Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Contents
1
.45 ACP
1.1
1.2
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Load variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
Related rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.50 BMG
2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
2.5
2.6
Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Typical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8
10
2.8.1
Carbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.2
Ries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8.3
Machine guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.8.4
Pistols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
12
5.5645mm NATO
13
3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.2
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.3
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.9
ii
CONTENTS
3.3.1
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.3.2
Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.3.3
Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
18
3.4.1
Brass case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.2
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.4.3
Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.5
19
3.6
19
3.6.1
SS109/M855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.6.2
M855A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.6.3
Mk 262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.6.4
Mk318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.6.5
5.6mm Gw Pat 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.7
Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
29
29
7.6251mm NATO
30
4.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.2
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.3
32
4.4
35
4.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.4
919mm Parabellum
37
5.1
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.2
Popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.3
Cartridge dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.4
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.5
39
5.5.1
9 mm Commonwealth standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.2
9 mm NATO standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.3
Swedish m/39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.5.4
919mm +P variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.5
9 mm SESAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.5.6
40
5.5.7
9mm major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
CONTENTS
5.5.8
iii
Other variants
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.6
USA data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.7
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
43
Anti-materiel rie
44
6.1
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.2
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.3
45
6.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
Anti-tank warfare
46
7.1
Tank threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2
47
7.2.1
Anti-tank weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.2.2
Anti-tank tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
7.3
48
7.4
49
7.4.1
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
7.4.2
Field artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.4.3
Anti-tank guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.4.4
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
7.4.5
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
7.5
Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.6
Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.1
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.2
Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.3
Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.6.4
Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.5
Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.6
Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.7
Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.6.8
Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
Eectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.7.1
Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
7.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
59
7.7
iv
8
CONTENTS
Armored car (military)
60
8.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.1
Armed car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.1.2
60
8.1.3
World War I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
8.1.4
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.2
Military use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
8.4
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
65
9.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
9.2
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.1
Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.2
Armour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.2.3
Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
9.3
Medical use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4
Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
9.4.1
67
9.4.2
68
9.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
9.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
69
69
69
69
10.1.3 Postwar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.2 Characteristics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
69
10.3.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.2 Czechoslovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
10.3.3 France
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.4 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.5 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.6 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
10.3.7 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.8 Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.9 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
10.3.10 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
CONTENTS
10.3.11 Serbia/Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
71
72
72
73
10.5 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
10.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
73
11 Assault rie
74
11.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
11.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
76
76
77
11.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
79
79
12 Attack helicopter
80
80
81
81
82
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
12.1.6 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
84
12.2 In action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
12.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
12.4.2 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
86
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
87
12.1.5 India
13 Carbine
13.1 History
89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
89
vi
CONTENTS
13.1.3 Shorter ries, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
91
92
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
92
13.3 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
93
93
93
94
94
13.7 References
94
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Cargo aircraft
95
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
96
97
97
98
14.3 Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
14.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
98
98
101
CONTENTS
vii
114
118
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
viii
CONTENTS
123
18.1 Compared to sniper ries, battle ries, and assault ries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.1.1 Sights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
18.1.2 Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.1.3 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.1.4 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.2 Designated marksman ries in service by nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
18.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
19 Electronic warfare
127
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
131
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
134
CONTENTS
ix
146
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
23 Grenade launcher
148
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
152
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
155
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
CONTENTS
25.3.1 Rotor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
25.3.2 Anti-torque features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
170
174
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
CONTENTS
xi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
28.3.1 Protection
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
187
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
xii
CONTENTS
29.8 Human rights abuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.8.1 Iraqi government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.8.2 Coalition forces and private contractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.8.3 Insurgent groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
29.9 Public opinion on the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
29.9.1 International opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
29.9.2 Iraqi opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
29.10Relation to the Global War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.11Foreign involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.11.1 Role of Saudi Arabia and non-Iraqis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.11.2 Iranian involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
29.13Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
29.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
29.15Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
29.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
226
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
231
CONTENTS
xiii
32 Machine gun
234
242
253
xiv
CONTENTS
34.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
34.2.2 Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
34.2.3 Weaponry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
34.2.4 Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
34.2.5 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
34.3 Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
34.4 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
34.5 Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.5.1 Research and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.5.2 Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.5.3 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
34.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
35 Military helicopter
262
268
CONTENTS
xv
271
37.1 Design
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
37.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
274
282
xvi
CONTENTS
39.5.1 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
39.5.2 Hammerless shotguns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
39.5.3 John Moses Browning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
39.5.4 World wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
39.5.5 Late 20th century to present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
39.6 Design factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
39.6.1 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
39.6.2 Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
39.6.3 Shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
39.6.4 Pattern and choke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
39.6.5 Barrel length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
39.7 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
39.7.1 Specialty ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
39.8 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
39.8.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
39.8.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
39.8.3 UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
39.8.4 US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
39.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
39.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
39.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
299
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
302
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
CONTENTS
xvii
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
310
316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
319
xviii
CONTENTS
44.2.3 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
44.2.4 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
334
CONTENTS
xix
359
xx
CONTENTS
46.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
46.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
47 Utility aircraft
376
Chapter 1
.45 ACP
For the movie with the same name, see .45 (lm).
Not to be confused with .45 Colt.
In the second round of evaluations in 1910, the Colt design passed the extensive testing with no failures, while
the Savage design suered 37 stoppages or parts failures.* [4] The resulting weapon was adopted as the Model
1911.
1.3 Performance
The .45 ACP is an eective combat pistol cartridge that
combines accuracy and stopping power for use against
human targets.* [8] The cartridge also has relatively low
muzzle blast and ash, as well as moderate recoil. The
standard issue military .45 ACP round has a 230 grain
bullet that travels at approximately 830 feet per second
when red from the government issue M1911A1 pistol
and approximately 950 feet per second from the M1A1
Thompson sub-machine gun. The cartridge also comes
in various specialty rounds of varying weights and performance levels. It operates at a relatively low maximum
chamber pressure rating of 21,000 psi (145 MPa) (compared to 35,000 psi/241 MPa for 9mm Parabellum and
.40 S&W, 37,500 psi/259 MPa for 10mm Auto, 40,000
psi/276 MPa for .357 SIG), which due to a low bolt
Side on view of Sellier & Bellot .45 ACP cartridge with a metric
ruler for scale
1.5 Timeline
1899/1900: Self-loading pistols test: Colt M1900
of .38 caliber entered.
A Modern 230-Grain Jacketed Hollow Point Bullet Recovered
From Raw Beef.
1.6 Synonyms
.45 Automatic / .45 Auto
[9] McAlpine, Alex. Pressure to power of combat cartridges. BrainLubeOnline.com. Retrieved November 10,
2013.
[11] Beretta Px4 Storm Full Size .45ACP. Retrieved January 4, 2014.
[11.4323mm] (Metric)
[13] Diez, Octavio. Special Police Task Forces. Lima Publications. p. 40. ISBN 978-84-95323-43-9
.38/.45 Clerke
.400 Corbon
.45 Auto Rim
.45 G.A.P.
.45 Winchester Magnum
.45 Peters-Thompson shot cartridge* [18]
.50 GI
1.9 References
[1] Ayoob, Massad (2003). The .45 ACP approaches its
centennial - Handguns. Guns Magazine.
[2] Barnes, Frank C.; Skinner, Stan (2003). Cartridges of the
World: 10th Edition, Revised and Expanded. Krause Publications. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-87349-605-6.
[3] 1911 History
[4] Background
[5] C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables - free current C.I.P.
CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)".
Archived from the original on 2009-06-06. Retrieved October 17, 2008.
[6] Wilson, R. K. Textbook of Automatic Pistols, p.229.
Plantersville, SC: Small Arms Technical Publishing Company, 1943. ISBN 0-935632-89-1
[7] SAAMI Pressures. Archived from the original on 14
October 2007. Retrieved November 29, 2007.
[8] Marshall, EP, Sanow, EJ: Street Stoppers: The Latest
Handgun Stopping Power Street Results, Paladin Press,
Boulder, Colorado, 1996. ISBN 0-87364-872-2.
SAAMI Specication
Chapter 2
.50 BMG
The .50 Browning Machine Gun (.50 BMG) or
12.799mm NATO is a cartridge developed for the
Browning .50 caliber machine gun in the late 1910s. Entering service ocially in 1921, the round is based on
a greatly scaled-up .30-06 cartridge. Under STANAG
4383, it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well
as many non-NATO countries.* [1] The cartridge itself
has been made in many variants: multiple generations
of regular ball, tracer, armor piercing, incendiary, and
saboted sub-caliber rounds. The rounds intended for machine guns are linked using metallic links.
2.1 History
John Browning had the idea for this round during World
War I in response to a need for an anti-aircraft weapon,
based on a scaled-up .30-06 Springeld design, used in
a machine gun based on a scaled-up M1919/M1917 design that Browning had initially developed around 1900
(but which was not adopted by the U.S. military until
1917, hence the model designation). Armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) rounds were especially eective
against aircraft, and the AP rounds and API rounds were
excellent for destroying concrete bunkers, structures, and
lighter AFVs. The API and APIT rounds left a ash, report, and smoke on contact, useful in detecting strikes on
enemy targets.* [6]
The .50 BMG cartridge is also used in long-range target and sniper ries, as well as other .50-caliber machine
guns. The use in single-shot and semi-automatic ries has
resulted in many specialized match-grade rounds not used
in .50-caliber machine guns. A McMillan Tac-50 .50
BMG sniper rie was used by Canadian Army Corporal
Rob Furlong of the PPCLI to achieve what was then the
longest-range conrmed sniper kill in history, when he
shot a Taliban combatant at 2,430 meters (2,657 yards)
during the 2002 campaign in the Afghanistan War.* [2]
This record was surpassed in 2009 in Afghanistan by a
British sniper with 2,475 meters (2,707 yards) though using a .338 Lapua Magnum (8.5870 mm) rie.* [3]* [4]
10
volved the illegal possession of a .50 BMG rie. The
brieng did not identify any instance of a .50 BMG rie being used in the commission of a murder.
of
.50
BMG
Robar RC-50
PGM Hecate II
Pindad SPR-2 and Pindad SPR-3* [31]
Ramo M600 and M650* [32]
2.10. REFERENCES
11
Steyr HS .50
TGR Co. LLC $1599 Noreen 50 BMG* [34]
2.10 References
2.8.3
Machine guns
CIS 50MG
GAU-19
M2 Browning machine gun
M85 machine gun
[1] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand
Capability Group 1 - Dismounted Soldier NATO Army
Armaments Group
[2] Michael Friscolanti (May 15, 2006). Friscolanti,
Michael (May 15, 2006). We were abandoned,
Macleans 119 (20)". Macleans.ca. Archived from the
original on February 23, 2011. Retrieved August 27,
2010.
[3] Michael Smith (May 2, 2010). Hotshot sniper in oneand-a-half mile double kill. The Sunday Times (UK).
Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[4] Michael Sheridan (May 3, 2010). British sniper Craig
Harrison (The Silent Assassin) breaks record, kills target
from 1.5 miles away. Daily News. New York. Archived
from the original on October 18, 2010. Retrieved August
27, 2010.
WKM-B
XM312
2.8.4
Pistols
[7] Barnes, Frank C., Cartridges of the World, U.S. Army .50
BMG Cartridge Specications, DBI Books (1989), ISBN
978-0-87349-033-7, p. 432.
[8] Army Ammunition Data Sheets for Small Caliber Ammunition(PDF). Defense Technical Information Center.
April 1994. p. 150. Retrieved August 27, 2010.
[9] albums/oo255/FEDE_EL_SOMALI/1-15.
i381.photobucket.com. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[10] Small Caliber Ammunition (PDF). ATK. Retrieved
August 27, 2010.
[11] Cartridges for Long-Range Sniping Ries by Anthony G
Williams
[12] Janes listing of the FN Herstal .50 cal M3P coaxial
weapon system (Belgium). Archived June 7, 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
[13] Igman Ammunition Cal. 12.7 x 99 mm, APEI, M 02.
[14] Crane Using Lightweight .50 Cal Ammo - Kitup. Military.com, 11 September 2011
[15] Jarod Stoll and Kathryn Hunt (21 May 2012).Advancements in Lightweight .50 Caliber Ammunition (PDF).
Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[16] GunWeek.com. SHOT Show 2006 New Ries, Shotguns, Pistols Oer Enhanced Performance.
12
Chapter 3
5.5645mm NATO
The 5.5645mm NATO (ocial NATO nomenclature
5.56 NATO) is an intermediate cartridge developed in
the United States and originally chambered in the M16
rie. Under STANAG 4172, it is a standard cartridge for
NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries.* [3]
It is derived from, but not identical to, the .223 Remington cartridge.
3.1 History
13
14
including traditional wooden, bullpup,space age,and
even multi-barrel designs with drum magazines. All used
similar ammunition ring a 1.8 mm diameter dart with
a plastic pullersabot lling the case mouth. While
the echette ammo had excellent armor penetration, there
were doubts about their terminal eectiveness against unprotected targets. Conventional cased ammunition was
more accurate and the sabots were expensive to produce.
The SPIW never created a weapons system that was combat eective, so the M16 was retained, and the 5.56 mm
round was kept as the standard U.S. infantry rie cartridge.* [5]
In 1977, NATO members signed an agreement to select a second, smaller caliber cartridge to replace the
7.6251mm NATO cartridge.* [8] Of the cartridges tendered, the 5.5645mm NATO was successful, but not the
55 gr M193 round used by the U.S. at that time. The
wounds produced by the M193 round were so devastating that many* [9] consider it to be inhumane.* [10]* [11]
Instead, the Belgian 62 gr SS109 round was chosen for
standardization. The SS109 used a heavier bullet with a
steel tip and had a lower muzzle velocity for better longrange performance, specically to meet a requirement
that the bullet be able to penetrate through one side of
5.5645mm NATO maximum NATO cartridge dimensions. All sizes in millimeters (mm).* [14]* [15]
Americans would dene the shoulder angle at alpha/2 =
23 degrees. The common riing twist rate for this cartridge is 178 mm (1 in 7 in) or 229 mm (1 in 9 in), 6
grooves, lands = 5.56 mm, grooves = 5.69 mm, land
width = 1.88 mm and the primer type is small rie.
According to the ocial NATO proong guidelines the
5.5645mm NATO case can handle up to 430 MPa
(62,366 psi) piezo service pressure. In NATO regulated organizations every rie cartridge combo has to be
proofed at 125% of this maximum pressure to certify for
service issue. This is equal to the C.I.P. maximum pressure guideline for the .223 Remington cartridge, which is
the 5.5645mm NATO parent cartridge.
3.3. PERFORMANCE
15
fragments.* [19]* [20] These remote wounding eects are
known as hydrostatic shock.* [21]
SS109/M855 NATO ball can penetrate up to 3 mm (0.12
in) of steel at 600 meters.* [22] According to Nammo,
a Norwegian ammunition producer, the 5.5645mm
NATO M995 armour piercing cartridge can penetrate up
to 12 mm (0.47 in) of RHA steel at 100 meters.* [23]
The US Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory measured
a ballistic coecient (G7 BC) of 0.151 and form factor
(G7 i) of 1.172 for the SS109/M855 ball projectile.* [24]
The Swedish military has measured the bullet velocities
of SS109/M855 military cartridges at 4 m (13.1 ft) from
the muzzle red from diering barrel lengths:* [25]
3.3.1 Criticism
There has been much debate of the allegedly poor performance of the bullet on target, especially the rst-shot
kill rate when the muzzle velocity of the rearms used and
the downrange bullet deceleration do not achieve the minimally required terminal velocity of over 750 m/s (2,500
ft/s) at the target to cause fragmentation. Many complaints were reported during the Gulf War, Somalia, and
in the conicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. This can be attributed to the change in barrel length, as this cartridge
was designed to achieve maximum performance in a 20inch (51 cm) barrel. The 14.5-inch (37 cm) barrel of
the U.S. military's M4 carbine generates considerably less
muzzle velocity than the longer 20-inch (51 cm) barrel
found on the M16 rie, and terminal performance can be
a particular problem with the M4.
3.3 Performance
The 5.5645mm NATO SS109/M855 cartridge (NATO:
SS109; U.S.: M855) with standard 62 gr. lead core bullets with steel penetrator will penetrate approximately 38
to 51 cm (15 to 20 in) into soft tissue in ideal circumstances. As with all spitzer shaped projectiles it is prone
to yaw in soft tissue. However, at impact velocities above
roughly 762 m/s (2,500 ft/s), it may yaw and then fragment at the cannelure (the crimping groove around the
cylinder of the bullet).* [16] These fragments can disperse
through esh and bone, inicting additional internal injuries.* [17]
Fragmentation, if and when it occurs, imparts much
greater damage to human tissue than bullet dimensions
and velocities would suggest. This fragmentation eect is
highly dependent on velocity, and therefore barrel length:
short-barreled carbines generate less muzzle velocity and
therefore lose wounding eectiveness at much shorter
ranges than longer-barreled ries.* [18] Proponents of the
hydrostatic shock theory contend that the rapid transfer of energy also results in wounding eects beyond
the tissue directly crushed and torn by the bullet and
16
3.3. PERFORMANCE
lar soldiers; Swedish ISAF units relied on .50 BMG heavy
machine guns for long-range shooting due to resilience to
factors such as range and wind drift. Underperformance
is thus attributed to errors in range and wind estimation,
target lead, ring position, and stress under re, factors
that can be resolved through training.* [25]* [33]
3.3.2
Improvements
17
(9.5 mm) of mild steel at 350 meters, which the M855 can
only do at 160 meters. The propellant burns faster, which
decreases the muzzle ash and gives a higher muzzle velocity, an important feature when red from a short barreled M4 carbine. Though the M855A1 is more expensive to produce, its performance is considered to compensate. One possible danger is that it generates much greater
pressure in the chamber when red, decreasing service
life of parts, and increasing the risk of catastrophic failure of the weapon, though this has yet to occur.* [38]* [39]
The U.S. Marines adopted the Mk318 in early 2010 due
to delays with the M855A1. This was a temporary measure until the M855A1 was available for them, which
occurred in mid-2010 when the Army began to receive
the rounds. Both the Mk318 and M855A1 weigh the
same and have similar performance, and both have better performance than the M855 against all targets. SOCOM spent less money developing the Mk318 and it is
marginally better than the M855A1 in some situations,
but costs more per round. The Army spent more developing the M855A1 which performs as well or nearly as
well as the Mk318, but is cheaper per round and has the
advantage of being lead-free. While SOCOM constantly
looks for better equipment, the Army and Marines have
far more troops to supply and buy more ammunition than
SOCOM.* [40]
3.3.3 Alternatives
If the 5.56 mm bullet is moving too slowly to reliably
fragment on impact, the wound size and potential to incapacitate a person is greatly reduced. There have been
numerous attempts to create an intermediate cartridge
that addresses the complaints of 5.56 NATO's lack of
stopping power along with lack of controllability seen
in ries ring 7.62 NATO in full auto. Some alternative cartridges like the .270 caliber 6.8mm Remington
SPC (6.843mm) focused on superior short-range performance by sacricing long-distance performance due
to the relatively short engagement distances typically observed in urban warfare. Others, like the 6.5mm Grendel
(6.539mm), are attempts at engineering an all purpose
cartridge that could replace both the 5.56 and 7.62 NATO
rounds. The 300 AAC Blackout (7.6235mm) round was
designed to have the power of the 7.6239mm for use
in an M4 platform using standard M4 magazines, and to
easily interchange between subsonic ammunition for suppressed ring and supersonic rounds. All these cartridges
have certain advantages over the 5.5645mm NATO, but
they have their own individual tradeos to include lower
muzzle velocity, less range, decreased magazine capacity, and dierent internal parts. None of these cartridges
have gained any signicant traction beyond sport shooting communities.
18
cials on changing calibers.* [42] In 2007, both the U.S.
SOCOM and the U.S. Marine Corps decided not to eld
weapons chambered in 6.843mm due to logistical and
cost issues.* [43] An unnamed LWRC representative said
in January 2014 that the US military is once again taking
a look at the 6.8 SPCII after all the commercial development in the last 10 years.* [44]
19
trajectory than a 7.62 NATO round red from a barrel
of equal length, while the 5.56 NATO red from a 14.5
in (370 mm) barrel has the same trajectory as the 7.62
NATO from a 20 in barrel, as well as the same time of
ight. A 7.62 NATO round reaches 50 percent of its velocity within 80 mm (3.1 in) of the barrel when red, so
decreasing the barrel length for close quarters combat results in increased muzzle pressure and greater noise and
muzzle ash.* [25]* [33]
20
Cartridge,
Tracer,
DM21
(Germany):
5.5645mm tracer compliment to DM11, also
produced by RUAG Ammotec. [orange tip]
21
600 meters. The SS109 had a steel tip and lead rear and
was not required to penetrate body armor. Barrels required at least a 1:9 in rie twist, but needed a 1:7 in rie
twist to re tracer ammunition.* [25]* [33]* [37] The U.S.
designated the SS109 cartridge the M855 and rst used it
in the M16A2 rie. The 62-grain round was heavier than
the previous 55-grain M193. While the M855 had better
armor penetrating ability, it is less likely to fragment after hitting a soft target. This lessens kinetic energy transfer to the target and reduces wounding capability.* [73]
The M855 is yaw dependent, meaning it depends on the
angle upon which it hits the target. If at a good angle,
the round turns as it enters soft tissue, breaking apart and
transferring its energy to what it hits. If impacting at a
bad angle, it could pass through and fail to transfer its full
energy.* [39] The SS109 was made to pierce steel helmets
at long range from the Minimi, not improve terminal performance on soft tissue from ries or carbines.* [29] In
Iraq, troops that engaged insurgents at less than 150 yards
found that M855 rounds did not provide enough stopping
power. In addition to not causing lethal eects with two
or more rounds, they did not eectively penetrate vehicle windshields, even with many rounds red at extremely
close range.* [74] In Afghanistan, troops found that M855
rounds also suered at long ranges. Although 5.56 mm
ries have an eective range of 450600 meters, the
M855 bullet's performance falls o sharply beyond 300
meters. The ranges are even shorter for short-barreled
carbines. Half of small-arms attacks were launched from
300900 meter ranges.* [75] An M855 red from an M4
Carbine has severely degraded performance beyond 150
meters.* [29]
22
reduce the round's predictable eectiveness considerably the rearward-drawn jacket can create an uneven boat tail
in combat situations.* [76]
leading to uneven airow and more aected dispersion.
