machine gun dealers with demonstration letters, manufactur- [9] Army Kills Competition to Replace M4 - Military.com,
ers, and those dealing in exports and imports. As such,
13 June 2013
only the earliest Colt M4 prototypes built prior to May
19, 1986 would be legal to own by civilians not in the [10] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition,
2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.166
categories mentioned. The modular nature of the AR15
design, however, makes it a relatively simple matter to t
[11] http://specialoperations.com/Weapons/Features/M4/
M4-specic components to apre-'86select-re AR15
Page_Two.htm
lower receiver, producing an M4in all but name.
Civilian replicas of the M4 typically have 16 inch barrels
(or standard 14.5 inch M4 barrels with permanently attached ash suppressors to bring the eective length to
16 inches) and are semi-automatic only to meet the legal
denition of a rie under Title I (Gun Control Act). The
M4 falls under restrictions of Title II (National Firearms
Act): the 14.5 inch barrel makes the M4 a Short Barrel
Rie (SBR) and select re capability (semi-automatic and
full automatic or burst-automatic) makes the M4 a machinegun. Civilian-legal M4s are also popular with police
as a patrol carbine.
[12] http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20070625/
NEWS/706250319/Officers-staff-NCOs-issued-M4s
Marine Corps Times. Ocers, sta NCOs to be issued
M4s. Jun. 25, 2007
[13] New Assignment Rationale for Individual Weapons.
U.S. Marine Corps, June 22, 2007.
[14] M27 First Impressions - Therearmblog.com, 20 April
2013
[15] Corps exploring rie upgrades - Militarytimes.com, 29
April 2013
1.13. M4 CARBINE
281
[16] Matthew Cox (2009-07-07). Army acquires rights to

M4. Army Times. Retrieved 2009-08-18.
[37] Photo of the Colt M4 with the redesigned telescoping

stock. Colt Defense. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
[17] Matthew Cox (2009-11-21).Major revamp possible for

M4 carbine. Army Times. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
[38] Lance M. Bacon (30 April 2011). Improved carbines

headed your way. Gannett Government Media Corporation. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
[18] Mike Pannone (2010-03-19).The Big M4 Myth:Fouling caused by the direct impingement gas system makes
the M4/M4A1 Carbine unreliable."". Defensive Review.
[39] Beeer carbines en route to Soldiers - Army.mil, 22 May

2014
[19] Dual Path Strategy: M4 PIP(PDF). 7 September 2011.

Retrieved 7 September 2011.
[20] Dan Lamothe. Corps to pass on Army upgrades to M4
. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
[40] Army infantry beginning adoption of upgraded M4A1

carbines - Guns.com, 24 May 2014
[41] Johnson, Je. CQB Receiver M4A1 Carbine
with10-Inch Upper Receiver. Power point presentation,
Scribd.com. US Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
[21] http://militarytimes.com/blogs/gearscout/2012/04/20/
[42] Enhanced M4 Defense Review, November 29, 2011
us-army-places-order-for-24000-m4-carbines-with-remington/
[22] Colt again blocks Army's advanced M4 plans Military.com, October 18, 2012
[23] GAO denies latest Colt M4 protest - Militarytimes
Gearscout.com, November 28, 2012
[24] Army Awards New M4/M4A1 Contract to FN Kitup.Military.com, February 23, 2013
[25] FN Manufacturing Wins Contract to Supply M4A1 - Therearmblog.com, February 24, 2013
[26] FN Manufacturing to deliver M4/M4A1 Carbines to US
Army - Strategicdefenseintelligence.com, February 27,
2013
[43] Articulating Link Piston Investorvillage.com

[44] Interview & Shooting: Jim Sullivan, AR-15 Designer
Full30: INRANGE TV Uploaded: 11/26/2014
[45] M4 Carbine Controversy Defense Industry Daily.com
[46] https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/land/wsh2012/294.pdf
[47] SA80: MISTAKE OR MALIGNED by Anthony G
Williams
[48] http://images.military.com/pix/defensetech/cna_m4_
study_d0015259_a2.pdf
[49] Brownells shipping M16 magazines with anti-tilt follower
to military - The Firearm Blog, 13 June 2009
[27] M4 CARBINE PRODUCT IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM (PIP) - PEOsoldier.armylive.dodlive.mil, August

23, 2012
[50] New US Army M16TanMagazine - The Firearm Blog,

16 December 2009
[28] Army Wants Upgrades to Improve M4A1 Carbine's Performance, Accuracy. Military.com, 18 March 2015.
[51] Army begins shipping improved 5.56mm cartridge Pica.Army.mil, 24 June 2010
[29] Matthew Cox (2008-11-25). Army considers options in

replacing the M4. Army Times. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
[52] Lowe, Christian (2007-12-18). M4 Carbine Fares

Poorly in Dust Test. Military.com. Military Advantage.
[30] Carbine Competition Fails to Find Improvement Over

Current Weapon - Nationaldefensemagazine.org, August
2013
[53] "...And Here's the Rest of the M4 Story. Defense Tech.

Military Advantage. 2007-12-18. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
[31] Individual Carbine competition concludes with no winner

- Army.mil, 17 June 2013
[54] Cox, Matthew (2007-12-19). Newer carbines outperform M4 in dust test. Army Times. Army Times Publishing Company. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
[32] Budget Cuts Restrict M4 Carbine Replacement Armedforces-Int.com, March 20, 2013
[33] Nick Taborek. Rie Competition Canceled by U.S.
Army as Soldiers Keep M4s (1)". Businessweek.com. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[55] Cox, Matthew (2007-12-17). M4 may get tougher barrel, better mags. Army Times. Army Times Publishing
Company. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
[56] The Army's M4 Carbine: Background and Issues for
Congress - Fas.org, 8 June 2010
[34] Individual Carbine Program Is Dead - Defensemedianetwork.com, 20 June 2013
[57] Combat Tactics Fall 2008 Volume Six Number Two

True Gritby David Crane
[35] Animation of the gas system of the M4 carbine. Militarytimes.com. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
[58] C.J. Chivers, Examining the Complaints About American Rie Reliability, New York Times, 7 July 2010
[36] The Design & Development of the M-4 Carbine. Special Operations.com. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
[59] Army: Gun Makers Didn't Meet Reliability Standard

Military.com, 14 June 2013
282
[60] 15259frcov.fm (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-30.

[61] US Trademark serial number 76335060 registration number 2734001
[62] US dict: mfrjr
[63] OpenJurist synopsis of denial of Colt's appeal to 08 Dec
2005 ruling. Openjurist.org. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
[64] Petty Ocer First Class David Votroubek (JulyAugust
2008). New Gear for Afghan Commandos. United
States Army Logistics Management College. Retrieved
2009-03-24.
[65] Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson (2007-07-23). New Afghan
Commandos Take to the Frontlines. National Public
Radio. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
[66] Daniel Watters. The 5.56 X 45mm: 2006. Retrieved
2009-03-25.
[82] SDU HD version.mpg on

YouTube. Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
[83]
[84] Mizo cops to get foreign weapons. Meghalayatimes.info
(2010-06-13). Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
[85]
[86] Bill Guerin (2007-06-16). Another success for Detachment 88. Asia Times Online. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
[87] Kopassus & Kopaska Specijalne Postrojbe Republike
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[88] Joseph Giordono (2007-05-16).Iraqi soldiers switching
over to M-16s and M-4s. Stars & Stripes. Retrieved
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[67] Daniel Watters. The 5.56 X 45mm: 2008. The Gun

Zone. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
[89] CJSOTF-AP Public Aairs. U.S. Special Forces, Iraqi

army ops: Raids result in 102 detainees, large weapons
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[68] Clearance Divers. Defence Jobs. Retrieved on 2011-0927.
[90] Daniel Watters. The 5.56 X 45mm: 20002001. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
[69] Macchour Chaouk shooting | Macchour Chaouk shooting.

Perth Now (2010-08-13). Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
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[70] Dhaka Metropolitan Police SWAT - Overview. bdmilitary. Retrieved 22 February 2009.
[71] Bangladesh Military Forces - BDMilitary.com.
Bangladesh Military Forces - BDMilitary.com. Retrieved
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Porque essa a nossa polcia ::. Policiamilitar.rj.gov.br.
[73] DOU 05/07/2012 - Pg. 28 - Seo 3 - Dirio Ocial
da Unio - Dirios JusBrasil. JusBrasil. Retrieved 15
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[74] Hogg, Ian (2002). Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Jane's
Information Group. ISBN 0-00-712760-X.
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[76] RUN ZBRAN AR. Ministerstvo obrany esk republiky AVIS, 2007 ISBN 978-80-7278-388-5
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[94] Heavy military presence at Westgate shopping centre in
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[95] http://i602.photobucket.com/albums/tt104/vor033/
73e85d93.jpg
[96] http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/3/28/kuwait.
company/gal.kuwait.police.jpg_-1_-1.jpg
[97] Christopher J. Castelli (September 2008). Department
of Defense to equip Lebanon's Special Forces with Small
Arms, Vehicles (PDF). DISAM Journal. Retrieved
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[98] Facebook. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[99] Malaysia has licence to make M4 assault ries. The
Star. 2007-11-05. Retrieved 2010-03-22.
[100] Thompson, Leroy (December 2008).Malaysian Special
Forces. Special Weapons. Retrieved 2009-12-17.

[79] Georgian Army Bids Farewell to Soviet Guns. Today De2009-03-25.
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[102] Unocial New Zealand Special Air Service page. ReGeorgia
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[103] Split second decisions: police rules of engagement.
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[104] Pakistan Army.
1.14. MILITARY SCIENCE
283
Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coer[106] M4A1 5.56MM RIFLE. Floro International Corpo- cive force.* [1] It is mainly focused on theory, method,
ration. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
and practice of producing military capability in a manner
consistent with national defense policy. Military sci[107] M4A1 Model-C 5.56MM RIFLE. Floro International
ence
serves to identify the strategic, political, economic,
Corporation. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
psychological, social, operational, technological, and
[108] Philippine Army acquires R4 carbines. Retrieved 15 tactical elements necessary to sustain relative advantage
November 2014.
of military force; and to increase the likelihood and favorable outcomes of victory in peace or during a war.
[109]US-based Remington wins bid to supply 50,000 M4 ries Military scientists include theorists, researchers, experifor AFP, company rep says. Interaksyon.com. Retrieved
mental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers,
May 4, 2013.
test technicians, and other military personnel.
[105] U.S. Army Weapon Systems Handbook 2012(PDF).
[110] Sebastian Miernik. "//- Strona powicona Wojskowej

Formacji Specjalnej GROM -//". Grom.mil.pl. Retrieved
2010-08-30.
Military personnel obtain weapons, equipment and

training to achieve specic strategic goals. Military science is also used to establish enemy capability as part of
[111] Portugal Destacamento de Aes Especiais (DAE)". technical intelligence.
Tropaselite.t35.com. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
In military history, military science had been used during
the period of Industrial Revolution as a general term to
[112] Kalibar | Tekst. Kalibar.rs. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
refer to all matters of military theory and technology ap[113] Singapurske Specijalne Postrojbe (in Croatian). plication as a single academic discipline, including that of
the deployment and employment of troops in peacetime
Hrvatski Vojnik Magazine. Retrieved 2009-10-25.
or in battle.
[114] . Ptpolice.gov.tw
(2007-01-29). Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
[116] Daniel Watters. The 5.56 X 45mm: 19901994. Retrieved 2009-03-25.
In military education, military science is often the name

of the department in the education institution that administers ocer candidate education. However, this education usually focuses on the ocer leadership training
and basic information about employment of military theories, concepts, methods and systems, and graduates are
not military scientists on completion of studies, but rather
junior military ocers.
[117] Writer, Sta (December 20, 2014).SAS Weapons (Special Air Service)". Military Factory. Retrieved 2015-0218.
1.14.1 History
[115] Colt M4 Carbine - Assault Carbine - History, Specs and

Pictures - Military, Security and Civilian Guns and Equipment. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
1.13.9
External links
Colt M4's Law Enforcement page and Colt M4's

Military page
US Army M4 fact le
The AR-15/M16 Magazine FAQ
U.S. Army Won't Field Rie Deemed Superior to
M4
Online Army Study Guide
Main article: Military history

Even until the Second World War, military science was
written in English starting with capital letters, and was
thought of as an academic discipline alongside Physics,
Philosophy and the Medical Science. In part this was
due to the general mystique that accompanied education in a World where as late as the 1880s 75% of
the European population was illiterate. The ability by
the ocers to make complex calculations required for
the equally complex evolutionsof the troop movements in linear warfare that increasingly dominated the
Renaissance and later history, and the introduction of the
gunpowder weapons into the equation of warfare only
added to the veritable arcana of building fortications as
it seemed to the average individual.
Until the early 19th century, one observer, a British

veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, Major John Mitchell
thought that it seemed nothing much had changed from
For the research and development of technologies used the application of force on a battleeld since the days of
in warfare, see Military technology.
the Greeks.* [2] He suggested that this was primarily so
because as Clausewitz suggested, unlike in any other
1.14 Military science
284
mobility, and the maintenance of the strategic oensive* [9] better known as the Cult of the oensive. The
key to this, and other modes of thinking about war remained analysis of military history and attempts to derive
tangible lessons that could be replicated again with equal
success on another battleeld as a sort of bloody laboratory of military science. Few were bloodier than the
elds of the Western Front between 1914 and 1918. Fascinatingly the man who probably understood Clausewitz
better than most, Marshal Foch would initially participate
in events that nearly destroyed the French Army.* [10]
It is not however true to say that military theorists and

commanders were suering from some collective case of
stupidity; quite the opposite is true. Their analysis of military history convinced them that decisive and aggressive
strategic oensive was the only doctrine of victory, and
feared that overemphasis of repower, and the resultant
dependence on entrenchment would make this all but impossible, and leading to the battleeld stagnant in advantages of the defensive position, destroying troop morale
and willingness to ght.* [11] Because only the oensive
could bring victory, lack of it, and not the repower, was
science or art, in war the object reacts.* [3]
blamed for the defeat of the Imperial Russian Army in
Until this time, and even after the Franco-Prussian War, the Russo-Japanese War. Foch thought thatIn strategy
military science continued to be divided between the for- as well as in tactics one attacks.* [12]
mal thinking of ocers brought up in the shadow
In many ways military science was born as a result of the
of Napoleonic Wars and younger ocers like Ardant du
experiences of the Great War. Military implements
Picq who tended to view ghting performance as rooted
had changed armies beyond recognition with cavalry to
in the individual's and group psychology* [4] and sugvirtually disappear in the next 20 years. The supply of
gested detailed analysis of this. This set in motion the
an armywould become a science of logistics in the wake
eventual fascination of the military organisations with
of massive armies, operations and troops that could re
application of quantitative and qualitative research to
ammunition faster than it could be produced, for the rst
their theories of combat; the attempt to translate military
time using vehicles that used the combustion engine, a
thinking as philosophic concepts into concrete methods
watershed of change.* [13] Militaryorganisationwould
of combat.
no longer be that of the linear warfare, but assault teams,
Military implements, the supply of an army, its organi- and battalions that were becoming multi-skilled with inzation, tactics, and discipline, have constituted the ele- troduction of machine gun and mortar, and for the rst
ments of military science in all ages; but improvement in time forcing military commanders to think not only in
weapons and accoutrements appears to lead and control terms of rank and le, but force structure.
all the rest.* [5]
Tactics changed too, with infantry for the rst time segreThe breakthrough of sorts made by Clausewitz in sug- gated from the horse-mounted troops, and required to cogesting eight principles on which such methods can be operate with tanks, aircraft and new artillery tactics. Perbased, in Europe, for the rst time presented an oppor- ception of military discipline too had changed. Morale,
tunity to largely remove the element of chance and er- despite strict disciplinarian attitudes, had cracked in all
ror from command decision making process.* [6] At this armies during the war, but best performing troops were
time emphasis was made on the Topography (includ- found to be those where emphasis on discipline had been
ing Trigonometry), Military art (Military science),* [7] replaced with display of personal initiative and group coMilitary history, Organisation of the Army in the eld, hesiveness such as that found in the Australian Corps durArtillery and Science of Projectiles, Field fortica- ing the Hundred Days Oensive. The military sciences'
tions and Permanent fortications, Military legislation, analysis of military history that had failed European comMilitary administration and Manoeuvres.* [8]
manders was about to give way to a new military science,
The military science on which the model of German less conspicuous in appearance, but more aligned to the
combat operations was built for the First World War re- processes of science of testing and experimentation, the
mained largely unaltered from the Napoleonic model, but scientic method, and forever wedto the idea of the
took into the consideration the vast improvements in the superiority of technology on the battleeld.
CLASS IN TELEPHONY: ENLISTED MEN, U. S. ARMY. The
province of the telephone in modern warfare is constantly broadening. It is one of the agencies which has robbed battle of much
of its picturesqueness, romance, and glamor; for the dashing dispatch rider on his foam-ecked steed is practically a being of
the past, more antiquated than the armored knight of medieval
days. A message sent by telephone annihilates space and time,
whereas the dispatch rider would, in most cases, be annihilated
by shrapnel. Published 1917.
repower and the ability to conduct great battles of an- Currently military science still means many things to difnihilationthrough rapid concentration of force, strategic

ferent organisations. In the United Kingdom and much of
the European Union the approach is to relate it closely to
the civilian application and understanding. The Defence
Scientic Advisory Council sees this in terms of the elds
of science, engineering, technology and analysis (SETA)
that includes broad strategic issues, priorities and policies related to developing military capabilities.* [14] In
Europe, for example Belgium's Royal Military Academy,
military science remains an academic discipline, and is
studied alongside Social Sciences, including such subjects
as Humanitarian law. The United States Department of
Defense denes military science in terms of specic systems and operational requirements, and include among
other areas civil defence and force structure.
285
equipage of units from divisional size and down, but also
including the headquarters of Corps and Armies.
Force structuring also provides information on the mission and capabilities of specic units, as well as the unit's
current status in terms of posture and readiness. A general TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry) rather than a specic unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In this way, all units of the same branch (such as Infantry) follow the same structural guidelines which allows
for a more ecient nancing, training and employment
of like units operationally.
Military education and training
1.14.2
Employment of military skills
Main article: Military education and training
In the rst instance military science is concerned with

Studies the methodology and practices involved in trainwho will participate in military operations, and what sets
ing soldiers, NCOs (non-commissioned ocers, i.e.
of skills and knowledge they will require to do so eecsergeants and corporals), and ocers. It also extends this
tively and some what ingeniously.
to training small and large units, both individually and in
concert with one another for both the regular and reserve
organizations. Military training, especially for ocers,
also concerns itself with general education and political
indoctrination of the armed forces.
Main article: Military organization
Develops optimal methods for the administration and organization of military units, as well as the military as a
whole. In addition, this area studies other associated aspects as mobilization/demobilization, and military government for areas recently conquered (or liberated) from
enemy control.
1.14.3 Military concepts and methods

Much of capability development depends on the concepts
which guide use of the armed forces and their weapons
and equipment, and the methods employed in any given
theatre of war or combat environment.
Force structuring
Force structuring is the method by which personnel and
the weapons and equipment they use are organized and
trained for military operations, including combat. Development of force structure in any country is based on
strategic, operational and tactical needs of the national
defence policy, the identied threats to the country, and
the technological capabilities of the threats and the armed
forces.
Military history
Main article: Military history
Military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years, and the essential tactics, strategy, and
goals of military operations have been unchanging
throughout history. As an example, one notable maneuver is the double envelopment, considered to be the consummate military maneuver, rst executed by Hannibal
at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, and later by Khalid
ibn al-Walid at the Battle of Walaja in 633 CE.
Force structure development is guided by doctrinal considerations of strategic, operational and tactical deployment and employment of formations and units to territories, areas and zones where they are expected to perform
their missions and tasks. Force structuring applies to all Via the study of history, the military seeks to avoid past
Armed Services, but not to their supporting organisations mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by
such as those used for defence science research activities. instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical
In the United States force structure is guided by the parallels during battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons
table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E) is learned. The main areas military history includes are the
a document published by the U.S. Department of De- history of wars, battles, and combats, history of the milfense which prescribes the organization, manning, and itary art, and history of each specic military service.
286
countries) relies heavily on masses of machinery and
troops, a highly educated (albeit very small) ocer corps,
and pre-planned missions. Its advantages are that it does
not require well educated troops, does not require a large
logistic train, is under tight central control, and does not
rely on a sophisticated C3I system after the initiation of a
course of action. Its disadvantages are inexibility, a reliance on the shock eect of mass (with a resulting high
cost in lives and material), and overall inability to exploit
unexpected success or respond to unexpected loss.
Current major security alliances

NATO, ESDP
SCO, CSTO
PSC
SADC
Military strategy and doctrines

Main articles: Military strategy, Military doctrine
Military strategy is in many ways the centerpiece of military science. It studies the specics of planning for, and
engaging in combat, and attempts to reduce the many factors to a set of principles that govern all interactions of the
eld of battle. In Europe these principles were rst dened by Clausewitz in his Principles of War. As such, it
directs the planning and execution of battles, operations,
and wars as a whole. Two major systems prevail on the
planet today. Broadly speaking, these may be described
as the Westernsystem, and the Russiansystem.
Each system reects and supports strengths and weakness
in the underlying society.
Modern Western military art is composed primarily of
an amalgam of French, German, British, and American
systems. The Russian system borrows from these systems as well, either through study, or personal observation in the form of invasion (Napoleon's War of 1812,
and The Great Patriotic War), and form a unique product
suited for the conditions practitioners of this system will
encounter. The system that is produced by the analysis
provided by Military Art is known as doctrine.
Western military doctrine relies heavily on technology,
the use of a well-trained and empowered NCO cadre,
and superior information processing and dissemination
to provide a level of battleeld awareness that opponents
cannot match. Its advantages are extreme exibility, extreme lethality, and a focus on removing an opponent's
C3I (command, communications, control, and intelligence) to paralyze and incapacitate rather than destroying
their combat power directly (hopefully saving lives in the
process). Its drawbacks are high expense, a reliance on
dicult-to-replace personnel, an enormous logistic train,
and a diculty in operating without high technology assets if depleted or destroyed.
Soviet military doctrine (and its descendants, in CIS
Chinese military doctrine is currently in a state of ux

as the People's Liberation Army is evaluating military
trends of relevance to China. Chinese military doctrine
is inuenced by a number of sources including an indigenous classical military tradition characterized by strategists such as Sun Tzu, Western and Soviet inuences, as
well as indigenous modern strategists such as Mao Zedong. One distinctive characteristic of Chinese military
science is that it places emphasis on the relationship between the military and society as well as views military
force as merely one part of an overarching grand strategy.
Each system trains its ocer corps in its philosophy regarding military art. The dierences in content and emphasis are illustrative. The United States Army principles
of war are dened in the U.S. Army Field Manual FM
1005. The Canadian Forces principles of war/military
science are dened by Land Forces Doctrine and Training System (LFDTS) to focus on principles of command,
principles of war, operational art and campaign planning,
and scientic principles.
Russian Federation armed forces derive their principles
of war predominantly from those developed during the
existence of the Soviet Union. These, although based signicantly on the Second World War experience in conventional war ghting, have been substantially modied
since the introduction of the nuclear arms into strategic considerations. The Soviet war in Afghanistan and
the First and Second Chechen Wars further modied the
principles that Soviet theorists had divided into the operational art and tactics. The very scientic approach to
military science thinking in the Soviet union had been
perceived as overly rigid at the tactical level, and had affected the training in the Russian Federation's much reduced forces to instil greater professionalism and initiative in the forces.
The military principles of war of the People's Liberation Army were loosely based on those of the Soviet
Union until the 1980s when a signicant shift begun to
be seen in a more regionally-aware, and geographicallyspecic strategic, operational and tactical thinking in all
services. The PLA is currently inuenced by three doctrinal schools which both conict and complement each
other: the People's war, the Regional war, and the Revolution in military aairs that led to substantial increase in
the defence spending and rate of technological moderni-

sation of the forces.
287
Military logistics
The dierences in the specics of Military art notwithMain article: Military logistics
standing, Military science strives to provide an integrated
picture of the chaos of battle, and illuminate basic insights
that apply to all combatants, not just those who agree with The art and science of planning and carrying out the
movement and maintenance of military forces. In its
your formulation of the principles.
most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with the design, development,
Military geography
acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of materiel; the movement, evacuaMain article: Military geography
tion, and hospitalization of personnel; the acquisition or
construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of
Military geography encompasses much more than simple facilities; and the acquisition or furnishing of services.
protestations to take the high ground. Military geography
studies the obvious, the geography of theatres of war, but
also the additional characteristics of politics, economics,
and other natural features of locations of likely conict
(the political landscape, for example). As an example, the Soviet war in Afghanistan was predicated on the
ability of the Soviet Union to not only successfully invade
Afghanistan, but also to militarily and politically ank the
Islamic Republic of Iran simultaneously.
Military technology and equipment

Main article: Military technology and equipment
Military technology is not just the study of various technologies and applicable physical sciences used to increase
military power. It may also extend to the study of production methods of military equipment, and ways to improve
performance and reduce material and/or technological requirements for its production. An example is the eort
1.14.4 Military systems
expended by Nazi Germany to produce articial rubbers
How eectively and eciently militaries accomplish their and fuels to reduce or eliminate their dependence on imoperations, missions and tasks is closely related not only ported POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants) and rubber
to the methods they use, but the equipment and weapons supplies.
they use.
Military technology is unique only in its application, not
in its use of basic scientic and technological achievements. Because of the uniqueness of use, military technoMilitary intelligence
logical studies strive to incorporate evolutionary, as well
as the rare revolutionary technologies, into their proper
Military intelligence supports the combat commanders' place of military application.
decision making process by providing intelligence analysis of available data from a wide range of sources. To provide that informed analysis the commanders information 1.14.5 Military studies journals
requirements are identied and input to a process of gathering, analysis, protection, and dissemination of informa- The following are notable journals in the eld:* [15]
tion about the operational environment, hostile, friendly
and neutral forces and the civilian population in an area
Armed Forces & Society
of combat operations, and broader area of interest. Intel Contemporary Security Policy
ligence activities are conducted at all levels from tactical
to strategic, in peacetime, the period of transition to war,
Defense & Security Analysis
and during the war.
European Security
Most militaries maintain a military intelligence capability
to provide analytical and information collection personnel
International Journal of Intelligence and Counterinin both specialist units and from other arms and services.
telligence
Personnel selected for intelligence duties, whether spe International Peacekeeping
cialist intelligence ocers and enlisted soldiers or nonspecialist assigned to intelligence may be selected for
International Security
their analytical abilities and intelligence before receiving
formal training.
Joint Forces Quarterly
Military intelligence serves to identify the threat, and
provide information on understanding best methods and
weapons to use in deterring or defeating it.
Military Psychology
Military Review
288
Nonproliferation Review
Orbis (journal)
Parameters (journal)
Security Dialogue
Security Studies (journal)
Survival (journal)
Small Wars & Insurgencies
Journal of Strategic Studies
The RUSI Journal
The Washington Quarterly
The Journal of Security Strategies
1.14.6
See also
List of basic military science and technology topics

War
1.14.7
Citations and notes
1.14.8 References
Barnard, Henry, Military Schools and Courses of Instruction in the Science and Art of War in France,
Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Sardinia, England, and the United States, Part I - France
and Prussia, J.B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia,
1862
Dupuy, Trevor N., Understanding War: History and
Theory of Combat, Leo Cooper, London, 1992
Gat, Azar, The Development of Military Thought:
The Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press,
London, 1992
Jordan, Kelly C., Military Science, in G. Kurt
Piehler, ed. Encyclopedia of Military Science,
SAGE Reference, Volume, 2. pp. 880885.
Lodge, Henry Cabot, (ed.), The North American
Review, Making of America Project, University of
Northern Iowa, 1878
Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies New York: Routledge, 2014.
Thompson, Julian, Lifeblood of war: Logistics in
armed conict, Brassey's classics, London, 1991
[1] Jordan, 2013. p. 880.

[2] p.12, Gat
[3] cf p.12, Gat
Military Technology
[4] p.29, Gat
Military Equipment
[5] p.194, Lodge

[6] p.12, Dupuy
US Military/Government Texts
[7] taught by a Professor of Military Art at the Sta School

in France, p.248, Barnard
The Logic of Warghting Experiments by Kass

(CCRP, 2006)
[8] p.248, Barnard
Complexity, Networking, and Eects Based Approaches to Operations by Smith (CCRP, 2006)
[9] p.113, Gat

[10] p.15, Dupuy
Understanding Command and Control by Alberts

and Hayes (CCRP, 2006)
[11] p.138, Gat

[12] p.138-139, Gat
[13] p.50, Thompson
The Agile Organization by Atkinson and Moat

(CCRP, 2005)
[14] Defence Scientic Advisory Council (DSAC)
Power to the Edge by Alberts and Hayes (CCRP,

2003)
[15] Google Scholar Metrics, Military Studies. Google.

Network Centric Warfare by Alberts et al. (CCRP,

1999)
1.16. RECONNAISSANCE
289
1.16 Reconnaissance
This article is about military reconnaissance. For other
uses of reconnaissance, see Reconnaissance (disambiguation). For monitoring activity, see surveillance.
Reconnaissance is a mission to obtain information by visual observation or other detection methods, about the
activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy,
or about the meteorologic, hydrographic, or geographic
characteristics of a particular area.* [1]
A Ranger with 2nd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment, provides
overwatch security on an objective during a mission in Iraq,
2006.
1.15 Overwatch
This article is about the military unit. For the upcoming video game, see Overwatch (video game). For the
Combine forces, see Half-Life 2.
In modern warfare, overwatch is a force protection tactic: the state of one small unit or military vehicle supporting another unit, while they are executing re and movement tactics. An overwatching, or supporting unit has
taken a position where it can observe the terrain ahead,
especially likely enemy positions. This allows it to provide eective covering re for advancing friendly units.
The term overwatch originates in U.S. military doctrine.
Reconnaissance (US Army FM 7-92; Chap. 4)

In military operations, reconnaissance is the exploration
outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by
troops (Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol, U.S. Army
Rangers, scouts, or military intelligence specialists),
ships or submarines, manned/unmanned reconnaissance
aircraft, satellites, or by setting up covert observation
posts. Espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because
reconnaissance is a military force's operating ahead of its
main forces; spies are non-combatants operating behind
enemy lines.
Often called "recce" (British and Canadian English) or

"recon" (American and Australian English), the associAn ideal overwatch position provides cover for the unit, ated verb is reconnoitre.
and unobstructed lines of re. It may be on a height of
ground or at the top of a ridge, where a vehicle may be
able to adopt a hull-down position. If the overwatching 1.16.1 History
unit is in a position to re over advancing friendly units,
great care must be taken not to let re fall short. The
friendly units should be within tracer burnout (the range
at which tracer rounds are visible).
Overwatch can be performed by platoons during company re and movement, by individual armoured ghting
vehicles (especially tanks) or infantry sections, in platoon
re and movement, or even by reteams or individual soldiers, in the nal stages of an assault.
Overwatch tactics and ring at the short halt were especially important in armoured warfare before modern tank Tatar horsemen in the painting On Reconnaissanceby Jzef
Brandt, 1876.
gun stabilizers were developed, since moving tanks were
unlikely to hit any target. Even in modern tanks, however,
Traditionally, reconnaissance was a role that was adopted
it is much easier to spot enemies at a halt.
by the cavalry. Speed was key in these maneuvers, thus
infantry was ill suited to the task. From horses to vehicles, for warriors throughout history, commanders procured their ability to have speed and mobility, to mount
1.15.1 See also
and dismount, during maneuver warfare. Military commanders favored specialized small units for speed and
Combined arms
mobility, to gain valuable information about the terrain
and enemy before sending the main (or majority) troops
Bounding overwatch
into the area, screening, covering force, pursuit and ex-
290
ploitation roles. Skirmishing is a traditional skill of re- 1.16.3 Discipline

connaissance, as well as harassment of the enemy.
Types of reconnaissance:
1.16.2
Overview
1. Terrain-oriented reconnaissance is a survey of the

terrain (its features, weather, and other natural observations).
2. Force-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the enemy forces (number, equipment, activities, disposition etc.) and may include target acquisition.
3. Civil-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the civil
dimension of the battlespace (areas, structures, capabilities, organizations, people and events or ASCOPE).
The techniques and objectives are not mutually exclusive;
it is up to the commander whether they are carried out
separately or by the same unit.
A Scimitar as used by armoured reconnaissance regiments of the

British Army.
Reconnaissance-in-force
Some military elements tasked with reconnaissance are
armed only for self-defense, and rely on stealth to gather
information. Others are well-enough armed to also deny
information to the enemy by destroying their reconnaissance elements.
Reconnaissance-in-force (RIF) is a type of military operation or military tactics used specically to probe an
enemy's disposition. By mounting an oensive with considerable (but not decisive) force, the commander hopes
to elicit a strong reaction by the enemy that reveals its
own strength, deployment, and other tactical data. The
RIF commander retains the option to fall back with the
data or expand the conict into a full engagement.
A two-man JGSDF team mans Kawasaki KLX250 dirt bikes in

the reconnaissance role during a public demonstration.
Other methods consist of hit-and-run tactics using rapid

mobility, and in some cases light-armored vehicles for
added re superiority, as the need arises.
Reconnaissance conducted by ground forces includes

special reconnaissance, armored reconnaissance,
Reconnaissance-by-re
amphibious reconnaissance and civil reconnaissance.
Aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance carried out by
aircraft (of all types including balloons and unmanned
aircraft). The purpose is to survey weather conditions,
map terrain, and may include military purposes such as
observing tangible structures, particular areas, and movement of enemy forces.
Reconnaissance by re (or speculative re) is the act of ring at likely enemy positions, in order to cause the enemy
force to reveal their location by moving or by returning
re.* [2]
Reconnaissance-pull
Naval forces use aerial and satellite reconnaissance to observe enemy forces. Navies also undertake hydrographic Reconnaissance-pull is a tactic that is applied at the regisurveys and intelligence gathering.
ment to division level and dened as locating and rapidly
Reconnaissance satellites provide military commanders exploiting enemy weaknesses. It is the ability to deterwith photographs of enemy forces and other intelligence. mine enemy positions and create exploitable gaps through
Military forces also use geographical and meteorological which friendly forces can pass while avoiding obstacles
information from Earth observation satellites.
and strong points.* [3]
1.16. RECONNAISSANCE
291
A textbook example of reconnaissance-pull was documented during the Tinian landings during World
War II, utilized by the United States Marine Corps's
Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, from V Amphibious Corps. Aerial photography, and the conrmation by the amphibious reconnaissance platoons determined that the Japanese defenders had largely ignored the
northern beaches of the island focusing most of their defensive eort on beaches in the south-west which were
more favorable for an amphibious landing. American
forces quickly changed their landing location to the northern beaches and planned a small and hasty deception
operation o the southern beach, which resulted in a complete surprise for the Japanese forces. As a result, American forces were able to ght the Japanese force on land
where they had the advantage leading to light losses and
a relatively short battle that lasted only 9 days.* [4]
area around it; it may be terrain-oriented and/or forceoriented. Ideally, a reconnaissance platoon, or team,
would use surveillance or vantage (static) points around
the objective to observe, and the surrounding area. This
methodology focuses mainly prior to moving forces into
or near a specied area; the military commander may
utilize his reconnaissance assets to conduct an area reconnaissance to avoid being surprised by unsuitable terrain conditions, or most importantly, unexpected enemy
forces. The area could be a town, ridge-line, woods, or
another feature that friendly forces intend to occupy, pass
through, or avoid.* [1]
Scouts may also have dierent tasks to perform for

their commanders of higher echelons, for example: the
engineer reconnaissance detachments will try to identify
dicult terrain in the path of their formation, and attempt to reduce the time it takes to transit the terrain using specialist engineering equipment such as a pontoon
bridge for crossing water obstacles. Sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance implies collection and transfer of
all data available on sanitary and epidemiological situation of the area of possible deployment and action of
armed forces, the same data for the neighboring and enemy armed forces. The aim for the reconnaissance is to
clear up the reasons of the specic disease origin- sources
of the infection in various extreme situations, including
local wars and armed conicts, the ways of the infection
transfer and all factors promoting to the infestation.
of collection in the operational area for civil reconnaissance is collecting civil information relating to the daily
interaction between civilians and military forces. Civil
information encompasses relational, temporal, geospatial
and behavioral information captured in a socio-cultural
backdrop. It is information developed from data related
to civil areas, structures, capabilities, organizations, people, and events, within the civil component of the commanders operational environment that can be processed
to increase situational awareness and understanding. The
type of civil information that is needed in order to support military operations varies based on the environment
and situation.* [7]* [8]
Within an Area of operation (AO), area reconnaissance

can focus the reconnaissance on the specic area that
is critical to the commander. This technique of focusing the reconnaissance also permits the mission to be
accomplished more quickly. Area reconnaissance can
thus be a stand-alone mission or a task to a section or
the platoon. The commander analyzes the mission to
1.16.4 Types
determine whether the platoon will conduct these types
of reconnaissance separately or in conjunction with each
When referring to reconnaissance, a commander's full inother.* [1]
tention is to have a vivid picture of his battlespace. The
commander organizes the reconnaissance platoon based
on: 1) mission, 2) enemy, 3) terrain, 4) troops and support Civil
available, (5) time available, (6) and civil considerations.
This analysis determines whether the platoon uses sin- Civil Reconnaissance is the process of gathering a broad
gle or multiple elements to conduct the reconnaissance, spectrum of civil information about a specic population
whether it pertains to area, zone, or route reconnais- in support of military operations. It is related to and ofsance, the following techniques may be used as long as ten performed in conjunction with infrastructure reconthe fundamentals of reconnaissance are applied.
naissance (assessment and survey). Normally the focus
After the armed forces have become stationary during

wartime and emergency of peace time the sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance turns into sanitary and epidemiological surveillance and medical control of vital and
communal activity of the armed forces.* [5]* [6]
Route
Route reconnaissance is oriented on a given route: e.g. a

road, a railway, a waterway; a narrow axis or a general
direction of attack, to provide information on route conditions or activities along the route. A military commander relies on information about locations along his determined route: which those that would provide best cover
and concealment; bridge by construction type, dimenArea
sions, and classication; or for landing zones or pickup
*
Area reconnaissance refers to the observation, and in- zones, if the need arises. [1]
formation obtained, about a specied location and the In many cases, the commander may act upon a force-
292
the zone, enabling him to choose the appropriate courseof-action.
As the platoon conducts this type of zone reconnaissance, its emphasis is on determining the enemy's locations, strengths, and weaknesses. This is the most thorough and complete reconnaissance mission and therefore
is very time-intensive.
1.16.5 Gallery
1.16.6 See also
U.S. Seabee Engineer Reconnaissance Team on a mission to determine if a bridge can be used to support troop and convoy movements
oriented route reconnaissance by which the enemy could

inuence movement along that route. For the reconnaissance platoons, or squads, stealth and speed in conjunction with detailed intelligence-reporting are most
important and crucial. The reconnaissance platoon must
remain far enough ahead of the maneuver force to assist
in early warning and to prevent the force from becoming
surprised.
Airborne pathnders
Armored reconnaissance
Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and
Reconnaissance
List of reconnaissance units
Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol
Surveillance aircraft
U.S. military doctrine for reconnaissance
Even it is paramount to obtain information about the

Espionage
available space in which a force can maneuver without being forced to bunch up due to obstacles. Terrain-oriented
route reconnaissance allows the commander to obtain in- 1.16.7 References
formation and capabilities about the adjacent terrain for
maneuvering his forces, to include, any obstacles (mine- [1] Field Manual (FM) 792: The Infantry Reconnaissance
Platoon and Squad (Airborne, Air Assault, Light Infantry).
elds, barriers, steep ravines, marshy areas, or chemical,
United States Army. 2001. p. 4.0.
biological, radiological, and nuclear contamination) that
may obstruct vehicle movementon routes to, and in, his [2] (July 2011)
assigned area of operations. This requirement includes
the size of trees and the density of forests due to their [3] Reconnaissance-pull- seeking the path of least resistance (monograph, US Command and General Sta Coleects on vehicle movement. Route reconnaissance also
lege, 1991)
allows the observation for elds of re along the route
and adjacent terrain. This information assists planners as [4]Chap. 11. Marine Corps Operations (MCDP 1-0). Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication. 2007. pp. 1110.
a supplement to map information.
Zone
Zone reconnaissance focuses on obtaining detailed information before maneuvering their forces through particular, designated locations. It can be terrain-oriented,
force-oriented, or both, as it acquire this information by
reconnoitering withinand by maintaining surveillance
overroutes, obstacles (to include nuclear-radiological,
biological, and chemical contamination), and resources
within an assigned location.* [4]
[5] Beliakov VD Military Epidemiology. Textbook in Russian. Leningrad, 1976 p153.

[6] Mel'nichenko P.I., Ogarkov O.I., Lizunov Yu.V. Military
Hygiene and Military Epidemiology. 400 pp., ill. 2005
ISBN 5-225-04849-8
[7] Burke, Kevin. Civil Reconnaissance; Separating the Insurgent from the Population(PDF). NPS. Retrieved Dec
2007.
[8] Joint Publication 3-57 (PDF). US Government. Retrieved Feb 2001.
Also, force-oriented zone reconnaissance is assigned to

gain detailed information about enemy forces within the 1.16.8 Further reading
zone, or when the enemy situation is vague by which the
Halsall, Christine, Women of Intelligence. Winning
information concerning cross-country trac-ability is dethe Second World War with Air Photos, The History
sired.* [1] The reconnaissance provides the commander
with a detailed picture of how the enemy has occupied
Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-7524-6477-0
1.17. RIFLEMAN
293
1.17 Rieman
the bayonet. This innovation replaced the pike, and in effect converted the musket into a pike for those situations
where it might still be useful, such as following up volleys
For other uses, see Rieman (disambiguation).
A rieman is a soldier in a light infantry unit. Although with a charge, or defending against cavalry.
Smooth-bore weapons such as the musket had always
been recognised as inaccurate, requiring massed volleys
to be eective. Aimed re, with targets individually chosen and red upon on the initiative of the soldier, was
not possible until the development of riing in the barrel.
This imparted spin to the bullet, greatly increasing the
'trueness' of the trajectory, rather than the randomness of
a musket ball that actually 'bounced' down the barrel. Ries, although deadly accurate, were disadvantaged by being very slow to reload. This meant that the soldiers chosen for this role needed to be resilient, brave and resourceful, as well as being good shots. Trained to act in teams
of two, each defending the other while they re-loaded,
they were still vulnerable, especially to cavalry, trained
as they were to ght in isolated and dispersed groups
rather than as a mass that could present a solid wall of
bayonets. These factorsthe time and expense required
in training, the limited number of suitable recruits, and
the specialised roles and situations where they were most
eectivemeant they were highly prized, given special
privileges, and 'husbanded' rather than squandered. They
were, in essence, an lite.
Portuguese Army rieman (caador) of the Peninsular War
Units of 'Ries' reached their heyday up to and including the Napoleonic Wars, with the British riemen (partially derived from units of colonial militia; see Rogers'
Rangers or the Royal Americans) truly excelling in the
American War of Independence. Regular units of Ries
were formed in the British Army in 1800 (the 60th Regiment of Foot and the 95th Regiment of Foot). From
around 1840, with the advent of the rst military breechloading ries, the weapon entered an age of industrialised
warfare, where it was mass-produced and accessible to
all infantrymen. Much faster and simpler to load, able
to be used while prone, impossible to be double-loaded
after a misre; the high level of training and highly specialised roles gave way to generality. The term 'rieman',
once used solely as a mark of distinction and pride, became a commonplace description of all soldiers, no matter what their actual status was. Nevertheless the term
still retained a certain lan, that is still found today.
ultimately originating with the 16th century handgunners

and the 17th century musketeers and streltsy, the term rieman originated in the 18th century. Entire regiments
1.17.2 Modern tactics
and bodies of troops were armed with the weapon. It later
became the term for the archetypal common infantryman.
Modern riemen are armed with select-re assault ries,
hybrids of submachine guns and ries. Riemen are the
basic modern soldiers from which all other soldierly func1.17.1 History
tions stem. Though by tradition certain infantry units are
Musketeers originally fought as an integral unit with based on the rieman, they employ a variety of other spepikemen. As the eectiveness of rearms increased, the cialized soldiers in conjunction with the rieman.
balance of these pike-and-musket units shifted, until the In the context of the modern re team, Riemancan
pikes were supporting the muskets. The last pike regi- be used to indicate a basic position such as scout, team
ments were dissolved by the 1720s with the invention of leader, or designated marksman. In the same context, the
294
terms Designated Automatic Rieman and Assistant Au- Finland

tomatic Rieman are used to describe a soldier who carries either a light support weapon or its ammunition.
Finnish Jger troops, volunteers from Finland in
Germany trained as Jgers
The termLong-Riemanis often used by police forces,
anti-terrorist units and small-scale team-based military
forces worldwide. It is an assignment rather than a rank,
and refers to a marksman or sharpshooter (not a sniper,
who is additionally an expert in eldcraft), one who is
meant to expand the team's eective range with a long,
scoped rie.
1.17.3
Rieman in dierent countries
Argentina
Mountain Huntsmen, in Spanish: Cazadores de
Montaa
Jungle Huntsmen, in Spanish: Cazadores del Monte
Australia
In the Australian Defence Force riemen are employed
by the Australian Army in both the Regular Army and
the Army Reserves. Riemen in the Australian Army are
members of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps. Riemen in the Regular Army are organised into seven battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment.
Guard Jaeger Regiment or Huntsmen's Guard Regiment, a Finnish Army unit

Jaeger Brigade, a unit of the Finnish Army
Para Jgers, Special Operations Airborne Infantry in
the Finnish Army
Utti Jaeger Regiment, the Finnish Army training and
development centre for special forces and helicopter
operations
Finnish infantry units are also known as Jger (Finnish pl.
Jkrit, Swedish pl. Jgarna), a legacy of a Finnish volunteer Jger battalion formed in Germany during World
War I to ght for the liberation of Finland from Russia.
France
A Chasseur designation was given to certain regiments of
French light infantry (Chasseurs pied) or light cavalry
(Chasseurs cheval).
The 7 battalions are composed of:

Two battalions of mechanized infantry
Two battalions of motorized infantry
Two battalions of light infantry
One battalion of paratroop infantry
Chasseurs pied - Foot Huntsmen The name Chasseurs pied (light infantry) was originally used for infantry units in the French Army recruited from hunters
or woodsmen. Recognized for their marksmanship and
skirmishing skills, the chasseurs were comparable to the
German Jger or the British light infantry. The Chasseurs Pied, as the marksmen of the French army, were
regarded as elite light companies and regiments.* [1]
Riemen of the Army Reserve are organized into individual state and university regiments with reserve depots being found in many places throughout rural and metropoli- Chasseur alpins - Alpine Huntsmen Main article:
Chasseurs alpins
tan Australia.
Belgium
The elite mountain infantry of the French Army. Trained

to operate in mountainous terrain and in urban warfare.
Chasseurs Ardennais, armoured infantry battalion

1st Regiment Jagers te Paard, mechanized recon- Chasseurs cheval - Horse Huntsmen The Chasnaissance battalion
seurs Cheval, (light cavalry) were generally not held
2nd/4th Regiment Mounted Ries, mechanized rein as high esteem as their infantry counterparts, or the
connaissance battalion with electronic warfare unit identically armed light cavalry units of hussars. During
the French occupation of Algeria regiments of Chasseurs
d'Afrique were raised. These were light cavalry recruited
originally from French volunteers and subsequently from
Denmark
the French settlers in North Africa doing their military
Main article: Jgerkorpset
service. As such they were the mounted equivalent of the
Zouaves.
1.17. RIFLEMAN
295
Modern French Army Huntsmen The modern

French Army comprises bataillons of Chasseurs
pied (mechanized infantry : 16e BC),Chasseurs-Alpins
(mountain troops : 7e, 13e, 27e BCA) and regiments
of Chasseurs cheval (1er-2e RCh and 4e RCh :
light armored regiments). In addition one regiment of
Chasseurs d'Afrique (training unit : 1er RCA) has been
re-raised to commemorate this branch of the French
cavalry. Since May 1943 there has been a Rgiment
de Chasseurs Parachutistes(1er RCP).
Garhwal Ries
All of these units have dierent traditions :
11 Gorkha Ries
Bataillons de chasseurs are light infantry units created after 1838. Some of these battalions were converted to specialized mountain units as Bataillons de
Chasseurs Alpins in 1888, as an answer to the Italian
Alpine (Alpini) regiments stationed along the Alpine
frontier.
Jammu and Kashmir Ries

1st Gorkha Ries (The Malaun Regiment)
3 Gorkha Ries
4 Gorkha Ries
5 Gorkha Ries (Frontier Force)
8 Gorkha Ries
9 Gorkha Ries
Israel
In the Israel Defense Forces every soldier goes through

some basic training of infantry, called "Tironut". However, the level of training changes according to the role
and unit to which the soldier belongs. The Riemanprofession (in Hebrew: )includes basic mil Rgiments de chasseurs are units of the Arme
itary skills, physical training, military discipline and usBlinde Cavalerie: armoured units. The basic
ing assault rie. More infantry skills (such as operating
organic unit is called regiment and not bataillon to
diverse weapons) are added as the level of training inavoid confusing cavalry and infantry chasseurs.
creases.
The airborne infantry units called Rgiments de Basic training (Tironut):
chasseurs parachutistes were created in 1943 with
airborne troops from the French Airforce (GIA or
Non-combat soldiers are trained as Rieman 02.
Groupe d'Infanterie de l'Air), who were transferred
Combat-support troops are trained as Rieman 03.
into the Army.
Combat Engineering soldiers and infantry soldiers
Although the traditions of these dierent branches of the
are trained as Rieman 05.
French Army are very dierent, there is still a tendency
to confuse one with the other. For example when World Advance training (Imun Mitkadem):
War I veteran Lon Weil died, the AFP press agency
stated that he was a member of the 5th Regiment de
Combat soldiers of Armor corps and Artillery corps
Chasseurs Alpins. It was in fact the 5th Bataillon.
are trained as Rieman 03.
French rie units were designated Tirailleurs (Fr. 'Skir Field Intelligence Corps soldiers are trained as Rimishers').
eman 04.
Germany
Combat Engineering sappers are trained as Rieman

07.
Main article: Jger (military)
Infantry soldier are trained as Rieman 07.

Additional training for combat soldiers:
India
Combat class commanders are trained as Rieman

08.
In the Indian Army, of the 28 Infantry regiments, the following 10 are designated rie regiments and are distin Combat Senior Sergeants are trained as Rieman
guished by their black rank badges, black buttons on their
10.
service and ceremonial uniforms as also the beret which
Combat ocers are trained as Rieman 12.
is a darker shade of green than the other regiments. Apart
from these, a paramilitary force, Assam Ries and Eastern Frontier Ries, also follows the traditions of the rie Italy
regiment.
Rajputana Ries
Italian Rie units were designated Cacciatori or

Bersaglieri.
296
The Netherlands
of Caadores Paraquedistas were also created in Angola,
Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea.
Garderegiment Grenadiers en Jagers, guards regIn 1975, the designation "Caadores" was discontinued
iment, an amalgamation of the Garderegiment
in the Portuguese Armed Forces. All former units of
Grenadiers and the Garderegiment Jagers. Consists
caadores started to be known simply as Infantry.
of one air mobile infantry battalion
Currently, every infantry soldier of the Portuguese Army
Regiment Limburgse Jagers, line infantry (former is known as atirador.
2nd Infantry Regiment). Consists of one armoured
infantry battalion
Rhodesia
Norway
The Rhodesia Regiment had an aliation with the King's