It also was not optimized for use in short-barreled ries.
The M855 was originally made to burn and accelerate
3.6.2 M855A1
from the 20 in (510 mm) barrel of the M249 SAW; then
it was repurposed to the M16A2 for ammunition compatibility. When red from a short-barreled M4, lower
muzzle velocity led to decreased terminal eectiveness,
and unburned propellant red from the end of the barrel
created a brighter muzzle ash and caused more combustion debris to be pushed back in the gas tube, dirtying the
weapon.* [77]
Alternative 5.56 mm rounds in use were considered, like
the Mk 262 open-tipped match cartridge. The Mk 262
was more accurate and had better soft target performance, and both Army and Marine units were using large
quantities in Iraq deployments for designated marksman
ries. However, the Mk 262 was not adequate as a
general-purpose round and cost four times more than the
M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round and its environmentally
M855, so it could not be produced at the volumes refriendly projectile.
quired for 5.56 mm ammunition (up to 1 billion rounds
annually). It was also found that performance suered
when red from standard barrels, so match grade barDevelopment
rels would be needed for optimum performance. The
M995 armor-piercing round had high accuracy and tarIn mid-2005, a meeting was held at the Lake City Army get penetration, but was eight times more expensive than
Ammunition Plant as part of Phase II of the U.S. Army's the M855. Commercial alternatives were found to have
Green Ammunition replacement program and attended the same yaw sensitivity issues as the M855.* [77]
by representatives from several military sectors and contractors. The objective was to create an environmentally- A number of objectives were desired for the new round,
friendly small arms training round after the Army had including more lethal, or at least more consistent, soft tarbeen required, in part by stronger state regulations, to get eects and less shot dispersion. It must not be speremove lead from their bullets to reduce lead accumula- cialized for any one task to have general-purpose perfortion at stateside training ranges. Initially, Phase I eorts mance, and if improvement in any one area resulted that
created the M855 green tip5.56 mm round that re- would be considered a secondary benet. As the services
placed the lead core with one made of tungsten, but it was were purchasing large numbers of optics, it could not
found that the round would become unstable in ight and require a dierent reticle pattern, but re-zeroing sights
y sideways through a target; furthermore, research was would be acceptable. Optimization for short-barreled risuggesting that tungsten was not environmentally better es was needed, as the Army and Special Forces' main
than lead. Phase II eorts focused on creating an alter- weapon was the M4 carbine; a ash-suppressed propelnative round that did not contain either metal. As the lant was also required. Optimizing the round to perform
Iraq War was happening at the same time, participants within the pressure limits for short barrels would cause
decided to use the opportunity to redirect their eorts performance loss in longer barrels (causing complaints
from just making agreentraining round to creating an from the Marine Corps), but analysis showed that a short
entirely new general-purpose rie round to address com- barrel-optimized round would have less performance loss
red from a long barrel than vice versa. The round also
plaints encountered in the eld.* [77]
had to be cost-competitive and meet environmental stanComplaints had surfaced about the poor lethality of stan- dards.* [77]
dard M855 rounds against soft targets, although while
some units claimed they had virtually no eect others The initial M855A1 design began testing in late-2007. Its
said they were having no problems. The problem was alloy core had no toxic metals and could be cheaply proyaw sensitivity,where rounds experiencing swing in duced. Materials and production methods, like a reverseight have varying eects when they hit a target based drawn jacket for a clean boat tail, led to yaw insensitivon the degree of yaw, resulting in unpredictable lethality ity, improved soft target performance, and consistent diseects. The makeup and design of the bullet aected ac- persion. The steel penetrator was retained and, through
curacy. The copper jacket is formed rst at the point, then greater velocity and better composition and placement,
a steel penetrator is inserted into the jacket and the pro- substantially improved hard target performance. It met
jectile is crimped shut. Error in the penetrator placement short-barrel optimization, ballistic similarity, and procan change ight performance and aect dispersion, and ducibility requirements; it cost slightly more than the
23
to as "green ammo" because it res a lead free projectile.* [68]* [69]* [79]* [80]* [81]* [82] It is not necessarily
more lethal than the M855, but performs more consistently every time it hits a soft target and retains its performance at longer distances. The EPR can penetrate a
3
8 in (9.5 mm) thick steel barrier from an M4 at 350
meters and from an M16 at 400 meters. Ballistics for
both rounds are similar and don't require weapons to be
re-zeroed, but if they are the EPR can be slightly more
accurate. The steel-tip penetrator of the M855A1 is noticeably separated from the jacket of the bullet and can
spin, but this is part of the design and does not aect
performance. The M855A1 costs only 5 cents more per
round than the M855.* [83] The M855A1 bullet has a 1 8
in (3.2 mm) greater length than the M855.* [84] Because
steel and copper are less dense than lead, the bullet is
lengthened inside the case to achieve the same weight as
its predecessor.* [5] The longer bullet and reverse-drawn
jacket make it more stable and accurate in-ight. Its
steel tip is exposed from the jacket and bronzed for corrosion resistance. The tip is serrated and larger than
the M855's steel tip. The M855A1's bullet composition, better aerodynamics, and higher proof pressures give
it an extended eective range for penetration and terminal performance.* [85] While eectiveness at dierent ranges is increased, the M855A1 does not increase
the eective ranges at which weapons are expected to
hit their targets. The Enhanced Performance Round was
made to nearly match the trajectory of the M855 to aid
in training consistency - the SS109/M855 ballistic coefcient (G7 BC) of 0.151 was improved to 0.152 for the
M855A1* [86] - but the ranges to get desired eects are
greatly extended.* [87]
In December 2014, small ammunition company Liberty Ammunition won a $15.6 million lawsuit against the
Army for passing on proprietary data and specications
for its lead-free copper-core, steel-tipped bullet design to
other vendors. The company founder presented his idea
for an enhanced performance incapacitative composite
(EPIC) 5.56 mm round to Army ocials and gave technical and performance data to SOCOM in 2005, during
Phase II of the green ammunition program, after a nondisclosure agreement was signed protecting proprietary
information. Liberty Ammunition was formed to produce the EPIC round and received a SOCOM contract
to test it, completed in 2007. The round's design patent
was approved in 2010, the same year the M855A1 was
elded. A suit was led claiming the Army shared condential information to potential vendors, and the U.S.
Court of Federal Claims found that the Army had violated three non-disclosure agreements. The court also
ordered the Army to pay 1.4 cents to the company for
every M855A1 round produced until its patent expires
in 2027, totally between $2.2 million to $5.3 million per The M855A1 was put on hold in August 2009 due to the
year.* [78]
experimental bismuth-tin alloy core exhibiting undependable ballistics at high temperatures. The US Army has
since replaced the bismuth-tin alloy core with one of solid
copper eliminating the heat issue. The United States MaDeployment
rine Corps purchased 1.8 million rounds in 2010, with
On June 24, 2010, the United States Army announced it plans to adopt the round to replace the interim MK318
began shipping its new 5.56 mm cartridge, the M855A1 SOST rounds used in Afghanistan when the M855A1
*
Enhanced Performance Round (EPR), to active com- project was delayed. [88]
bat zones. During testing, the M855A1 performed better On a media day at Aberdeen Proving Ground on May
than M80 7.6251mm NATO ball ammunition against 4, 2011, reports were given about the M855A1's percertain types of targets (particularly hardened steel), blur- formance in the eld since it was issued 11 months earring the performance dierences that previously sepa- lier. One primary advantage given by the round is its
rated the two cartridges. The US Army Picatinny Ar- consistent performance against soft targets. While the
senal stated that the new M855A1 oers improved hard older M855 was yaw-dependant, which means its eectarget capability, more consistent performance at all dis- tiveness depends on its yaw angle when it hits a target,
tances, enhanced dependability, improved accuracy, re- the M855A1 delivers the same eectiveness in a soft tarduced muzzle ash, and higher velocity compared to the get no matter its yaw angle. The new SMP-842 propelM855 round. Further, the Army stated the new M855A1 lant in the round burns quicker in the shorter M4 carbine
ammunition is tailored for use in M4 carbines, but should barrel, ensuring less muzzle ash and greater muzzle vealso give enhanced performance in M16 ries and M249 locity. The M855A1 was able to penetrate 3 8 inch (9.5
light machine guns. The new 62-grain (4 g) projectile mm) of steel plate at 300 meters. The round even penor bullet used in the M855A1 round has a copper core etrated concrete masonry units, similar to cinder blocks,
with a 19-grain (1.2 g) steel stacked-conepenetrat- at 75 meters from an M16 and at 50 meters from an M4,
ing tip. The M855A1 cartridge is sometimes referred
24
which the M855 could not do at those ranges. Its accuracy
is maintained and sometimes increased, as it was able to
shoot a 2-inch group at 600 meters. February 2011 was
the rst time the M855A1 was used more than the M855,
and approximately 30 million M855A1 rounds have been
elded from June 2010 to May 2011.* [89]* [90]
The M855A1 was put to the test at the 2012 National
Rie Association's National High-Power Rie Championship at Camp Perry, Ohio in August 2012. The shooter
for the Army was Rob Harbison, a contractor supporting small caliber ammunition capability development at
Fort Benning Georgia. This was a special event for the
Project Manager for Maneuver Ammunition Systems and
the Army's Maneuver Center of Excellence as it was an
opportunity to showcase the capabilities of the Enhanced
Performance Round. With an M16 loaded with M855A1
ammo, Harbison red a perfect 200 points in the Coast
Guard Trophy Match, which is 20 shots red from the
sitting position at 200 yards, nishing 17th out of 365
competitors. He also scored a perfect 100 on the nal string of ten shots during the Air Force Cup Trophy
Match, red at 600 yards from the prone position, which
is 10 shots in a row within the 12-inch, 10-point ring at
600 yards with combat ammunition. Harbison was happy
with the performance of the EPR, with his scores showing
that the Army's newest general purpose round is accurate
enough to go toe-to-toe in the competition with the best
ammo that can be bought or hand-loaded. Harbison even
said, I don't think I could have scored any higher if I
was using match-grade competition ammunition.* [91]
It should be noted that the M855A1 was not red from 1:7
in ried barrels used in standard Army ries, but special
Army Marksmanship Unit (AMU) match-grade 1:8 in ried barrels, which produce more accurate results when
ring 62-grain rounds.* [84]
From elding in June 2010 to September 2012, Alliant
Techsystems delivered over 350 million M855A1 Enhanced Performance Rounds.* [92]
Since its introduction, the M855A1 has been criticized
for its propellant causing increased fouling of the gun
barrel. Post-combat surveys have reported no issues
with the EPR in combat. A series of tests found no
signicant dierence in fouling between the old M855
and the M855A1. However, manufacturers have reported severe degradationto barrels of their ries
using the M855A1 in tests.* [93] The Army attributes
pressure and wear issues with the M855A1 to problems
with the primer, which they claim to have addressed
with a newly designed primer.* [94] It uses a modied
four-pronged primer anvil for more reliable powder ignition,* [85] with a stab crimp rather than a circumferential
crimp to better withstand the new loads higher chamber
pressure,* [84] increased from 55,000 psi (379.2 MPa) to
62,000 psi (427.5 MPa).* [49] During Army carbine testing, the round causedaccelerated bolt wearfrom higher
chamber pressure and increased bore temperatures. Special Operator testing saw cracks appear on locking lugs
3.6.3 Mk 262
The Mk 262 is a match quality round manufactured by
Black Hills Ammunition made originally for the Special
Purpose Rie (SPR). It uses a 77-grain (5.0 g) Sierra
MatchKing bullet that is more eective at longer ranges
than the standard issue M855 round.
In 1999, SOCOM requested Black Hills Ammunition to
develop ammunition for the Mk 12 SPR that SOCOM
was designing. For the rie to be accurate out to 600
yards, Black Hills militarizeda cartridge that used
the Sierra 77 grain OTM (Open Tip Match) projectile;
it switched from a .223 Remington to 5.56 mm case, increased pressure loading, crimped and sealed the primer,
and added a ash retardant to the powder. The Mk 262
Mod 0 was adopted in 2002. Issues came up in development including reliability problems in dierent temperatures and when the weapon got dirty, and cycling issues in
cold weather due to the slightly shorter barrel of the SPR
compared to the full-length M16A2 barrel. The problems were addressed with a slower burning powder with
a dierent pressure for use in the barrel, creating the Mk
262 Mod 1 in 2003. During the product improvement
stage, the new propellant was found to be more sensitive
to heat in weapon chambers during rapid rings, resulting in increased pressures and failure to extract. This was
addressed with another powder blend with higher heat tolerance and improved brass. Also during the stage, Black
Hills wanted the bullet to be given a cannelure, which had
been previously rejected for fear it would aect accuracy.
It was eventually added for eective crimping to ensure
that the projectile would not move back into the case
and cause a malfunction during auto-load feeding. Although the temperature sensitive powder and new bullet
changed specications, the designation remained as the
Mod 1.* [96]
According to US DoD sources, the Mk 262 round is
capable of making kills at 700 meters. Ballistics tests
found that the round caused consistent initial yaw in
soft tissuebetween 3-4 in at ranges from 15 feet to
3.6.4
Mk318
25
In February 2010, the U.S. Marine Corps adopted the
Mk318 for use by infantry. To be elded by an entire
branch of the military, the round is classied as having an open-tipbullet, similar to the M118LR 7.62
NATO round. The SOST bullet uses a reverse drawn
forming process. The base of the bullet is made rst,
the lead core is placed on top of it, and then the jacketing is pulled up around the lead core from bottom to
tip. Conventional, and cheaper, bullets are made with the
method of the jacket drawn from the nose to an exposed
lead base. The reverse drawn technique leaves an open
tip as a byproduct of the manufacturing process, and is
not specically designed for expansion or to aect terminal ballistics. The Pentagon legally cleared the rounds
for Marine use in late January. The Marines elded the
Mk318 gradually and in small numbers. Initial studies showed that insurgents hit by it suered larger exit
wounds, although information was limited. SOST rounds
were used alongside M855 rounds in situations where the
SOST would be more eective.* [36]* [99]* [100] In July
2010, the Marines purchased 1.8 million M855A1 Enhanced Performance Rounds, in addition to millions of
Mk318 rounds in service, as part of its eort to replace
its M855 ammo.* [101] As of May 2015, Marine combat
units still deploy with a mixture of both SOST and M855
rounds.* [102]
As the issue of environmentally friendly ammo grew, the
Marines looked to see if the Mk318's lead could be replaced while still meeting specications. They found that
by replacing the lead with copper and slightly stretching the jacket around to crimp the nose even more, the
bullet's ballistic coecient increased. To avoid visual
confusion with the Mk 262 round, the bullet was entirely nickel-plated for a silver color; the enhanced silvercolored copper jacketed, open tip match, 62-grain projectile was named the Mk318 Mod 1. The Marine Corps
will make a decision as whether to eld the Mk 318 Mod
1 or M855A1 as its standard rie round.* [103]
26
3.7 Use
Main article: List of 5.56x45mm NATO rearms
Swiss Army Gw Lsp Pat 90 tracer rounds.
The 5.6mm Gw Pat 90 or GP 90 (5.6 mm Rie Cartridge 90), is the standard round used by the Swiss military in its rie, the SIG SG 550. The cartridge is also
known as the Cart 5.6mm 90 F to the French and Italian
speaking Swiss militiamen. The Swiss refer to the round
as the 5.6 mm Gw Pat 90, although it is interchangeable
with the 5.5645mm NATO and .223 Remington round.
The Gw Pat 90 round ring a 4.1 g (63 gr) FMJ bullet
is optimized for use in 5.56 mm (.223 in) caliber barrels
with a 254 mm (1:10 in) twist rate.
The Gw Pat 90 was designed for the SIG SG 550 when
it came into production in 1987, replacing the SIG SG
510. Previous experience of a change in standard rie had proved that changing the distance of re for the
training ranges was more expensive than the design of a
new ammunition; this prompted the design of a cartridge
nominally capable at 300 meters. The cartridge was also
designed to reduce pollution by controlling lead emissions.* [104] The bullet was originally clad with a nickel
alloy jacket, however, this was found to cause excessive
barrel wear, so in 1998 the nickel jackets were replaced
with tombac jackets. In addition, in 1999 a copper plug
was added to the base of the bullet to address environmental concerns.* [104]
The ammunition is currently (2009) produced by RUAG
Ammotec, a subsidiary of the RUAG group.* [105] The
ammunition is manufactured in three variations: the standard FMJ round, the tracer round, and a blank round.
The FMJ cartridge has a Copper-Zinc alloy case and uses
a double base propellant. The bullet is a 4.1 g (63 gr)
tombac jacketed FMJ projectile with a G1 ballistic coefcient of 0.331 (ICAO) / 0.337 (Army Metro). The projectile contains approximately 95% Pb, 2% Sb, 3% Cu,
and was designed for terminal ballistic instability. The required accuracy for Gw Pat 90 ammunition out of factory
test barrels is 63 mm (0.72 MOA) for 10 rounds (100%
radius measurement method) out to 300 m. The Gw Pat
90 cartridge dimensions are in accordance with the civilian C.I.P. standards for the .223 Remington C.I.P. chambering.* [106]
3.9 References
[1] C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables free current C.I.P.
CD-ROM version download (ZIP and RAR format)".
Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[2] US Mil-spec MIL-C-9963F
[3] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand
Capability Group 1 Dismounted Soldier NATO Army
Armaments Group
[4] Barnes, Frank C. (1972). Cartridges of the World. Northeld Il: DBI Books. p. 37. ISBN 0-695-80326-3.
[5] Assault Ries and Their Ammunition:
Prospects by Anthony G. Williams
History and
3.9. REFERENCES
27
[39] http://usarmy.vo.llnwd.net/e2/c/downloads/215919.pdf
[20] Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Eects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579596, 1998.
[21] American Rie: A Biography, Alexander Rose (2009) p.
375-376
[22] Pd Igman D.D. Konjic Bosnia And Herzegovina : Ammunition. Igman.co.ba. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
28
[54] News and Press Releases: .223 Rem VS 5.56mm, winchester.com, 5/4/2001
[55] Patrick Sweeney,Chamber Reality Check, Peterson's
Rie Shooter, Volume 16, Issue 2, March/April 2013, pp.
3236.
[56] "Unsafe Arms and Ammunition Combinations" at
SAAMI web site
[57] SAAMI on 5.56 v. .223 Remington. The Gun Zone. Retrieved on 2011-01-08.
[78] Ammunition Inventor Wins $15 Million Patent Infringement Case Against Army - Nationaldefensemagazine.org,
14 January 2015
[79] Army begins shipping improved 5.56mm cartridge
[80] Military.com: 'Green Ammo' Heads to Afghanistan
[81] U.S. Army Issues New M855A1 Ammo to Troops in
Afghanistan
[82] Greenbullets from Picatinny Arsenal in NJ to be used
in Afghanistan
Inetres.com
[84] Testing The Armys M855A1 Standard Ball Cartridge Americanrieman.org, 21 May 2014
[86] The 6.540 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16
by Anthony G. Williams on 26 March, 2014.
[62] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2011smallarms/
WednesdayInter12397Evenden.pdf
[63] Testing & Evaluating the EF88 Assault Rie - SAdefensekournal.com, 4 March 2013
[64] Jane's Infantry Weapons 19861987 pg.363
[65] Jane's Infantry Weapons 19861987 pg.362
[66] British Military Cartridges: The 5.56x45mm
[67] Gary's US Infantry Weapons Reference Guide: 5.56mm
(5.56 x 45 mm) Ammunition
[68] M855A1 Enhanced Performance Round (EPR)
[69] Small Caliber Ammunition Enhancing Capabilities, 20
May 2010
[70] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2006smallarms/kim.pdf
[71] Corps to use more lethal ammo in Afghanistan at www.
marinecorpstimes.com
[72] U.S. Navy Small Arms Ammunition Advancements
[73] How Reliable Is the M-16 Rie?", New York Times, 2
November 2009
[74] Army won't eld deadlier Corps round, Army Times,
2 April 2010
[75] FUTURE INFANTRY SMALL ARMS by Anthony G
Williams
[76] Ehrhart, Thomas P. Increasing Small Arms Lethality in
Afghanistan: Taking Back the Infantry Half Kilometer. p.
3033
[77] Dean, Gleen (3 March 2012). In Search of Lethality:
Green Ammo and the M855A1 Enhanced Performance
Round. Smashwords.com.
TipAmmo
[95] Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded Army.mil, 1 July 2013
[96] Black Hills Ammunition - SAdefensejournal.com, 5
March 2014
[97] http://archives.gunsandammo.com/content/evolution-ar
[98] AA53, Cartridge, Caliber 5.56mm Special Ball, Long
Range Mk 262 Mod 0. Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved on
2011-01-08.