Hrens Jegerkommando, the armed forces compe- Royal Rie Corps since World War I. The regiment's
tence center for ranger, airborne and counter terror- badge was the Maltese Cross, the colours were red, black
and rie green and rie green berets were worn. A private
ist duty in the Norwegian Army
soldier had the title of Rieman.
Jegerkompaniet, the Norwegian Army's northernmost unit
Romania
Marinejegerkommandoen, a maritime special forces
unit
Vntori de Munte, or Mountain Huntsmen, one
Kystjegerkommandoen, coastal units
Grensejeger, border rangers at the border between
Russia and Norway
of the most active of the Romanian military elite

forces.
Russia
Portugal
The Imperial Russian Army, which was heavily inuenced by the Prussian and Austrian military systems, inMain article: Caadores
cluded fty Jger or yegerskii [] regiments in its
organisation by 1812, including the Egersky Guards RegPortuguese Riemen were known as Caadores literally iment.
Huntsmen. Portuguese Caadores battalions were the
elite light soldiers of the Portuguese Army during the
Peninsular War. They wore distinctive brown uniforms Spain
for camouage. They were considered, by the Duke of
Brigada de Cazadores de Montaa Aragn I
Wellington, as the "ghting cocks of his army. Each
(Mountain Huntsmen Brigade Aragn I)
Caadores battalion included an elite company armed
with ries known as atiradores (literally Shooters).
In the rst half of the 20th century the Caadores battal- Spanish Riemen were as Cazadores.
ions were recreated as border defense units.
In the 1950s, the title "Caadores" was also given to the Sweden
light infantry battalions and independent companies responsible for the garrison of the Portuguese overseas ter Jgare, elite units in the Swedish Armed Forces
ritories. There were units of this type mobilized both in
European Portugal and locally in each overseas territory.
Fallskrmsjgarna, the Parachute Ranger Corps
At the beginning of the 1960s, several special forces com Fallskrmsjgarskolan, the Swedish Army's
panies of the Portuguese Army were named Special
Parachute Ranger School
Huntsmen(Caadores Especiais). These units wore a
brown beret in the colour of the uniforms of the caadores
-Nerike skvadron, Intelligence squadron
of the Peninsular War. Later these units were abolished
and the brown beret started to be used by most of the units
Vadsbo skvadron, Airborne squadron
of the Portuguese Army.
In the 1950s a paratrooper unit was formed in
the Portuguese Air Force, known as Parachutist
Hunters(Caadores Paraquedistas). Later, battalions
Fjlljgarna, Arctic warfare ries

Kustjgarna, Coastal Rangers
1.18. SUPPRESSIVE FIRE
297
Regiments were raised but disbanded after the war. The
Rie Regiment was disbanded in 1821.
In the MexicanAmerican War Colonel Jeerson Davis
created and led the Mississippi Ries.
Riemen were listed as separate to infantry up to the
American Civil War.* [3]
During the Civil War, Sharpshooter regiments were
raised in the North with several companies being raised
by individual states for their own regiments.* [4]
A historical reenactment with the British 95th Ries regiment.
In the United States Marine Corps, the Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) 0311 is forRieman.It is the
primary infantry MOS for the Marine Corps, equivalent
to the U.S. Army MOS 11B for Infantryman. The training for Riemen is conducted at the U.S. Marine Corps
School of Infantry.
United Kingdom
From their inception the British Rie Regiments were 1.17.4 See also
distinguished by a dark green dress with blackened buttons, black leather equipment and sombre facing colours
Service rie
that gave them what was really a modern aspect - designed
for concealment rather than display. This has been re Assault rie
tained until the present day for those British units that
still carry on the traditions of the riemen. Their most
Battle rie
famous weapon was the 'Baker rie', which in the hands
of the elite 95th regiment and the light companies of the
Jaeger
60th regiment and the Kings German Legion gained fame
in the Peninsular War against Napoleonic France.
Sharps Rie
60th ries/King's Royal Rie Corps
95th Ries/The Rie Brigade
The Light Infantry
Chasseur
Fusilier
The Royal Green jackets
Grenadier
The Ries
Infantry
During the Siege of Delhi the 8th (Sirmoor) Local Bat Skirmisher
talion along with the 60th Ries defended Hindu Rao's
House during which a strong bond developed. After the
rebellion the 60th Ries pressed for the Sirmoor Battal- 1.17.5 References and notes
ion to become a rie regiment. This honour was granted
to them next year (1858) when the Battalion was re[1] Ross, Steven T. (1996). From Flintlock to Rie: Infantry
named the Sirmoor Rie Regiment. Later all British
Tactics, 17401866. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0Army Gurka regiments were designated rie regiments
7146-4193-5.
a nomenclature maintained to this day with the Royal
Gurkha Ries.
[2] About the Royal Green Jackets. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
The rank of Rieman instead of Private was ocially
started in 1923.* [2]
[3] United States War Department Revised Regulations for the

Army of the United States, 1861: With a Full Index J. G.
L. Brown, printer, 1861
United States
In 1808, the United States Army created its rst Regiment
of Riemen. During the War of 1812 three more Rie
[4] Katcher, Philip; Walsh, Stephen (2002). Sharpshooters of

the American Civil War 186165. Osprey Publishing. p.
4. ISBN 978-1-84176-463-4.
298
U.S. Special Warfare combatant-craft crewmen use a minigun to

lay down suppressing re during a practice hotextraction of
forces on a beach.
1.18 Suppressive re
In military science, suppressive re (commonly called
covering re) is re that degrades the performance of
an enemy force below the level needed to fulll their mission. Suppression is usually only eective for the duration
of the re.* [1] It is one of three types of re support,
which is dened by NATO asthe application of re, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces, to destroy, neutralize or suppress the enemy.
Before NATO dened the term, the British and Commonwealth armies generally used neutralisationwith the
same denition as suppression. NATO now denes neutralization asre delivered to render a target temporarily
ineective or unusable.
1.18.1
Suppressive re is often used as covering re, dened by

NATO as Fire used to protect troops when they are
within range of enemy small arms.This is sometimes
called winning the reghtin an infantry only action.
However, suppressive re may be used against indirect rers, enemy air defences or other military activities such
as construction work or logistic activities, or to deny an
area to the enemy for a short period of time (it is unsuitable for prolonged area denial due to ammunition supply
constraints). Using smoke to 'blind' enemy observation is
a form of non-lethal suppression and at night illuminating may be used to suppress enemy activities by denying
them the cover of darkness.
Suppression can be delivered by any weapon or group of
weapons capable of delivering the required intensity of
re for the required period of suppression. However, the
suppressive re capabilities vary widely because the suppressive eect area varies widely. For example a rie or
machine gun bullet may only have a suppressive eect
within about one metre of its trajectory whereas, a single
artillery shell may suppress a few thousand square metres
around its burst. Furthermore sustained suppression over
more than a few minutes may be dicult to achieve with
small arms re for logistic reasons, air delivered suppression is similarly aected by payload limits. In contrast,
artillery can suppress an area for an extended period.
The purpose of suppression is to stop or prevent the enemy from observing, shooting, moving or carrying out
other military tasks that interfere (or could interfere) with
the activities of friendly forces. An important feature of
suppressive re is that it is only eective while it lasts and
that it has sucient intensity.
Usage
Two US Navy crew chiefs look over the horizon with their .50cal machine gun and Minigun. Door gunners use machine guns
to provide suppressive re when the helicopter has to land in a
hostile area.
Suppressive re usually achieves its eect by threatening casualties to individuals who expose themselves to it.
Willingness to expose themselves varies depending on the
morale, motivation and leadership of the target troops.
A rotating-barrel minigun being red from a gunship in Vietnam

during the war.
Suppressive re requires sucient intensity over the target area, intensity being the suppressive eect per unit
of target area per unit of suppression time. Weapons
vary widely in their suppressive capabilities, which are
the threat signaled by the noise of projectiles in ight and
their impact.
1.18. SUPPRESSIVE FIRE

Suppressive re is a tactic to reduce casualties to friendly
forces and enable them to conduct their immediate mission. For example a suppressed target will be unable to
engage vulnerable forces that are moving without cover.
This enables forces to advance to new positions or to close
with the enemy. For example, a US Marines article notes
that communication and suppressive re are what enables movement on the battleeld, giving Marines the upper hand.* [2] Suppressive re may be used to enable a
helicopter or boat to land or extract soldiers from a battle
zone (the latter is called a hot extraction).
299
came a key element in 'winning the re ght'. This was
greatly facilitated by the increase in the availability of machine guns, from before World War I and later. However, suppression by infantry direct re weapons is generally only tactically useful against targets that do not have
mutual support from adjacent positions and ammunition
stocks may only be available for several minutes of sustained ring.
In World War II amphibious assaults, naval warships

would open re with their main armaments at known or
suspected enemy artillery, mortar, or machine gun posiThe primary intended eect of suppressive re is psycho- tions, on or behind the landing beaches, to suppress enlogical. Rather than directly trying to kill enemy soldiers, emy re from these positions which could be directed
it makes the enemy soldiers feel unable to safely perform against the landing troops.* [4]
any actions other than seeking cover. Colloquially, this
goal is expressed as it makes them keep their heads
downor it keeps them pinned down". However, de- 1.18.3 Weapons used
pending on factors including the type of ammunition and
the target's protection, suppressive re may cause casualties and/or damage to enemy equipment.
Suppressive re is typically used as covering re against
the enemy in the close combat zone. However, suppressive re delivered by artillery and other indirect re
means can be used to suppress targets of any type, most
notably as counter-battery re against indirect re units.
NATO also denes 'suppression of enemy air defences'
(SEAD), which has a broader denition and includes materiel damage. An important consideration in the application of suppressive re from indirect re systems (e.g.
mortars, artillery and ships) and aircraft is the safety of
the attacking troops. Fragmenting munitions are indiscriminate and potentially lethal in all directions around Two US Marines providing covering re with a M4 carbine and a
the point of burst although the pattern and extent of the 40 mm M203 grenade launcher while a Marine from Air Naval
lethal area depends on several variable factors, some spe- Gunre Liaison Company spots targets in Ramadi, Iraq, 2006.
cic to each situation.
1.18.2
History
World War I marked a step change because of the development of artillery techniques and the protection provided by trenches. By late 1915 the British Expeditionary
Force realised that the eects of artillery re could not
smash an opening in German trench lines or reliably destroy enemy artillery at critical times. They therefore
developed artillery techniques to suppress the enemy in
trenches to allow their infantry to approach them and to
suppress the enemy artillery at critical stages to protect attacking infantry.* [3] Thereafter suppression became the
dening British artillery tactic, although it had been rst
used in the Boer War. A moving barrage could suppress
a line of front providing covering re for an attack several miles wide. Shrapnel was the usual ammunition used
by the British Army in its barrages. Suppressive re was
used against enemy artillery that attacked the assaulting
troops with indirect re.
Map of artillery barrages during the Second Battle of Passchendaele (1917) showing the creeping re to protect an advance.
Suppressive re can be delivered by any weapon or group

of weapons capable of delivering the required intensity
Infantry minor tactics also evolved and suppression be- for the required period of suppression. Suppressive re
300
may be direct or indirect. However, suppressive re ca- A rie or machine gun bullet only has a suppressive eect
pabilities of dierent weapons vary, most notably in the within about 1 metre of its trajectory. However, both can
size of the area of their suppressive eect.
be used to suppress an enemy within a small area, often
called 'winning the re ght'.
Artillery
Machine gun re is also available from armoured ghting vehicles and aircraft, notably helicopters and perhaps
xed wing aircraft such as AC-130. Automatic cannon
(2040 mm) or grenade re may also be available and
re from larger direct re systems such as tanks. However, limited ammunition loads mean that such systems
are better suited to destructive re against precisely identied targets unless the required suppression time period
is short.
There are several variations for applying artillery (and

mortar and naval gun) re for suppressive eect. In
World War 1 a moving barrage was the normal method,
shrapnel shells were red to place their bullet cone ahead
of the advancing infantry with their aimpoints moved 100
yard further forward every few minutes on a front of several kilometres to support an attack by several divisions
or corps. High Explosive (HE) barrages were also used In Afghanistan, the Mujahideen often modied RPGs for
in World War 2, including to cover the advance of tanks use against Soviet helicopters by adding a curved pipe to
the rear of the launcher tube, which diverted the backby suppressing anti-tank gunners.
blast, allowing the RPG to be red upward at aircraft
However, HE concentrations against specic targets be- from a prone position. At the time, Soviet helicopters
came more common and gradually replaced the barrage. countered the threat from RPGs at landing zones by rst
With a concentration the re starts when attacking forces clearing them with saturation anti-personnel suppression
become vulnerable to the target and lifts o the target re from machine guns.
when the attacking forces reach an agreed distance from
it. The suppressive eect lingers for a short period, about
2 minutes, after the artillery re stops.
1.18.4 References
A suppressive concentration by a single battery can suppress a position of around 250x250 metres and may be
used to support a platoon or company attack on a single
or succession of objectives. For larger operations many
batteries may be involved against many targets and move
their re to dierent targets as the operation progresses.
While HE is most used for suppression, smoke screens
can also be used to suppress by obscuring the enemy's
view, this is eective against an enemy with direct re
weapons. Modern smoke is impenetrable to modern thermal imaging sights. In peace support operations, illuminating with parachute ares has been used to thwart activities by a warring party.
[1] AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms and Denition

[2] 3/7 rushes to perfect re, manoeuvre tactics.
7/31/2009. By Lance Cpl. M. C. Nerl, Marine
Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms
http://www.marines.mil/unit/29palms/Pages/News/
2009/Jul/37rushestoperfectfire,manuevertactics.aspx
Accessed on June 24, 2011
[3] GHQ Artillery Notes No 4, Artillery in Oensive Operations, April 1916
[4] http://www.tititudorancea.com/z/suppressive_fire.htm
1.19 Team leader

Direct re weapons
A team leader is someone who provides guidance, instruction, direction and leadership to a group of other
individuals (the team) for the purpose of achieving a key
result or group of aligned results. The team lead reports to
a project manager (overseeing several teams). The team
leader monitors the quantitative and qualitative result that
is to be achieved. The leader works with the team membership.
Scouller (2011) dened the purpose of a leader (including
a team leader) as follows: The purpose of a leader is to
make sure there is leadership to ensure that all four dimensions of leadership are [being addressed].The four
dimensions being: (1) a shared, motivating team purpose
or vision or goal (2) action, progress and results (3) collective unity or team spirit (4) attention to individuals.* [1]
U.S. Navy special warfare combatant-craft crewmen (SWCC),

Special Boat Team 22 conducts training.
The team membership may not directly report or answer

to the team leader, (who is very often a senior member of
1.20. UNITED STATES ARMY
301
the organization but may or may not be a manager) but Army Reserve (USAR) reported 201,166 soldiers; the
would be expected to provide support to the team leader combined-component strength of the U.S. Army was
and other team members in achieving the team's goals.
1,105,301 soldiers.* [3] As a branch of the armed forces,
A good team leader listens constructively to the member- the mission of the U.S. Army is to ght and win our
ship and to the customer(s) of the results that the team is Nation's wars, by providing prompt, sustained, land dominance, across the full range of military operations and the
charged with delivering.
spectrum of conict, in support of combatant commanThe responsibilities of a team leader vary greatly between ders.* [8]
organizations, but usually includes some responsibility for
team building and ensuring teamwork. The term is used
to emphasize the cooperative nature of a team, in contrast 1.20.1 Mission
to a typical command structure, where the head of a team
The United States Army serves as the land-based branch
would be its commander.
of the U.S. Armed Forces. 3062 of Title 10 US Code
denes the purpose of the army as:* [9]* [10]
1.19.1
See also
Crew chief
Squad leader
Three levels of leadership model
1.19.2
References
[1] Scouller, J. (2011). The Three Levels of Leadership:

How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow
and Skill. Cirencester: Management Books 2000., ISBN
9781852526818
Preserving the peace and security and providing

for the defense of the United States, the Commonwealths and possessions and any areas occupied by
the United States
Supporting the national policies
Implementing the national objectives
Overcoming any nations responsible for aggressive
acts that imperil the peace and security of the United
States
1.20.2 History
1.20 United States Army
Main article: History of the United States Army
The United States Army (USA) is the largest branch

of the Armed Forces of the United States that performs
Origins
land-based military operations; and is one of the seven
Uniformed services of the United States. As the largest
and senior branch of the U.S. military, the modern U.S.
Army has its roots in the Continental Army, which was
formed (14 June 1775) to ght the American Revolutionary War (177583)before the U.S. was established as a
country.* [5] After the Revolutionary War, the Congress
of the Confederation created the United States Army
on 3 June 1784, to replace the disbanded Continental
Army.* [6]* [7] The United States Army considers itself
descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force
in 1775.* [5]
As a uniformed military service, the Army is part of the
Department of the Army, which is one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The
U.S. Army is headed by a civilian ocer, the Secretary
of the Army, and by a chief military ocer, the Chief
of Sta of the Army. The ranking ocer of the U.S.
Army is the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta. In
the scal year 2011, the Regular Army (USA) reported
a strength of 546,057 soldiers; the Army National Guard
(ARNG) reported 358,078 soldiers, and the United States
Storming of Redoubt#10 in the Siege of Yorktown during the

American Revolutionary War prompted the British government
to begin negotiations, resulting in the Treaty of Paris and British
recognition of the United States of America.
The Continental Army was created on 14 June 1775

by the Continental Congress as a unied army for the
colonies to ght Great Britain, with George Washington
302
appointed as its commander.* [5] The army was initially
led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial
militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed,
French aid, resources, and military thinking inuenced
the new army. A number of European soldiers came on
their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben,
who taught the army Prussian tactics and organizational
skills.
U.S. than the Revolution and Northwest Indian War
against natives had been, though it ended on a high note
for Americans also. After the taking control of Lake Erie
in 1813, the Americans were able to seize parts of western
Upper Canada, Burn York and Defeat Tecumseh, which
caused his Indian Confederacy to collapse. Following
ending victories in the province of Upper Canada, which
dubbed the U.S. Army Regulars, by God!", British
troops were able to capture and burn Washington. The
regular army, however, proved they were professional and
capable of defeating the British army during the invasions
of Plattsburgh and Baltimore, prompting British agreement on the previously rejected terms of a status quo ante
bellum. Two weeks after a treaty was signed (but not ratied), Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of
New Orleans and became a national hero. Per the treaty
both sides returned to the status quo with no victor.
The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the

South 178081 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and
hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the enemy was weakest, to wear down the British forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but
lost a series of battles around New York City in 1776
and Philadelphia in 1777. With a decisive victory at
Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental
Army prevailed against the British.
The army's major campaign against the Indians was
After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars
given land certicates and disbanded in a reection of the (181858) to nally defeat the Seminoles and move them
republican distrust of standing armies. State militias be- to Oklahoma. The usual strategy in Indian wars was to
came the new nation's sole ground army, with the excep- seize control of the Indians winter food supply, but that
tion of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one was no use in Florida where there was no winter. The
battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. How- second strategy was to form alliances with other Indian
ever, because of continuing conict with Native Amer- tribes, but that too was useless because the Seminoles had
icans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to eld destroyed all the other Indians*when they entered Florida
a trained standing army. The Regular Army was at rst in the late eighteenth century. [11]
very small, and after General St. Clair's defeat at the Battle of the Wabash, the Regular Army was reorganized as
the Legion of the United States, which was established in
1791 and renamed the United States Armyin 1796.
The U.S. Army fought and won the MexicanAmerican

War (18461848), which was a dening event for both
countries.* [12] The U.S. victory resulted in acquisition of
territory that eventually became all or parts of the states of
California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, Wyoming
and New Mexico.
19th century
Further information: Army on the Frontier
The War of 1812, the second and last American war
The Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil

War
General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift

defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the nal major battle of the War of
1812
against the United Kingdom, was less successful for the
The American Civil War was the most costly war for the
U.S. in terms of casualties. After most slave states, located in the southern U.S., formed the Confederate States
of America, C.S. troops led by former U.S. Army ocers, mobilized a very large fraction of Southern white
manpower. Forces of the United States (theUnionor
the North) formed a large new volunteer army.

For the rst two years Confederate forces did well in set
battles but lost control of the border states.* [13] The Confederates had the advantage of defending a very large
country in an area where disease caused twice as many
deaths as combat. The Union pursued a strategy of seizing the coastline, blockading the ports, and taking control of the river systems. By 1863 the Confederacy was
being strangled. Its eastern armies fought well, but the
western armies were defeated one after another until the
Union forces captured New Orleans in 1862 along with
the Tennessee River. In the famous Vicksburg Campaign of 186265, Ulysses Grant seized the Mississippi
River and cut o the Southwest. Grant took command
of Union forces in 1864 and after a series of battles
with very heavy casualties, he had Lee under siege in
Richmond as William T. Sherman captured Atlanta and
marched through Georgia and the Carolinas. Lee lost his
Confederate capital in April 1865 and was captured at
Appomattox Court House; the other Confederate armies
quickly surrendered.
303
Starting in 1910, the army began acquiring xed-wing
aircraft.* [15] In 1910, Mexico was having a civil war,
peasant rebels ghting government soldiers. The army
was deployed to American towns near the border to ensure safety to lives and property. In 1916, Pancho Villa,
a major rebel leader, attacked Columbus, New Mexico,
prompting a U.S. intervention in Mexico until 7 February 1917. They fought the rebels and the Mexican federal
troops until 1918. The United States joined World War I
in 1917 on the side of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and
other allies. U.S. troops were sent to the front and were
involved in the push that nally broke through the German lines. With the armistice in November 1918, the
army once again decreased its forces.
The war remains the deadliest conict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers. Based
on 1860 census gures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to
43 died in the war, including 6.4% in the North and 18%
in the South.* [14]
Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army had the mission
of containing western tribes of Native Americans on their
reservations. There were many forts set up, and several
campaigns.
The key battles of the SpanishAmerican War of 1898
were fought by the Navy. Using mostly new volunteers,
the US Army defeated Spain in land campaigns in Cuba 3rd battalion, 504th PIR advance in a snowstorm behind a tank,
and played the central role in suppressing a rebellion in January 1945
the Philippines.
20th century
American soldiers hunt Japanese inltrators during the

Bougainville Campaign
For a list of campaigns see List of United States Army

campaigns during World War II
Assault on a German bunker, France, circa 1918
The U.S. joined World War II after the Japanese attack on

Pearl Harbor. On the European front, U.S. Army troops
304
formed a signicant portion of the forces that captured
North Africa and Sicily. On D-Day and in the subsequent
liberation of Europe and defeat of Nazi Germany, millions of U.S. Army troops played a central role. In the
Pacic, U.S. Army soldiers participated alongside U.S.
Marines in capturing the Pacic Islands from Japanese
control. Following the Axis surrenders in May (Germany) and August (Japan) of 1945, army troops were
deployed to Japan and Germany to occupy the two defeated nations. Two years after World War II, the Army
Air Forces separated from the army to become the United
States Air Force in September 1947 after decades of
attempting to separate. Also, in 1948, the army was
desegregated by order of President Harry S. Truman.
the PRC People's Volunteer Army's entry into the war,
the Korean Armistice Agreement returned the peninsula
to the status quo in 1953.
The Vietnam War is often regarded as a low point for the

army due to the use of drafted personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating
restrictions placed on the military by American political
leaders. While American forces had been stationed in the
Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence & advising/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers
until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American
forces eectively established and maintained control of
the traditionalbattleeld, however they struggled to
counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist
The end of World War II set the stage for the EastWest Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tacconfrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak tical level, American soldiers (and the U.S. military as a
of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western whole) did not lose a sizable battle.* [16]
Europe rose. Two corps, V and VII, were reactivated under Seventh United States Army in 1950 and American
strength in Europe rose from one division to four. Hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops remained stationed in
West Germany, with others in Belgium, the Netherlands
and the United Kingdom, until the 1990s in anticipation
of a possible Soviet attack.
A U.S. Army infantry patrol moves up to assault the last North

Vietnamese Army position at Dak To, South Vietnam during Operation Hawthorne
U.S. Army soldiers look upon an Atomic bomb test of Operation

Buster-Jangle at the Nevada Test Site during the Korean War
During the 1960s the Department of Defense continued

to scrutinize the reserve forces and to question the number of divisions and brigades as well as the redundancy of
maintaining two reserve components, the Army National
Guard and the Army Reserve.* [17] In 1967 Secretary of
Defense Robert McNamara decided that 15 combat divisions in the Army National Guard were unnecessary and
cut the number to 8 divisions (1 mechanized infantry, 2
armored, and 5 infantry), but increased the number of
brigades from 7 to 18 (1 airborne, 1 armored, 2 mechanized infantry, and 14 infantry). The loss of the divisions
did not set well with the states. Their objections included
the inadequate maneuver element mix for those that remained and the end to the practice of rotating divisional
commands among the states that supported them. Under
the proposal, the remaining division commanders were
to reside in the state of the division base. No reduction,
however, in total Army National Guard strength was to
take place, which convinced the governors to accept the
plan. The states reorganized their forces accordingly between 1 December 1967 and 1 May 1968.
During the Cold War, American troops and their allies

fought Communist forces in Korea and Vietnam. The Korean War began in 1950, when the Soviets walked out of a
U.N. Security meeting, removing their possible veto. Under a United Nations umbrella, hundreds of thousands of
U.S. troops fought to prevent the takeover of South Korea
by North Korea, and later, to invade the northern nation. The Total Force Policy was adopted by Chief of Sta of
After repeated advances and retreats by both sides, and the Army General Creighton Abrams in the aftermath of
305
580,000.* [20] A number of incentives such as early retirement were used. In 1990 Iraq invaded its smaller
neighbor, Kuwait, and U.S. land forces, quickly deployed
to assure the protection of Saudi Arabia. In January 1991
Operation Desert Storm commenced, a U.S.-led coalition
which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them
from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces.
The campaign ended in total victory, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army, organized along Soviet
lines, in just one hundred hours.
M1 Abrams move out before the Battle of Al Busayyah during

the Gulf War
After Operation Desert Storm, the army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s
but did participate in a number of peacekeeping activities. In 1990 the Department of Defense issued guidance forrebalancingafter a review of the Total Force
Policy,* [21] but in 2004, Air War College scholars concluded the guidance would reverse the Total Force Policy
which is an essential ingredient to the successful application of military force.* [22]
the Vietnam War and involves treating the three components of the army the Regular Army, the Army National
Guard and the Army Reserve as a single force.* [18] Believing that no U.S. president should be able to take the
United States (and more specically the U.S. Army) to
war without the support of the American people, Gen- 21st century
eral Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended
operations impossible, without the involvement of both
the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.* [19]
The 1980s was mostly a decade of reorganization. The
army converted to an all-volunteer force with greater
emphasis on training and technology. The GoldwaterNichols Act of 1986 created unied combatant commands bringing the army together with the other four
military services under unied, geographically organized
command structures. The army also played a role in the
invasions of Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury)
and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause).
Army Rangers from the 1st Ranger Battalion conduct a MOUT

exercise at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
U.S. Army soldiers prepare to take La Comandancia in the El

Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City during the United States
invasion of Panama
Army Rangers take part in a raid during operation in Nahr-e

Saraj, Afghanistan
By 1989 Germany was nearing reunication and the

Cold War was coming to a close. Army leadership reacted by starting to plan for a reduction in strength. By
November 1989 Pentagon briefers were laying out plans
to reduce army end strength by 23%, from 750,000 to
On September 11, 2001, 53 Army civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers were among
the 125 victims killed in the Pentagon in a terrorist attack when American Airlines Flight 77 commandeered
by ve Al-Qaeda hijackers slammed into the western
306
side of the building, as part of the September 11 at- which were raised independently by various state governtacks.* [23] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude was the ments. States also maintained full-time militias which
highest-ranking military ocial killed at the Pentagon, could also be called into the service of the army.
and the most senior U.S. Army ocer killed by foreign
action since the death of Lieutenant General Simon B.
Buckner, Jr. on June 18, 1945, in the Battle of Okinawa
during World War II.* [24]
In response to the September 11 attacks, and as part of
the Global War on Terror, U.S. and NATO forces invaded
Afghanistan in October 2001, displacing the Taliban government. The U.S. Army also led the combined U.S.
and allied invasion of Iraq in 2003. In the following
years the mission changed from conict between regular militaries to counterinsurgency, resulting in the deaths
of more than 4,000 U.S service members (as of March
2008) and injuries to thousands more.* [25]* [26] 23,813
insurgents* [27] were killed in Iraq between 20032011.
The army's chief modernization plan was the FCS program. Many systems were canceled and the remaining were swept into the BCT modernization program.
In response to Budget sequestration in 2013 the army
is planned to shrink to a size not seen since the WWII
buildup.* [28] The 2015 expenditure for Army research,
development and acquisition changed from $32 billion
projected in 2012 for FY15, to $21 billion for FY15 expected in 2014.* [29]
1.20.3
Organization
Main article: Structure of the United States Army
U.S. general ocers, World War II, Europe
By the twentieth century, the U.S. Army had mobilized

the U.S. Volunteers on four separate occasions during
each of the major wars of the nineteenth century. During World War I, the "National Army" was organized to
ght the conict, replacing the concept of U.S. Volunteers.* [32] It was demobilized at the end of World War
I, and was replaced by the Regular Army, the Organized
Reserve Corps, and the State Militias. In the 1920s and
1930s, thecareersoldiers were known as the "Regular
Army" with the Enlisted Reserve Corpsand Ofcer Reserve Corpsaugmented to ll vacancies when
needed.* [33]
In 1941, the "Army of the United States" was founded
to ght World War II. The Regular Army, Army of the
United States, the National Guard, and Ocer/Enlisted
Reserve Corps (ORC and ERC) existed simultaneously.
After World War II, the ORC and ERC were combined
into the United States Army Reserve. The Army of the
United States was re-established for the Korean War and
Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension
of the draft.* [33]
organization chart* [30]
Army components
Currently, the army is divided into the Regular Army, the

Army Reserve, and the Army National Guard.* [32] The
army is also divided into major branches such as Air Defense Artillery, Infantry, Aviation, Signal Corps, Corps of
Engineers, and Armor. Before 1903 members of the National Guard were considered state soldiers unless federalized (i.e., activated) by the President. Since the Militia
Act of 1903 all National Guard soldiers have held dual
status: as National Guardsmen under the authority of the
governor of their state or territory and, when activated,
as a reserve of the U.S. Army under the authority of the
President.
The task of organizing the U.S. Army commenced in

1775.* [31] In the rst one hundred years of its existence,
the United States Army was maintained as a small peacetime force to man permanent forts and perform other
non-wartime duties such as engineering and construc- Since the adoption of the total force policy, in the aftertion works. During times of war, the U.S. Army was math of the Vietnam War, reserve component soldiers
augmented by the much larger United States Volunteers have taken a more active role in U.S. military operations.
307
For example, Reserve and Guard units took part in the army, serves as the principal military adviser and execGulf War, peacekeeping in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and the utive agent for the Secretary of the Army, i.e., its ser2003 invasion of Iraq.
vice chief; and as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Sta,
a body composed of the service chiefs from each of the
four military services belonging to the Department of DeArmy commands and army service component com- fense who advise the President of the United States, the
mands
Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council on operational military matters, under the guidance
of the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
Headquarters, United States Department of the of Sta.* [50]* [51] In 1986, the GoldwaterNichols Act
Army (HQDA):
mandated that operational control of the services follows
a chain of command from the President to the Secretary
Source: U.S. Army organization* [47]
of Defense directly to the unied combatant commanders, who have control of all armed forces units in their
Structure
geographic or function area of responsibility. Thus, the
secretaries of the military departments (and their respecMain article: Transformation of the United States Army tive service chiefs underneath them) only have the responThe United States Army is made up of three components: sibility to organize, train and equip their service components. The army provides trained forces to the combatant
commanders for use as directed by the Secretary of Defense.* [52]
U.S. Army Soldiers of 1st Battalion, 175th Infantry Regiment,

Maryland Army National Guard conduct an urban cordon and
search exercise as part of the army readiness and training evaluation program in the mock city of Balad at Fort Dix, NJ
The 1st Cavalry Division's combat aviation brigade performs a

mock charge with the horse detachment
the active component, the Regular Army; and two reserve

components, the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve. Both reserve components are primarily composed
of part-time soldiers who train once a month, known as
battle assemblies or unit training assemblies (UTAs), and
conduct two to three weeks of annual training each year.
Both the Regular Army and the Army Reserve are organized under Title 10 of the United States Code, while the
National Guard is organized under Title 32. While the
Army National Guard is organized, trained and equipped
as a component of the U.S. Army, when it is not in federal service it is under the command of individual state
and territorial governors; the District of Columbia National Guard, however, reports to the U.S. President, not
the district's mayor, even when not federalized. Any or all Soldiers from the 6th Infantry Regiment taking up positions on a
of the National Guard can be federalized by presidential street corner during a foot patrol in Ramadi, Iraq
order and against the governor's wishes.* [48]
Through 2013, the army is shifting to six geographical
The army is led by a civilian Secretary of the Army, who commands that will line up with the six geographical unihas the statutory authority to conduct all the aairs of ed combatant commands (COCOM):
the army under the authority, direction and control of
United States Army Central headquartered at Shaw
the Secretary of Defense.* [49] The Chief of Sta of the
Army, who is the highest-ranked military ocer in the
Air Force Base, South Carolina
308
United States Army North headquartered at Fort Regular combat maneuver organizations
Sam Houston, Texas
The U.S. Army currently consists of 10 active divisions
United States Army South headquartered at Fort as well as several independent units. The force is in the
Sam Houston, Texas
process of contracting after several years of growth. In
United States Army Europe headquartered at Clay June 2013, the Army announced plans to downsize to 32
active combat brigade teams by 2015 to match a reduction
Kaserne, Wiesbaden, Germany
in active duty strength to 490,000 soldiers. Army Chief
United States Army Pacic headquartered at Fort of Sta Raymond Odierno has projected that by 2018 the
Shafter, Hawaii
Army will eventually shrink to 450,000 in the active
component, 335,000 in the National Guard and 195,000
United States Army Africa headquartered at
in U.S. Army Reserve.* [53]
Vicenza, Italy
Within the Army National Guard and United States Army
Reserve there are a further eight divisions, over fteen
maneuver brigades, additional combat support and combat service support brigades, and independent cavalry,
infantry, artillery, aviation, engineer, and support battalions. The Army Reserve in particular provides virtually
all psychological operations and civil aairs units.
United
(FORSCOM):
States
Army
Forces
Command
For a description of US Army tactical organizational

structure, see: a US context, and also a global context.
U.S. Army Special Forces soldiers from the 3rd Special Forces
Group patrol a eld in the Gulistan district of Farah, Afghanistan
Special operations forces

The army is also changing its base unit from divisions to
brigades. Division lineage will be retained, but the divisional headquarters will be able to command any brigade,
United States Army Special Operations Command
not just brigades that carry their divisional lineage. The
central part of this plan is that each brigade will be mod- (Airborne) (USASOC):
ular, i.e., all brigades of the same type will be exactly
the same, and thus any brigade can be commanded by
any division. As specied before the 2013 end-strength 1.20.4 Personnel
re-denitions, the three major types of ground combat
Main articles: Ranks and Insignia of NATO, United
brigades are:
States Army ocer rank insignia and United States
Armor brigade, with strength of 4,743 troops, and Army enlisted rank insignia
be equivalent to a mechanized infantry or tank
brigade as of 2014.
These are the U.S. Army ranks authorized for use today and their equivalent NATO designations. Although
Stryker brigades, with strength of 4,500 troops, and
no living ocer currently holds the rank of General of
be based on the Stryker family of vehicles as of
the Army, it is still authorized by Congress for use in
2014.
wartime.
Infantry brigades, with strength of 4,413 troops, and
be equivalent to a light infantry or airborne brigade
Commissioned ocers
as of 2014.
In addition, there are combat support and service support modular brigades. Combat support brigades include
aviation (CAB) brigades, which will come in heavy and
light varieties, res (artillery) brigades (now transforms
to division artillery), and battleeld surveillance brigades.
Combat service support brigades include sustainment
brigades and come in several varieties and serve the standard support role in an army.
Main article: Commissioned Ocers

There are several paths to becoming a commissioned ofcer* [57] including the United States Military Academy,
Reserve Ocers' Training Corps, and Ocer Candidate
School. Regardless of which road an ocer takes, the insignia are the same. Certain professions, including physicians, pharmacists, nurses, lawyers, and chaplains are
309
commissioned directly into the army and are designated

by insignia unique to their sta community.
Most army commissioned ocers are promoted based on
an up or outsystem. The Defense Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980 establishes rules for timing
of promotions and limits the number of ocers that can
serve at any given time.
Army regulations call for addressing all personnel with
the rank of general as 'General (last name)' regardless of the number of stars. Likewise, both colonels
and lieutenant colonels are addressed as 'Colonel (last
name)' and rst and second lieutenants as 'Lieutenant (last
name).'* [58]
Warrant ocers
Main article: Warrant ocers
Warrant ocers* [57] are single track, specialty ocers
with subject matter expertise in a particular area. They
are initially appointed as warrant ocers (in the rank of
WO1) by the Secretary of the Army, but receive their
commission upon promotion to chief warrant ocer two
(CW2).
By regulation, warrant ocers are addressed as 'Mr. (last
name)' or 'Ms. (last name).'* [58] However, many personnel address warrant ocers as 'Chief (last name)'. En- Rangers practice fast roping techniques from an MH-47 during
listed soldiers say siror ma'amwhen addressing an exercise at Fort Bragg
them.
Enlisted personnel
Main article: Enlisted personnel
Sergeants and corporals are referred to as NCOs, short for
non-commissioned ocers.* [57]* [60] This distinguishes
corporals from the more numerous specialists, who have
the same pay grade but do not exercise leadership responsibilities.
Privates (E1 and E2) and privates rst class (E3) are addressed as 'Private (last name)', specialists as 'Specialist (last name)', corporals as 'Corporal (last name)', and
sergeants, sta sergeants, sergeants rst class, and master sergeants all as 'Sergeant (last name).' First sergeants
are addressed as 'First Sergeant (last name)', sergeants
major are addressed as 'Sergeant Major (last name)' and
command sergeants major are addressed as 'Command
Sergeant Major (last name)'.* [58]
Individualized Training (AIT) where they receive training

for their military occupational specialties (MOS). Some
individuals MOSs range anywhere from 1420 weeks of
One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which combines Basic Training and AIT. The length of AIT school varies
by the MOS The length of time spent in AIT depends on
the MOS of the soldier, and some highly technical MOS
training may require many months (e.g., foreign language
translators). Depending on the needs of the army, Basic
Combat Training for combat arms soldiers is conducted
at a number of locations, but two of the longest-running
are the Armor School and the Infantry School, both at
Fort Benning, Georgia.
Following their basic and advanced training at the

individual-level, soldiers may choose to continue their
training and apply for an additional skill identier
(ASI). The ASI allows the army to take a wide ranging
MOS and focus it into a more specic MOS. For example, a combat medic, whose duties are to provide prehospital emergency treatment, may receive ASI training
to become a cardiovascular specialist, a dialysis specialist,
or even a licensed practical nurse. For commissioned ofTraining
cers, ASI training includes pre-commissioning training
Training in the U.S. Army is generally divided into two either at USMA, or via ROTC, or by completing OCS.
categories individual and collective. Basic training con- After commissioning, ocers undergo branch specic
sists of 10 weeks for most recruits followed by Advanced training at the Basic Ocer Leaders Course, (formerly
310
called Ocer Basic Course), which varies in time and location according their future assignments. Further career
development is available through the Army Correspondence Course Program.
Lockheed Martin Terminal High Altitude Area Defense

(THAAD) system used by the army for ballistic missile protection
Marksmanship training
Collective training at the unit level takes place at the unit's

assigned station, but the most intensive training at higher
echelons is conducted at the three combat training centers (CTC); the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort
Irwin, California, the Joint Readiness Training Center
(JRTC) at Fort Polk, Louisiana, and the Joint Multinational Training Center (JMRC) at the Hohenfels Training
Area in Hohenfels, Germany. ARFORGEN is the Army
Force Generation process approved in 2006 to meet the
need to continuously replenish forces for deployment, at
unit level, and for other echelons as required by the mission. Individual-level replenishment still requires training
at a unit level, which is conducted at the continental US
(CONUS) replacement center at Fort Bliss, in New Mexico and Texas, before their individual deployment.
1.20.5
team level.* [64] Indirect re is provided by the M203

grenade launcher. The M1014 Joint Service Combat
Shotgun or the Mossberg 590 Shotgun are used for door
breaching and close-quarters combat. The M14EBR is
used by designated marksmen, and the M107 Long Range
Sniper Rie, the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rie, and the
M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper Rie are used by snipers.
Hand grenades, such as the M67 fragmentation grenade
and M18 smoke grenade, are also used.
Equipment
Main article: Equipment of the United States Army

3rd Infantry Division soldiers manning an M1A1 Abrams in Iraq
Weapons
Individual weapons
The army employs various individual weapons to provide light repower at short ranges. The most common
weapons used by the army are the compact variant of the
M16 rie, the M4 carbine,* [62] as well as the 7.62x51
mm variant of the FN SCAR for Army Rangers. The
primary sidearm in the U.S. Army is the 9 mm M9 pistol
but M11 pistol is also used and M9 pistol is to be replaced
by M11 pistol through the Modular Handgun System program.* [63]
Crew served weapons

The army employs various crew-served weapons to provide heavy repower at ranges exceeding that of individual weapons.
The M240 is the US Army's standard Medium Machine
Gun.* [65] The M2 heavy machine gun is generally used
as a vehicle-mounted machine gun. In the same way, the
40 mm MK 19 grenade machine gun is mainly used by
motorized units.* [66]
The US Army uses three types of mortar for indirect re

Many units are supplemented with a variety of special- support when heavier artillery may not be appropriate or
ized weapons, including the M249 SAW (Squad Auto- available. The smallest of these is the 60 mm M224,
matic Weapon), to provide suppressive re at the re- normally assigned at the infantry company level.* [67]
311
At the next higher echelon, infantry battalions are typically supported by a section of 81 mm M252 mortars.* [68] The largest mortar in the army's inventory is
the 120 mm M120/M121, usually employed by mechanized units.* [69]
sands of other MRAPs like the Cougar, BAE Caiman,

and larger MaxxPros will be disposed of.* [77]
The US Army utilizes a variety of direct-re rockets and

missiles to provide infantry with an Anti-Armor Capability. The AT4 is an unguided projectile that can destroy armor and bunkers at ranges up to 500 meters.
The FIM-92 Stinger is a shoulder-launched, heat seeking
anti-aircraft missile. The FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71
TOW are anti-tank guided missiles.
it mainly operates several types of rotary-wing aircraft.

These include the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter,* [80]
the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior armed reconnaissance/light
attack helicopter,* [81] the UH-60 Black Hawk utility
tactical transport helicopter,* [82] and the CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift transport helicopter.* [83] Restructuring
plans call for reduction of 750 aircraft and from 7 to 4
types.* [84]
The U.S. Army's principal artillery weapons are the

M109A6 Paladin self-propelled howitzer* [78] and the
M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS),* [79]
Fire support for light infantry units is provided by towed both mounted on tracked platforms and assigned to heavy
howitzers, including the 105 mm M119A1* [70] and the mechanized units.
155 mm M777 (which will replace the M198).* [71]
While the U.S. Army operates a few xed-wing aircraft,
Vehicles
Fixed wing aircraft used by the US Army are for nonfront line combat and light transport roles. The army relies on the United States Air Force for airlift capabilities.
Uniforms
Main article: Uniforms of the United States Army
A US soldier on patrol with the support of a Humvee vehicle
The Army Combat Uniform, or ACU, currently features

a digital Universal Camouage Pattern (UCP) and is designed for use in woodland, desert, and urban environments. However, Soldiers operating in Afghanistan are
being issued a re-resistant ACU with the "MultiCam"
pattern, ocially known as Operation Enduring Freedom
Camouage Pattern or OCP.* [85]
The army's most common vehicle is the High Mobility

Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), commonly
called the Humvee, which is capable of serving as a
cargo/troop carrier, weapons platform, and ambulance,
among many other roles.* [72] While they operate a wide
variety of combat support vehicles, one of the most common types centers on the family of HEMTT vehicles. The
M1A2 Abrams is the army's main battle tank,* [73] while
the M2A3 Bradley is the standard infantry ghting vehicle.* [74] Other vehicles include the Stryker,* [75] and the
M113 armored personnel carrier,* [76] and multiple types
of Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles.
The Pentagon bought 25,000 MRAP vehicles since 2007
in 25 variants through rapid acquisition with no long-term
plans for the platforms. The Army plans to divest 7,456
vehicles and retain 8,585. Of the total number of vehicles
the Army will keep, 5,036 will be put in storage, 1,073
will be used for training, and the remainder will be spread
across the active force. The Oshkosh M-ATV will be kept
the most at 5,681 vehicles, as it is smaller and lighter than
other MRAPs for o-road mobility. The other most retained vehicle will be the Navistar MaxxPro Dash with
2,633 vehicles, plus 301 Maxxpro ambulances. Thou-
The Ranger Honor Platoon marching in dress uniform.
The standard garrison service uniform is known as Army

Greens or Class-As and has been worn by all ocers and
enlisted personnel since its introduction in 1956 when
it replaced earlier olive drab (OD) and khaki (and tan
worsted or TW) uniforms worn between the 1950s and
1985. The Army Blue uniform, dating back to the mid19th century, is currently the Army's formal dress uni-
312
form, but in 2013, it replaced the Army Green, and in
2014 it will replace the Army White uniform (a uniform similar to the Army Green uniform, but worn in
tropical postings) and will become the new Army Service Uniform, which will function as both a garrison uniform (when worn with a white shirt and necktie) and a
dress uniform (when worn with a white shirt and either a
necktie for parades or a bow tie for after six or black tie
events).
3D printing
In November 2012 the United States Army developed a
tactical 3D printing capability to allow it to rapidly manufacture critical components on the battleeld. (BBC)
1.20.6 See also

List of wars involving the United States
Berets The Army black beret (having been permanently replaced with the patrol cap) is no longer worn
with the new ACU for garrison duty. After years of complaints that it wasn't suited well for most work conditions,
Army Chief of Sta General Martin Dempsey eliminated
it for wear with the ACU in June 2011. Soldiers may still
wear colored berets who are currently in an airborne unit
(maroon beret), Rangers (tan beret), and Special Forces
(green beret) and may wear it with the Army Service Uniform for non-ceremonial functions. Unit commanders
may still direct the wear of patrol caps in these units in
training environments or motor pools.
America's Army (Video games for recruitment)
Tents
Timeline of United States military operations
Main article: Tent

The army has relied heavily on tents to provide the var-
Army National Guard

Comparative military ranks
History of the US Army
List of active United States military aircraft
List of former United States Army medical units
Ocer Candidate School (United States Army)
ROTC / JROTC
Transformation of the United States Army

U.S. Army Regimental System
United States Military Academy
United States Army Basic Training
U.S. Soldier's Creed
United States Volunteers
Vehicle markings of the United States military
Warrant Ocer Candidate School (United States
Army)
A DRASH maintenance facility in Iraq
Army CHESS (Computer Hardware Enterprise

Software and Solutions)
ious facilities needed while on deployment. The most

common tent uses for the military are as temporary 1.20.7 References
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OCLC 8806011.
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Army. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved
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In 2008, DRASH became part of the Army's Standard
Integrated Command Post System.* [86]
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[3] Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of Sta (Human
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[4] Us Future Combat & Weapon Systems Handbook By Ibp

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[18] Army National Guard Constitution
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[36] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1202.pdf
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[22] Downey, Chris, The Total Force Policy and Eective

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[49] 10 U.S.C. 3013
[81] Kiowa, U.S. Army Fact Files
[50] 10 U.S.C. 3033
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[51] 10 U.S.C. 151
[83] Chinook, U.S. Army Fact Files
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Chandler virtual town hall, Jan 6, 2015
[54] Army to cut 10 BCTs, reorganize the rest | Army Times [85] Lopez, C. (20 February 2010). Soldiers to get new
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1.21. UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
315
US-militaria.com The US Army during the second 1.21.1 Mission

world war
The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness.
As outlined in 10 U.S.C. 5063 and as originally intro This article incorporates public domain material duced under the National Security Act of 1947, it has
from the United States Army Center of Military His- three primary areas of responsibility:
tory document Army Birthdays.
The seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and
other land operations to support naval campaigns;
1.21 United States Marine Corps

USMCredirects here. For other uses, see USMC
(disambiguation).
The development of tactics, technique, and equipment used by amphibious landing forces in coordination with the Army and Air Force; and
Such other duties as the President may direct.
The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is a branch

of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea,* [7] using the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms
task forces. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the four
branches in the U.S. Department of Defense as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Sta. It is one of the seven
uniformed services of the United States.
The Marine Corps has been a component of the U.S. Department of the Navy since 1834,* [8]* [9] working closely
with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics.* [10] The USMC operates posts on land and aboard
sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world,
and several of the Marines' tactical aviation squadrons,
primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the
Navy's nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.* [11]
Two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on
10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as an Infantry force
capable of ghting for independence both at sea and on
shore.* [12] The role of the Corps has since grown and
evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular
titles such as America's third air forceand second
land army.* [13] The Marine Corps has distinguished
itself as it has served in the majority of American wars,
from its inception to the modern era, and attained prominence in the 20th century when its theories and practices
of amphibious warfare proved prescient and ultimately
formed the cornerstone of the Pacic campaign of World
War II.* [14]
By the mid-20th century, the U.S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist and the dominant practitioner of
amphibious warfare.* [15]* [16]* [17] Its ability to rapidly
respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it
a strong role in the implementation and execution of
American foreign policy.* [18] The USMC has around
194,000 active duty members and just under 40,000
reserve Marines as of 2010.* [3] It is the smallest of the
U.S. Armed Forces within the U.S. Department of Defense.* [19]* [20]* [21]
A Marine Corporal and Lance Corporal of 3rd Battalion, 6th

Marines engaging the enemy during Operation Moshtarak in
Afghanistan's Helmand Province.
This last clause, while seemingly redundant given the

President's position as Commander-in-chief, is a codication of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the
Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the
Marine Corps of 1834, and Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps of 1798. In 1951, the House of
Representatives' Armed Services Committee called the
clause one of the most important statutory and traditional functions of the Marine Corps.It noted that
the corps has more often than not performed actions of a
non-naval nature, including its famous actions in Tripoli,
the War of 1812, Chapultepec, and numerous counterinsurgency and occupational duties (such as those in Central America), World War I, and the Korean War. While
these actions are not accurately described as support of
naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature,
316
using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely inter- on formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced
vention in foreign aairs on behalf of American inter- Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codied their
ests.* [22]
combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the
seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval
campaigns.
A U.S. Marine Security Guard reviews a security system at a U.S.

embassy in December 2004.
Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and
carriers. Marine detachments (generally one platoon per
cruiser, a company for battleships or carriers) served their
traditional duties as ship's landing force, manning the
ship's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine
detachments were augmented by members of the ship's
company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran
Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and
Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines
would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War
II.* [26] During World War II, Marines continued to serve
on capital ships. They often were assigned to man antiaircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the
1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen
on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security nally ended in the 1990s as the
battleships were retired and nuclear weapons were withdrawn from deployment on aircraft carriers.
In addition to its primary duties, the Marine Corps has

missions in direct support of the White House and the
State Department. The Marine Band, dubbed thePresident's Ownby Thomas Jeerson, provides music for
state functions at the White House.* [23] Marines from
Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., guard presidential retreats, in- Capabilities
cluding Camp David, and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX-1 provide helicopter
transport to the President and Vice President, with the
call signs "Marine One" and Marine Two, respectively.* [24] By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service Act,
the Marine Security Guards of the Marine Embassy Security Command provide security for American embassies,
legations, and consulates at more than 140 posts worldwide.* [25]
Historical mission
The Marine Corps was founded to serve as an infantry
unit aboard naval vessels and was responsible for the security of the ship and its crew by conducting oensive
and defensive combat during boarding actions and defending the ship's ocers from mutiny; to the latter end,
their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned
between the ocers' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at
sea and ashore. America's rst amphibious assault landing occurred early in the Revolutionary War on 3 March
1776 as the Marines gained control of Fort Montague
and Fort Nassau, a British ammunition depot and naval
port in New Providence, the Bahamas. The role of the
Marine Corps has expanded signicantly since then; as
the importance of its original naval mission declined with
changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing
U.S. Marines from the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit training in

amphibious warfare during Operation Talisman Sabre at Shoalwater Bay in Australia
The Marine Corps fullls a vital role in national security

as an amphibious, expeditionary, air-ground combined
arms task force, capable of forcible entry from the air,
land, and sea. It is capable of asymmetric warfare with
conventional, irregular, and hybrid forces.
While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique
combat arms, as a force it can rapidly deploy a combinedarms task force to almost anywhere in the world within
days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a

Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat element, an aviation combat
element and a logistics combat element under a common command element. While the creation of joint
commands under the GoldwaterNichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between each branch,
the Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated
multi-element task forces under a single command provides a smoother implementation of combined-arms warfare principles.* [14]
317
from the seas.* [7] The Marines are credited with the
development of helicopter insertion doctrine and were
the earliest in the American military to widely adopt
maneuver-warfare principles which emphasize low-level
initiative and exible execution. In light of recent warfare that has strayed from the Corps' traditional missions,* [30] it has renewed an emphasis on amphibious
capabilities.* [31]
The close integration of disparate Marine units stems

from an organizational culture centered around the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support
the infantry. Unlike some Western militaries, the Corps
remained conservative against theories proclaiming the
ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For
example, Marine aviation has always been focused on
close air support and has remained largely uninuenced
by air power theories proclaiming that strategic bombing
can single-handedly win wars.* [26]
Marines conduct a patrol in Iraq.
Bravo Battery, 1st Battalion, 11th Marines, a.k.a. the Beastmasters ght o Iraqi unit on 26 March 2003
This focus on the infantry is matched with the doctrine

that Every Marine a rieman, a focus of Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines, regardless of
military specialization, receive training as a rieman; and
all ocers receive additional training as infantry platoon
commanders.* [27] For example, at Wake Island, when
all of the Marine aircraft were shot down, pilots continued the ght as ground ocers, leading supply clerks
and cooks in a nal defensive eort.* [28] As a result,
a large degree of initiative and autonomy is expected
of junior Marines, particularly the NCOs (corporals and
sergeants), as compared with many other military organizations. The Marine Corps emphasizes authority and responsibility downward to a greater degree than the other
military services. Flexibility of execution is implemented
via an emphasis on "commander's intent" as a guiding
principle for carrying out orders; specifying the end state
but leaving open the method of execution.* [29]
The amphibious assault techniques developed for World
War II evolved, with the addition of air assault and
maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational
Maneuver from the Sea" doctrine of power projection
The Marine Corps relies on the Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Fleet Marine Force in Japan, Marine
Expeditionary Units (MEU) are typically stationed at sea.
This allows the ability to function as rst responders to international incidents. The United States Army maintains
light infantry units capable of rapid worldwide deployment, but those units do not match the combined-arms
integration of a MAGTF and lack the logistics that the
Navy provides.* [14] Therefore, the Marine Corps is often assigned to non-combat missions such as the evacuation of Americans from unstable countries and providing humanitarian relief during natural disasters. In larger
conicts, Marines act as a stopgap, to get into and hold
an area until larger units can be mobilized. The Corps
performed this role in World War I and the Korean War,
where Marines were the rst signicant combat units deployed from the United States and held the line until the
country could mobilize for war.* [32] To aid rapid deployment, the Maritime Pre-Positioning System was developed: eets of container ships are positioned throughout the world with enough equipment and supplies for a
Marine Expeditionary Force to deploy for 30 days.
The USMC is planning to reduce its logistical requirements and by 2025 eliminate all liquid fuel use for Marine Expeditionary Forces, except for highly ecient vehicles.* [33]
Doctrine
Two small manuals published during the 1930s would
establish USMC doctrine in two areas. The Small
Wars Manual laid the framework for Marine counterinsurgency operations from Vietnam to Iraq and
318
Afghanistan while the Tentative Landing Operations

Manual established the doctrine for the amphibious operations of World War II. "Operational Maneuver from
the Sea" is the current doctrine of power projection.* [7]
1.21.2
History
Main article: History of the United States Marine Corps
Origins
The battle between Hornet and Penguin, the nal engagement

between British and American forces during the War of 1812,
which led to the capture and destruction of the British ship by
Marine infantry troops.
Their most signicant contribution was holding the center

of Gen. Andrew Jackson's defensive line at the Battle of
New Orleans, the nal major battle of the conict. By
the end of the war, most notably during the capture of
HMS Cyane, Levant and Penguin, the nal engagements
between British and American forces, the Marines had
acquired a well-deserved reputation as expert marksmen,
especially in ship-to-ship actions.* [38]
Continental Marines land at New Providence during the Battle of

Nassau, the rst amphibious landing of the Marine Corps.
The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional

roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed by Captain Samuel Nicholas by
a resolution of the Second Continental Congress on 10
November 1775, to raise 2 battalions of Marines. That
date is regarded and celebrated as the date of the Marine
Corps' birthday. At the end of the American Revolution,
both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were
disbanded in April 1783. The institution itself would
not be resurrected until 11 July 1798. At that time, in
preparation for the Quasi-War with France, Congress created the United States Marine Corps.* [34] Marines had
been enlisted by the War Department as early as August
1797* [35] for service in the new-build frigates authorized
by the CongressionalAct to provide a Naval Armament
of 18 March 1794,* [36] which specied the numbers of
Marines to be recruited for each frigate.
The Marines' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (18011805) against
the Barbary pirates,* [37] when William Eaton and First
Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led eight Marines and 500
mercenaries in an eort to capture Tripoli. Though they
only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines' hymn and the Mameluke Sword
carried by Marine ocers.* [38]
After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a depression

that ended with the appointment of Archibald Henderson
as its fth Commandant in 1820. Under his tenure, the
Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the
Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited
with thwarting President Jackson's attempts to combine
and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army.* [38] Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization
of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps
was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the Navy.* [39] This would be the rst of many
times that the existence of the Corps was challenged.
James Walker, Storming of Chapultepec, 1847
Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for

service in the Seminole Wars of 1835, personally leading
nearly half of the entire Corps (two battalions) to war.
A decade later, in the MexicanAmerican War (1846
1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace in Mexico City, which would be later celeDuring the War of 1812, Marine naval detachments took brated by the phrase From The Halls of Montezuma
part in the great frigate duels that characterized the war, in Marines' hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would see
which were the rst and last engagements of the conict. further service in Panama and Asia, escorting Matthew
319
Perry's East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far John Philip Sousa, the musician and composer, enlisted
East.* [40]
as a Marine apprentice at the age of 13, serving from 1867
until 1872, and again from 1880 to 1892 as the leader of
the Marine Band.
During the SpanishAmerican War (1898), Marines led
American forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and
Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At Guantnamo Bay, Cuba, the Marines seized
an advanced naval base that remains in use today. Between 1899 and 1916, the Corps continued its record
of vigorous participation in foreign expeditions, including the PhilippineAmerican War, the Boxer Rebellion
in China (18991901), Panama, the Cuban Pacications,
the Perdicaris Incident in Morocco, Veracruz, Santo
Domingo, and the Banana Wars in Haiti and Nicaragua;
the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into
*
Five Marines with xed bayonets, and their NCO with his sword the Small Wars Manual. [43]
at the Washington Navy Yard, 1864
World War I
With their vast service in foreign engagements, the Marine Corps played a moderate role in the Civil War (1861
1865); their most prominent task was blockade duty. As
more and more states seceded from the Union, about a
third of the Corps' ocers left the Union to join the
Confederacy and form the Confederate States Marine
Corps, which ultimately played little part in the war.
The battalion of recruits formed for the First Battle of
Bull Run (First Manassas) performed poorly, retreating
with the rest of the Union forces.* [32] Blockade duty
included sea-based amphibious operations to secure forward bases. In late November 1861, Marines and sailors
landed a reconnaissance in force from the USS Flag at
Tybee Island, Georgia, to occupy the Lighthouse and
Martello Tower on the northern end of the island. It
would later be the Army base for bombardment of Fort
Georges Scott, American Marines in Belleau Wood, 1918.
Pulaski.* [41]
Interim: American Civil War to World War I
The remainder of the 19th century was marked by declining strength and introspection about the mission of
the Marine Corps. The Navy's transition from sail to
steam put into question the need for Marines on naval
ships. Meanwhile, Marines served as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect American lives and interests overseas. The Corps was involved
in over 28 separate interventions in the 30 years from the
end of the American Civil War to the end of 19th century. They would be called upon to stem political and
labor unrest within the United States.* [42] Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin's tenure, Marine customs and traditions took shape: the Corps adopted the Marine Corps
emblem on 19 November 1868. It was during this time
that "The Marines' Hymn" was rst heard. Around 1883,
the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis"
(Always Faithful).* [38]
The ag of the U.S. Marine Corps from 1914 to 1939.
During World War I veteran Marines served a central role

in the late American entry into the conict. The Marine
Corps had a deep pool of ocers and NCOs with battle
experience, and experienced a small expansion. Here, the
Marines fought their famed battle at Belleau Wood, creating the Marines' reputation in modern history. While
320
its previous expeditionary experiences had not earned it

much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines' ferocity and toughness in France earned them the respect of
the Germans, who rated them of stormtrooper quality.
Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden as meaning
"Devil Dogs", there is no evidence of this in German
records (as Teufelshunde would be the proper German
phrase). Nevertheless, the name stuck.* [44]
erce resistance, but American forces reached the summit

of Mount Suribachi on 23 February. The mission was
accomplished at very high losses, with 26,000 American
casualties and 22,000 Japanese.* [48]
Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed

by Commandant John A. Lejeune, and under his leadership, the Corps presciently studied and developed amphibious techniques that would be of great use in World
War II. Many ocers, including Lt. Col. Earl HancockPeteEllis, foresaw a war in the Pacic with Japan
and undertook preparations for such a conict. Through
1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Corps pushed urgently for joint amphibious exercises and acquired amphibious equipment that would prove of great use in the
upcoming conict.* [47]
and reorganized defense establishment attempted to fold

the Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army.
Drawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, and
with the assistance of the so-called "Revolt of the Admirals,"the Marine Corps rebued such eorts to dismantle
the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine
Corps in the National Security Act of 1947.* [51] Shortly
afterward, in 1952 the Douglas-Manseld Bill aorded
the Commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of
Sta on matters relating to the Marines and established
the structure of three active divisions and air wings that
remain today.
By the end of the war, the Corps expanded from two

brigades to six divisions, ve air wings, and supporting troops, totaling about 485,000 Marines. In addition,
20 defense battalions and a parachute battalion were set
raised.* [49] Nearly 87,000 Marines were casualties durThe Corps entered the war with 511 ocers and 13,214 ing World War II (including nearly 20,000 killed), and 82
enlisted personnel, and by 11 November 1918 had were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [50]
reached a strength of 2,400 ocers and 70,000 en- Despite Secretary Forrestal's prediction, the Corps faced
listed.* [45] African-Americans were entirely excluded an immediate institutional crisis following the war due to
from the Marine Corps during this conict.* [46]
the low budget. Army generals pushing for a strengthened
World War II
Korean War
Photograph of the USMC War Memorial, which depicts the agraising on Iwo Jima. The memorial is modeled on Joe Rosenthal's
famous Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.
In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the

Pacic War. The battles of Guadalcanal, Bougainville,
Tarawa, Guam, Tinian, Cape Gloucester, Saipan, Peleliu,
Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw erce ghting between
Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army.
The island of Iwo Jima served as the next area of battle,
which began on 19 February 1945. The Japanese had
learned from their defeats in the Marianas campaign and
prepared many fortied positions on the island, including
pillboxes and underground tunnels. The Japanese put up
F4U Corsairs provide close air support to Marines ghting Chinese forces, December 1950.
The Korean War (19501953) saw the hastily formed

Provisional Marine Brigade holding the defensive line at
the Pusan Perimeter. To execute a anking maneuver,
General Douglas MacArthur called on Marine air and
ground forces to make an amphibious landing at Inchon.
The successful landing resulted in the collapse of North
Korean lines and the pursuit of North Korean forces north
near the Yalu River until the entrance of the People's Republic of China into the war. Chinese troops surrounded,
surprised and overwhelmed the overextended and out-

numbered American forces. X Corps, which included
the 1st Marine Division and the Army's 7th Infantry Division, regrouped and inicted heavy casualties during their
ghting withdrawal to the coast, now known as the Battle
of Chosin Reservoir.
The ghting calmed after the Battle of the Chosin Reservoir, but late in March 1953 the relative quiet of the war
was broken when the Chinese Army launched a massive
oensive on three outposts manned by the 5th Marine
Regiment. These outposts were codenamed Reno,
Vegas, and Carson. The campaign was collectively known as the Nevada Cities Campaign. There was
brutal ghting on Reno hill, which was eventually captured by the Chinese. Although Reno was lost, the 5th
Marines held both Vegas and Carson through the rest of
the campaign. In this one campaign, the Marines suffered approximately 1,000 casualties, while the Chinese
suered at least twice as many. Marines would continue
a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953
armistice.* [52]
321
withdrawn in 1971, and returned briey in 1975 to evacuate Saigon and attempt a rescue of the crew of the
Mayagez.* [54]
Vietnam was the longest war for Marines; by its end,
13,091* [55]* [56] had been killed in action, 51,392 had
been wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor had been
awarded.* [57]* [58] Due to policies concerning rotation,
more Marines were deployed for service during Vietnam
than World War II.* [59]
While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detrimental low point in its service history caused by courtsmartial and non-judicial punishments related partially to
increased unauthorized absences and desertions during
the war. Overhauling of the Corps began in the late
1970s, discharging the most delinquent, and once quality of new recruits improved, the Corps focused on reforming the NCO Corps, a vital functioning part of its
forces.* [14]
The Korean War saw the Corps expand from 75,000 reg- Interim: Vietnam War to the War on Terrorism
ulars to a force of 261,000 Marines, mostly reservists.
30,544 Marines were killed or wounded during the war
and 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [53]
Vietnam War
Beirut Memorial at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune
U.S. Marines of 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines during Operation

Allen Brook in Vietnam, 1968
The Marine Corps served an important role in the

Vietnam War taking part in such battles as Da Nang,
Hue City, Con Thien and Khe Sanh. Individuals from
the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of
South Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the Viet Cong, along with
an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). Portions of the Corps were responsible for the less-known Combined Action Program
(CAP) that implemented unconventional techniques for
counter-insurgency and worked as military advisers to
the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps. Marines were
After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Marines resumed

their expeditionary role, participating in the failed 1980
Iran hostage rescue attempt Operation Eagle Claw, the
invasion of Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) and the
invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause). On 23 October 1983, the Marine headquarters building in Beirut,
Lebanon, was bombed, causing the highest peacetime
losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines and 21
other service members were killed) and leading to the
American withdrawal from the country. The year 1990
saw Marines of the Joint Task Force Sharp Edge save
thousands of lives by evacuating British, French and
American nationals from the violence of the Liberian
Civil War.
During the Persian Gulf War (19901991), Marine task
forces formed the initial core for Operation Desert Shield,
while United States and Coalition troops mobilized, and
later liberated Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm.* [38]
Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia
(19921995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore
322
George W. Bush announced the Global War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is
the defeat of Al-Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any
nation that supports or harbors terrorists.* [61] Since
then, the Marine Corps, alongside other military and federal agencies, has engaged in global operations around the
world in support of that mission.
In spring 2009, President Barack Obama's goal of reducing spending in the Defense Department was led by
Secretary Robert Gates in a series of budget cuts which
did not result in signicant changes in the Corps' budget and programs, cutting only the VH-71 Kestrel and resetting the VXX program.* [62]* [63]* [64] However, the
U.S. Marines from 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines during the Desert
National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and ReStorm deployment in 1990-1991
form singled the Corps out for the brunt of a series of
recommended cuts in late 2010.* [65] In light of budget
Hope II, and United Shield to provide humanitarian re- sequestration in 2013, commandant Amos set a goal of
*
lief.* [60] In 1997, Marines took part in Operation Silver a force of 174,000 Marines. [66] He testied that this
Wake, the evacuation of American citizens from the US was the minimum number that would allow for an eective response to even a single contingency operation, but
Embassy in Tirana, Albania.
it would reduce the peacetime ratio of time at home bases
to time deployed down to a historical low level.* [67]
Global War on Terrorism
U.S. Marines from 1st Battalion, 7th Marines enter a palace in

Baghdad in April 2003.
U.S. Marines dismounting from an Assault Amphibious Vehicle

in Djibouti.
Afghan Campaign (Operation Enduring FreedomAfghanistan) Marines and other American forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border
of Afghanistan as early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom.* [68] The 15th
and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were the rst conventional forces into Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in November 2001, and in December, the Marines seized Kandahar International Airport.* [69] Since then, Marine battalions and squadrons
have been rotating through, engaging Taliban and AlQaeda forces. Marines of the 24th Marine Expeditionary
Unit ooded into the Taliban-held town of Garmsir on
29 April 2008, in Helmand Province, in the rst major
American operation in the region in years.* [70] In June
U.S. Marines conducting a dawn patrol in Afghanistan's Nawa 2009, 7,000 Marines with the 2nd Marine Expeditionary
District, Helmand Province (May 2010).
Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in an eort to improve
security,* [71] and began Operation Strike of the Sword
Following the attacks on 11 September 2001, President the next month. In February 2010, the 2nd Marine Ex-

peditionary Brigade launched the largest oensive of the
Afghan Campaign since 2001, the Battle of Marjah, to
clear the Taliban from their key stronghold in the Helmand Province. After Marjah, Marines progressed north
up the Helmand River and cleared the towns of Kajahki
and Sangin. Marines remained in the Helmand Province
until 2014.
323
was stood up at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti to provide regional security.* [78] Despite transferring overall
command to the Navy in 2006, the Marines continued
to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2007.* [79] See
Operation Enduring Freedom- Horn of Africa.
1.21.3 Organization
Main article: Organization of the United States Marine
Corps
The Department of the Navy, led by its Secretary, is the
federal government agency which oversees the Marine
Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine ocer
is the Commandant, responsible to the Secretary of the
Navy for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping
the Marine Corps so that its forces are ready for deployment under the operational command of the Combatant
Commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four
principal subdivisions: the Headquarters (HQMC), the
Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the
Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR).
U.S. Marines during the Second Battle of Fallujah in November

2004.
Iraq Campaign (Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation New Dawn, Operation Inherent Resolve) The
U.S. Marines served prominently in the Iraq War's
Operation Iraqi Freedom. The I Marine Expeditionary
Force, along with the U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq.* [72] The
Marines left Iraq in the summer of 2003, but returned
for occupation duty in the beginning of 2004. They
were given responsibility for the Al Anbar Province, the
large desert region to the west of Baghdad. During
this occupation, the Marines spearheaded both assaults
on the city of Fallujah in April (Operation Vigilant Resolve) and November 2004 (Operation Phantom Fury)
and saw intense ghting in such places as Ramadi, AlQa'im and Ht.* [73] Their time in Iraq has courted controversy with the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident.* [68]* [74] The Anbar Awakening and 2007 surge
reduced levels of violence. On 1 March 2009, at
Camp Lejeune, President Obama announced an accelerated withdrawal, promising all troops out by August
2010.* [75] The Marine Corps ocially ended its role
in Iraq on 23 January 2010 when they handed over responsibility for Al Anbar Province to the United States
Army.* [75]* [76] US Marines would ultimately return to
Iraq in the summer of 2014, in response to growing violence there.* [77]
Horn of Africa Operations
Throughout the Global War on Terrorism, the US
Marines have supported operations in Africa to counter
Islamic extremism and piracy in the Red Sea. In late
2002, Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa
The Operating Forces are divided into three categories:

Marine Corps Forces (MARFOR) assigned to unied
commands, Security Forces guarding high-risk naval installations, and Security Guard detachments at American
embassies. Under the Forces for Unied Commands
memo, in accordance with the Unied Command Plan
approved by the President, Marine Corps Forces are assigned to each of the Combatant Commands at the discretion of the Secretary of Defense. Since 1991, the
Marine Corps has maintained component headquarters at
each of the regional unied combatant commands.* [80]
Marine Corps Forces are divided into Forces Command
(MARFORCOM) and Pacic Command (MARFORPAC), each headed by a Lieutenant General. MARFORCOM has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC has operational control of
the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force.* [32]
The Supporting Establishment includes the Combat Development Command (MCCDC), the Logistics Command, the Recruiting Command and its depots, administration of Marine bases and air stations, and the Marine
Band.
Relationship with other services
In general, the Marine Corps shares many resources
with the other branches of the United States military.
However, the Corps has consistently sought to maintain its own identity with regards to mission, funding,
and assets, while utilizing the support available from the
larger branches. While the Marine Corps has far fewer
installations both in the U.S. and worldwide than the
other branches, many Army posts, Naval stations, and Air
324
Force bases have a Marine presence. They also cross train ized units can be seen in the short-lived experiment of
with other countries.
the Marine Raiders, born in World War II, was controversial. While the U.S. Army's 75th Ranger Regiment, also
born in World War II, enjoys high prestige to this day.
United States Army Main article: United States Army The Army has a longer continuous tradition of special
The Marine Corps combat capabilities in some ways operations forces; the Marines joined the Special Operations Command with the establishment of MCSOCOM
Detachment One in 2003.* [81]
The Marines often leverage the Army's acquisition of
ground equipment (as well as beneting from Army research and development resources), training resources,
and other support concepts. The majority of vehicles
and weapons are shared with, modied, or inherited from
Army programs.
Culturally, Marines and soldiers share most of the common U.S. military slang and terminology, but the Corps
utilizes a large number of naval terms and traditions incompatible with the Army lifestyle, as well as their own
unique vernacular. Many Marines regard their culture to
have a deep warrior tradition, with the ethos that Every Marine a riemanand emphasis on cross-training
A soldier from the 1st Infantry Regiment provides security for a
joint Army-Marine patrol in Rawa in 2006. The shoulder sleeve and combat readiness despite actual job, be it infantry or
otherwise. One source states Marines tend to decentralinsignia has the logo of the 2nd Marine Division.
ize and push leadership to lower levels, while fostering
*
overlap those of the United States Army, the latter hav- initiative to a greater degree. [82]
ing historically viewed the Corps as encroaching on the
Army's capabilities and competing for funding, missions,
United States Navy Main article: United States Navy
and renown. The attitude dates back to the founding of
The Marine Corps' counterpart under the Department
the Continental Marines, when General George Washington refused to allow the initial Marine battalions to be
drawn from among his Continental Army. Most signicantly, in the aftermath of World War II, Army eorts to
restructure the American defense establishment included
the dissolution of the Corps and the folding of its capabilities into the other services. Leading this movement
were such prominent Army ocers as General Dwight
D. Eisenhower and Army Chief of Sta George C. Marshall.* [51] With most of the 2000s spent in operations
in Afghanistan and Iraq, Secretary of Defense Robert
Gates has voiced concerns that the Marines are becoming a second Army.* [30]
Doctrinally, the Marine Corps' focus is on being expeditionary and independent, and places emphasis on amphibious mobility and combined arms; these make it a
much lighter force than many units of the Army. A larger
percentage of the Marine Corps' personnel and assets are
in the combat arms (infantry, artillery, armor, and close
air support) than the Army. However, the Army maintains much larger and diverse combat arms (infantry, armor, artillery, special operations), ground transport, logistics, while the Marines have a more diverse aviation
arm (which constitutes a larger percentage of forces), and
is usually organic to the MAGTF. Marines operate as expeditionary units and are completely amphibious. The
Marine Corps focus on standardized infantry units with
the other arms in support roles as the Every Marine a
riemancreed shows. This commitment to standard-
Assault Amphibious Vehicles approach the well deck of USS Bonhomme Richard.
of the Navy is the United States Navy. As a result, the

Navy and Marine Corps have a close relationship, more
so than with other branches of the military. Whitepapers and promotional literature have commonly used the
phraseNavy-Marine Corps Team,* [83]* [84] or refer
to the Naval Service. Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps
report directly to the Secretary of the Navy.
Cooperation between the two services really begins with
the training and instruction of Marines. The Corps
receives a signicant portion of its ocers from the