[99] USMC adopt new 5.56mm MK318 MOD 0 ammunition
- Therearmblog.com, 17 February 2010
29
Chapter 4
7.6251mm NATO
The 7.6251mm NATO (ocial NATO nomenclature tridge allows a slight reduction in the size and weight of
7.62 NATO) is a rimless bottlenecked rie cartridge de- rearms that chamber it, and somewhat better cycling in
veloped in the 1950s as a standard for small arms among automatic and semi-automatic ries.
NATO countries. It should not be confused with the similarly named Russian 7.6254mmR cartridge, a slightly
longer rimmed cartridge.
4.2 Development
It was introduced in U.S. service in the M14 rie and M60
machine gun in the late 1950s. The M14 was superseded
in U.S. service as the infantry adopted the 5.5645mm
NATO M16. However, the M14 and many other rearms
that use the 7.6251 round remain in service, especially
in the case of various sniper ries, medium machine guns
such as the M240, and various ries in use by special operations forces. The cartridge is used both by infantry and
on mounted and crew-served weapons mounted to vehicles, aircraft and ships.
Although not identical, the 7.6251mm NATO and
the commercial .308 Winchester cartridges are similar
enough that they can be loaded into ries chambered
for the other round, but the Winchester .308 cartridges
are typically loaded to higher pressures than 7.6251mm
NATO cartridges for use in long-distance hunting of
big-game animals. Even though the Sporting Arms
and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI) does
not consider it unsafe to re the commercial round in
weapons chambered for the NATO round, there is significant discussion* [3]* [4]* [5] about compatible chamber
and muzzle pressures between the two cartridges based
on powder loads and wall thicknesses on the military vs.
commercial rounds. While the debate goes both ways,
the ATF recommends checking the stamping on the barrel; if one is unsure, one can consult the maker of the
rearm.* [6]* [7]
4.2. DEVELOPMENT
31
weapon with a detachable box magazine. Springeld Armory's T20 rie was a fully automatic version. Though
not adopted, experience with a fully automatic Garand
laid the groundwork for its replacement.
G1. The Germans soon transitioned to a modied version of the Spanish CETME rie by Heckler & Koch that
was adopted as the G3. With all three of these rearms,
it was clear that the 7.62 mm NATO could not be red
controllably in fully automatic because of recoil. Both the
M14s and FAL would later go through several variations
intended to either limit fully automatic selection through
semi-auto version or selector locks or to improve control
with bipods or heavier barrels.
32
showed the .223 Remington cartridge red from the AR15 allowed an 8-soldier unit to outgun an 11-soldier
unit armed with M14s at ranges closer than 300 meters.
U.S. troops were able to carry more than twice as much
5.5645mm ammunition as 7.6251mm for the same
weight, which allowed them an advantage against a typical N.V.A. unit armed with Type 56-1s.
(*AK-47 magazines are much heavier than M14 and M16
magazines)
In 1964, the U.S. Army started replacing their M14s with
the M16, incurring another series of complaints from the
British. Regardless of the M14 having disadvantages in
jungle warfare, 7.6251mm NATO ries stayed in military service around the world due to several factors. The
7.6251mm NATO has proved much more eective than
5.5645mm at long ranges, and has since found popularity as a sniping round. For instance, M14 variants such as
the Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rie and M25 Sniper Rie
were utilized in the United States military as designated
The 7.6251mm NATO and 5.5645mm NATO cartridges commarksman and sniper ries. Shorter, easier to handle
pared to an AA battery.
7.62mm ries like the Heckler & Koch G3 stayed in service due to their accuracy, range, cartridge eectiveness
and reliability.
distances of these eects over the M80. The bullet is reSpecialized loadings were created for 7.6251mm designed with a copper jacket and exposed hardened steel
NATO-chambered sniper ries. They used heavier and penetrator, eliminating 114.5 grains (7.4 g) of lead with
*
more streamlined bullets that had a higher ballistic coef- production of each M80A1 projectile. [10] The M80A1
*
cient than standard ball rounds, meaning they shed ve- began elding in September 2014. [11]
locity at longer ranges more gradually. Loss of velocity is
important for accurate long-range shots because dropping
from supersonic to transonic speeds disturbs the ight 4.3 Military cartridge types
of the bullet and adversely aects accuracy. The standard M80 ball round weighs 147 gr and has a muzzle velocity 200 ft/s (61 m/s) faster than the M118LR 175 gr
sniping round. However, the M80 drops to subsonic velocity around 875 m (957 yd), while the initially slower
M118LR is supersonic out to 950 m (1,040 yd) due to its
low-drag bullet.* [9]
The 7.6251mm NATO round nevertheless met the designer's demands for fully automatic reliability with a fullpower round. It remained the main machine gun round
for almost all NATO forces well into the 1990s, even
being used in adapted versions of older .30-06 machine
guns such as the Browning M1919A4 from the WWII
era. These have been replaced to a considerable extent in the light machine gun role by 5.5645mm NATO
weapons, such as the widespread use of the M249 SAW,
but the 7.62 round is still the standard chambering for
most general-purpose machine guns such as the M60E4,
the M240 and the German HK21 and MG3, and exible
mountings such as helicopters, jeeps, and tanks.
The U.S. Army has developed an improved version of
the M80 ball 7.62 mm round, called the M80A1. The
M80A1 incorporates changes found in the M855A1 5.56
mm round. Like the M855A1, the M80A1 is expected to
have better hard-target penetration, more consistent per- Three recovered 7.6251mm NATO bullets (next to an unred
formance against soft targets, and signicantly increased cartridge (Tracer ammunition), showing riing marks
33
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Grenade,
M64 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO grenade
launching blank. The cartridge is identied by a
rose-petal (rosette-crimp) closure of the cartridge
case mouth and sealed with red lacquer. The cartridge provides pressure upon functioning to project
rie grenade to a desired target when using a grenade
projectile adapter and dragon missile launch eect
trainer (LET).
7.62mm, NATO, Orange-tipped tracer ammunition, M62: 142grain (9.2 g) tracer cartridge.
34
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Special, M118LR (United States): 175-grain (11.3 g)
7.6251mm NATO Match-grade round specically
designed for long-range sniping. It uses a 175-grain
(11.3 g) Sierra Match King Hollow Point Boat Tail
bullet. Produced at Lake City Army Ammunition
Plant. The propellant's noticeable muzzle ash and
temperature sensitivity led to the development of the
MK 316 MOD 0 for Special Operations use.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Frangible, M160 (United States): 108.5-grain (7.0 g)
7.6251mm NATO frangible bullet, upon striking
a target, disintegrates, leaving a mark at the point of
impact.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Dummy,
M172 (United States): 7.6251mm NATO cartridge is inert and is used to test the mechanism and
metallic link belts of 7.62mm weapons. The cartridge is identied by a black oxide nish over the
entire round and has no primer. There is no vent
hole in the primer pocket.
Cartridge, Caliber 7.62mm, NATO, Ball, Overhead Fire, XM178 (United States): 7.6251mm
35
36
A111 (7.62mm Blank M82 Linked): 100-round [13] The 6.540 Cartridge: Longer Reach for the M4 & M16
by Anthony G. Williams on 26 March, 2014.
M13 linked belt (M82 Blank).
A165: (7.62mm NATO Linked): 750-round M13
linked belt (4 x M80 Ball : 1 M62 Tracer). Used in
7.62 mm miniguns.
[14] http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/2010armament/
ThursdayLandmarkBJeffreyWoods.pdf
[15] SniperCentral.com History of the M118 Ammunition
AA11 (7.62mm Ball M118LR): Long Range Ball. [16] M962 Saboted Light Armor Penetrator Tracer (SLAPT)
20-round carton. Used in precision match, desig- Globalsecurity.org
nated marksman, and sniper ries.
[17] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/
munitions/images/srta.jpg 7.62MM M973
and M973 SRTA-T
SRTA
[18] U.S. Navy Small Arms Ammunition Advancements 7.62MM Special Ball, Long Range, NAVSEA Warfare
Centers Crane.
[19] Martin L. Fackler (1989).Wounding patterns of military
rie bullets. International Defense Review (1/1989): 59
64.
[20] A Way Forward in Contemporary Understanding of the
1899 Hague Declaration on Expanding Bullets - SAdefensejournal.com, 7 October 2013
4.6 References
[1] Slickguns.com M80 data
[2] Long range sniper ammunition, U.S. Armor.
[3] http://forums.gunboards.com/showthread.php?
945-FAQ-Difference-between-308-amp-7-62-X51-%
28NATO%29
[4] http://www.snipershide.com/forum/ubbthreads.php?
ubb=showflat&Number=769781
[5] http://www.sksboards.com/smf/index.php?topic=79015.
0
[6] http://www.saami.org/specifications_and_information/
publications/download/SAAMI_ITEM_211-Unsafe_
Arms_and_Ammunition_Combinations.pdf
[7] http://www.ATF.gov.
[8] Miller, David (2003), Illustrated Directory of 20th Century
Guns, Zenith Press, ISBN 978-0-7603-1560-6
[9] Cartridges for Long-Range Sniping Ries by Anthony G
Williams
[10] Picatinny ammo goes from regular to unleaded
Army.mil, 1 July 2013
[11] M80A1 7.62 mm Cartridge - Oce of the Director, Operational Test & Evaluation. 2014
[12] The Case for a General-Purpose Rie and Machine Gun
Cartridge (GPC) by Anthony G Williams
Chapter 5
919mm Parabellum
9mmredirects here. For other cartridges with 9mm calibers in military sidearms led to Luger to develop the
bullets, see 9 mm caliber. For other uses, see 9mm 919mm Parabellum cartridge for his new pistol. This
was achieved by removing the bottleneck shape of the
(disambiguation).
7.6521mm Parabellum case, resulting in a tapered rimThe 919mm Parabellum (abbreviated 9mm, 9mmP, less cartridge encasing a bullet that was 9mm in diameter.
919mm or 919) cartridge was designed by Georg
Luger and introduced in 1902 by the German weapons
manufacturer Deutsche Waen- und Munitionsfabriken
(DWM) for their Luger semi-automatic pistol.* [5] For
this reason, it is designated as the 9mm Luger / 9mm
Luger +P by the SAAMI* [6] and the 9 mm Luger by
the C.I.P. (dierentiating it from the 9mm Makarov and
9mm Browning cartridges). Under STANAG 4090, it is
a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many
non-NATO countries.* [7]
The name Parabellum is derived from the Latin: Si vis
pacem, para bellum
( If you seek peace, prepare for war
), which was the motto of DWM.* [8]* [9]
38
the USA, a trend foreshadowed by the adoption of the
Smith & Wesson Model 39 by the Illinois State Police
in 1968. In addition, the Beretta M9 (a military version
of the Beretta Model 92) was adopted by the U.S. Army
in 1985. Previously, most American police departments
issued .38 Special caliber revolvers with a six-shot capacity. The .38 Special was preferred to other weapons
such as variants of the M1911 because it oered low
recoil, was small and light enough to accommodate different shooters, and was relatively inexpensive.* [16] The
9mm is ballistically superior to the .38 Special revolver
cartridge,* [17] is shorter overall, and being an autoloader
cartridge, it is stored in at magazines, as opposed to
cylindrical speedloaders. This, coupled with the advent
of the so-calledwonder ninesled to many U.S. police
departments exchanging their revolvers for some form of
9mm semi-automatic handguns by the 1980s.* [16]
5.4 Performance
39
involving non-signatories to the Hague Convention, including paramilitary and other non-governmental ghting
*
In addition to the traditional pressure values for this car- forces. [23]
tridge, there are two main variants that oer dierent
pressure standards than the SAAMI or C.I.P require5.5.3 Swedish m/39
ments.
5.5.1
9 mm Commonwealth standard
5.5.2
9 mm NATO standard
40
5.5.4
919mm +P variant
5.5.5
9 mm SESAMS
41
jorpower factor in those competitions, something that
very few commercial self-defense loads do. Such loads
are only rarely within the limits dened by SAAMI or
CIP, exceeding even +P loads. Usually, they are loaded
with relatively large charges of a low volume slow-burning
powder. Sometimes they are made longer than standard
OAL to allow more capacity with heavier bullets. Since
they can be used with common 919 brass, they are considered a more economical alternative to .38 Super. This
ammunition should only be red from barrels that have
fully supported chambers. Guns not specically designed
to handle the excess pressure could catastrophically fail.
Key:
Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin).
Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin).
9mm majoris a term common among handloaders in PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI
IPSC and USPSA competitions in the open division. It method).
describes a 919mm loaded to reach or surpass thema- TSC: temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin).
5.5.7
9mm major
42
5.7 Synonyms
919
9 mm
9 mm Luger
9 mm NATO
919mm
919mm NATO
9 mm Parabellum
9 mm Para
5.9 References
[1] Sellier & Bellot. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
[5] Hogg, Ian V.; Weeks, John S. Military Small Arms of the
20th Century (7th Edition), p.40. Krause Publications,
2000
[6] SAAMI 9mm Luger / 9mm Luger +P cartridge and chamber drawings
[7] NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand
Capability Group 1 Dismounted Soldier NATO Army
Armaments Group
[23] http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/dec99-03.asp
[25] Armstabens taktiska avdelning februari 1962 :Erfarenheterna frn striderna i Kongo under september och december 1961
[26] What is +P and +P+ ammunition?". Retrieved 14
November 2014.
43
Chapter 6
Anti-materiel rie
launchers, radar equipment, small watercraft, communications equipment, crew served weapons and similar targets. Their value is in being able to precisely target and
disable enemy assets from long range for a relatively low
cost.
The oensive use of anti-materiel ries or Special Application Scoped Ries (SASR) is termed hard target interdiction (HTI) by the United States military.* [1]
Anti-materiel ries can also be used in non-oensive
roles, e.g.: for safely destroying unexploded ordnance.
Steyr HS .50 AM rie
6.2 Description
Anti-materiel ries are similar in form and appearance
to modern sniper ries and can often serve in that role,
though they are usually chambered for cartridges more
powerful than are normally required for killing a human
and can operate at a greater range.
In general, anti-materiel ries are chambered for
12.799mm NATO (.50 BMG), 12.7108mm Russian,
14.5114mm Russian, and 20mm cartridges. The large
cartridges are required to be able to re projectiles
An anti-materiel rie (AMR) is a rie that is designed containing usable payloads, such as explosives, armorfor use against military equipment (materiel), rather than piercing cores, incendiaries, or combinations of these, as
found in the Raufoss Mk 211 projectile.
against other combatants ("anti-personnel").
US Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal technician with a
McMillan Tac-50
6.1 History
6.5 References
[1] Hard Target Interdiction, By Michael Haugen - snapshot
from the Wayback Machine, dated July 19, 2007
[2] http://www.truvelo.co.za/armoury/content/sniper-rifles
45
Chapter 7
Anti-tank warfare
From the Korean War to the Cold War, The United
States, Soviet Union and other countries faced the possibility that a nuclear weapon could be detonated over an
area of tank concentration in one strike. While technology was developed to protect crews of armored vehicles
from the eects of radiation, the same could not be done
for all their supporting arms and the supply train on which
tanks depend for spares, fuel and maintenance. In the
NATO countries little if any development took place on
dening a doctrine of how to use armed forces without the
use of tactical nuclear weapons. In the Soviet sphere of
inuence the legacy doctrine of operational maneuver was
being theoretically examined to understand how a tankled force could be used even with the threat of limited use
of nuclear weapons on the European battleeld. The solution they arrived at was maneuver warfare while massively
increasing the number of anti-tank weapons. To achieve
this, Soviet military theorists (such as Vasily Sokolovsky)
realized that anti-tank weapons had to assume an oenPARS 3 LR with HEAT warhead of the German Army.
sive role rather than the traditionally defensive role of the
Great Patriotic War by becoming more mobile. This led
to the development of improved guided anti-tank missiles, though similar design work was being performed
Anti-tank warfare arose as a result of the need to de- in Western Europe and the United States.
velop technology and tactics to destroy tanks during the
First World War. Because tanks represent an enemy's The French SS.10 missile was the rst successfully used
greatest force projection (aside from nuclear artillery and in anti-tank combatby the Israel Defense Forces durtank vs. tank engagements), anti-tank warfare has been ing the Suez Crisis of 1956, but the impact of Soviet
incorporated into the doctrine of nearly every combat ser- anti-tank missile tactics was not evident until 1973, when
Russian 9K11 Malyutka (Sagger) missiles were used by
vice since.
the Egyptian and Syrian armies during the Yom KipThe predominant anti-tank weapons at the start of the pur War against Israel. The outcome suggested that alSecond World War were the tank-mounted gun, limbered though the French missiles were a threat, they could be
(towed) anti-tank guns and anti-tank grenades used by countered. The explosive power delivered by the misthe infantry as well as ground-attack aircraft such as the siles convinced NATO tank designers to continue their
Junkers Ju 87 Stuka.
emphasis on increased armor, while Soviet designers reAnti-tank warfare evolved rapidly, particularly on the tained their emphasis on mobility of tank-led forces. The
Eastern Front, to include new infantry and infantry sup- utility of the light anti-tank weapon was also recognized
port weapons such as the bazooka, anti-tank combat engi- by both sides of the Cold War and led to further deneering, specialized anti-tank aircraft and self-propelled velopment of both shoulder-launched and man-portable
tank destroyers. Both the Red Army and the German weapons used by the infantry squad, while heavier misArmy developed methods of combating tank-led oen- siles were mounted on dedicated missile tank-destroyers,
sives, including deployment of static anti-tank weapons including dedicated anti-tank helicopters, and even heavembedded in in-depth defensive positions, protected by ier guided anti-tank missiles launched from aircraft. Also
anti-tank obstacles and mineelds, and supported by mo- being developed were new varieties of artillery munitions
in the form of top-attack shells, and shells that were used
bile anti-tank reserves and ground attack aircraft.
46
47
to saturate areas with anti-armor bomblets. Helicopters need to cross wide trenchesalthough the relationship
could be used as well to rapidly deliver scattered anti-tank between ground pressure and soil-vehicle mechanics was
mines.
not resolved until the Second World War. Turrets were
Since the end of the Cold War in 1993, the only major later introduced on medium and light tanks to react to
new threat to tanks and other vehicles, has been the re- ambushes during the advance.
motely detonated improvised explosive devices (IED's)
used in asymmetric warfare though it is really little different from a homemade land mine.
48
other tactic was to lure the tank beyond the German
trench-line, re-establishing it just as the Allied infantry
approached. The tank would then be engaged by the divisional 7.7 cm guns brought forward, that would try to
disable the tracks with ordinary HE shells (and later AP
ammunition). If the crews of the disabled tanks refused
to surrender, they were engaged with amethrowers, or a
mortar would be red on the stricken vehicle until a direct hit was achieved on the top surface, usually resulting
in an internal re. Finally, anti-tank obstacles were prepared on the likely approaches by deepening and widening existing ground cratering, the precursors of the antitank trench. Finally in early 1917 the 3.7 cm TaK from
Rheinmetall was rushed to the frontline, and proved effective in destroying the tanks despite limited elevation
and traverse.
49
Ironically, in the early 1930s until the Spanish War, German ocers were conducting secret testing of a new way
of employing tanks, infantry and artillery oensively in
the Soviet Union with the cooperation of the Red Army.
In Germany these developments eventually culminated in
tactics that later came to be known as Blitzkrieg, while
in the Soviet Union they formed the core of the deep
battle operational doctrine. The successful test of the
latter was during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol although
the Red Army foundered on the Mannerheim Line in
1940, largely due to the purge in the Ocer Corps, claiming many of the senior proponents of the new doctrine.
Anti-tank artillery would be included in mobile tank-led
Wehrmacht and Red Army units due to the possibility of 7.4.1
encountering enemy tanks in a meeting engagement.
The new doctrines of using the tank, were divided into
infantry and cavalry schools of thought. The former regarded the tank as a mobile artillery system to be used for
infantry support. This suggested that the infantry needed
to be armed with integral anti-tank weapons. The latter advocated use of tanks in the traditional cavalry way
of high-tempo attacks intended to outank the enemy infantry and sever its communication lines. This approach
suggested that the tank was the best anti-tank system, and
only limited anti-tank troops were required to accompany
them. For this reason the late 30s tank congurations
came in a great diversity, ranging from light tankettes
and cavalry tanks to multi-turreted heavy tanks resembling bunkers, all of which had to be considered in training by the anti-tank artillery troops. The development of
these doctrines was the most signicant inuence on the
rapid development in anti-tank technology and tactics in
the Second World War.
Aircraft
50
7.4.2
Field artillery
51
crew protection, though the lack of a turret limited the
gun's traverse to a few degrees. This meant that if the
TD became immobilized due to engine failure or track
damage, it could not rotate its gun to counter opposing
tanks, making it an easy target. This vulnerability was
later exploited by opposing tank forces. Late in the war,
it was not unusual to nd even the largest and most powerful tank destroyer abandoned on the eld after a battle,
having been immobilized by a single high explosive shell
to the track or front drive sprocket.
7.4.4 Infantry
they became less mobile and more cumbersome to maneuver, and required ever larger gun crews, who often had Ries
to wrestle the gun into position while under heavy artillery
and/or tank re. As the war progressed, this disadvantage
often resulted in the loss or destruction of both the antitank gun and its trained crew. This gave impetus to the
development of the self-propelled, lightly armored "tank
destroyer" (TD). The tank destroyer was usually based
on the hull of existing tank designs, using either a gun integrated into the hull or a fully rotating turret much like
that of a conventional tank. These self-propelled (SP) AT
guns were rst employed as infantry support weapons in
place of towed antitank guns. Later, due to a shortage of
tanks, TDs sometimes replaced the former in oensive
The Soviet PTRS-41 anti-tank rie during World War II.
armored operations.