United States Naval Academy and Naval Reserve Ocer
Training Corps (NROTC). NROTC sta includes Marine instructors, while Marine drill instructors contribute
to training of ocers in the Navy's Ocer Candidate
School. Marine aviators are trained in the Naval Aviation training pipeline and are winged as Naval Aviators.
325
cur to avoid negative impacts to the United States.
The Marines have reduced the requirement for large amphibious ships from 42 to a bare minimum of 33 ships;
the eet currently stands at 29 ships and is likely to shrink
in the future.* [86]
United States Air Force Main article: United States
Air Force
While the majority of Marine aviation assets ultimately
Marine and sailor train with ries in Djibouti.
Training alongside each other is viewed as critical, as

the Navy provides transport, logistical, and combat support to put Marine units into the ght, for example, the
Maritime Prepositioning ships and naval gunre support.
Most Marine aviation assets ultimately derive from the
Navy, with regard to acquisition, funding, and testing,
and Navy aircraft carriers typically deploy with a Marine squadron alongside Navy squadrons. Marines do
not recruit or train noncombatants such as chaplains or
medical/dental personnel; naval personnel ll these roles.
Some of these sailors, particularly Hospital Corpsmen
and Religious Programs Specialists, generally wear Marine uniforms emblazoned with Navy insignia. Conversely, the Marine Corps is responsible for conducting
land operations to support naval campaigns, including the
seizure of naval and air bases. Both services operate a
network security team in conjunction.
Marines and Sailors share many naval traditions, especially terminology and customs. Marine Corps Medal
of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of this and
other awards;* [26] and with few exceptions, the awards
and badges of the Navy and Marine Corps are identical.
Much of testing for new Marine Corps aircraft is done
at NAS Patuxent River. The Navy's Blue Angels ight
demonstration team is staed by both Navy and Marine
ocers and enlisted men, and includes a Marine C-130
Hercules aircraft.* [26]
Marines unload CH-46 helicopters from an Air Force C-5

Galaxy.
derive from the Navy, some support is drawn from the

United States Air Force. The Marine Corps makes extensive use of the USAF Air Mobility Command to airlift
Marines and equipment.
The Air Force traditionally provides the Joint Force Air

Component Commander who controls sorties for air
defense, and long range interdiction and reconnaissance
while the MAGTF commander retains control of the
In 2007, the Marine Corps joined with the Navy and Marines' organic aviation assets.* [87]* [88]
Coast Guard to adopt a new maritime strategy called A The Marines provide some ground training for Air Force
Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raises ground personnel, but most is handled by the Army.* [89]
the notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war.* [85] This new strategy
charts a course for the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Air-ground task forces
Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent regional crises, man-made or Main article: Marine Air-Ground Task Force
natural, from occurring or reacting quickly should one oc-
326
Today, the basic framework for deployable Marine units
is the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), a exible structure of varying size. A MAGTF integrates a
ground combat element (GCE), an aviation combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE)* [90]
under a common command element (CE), capable of operating independently or as part of a larger coalition. The
MAGTF structure reects a strong tradition in the Corps
towards self-suciency and a commitment to combined
arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, timesensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as
well has led to a wariness of overreliance on its sister services, and towards joint operations in general.* [14]
Special Operations
Main article: United States Marine Corps Forces Special
Operations Command
See also: United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance
Battalions and United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
Although the notion of a Marine special forces con-
A MAGTF varies in size from the smallest, a Marine

Expeditionary Unit (MEU), based around a reinforced
infantry battalion and a composite squadron, up to the
largest, a Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), which ties
together a Division, an Air Wing, and a Logistics Group
under a MEF Headquarters Group. The seven MEUs
constantly rotate between themselves and their attached
Marine special operators conduct CQB training.
components to maintain a high state of readiness. Each
MEU is rated as capable of performing special operatribution to the United States Special Operations Comtions.* [91] The three MEFs contain the vast majority of
mand (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the foundactive duty deployable forces.
ing of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the
Marine Corps. Then-Commandant Paul X. Kelley expressed the popular belief that Marines should support
Marines, and that the Corps should not fund a special operations capability that would not support Marine operations.* [92] However, much of the resistance from within
the Corps dissipated when Marine leaders watched the
Corps' 15th and 26th MEU(SOC)ssit on the sidelines
during the very early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom while other special operations units actively engaged
in operations in Afghanistan.* [81] After a three-year development period, the Corps agreed in 2006 to supply
a 2,500-strong unit, Marine Forces Special Operations
Command (MARSOC), which would answer directly to
USSOCOM.* [93]
Budget
The Marine Corps accounts for around six percent of the
military budget of the United States. The cost per Marine is $20,000 less than the cost of a serviceman from
the other services, and the entire force can be used for
both hybrid and major combat operations,* [94] enabling
it to carry out full scale military action, peacekeeping operations and humanitarian aid the entire Three Block
War. Note that these per capita costs do not account for
support provided by the Navy and other branches, such
as the Navy's amphibious warfare ships and long-range
air transport by the USAF.* [95] However given expected
A team of Marine Force Recon operators training during a Mar- defense budget cuts, the Marines are well positioned for
itime Interdiction Operation (MIO) exercise-example of black elding cheap options for an uncertain world.* [96] The
operations.
Marine Corps budget is comparably well handled with
a tiny fraction of the Anti-Deciency Act violations of
327
any of the other three major branches.* [97] In 2013, the Commandant of the Marine Corps
USMC became the rst American military branch to ever
have a fully audited annual budget.* [98]
Marine Corps bases and stations
Main article: List of United States Marine Corps installations
The Marine Corps operates many major bases, 14 of
which host operating forces, several support and train- John M. Paxton, Jr.,
ing installations, as well as satellite facilities.* [99] Ma- Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps
rine Corps' bases are concentrated around the locations
of the Marine Expeditionary Forces, though reserve units
are scattered throughout the United States. The principal
bases are Camp Pendleton on the West Coast, home to I
MEF; Camp Lejeune on the East Coast, home to II MEF;
and Camp Butler in Okinawa, Japan, home to III MEF.
Other important bases include air stations, recruit depots, logistics bases, and training commands. Marine
Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in
California is the Marine Corps' largest base and home
to the Corps' most complex, combined-arms, live-re
training. Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia is
home to Marine Corps Combat Development Command,
and nicknamed the Crossroads of the Marine Corps
.* [100]* [101] Marines operate detachments at many installations owned by other branches, to better share resources, such as specialty schools. Marines are also
present at, and operate many, forward bases during expeditionary operations. Finally, Marines operate a presence
in the National Capital Region, with Headquarters Marine Corps scattered amongst the Pentagon, Henderson
Hall, Washington Navy Yard, and Marine Barracks,
Washington, D.C.
Micheal P. Barrett,
Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps
As stated above, the Commandant of the Marine Corps is
the highest-ranking ocer of the Marine Corps; though
he may not be the senior ocer by time in grade and/or
position of oce. He is both the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very
high esteem among Marines. The Commandant has the
U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to man, train, and equip
the Marine Corps. He does not serve as a direct battleeld commander. The Commandant is a member of the
Joint Chiefs of Sta, and reports to the Secretary of the
Navy.* [102]
The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps acts as

a deputy to the Commandant. The Sergeant Major of
the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine, and acts
See also: List of notable United States Marines and List as an adviser to the Commandant. Headquarters Marine
of historically notable United States Marines
Corps comprises the rest of the Commandant's counsel
and sta, with deputy Commandants that oversee various
aspects of the Corps assets and capabilities.
1.21.4
Personnel
Leadership
Joseph F. Dunford, Jr.,
The current and 36th Commandant is Joseph F. Dunford, Jr., who assumed the position on 17 October
2014.* [103]* [104] The 33rd and current Assistant Commandant is John M. Paxton, Jr.,* [105] while the 17th
and current Sergeant Major is Micheal P. Barrett. Other
Marine generals may be senior to the Commandant or
Assistant Commandant in terms of time in grade and/or
billet.
328
Rank structure
Main article: United States Marine Corps rank insignia
to Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps as has been the
case since the 1 October 2011, appointment of Sergeant
Major Bryan B. Battaglia to the billet of Senior Enlisted
Advisor to the Chairman which is deemed the senior enlisted member of the United States military.
As in the rest of the United States military, Marine Corps

ranks fall into one of three categories: commissioned of- Dierent forms of address can be found at United States
cer, warrant ocer, and enlisted, in decreasing order of Marine Corps rank insignia and List of United States Maauthority (excluding the Air Force, which does not cur- rine Corps acronyms and expressions.
rently appoint warrant ocers). To standardize compensation, each rank is assigned a pay grade.* [106]
Military Occupational Specialty
Commissioned ocers Commissioned ocers are
distinguished from other ocers by their commission,
which is the formal written authority, issued in the name
of the President of the United States, that confers the rank
and authority of a Marine ocer. Commissioned ocers
carry thespecial trust and condenceof the President
of the United States.* [22] Marine Corps commissioned
ocers are promoted based on anup or outsystem in
accordance with the Defense Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980.
Main articles: Military Occupational Specialty and List

of United States Marine Corps MOS
The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) is a system
of job classication. Using a four digit code, it designates what eld and specic occupation a Marine performs. Segregated between ocer and enlisted, the MOS
determines the stang of a unit. Some MOSs change
with rank to reect supervisory positions, others are secondary and represent a temporary assignment outside of
a Marine's normal duties or special skill.
Warrant ocers See also: Warrant ocer (United

States)
Warrant ocers are primarily former enlisted experts in a
specic specialized eld and provide leadership generally
only within that speciality.
Enlisted Enlisted Marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3
make up the bulk of the Corps' ranks, usually referred to
simply as Marines. Although they do not technically
hold leadership ranks, the Corps' ethos stresses leadership
among all Marines, and junior Marines are often assigned
responsibility normally reserved for superiors. Those in
the pay grades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned ofcers (NCOs). They primarily supervise junior Marines
and act as a vital link with the higher command structure,
ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines
E-6 and higher are Sta Non-Commissioned Ocers
(SNCOs), charged with supervising NCOs and acting as
enlisted advisers to the command.
The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two and three ranks
per pay grade, respectively, each with dierent responsibilities. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks
are command-oriented, serving as the senior enlisted
Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding ocer in matters of discipline, administration and the morale
and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master
Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specic MOS. The Sergeant
Major of the Marine Corps also E-9, is a billet conferred
on the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps,
personally selected by the Commandant. It is possible
however for an enlisted Marine to hold a position senior
A Warrant Ocer observes recruits ring on a rie range.
Initial training
Main articles: United States Marine Corps Recruit
Training and Ocer Candidates School (United States
Marine Corps)
Every year, over 2,000 new Marine ocers are commissioned, and 38,000 recruits accepted and trained.* [32]
All new Marines, enlisted or ocer, are recruited by the
Marine Corps Recruiting Command.* [107]
Commissioned ocers are commissioned mainly
through one of three sources: Naval Reserve Ocer
Training Corps (NROTC), Ocer Candidates School
(OCS), or the United States Naval Academy (USNA).
Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned
ocers, regardless of accession route or further training
requirements, attend The Basic School (TBS) at Marine
Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. At TBS, second lieutenants, warrant ocers, and selected foreign ocers
329
learn the art of infantry and combined arms warfare.* [22]
Marine recruits at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego.
Enlisted Marines attend recruit training, known as boot

camp, at either Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego or
Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. Historically,
the Mississippi River served as the dividing line which
delineated who would be trained where, while more recently, a district system has ensured a more even distribution of male recruits between the two MCRD facilities. Females attend only the Parris Island depot as part
of the segregated Fourth Recruit Training Battalion. All
recruits must pass a tness test to start training; those who
fail receive individualized attention and training until the
minimum standards are reached. Marine recruit training
is the longest among the American military services; it is
12 weeks long, compared to the Army's 10 weeks and the
Navy's 9 weeks.* [108]
Left to right: Utility Uniform, Dress Uniform, Service Uniform,

and Evening Dress Uniform
(Ranger, submariner, aircrew, etc.), Marine uniforms do

not reect such division.
Marines have three main uniforms: Dress, Service,
and Utility. The Marine Corps Dress uniform is the
most elaborate, worn for formal or ceremonial occasions.
There are three dierent forms of the Dress uniform,
the most common being the Blue Dress Uniform, called
Dress Bluesor simply Blues. It is most often seen
in recruiting advertisements and is equivalent to black tie.
There is aBlue-WhiteDress for summer, and Evening
Dress for formal (white tie) occasions. Versions with a
khaki shirt in lieu of the coat (Blue Dress Charlie/Delta)
are worn as a daily working uniform by Marine recruiters
and NROTC sta.* [110]
Following recruit training, enlisted Marines then attend

School of Infantry training at Camp Geiger or Camp
Pendleton. Infantry Marines begin their combat training, which varies in length, immediately with the Infantry
Training Battalion (ITB). Marines in all other MOSs
other than infantry train for 29 days in Marine Combat
Training (MCT), learning common infantry skills, before continuing on to their MOS schools which vary in The Service Uniform was once the prescribed daily work
length.* [109]
attire in garrison; however, it has been largely superseded
in this role by the utility uniform. Consisting of olive
green and khaki colors, it is commonly referred to as
1.21.5 Uniforms
Greens. It is roughly equivalent in function and com*
Main article: Uniforms of the United States Marine position to a business suit. [110]
Corps
The Marine Corps has the most stable and most recognizable uniforms in the American military; the Blue
Dress dates back to the early 19th century* [32] and the
service uniform to the early 20th century. Marines' uniforms are distinct in their simplicity; Marines do not wear
unit patches or United States ags on any of their uniforms, nor name tags on their service and formal uniforms. Only a handful of skills (parachutist, air crew,
explosive ordnance disposal, etc.) warrant distinguishing
badges, and rank insignia is not worn on uniform headgear (with the exception of an ocer's garrison service
cover). While other servicemembers commonly identify
with a sub-group as much as or more than their service
The Utility Uniform, currently the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, is a camouage uniform intended for
wear in the eld or for dirty work in garrison, though it has
now been standardized for regular duty. It is rendered in
a distinctive MARPAT pixelated camouage (sometimes
referred to as digitals or digies) that breaks up the wearer's
shape, and serves to distinguish Marine uniforms from
those of other services. In garrison, the woodland uniform is worn in winter, and the desert uniform is worn in
summer.* [111] Marines consider the utilities a working
uniform and do not permit their wear o-base, except in
transit to and from their place of duty and in the event of
an emergency. This, too, distinguishes them from other
services, which have less stringent restrictions.* [110]
330
1.21.6
Culture
Main article: Culture of the United States Marine Corps
An important part of the Marine Corps culture is the traditional seafaring naval terminology derived from its history with the Navy.
As in any military organization, the ocial and unocial Unocial traditions and customs
traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps'
embrace of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason
for its high esprit de corps.* [22]
Eagle, Globe and Anchor along with the U.S. ag, the Marine
Corps ag and the Commandant's ag.
Ocial traditions and customs

The Marines' Hymn dates back to the 19th century and is
the oldest ocial song in the United States armed forces.
The Marine motto Semper Fidelis means always faithful
in Latin, often appearing as Semper Fi; also the name of
the ocial march of the Corps, composed by John Phillip
Sousa. The mottos Fortitudine (With Fortitude); By
Sea and by Land, a translation of the Royal Marines' Per
A recruiting poster makes use of theTeufel Hundennickname.
Mare, Per Terram; and To the Shores of Tripoli were used
*
until 1868. [112] The Marine Corps emblem is the Eagle,
Globe, and Anchor, sometimes abbreviated EGA, Marines have several generic nicknames:
adopted in 1868.* [113] The Marine Corps seal includes
Devil Dog has several oft-disputed explanathe emblem, also is found on the ag of the United States
tions,* [117]* [118]* [119] but the tradition has
Marine Corps, and establishes scarlet and gold as the of*
expanded to include the English bulldog's associacial colors. [114]
tion with the Corps, especially as a mascot.* [32]
Two styles of swords are worn by Marines: the ocers' Mameluke Sword, similar to the Persian shamshir
gyrene has dropped out of popular use.* [120]
presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the Battle of
Leatherneck refers to a leather collar formerly part
Derna, and the Marine NCO sword.* [32] The Marine
of the Marine uniform during the Revolutionary
Corps Birthday is celebrated every year on 10 NovemWar period.* [121]
ber in a cake-cutting ceremony where the rst slice of
cake is given to the oldest Marine present, who in turn
Jarhead has several oft-disputed explanahands it o to the youngest Marine present. The celebrations.* [122]
tion includes a reading of Commandant Lejeune's Birthday Message.* [115] Close Order Drill is heavily emphasized early on in a Marine's initial training, incorporated Some other unocial traditions include mottos and exinto most formal events, and is used to teach discipline clamations:
by instilling habits of precision and automatic response
Oorah is common among Marines, being similar in
to orders, increase the condence of junior ocers and
function and purpose to the Army's hooah and the
noncommissioned ocers through the exercise of comNavy's hooyah cries. Many possible etymologies
mand and give Marines an opportunity to handle individhave been oered for the term.* [123]
ual weapons.* [116]
331
Semper Fi is a common greeting among serving and

veteran Marines. It is short for the Marine Corps
Motto Semper Fidelis
Improvise, Adapt and Overcome has become an
adopted mantra in many units.* [124]
Veteran Marines
The Corps encourages the idea thatMarineis an earned
title and most Marine Corps personnel take to heart the
phrase Once a Marine, Always a Marine. They reject the termex-Marinein most circumstances. There
are no regulations concerning the address of persons who
have left active service, so a number of customary terms
have come into common use:* [51]
Ex-Marineis used in reference to persons removed from the Corps with less than a full and honorable discharge, especially those dishonorably discharged. Persons wishing to avoid this issue address Marine performs a shoulder throw.
these individuals by name with no reference to the
Corps.
and kicks from Taekwondo and Karate, opponent weight
Marineis acceptable and considered complimen- transfer from Jujitsu, ground grappling involving joint
locking techniques and chokes from Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,
tary by most Corps personnel.
and a mix of knife and baton/stick ghting derived from
Former Marineor Veteran Marineis accept- Eskrima, and elbow strikes and kick boxing from Muay
able in referring to anyone who has been honorably Thai. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp,
discharged from the Corps.
where they will earn the rst of ve available belts.* [127]
Retired Marineis generally reserved for those
who have completed 20 or more years of service are
1.21.7 Equipment
called Lifersand formally retired or those who
have been medically retired.
Main pages: Category:United States Marine Corps
According to one of theCommandant's White let- equipment and List of United States Marine Corps
tersfrom Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., refer- individual equipment
ring to a Marine by their last earned rank is appropriate.* [125]
As of 2013, the typical infantry rieman carries $14,000
worth of gear (excluding night-vision goggles), compared
to $2,500 a decade earlier. The number of pieces of
Martial arts program
equipment (everything from radios to trucks) in a typical
infantry battalion has also increased, from 3,400 pieces
Main article: Marine Corps Martial Arts Program
of gear in 2001 to 8,500 in 2013.* [128]
In 2001, the Marine Corps initiated an internally designed martial arts program, called Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Due to an expectation that
urban and police-type peacekeeping missions would become more common in the 21st century, placing Marines
in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, MCMAP
was implemented to provide Marines with a larger and
more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile, but unarmed individuals. It is a stated aim of
the program to instill and maintain the Warrior Ethos
within Marines.* [126] The Marine Corps Martial Arts
program is an eclectic mix of dierent styles of martial arts melded together. MCMAP consists of punches
Infantry weapons
Main article: List of weapons of the United States Marine Corps
The basic infantry weapon of the Marine Corps is the
M16 assault rie family, with a majority of Marines being equipped with the M16A2 or M16A4 service ries (the M16A2 is being phased out). The M4 carbine* [129] and Colt 9mm SMG* [130] have also been issued. The standard side arm is the M9A1 pistol. The
Colt M1911A1 is also being put back into service as
the M45A1 Close Quarter Battle Pistol (CQBP) in small
332
proles to avoid heavy frontal armor. The Predator is a
short-range re-and-forget weapon; the Javelin and TOW
are heavier missiles eective past 2,000 meters that give
infantry an oensive capability against armor.* [134]
The USMC is currently seeking to purchase commercial o-the-shelf bullet-trap or shoot-through riegrenades.* [135] These grenades will provide individual
Marines additional repower and will allow indirect re
against targets in delade, behind walls and buildings or
rooftops and elevated positions at ranges between 30 and
150 meters.* [135]
Marines ring the MEU(SOC) pistol while garrisoned aboard

ship.
numbers. Suppressive re is provided by the M249 SAW

(currently transitioning to the M27 IAR) and M240 machine guns, at the squad and company levels respectively.
In addition, indirect re is provided by the M203 grenade
launcher and the M32 grenade launcher in reteams,
M224 60 mm mortar in companies, and M252 81 mm
mortar in battalions. The M2 .50 caliber heavy machine
gun and MK19 automatic grenade launcher (40 mm) are
available for use by dismounted infantry, though they are
more commonly vehicle-mounted.
Precision repower is provided by the M40 series, and
the Barrett M107, while designated marksmen use the
DMR (being replaced by the M39 EMR), and the SAMR.* [131]
Marine Amphibious Assault Vehicles emerge from the surf onto

the sand of Freshwater Beach, Australia.
The Marine Corps utilizes a variety of direct-re rockets and missiles to provide infantry with an oensive
and defensive anti-armor capability. The SMAW and
AT4 are unguided rockets that can destroy armor and
xed defenses (e.g., bunkers) at ranges up to 500 meters.
The smaller and lighter M72 LAW can destroy targets
at ranges up to 200 meters.* [132]* [133] The Predator
SRAW, FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are antitank guided missiles. The Javelin can utilize top-attack
A Marine M1 Abrams tank ooading from a Landing Craft Air

Cushioned vehicle.
Ground vehicles
Main article: List of vehicles of the United States Marine
Corps
The Corps operates the same HMMWV and M1A1
Abrams tank as does the Army. However, for its specic needs, the Corps uses a number of unique vehicles.
The LAV-25 is a dedicated wheeled armored personnel carrier, similar to the Army's Stryker vehicle, used
to provide strategic mobility.* [136] Amphibious capability is provided by the AAV-7A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, an armored tracked vehicle that doubles as
an armored personnel carrier, due to be replaced by the
Amphibious Combat Vehicle, a faster vehicle with superior armor and weaponry. The threat of land mines
and improvised explosive devices in Iraq and Afghanistan
has seen the Corps begin purchasing heavy armored
vehicles that can better withstand the eects of these
weapons as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected
vehicle program.* [137] The Marine Corps has ordered
1,960 MRAP vehicles, hoping to use them to replace
HMMWVs and some Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacements on patrols in Iraq.* [138] The Logistics Vehicle
System Replacement began replacing the Logistics Vehicle System in 2009.* [139]
Prior to 2005, the Marines operated exclusively tube artillery the M198 155 mm howitzer, now being replaced
by the M777 155 mm howitzer. However, the Corps has
expanded its artillery composition to include the High
Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), a truck-
333
mounted rocket artillery system. Both are capable of r- the ghter/attack mission is handled by the single-seat
ing guided munitions.* [140]
and dual-seat versions of the F/A-18 Hornet strikeghter aircraft. The AV-8B is a V/STOL aircraft that
can operate from amphibious assault ships, land air
Aircraft
bases and short, expeditionary airelds, while the F/A18 can only be own from land or aircraft carriers.
Both are slated to be replaced by 340 of the STOVL
B version of the F-35 Lightning II, beginning training operations in 2008,* [143] and 80 of the carrier
F-35C versions for deployment with Navy carrier air
wings.* [144]* [145]* [146]* [147]
Marine parachutists jumping from an MV-22 Osprey at 10,000

feet.
Main article: United States Marine Corps Aviation

The organic aviation capability of the Marine Corps is
essential to its mission. The Corps operates both rotarywing and xed-wing aircraft mainly to provide assault
support and close air support to its ground forces. However, other aircraft types are also used in a variety of support and special-purpose roles.
Marine Corps F-35B, the vertical-landing version of the F-35

Lightning II multirole ghter landing aboard USS Wasp.
In addition, the Corps operates its own organic aerial refueling and electronic warfare (EW) assets in the form of
the KC-130 Hercules and EA-6B Prowler, respectively.
The Hercules doubles as a ground refueller and tacticalairlift transport aircraft. The Prowler is one of only two
active tactical electronic warfare aircraft left in the United
States inventory, and has been labeled a national asset"; frequently borrowed along with Navy Prowlers and
EA-18G Growlers to assist in any American combat action since the retirement of the Air Force's own EW aircraft.* [148]
The light transport and attack capabilities are provided

by the Bell UH-1Y Venom and Bell AH-1 SuperCobra,
which is being replaced by the Bell AH-1Z Viper.* [141]
Medium-lift squadrons ying the CH-46E Sea Knight and
CH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters are converting to the
MV-22 Osprey tiltrotor with superior range and speed.
Heavy-lift squadrons are equipped with the CH-53E Super Stallion helicopter, eventually to be replaced with the The Marines operate unmanned aerial vehicles: the
RQ-7 Shadow and Scan Eagle for tactical reconnaisupgraded CH-53K.* [142]
sance.* [149]* [150]
Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT-401), operates F-5E, F-5F and F-5N Tiger II aircraft in support
of air combat adversary (aggressor) training. Marine Helicopter Squadron One (HMX-1) operates the VH-3D
Sea King and VH-60N Whitehawk helicopters in the VIP
transport role, most notably Marine One, but are due to
be replaced. A single Marine Corps C-130 Hercules aircraft, Fat Albert, is used to support the U.S. Navy's
ight demonstration team, the "Blue Angels".
1.21.8 See also

A U.S. Marine AH-1Z Viper lands on USS Makin Island in 2010.
Iron Mike
Marine attack squadrons y the AV-8B Harrier II; while
United States Marine Corps Women's Reserve
334
1.21.9
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Chapter 2
undened
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Chapter 3
Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
3.1 Text
Admiralty Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty?oldid=662569564 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, The Epopt, Deb, SimonP, Mintguy, Hephaestos, Jtdirl, Dominus, (, Arpingstone, Ihcoyc, Stan Shebs, Jdforrester, DropDeadGorgias, Gabriel, Susurrus, Jiang, John K,
Loren Rosen, David Newton, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Astrotrain, Kaal, Lord Emsworth, Mackensen, Andrew Yong, Wetman, Perez, Pibwl,
Postdlf, Ashley Y, Timrollpickering, Danceswithzerglings, Xanzzibar, Jooler, DocWatson42, Oberiko, SWAdair, Golbez, Keith Edkins,
Opera hat, Quadell, Huaiwei, Neutrality, O'Dea, Ham II, Bornintheguz, Pyrop, Guanabot, Martin TB, SpookyMulder, MBisanz, Func,
Dpaajones, Wiki-Ed, HasharBot~enwiki, Tom Yates, Anthony Appleyard, Babajobu, Pwqn, Crosbiesmith, BlueCanoe, Georgia guy, Wdyoung, Polycarp, Jdbartlett, DePiep, Angusmclellan, George Burgess, Brighterorange, Awotter, Hottentot, BjKa, Naominovik, Roboto de
Ajvol, YurikBot, Dili, Bhoeble, Sandpiper, DonaldDuck, 24ip, Epipelagic, BOT-Superzerocool, Alpha.1, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Petri Krohn, SmackBot, Wehwalt, Honbicot, Chris the speller, Rakela, Namangwari, Greenshed, Kcordina, Stevenmitchell, Esrever,
STB-1, Merchbow, Menorrhea, Robert Paul Prummel, GrahamPadruig, Adam Keller, Ninetyone, Chicheley, Bazzargh, ErrantX, Thijs!bot,
Woody, Petecarney, Magioladitis, Ling.Nut, Saburny, Keith D, CommonsDelinker, Hillock65, Kesal, Aatomic1, Histmag, Ng999, Mowsbury, Dormskirk, SteveMtl, SieBot, StAnselm, VVVBot, Barliner, Lightmouse, StaticGull, Dinamik, Xurei, Vilkapi, BarretB, Cwilso,
Addbot, Ghettoblaster, Bonifaceplymouth, Gzhanstong, Yobot, Fraggle81, ThinkingTwice, Orangepippen, ZapThunderstrike, 1exec1,
Damzow, Cyan22, LilHelpa, Kvkc039, Ye, Naval*History*1066, GovertonGTU, Zeljk092, Scipeg, Moonraker, Mateus Vasco, Tbhotch,
EmausBot, Barzdonas, Midas02, Prm, ClueBot NG, MerlIwBot, Gob Lofa, Champaign Supernova, Nimetapoeg, Argovian, Tony1hawkins
and Anonymous: 40
Air force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20force?oldid=660182474 Contributors: The Epopt, Khendon, Rmhermen, SimonP,
Hephaestos, Ixfd64, Blimpguy, Ahoerstemeier, Kricxjo, Arwel Parry, Darkwind, Kaal, Warofdreams, Pibwl, Romanm, Mirv, ThaGrind,
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Kusunose, Vina, Ary29, Eranb, Blue387, Neutrality, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Janneok~enwiki, EricPoehlsen, Grstain, Moverton, Guanabot, Marsian~enwiki, Inkypaws, Darren Olivier, Michael Zimmermann, Kbh3rd, Art LaPella, Zaidiwaqas, Aaron D. Ball, Bobo192,
Shenme, Maurreen, Guiltyspark, Chirag, La goutte de pluie, Krellis, Nsaa, HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Milesli,
Snowolf, Pioneer-12, RainbowOfLight, Lakish, Bsadowski1, AustinZ, Nuno Tavares, Yesopenilno, RHaworth, Wcd, Zzyzx11, Toussaint, Paxsimius, Graham87, Island, Rjwilmsi, Kinu, Bhadani, Sumanch, FlaBot, Ewlyahoocom, G. Moore, Eifeldude, Zotel, Chobot,
Gwernol, YurikBot, RussBot, Kirill Lokshin, NawlinWiki, Alex43223, Mail2amitabha, Pb30, Jor70, JLaTondre, Tierce, Katieh5584,
Djr xi, Elite compact, Nick-D, Selmo, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Blue520, The Photon, Grey Shadow, HalfShadow, Alex earlier account, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Octahedron80, Letdorf, DHN-bot~enwiki, KingAlanI, Darth Panda, Qtktray86, Greenshed, Starshadow, Arab Hafez, Decltype, TheLimbicOne, Brainyiscool, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Valfontis, Kuru, Soumyasch, JoshuaZ,
Mgiganteus1, Nobunaga24, Ckatz, Hvn0413, Werdan7, Magi Media, Beetstra, Waggers, Marimvibe, Tonster, Ale jrb, Article editor,
Necessary Evil, Gogo Dodo, Dynaow, JColgan, Epbr123, Wikid77, Oliver202, Marek69, MetalMurF~enwiki, Hcobb, AntiVandalBot,
Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, Tashtastic, SiobhanHansa, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Askari Mark, Jay Gatsby, Myc1034, BilCat, Martynas
Patasius, DerHexer, Felisopus, Custardninja, DancingPenguin, MartinBot, Alex LaPointe, Eternal Pink, Vigyani, Arjun01, NAHID, Renski, Keith D, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Second-hand originals, Uncle Dick, Spoonman.au, LordAnubisBOT, McSly, Mrg3105,
SJP, Tatrgel, MKoltnow, Juliancolton, Ja 62, Shakarbor, Idioma-bot, Wikieditor06, VolkovBot, Alataristarion, Holme053, AlnoktaBOT,
Lear's Fool, EH101, Philip Trueman, Jkeene, Primadog, Someguy1221, Steven J. Anderson, Ng.j, Bus, Madhero88, Usergreatpower,
Happyme22, Alaniaris, Research2020, Deconstructhis, JohnWunder, JawaShortie, SieBot, Nubiatech, Redblitz, Flyer22, Oxymoron83,
Avnjay, Mesoso2, JohnnyMrNinja, Cyfal, DRTllbrg, Ratemonth, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Specac, SuperHamster, Pras,
Jersey emt, Muenda, Coinmanj, Warrior4321, Beaver225, BOTarate, DJ Sturm, DumZiBoT, Loudtiger, BarretB, Sabre centaur, Nextgenerationliberty, Blast Ulna, WikiDao, JinJian, Powerade14, Helos18, IDK3.5, Cbrown285, Addbot, Willking1979, Gaintes, AVand, Some
jerk on the Internet, Ronhjones, Civilp2, NjardarBot, MrOllie, Morning277, Blacksocks4, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Enviro999,
Yobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Maxis ftw, Deborah.Mesa, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Airforceacdmy12, Phthinosuchusisanancestor, Tjr4118, J04n, AVBOT, , Mark Schierbecker, Peanutcactus, Girlmeetsworld, Shadowjams, Kingkong14,
FrescoBot, RaneDrop, Pepper, Sky Attacker, Hassaan19951995, Dewrey, Brandjmon, Jamseel, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Adlerbot, Arctic Night, Mnh123, Azeez, Pritash, Burtoman, Wickelyby, Tim1357, Thevstyle, Suusion of Yellow, Ryan.opel, Mean as custard, DexDor, Jake.tyler123456789, Cool.crip, Grondemar, Willlfann, Elizastar22, Kobesucksd, Teiglykins123, Smellypantloader, Nasula, Tommy2010, TheArashmatashable, Wikipelli, Hot strawberry39, EdwardPHarper, Natedogg1027, John Cline, Josve05a, Gavbadger,
Ghpa1234, Jj98, Quite vivid blur, Jakeae, Heart4hacker, Carmichael, Subrata Roy, Nijusby, Chet B. Short, ClueBot NG, JaymesKeller,
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Katiker, Peaky76, MerlIwBot, Ryannm123, Calabe1992, PhnomPencil, Wire1996, Bobsagget117, Friends147, JucyLucy54, Blackhawk9807, W.D., Franknam96, ChrisGualtieri, Webclient101, XXzoonamiXX, Wikiholicdude, Taylor3161991, Matttty, MopSeeker, Ginsuloft, Kissingerak12345, Crouchchar, Jack8258, Savuda123, XAlliedxMarinex, Whiteshadow97, Editingdan, Editor abcdef and Anonymous: 341
Army group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army%20group?oldid=647798368 Contributors: XJaM, CORNELIUSSEON, David
Newton, Khym Chanur, Robbot, PBS, Altenmann, Smjg, DocWatson42, Wwoods, Grant65, Ukas, Wmahan, MSTCrow, Mzajac,
Necrothesp, Nulzilla, Miborovsky, Rsmelt, Giraedata, Mpulier, Duman~enwiki, Andrew Gray, Lectonar, Hohum, Pioneer-12, Captain Seafort, BritBoy, GraemeLeggett, Deansfa, Deltabeignet, Rjwilmsi, SOCL, YurikBot, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Los688, Welsh, Wallie, RaiderAspect, KocjoBot~enwiki, Angelbo, Keegan, PureRED, SashatoBot, Pawe ze Szczecina,
Tadakuni, Shohag, Vanisaac, Ehistory, Necessary Evil, JAnDbot, Krisgrotius, Buckshot06, Uv1234, PatPeter, Lexivore, KTo288,
Spader87, Prymonek, Cezarika1, Dormskirk, JGerretse, SieBot, ImageRemovalBot, Niceguyedc, Dkf11, Ktr101, Gwguey, Shem1805,
Staygyro, L.smitheld, EpicDream86, Addbot, Lecoeurl~enwiki, LaaknorBot, Brufnus, Peti610botH, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Smeagol 17,
Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Gongshow, E235, Xqbot, Okras, FrescoBot, HRoestBot, Beyer007, 777sms, Ryan.opel, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot,
Dewritech, Italia2006, Illegitimate Barrister, Akira123, ImVeryAwesome, RR157 and Anonymous: 30
Artillery battery Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery%20battery?oldid=659258698 Contributors: Rmhermen, Lir, Robbot,
Naddy, Securiger, Adam78, DocWatson42, Tom harrison, Marcika, Piotrus, Mzajac, Klemen Kocjancic, Brim, Ommnomnomgulp, Geo
Swan, Pmeisel, Denniss, Pioneer-12, Gene Nygaard, Firsfron, Redoubts, GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Seraphimblade, Bubbleboys, Scott
Mingus, YurikBot, RussBot, Hede2000, Kirill Lokshin, Million Little Gods, Gaius Cornelius, Yrithinnd, Manxruler, Tne80, Welsh,
TDogg310, HLGallon, Light current, Nick-D, Wallie, SmackBot, TestPilot, Paulmeisel, Angelbo, Chris the speller, Davepealing, Thumperward, Grimhelm, MalafayaBot, Colonies Chris, Derekbridges, Chlewbot, R.F.La Fontaine, Lyta79, Akulkis, Just plain Bill, Ohconfucius,
Cyclopaedic, The King's Soldier, Gregorydavid, SimonATL, Buckboard, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Courcelles, Cydebot, Aodhdubh,
Plasticbadge, WykysSceptre666, Cancun771, Thijs!bot, Arch dude, PhilKnight, Parsecboy, Rich257, Uv1234, Blockhouse Signal Mountain, Semper-Fi 2006, R'n'B, Nono64, Mrg3105, WinterSpw, Rmih, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Motacilla, A4bot, Rei-bot, Dr. Lawrence
Petrovius, Nfe, CobraDragoon, Bahamut0013, Nibios, SieBot, PixelBot, Jellysh dave, Addbot, AkhtaBot, CanadianLinuxUser, Download,
Luxinalibaba, Lightbot, ArchonMagnus, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, RibotBOT, GovertonGTU, Sixtysecs, Tinton5,
RedBot, FoxBot, Ammodramus, Eekerz, Hazard-SJ, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Fine Hid, Hmainsbot1, Chris troutman, Jin
Zan and Anonymous: 39
Battalion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battalion?oldid=660823322 Contributors: XJaM, Maury Markowitz, Ktsquare, Patrick,
GABaker, Bobby D. Bryant, CORNELIUSSEON, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Jniemenmaa, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Emperor,
Darkwind, , David Newton, Maximus Rex, Indefatigable, Robbot, Halibutt, Xanzzibar, DocWatson42, Grant65, Btphelps,
Mzajac, Necrothesp, Cynical, TJSwoboda, Klemen Kocjancic, Jakro64, Guanabot, ArnoldReinhold, Altmany, Ground, Franey, Maurreen, Polylerus, HasharBot~enwiki, Ynhockey, Pmeisel, Sobolewski, Pioneer-12, Oregon Bear, Woohookitty, Jannex, Rocastelo, Isnow,
Miq, Sj, DeltaSigma, IJN, Who, Frelke, Scott Mingus, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RussBot, Gods Refuse, Pigman, DanMS,
Snake 89, Geo NoNick, Cinik, HLGallon, JLaTondre, Nick-D, Akrabbim, KnightRider~enwiki, Felisse, SmackBot, YellowMonkey,
Jboyler, KocjoBot~enwiki, Lds, Boris Barowski, Alsandro, Gilliam, Hmains, Angelbo, Sadads, Mitrius, Pete Fenelon, Dr. Sunglasses,
Neovu79, Nobunaga24, MrDolomite, Politepunk, Djharrity, Chief of Sta, Civil Engineer III, Adambiswanger1, Shohag, 5-HT8, Runningonbrains, Necessary Evil, Aodhdubh, Gogo Dodo, BlueAg09, Thijs!bot, Glennfcowan, FrZanger, Qwerty Binary, Jhamilton2087,
Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, Buckshot06, MetsBot, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Martynas Patasius, MCG, Jtk6204, PatPeter, Semper-Fi 2006,
FlieGerFaUstMe262, J.delanoy, Tannkremen, MikeJohnson553, Demobbed, Pjmpjm, AzureCitizen, DorganBot, RjCan, Blood Oath
Bot, Idioma-bot, Chromancer, VolkovBot, Mlongcake, TXiKiBoT, EricSerge, A4bot, Holland0226, CobraDragoon, Mic of orion, InternetHero, Tmaull, Bahamut0013, Spinningspark, Schnurrbart, Tharskjold, SieBot, Blackshod, SheepNotGoats, Mikeofv, Lucasbfrbot,
Lightmouse, Mesoso2, WacoJacko, Anon 003, ClueBot, Hooded swan, Muro Bot, Jerey Wordsmith, RP459, Addbot, Queenmomcat,
Neoreich, AkhtaBot, Pelex, Rangyamax, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Rsquire3, Evans1982, MasterSwarm, Malin Tokyo, QueenCake, South Bay,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Gafek67, Hktang, Mark Schierbecker, GovertonGTU, FrescoBot, Recognizance,
Eagle4000, Pinethicket, Tupsumato, DocYako, MFIreland, 777sms, WildBot, Imperialsid, Rad888, Rebel1234, DogeAngel91, ClueBot
NG, Ocalaa, Primergrey, Braincricket, Crazymonkey1123, Electriccatsh2, Gomada, T-Nod, Phd8511, Ella Plantagenet, Anastomoses,
Dmanrock29, Cebrianfj, Redshang053, Pussypatrol67, SomeGirl777 and Anonymous: 131
Battle Fleet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20Fleet?oldid=637949584 Contributors: Jinian, DocWatson42, Iceberg3k, Karol
Langner, HGB, Morinao, Kbdank71, Dr Fil, Gaius Cornelius, Carabinieri, SmackBot, Phorteetoo, ElectricJoe, Nobunaga24, MrDolomite,
The ed17, Aldis90, Dawkeye, Buckshot06, Gurthang, JurSchagen, Combatpac, Yobot, Cavarrone, Citation bot, Citation bot 1, Full-date
unlinking bot, RjwilmsiBot, BlowingTopHat and Anonymous: 3
Battlegroup (army) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlegroup%20(army)?oldid=654733524 Contributors: AxelBoldt, XJaM,
PBS, Grant65, Hammersfan, Alinor, Captain Seafort, Roland2~enwiki, Tabletop, RobertG, JdforresterBot, YurikBot, Kirill Lokshin, NickD, Jinxs, SmackBot, Hmains, Robosh, FleetCommand, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Phatalbert, David.j.james, SieBot, BotMultichill, Tomas e,
Mild Bill Hiccup, Foofbun, Shem1805, XLinkBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Amqui, Mark Schierbecker, Dettingen, MastiBot, Graeme374,
BattyBot, Laodah, Genehash and Anonymous: 9
Battlespace Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlespace?oldid=651945372 Contributors: Ixfd64, Mzajac, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough,
Paullaw, Espoo, Camw, GraemeLeggett, Gwernol, RussBot, WritersCramp, CecilWard, BOT-Superzerocool, Wknight94, SmackBot,
Ziiv, Baa, Onorem, Synergy, JodyB, Audry2, Epbr123, RapidR, List of marijuana slang terms, Erinland2006, What123, Jay Litman,
J.delanoy, Maurice Carbonaro, Octopus-Hands, McSly, Atama, Arcticdawg, Pdfpdf, PianoKeys, ClueBot, Chessy999, Leonard^Bloom,
Notthe600, RekonDog, Addbot, Green Squares, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Materialscientist, Shulini, AbigailAbernathy, SuperShadowsUK,
GovertonGTU, Sophus Bie, Tremnai55, Beeline-Dozer, Austinnorton, Pinethicket, Beteltreuse, Reaper Eternal, Reach Out to the Truth,
Josve05a, Joshnnie, Sam950, ClueBot NG, Widr, Thomaswang1, Jecyoung27, Mitch175, Jerodlycett and Anonymous: 36
Brigade Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigade?oldid=662592916 Contributors: Mav, Andre Engels, XJaM, Vera Cruz, Wapcaplet, Ahoerstemeier, Jniemenmaa, Glenn, Raven in Orbit, Hashar, Charles Matthews, David Newton, Furrykef, Topbanana, Indefatigable, Jerzy, Jeq, Securiger, Sunray, Ancheta Wis, DocWatson42, Douglas Milnes, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Neutrality, DanielCD, Johan
Elisson, Rich Farmbrough, Stesmo, ComradeAF, Giraedata, Pmeisel, Pioneer-12, DodgerOfZion, Sleigh, Alai, Jannex, Scriberius, Isnow, GraemeLeggett, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Roboto de Ajvol, RussBot, DarkFireTaker, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine), BOTSuperzerocool, Cinik, Blurble, JLaTondre, Tierce, Erudy, Fastifex, Nick-D, DocendoDiscimus, Aeronian, SmackBot, Weatherman90,
Eskimbot, Herbm, Gilliam, Hmains, Angelbo, DHN-bot~enwiki, Hongooi, Kevinpurcell, Elendil's Heir, Enric~enwiki, Awcga, TGC55,
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CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Dumelow, Nobunaga24, MrDolomite, ScreaminEagle, Skorp, Shohag, Pascal.Tesson, Cra0422, Thijs!bot, Dcfowler1, JAnDbot, Andropod, FJM, Parsecboy, Puddhe, Buckshot06, Ed!, MCG, PatPeter, FlieGerFaUstMe262, R'n'B, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Nwbeeson, AzureCitizen, DorganBot, Maxburgoyne, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Nfe, CobraDragoon, Mic of orion, SieBot, Infantryman06, Lucasbfrbot, ClueBot, Scartboy, Foofbun, Rickve, Brewcrewer, Alexbot, Tnxman307, SchreiberBike, EpicDream86, DumZiBoT, Fish Crap,
RP459, Addbot, Jojhutton, Betterusername, AkhtaBot, RickH86, Groundsquirrel13, Numbo3-bot, Luckas-bot, Rsquire3, South Bay, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Xufanc, E235, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Anotherclown, GovertonGTU, Amaury, Datandrews,
Vinay84, MFIreland, Lotje, 777sms, Mach1988, ZroBot, PunkFloydd, SporkBot, Kobalt04, FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, Gob Lofa, Gomada, Glevum, Dolly S. D. Salingg, Elz1710, KasparBot and Anonymous: 100
Brigade group Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigade%20group?oldid=648625858 Contributors: Jptreen, Indefatigable, Grant65,
Tabletop, GregorB, JdforresterBot, Kirill Lokshin, Rintrah, SmackBot, Jfsamper, Cydebot, Kumioko (renamed), EnigmaMcmxc, Addbot,
SamatBot, Luckas-bot, Xufanc, WikitanvirBot and Anonymous: 2
Combat command Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat%20command?oldid=662765992 Contributors: GraemeLeggett, Jimp,
Fabartus, SmackBot, TGC55, Monkeybait, Buckshot06, W. B. Wilson, MBK004, Wikiuser100, Blaylockjam10, EmausBot, Berdea and
Anonymous: 2
Command and control Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command%20and%20control?oldid=658813058 Contributors: DocWatson42, Beland, Bodnotbod, Neutrality, Trevor MacInnis, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, JustPhil, Lycurgus, Kjkolb, Woohookitty, RicJac,
GraemeLeggett, Griphook, Graham87, Mikalra, Bhny, Vicarious, Mais oui!, SmackBot, AnOddName, Canthusus, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Einemnet, TGC55, Khazar, Disavian, Feureau, GoDawgs, Chetvorno, CBM, Pergu, MC10, JustAGal, RichardVeryard, Buckshot06,
MCG, Gwern, Sm8900, R'n'B, Maurice Carbonaro, Marcd30319, Mrg3105, STBotD, RolandofGilead21, ABF, EBRJoseph, Philip Trueman, Tamorlan, Pdfpdf, Hxhbot, Correogsk, Niceguyedc, Parkie1, Aitias, Addbot, Nohomers48, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem,
AnomieBOT, Galoubet, GrouchoBot, Neil.Siegel, Webwat, Amaury, Shadowjams, GRBeetonova, Sidna, Haeinous, Josesatrewq, Beteltreuse, DixonDBot, Dasha14, DexDor, Ottomachin, EmausBot, John of Reading, Rayzorsharpp, , Frietjes, Mehrdadeshraghi,
BattyBot, Juneb74, AK456, Innovation172, Vanquisher.UA, Impsswoon and Anonymous: 32
Company (military unit) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company%20(military%20unit)?oldid=662593625 Contributors: Khendon, XJaM, Maury Markowitz, Mrwojo, Vera Cruz, CORNELIUSSEON, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, , Rossami,
David Newton, Furrykef, Indefatigable, Nurg, Caknuck, Ancheta Wis, Richy, Thv, DocWatson42, Varlaam, AlistairMcMillan, Necrothesp,
Jakro64, Ornil, Rich Farmbrough, Will2k, Cmdrjameson, Maurreen, Giraedata, Jigen III, Cjthellama, Pmeisel, Pioneer-12, Woohookitty,
Oliphaunt, Isnow, GraemeLeggett, Margosbot~enwiki, Chobot, Mmx1, Al Silonov, RussBot, Robert A West, Hede2000, Kirill Lokshin,
TDogg310, Smaines, Modify, Bob Hu, SmackBot, The Monster, IstvanWolf, Portillo, Angelbo, Chris the speller, GoodDay, Moonsword,
KaiserbBot, Nobunaga24, Sugemax, Sublime Satire, Eiamjw, Shohag, Necessary Evil, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Grahamdubya, Sazaedo, Nick
Number, Escarbot, Salgueiro~enwiki, Lilliputian, .anacondabot, Jhamilton2087, Magioladitis, Parsecboy, Martynas Patasius, MCG, PatPeter, R'n'B, FANSTARbot, Prijador, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Tannkremen, Islamomt, BostonRed, AzureCitizen, DorganBot, VolkovBot,
Al.locke, Law Lord, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, CobraDragoon, Nazgul02, Bahamut0013, Nickyrintala, SieBot, Blackshod, Lucasbfrbot, Kumioko
(renamed), MBK004, QueenofBattle, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, AusTerrapin, Foofbun, Eric.brasseur, PixelBot, Patriot Services Corporation,
Muro Bot, BodhisattvaBot, Mifter, RP459, Jim Sweeney, Addbot, Caisson 06, Farawayman, Beren, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Yobot, QueenCake,
South Bay, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Coretheapple, Almabot, Svaldifari, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT, AustralianRupert, Kurlandlegionar, Shadowjams, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, FrescoBot, Eagle4000, MastiBot, Beyer007, FoxBot, MFIreland, 777sms, Mean as
custard, Ottomachin, EmausBot, EleferenBot, BrokenAnchorBot, Bullmoosebell, ClueBot NG, Glevum, TheJJJunk, HHubi, Hunter Fairweather41, Zeijani, California Walnut, SomeGirl777, KasparBot and Anonymous: 103
Corps Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corps?oldid=659227902 Contributors: Mav, Khendon, XJaM, Olivier, Tillwe, Michael Hardy,
Georgec, Vera Cruz, BoNoMoJo (old), Sannse, Stan Shebs, Jimfbleak, Corixidae, David Newton, Wik, Shizhao, David.Monniaux,
Gentgeen, Naddy, Lowellian, Ukuk~enwiki, Hlj, Oberiko, Wwoods, Emmanuel Chanel, Grant65, Abu el mot~enwiki, Joseph Dwayne, FelineAvenger, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Kevin Rector, Trevor MacInnis, Grstain, D6, Anarch~enwiki, Discospinster, Stereotek, Sc147, JustPhil,
Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, Iron Wallaby, Harald Hansen, Robotje, Maurreen, Hajenso, Kazuaki Shimazaki, Sandstig, TommyBoy, Pioneer12, Saga City, A D Monroe III, Woohookitty, Jannex, Georgia guy, MK2, TomTheHand, Isnow, GraemeLeggett, Dovid, Deltabeignet,
Rjwilmsi, Habap, FlaBot, GreenLocust, Chobot, YurikBot, RussBot, Los688, SigPig, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine), Engineer Bob,
Appleseed, Anticrash, Wallie, SmackBot, Michael Dorosh, Eskimbot, Geo B, Hmains, Angelbo, DHN-bot~enwiki, TinTin, SophisticatedPrimate, Zahid Abdassabur, Buckboard, ScreaminEagle, Shohag, CmdrObot, Grant McKenna, WeggeBot, Marc Shepherd, Necessary
Evil, JustAGal, Matthew Proctor, AntiVandalBot, Spencer, Paul1776, JAnDbot, Deective, Kirrages, Puddhe, Buckshot06, Ed!, Martynas
Patasius, MCG, PatPeter, Cocytus, Al-No, R'n'B, Mattdude0, Mrg3105, FJPB, Hammon27, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, W. B. Wilson,
Magnet For Knowledge, EricSerge, Cezarika1, Rei-bot, Dormskirk, CobraDragoon, Ahabvader, SieBot, Zephyrus67, Mikeofv, CsikosLo,
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Reading, Orphan Wiki, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Italia2006, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Stephen G Rsole, Mark Arsten, ChrisGualtieri,
Isohexanol, EyeTruth, Ginsuloft, DK1290 and Anonymous: 99
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PigFlu Oink and Anonymous: 4
Division (military) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division%20(military)?oldid=662698697 Contributors: Khendon, Gsl, XJaM,
BoNoMoJo (old), Mkweise, Stan Shebs, Cferrero, Alex S, David Newton, Choster, Robbot, Altenmann, Halibutt, Sunray, Wally, Wikibot,
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of Sta, Wikipediatastic, Shohag, RookZERO, CmdrObot, WeggeBot, Jac16888, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Felinemos, Srajan01, RottweilerCS, Biruitorul, Sulaimandaud, Matthew Proctor, MichaelMaggs, CubanBaseball, Dylan Lake, Salgueiro~enwiki, MortimerCat, JAnDbot, VoABot II, Adnan Rahman, JKGolden, Puddhe, Buckshot06, Jvhertum, Atb129, Beetfarm Louie, Coldwarrior, Martynas Patasius,
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MCG, PatPeter, MartinBot, Unclejimbo827, Macguba, R'n'B, Shellwood, Mrg3105, Rencas, Hammon27, Treisijs, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT,
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Armynut15, Lugnuthemvar, Zwerubae, BEARtruth89 and Anonymous: 159
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OrphanBot, Ryulong, MrDolomite, Shohag, Aldis90, Buckshot06, PatPeter, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, SieBot, ClueBot, Shem1805, EpicDream86, Addbot, AttoRenato, Cuaxdon, Fentener van Vlissingen, OC Ripper, MileyDavidA, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Um, E235,
Senancio, Hkusano, 777sms, Italia2006, Satellizer, EyeTruth, YiFeiBot and Anonymous: 20
Field force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field%20force?oldid=648627336 Contributors: Gentgeen, Xanzzibar, DocWatson42,
Woohookitty, Pol098, Mandarax, Kauner, Cydebot, N5iln, EdJohnston, Nick Number, Faizhaider, Buckshot06, UnitedStatesian, JL-Bot,
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Fireteam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireteam?oldid=662730239 Contributors: The Anome, Roadrunner, BL~enwiki, Hephaestos, Georgec, Vera Cruz, Wapcaplet, Cyde, Cferrero, David Newton, Riddley, Cyrius, DocWatson42, Philwelch, Sik0fewl, Comatose51, AHM, Beland, Mzajac, Necrothesp, M4-10, Klemen Kocjancic, Wikiacc, RJHall, Palm dogg, Tronno, Hansag, Pioneer-12,
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of horses, Dinamik-bot, Lucius Winslow, EmausBot, Frank Duurvoort, Akjar13, Ain'tnotdaniel, ZroBot, Bullmoosebell, KazekageTR,
Berkun, MerlIwBot, BG19bot, Gomada, Blahmalah, Trn i Quc, Steinsplitter, Fishstick21, HHubi, Ethically Yours, Truniper, Bakedbaconbread, LaconicPhrase and Anonymous: 104
Flight (military unit) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight%20(military%20unit)?oldid=622886949 Contributors: Securiger,
Grant65, Necrothesp, Maurreen, Pioneer-12, Pol098, Rjwilmsi, Kajmal, RussBot, Kirill Lokshin, GMan552, SmackBot, Greenshed, Necessary Evil, Alaibot, Barticus88, Buckshot06, BilCat, R'n'B, Mrg3105, German.Knowitall, CobraDragoon, Dreamafter, Motthoangwehuong, Foofbun, Jellysh dave, EpicDream86, Addbot, GiW, DexDor, Acsian88, MerlIwBot, Andrewdeacon51, MilitaryFlights, JAGofc
and Anonymous: 13
Flotilla Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flotilla?oldid=579169259 Contributors: Cyde, The Tom, Mirv, Gdr, Denniss, BRW, Cosal,
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MollyIsrael, Jjtimbrell, Tpmarks and Anonymous: 47
Grand strategy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20strategy?oldid=656570915 Contributors: Roadrunner, Edward, Zeno
Gantner, Stan Shebs, Patrick0Moran, Stargoat, PBS, GreatWhiteNortherner, DocWatson42, DO'Neil, SURIV, Mzajac, Michael Rowe,
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Timothysandole, CountdeLaRochefoucauld, Monkbot and Anonymous: 41
Group (military aviation unit) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20(military%20aviation%20unit)?oldid=638486825 Contributors: David Newton, Grant65, Necrothesp, Maurreen, Milesli, Pioneer-12, Galaxiaad, Avocado, Mukkakukaku, Kirill Lokshin, Gadget850, SmackBot, Looper5920, Greenshed, Buckboard, FleetCommand, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Buckshot06, MCG, Huzzlet the bot,
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Snotbot, ChrisGualtieri, HHubi and Anonymous: 13
Joint Task Force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20Task%20Force?oldid=652907103 Contributors: Timrollpickering, ScottDavis, Vegaswikian, Saberwyn, YEPPOON, Makyen, JustAGal, Buckshot06, Dormskirk, Pdfpdf, Dravecky, Nford24, Niceguyedc,
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Malerooster, Lesser Cartographies, Huntedyeti1 and Anonymous: 3
Military administration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20administration?oldid=582793150 Contributors: Piotrus,
Srnec, Woodshed, JaGa, Mrg3105, Addbot, Nohomers48, Fryed-peach, Morgan Hauser, Justincheng12345-bot and Anonymous: 1
Military history Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history?oldid=662602858 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, MichaelTinkler,
Szopen, Clasqm, Malcolm Farmer, DanKeshet, Khendon, Youssefsan, Christopher Mahan, Christian List, Toby Bartels, William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP, Fonzy, Mintguy, Orcalover, Mrwojo, TMC, JakeVortex, Llywrch, BrianHansen~enwiki, Vera Cruz, Bobby
D. Bryant, Skysmith, Stan Shebs, Docu, TUF-KAT, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Nikai, Evercat, Denny, DavidA, PBS, Altenmann,
344
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FayssalF, Mathiastck, Schmerguls, Gareth E Kegg, Simkin~enwiki, Mrschimpf, Chobot, Whosasking, Uriah923, Ravenswing, YurikBot,
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lebon, Beteltreuse, Vrenator, Generalboss3, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, John of Reading, GoingBatty, Moswento, Knight1993, Anton Kos, Grampion76, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, GavinJFWorrell, Davidnoy, Runehelmet, Bobbyhistoryknowitall, John.pravoski,
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Juzumaru, MilHistoryT, 069952497a, LudicrousTripe, Asmetr, AviH2426, Thng L..Q., XAlliedxMarinex, Trkkartal and Anonymous:
217
Military logistics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20logistics?oldid=661269021 Contributors: Robert Merkel, Xanzzibar,
DocWatson42, Neutrality, SS451, Harley peters, Alansohn, TaintedMustard, Vuo, Eleusis, AirBa~enwiki, Before My Ken, Mandarax,
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Smartyo, Eagle4000, MastiBot, Beteltreuse, Cenya95, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, UltimaRatio, E.journ, Helpful Pixie Bot, Minsbot,
Hmainsbot1, XXzoonamiXX, Noodle90, Etripathi1994, Monkbot, Mashtonman, ScrabbleZ, Soldier of the Empire and Anonymous: 42
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Academic Challenger, Sunray, DocWatson42, Mzajac, Klemen Kocjancic, DmitryKo, Rich Farmbrough, Petersam, JustPhil, Kwamikagami, Giraedata, Makawity, Alansohn, Gary, Alinor, Hohum, Woohookitty, Scriberius, Before My Ken, Tabletop, BD2412, Qwertyus,
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JOLLYJANDRO, Spirtzis and Anonymous: 166
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Patrick, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, Ahoerstemeier, Ogmios~enwiki, Jebba, Lancevortex, Uriber, Andrewman327, Maximus Rex, Taxman,
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Pavel Vozenilek, Petersam, RJHall, Mr. Billion, El C, Bobo192, Brendansa, Maurreen, La goutte de pluie, Nk, MPerel, Alansohn,
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Facius, Hitokun, Jagged 85, Sartorius~enwiki, PJM, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Chris the speller, GoldDragon, MalafayaBot, DHN-bot~enwiki,
3.1. TEXT
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Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Trekphiler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Darin Fidika, RFightmaster, Hippo43, Cameron Nedland, TGC55,
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Patrol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrol?oldid=656409719 Contributors: Cherkash, Enochlau, DocWatson42, Mzajac, Husnock,
Blue387, Klemen Kocjancic, Lou Crazy, Bobo192, Angie Y., Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Scriberius, Uncle
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BoNoMoJo (old), MartinHarper, Cyde, Ahoerstemeier, Jniemenmaa, , Jll, David Newton, Tb, Zoicon5, Warofdreams, Branddobbe, Robbot, Fredrik, Donreed, Merovingian, DocWatson42, Sik0fewl, Patrick-br, Niteowlneils, Alexander.stohr, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Joseph Dwayne, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Neutrality, Clemwang, The Prince Manifest, Jakro64, D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
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3.1. TEXT
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Region Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region?oldid=655253912 Contributors: XJaM, Deb, SimonP, Ktsquare, Olivier, D, Michael
Hardy, Mic, Sannse, (, WikiDave, Egil, Mdebets, Ronz, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Glenn, Andres, Jiang, Hectorthebat, Tobias Conradi,
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Dexbot, Mogism, Saehry, GoThere2000, Sriharsh1234, Ginsuloft, Anarcham, Ivymnik, Meer Almemar, Vieque, GeographyStudy, Little
lucy gluckman, Hugenbergz and Anonymous: 399
Section (military unit) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section%20(military%20unit)?oldid=660675867 Contributors: Maury
Markowitz, Cherkash, David Newton, Foodman, Grant65, SFontaine, Joeblakesley, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Medic, Jakro64, Bdoserror,
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PatPeter, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Aleksandr Grigoryev, FergusM1970, Acorn897, CobraDragoon, Nazgul02, Niceguyedc, Addbot,
Tassedethe, Yobot, QueenCake, Mr T (Based), AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Amqui, AustralianRupert, FrescoBot, Peacockluke, Hallucegenia,
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and Anonymous: 64
Squad Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squad?oldid=659203362 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, XJaM, William Avery, Hephaestos,
Patrick, Michael Hardy, Vera Cruz, Cyde, Docu, Cferrero, David Newton, DJ Clayworth, GreatWhiteNortherner, Richy, DocWatson42,
Axeman, Varlaam, Joshuapaquin, Grant65, Mzajac, Medic, D6, Freakofnurture, BVZM, Andrejj, Aranel, El C, Maurreen, Interiot,
Ahruman, Pmeisel, Pioneer-12, Voltagedrop, Jannex, Isnow, Jdorney, BD2412, Mitsukai, Kirill Lokshin, Cpuwhiz11, Telescopium1,
Manxruler, NawlinWiki, Welsh, GMan552, Thomas Blomberg, SmackBot, Looper5920, Unschool, Imz, Michael Dorosh, Gilliam, An-
348
gelbo, MPD01605, Daysleeper47, Nathanm mn, COMPFUNK2, Raitanaama lisko~enwiki, Serein (renamed because of SUL), BrownHairedGirl, Kaarel, Phatom87, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Headbomb, F l a n k e r, AntiVandalBot, Farosdaughter, Nimmo27, JAnDbot,
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ClueBot NG, Movses-bot, Bucoli, Widr, MerlIwBot, Gomada, Justincheng12345-bot, Padenton, 93, EvergreenFir, HHubi, EnanTheSpartan, Amortias, QuartzReload, Matanderson24, Abbeyhillman, Zendre86, Amyallen434, Fushdf, Idontcare90, Jameszan, Eanderson333,
Merpitty, Alecmb, Squadeditor25, Darin361, Poptartqueen123, Bromero1023 and Anonymous: 145
Squadron (army) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squadron%20(army)?oldid=660114765 Contributors: Indefatigable, GraemeLeggett, RussBot, Sasuke Sarutobi, SmackBot, CmdrObot, Necessary Evil, JAnDbot, Belovedfreak, Student7, Hugo999, CorenSearchBot,
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of Reading, Dewritech, Mach1988, Brookesward, CountMacula, Primergrey, Domenjod, Snowager, HHubi, Dai Pritchard, Mobienut,
Joseph2302, Gohomealiya, PMPS and Anonymous: 5
Squadron (aviation) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squadron%20(aviation)?oldid=644998177 Contributors: Lou Sander, Grant65,
RPH, Pol098, RussBot, SmackBot, JAn Dudk, Greenshed, FleetCommand, Necessary Evil, JAnDbot, CommonsDelinker, CobraDragoon, DerbyCountyinNZ, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Prokurator11, Rasmus 28, Thi Nhi, Diako1971, MerlIwBot, BattyBot, F111ECM,
XXzoonamiXX, HHubi and Anonymous: 14
Squadron (naval) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squadron%20(naval)?oldid=639214121 Contributors: Garth 187, Neutrality, Petersam, Pol098, RussBot, Welsh, JimmyTheOne, SmackBot, Trekphiler, Greenshed, Simon Harley, Neovu79, FleetCommand, Necessary Evil, Brad101, Nick Number, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, PrimroseGuy, Buckshot06, R'n'B, Mrg3105, Alaniaris, SieBot, Gerakibot,
Mesoso2, Ktr101, Addbot, Obersachsebot, GrouchoBot, Endofskull, Jujutacular, Britnav63, Trn i Quc, BattyBot, Tech77, WPGA2345
and Anonymous: 11
Table of organization and equipment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20of%20organization%20and%20equipment?oldid=
661229459 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Maclyn611, Mzajac, Maurreen, RussBot, Kirill Lokshin, Syrcatbot, Nobunaga24, Cowbert,
LeyteWolfer, CmdrObot, Kubanczyk, Buckshot06, Bahamut0013, Jdaloner, Revelian, Tosaka1, RekonDog, Addbot, Tassedethe, Luckasbot, C.Mezzo-1, 4twenty42o, DrilBot and Anonymous: 4
Task force Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task%20force?oldid=658153092 Contributors: SimonP, GABaker, Stan Shebs, Darkwind, Ineuw, GreatWhiteNortherner, DocWatson42, Bkonrad, Andycjp, Hammersfan, Petersam, Maurreen, Giraedata, Captain Seafort,
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Lightbot, , Yobot, QueenCake, Mellsworthy, Prezbo, Tangent747, TheVirginiaHistorian, Calmer Waters, Bogomir Kovacs, Snlf1,
564dude, Minimac, Hidividedby5, Saipraneethn, H3llBot, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, TXMFPublicInfo, MerlIwBot, Wbm1058, Xweetok 1111, BattyBot, Morganson691, XXzoonamiXX, BasedFBKcarp, MagicalDecapitationsx3, SFK2, GabeIglesia,
Basedboyz123, Lesser Cartographies, Thugsdreams and Anonymous: 97
Theater (warfare) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater%20(warfare)?oldid=655326275 Contributors: Slawojarek, PBS, Oknazevad, N328KF, El C, La goutte de pluie, JohnDelano, Alai, Nuno Tavares, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Chobot, RussBot, Kirill Lokshin, Daniel563, Lockesdonkey, TransUtopian, E tac, SmackBot, Daddycruel, Hoof Hearted, GorillazFanAdam, JoeBot, Civil Engineer
III, Shohag, Necessary Evil, Monkeybait, Roberta F., Superbowlbound, BetacommandBot, Bobblehead, Sherbrooke, List of marijuana
slang terms, EKindig, What123, Buckshot06, Nyttend, PatPeter, MartinBot, Sm8900, Snozzer, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Maurice Carbonaro,
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chambers, Sfgiants1995 and Anonymous: 45
Troop Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troop?oldid=659505151 Contributors: Gsl, Comte0, Susan Mason, Ike9898, Securiger,
Drstuey, DocWatson42, Netoholic, Mark.murphy, Zinnmann, Mzajac, Burgundavia, Necrothesp, Poccil, Mani1, Lou Crazy, Kbh3rd, AllyUnion, Kurieeto, Pmeisel, Bart133, Dhartung, Pioneer-12, YurikBot, RussBot, Kirill Lokshin, Gadget850, David Underdown, Jmiller29,
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3.1. TEXT
349
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, Minsbot, HHubi and Anonymous: 19
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Derksen, Anders Trlind, Europrobe, Ellmist, Heron, Patrick, Ixfd64, Julesd, GCarty, Dcoetzee, David Shay, Rossumcapek, Riddley,
354
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3.1. TEXT
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Anonymous: 391
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Khmer kingdom, Pspinks2, Hrqa, Micheal howery, Real Live Plutarch and Anonymous: 461
M203 grenade launcher Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M203%20grenade%20launcher?oldid=662642066 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Fuzheado, Wik, Echoray, Ed g2s, Riddley, Altenmann, Adeio, Danceswithzerglings, DocWatson42, YanA, Greyengine5, Bobblewik,
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M249 light machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M249%20light%20machine%20gun?oldid=662727067 Contributors:
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3.1. TEXT
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394
M27 Infantry Automatic Rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M27%20Infantry%20Automatic%20Rifle?oldid=659239866 Contributors: Topbanana, DocWatson42, Klemen Kocjancic, Ommnomnomgulp, Kenyon, GregorB, C777, TDogg310, Hayden120, Chaddy,
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M320 Grenade Launcher Module Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M320%20Grenade%20Launcher%20Module?oldid=
659363965 Contributors: PaulinSaudi, Riddley, DocWatson42, Quadell, Joyous!, El C, Tronno, Chuckstar, Thatguy96, Anthony
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M4 carbine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4%20carbine?oldid=662794920 Contributors: Deb, Hephaestos, Edward, Lir, Infrogmation, Ixfd64, CruciedChrist, Egil, Andrewa, Ugen64, JidGom, Jonadab~enwiki, Adam Bishop, Fuzheado, Enigmasoldier, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, VeryVerily, Riddley, Robbot, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Marcika, Lefty, Leonard G., Siroxo, Solipsist, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, Gadum, LiDaobing, BozMo, Jossi, AlexanderWinston, Balcer, Pettifogger, One Salient Oversight, Tin
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and Anonymous: 1905
United States Marine Corps Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Marine%20Corps?oldid=662183820 Contribu-
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3.2. IMAGES
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File:40th_Infantry_Division_SSI.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/40th_Infantry_Division_SSI.svg