Early German-designed tank destroyers, such as the
Marder I, employed existing light French or Czech design
tank chassis, installing an AT gun as part of an armored,
turret-less superstructure. This method to reduced both
weight and conversion costs. The Soviet Union later
adopted this style of self-propelled anti-tank gun or tank
destroyer. This type of tank destroyer had the advantage
of a reduced silhouette, allowing the crew to more frequently re from delade ambush positions. Such designs
were easier and faster to manufacture and oered good
52
e teams could knock out most tanks from a distance of
about 500 m, and do so with a weapon that was manportable and easily concealed. Although the AT rie performance was negated by the increased armor of medium
and heavy tanks by 1942, they remained viable against
lighter-armored and unarmored vehicles, and against eld
fortication embrasures.
A statue of a Vietminh soldier holding a Lunge AT Mine. In Vietnamese the mine is called bom ba cng, literally means threeclawed bomb.
British PIAT
53
Hawkins mine
The Wehrmacht employed the Goliath tracked
mine, an unmanned demolition vehicle.
The Soviet Union employed anti-tank dogs during
World War II, with very limited success; as a counterpart to the German Goliath the Teletank was used
as a remote-controlled unmanned tank.
The Japanese forces employed suicide attacks with
pole-mounted anti-tank mines dubbed Lunge Mines
during late World War II.* [4] In Vietnam, similar
mines were called bom ba cng due to the three contact points at the head of each mine.
Grenades
Main article: Ant-tank grenade
Regular fragmentation grenades were ineective against
tanks, so many kinds of anti-tank grenades were developed. These ranged from hollow charge designs (e.g., the
British No. 68 AT Grenade), to ones that simply contained a lot of explosive (the British No. 73 Grenade).
To increase their eectiveness, some grenades were designed so that they adhered to the tank either through an
adhesive (sticky bomb) or with a magnet. The Germans
used a magnetic grenade, the Hafthohlladung to ensure
that the shaped charge would re at the optimal 90 angle
to the armor.
There was also a special type of grenade called the Nebelhandgranaten or Blendkrper (smoke hand grenades
), which was supposed to be smashed over an air vent
and ll the tank with smoke, widely used by both sides in
World War II. Molotov cocktails also saw much use, especially in the Winter War, early tanks (such as the T-26)
being very vulnerable to them, but later tanks required a
well-thrown bottle directly over the engine compartment
to have any eect at all.
a result of being surprised by the previously unknown Soviet tank designs, forcing introduction of new technologies and new tactics. The Red Army was also faced with a
new challenge in anti-tank warfare after losing most of its
On the whole, thrown anti-tank weapons suered from a tank eet and a considerable part of its anti-tank capable
variety of drawbacks. In addition to the inherently short cannons.
range, they required careful aim to be eective, and those
that relied on explosive force were often so powerful that
the user had to take cover immediately.
7.4.5
Tactics
54
their re until enemy tanks were within the most eective range for their ammunition. Where there were insucient anti-tank weapons, engineers would construct
anti-tank obstacles such as dragon's teeth or czech hedgehog.
Towed anti-tank guns were thought to be the primary
means of defeating tanks. At the battle of Kursk for example, the Red Army deployed more artillery regiments
than infantry regiments and towed gun densities reached
over 20 guns per kilometer of defended tactical zone.
A towed gun was much cheaper than a tank and could
be concealed in a shallow position. When time allowed,
dugouts with strong overhead cover could be constructed.
Guns deployed on reverse slopes and in anking positions
could take a toll of attacking tanks. However, gun crews
were vulnerable to artillery, mortar HE re and enemy
infantry. Their positions had to be carefully selected and
once engaged, they generally could not redeploy. Experience strongly suggested that towed AT guns were less
eective than self-propelled AT weapons and took heavier casualties.
Tactic of ambushing enemy armor at grazing shot distances was perfected during world war 2. Some combatGround-to-air cooperation was not yet systematic in any ants, like the Soviet Red Army, doctrinalized it and used
army of the period, but given sucient warning ground it to engage heavy German armor at optimal distances and
attack aircraft could support ground troops even during angles.
an enemy attack in an attempt to interdict the enemy
Self-propelled anti-tank guns were rare at the beginning
units before they come into tactical combat zone. Various
of WW2, although the Belgian Army deployed a few T.15
bomb loads can be used depending on what type of tank
tank destroyers and the French army was developing sevunit is engaged in at the time or who its accompanying
eral wheeled and tracked designs. The advantages of motroops are. This is an indirect form of anti-tank warfare
bility and even thin armor protection were so compelling
where the tanks are denied the opportunity to even reach
that most armies were using self-propelled AT guns by
combat.
mid-war. Examples of these weapons included the US
Field artillery was particularly eective in ring against M10, German Marder II, and Soviet SU-85.
tank formations because although they were rarely able to
The British Army had abandoned the anti-tank rie by
destroy a tank by direct penetration, they would severely
1942 and the Wehrmacht by 1943, while the US Army
crater the area preventing the tanks from moving therenever adopted the weapon, although the USMC used Boys
fore causing them to become nearly stationary targets for
anti-tank ries in the Pacic Theater. The Red Army
the ground attack aircraft, or disrupting the enemy scheddid not abandon the anti-tank rie due to the imporule and allowing own troops more time to prepare their
tance it occupied in its doctrine of anti-tank in-depth dedefense.
fense, rst demonstrated during the defense of Moscow
Anti-tank defense proper was by 1942 designed in First and again during the Kursk battles. This became particWorld War fashion with several prepared trench lines ularly true later in the war when the Red Army assumed
incorporating anti-tank weapons of dierent capabili- an almost constant oensive, and anti-tank in-depth deties. Depending on terrain and available line-of-sight, fensive deployments were used for protecting anks of
the longer-ranged guns could begin to re on approach- the operational breakthroughs against German tactical
ing tanks from as far as 2 kilometers, which was also counterattacks. By ring on the lighter armored infantry
the range at which German Panther and Tiger tank gun- and support vehicles (e.g. artillery tractors) the antiners were trained to re. Anti-tank guns were usually de- tank rie units helped to separate the supporting infantry
ployed to cover terrain more suitable for tanks, and were (panzergrenadiers) and artillery of the German tanks and
protected by mineelds laid at about 500 meters to 1 kilo- so forced the tanks to halt at short distances from the conmeter from their positions by combat engineers. In the cealed anti-tank guns leaving them exposed to re from
Red Army the anti-tank rie units would be positioned larger, longer ranged anti-tank guns. PTRS-41 semithroughout the forward trench line and would engage the automatic anti-tank ries were also used for sniping since
lighter tanks and any other vehicles, such as infantry half- an additional tracer round enabled rapid re adjustment
tracks in an attempt to separate them from the tanks. The by the gunner. Although optical sniper scopes were tried
anti-tank guns deployed further back would often hold
55
with the PTRS-41, the weapons proved too inaccurate since they were not often provided with long-range antiat sniping distances (800 m or more), and the recoil too tank weapons.* [5]
much for eective use of the scopes.
In some cases in World War II, a tactic of some infantry
was to run directly up to a tank, avoiding their main and
machine guns, and pour petroleum over and into the tank
Infantry close assault
and light it, sometimes blocking the exit, burning the crew
alive.
In the Japanese army, the use of satchel charges and
pole charges was widespread. Although the charges could
knock out any allied tank, the tactic was extremely closerange and the sappers were vulnerable to allied weapons.
Suicide bombing
56
biggest threats to a modern tank. The helicopter can position itself where it is not easily seen from a tank and then
In the Cold War era, HEAT became an almost univer- attack from any quarter, exposing the weaker parts of the
sal choice outside of artillery and tank units. The British tank's armor. The limited visibility from a closed-down
had developed the High explosive squash head (HESH) tank also makes sighting a helicopter harder.
warhead as a weapon for attacking fortications during Most helicopter-launched ATGWs have sucient range
the war, and found it surprisingly eective against tanks. that they can under the right conditions be red at a range
Although these systems allowed infantry to take on even too long for the tank to retaliate with its own weapons.
the largest tanks, and, like HEAT, its eectiveness was This may change with the Israelis elding the Lahat misindependent of range, infantry typically operated at short sile that can be red from the main gun of the Merkava
range. A major inuence in anti-tank warfare came with MBT. With both anti-tank and anti-helicopter role, it
the development and evolution of anti-tank guided mis- does level the playing eld somewhat. The Indian Arjun
siles (ATGW) that could be red by infantry operators, tank has also been modied to re this missile. The
from ground vehicles and by aircraft. Increasing use of People's Republic of China has developed 100 mm guncombined arms tactics allowed the attacking infantry to launched missiles based on Russian designs such as the
suppress the anti-tank crews eectively, meaning that GP2 (based on the Russian Bastion). It has been reported
they could typically get o only one or two shots before to have successfully engaged aerial targets, as well as bebeing countered or forced to move.
ing an anti-tank missile. Similar missiles are available for
Chinese tanks equipped with the 105 mm gun. The Russians have also displayed a similar if more advanced sys7.6.1 Aircraft
tem in the Reex. The system involves an automatic targeting of an aerial/land target instigated by a laser warnMain article: Attack aircraft
ing system.
Cold War aircraft, such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II and
SU-25 Frogfoot, have been specically built for close air
support, including tank destruction. They can use a variety of weaponry, including large-caliber anti-tank guns,
air-to-surface missiles (e.g. AGM-65 Maverick), volleys of unguided rockets, and various bombs (unguided
or laser-guided and with or without submunitions such
as HEAT bomblets, an example of which would be the
CBU-100 Cluster Bomb).
7.6.3 Artillery
57
7.6.4
Missiles
The development of the wire-guided missile, or AntiTank Guided Weapon (ATGW) systems came into use
in the late 1950s and 1960s that could defeat any known
tank at ranges beyond that of the guns of the accompanying infantry. The United Kingdom, France, and other
NATO countries were among the rst to develop such
weapons (e.g., the Malkara missile by the UK and Australia in 1958). The Soviet Union, and now Russia, put
extensive development into these weapons; the rst manportable model to enter service was the AT-3 in 1961.
The United States was one of the last, coming up with
the BGM-71 TOW in 1970. For a time, it appeared that
the tank was a dead end. A small team of infantry with a
few missiles in a well-concealed position could take on
a number of the largest and most expensive tanks. In
the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet rst-generation wireguided missiles employed by the Egyptian forces inicted
heavy casualties on Israeli tank units, causing a major crisis of condence for tank designers.
7.6.6 Mines
Owing to greater sophistication of the tank, and engineering support available to tank units to detect and negate
mineelds, a considerable eort was made to develop
more eective anti-tank mine technology in the eort
to deny tank-led formations maneuver space, or channel
their movement into unsuitable avenues of approach.
7.6.7 Infantry
Active protection systems such as the Russian Arena active protection system are starting to be more common,
with similar systems such as the Israeli Iron Fist active
protection system. The tank may be on a comeback because of active defense systems, which attack missiles in
mid-air. This may allow the tank to be competitive on the
battleeld once again.
7.6.5
Guns
The search for a more suitable, longer-range delivery system took up much of the immediate post-war era. The
US invested in the recoilless rie, delivering a widely used
75 mm design, and less common 90 mm and 106 mm designs (the latter was usually mounted rather than infantryhandled). The 106 mm formed the basis of a dedicated
Rather than developing specialized anti-tank artillery, anti-tank vehicle, the Ontos tank, which mounted six 106
58
mm ries. The Australian Army also tted M40 recoilless ries to Land Rover Series 2 vehicles for use in an
anti-tank role. The Soviet Union also built recoilless ries in various calibers intended to be used as anti-tank
weapons, most commonly 73 mm, 82 mm, and 110 mm
(only the 73 mm remains in service with the Russian military today, though the other two can be found all over the
world due to Soviet military aid during the Cold War).
The British used a 120 mm (4.7 inch) design to equip infantry units, the BAT series, which served from the 1950s
until replaced by MILAN, but it was generally too heavy
for infantry use and had to be towed by, or mounted on,
a vehicle for maneuverability.
The Soviets developed the RPG-2 from the German
Panzerfaust 150. Further development led to the ubiquitous RPG-7. The RPG-7 is one of the most widely used
anti-tank weapons, favored most by soldiers of irregular
militaries. The RPG-7 could re a range of dierent warheads, from thermobaric warheads to a single HEAT or
tandem-charge HEAT warheads against explosive reactive armor equipped tanks. The RPG-7 has a long combat
history, and has been used in most wars from the Vietnam
war all the way to present day wars. In modern times, the
RPG-7 is generally used in an urban environment, which
would enhance their eectiveness due to the close ranges
involved. However, the aging RPG-7 has evolved to the
even more potent RPG-29 which has proven its worth
in conicts in the Middle East, damaging the Merkava
IV,* [18] Challenger 2* [19] and M1 Abrams* [20] main
battle tanks.
7.6.8 Tactics
Changes in the anti-tank tactics since the Second World
War mostly came from the appearance of new technologies, and increased repower of the infantry mounted
on fully armored vehicles. The most profound anti-tank
technology has been the guided missile, which when coupled with a helicopter can mean that tanks can be engaged
beyond ground line of sight (LOS), and at one of their
most vulnerable aspect, the top armor.
7.7 Eectiveness
The eect of anti-tank warfare is to prevent enemy tanks,
and their supporting troops from maneuvering, which is
the primary capability of the tanks. In the US Army the
degree of eect by an anti-tank weapon on a vehicle is
referred to as either "mobility kill", "repower kill", and
"catastrophic kill". In a mobility kill (M-kill), the vehicle
loses its ability to move, for example, by breaking a tank
track; the target is then immobile, but may retain full use
of its weapons and still be able to ght to some extent. A
repower kill (F-kill) is some loss of the vehicle's ability
to re its weapons. M-kills and F-kills may be complete
or partial, the latter corresponding to reductions in a target's ability to move or re. A catastrophic kill (K-kill)
removes the tank's ability to ght completely; this may
entail complete destruction of the tank or disabling the
crew.
7.7.1 Future
Although the future of the tank was questioned in the
1960s due to the development of the anti-tank missiles,
increases in thickness and composition of armor, and
other improvements in tank design meant that infantry
operated systems were no longer suciently eective by
the 1970s, and the introduction of Chobham armor by
the British Army and reactive armor by the Soviet Army
forced the HEAT rounds to be increased in size, rendering them less portable.
Soviet RPG-7
7.9 References
Notes
[1] Macksey, K., Tank vs Tank, Grub Street, London, 1999,
p.32
[2] John Norris, Anti-tank weapons, p.7
[3] Terry Gander and Peter Chamberlain, Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the Third Reich, MacDonald and Janes, London, 1978, p.107
[4] Lone Sentry: New Weapons for Jap Tank Hunters (U.S.
WWII Intelligence Bulletin, March 1945)
[5] Leonard Thomas Piper. WW2 People's War (article
a2504530). Retrieved 20 July 2006.
[6] Schaedler, Luc (Accepted in Autumn Semester 2007 On
the Recommendation of Prof. Dr. Michael Oppitz).
Angry Monk: Reections on Tibet: Literary, Historical,
and Oral Sources for a Documentary Film (PDF) (Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Arts of the University of
Zurich For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy). University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts. p. 518. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 2010/09. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Check date values in: |archivedate=, |date= (help)
[7] Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on
the Yangtze (illustrated ed.). Casemate. p. 112. ISBN
161200167X. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[8] Chinese Tank Forces and Battles before 1949. TANKS!
e-Magazine (#4). Summer 2001. Retrieved 2 August
2014. |chapter= ignored (help)
[9] Xin Hui (1-8-2002). Xinhui Presents: Chinese Tank
Forces and Battles before 1949:". Newsletter 1-8-2002
Articles. Retrieved 2 August 2014. Check date values in:
|date= (help)
[10] Ong, Siew Chew (2005). China Condensed: 5000 Years
of History & Culture (illustrated ed.). Marshall Cavendish.
p. 94. ISBN 9812610677. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[11] Olsen, Lance (2012). Taierzhuang 1938 Stalingrad
1942. Numistamp (Clear Mind Publishing). ISBN 9780-9838435-9-7. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[12] STORM OVER TAIERZHUANG 1938 PLAYERS
AID SHEET(PDF). grognard.com. Retrieved 24 April
2014.
59
Chapter 8
8.1 History
8.1. HISTORY
F.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the rst armored car to be
built.
61
The rst eective use of an armored vehicle in combat sent to the Middle East to play a part in the British
62
8.1.4
World War II
A Fordson armoured car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place between British ocials and
representatives of the Iraqi rebel government.
Panzersphwagen.
The Soviet BA-64 was inuenced by a captured Leichter
Panzersphwagen before it was rst tested in January
1942.
In the second half of the war, the American M8 Greyhound and the British Daimler Armoured Cars featured
turrets with light guns (40 mm or less) mounted in turrets.
As with other wartime armored cars, their reconnaissance
roles emphasized greater speed and stealth than a tracked
vehicle could provide, so their limited armor, armament
and o-road capabilities were seen as acceptable compromises.
American troops in an M8 Greyhound passing the Arc de Triomphe after the liberation of Paris
The British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Middle East See also: List of military armored cars
was equipped with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and Mor- A military armored car is a type of armored ghting vehiris tenders. Some of these vehicles were among the last
of a consignment of ex-Royal Navy armored cars that
had been serving in the Middle East since 1915.* [19] In
September 1940 a section of the No. 2 Squadron RAF
Regiment Company was detached to General Wavells
ground forces during the rst oensive against the Italians in Egypt. It is said that these armored cars became
the eyes and ears of Wavell. During the actions in the
October of that year the Company was employed on convoy escort tasks, aireld defense, ghting reconnaissance
patrols and screening operations.
During the Anglo-Iraqi War, some of the units located
in the British Mandate of Palestine* [20] were sent to
Iraq and drove Fordson armored cars.* [21] Fordson
armored cars were Rolls-Royce armored cars which received new chassis from a Fordson truck in Egypt.
Since the Treaty of Versailles did not mention armored
cars, Germany began developing them early. By the start A preserved, World War 2, American M3 Scout Car
of the new war, the German army possessed some highly
eective reconnaissance vehicles, such as the Schwerer cle having wheels (from four to ten large, o-road wheels)
63
and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored ghting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some
regional conicts these technicals are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of
national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type
vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor
and scrounged weapons.
64
8.4 Notes
[1] Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank
Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited, ISBN 085112-204-3.
[2] Edward John Barrington Douglas-Scott-Montagu Baron
Montagu of Beaulieu; Lord Montagu; David Burgess Wise
(1995). Daimler Century: The Full History of Britain's
Oldest Car Maker. Haynes Publications. ISBN 978-185260-494-3.
[3] Macksey, Kenneth (1980). The Guinness Book of Tank
Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives Limited. p. 256.
ISBN 0-85112-204-3.
[4] Tucker, Spencer (1999). The European Powers in the First
World War. Routledge. p. 816. ISBN 0-8153-3351-X.
[5] Armoured Fighting Vehicules of the World, Duncan, p.3
[6] Gougaud, Alain (1987). L'aube de la gloire: les autos mitrailleuses et les chars franais pendant la Grande
Guerre, histoire technique et militaire, arme blinde, cavalerie, chars, Muse des blinds. p. 11. ISBN 978-2904255-02-1.
[7] Early Armoured Cars E. Bartholomew, p.4
[8] Gougaud, p.11-12
[9] Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 102
[10] Crow, Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, pg. 25
[11] http://www.philatelicdatabase.com/postal-history/
wwi-belgium-armoured-car-division-in-russia/
[12] http://www.wio.ru/tank/for-rus.htm
[13] http://www.greatwardifferent.com/Great_War/Russia/
Russia_00.htm
[14] Band of Brigands p 59
[15] First World War - Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley,
2003, Pg. 59
[16] P. Grith p 129 Battle Tactics on the Western Front The British Army's art of attack 191618 Yale university
Press quoting the Ocial History 1918 vol.4, p42
[17] Cameron Pulsifer (2007). ' 'The Armoured Autocar in
Canadian Service' ', Service Publications
[18] Verdin, Lt.-Col. Sir Richard (1971). The Cheshire (Earl
of Chester's) Yeomanry. Birkenhead: Willmer Bros. Ltd.
pp. 5051.
[19] Lyman, Iraq 1941, pg. 40
[20] Lyman, p. 57
[21] Lyman, Iraq 1941, pg. 25
8.5 References
Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., Encyclopedia
of Armored Cars, Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ,
1976. ISBN 0-89009-058-0.
Chapter 9
The British Mark IX tank was the rst specialised armoured personnel carrier.
A M113, one of the most common tracked APCs, during the
Vietnam War
65
66
During the Cold War, more specialized APCs were developed. The United States introduced a series of them,
9.2.2
including successors to the wartime Landing Vehicle
Tracked; but the most prolic was the M113 armored
personnel carrier, of which 80,000 were produced. Western nations have since retired most M113s, replacing
them with newer APCs, many of these wheeled. The
Soviet Union produced the BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR60, BTR-70, BTR-80 in large numbers. The BTR-60
and BTR-80 remain in production. Czechoslovakia and
Poland together developed the universal amphibious OT64 SKOT. A cold war example of a Kangaroois the
heavily armoured Israeli Achzarit, converted from captured T-55s tanks.
Armour
9.2 Design
Most armoured personnel carriers use a diesel engine
comparable to that used in a large truck or in a typical LVTP-5 amphibious armored ghting vehicles, 1966
city bus. The M113 for instance used the same engine as
the standard GM city bus.
APCs must provide a minimum amount of protection
Weight can vary from 6 to 40 tons or more, but 9 to 20 against small arms re to be considered as such, though
tons is typical. Most have a capacity of between 8 and 12 some provide as much protection as a main battle tank,
dismountable troops, although some can carry more than as is the case of the IDF Namer, which is based on a
20. In addition, it has a crew of at least one driver, many Merkava tank. Armour is usually composed of steel or
aluminium. Some APCs also come with NBC protection,
with a gunner and/or commander as well.
which is intended to provide protection from weapons of
mass destruction.
9.2.1
Mobility
Weaponry
9.4. VARIANTS
67
mobile medical units of the Medical Service may in no circumstances be attacked, but at all times be respected and
protected by the Parties to the conict. Although article 22
allows them to carry defensive weaponry, they are typically unarmed. Under Article 39, the emblem of the
medical service shall be displayed ... on all equipment
employed in the Medical Service. As such, armoured amPintle mounted weapons are now rare, due to the lack of bulances will be marked with ICRC recognized symbols.
crew protection. In World War II, the German Sd.Kfz.
251 half-track was equipped with at least one MG42 or
MG34, which could only be aimed in a small arc from
whichever end of the vehicle the weapon was mounted
and oered minimal protection to the gunner. Turrets 9.4 Variants
provides a traverse of 360 degrees and operator protection. Most APC turrets include a coaxial machine
gun(MG) alongside the primary weapon. A recent ad- 9.4.1 Infantry Fighting vehicle
vent, remote weapon systems (RWS) are used in lieu of
pintle mounts and provide the same level of operator pro- Main article: Infantry Fighting Vehicle
tection as a turret, with the added benet of increased
visibility without increasing the overall prole of the vehicle. However, unlike in a turret, the weapon cannot be
reloaded from inside the vehicle.
A common primary gun on an APC is a 50 caliber M2
Browning machine gun, or the equivalent 14.5mm KPV
heavy machine gun. The Stryker carries an M2 on a
CROWS RWS. 7.62mm machine guns are commonly
used as coaxial or secondary weapons. Several Eastern personnel carriers have forward facing machine guns, New Zealand LAV
or ring ports in the crew compartment. The AAVP7
mounts an M2 50 caliber as a coaxial machine gun, beside a Mark 19 automatic grenade launcher. Occasionally
APCs will be equipped with anti-tank missiles.
68
9.4.2
[3] http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/publications/
icrc-002-0173.pdf
9.6 References
[1] Treaty on conventional armed forces in Europe. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1989. p.
3. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
[2] Skaarup, Harold A. Ironsides: Canadian Armoured
Fighting Vehicle Museums and Monuments.Google
Books. N.p., 2011. Web. 04 Apr. 2014. page 140
Chapter 10
10.2 Characteristics
A British Conqueror Armoured Recovery Vehicle 2
10.1.1
Early models
10.1.2
10.3.1 Canada
70
10.3.6 Germany
10.3.3
France
World War 2
Bergepanzer III - PzKpfw III chassis
Bergepanzer IV - PzKpfw IV chassis
Bergepanther (SdKfz 179) - PzKpfw V Panther chassis 347 produced (1943 to 1945).
Bergetiger - PzKpfw VI Tiger I chassis
10.3.4
Indonesia
10.3.5
Japan
Modern
Bergepanzer M74 (Sherman Chassis) - rst
TRV/ARV of the West German Bundeswehr, 300
used 1956-1960 (see M74 entry under United
States).
Bergepanzer 1 - M88 Chassis, the rst of 125 entered service in 1962 and a 1985 modernization program replaced the gasoline engine with a diesel and
improved the hoist.
Bergepanzer 2 - Leopard 1 tank chassis. Used by the
Canadian Forces since the 1990s as Taurus ARV.
Bergepanzer 3 Bel - Leopard 2 chassis
Bergepanzer Wisent - Bergepanzer 2 chassis. Modied and upgraded by Flensburger Fahrzeugbau to
support the demands of the future battleeld. Optimised to support the Leopard 1 and 2 main battle
tanks.
71
10.3.7
Israel
10.3.11 Serbia/Yugoslavia
A Trail Blazer, Yad La-Shiryon Museum, Israel
10.3.8
Malaysia
10.3.9
Mexico
72
10.3.13
United Kingdom
73
10.5 References
10.5.1
Notes
10.5.2
Bibliography
Peter Chamberlain and Major-General N.W. Duncan. AFV Weapons Proles No.35 British Armoured Recovery Vehicles + Wheels, Tracks and
Transporters (1971) Prole Publishing
BREM-1 ARRV
BREM-K ARV
BREM-L ARV
BREM-80U ARRV
Chapter 11
Assault rie
For the United States legal and political term, see assault 400 metres (1,300 ft) and that contemporary riweapon.
es were over-powered for most small arms comAn assault rie is a selective re rie that uses an bat.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] They sought to develop a selectre intermediate powered rie combining the repower
of a submachine gun with the accuracy and range of
a rie.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] This was done by shortening the standard 7.9257mm cartridge to 7.9233mm
and giving it a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed for more controllable automatic
re.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] A smaller lighter cartridge also
allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition to support
the higher consumption rate of automatic re.* [2]
The StG 44, an early German assault rie, was adopted by the
Wehrmacht in 1944. It res the 7.9233mm Kurz round.
Currently the most used assault rie in the world, the AK-47 was
rst adopted in 1949 by the Soviet Army. It res the 7.6239mm
M43 round.
11.1 Denition
11.2. HISTORY
75
power than a pistol but less than a standard rie or and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the
battle rie
early 1950s.* [23] Its repower, ease of use, low production costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the
Its ammunition must be supplied from a detachable Red Army's new mobile warfare doctrines.* [23] The AKbox magazine* [17]
47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with
And it should have an eective range of at least 300 the USSR and the blueprints were shared with several
friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing
metres (330 yards)
out among these with the Type 56).* [23]* [26]
Ries that meet most of these criteria, but not all, are The U.S. Army was inuenced by combat experience
technically not assault ries despite frequently being with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and
M1 carbine, which enjoyed a signicant advantage over
called such.
enemies armed primarily with bolt-action ries.* [27] AlFor example:
though U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans
Select-re M2 Carbines are not assault ries; their and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional
eective range is only 200 meters.* [18]
views and preference for high-powered semi-automatic
ries.* [6]
Select-re ries such as the FN FAL battle rie are
not assault ries; they re full-powered rie car- After World War II, the United States military started
looking for a single automatic rie to replace the M1
tridges.
Garand, M1/M2 Carbines, M1918 Browning Automatic
Semi-automatic-only ries like variants of the Colt Rie, M3 Grease Gun and Thompson submachine
AR-15 are not assault ries; they do not have select- gun.* [6] However, early experiments with select-re verre capabilities.
sions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing.* [28] During the Korean War, the select-re M2 Carbine largely
Semi-auto ries with xed magazines like the SKS
replaced submachine guns in US service.* [13] Although,
are not assault ries; they do not have detachable box
combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round
magazines and are not capable of automatic re.
was underpowered.* [29] American weapons designers
reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Soviets:
The U.S. Army denes assault ries as short, compact, an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended
selective-re weapons that re a cartridge intermediate a small caliber, high velocity cartridge.* [30]
in power between submachine gun and rie cartridges.
However, senior American commanders having
*
[19]
faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean
War,* [31]* [32]* [33]* [34]* [35] insisted that a single
11.2 History
powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could
not only be used by the new automatic rie, but by the
The Germans were the rst to pioneer the assault ri- new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in cone concept, during World War II, based upon research current development.* [36]* [37] This culminated in the
that showed that most reghts happen within 400 me- development of the 7.6251mm NATO cartridge and the
ters and that contemporary ries were over-powered for M14 battle rie* [36] which was basically an improved
most small arms combat. The Germans sought to de- select-re M1 Garand with a 20-round magazine.* [38]
velop a select-re intermediate powered rie combining The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG.* [36] Its NATO
the repower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 battle ries,
range of a rie. This was done by shortening the stan- as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.
dard 7.9257mm cartridge to 7.9233mm and giving it
The rst confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14
a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed
(assault rie vs battle rie) came in the early part of the
for more controllable automatic re. The result was the
Vietnam War. Battleeld reports indicated that the M14
Sturmgewehr 44.* [3]* [6]* [20]* [21]
was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not
Like the Germans, the Soviets were inuenced by ex- carry enough ammo to maintain re superiority over the
perience showing most combat happens within 400 me- AK-47.* [39] A replacement was needed: A medium beters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned tween the traditional preference for high-powered ries
by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed such as the M14, and the lightweight repower of the M2
with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault ries.* [22]* [23] The So- Carbine.
viets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that
As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957
after World War II, they held a design competition to derequest by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of
*
*
velop an assault rie of their own. [24] [25] The winner
the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to de*
was the AK-47 assault rie. [6] It was nalized, adopted
76
velop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-re rie weighing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20-round magazine.* [6] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard
U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or
exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.* [40]
assault
11.6. NOTES
a folding or telescoping stock
a pistol grip that protrudes conspicuously beneath
the action of the weapon
a bayonet mount
a ash suppressor or threaded barrel designed to accommodate a ash suppressor
a grenade launcher
Assault weapons legislation does not further restrict
weapons capable of fully automatic re, such as assault
ries and machine guns, which have been continuously
and heavily regulated since the National Firearms Act of
1934 was passed. Subsequent laws such as the Gun Control Act of 1968 and the Firearm Owners Protection Act
of 1986 also aected the importation and civilian ownership of fully automatic rearms, the latter fully prohibiting sales of newly manufactured machine guns to nonlaw enforcement or SOT (special occupational taxpayer)
dealers.* [53]
11.6 Notes
Rose, Alexander. American Rie, A Biography.
2008, Bantam Dell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-55380517-8.
[1] ""Assault rie.Encyclopdia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 3 July 2010. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
77
78
[40] Hutton, Robert (ed.), The .223, Guns & Ammo Annual
Edition, 1971.
79
Chapter 12
Attack helicopter
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and
armoured ghting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament
they are sometimes called helicopter gunships.
Weapons used on attack helicopters can include
autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided
anti-tank missiles such as the Hellre. Many attack helicopters are also capable of carrying air-to-air missiles,
though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Today's
attack helicopter has two main roles: rst, to provide
direct and accurate close air support for ground troops,
and the second, in the anti-tank role to destroy enemy
armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also used
to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role.
In combat, an attack helicopter is projected to destroy
around 17 times its own production cost before it is
destroyed.* [1]
high-wing civilian monoplane, the L-4 Grasshopper, begun to be used in a light anti-armor role by a few U.S.
Army artillery spotter units over France; these aircraft
were eld-outtted with either two or four bazooka rocket
launchers attached to the lift struts,* [3] against German
armored ghting vehicles. During the summer of 1944,
U.S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to successfully take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed
Piper L-4. His L-4, named Rosie the Rocketeer, armed
with six bazookas, had a notable anti-armor success during an engagement during the Battle of Arracourt on
September 20, 1944, knocking out at least four German
armored vehicles,* [4] as a pioneering example of taking
on heavy enemy armor from a slow-ying aircraft.* [5]
This role was something that was also likely to be achievable after World War II, from the increasing numbers of
post-war military helicopter designs. The only American
helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4,
was only being used for rescue and were still very much
experimental in nature.
In the early 1950s various countries around the world
started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was
realised that these helicopters, successors to the World
War II-era Sikorsky R-4, could be armed with weapons
in order to provide them with limited combat capability.
Early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service
with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service
with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into
the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and
Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, to this day the pair
of most produced helicopter designs in aviation history.
These helicopters proved to be moderately successful in
these congurations, but due to a lack of armor protection
and speed, they were ultimately ineective platforms for
mounting weapons in higher-threat ground combat environments.
Since the 1960s various countries around the world
started to design and develop various types of helicopters
with the purpose of providing a heavily armed and protected aerial vehicle that can perform a variety of combat
roles, from reconnaissance to aerial assault missions.
By the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter
evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly
80
81
82
A Russian Mil Mi-28N. The Mil Mi-28 along with the Ka-50
represented the rst dedicated attack helicopter of the Soviet Air
Forces in the 1980s.
83
new design on the light helicopters then in service. The
602nd and 608th Research Institutes started development
of the 6-ton class China Medium Helicopter (CHM) program* [15] in 1994. The program was promoted as a civilian project, and was able to secure signicant Western
technical assistance, such as from Eurocopter (rotor installation design consultancy), Pratt & Whitney Canada
(PT6C turboshaft engine) and Agusta Westland (transmission).* [16] The Chinese concentrated on areas where
it could not obtain foreign help. The 602nd Research Institute's called its proposed armed helicopter design the
WZ-10 (Wu Zhi (, literally Armed Helicopter)10).
The Gulf War highlighted the urgent need for attack helicopters, and revalidated the assessment that a purposebuilt design was needed. (At the time, the Chinese military depended on armed utility helicopters such as the
Changhe Z-11 and Harbin Z-9.) Also, it demonstrated
that the new attack helicopter would need to be able to
defend itself against other helicopters and aircraft. The
military perceived that once the new attack helicopter en- Both France and Germany reorganised the programme.
tered service, the existing helicopters would be used as Thomson CSF also took over the majority of the Tiger's
scouts.
electronic development work, such as the visual systems
The Armed Helicopter Developmental Work Team ( and sensors.* [18] Despite the early development prob ) was formed to develop a lems and the political uncertainty between 1984 and
new medium helicopter design, as opposed to basing the 1986, the program was formally relaunched in Novem-
84
ber 1987; it was at this point that a greater emphasis on the attack helicopter's anti-tank capabilities came
about.* [19] Much of the project's organisational framework was rapidly redeveloped between 1987 and 1989;
such as the installation of a Franco-German Helicopter
Oce to act as a program executive agency in May
1989.* [20]
12.1.5 India
A
French
Eurocopter
(Panzerabwehrhubschrauber)
Tiger
attack
helicopter
The Indian Army deploys the Mil Mi-35 and HAL Rudra
as of 2014. During the Kargil War in 1999, the Indian Air
Force and the Indian Army found that there was a need
for helicopters that can operate at such high-altitude conditions with ease.* [28] Limitations from operating with
high payloads and restricted maneuverability of Mil Mi35 led India to the develop the HAL Light Combat Helicopter and HAL Rudra for multi-role high-altitude combat operations.* [29] These helicopters will be used by the
Indian Air Force and the Indian Army's Aviation Corps.
12.1.6 Italy
Due to the end of the Cold War and subsequent defence
budgets decreases in the 1990s, nancial pressures led
to further questions regarding the necessity for the entire
program. In 1992, Arospatiale and MBB, among other
companies, merged to form the Eurocopter Group; this
led to considerable consolidation of the aerospace industry and the Tiger project itself.* [21] A major agreement
was struck in December 1996 between France and Germany that cemented the Tiger's prospects and committed
the development of supporting elements, such as a series
of new generation missile designs for use by the new combat helicopter.* [22]
On 18 June 1999, both Germany and France publicly
placed orders for an initial batch of 160 Tiger helicopters,
80 for each nation, valued at 3.3 billion.* [23] On 22
March 2002, the rst production Tiger was rolled out
in a large ceremony held at Eurocopter's Donauworth
factory; although production models began initial acceptance trials in 2003, the rst ocial delivery to the
French Army took place on 18 March 2005; the rst ofcial Tiger delivery to the Germany followed on 6 April
2005.* [24] Germany reduced its order to 57 in March
2013.* [25] In 2008 OCCAR estimated the project cost
at 7.3 billion.* [26] France's FY2012 budget put their
share of the project at 6.3bn (~US$8.5bn),* [27] implying a programme cost of 14.5bn (~US$19.5bn) to
the three main partners. At FY2012 prices, their 40
HAP cost 27m/unit (~US$36m) and their 40 HAD
35.6m/unit (~US$48m), including development costs
the French Tigers cost 78.8m (~US$106m) each.* [27]
In 1972, the Italian Army began forming a requirement for a light observation and anti-tank helicopter.
Agusta had initially studied the development of a combatorientated derivative of their existing A109 helicopter,
however they decided to proceed with the development of
a more ambitious helicopter design.* [30] In 1978, Agusta
formally began the design process on what would become the Agusta A129 Mangusta.* [31] On 11 September
1983, the rst of ve A129 prototypes made the type's
maiden ight; the fth prototype would rst y in March
1986. The Italian Army placed an order for a total of 60
A129s.* [30]
12.2. IN ACTION
85
1985. The results were ultimately good enough to con- cess. Apaches red the rst shots of the war, destroyvince Atlas and the SAAF that the concept was feasible, ing enemy early warning radar and SAM sites with their
Hellre missiles. They were later used successfully in
opening the door for the development of the Rooivalk.
both of their operational roles, to direct attack against
During the Rooivalk's development it was decided to
enemy armor and as aerial artillery in support of ground
base the aircraft on the dynamic components of the
troops. Hellre missile and cannon attacks by Apache he*
Arospatiale Super Puma, [32] a larger and more powerlicopters destroyed many enemy tanks and armored cars.
ful helicopter. These components were already used on
the Atlas Oryx, a local upgrade and modication of the Thedeep attackrole of independently operating attack
helicopters came into question after a failed mission, durArospatiale Puma.* [33]
ing the 2003 Gulf War attack on the Karbala Gap.* [39] A
Unfortunately the development of the Rooivalk continsecond mission in the same area, four days later, but coued until after the conclusion of the South African Border
ordinated with artillery and xed-wing aircraft,* [40] was
War and defence budgets were slashed due to parliamenfar more successful with minimal losses.
tary changes to the requirements of the national air force.
This resulted in an extensive development and production period beginning in 1990 until 2007, during which
12 aircraft were produced for use by the South African
Air Force. These aircraft were subsequently upgraded to
the Block 1F standard by 2011. The upgrade involves improved targeting systems and other avionics which enable
the helicopter to use guided missiles for the rst time.
The Mokopa ATGM was qualied as part of the upgrade
process.* [34] Gearbox components were improved and
cooling problems with the F2 20 mm cannon were also
addressed.
On 1 April 2011, the South African Air Force received
the rst ve of eleven (one of the twelve aircraft originally delivered to the SAAF was written o after an accident) Block 1F upgraded Rooivalk.* [35]* [36] The ninth
and tenth Rooivalk attack helicopters were delivered in
September 2012 following their upgrade to the Block
1F initial operating standard.* [37] The eleventh and nal
Rooivalk was delivered on 13 March 2013.* [38]
86
In 2013, the South African National Defence Force announced that it would deploy Denel Rooivalk attack helicopters to the Democratic Republic of the Congo to support the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This
was the rst combat deployment for the helicopter.* [41]
Three helicopters from 16 Squadron SAAF were deployed to the region and since November 2013 it was
involved in heavy ghting alongside the United Nations
Force Intervention Brigade, against rebels operating in
North Kivu, in particular the M23 militia, which consisted of hardened former government troops equipped
with relatively heavy weaponry such as main battle tanks
and anti-aircraft weaponry. During its rst ever combat mission it proved to be instrumental in routing the
rebels from their hilltop strongholds during an oensive by the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade
and the Military of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo.* [42]* [43]
12.3 Types
TAI/AgustaWestland T129
Bell AH-1 Cobra
AgustaWestland Apache
CAIC WZ-10
Denel Rooivalk
Harbin Z-19
Kamov Ka-50/Ka-52
Mil Mi-28
Eurocopter Tiger
12.4 Comparison
12.4.1 Dimensions
12.4.2 Performance
Army aviation
Gunship
12.6 References
[1] Frank
Barnaby
(2010).
main+battle+tank"#v=onepage&q="main
battle
tank"&f=false The role and control of weapons in the
1990's. Psychology Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-203-16831-3.
Retrieved 14 February 2011.
[2] Noggle, Anne; White, Christine (2001). A Dance with
Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II. Texas A&M
University Press. pp. 2021. ISBN 1-58544-177-5.
Above, an Indian HAL Light Combat Helicopter at Aero India
show 2011
AgustaWestland AW129
[3] Francis, Devon E., Mr. Piper and His Cubs, Iowa State
University Press, ISBN 0-8138-1250-X, 9780813812502
(1973), p. 117.
[4] Gantt, Marlene, Riding His Piper Cub Through The Skies
Over France, Bazooka Charlie Fought A One-man War,
World War II Magazine, September 1987
12.6. REFERENCES
[5] Fountain, Paul, The Maytag Messerschmitts, Flying Magazine, March 1945, p. 90
[6] Mazarella, Mark N. Adequacy of U.S. Army Attack
Helicopter Doctrine to Support the Scope of Attack Helicopter Operations in a Multi-Polar World. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Sta
College, 1994. Accessed on 12 December 2007.
[7] An Abridged History of the Army Attack Helicopter
Program. Oce of the Assistant Vice Chief of Sta of
the Army (Department of the Army). 1973.
[8] ADVANCED ATTACK HELICOPTER OPERATIONS
IN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS - Ocial US Army
video at Real Military Flix
[9] Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH) (1970-1981). Global
Security
[10] Glantz, David M.The Triumph of Maneuver War - Soviet Operational Art Since 1936. US Army Center of
Military History. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
[11] Culhane, Kevin V. (1977).Student research report: The
Soviet attack helicopter (PDF). DTIC. Retrieved 1 July
2011.
87
[37] David Donald (2012-09-28). Gripen, Rooivalk Deliveries Bring SAAF up to Strength | Aviation International
News. Ainonline.com. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
[13] Frawley, Gerald.Mil Mi-28. The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003, p. 128. Aerospace
Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-875671-55-2.
[40] O'Rourke, Ryan (June 4, 2003).Iraq War: Defense Program Implications for Congress (PDF). Congressional
Research Service. p. CRS36. Retrieved 2007-12-12
[41] Exclusive: Rooivalk is going to DRC. DefenceWeb.
2013-10-11. Retrieved 2013-10-13.
[42] Mohlaoli, Tumaole. ""It was clear that the rebels didn't
expect us-- SANDF pilot. eNCA report. eNCA. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
[43] Olivier, Darren (2013-11-05). Rooivalk attack helicopters perform well in rst combat action against M23
. African Defence Review. Retrieved 2013-11-05.
Leuliette, Pierre, St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper, New York:Houghton Miin
(1964)
88
Riley, David, French Helicopter Operations in Algeria Marine Corps Gazette, February 1958, pp. 21
26.
Shrader, Charles R. The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962 Westport,
CT: Praeger Publishers (1999)
Spenser, Jay P., Whirlybirds: A History of the
U.S. Helicopter Pioneers, Seattle, WA: University of
Washington Press (1998)
Chapter 13
Carbine
For other uses, see Carbine (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with carbyne or carbene.
A carbine (/krbin/ or /krban/),* [1] from French
13.1 History
13.1.1 Word origin
Some sources derive the name of the weapon from
the name of its rst users bernarda troopers called
"carabiniers", from the French carabine, from the Old
French carabin (soldier armed with a musket), perhaps from escarrabin, gravedigger, which derives from
scarabee, scarab beetle.* [3]
carabine,* [2] is a long arm rearm but with a shorter barrel than a rie or musket. Many carbines are shortened
versions of full length ries, shooting the same ammunition, while others re lower-powered ammunition, including those designed for pistols.
The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines makes
them easier to handle. They are typically issued to highmobility troops such as special-operations soldiers and
paratroopers, as well as to mounted, supply, or other noninfantry personnel whose roles do not require full-sized Carbine model 1793, used by the French Army during the French
Revolutionary Wars.
ries.
89
90
13.1. HISTORY
13.1.4
91
suppressive re). These situations did not require a heavy
rie, ring full-power rie bullets with long-range accuracy. A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat,
and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be red
in the short amount of time an enemy was visible. The
lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a
soldier to carry more ammunition. With no need of a
long barrel to re full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used. A shorter barrel made the weapon
weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces, and
was easier to shoulder quickly to re a shot at an unexpected target. Full-automatic re was also considered a
desirable feature, allowing the soldier to re short bursts
of three to ve rounds, increasing the probability of a hit
on a moving target.
The Germans had experimented with selective-re carbines ring rie cartridges during the early years of World
War II. These were determined to be less than ideal, as the
recoil of full-power rie cartridges caused the weapon to
be uncontrollable in full-automatic re. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was
accomplished by reducing the power and the length of
the standard 7.92x57 Mauser rie cartridge to create the
7.92x33 Kurz (Short) cartridge. A selective-re weapon
was developed to re this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the Sturmgewehr 44, later translated as "assault
rie". After World War II, the USSR would adopt a similar weapon, the AK-47, which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon. The United States during World
War II also had the M2 Carbine, a selective-re version
of the M1 Carbine ring the same .30 Carbine cartridge.
However, the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced
in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2.
92
tridge. This round was even lighter and smaller than the 13.3 Usage
Soviet AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity. In
U.S. service, the M16 assault rie replaced the M14 as the The smaller size and lighter weight of carbines makes
standard infantry weapon, although the M14 continued to them easier to handle in close-quarter situations such as
be used by designated marksmen.
urban engagements, when deploying from military vehiLighter carbines came to be adopted as the standard in- cles, or in any situation where space is conned. The disfantry long rie. What changed was that only a certain advantages of carbines relative to ries include inferior
number of soldiers now needed to retain longer range long-range accuracy and a shorter eective range. Larger
weapons, serving as designated marksmen. Development than a submachine gun, they are harder to maneuver in
of lighter assault ries continued, matched by develop- tight encounters where superior range and stopping power
ments in even lighter carbines. At the same time the in- at distance are not great considerations. Firing the same
fantry switched to 5.56 mm weapons, carbines like the ammunition as ries gives carbines the advantage of stanAKS-74U (which red a Warsaw pact 5.45x39 round) dardization over those personal defense weapons (PDWs)
that require proprietary cartridges.
and CAR-15 were being developed.
93
Colt M1911, and the Heckler & Koch VP70. Since these
stock additions retain the short pistol barrel (as short as
100 mm (3.9 in)) they are highly restricted in the United
States under the NFA unless the shoulder stocks are of
original manufacture for the gun and the gun has been
delisted, as is the case with so-equippedBroomhandleMausers and Lugers.
A Browning Hi-Power, made for the Finnish military, with attached shoulder stock to turn it into a short carbine
94
NFA-lengths, and register them as short barrel ries [3] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
SBRs.
Examples of PCCs that are derivatives of submachine
guns but are ries under Title I (Gun Control Act) include
the HK USC (derived from the HK .45ACP UMP submachine gun), the HK94 (derived from the MP5), pistolcaliber AR-15s (such as the Bushmaster Carbon 15 9 mm
Carbine), semi-automatic only versions of the Thompson
by Auto-Ordnance and the FN PS90 (derived from the
FN P90 SMG). Unlike the above-mentioned PCCs, these
carbines use either magazines from their SMG derivatives, or proprietary magazines (as in the case of the
USC).
In some historical cases the term machine carbine was
the ocial title for sub-machine guns, such as the British
Sten and Australian Owen guns. The semi-automatic only
version of the Sterling submachine gun was also ocially
called acarbine. The original Sterling semi-auto would
be classed a short barrel rieunder the U.S. National
Firearms Act, but fully legal long-barrel versions of the
Sterling have been made for the U.S. collector market.
13.7 References
[1] Carbine. Dictionary.com. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
[2]carbine.Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/carbine
[4] http://www.atf.gov/firearms/curios/sec3a.htm
[5] http://www.atf.gov/firearms/curios/sec3.htm
Chapter 14
Cargo aircraft
Cargo jetredirects here.
airline, see Cargojet.
A later Ju 290 with the Trapoklappe ramp lowered, rst pioneered on the 1939 Junkers Ju 90-note personnel stairway between the vehicular trackways
14.1 History
Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of
"air mail" as early as 1911. Although the earliest aircraft
were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building
dedicated cargo aircraft.
95
96
their dependents together with members of the Afghan
royal family endangered by a civil war.* [3] The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways'
Handley Page HP.42 airliners.* [4]
The World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was
the rst purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, but only a few were built. Most other forces used
freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well,
most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas
DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation.
One important innovation for future cargo aircraft design
was introduced in 1939, with the fth and sixth prototypes of the Junkers Ju 90 four-engined military transport aircraft, with the earliest known example of a rear
loading ramp. This aircraft, like most of its era, used taildragger landing gear which caused the aircraft to have a
decided rearward tilt when landed. These aircraft introduced the Trapoklappe, a powerful ramp/hydraulic lift
with a personnel stairway centered between the vehicle
trackway ramps, that raised the rear of the aircraft into
the air and allowed easy loading.* [5] A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a somewhat dierent form on
the nosewheel gear-equipped, late WW II era American
Budd RB-1 Conestoga twin-engined cargo aircraft.
Postwar Europe also served to play a major role in the
development of the modern air cargo and air freight industry during what became known as the "Cold War.It is
during the Berlin Airlift at the height of thisCold War,
when a massive mobilization of aircraft was undertaken
by the "free world,to supply West Berlin residents with
food and supplies, in a virtual around the clock air bridge,
after the Soviet Union closed and blockaded Berlin's borders, and land links to the west. To rapidly supply the
needed numbers of aircraft, many older types, especially
the Douglas C-47 Skytrain, were pressed into service.
In operation it was found that it took as long or longer
to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle
landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier
to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly
removed from service, and from then on at-decks were
a requirement of all new cargo designs.
In the years following the war era a number of new Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some experimentalfeatures. For instance, the
US's C-82 Packet featured a removable cargo area, while
the C-123 Provider introduced the now-common upswept
tail to allow for a much larger rear loading ramp. But it
was the introduction of the turboprop that allowed the
class to mature, and even one of its earliest examples,
the C-130 Hercules, is still the yardstick against which
newer military transport aircraft designs are measured.
Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years, the C-130 continues to improve at
a rate that keeps it in production.
Strategiccargo aircraft became an important class of Lun-class Ekranoplan, possibly meant to be a cargo aircraft.
97
Airbus Beluga
drawback of existing air cargo aircraft is that they represent older technology; thus their direct operating costs
are higher than what might be achieved with current technology. Additionally, since they generally have not been
designed specically for air cargo, loading and unloading
can cause problems; the aircraft may be pressurized more
than necessary, and there may be apparatus manufactured
for passenger safety that is not necessary for cargo.
14.2.1
98
14.3 Today
Most conversions are carried out on older aircraft no
longer suitable for passenger use, often due to changing safety or noise requirements, or when the aircraft
type is considered to have become uncompetitive in
passenger airline service, but there is also a market for
new-build freighter designs. Freighter aircraft normally
have strengthened cabin oors and the inclusion of a
broad top-hinged door on the port fuselage in addition
to an absence of passenger cabin windows which are
plugged.
14.2.3
One benet of a combined development is that the development costs would be shared by the civil and military sectors, and the number of airplanes required by the
military could be decreased by the number of civil reserve airplanes purchased by air carriers and available to
the military in case of emergency. There are some possible drawbacks, as the restrictions executed by joint development, the punishments that would be suered by both
civil and military airplanes, and the diculty in discovering an organizational structure that authorizes their compromise. Some features appropriate to a military aircraft
would have to be rejected, because they are not suitable
for a civil freighter. Moreover, each airplane would have
to carry some weight which it would not carry if it were independently designed. This additional weight lessens the
payload and the protability of the commercial version.
This could either be compensated by a transfer payment
at acquisition, or an operating penalty compensation payment. Most important, it is not clear that there will be an
adequate market for the civil version or that it will be cost
competitive with derivatives of passenger aircraft.
14.4. EXAMPLES
99
Antonov An-12
Antonov An-26
Antonov An-124 (the second largest operating cargo
aircraft in the world)
Antonov An-225 (the largest and heaviest aircraft in
the world)
British Aerospace 146QT (Conversions)
Aeroot Il-76TD
Airbus A310
Airbus A330
Airbus A380F
Douglas DC-3
100
14.4.6 Comparisons
Douglas DC-8
Douglas DC-9
Ilyushin Il-76
Air transport
Ilyushin Il-96
Airlift
Lockheed L-100
McDonnell Douglas DC-10
McDonnell Douglas MD-11
Tupolev Tu-204
14.4.3
Light aircraft
14.6 References
[1] Wragg, David Airlift A History of Military Air Transport
Shrewsbury Airlife Publishing 1986 ISBN 0-906393-612 p13
[2] Johnson, Brian & Cozens, H. I. Bombers The Weapon of
Total War London Methuen 1984 ISBN 0-423-00630-4
p. 38
[3] Andrews and Morgan 1988, pp. 158159.
[4] Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 157
LET 410
Shorts 330 - drop ramp and twin tailed vertical stabilizer
14.4.4
Cargo airline
[5] Kay, Anthony (2004). Junkers Aircraft and Engines 19131945. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books. ISBN 085177-985-9.
[6] A380 Freighter Specications. Airbus. Retrieved 18
April 2010.
[7] Andriulaitis, Robert. "B747-8F VS A380F" InterVISTAS,
December 2005. Retrieved: 29 September 2012.
[8] Future cargo aircraft>"http://www.princeton.edu/~{}ota/
disk3/1982/8231/823105.PDF"
Further information:
Airlift
14.4.5
Chapter 15
Cartridge (rearms)
This article addresses small-arms cartridges. For car- 15.1.1 Purpose
tridges used with larger arms, see Artillery#Ammunition
and Shell (projectile).
The cartridge case seals a ring chamber in all directions
A cartridge (also called a round or a shell) is a type excepting the bore. A ring pin strikes the primer and
of ammunition packaging a bullet or shot, a propellant ignites it. The primer compound deagrates (that is, it
substance (usually either smokeless powder or black pow- rapidly burns), it does not detonate. A jet of burning gas
der) and a primer within a metallic, paper, or plastic case from the primer ignites the propellant.
that is precisely made to t within the ring chamber of
a rearm.* [1] The primer is a small charge of an impactsensitive or electric-sensitive chemical mixture that can
be located at the center of the case head (centerre ammunition), inside a rim (rimre ammunition), or in a projection such as in a pinre or teat-re cartridge. Military
and commercial producers also make caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank. One
that is completely inert (contains no active primer and no
propellant) is called a dummy.
15.1 Design
102
propellant residue can make extraction of red cases difcult. This is less of a problem for small arms of the
former Warsaw Pact nations, which were designed with
much larger chamber tolerances than NATO weapons.
Aluminum cased cartridges are available commercially.
These are generally not reloaded as aluminum fatigues
easily during ring and resizing. Some calibers also have
non-standard primer sizes to discourage reloaders from
attempting to reuse these cases.
Historically paper had been used in the earliest cartridges
as detailed further below.
15.1.3
Specications
15.2 History
Paper cartridges have been in use for nearly as long as
hand-held rearms, with a number of sources dating their
use back to the late 14th century. Historians note their
use by soldiers of Christian I in 1586, while the Dresden Museum has evidence dating their use to 1591, and
Capo Bianco wrote in 1597 that paper cartridges had long
been in use by Neapolitan soldiers. Their use became
widespread by the 17th century.* [3] The 1586 cartridge
consisted of a charge of powder and a bullet in a paper
15.2. HISTORY
103
steel cap, and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers after.* [12] Pauly made an improved version, protected by
and private individuals before coming into general mili- a patent, on 29 September 1812.* [10]
tary use nearly thirty years later.
Probably no invention connected with rearms has
The alteration of the military int-lock to the percussion wrought such changes in the principle of gun construcmusket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder tion as those eected by the expansive cartridge case.
pan by a perforated nipple, and by replacing the cock or This invention has completely revolutionized the art of
hammer that held the int with a smaller hammer that gun making, has been successfully applied to all descriphad a hollow to t on the nipple when released by the tions of rearms, and has produced a new and important
trigger. The shooter placed a percussion cap (now made industry: that of cartridge manufacture. Its essential feaof three parts of potassium chlorate, two of fulminate of ture is preventing gas escaping the breech when the gun
mercury and powdered glass) on the nipple. The deto- is red, by means of an expansive cartridge case containnating cap thus invented and adopted, brought about the ing its own means of ignition. Previous to this inveninvention of the modern cartridge case, and rendered pos- tion shotguns and sporting ries were loaded by means
sible the general adoption of the breech-loading principle of powder asks and shot bags or asks, bullets, wads and
for all varieties of ries, shotguns and pistols. This greatly copper caps, all carried separately. One of the earliest efstreamlined the reloading procedure and paved the way cient modern cartridge cases was the pinre cartridge,
for semi- and full-automatic rearms.
developed by French gunsmith Casimir Lefaucheux in
*
But this big leap forward came at a price. It intro- 1836. [13] It consisted of a thin weak shell made of brass
duced an extra component into each round the car- and paper that expanded from the force of the explosion.
tridge case which had to be removed before the gun This t perfectly in the barrel, and thus formed an efcould be reloaded. While a intlock, for example, is im- cient gas check. A small percussion cap was placed in
mediately ready to reload once it has been red, adopting the middle of the base of the cartridge, and was ignited by
brass cartridge cases brought in the problems of extrac- means of a brass pin projecting from the side and struck
tion and ejection. The mechanism of a modern gun not by the hammer. This pin also aorded the means of exonly must load and re the piece but also must remove tracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was introduced
the spent case, which might require just as many added in England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, about
moving parts. Many malfunctions involve this process, 1845.
either through failure to extract a case properly from the
chamber or by allowing the extracted case to jam the action. Nineteenth-century inventors were reluctant to accept this added complication and experimented with a
variety of caseless or self-consuming cartridges before nally accepting that the advantages of brass cases far outweighed this one drawback.* [9]
15.2.1
104
15.3 Nomenclature
The name of any given cartridge does not necessarily reect any cartridge or gun dimension. The name is merely
the standardized and accepted moniker. SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition ManufacturersInstitute) and
the European counterpart (CIP) and members of those
organizations specify correct cartridge names. Cartridge
names, when correctly presented, never include a naked
leading decimal point.
It is a common misnomer to refer to a cartridge as a certain caliber,e.g. 30-06 caliber.The correct full
name for this cartridge is .30-'06 Springeld. In sporting
15.4. CENTERFIRE
105
arms the only consistent denition of caliberis bore the .38 Special. The .357 was named to reect bullet didiameter. Dozens of unique .30-caliber cartridge types ameter (in thousandths inch), not case diameter. Magexist.
numwas used to indicate its longer case and higher opThere is considerable variation in cartridge nomenclature. erating pressure.
Names sometimes reect various characteristics of the
cartridge. For example, the .308 Winchester uses a bullet of 308/1000-inch diameter and was standardized by
Winchester. Conversely, cartridge names often reect
nothing related to the cartridge in any obvious way. For
example, the .218 Bee uses a bullet of 224/1000-inch diameter, red through a .22-in bore, etc. The 218 and
Bee portions of this cartridge name reect nothing other
than the desires of those who standardized that cartridge.
Many similar examples exist, for example: .219 Zipper,
.221 Fireball, .222 Remington, .256 Winchester, .280
Remington, .307 Winchester, .356 Winchester.
Where two numbers are used in a cartridge name, the
second number may reect a variety of things. Frequently
the rst number reects bore diameter (inches or millimeters). The second number reects case length (in inches
or mm). For example, the 7.6251mm NATO refers to a
bore diameter of 7.62 mm and has an overall case length
of 51 mm. The commercial version is the .308 Winchester.)
15.4 Centerre
In older black powder cartridges, the second number typ- factured by Colonial Ammunition Company, New Zealand.
ically refers to powder charge, in grains. For example,
the .50-90 Sharps has a .50-inch bore and used a nominal Main article: Centerre ammunition
charge of 90.0 grains (5.83 g) of black powder.
Many such cartridges were designated by a three-number
system, e.g., 45-120-3 Sharps: 45-caliber bore, 120
grains of (black) powder, 3-inch long case. Other times
a similar three-number system indicated bore (caliber),
charge (grains), and bullet weight (grains). The 45-70500 Government is an example.
106
at a high rate and heats the spinning case to dry the priming compound mixture in place within the hollow cavity
formed within the rim fold at the perimeter of the case
interior.
In the mid- to late-1800s, many rimre cartridge designs
existed. Today only a few, mostly for use in small-caliber
guns, remain in general and widespread use. These include the .17 Mach II, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimre
(HMR), 5mm Remington Magnum (Rem Mag), .22 (BB,
CB, Short, Long, Long Rie), and .22 Winchester Magnum Rimre (WMR).
107
the years, these projectiles have evolved from crude,
hand-produced examples to mass-production; however, the basic concept has remained the same: copper jackets lled with bird shot and covered by a
crimped polymer endcap. Upon impact with esh,
the projectile is supposed to fragment, with the birdshot spreading like a miniature shotgun pattern. The
standard BlueGlaser uses a rather ne birdshot
that only gives 5 to 6 inches (130150 mm) of penetration in esh. The SilverGlaser adds another 1 to 2 inches (3050 mm) of penetration with
the use of slightly larger birdshot. Due to reduced
penetration in esh, some have theorized that the
Glaser would be ideal where over-penetration of a
projectile could be hazardous to bystanders. For instance, the Glaser might be entirely contained within
an arm. However, for the same reasons, terminal
performance of Glaser bullets can vary dramatically,
producing impressive successes and equally spectacular failures depending on the angle at which the target is struck. Glancing hits on hard surfaces will
result in fragmentation, reducing the risk of ricochets. However, the Glaser can penetrate barriers
such as drywall, plywood, and thin sheet metal if
struck nearly head on.
Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP): Soon after the invention of the JSP, Woolwich Arsenal in Great Britain
experimented with this design even further by forming a hole or cavity in the nose of the bullet while
keeping most of the exterior prole intact. These
bullets could theoretically deform even faster and
expand to a larger diameter than the JSP. In personal
defense use, concerns have arisen over whether
clothing, especially heavy materials like denim, can
clog the cavity of JHP bullets and cause expansion
failures.
Jacketed Soft Point (JSP): In the late 19th century,
the Indian Army at Dum-Dum Arsenal, near Calcutta, developed a variation of the FMJ design where
the jacket did not cover the nose of the bullet. The
soft lead nose was found to expand in esh while
the remaining jacket still prevented lead fouling in
the barrel. The JSP roughly splits the dierence between FMJ and JHP. It gives more penetration than
JHP but has better terminal ballistic characteristics
than the FMJ.
Round Nose Lead (RNL): An unjacketed lead bullet. Although largely supplanted by jacketed ammunition, this is still common for older revolver cartridges. Some hunters prefer roundnose ammunition for hunting in brush because they erroneously
believe that such a bullet deects less than sharpnosed spitzer bullets, regardless of the fact that this
belief has been repeatedly proven not to be true. Refer to American Rieman magazine.
Total Metal Jacket (TMJ): Featured in some Speer
108
Wadcutter (WC): Similar to the FNL, but completely cylindrical, in some instances with a slight
concavity in the nose. This bullet derives its name
from its popularity for target shooting, because the
form factor cuts neat holes in paper targets, making
scoring easier and more accurate and because it typically cuts a larger hole than a round nose bullet, a hit
centered at the same spot can touch the next smaller
ring and therefore score higher.
Semi Wad Cutter (SWC) identical to the WC with
a smaller diameter ap pointed conical or radiused
nose added. Has the same advantages for target
shooters but is easier to load into the gun and works
more reliably in semi-automatic guns. This design
is also superior for some hunting applications.
Truncated Cone, Round Nose Flat Point, etc. Descriptive of typical modern commercial cast bullet
designs.
The Hague Convention of 1899 bans the use of expanding projectiles against the military forces of other nations.
Some countries accept this as a blanket ban against the
use of expanding projectiles against anyone, while others* [note 1] use JSP and HP against non-military forces
such as terrorists and criminals* [22]
109
available the 764mm is used on everything from
fox and geese to red deer, Scandinavian moose and
European brown bear equivalent to the North American black bear. The 7x64mm essentially duplicates
performance of the 270 Winchester and 280 Remington.
110
919mm Parabellum: Invented for the German mil- 15.10 Caseless ammunition
itary at the turn of the 20th century, the wide distribution of the 919mm Parabellum cartridge made it
the logical choice for the NATO standard pistol and Main article: Caseless ammunition
SMG round.
Many governments and companies continue to develop
9.362mm: Very common big game hunting round
in Scandinavia along with the 6.555mm, where it
is used as a very versatile hunting round on anything
from small and medium game with lightweight cast
lead bullets to the largest European big game with
heavy soft point hunting bullets. The 9.362mm is
also very popular in the rest of Europe for Big game,
especially driven Big game hunts due to its eective
stopping power on running game. And, it is the single cartridge smaller than the 375 H&H Magnum
An example of caseless ammunition. This disassembled round,
that has routinely been allowed for legal hunting of
the 4.7333mm, is used in the Heckler & Koch G11 rie.
dangerous African species.
12.7108mm: The 12.7108mm cartridge is a
heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rie cartridge
used by the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact,
modern Russia, and other countries. It is the approximate Russian equivalent of the NATO .50 BMG
(12.799mm NATO) cartridge. The dierences
between the two are the bullet shape, the types of
powder used, and that the case of the 12.7108mm
is 9 mm longer and marginally more powerful.
111
15.11 Trounds
Blank cartridges:
7.6251mm NATO (left)
919mm Parabellum (right).
112
List of handgun cartridges
List of Magnum pistol cartridges
List of rie cartridges
Nitrocellulose
Percussion cap
Simunition
Table of handgun and rie cartridges
15.15 Notes
[1] The US did not sign the complete Hague Convention of
1899 in any case, but still follows its guidelines in military
conicts.
[14] Cabela's still sells black powder pistols; remain in use for
hunting
[15] History of rearms (readvantages.com)
[16] How guns work (readvantages.com)
[17] Shooting section (la section de tir) of the ocial website
(in French) of a modern indoor shooting association in
Belgium, Les Arquebusier de Vis.
[18] Les Lefaucheux, by Matre Simili, Spring 1990 (in
French)
[19] An example of a Benjamin Houllier gun manufactured in
association with the gunsmith Blanchard. Littlegun.info.
Retrieved 2013-11-04.
[20] An example of a Benjamin Houllier gun manufactured
in association with the gunsmiths Blanchard and Charles
Robert. Littlegun.info. Retrieved 2013-11-04.
[21] Cartridges of the World, various editions and articles.
15.16 References
[1] Sparano, Vin T. (2000). Cartridges. The Complete
Outdoors Encyclopedia. Macmillan. p. 37. ISBN 978-0312-26722-3.
[2] Unsafe Firearm-Ammunition Combinations (PDF).
SAAMI. 3/6/2012. Retrieved 2013-11-04. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[3] Greener, William Wellington (1907), Ammunition and
Accessories.Cartridges, The Gun and Its Development,
Cassell, p. 570.
[4] U.S. Army (September 1984), Military Explosives, Technical Manual, Department of the Army, TM 9-1300-214,
p. 2-3, stating 1590. Cartridges with ball and power
combined were introduced for small arms.
[5] U.S. Army 1984, pp. 23 indicates the period 16111632
and states the improved cartridge increased the rate of re
for the Thirty Years' War.
[6] Sharpe, Philip B. (1938),The Development of the Cartridge, The Rie in America, New York: William Morrow, pp. 2930.
[7] Greener 1907, p. 570
113
Chapter 16
CBRN defense
For the cyanogen bromide molecular formula, see CBrN.
CBRN (or CBN* [1]) is an initialism used to refer to
chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear warfare.
Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear defense (often abbreviated to CBRN defense or CBRND)
is the term for protective measures taken in situations in
which any of these four hazards are present. To account
for improvised devices, the term CBRNe (e for explosives) is also used. CBRN defense consists of CBRN
passive protection, contamination avoidance and CBRN
mitigation.
CBRN weapons or agents are often referred to as
weapons of mass destruction (WMD). However, this is
not entirely correct. Although CBRNe agents often cause
mass destruction, this is not necessarily the case. Terrorist use of CBRNe agents may cause a limited number of
casualties, but a large terrorizing and disruption of society. Terrorist use of CBRNe agents, intended to cause
terror instead of mass casualties, is therefore often referred to as weapons of mass disruption.* [2]
In Spanish the term NRBQ (Nuclear, Radiolgico, BacteA CBRN incident diers from a hazardous material in- riolgico y Qumico) has replaced NBQ.
cident in both scope (i.e., CBRNe can be a mass casualty
situation) and intent. CBRN incidents are responded to
under the assumption that they are intentional and mali16.2 By country or region
cious; evidence preservation and perpetrator apprehension are of greater concern than with HAZMAT inci16.2.1 Canada
dents.
A 2011 forecast concluded that worldwide government
The term CBRN is in common use in disaster and
spending on CBRN defence products and services would
emergency services organizations across the country.* [6]
*
reach US$8.38bn that year. [3]
Since July 2005, the Canadian Forces also started using
the term CBRN Defence, instead of NBC Defence, due to
the increased threat of dirty bomb use (which is radiological in nature). CBRNe is a new term that is being used
16.1 Etymology
in both civilian and military organisations. The Canadian
In English the term CBRN is a replacement for the cold Joint Incident Response Unit is a Canadian Forces unit,
war term NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical), which under the direction of the Canadian Special Operations
had replaced the term ABC (atomic, biological, and Forces Command, charged with supporting the Govchemical) that was used in the fties. The addition of the ernment of Canada in order to prevent, control and mitR (for radiological) is a consequence of thenewthreat igate CBRN threats to Canada, Canadians and Canadian
of a radiological weapon (also known asdirty bombs), interests.
in addition to end the joke among members of the Chem- At the provincial level, cities are provided opportunities
ical Corps which called NBC as NoBody Cares. In for their emergency services with CBRN training. In On114
115
Army has 10,000 protective suits, enough for all its personnel.* [12] Other emergency services also have limited
CBRN expertise, such as the Health Service Executive
(HSE) and Dublin Fire Brigade (DFB).
16.2.6 Malaysia
16.2.2
Hong Kong
16.2.4
Argentina
16.2.5
Ireland
CBRN is also used by the UK Home Oce as a civil designation.* [17] Police, re and ambulance services in the
UK must all have some level of CBRN providers. Within
the ambulance service this is performed by the Hazardous
Area Response Team (HART) and Special Operations
Response Team (SORT). Since the introduction of new
equipment to UK re services under the New Dimension programme, CBRN decontamination of personnel
(including members of the public) has become a task carried out by re services in the UK and they regularly train
for such scenarios.
116
16.2.10
16.5 References
[1] CBN (chemical, biological, and nuclear) terrorism/warfare : a bibliography. worldcat.org. Retrieved
11 April 2015.
[2] Radiological weapons use by terrorists by ib consultancy
[3] THE CBRN DEFENCE MARKET 2011-2021. visiongain. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
[4] CBRNe hosted buyer - IB Consultancy.
consultancy.eu. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
ib-
117
16.6 Bibliography
John Eldridge, ed. (2006). Jane's Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Defense 20062007 (19th ed.).
Coulsdon, Surrey, UK; Alexandria, Va.: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-7106-2763-7.
Chapter 17
Combat engineer
This article is about soldiers who perform construction
and demolition tasks in battle. For designing military
structures and the logistics behind military tactics, see
Military engineering.
A combat engineer (also called eld engineer,
Pontoon bridge built in World War II by the 291st Engineer Combat Battalion across the Rhine, downstream from the Ludendor
Bridge at Remagen
118
17.1. TERMINOLOGY
119
Usually, a combat engineer is also trained as an
infantryman, and combat engineering units often have
a secondary role ghting as infantry. There are no advanced academic qualications required to be a combat
engineer. The term engineeris not to be confused
with the term applied to Professional Engineer or Chartered Engineer.
17.1 Terminology
tleeld.
120
Assault pioneer:
In the British, Canadian and Australian
armies, an assault pioneer is an infantry soldier with some limited combat engineer training in clearing obstacles during assaults and
light engineering duties. Until recently, assault
pioneers were responsible for the operation of
amethrowers.
Field engineer:
is a term used (or formerly used) in many
Commonwealth armies. In modern usage, it
is often synonymous with combat engineer
. However, the term originally identied those
military engineers who supported an army operating in the eld as opposed to garrison engineers who built and supported permanent x
bases. In its original usage, eld engineeringwould have been inclusive of but broader
than combat engineering.
Miner
Pontonier
121
Building structures which enable one's own soldiers to tools (shovels, posthole diggers, picks, and mattocks);
survive on the battleeld. Examples include trenches, portable power tools and trailer-mounted tools (electric
bunkers, shelters, and armored vehicle ghting positions. tool trailer and generator, portable power tools); miscelDefensive fortications are designed to prevent intrusion laneous tools.
into the inner works by infantry. For minor defensive loVehicles
cations these may only consist of simple walls and ditches.
The design principle is to slow down the advance of attackers to where they can be destroyed by defenders from
sheltered positions. Most large fortications are not a single structure but rather a concentric series of fortications
of increasing strength.
Building fortications
Building outposts
Building fences
Defense against NBC weapon threats
Armored front loader
Basic combat engineering tools include safe use of: driving tools and chopping tools (hammers, mauls, sledges,
screwdriver, and bits); cutting tools and smoothing tools
(saws, chisels, planes, les and rasps, brush-cutting tools,
miscellaneous cutting tools); drilling tools, boring tools,
and countersinking tools; measuring tools, leveling tools
and layout tools (rules, tapes, marking tools, levels, plumb
bobs, squares); gripping tools, prying tools and twisting
tools (pliers, wrenches, bars); holding tools, raising tools
and grinding tools (vises, clamps, jacks, grinders, and oilstones); timber handling tools and climbing tools; digging
122
17.7 Notes
[1] Sapeur / Sapeuse de combat. Forces.Ca. Retrieved
2013-01-20.
Chapter 18
18.1.1 Sights
All designated marksman ries will have some type of optical sight with a higher magnication level than the standard issue rie. For example, the SDM-R issued to the
United States Army is tted with a Trijicon 4x ACOG,
while the standard-issue M4 carbine is equipped with an
unmagnied Aimpoint CompM2 or CompM4. Sometimes, the sighting system will be the only dierence between the standard rie and the designated marksman rie, as is the case with the F88S DMR issued to the Australian Army.
124
18.1.2
Barrels
18.1.3
SR-25; 7.62mm NATO sniper rie is often used to provide re support.* [2]* [3]
HK417; 7.62mm NATO gas-piston battle
rie,* [4] interim F88S replacement for
Afghanistan deployments.
Ammunition
18.1.4
All designated marksman ries in use today use a semiautomatic action, with some also being able to re in fullautomatic mode.
Australia
F88S Austeyr 5.56 NATO standard issue rie, tted with an enhanced optic is issued to
one rieman in each reteam in the Australian
Army.* [1]
Hungary
The SVD is the main designated marksman rie for the Hungarian Armed Forces.* [11]
Action
Germany
Hungarian Armed Forces designed the antimaterial sniper weapons family called Geprd.
India
The SVD is the designated DMR for the Indian
Army. Dierent variants of the INSAS family of weapons modied with scopes and other
tactical upgrades are used as DMR's as well.
The IMI Tavor TAR-21 and the IMI Galil
chambered for the 7.62 NATO round are issued to units of the Special Forces of India as
a Designated Marksman Rie.
125
Israel
The Israel Defense Forces formerly used the
Galatz as a designated marksman rie. The
Galatz is a variant of the Galil assault rie
chambered for 7.62mm NATO.
The M4A1 is used as a marksman rie,
equipped with Harris bipod and Trijicon
ACOG telescopic sights.
The Swiss Armed Forces use the standard issue SIG SG 550 with a Kern 4x24 telescopic
sight as a marksman rie.* [17]
Romania: The PSL (rie) is a purposebuilt designated marksman rie chambered for
7.62x54mmR based on a modied Kalashnikov action. It is similar in appearance to the SVD, though
the two ries share little in common.
Russia
The SVD was the rst rie designed from the
outset as what is now known as a designated
marksman rie.
The Dragunov SVU is a bullpup variant of the
SVD rie
South Africa
United Kingdom
L129A1; a 7.62 NATO, 16 in (410 mm) barrel variant of the Stoner rie developed by
Lewis Machine and Tool Company has been
procured for use in Afghanistan. A 6x power
ACOG is the standard issue sight.
Switzerland
United States
The M14 rie has formed the basis of several
designated marksman ries used by the United
States Military:
Mk 14 Enhanced Battle Rie: Used
by the United States Army and Navy
SEALs* [18]
M14SE Crazy Horse: Used by the 101st
Airborne Division and the 2nd Infantry
Division of the US Army.* [19]
M39 Enhanced Marksman Rie: Used by
the United States Marine Corps, replacing the United States Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rie* [20]
The M16 rie has formed the basis of several
designated marksman ries used by the United
States Military:
SDM-R: Used by the United States Army
in limited numbers
SAM-R: Used by the United States Marine Corps. Replaced by the Mk 12 Special Purpose Rie
Mk 12 Special Purpose Rie: Used by
the United States Navy SEALs, Rangers.
Replacing the SAM-R in United States
Marine Corps service.* [21]* [22]
SR-25: Used by the United States Marine
Corps, United States Navy SEALs, and
the United States Army.
126
[14] http://forsvaret.no/om-forsvaret/utstyrsfakta/vapen/
Sider/hk417.aspx
[15] Engelbrecht, Leon. Fact le: R1 battle rie. defenceweb.co.za. defenceweb. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
[16] Engelbrecht, Leon. R6.2 million for R4. defenceweb.co.za. DefenceWeb. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
[17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_SG_550#Sights
[20] http://www.americanspecialops.com/
special-ops-weapons/m39-emr.php
[21] http://www.fbodaily.com/archive/2008/08-August/
03-Aug-2008/FBO-01629550.htm
[22] Bryant and Bryant, Weapons of the US Army Rangers.
Copyright 2005, Zenith Press.
18.3 References
[1] Muir, Tom (1 February 2010). Land Force: Army's
broad re capabilities key to mission success | ADM Feb
2010. Australian Defence Magazine. Retrieved 9 June
2011.
[2] Wellfare, John (2011-04-14). Shooting for modern
combat. Army News (Australia). Retrieved 9 June 2011.
Chapter 19
Electronic warfare
For warfare on the Internet, see Cyberwarfare.
Electronic warfare (EW) is any action involving the use
of the electromagnetic spectrum or directed energy to
control the spectrum, attack an enemy, or impede enemy assaults via the spectrum.* [1] The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent the advantage of,
and ensure friendly unimpeded access to, the EM spectrum. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by
manned and unmanned systems, and can target humans,
communications, radar, or other assets.* [2]
and support EA, ED and ES. Besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO
has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the
other NATO defence lines of development.
127
128
19.2 Subdivisions
RAF Menwith Hill, a large ECHELON site in the United Kingdom, and part of the UK-USA Security Agreement
19.2.2
Electronic Protection (EP) (previously known as electronic protective measures (EPM) or electronic counter
countermeasures (ECCM)) involves actions taken to pro- 19.2.3 Electronic warfare support (ES)
tect personnel, facilities, and equipment from any eects
of friendly or enemy use of the electromagnetic spectrum Main article: Electronic warfare support measures
that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure.
Electronic Warfare Support (ES), is the subdivision of
The use of are rejection logic on an Infrared homing EW involving actions tasked by, or under direct conmissile to counter an adversarys use of ares is EP. trol of, an operational commander to search for, interWhile defensive EA actions and EP both protect person- cept, identify, and locate or localize sources of intennel, facilities, capabilities, and equipment, EP protects tional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic (EM)
from the eects of EA (friendly and/or adversary). Other energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition,
examples of EP include spread spectrum technologies, targeting, planning, and conduct of future operations.* [2]
use of Joint Restricted Frequency List (JRFL), emissions These measures begin with systems designed and opera-
129
Battle of Latakia: the rst use of deception EW in a
naval battle
Battle of the Beams
No. 100 Group RAF
Cha
130
19.5 References
[1] Tembarai Krishnamachari, Rajesh. Dawn of the Ebomb: High-power microwave technology and military
implications for India, South Asia Analysis Group, Paper 1089, May 2004.
[2] Joint Publication 3-13.1 Electronic Warfare (ONLINE PDF AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD). Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta (CJCS) - Armed Forces
of the United States of America. 25 January 2007. pp.
i, v x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. This publication provides...doctrine for electronic warfare planning, preparation, execution, and assessment in support of joint operations across the range of military operations.
[3] Electronic Warfare; Air Force Doctrine Document
2-5.1 (ONLINE PDF AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOAD). Secretary of the Air Force. 5 November 2002.
pp. i, v x. Retrieved 2011-05-01. This AFDD establishes operational doctrine for United States Air Force EW
operations. This doctrine provides guidance for planning
and conducting electronic warfare operations in support
of national and joint force commander (JFC) campaign
objectives.
[4] Lichtman, Marc (2014). Antifragile Electronic Warfare. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.5429. Retrieved
September 29, 2014.
Chapter 20
131
132
20.1.3
FMTV dimensions
20.7 Operators
United States
M1093 LVAD
Thailand
M1095 trailer
Iraq
Jordan
20.3 Gallery
Armored cabin of the High Mobility Artillery
Rocket System
M142 high-mobility artillery rocket system (HIMARS) launcher
New York National Guard LMTV with armored cab
Romanian and US military conduct an operation in
Afghanistan
20.4 Statistics
20.5 2009 procurement and protest
On February 27, 2009, the United States Army Tank Automotive and Armaments Command issued a solicitation
for the upcoming round of FMTV procurement. BAE,
Oshkosh Defense (a division of Oshkosh Corporation),
and Navistar submitted proposals by the May 27 closing
date.
Oshkosh Defense won the award on August 26, 2009.
Navistar and BAE were debriefed on September 2 and 3,
respectively, after which time both companies protested
the award.
20.9 References
[1] Ware, Pat (2010). The World Encyclopedia of Military
Vehicles. Lorenz Books. p. 244. ISBN 0-7548-2052-1.
[2] prnewswire : Armor Holdings, Inc. Receives $518 Million MRAP Award
[3] Long-Term Armor Strategy (LTAS)
[4] Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles. Oshkosh Corp.
2010. Retrieved 7 Dec 2014.
[5] GAO Decision on Protest
[6] News Release: Army Makes FMTV Competitive Rebuy Contract Award Decision. Defense.gov. Retrieved
2010-07-07.
133
Chapter 21
Firearm
This article is about the projectile weapon. For the
rearm as a tool, see Firearm (tool). For other uses, see
Firearm (disambiguation).
A rearm is a portable gun, being a barreled weapon
that launches one or more projectiles often driven by the Main article: Handgun
action of an explosive force.* [1]* [2]* [3] The rst primi- The smallest of all rearms is the handgun. There
tive rearms were invented in 13th century China when
the man portable re lance was combined with projectiles.* [4] The technology gradually spread through the
rest of East Asia, South Asia, Middle East and then into
Europe. In older rearms, the propellant was typically
black powder, but modern rearms use smokeless powder
or other propellants. Most modern rearms (with the notable exception of smoothbore rearms) have ried barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved ight
stability.
Modern rearms are typically described by their bore
diameter (7.5mm) or calibre (.357) or gauge (12 ga.),
the type of action employed (muzzle, breech, lever, bolt,
pump, revolver, semi-automatic, or automatic) together
with the usual means of deportment (hand-held or mechanical mounting). They may be further distinguished
by reference to the type of barrel used (ried) and the barrel length (19 inch), the design's primary intended target
(anti-aircraft), or the commonly accepted name for a particular variation (Gatling gun). The word rearms usually
is used in a sense restricted to small arms (weapons that
can be carried by a single person),* [5] whereas the word
artillery covers larger gunpowder-red weapons.
are three common types of handguns: single-shot pistols (more common historically), revolvers, and semiautomatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of ring
chambers orcharge holesin a revolving cylinder; each
chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge
or charge. Semi-automatic pistols have a single xed ring chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a
Firearms are aimed visually at their targets by hand us- magazine so they can be used to re more than one round.
134
135
ically have a barrel between 10 and 30 inches (there are
restrictions on minimum barrel length in many jurisdictions; maximum barrel length is usually a matter of practicality), that along with the receiver and trigger group is
mounted into a wood, plastic, metal or composite stock,
composed of one or more pieces that form a foregrip,
rear grip, and optionally (but typically) a shoulder mount
called the butt. Early long arms, from the Renaissance
up to the mid-1800s, were generally smoothbore rearms
that red one or more ball shot, called muskets.
Each press of the trigger res a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that
the next cartridge may be red immediately. This is opposed to "double-action" revolvers which accomplish the
same end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger Springeld Armory M1903 rie
pull.
Prior to the 19th century, all handguns were single-shot
muzzleloaders. With the invention of the revolver in
1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted
revolvers in military applications by the end of World
War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns
carried regularly by military, police and civilians were
semi-automatic, although revolvers were still widely used.
Generally speaking, military and police forces use semiautomatic pistols due to their high magazine capacities
(10 to 17 or, in some cases, over 25 rounds of ammunition) and ability to rapidly reload by simply removing the
empty magazine and inserting a loaded one. Revolvers
are very common among handgun hunters because revolver cartridges are usually more powerful than similar
caliber semi-automatic pistol cartridges (which are designed for self-defense) and the strength, simplicity and
durability of the revolver design is well-suited to outdoor
use. Revolvers, especially in .22LR and 38 Special/357
Magnum, are also common concealed weapons in jurisdictions allowing this practice because their simple mechanics make them smaller than many autoloaders while
remaining reliable. Both designs are common among
civilian gun owners, depending on the owner's intention
(self-defense, hunting, target shooting, competitions, collecting, etc.).
136
tling the foregrip of the rearm back and forth. This type U.S. civilian carbines include compact customizations of
of action is typically used by shotguns, but several major the AR-15, Ruger Mini-14, Beretta Cx4 Storm, Kel-Tec
manufacturers make ries that use this action.
SUB-2000, bolt-action ries generally falling under the
Both ries and shotguns also come in break-action vari- specications of a scout rie, and aftermarket conversion
eties that do not have any kind of reloading mechanism kits for popular pistols including the M1911 and Glock
at all but must be hand-loaded after each shot. Both models.
ries and shotguns come in single- and double-barreled
varieties; however due to the expense and diculty of
manufacturing, double-barreled ries are rare. Double- 21.1.2 Function
barreled ries are typically intended for African big-game
hunts where the animals are dangerous, ranges are short, Main article: Firearm action
and speed is of the essence. Very large and powerful calibers are normal for these rearms.
Firearms are also categorized by their functioning cycle or
Ries have been in nationally featured marksmanship actionwhich describes its loading, ring, and unloading
events in Europe and the United States since at least cycle.
the 18th century, when ries were rst becoming widely
available. One of the earliest purely Americanrieshooting competitions took place in 1775, when Daniel Manual
Morgan was recruiting sharpshooters in Virginia for the
impending American Revolutionary War. In some coun- The earliest evolution of the rearm, there are many types
tries, rie marksmanship is still a matter of national pride. of manual action rearms. These can be divided into two
Some specialized ries in the larger calibers are claimed basic categories: single shot and repeating.
to have an accurate range of up to about 1 mile (1,600 A single shot rearm can only be red once per equipped
m), although most have considerably less. In the second barrel before it must be reloaded or charged via an exhalf of the 20th century, competitive shotgun sports be- ternal mechanism or series of steps. A repeating rearm
came perhaps even more popular than riery, largely due can be red multiple times, but can only be red once
to the motion and immediate feedback in activities such with each subsequent pull of the trigger. Between trigger
as skeet, trap and sporting clays.
pulls, the rearm's action must be reloaded or charged via
In military use, bolt-action ries with high-power scopes an internal mechanism.
are common as sniper ries, however by the Korean War
the traditional bolt-action and semi-automatic ries used
by infantrymen had been supplemented by select-re de- Semi-automatic
signs known asautomatic ries(seeAutomatic Rie
Main article: Semi-automatic rearm
below).
A semi-automatic, or self-loading, rearm is one that
performs all steps necessary to prepare the it to discharge again after ringassuming cartridges remain in
A carbine is a rearm similar to a rie in form and in- the weapon's feed device or magazine.
tended usage, but generally shorter or smaller than the
typical full-sizehunting or battle rie of similar time
period, and sometimes using a smaller or less-powerful Automatic
cartridge. Carbines were and are typically used by members of the military in roles that are expected to engage An automatic rearm is generally dened as one that conin combat, but where a full-size rie would be an im- tinues to load and re cartridges from its magazine as
pediment to the primary duties of that soldier (vehicle long as the trigger is depressed (or until the magazine
drivers, eld commanders and support sta, airbornes, is depleted). The rst weapon generally considered in
engineers, etc.). Carbines are also common in law en- this category is the Gatling gun, originally a carriageforcement and among civilian owners where similar size, mounted, crank-operated rearm with multiple rotating
space and/or power concerns may exist. Carbines, like ri- barrels that was elded in the American Civil War. The
es, can be single-shot, repeating-action, semi-automatic modern trigger-actuated machine gun began with various
or select-re/fully automatic, generally depending on the designs developed in the late 1800s and elded in World
time period and intended market. Common historical ex- War I, such as the Maxim gun, Lewis Gun, and MG 08
amples include the Winchester Model 1892, Lee-Eneld Spandau. Most automatic weapons are classed as long
"Jungle Carbine", Mauser K98 Kurz, SKS, M1 carbine guns (as the ammunition used is of similar type as for
(no relation to the larger M1 Garand) and M4 carbine (a ries, and the recoil of the weapon's rapid re is better
more compact variant of the current M16 rie). Modern controlled with two hands), but handgun-sized automatic
Carbines Main article: Carbine
137
are commonly favored by military, paramilitary and police forces for close-quarters engagements such as inside
buildings, in urban areas or in trench complexes.
Submachine guns were originally about the size of carbines. Because they re pistol ammunition, they have
limited long-range use, but in close combat can be used in
fully automatic in a controllable manner due to the lighter
recoil of the pistol ammunition. They are also extremely
inexpensive and simple to build in time of war, enabling a
nation to quickly arm its military. In the latter half of the
20th century, submachine guns were being miniaturized
to the point of being only slightly larger than some large
handguns. The most widely used submachine gun at the
end of the 20th century was the Heckler & Koch MP5.
The MP5 is actually designated as a machine pistol
by Heckler & Koch (MP5 stands for Maschinenpistole 5,
or Machine Pistol 5), although some reserve this designation for even smaller submachine guns such as the MAC10 and Glock 18, which are about the size and shape of
The denition of machine gun is dierent in U.S. law. pistols.
The National Firearms Act and Firearm Owners Protection Act dene a machine gunin the United States
Personal defense weapons Main article: Personal
code Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part
defense weapon
1, 5845 as: "... any rearm which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a
single function of the trigger. Machine gunis there- A related class of rearm to the submachine gun is the
fore largely synonymous withautomatic weaponin the Personal Defense Weaponor PDW, which is in simplest terms a submachine gun designed to re rounds simU.S. civilian parlance, covering all automatic rearms.
ilar to rie cartridges. A submachine gun is desirable
for its compact size and ammunition capacity, however
Submachine guns Main article: Submachine gun
a pistol round lacks the penetrating capability of a riA submachine gun is a magazine-fed rearm, usually e round. Conversely, rie bullets can pierce light arsmaller than other automatic rearms, that res pistol- mor and are easier to shoot accurately, but even a carbine
caliber ammunition; for this reason certain submachine such as the Colt M4 is larger and/or longer than a submaguns can also be referred to as machine pistols, espe- chine gun, making it harder to maneuver in close quarcially when referring to handgun-sized designs such as ters. The solution many rearms manufacturers have
the korpion vz. 61 and Glock 18. Well-known exam- presented is a weapon resembling a submachine gun in
ples are the Israeli Uzi and Heckler & Koch MP5 which size and general conguration, but which res a higheruse the 919mm Parabellum cartridge, and the American powered armor-penetrating round (often specially deThompson submachine gun which res .45 ACP. Be- signed for the weapon), thus combining the advantages of
cause of their small size and limited projectile penetration a carbine and submachine gun. The FN P90 and Heckler
compared to high-power rie rounds, submachine guns & Koch MP7 are examples.
138
Automatic ries Main article: Automatic rie
An automatic rie is a magazine-fed rearm, wielded by a
single infantryman, that is chambered for rie cartridges
and capable of automatic re. The M1918 Browning Automatic Rie was the rst U.S. infantry weapon of this
type, and was generally used for suppressive or support
re in the role now usually lled by the light machine
gun. Other early automatic ries include the Fedorov
Avtomat and the Huot Automatic Rie. Later, German
forces elded the Sturmgewehr 44 during World War II, a
light automatic rie ring a reduced power "intermediate
cartridge". This design was to become the basis for the
"assault rie" subclass of automatic weapons, as contrasted with "battle ries", which generally re a traditional full-powerrie cartridge.
Modern designs call for compact weapons retaining repower. The bullpup design, by mounting the magazine
behind the trigger, unies the accuracy and repower of
the traditional assault rie with the compact size of the
submachine gun (though submachine guns are still used);
examples are the French FAMAS or the British SA80.
Recently, smaller but exceedingly penetrative ammunition types have been introduced to allow countermeasure
against ballistic armour. Such designs are the basis for
the FN P90 and Heckler & Koch MP7. Caseless ammunition is another trend; an example is the German Heckler
& Koch G11. The echette is yet another improvement
over traditional ammunition, allowing for extreme penetration abilities and a very at trajectory. However, it is
gained at the cost of stopping power.
21.2 History
Main article: History of the rearm
See also: History of gunpowder
Some say the rst primitive rearms were invented
about 1250 A.D. in China when the man-portable re
lance (a bamboo or metal tube that could shoot ignited
21.2. HISTORY
139
a universal standard for the reloading of most handheld rearms and continues to be so with some notable
exceptions (such as mortars). Instead of loading individual rounds into weapons, magazines holding multiple munitions were adoptedthese aided rapid reloading. Automatic and semi-automatic ring mechanisms
meant that a single soldier could re many more rounds
in a minute than a vintage weapon could re over the
course of a battle. Polymers and alloys in rearm construction made weaponry progressively lighter and thus
easier to deploy. Ammunition changed over the centuries
from simple metallic ball-shaped projectiles that rattled
down the barrel to bullets and cartridges manufactured to
high precision. Especially in the past century has particular attention been devoted to accuracy and sighting to
make rearms altogether far more accurate than ever before. More than any single factor though, rearms have
proliferated due to the advent of mass productionenabling arms manufacturers to produce large quantities of
weaponry to a consistent standard.
The force of a projectile is related to the kinetic energy
imparted to it, given by the formula Ek = 21 mv 2 where
m is the mass and v is the velocity of the projectile.
Generally, kinetic energy can be enhanced in two ways:
By increasing the mass of the bullet, either by increasing caliber (and thus size and weight), or by
using denser materials like uranium or tungsten.
By increasing the projectile's velocity, through better or larger propellant charges, through better manufacturing tolerances and materials in bullet and barrel, or through longer barrels.
Velocities of bullets increased with the use of ajacket
of a metal such as copper or copper alloys that covered a
lead core and allowed the bullet to glide down the barrel
more easily than exposed lead. Such bullets are designated as full metal jacket(FMJ). Such FMJ bullets
are less likely to fragment on impact and are more likely
to traverse through a target while imparting less energy.
Hence, FMJ bullets impart less tissue damage than nonjacketed bullets that expand. (Dougherty and Eidt, 2009)
This led to their adoption for military use by countries
adhering to the Hague Convention in 1899.
That said, the basic principle behind rearm operation
remains unchanged to this day. A musket of several centuries ago is still similar in principle to a modern-day assault rieusing the expansion of gases to propel projectiles over long distances albeit less accurately and
rapidly.
Evolution
140
Fire lances Main article: Fire lance
The Chinese re lance was the direct predecessor to the
modern concept of the rearm. It was not a gun itself,
but an addition to the soldiers' spears. Originally it consisted of paper or bamboo barrels that would have incendiary gunpowder within it, that could be lit one time and
would project ames at the enemy. Sometimes the Chinese troops would place small projectiles within the barrel that would also be projected when the gunpowder was
lit, but most of the explosive force would create ames.
Later, the barrel was changed to be made of metal, so that
a more explosive gunpowder could be used and put more
force into the propulsion of the projectile.* [10]
lance and European hand cannon were loaded with gunpowder and the shot (initially lead shot, later replaced by
cast iron) through the muzzle, while a fuse was placed
at the rear. This fuse was lit, causing the gunpowder to
ignite and propel the cannonball. In military use, the standard hand cannon was tremendously powerful, while also
being somewhat useless due to relative inability of the
gunner to aim the weapon, or control the ballistic properties of the projectile. Recoil could be absorbed by bracing the barrel against the ground using a wooden support, the forerunner of the stock. Neither the amount of
gunpowder, nor the consistency in projectile dimensions
were controlled, with resulting inaccuracy in ring due to
windage, and due to the dierence in diameter between
the bore and the shot. The hand cannons were replaced by
lighter carriage-mounted artillery pieces, and ultimately
the arquebus.
21.2. HISTORY
141
self-contained metallic cartridges, muzzle-loaders were to solvents and oil. Some notable weapons that use belts
replaced by single-shot breech loaders. Eventually single- are the M240, the M249, the M134 Minigun, and the PK
shot weapons were replaced by the following repeater Machine Gun.
type weapons.
Internal Magazines
Main article: Magazine (rearms)
Many rearms made in the late 19th century through the
1950s used internal magazines to load the cartridge into
the chamber of the weapon. The most notable and revolutionary weapons of this period appeared during the U.S.
Civil War and they were the Spencer and Henry repeating ries. Both used xed tubular magazines, the former having the magazine in the buttstock and the latter
under the barrel which allowed a larger capacity. Later
weapons used xed box magazines that could not be removed from the weapon without dissembling the weapon
itself. Fixed magazines permitted the use of larger cartridges and eliminated the hazard of having the bullet of
one cartridge butting next to the primer or rim of another
cartridge. These magazines are loaded while they are in
the weapon, often using a stripper clip. A clip is used
to transfer cartridges into the magazine. Some notable
weapons that use internal magazines include the Mosin
Nagant, the Mauser Kar 98k, the Springeld M1903, the
M1 Garand, and the SKS. Firearms that have internal
magazines are usually, but not always, ries. Some exceptions to this include the Mauser C96 pistol, which uses
an internal magazine, and the Breda 30, an Italian light
machine gun.
Firing mechanisms
Further information: Trigger (rearms) and Firearm
action
Detachable Magazines
Many modern rearms use what are called detachable or
box magazines as their method of chambering a cartridge.
Detachable magazines can be removed from the weapon
without disassembling the rearms, usually by pushing
the magazine release. Some notable weapons that use detachable magazines include the the AK-47, the M14, the
AR-15, and the Glock 17.
Wheellock
The wheellock action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the intlock. Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a signicant improvement over the matchlock
in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in proximity
to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much
like that on cigarette lighters which was wound up with a
Belt-Fed Weapons
key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled,
spun against a int, creating the shower of sparks that igMain article: Belt (rearm)
nited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented
by Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian Renaissance man, the
A belt or ammunition belt is a device used to retain and wheellock action was an innovation that was not widely
feed cartridges into a rearm commonly used on machine adopted due to the high cost of the clockwork mechaguns. Belts were originally composed of canvas or cloth nism.
with pockets spaced evenly to allow the belt to be mechanically fed into the gun. These designs were prone to
malfunctions due to the eects of oil and other contam- Flintlock Main article: Flintlock
inants altering the belt. Later belt designs used permanently connected metal links to retain the cartridges dur- The intlock action was a major innovation in rearm
ing feeding. These belts were more tolerant to exposure design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the
142
percussion caps except those built as replicas of the intlock or earlier rearms.
Before this, acartridgewas simply a premeasured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag
(or rolled paper cylinder), which also acted as wadding for
the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to
be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a
small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the
gunpowder in the cartridge. Cartridges with built-in percussion caps (called primers) continue to this day to
be the standard in rearms. In cartridge-ring rearms,
a hammer (or a ring pin struck by the hammer) strikes
the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder
within. The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge,
either within the rim (a "rimre" cartridge) or in a small
percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a
"centerre" cartridge). As a rule, centerre cartridges are
more powerful than rimre cartridges, operating at considerably higher pressures than rimre cartridges. Centerre cartridges are also safer, as a dropped rimre cartridge has the potential to discharge if its rim strikes the
ground with sucient force to ignite the primer. This is
practically impossible with most centerre cartridges.
Cartridges
Main article: Cartridge (rearms)
Further information:
Magazine
Ammunition
(rearms)
and
143
144
Firearm action
Gunsmith
Physics of rearms
PROGUN (Philippines)
21.4 References
List of pistols
List of shotguns
145
Chapter 22
A general-purpose machine gun (GPMG) is an aircooled, belt-fed weapon with a quick change barrel that
can be used in a variety of roles, from bipod- or tripodmounted infantry support, to deployment as a helicopter
door gun, or a vehicle-mounted support weapon.* [1]
Modern GPMGs re full-power rie cartridges such
as the 7.6251mm NATO, 7.6254mmR, 7.92x57mm
Mauser, etc.
22.1 History
With the MG 34, the German Wehrmacht introduced an
entirely new concept in automatic repower - the general146
22.5. REFERENCES
Russian PK/PKM family of
machine-guns, widely exported.
147
multi-purpose
22.3 Gallery
MG34
MG42 top & StG 44 below
MG3 on display
IMI Negev and FN MAG GPMG
FN MAG GPMG
An M60 machine gun
AA-52
PKM general-purpose machine gun
The Type 67 on a tripod eld mount.
Belgian M240
Russian Pecheneg
HK21A1 general-purpose machine gun
22.5 References
[1] http://www.army.mod.uk/equipment/support-weapons/
1463.aspx
[2] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 375
[3] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 326
[4] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245
& 246
[5] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 326
[6] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245
& 246
[7] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 326
[8] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 245
& 246
[9] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376
[10] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 329
[11] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247
[12] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376
[13] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 329
[14] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247
[15] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376
[16] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 328 & 329
[17] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247
[18] MG 34 and MG 42 Machine Guns. by Chris McNab.
Published by Random House Publishing Group. Oct 23,
2012. Quote taken from leaf.
[19] Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Ian Hogg & Terry Gander. HarperCollins Publishers. 2005. page 376
[20] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition. Ian
V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications. 2000.
page 329
[21] The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II. Chris
Bishop. Sterling Publishing Company. 2002. page 247
[22] Modern Firearms - FN MAG. World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
[23] Weapons: An International Encyclopedia From 5000
B.C. To 2000 A.D. Diagram Visual, p. 217. ISBN 0312-03950-6.
[24] http://world.guns.ru/machine/fr/aat-mod52-e.html
Chapter 23
Grenade launcher
The Japanese Army, noting that grenades were shortranged weapons, began eorts to optimize these weapons
for close-in infantry ghting. After studying the use
of grenades and mortars on the battleeld, the Japanese
23.1.1 Grenade discharger
Army developed hand grenades, rie grenades, and
The Type 10 grenade discharger ( Juu- grenade dischargers (small mortars) suited to warfare in
nen-shiki tekidant) and Type 89 grenade discharger ( typical short-range combat environments, such as urban,
Hachiky-shiki j-tekidant), colloquially trench, and jungle warfare.
known as a knee mortars by Allied forces, were Japanese As part of this eort, by 1932, the Japanese Army had
grenade launchers or light mortars that were widely used adopted a set of fragmentation grenades with almost uniin the Pacic Ocean theatre of World War II.
versal adaptability. The Type 91 fragmentation grenade
23.1 Types
148
23.1. TYPES
149
The disadvantage of this method is that when a soldier
wants to launch a grenade, he must mount the grenade
to the muzzle prior to each shot. If he is surprised by a
close-range threat while preparing to re the grenade, he
has to reverse the procedure before he can respond with
rie re. Rie grenades also tend to be more dicult
to re accurately compared to under-barrel or standalone
designs. The IMI Refaim represents an advancement in
technology as it uses an air-burst telescopic bullet trap
rie grenade with point detonation, time delay and selfdestruct functions. The grenade is launched by a standard rie bullet and the soldier can continue to engage
threats with rie re if he has the need.* [5] This is based
on the older SIMON breach grenade, which is a muzzlered grenade for breaching doors. The SIMON launches
using a bullet trap to capture a standard 5.56 bullet red
from an M4 carbine or M16.* [6]
23.1.2
Standalone
Muzzle-red
Royal Thai Army Volunteer Regiment soldier with M79 in Vietnam, 1967
150
erally function as large-caliber machine guns with a relatively low rate of re, used from an emplaced position or
mounted on a vehicle or vessel in a similar way to a heavy
Since grenade launchers require relatively low internal machine gun.* [9]* [10]* [11]
pressure and only a short barrel, a lightweight launcher
can be mounted under the barrel of a traditional rie.
This reduces the weight the soldier must carry by elim- 23.2 See also
inating the grenade launcher's buttstock and makes the
grenade launcher available for use at a moment's notice.
Comparison of automatic grenade launchers
Underbarrel 40mm grenade launchers generally have
Hand mortar
their own trigger group; to re, one simply changes grips,
disengages the safety, and pulls the trigger. In Western
List of grenade launchers
systems, the barrel slides forward or pivots to the side
Recoilless rie
to allow reloading; most re a 4046mm grenade cartridge.* [8]
Rocket-propelled grenade
Soviet/Russian launchers are instead loaded from the
muzzle, with the cartridge casing axed to the projectile in the style of a mortar shell. For aiming, underbarrel 23.3 References
grenade launchers typically use a separate sight attached
to the rie's frame alongside the iron sights, or attach a [1] Zaloga, Steven (19 July 2011). HMMWV Humvee 1980ip-up sight directly to one of the rie's sights.
2005: US Army tactical vehicle. Osprey Publishing. p. 10.
23.1.4
Attached
23.1.5
Automatic
ISBN 978-1-84908-968-5.
[2] http://www.tekidanki.com/book/ Imperial