(HiB2Bornot2B) - <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:HiB2Bornot2B' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:HiB2Bornot2B'>talk</a>
<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Wildcats' class='extiw' title='en:Kentucky Wildcats'> Go Big Blue! </a>
13:21, 13 August 2007 (UTC)
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(HiB2Bornot2B) - <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:HiB2Bornot2B' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:HiB2Bornot2B'>talk</a>
<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_Wildcats' class='extiw' title='en:Kentucky Wildcats'> Go Big Blue! </a>
15:22, 13 August 2007 (UTC)
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File:Air_University.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Air_University.png License: Public domain

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Original artist: ?
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3.2. IMAGES
371
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afghanistan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.defendamerica.mil/images/photos/jul2002/pi071902a1.jpg Original
artist: Sta Sgt. Robert Hyatt
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File:Chittorgarh_Fort.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Chittorgarh_Fort.jpg License: Public domain
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Original artist: Werner Co.

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3.2. IMAGES
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File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by
User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Belize.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Used
as
Air
Force
insigna
seen
<a
data-x-rel='nofollow'
class='external
//www.airliners.net/photo/Belize---Air/Britten-Norman-BN-2A-21-Defender/0925855/
L/,,&,,sid=4b37e91656bda8ae09cb1eb875668eba'>here</a>
text'
href='http:
Improved version from xrmap ag collection 2.9.

Original artist: Caleb Moore
File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_
Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Cameroon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
3.2. IMAGES
375
File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Croatia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=4317 Original artist: Nightstallion, Elephantus, Neoneo13, Denelson83, Rainman,
R-41, Minestrone, Lupo, Zscout370,
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MaGa' title='User:MaGa'>Ma</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' class='image'><img alt='Croatian squares Ljubicic.png' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/15px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png'
width='15'
height='15'
srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/23px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/30px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
2x' data-le-width='202' data-le-height='202' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:MaGa' title='User
talk:MaGa'>Ga</a> (based on Decision of the Parliament)
File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden
File:Flag_of_East_Timor.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Flag_of_East_Timor.svg License: Public
File:Flag_of_Ecuador.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.presidencia.gob.ec/pdf/Simbolos-Patrios.pdf Original artist: President of the Republic of Ecuador, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art
File:Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: user:
File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP
to match the image at [1].
File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Gabon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag_of_Guatemala.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:K21edgo
File:Flag_of_Haiti.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Coat of arms from: Coat of arms of Haiti.svg by Lokal_Prol and Myriam Thyes Original artist: (colours and size changes
of the now deletied versions) Madden, Vzb83, Denelson83, Chanheigeorge, Zscout370 and Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Honduras.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/chi/r_flag/index.html Original artist: Tao Ho
File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original artist:SKopp
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/
lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
376
File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948)
provides the ocial specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Kenya.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.kenyarchives.go.ke/flag_specifications.htm Original artist: User:Pumbaa80
File:Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='http://validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C' src='//upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg/88px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg.png'
width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Invalid_SVG_1.1_
%28pink%29.svg/132px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/
Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg/176px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='91' data-le-height='31'
/></a>iThe source code of the previous SVG was invalid due to 12 errors.
File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp
File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modication done to the colours based on information
at Vexilla mundi.
File:Flag_of_Liberia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Version 1: SKopp
Original artist: Government of Liberia
File:Flag_of_Libya.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Flag_of_Libya.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Flag of Libya (1951).svg Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuKopp
File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License:
domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)
Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update
Public
File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: Original artist:Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: adala.justice.gov.ma (Ar) Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass
and many others
File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
The burnt orangecolor in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, or
CMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pantone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band is
plain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF.
Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p.
File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn
File:Flag_of_Oman.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
3.2. IMAGES
377
File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from agspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Panama.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg License: Public domain
File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano
Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi File:Flag_of_San_Marino.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work: www.consigliograndeegenerale.sm Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: the actual ag Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/o_skupstini/simboli/simboli.asp. Original artist: sodipodi.com
File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The
National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from
http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines
(Russian/English) This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various
File:Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: (see history) Original artist: (see history)
File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National ag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Tonga.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Tonga.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM
File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Trk Bayra Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the
Turkish Historical Society (Trk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author)
File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: 4512:2006 - .
SVG: 2010
Original artist:
File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ocial websites Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
Open Clip Art website Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.
svg License: Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirland's codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Flag_of_the_Dominican_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_the_Dominican_
Republic.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_the_Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/
d7/Flag_of_the_Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
378
File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist:
User:Achim1999
File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_
China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_
Arab_Emirates.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License:
PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Air_Force.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_
States_Air_Force.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flagpictures.org/downloads/print/airforce1.svg Original artist:
United States Air Force
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_the_United_
States_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flagpictures.org/ Original artist: United States Army
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Flag_of_the_
United_States_Marine_Corps.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original artist:Marine_corps_ag.gif: Himasaram
File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps_(1914-1939).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/
Flag_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps_%281914-1939%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://blog.patriotsurplus.com/
Original artist: United States Marine Corps
File:Flags,_USMC.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Flags%2C_USMC.png License: Public domain
Contributors: [1], This le was derived from: Flags USMC.gif Original artist: United States Marine Corps
File:Fleet_5_nations.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Fleet_5_nations.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.navy.mil/management/photodb/photos/020418-N-1587C-030.jpg Original artist: U.S. Navy/PH3 Alta I. Cutler
File:Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_Operation_in_Nahr-e_Saraj_(Image_5_of_7).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e4/Flickr_-_DVIDSHUB_-_Operation_in_Nahr-e_Saraj_%28Image_5_of_7%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Operation in Nahr-e Saraj [Image 5 of 7] Original artist: DVIDSHUB
File:Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Pose_for_the_Camera.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/
Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Pose_for_the_Camera.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/
idfonline/7335408272/ Original artist: http://www.flickr.com/people/45644610@N03
File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Marksmanship_training_(1).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/
Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Marksmanship_training_%281%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marksmanship training Original artist: The U.S. Army Sgt. Michael J. MacLeod
File:Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Wisconsin_Army_National_Guard.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
5/5e/Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_-_Wisconsin_Army_National_Guard.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Wisconsin Army National
Guard Original artist: The U.S. Army
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Four_frigates_capturing_Spanish_treasure_ships_(5_October_1804)_by_Francis_Sartorius,_National_Maritime_
Museum,UK.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Four_frigates_capturing_Spanish_treasure_ships_
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Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/
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File:Guard_Grenadier_at_Eylau.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Guard_Grenadier_at_Eylau.jpg
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File:HH-3-minigun-vietnam-19681710.jpg
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Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identier (National Archives Identier) 542342. Original artist:
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File:Harrier_IN_Malabar_07.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Harrier_IN_Malabar_07.jpg License:
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3.2. IMAGES
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Contributors:
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Original artist: Unknown

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Military Organization

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Military Organization

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MILITARY ORGANIZATION

Function and organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Admiraltyas a metonym for sea power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

NATO 'Army Groups' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Modern battery organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commander in Chief, Battle Fleet (COMBATFLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commander Battle Force (COMBATFOR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.10 Brigade group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.11 Combat command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.12 Command and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.12.2 Derivative terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.12.3 Command and control centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.12.4 Command and control warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13 Company (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.1 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.2 British Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.3 Canadian Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.4 Soviet armed forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.5 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.13.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.14.1 Military formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.14.2 Administrative Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.14.3 Non-military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.14.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.14.5 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.15 Detachment (military) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.15.1 Use by Cadet forces in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.16 Division (military) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.16.4 National organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.16.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.16.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.17 Field army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.17.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.18 Field force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.18.1 United Kingdom use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.18.3 United States use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.18.4 Police eld forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.19.2 National variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.19.4 Fire and maneuver team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.19.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.20 Flight (military unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.20.2 Commonwealth usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.20.3 American usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.20.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.21.1 US Coast Guard

0.21.2 Russian Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.21.3 Non-military usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.21.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.21.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.22 Grand strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.22.1 Historical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.22.2 In the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.22.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.22.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.22.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.23 Group (military aviation unit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.23.1 United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.24 Joint Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .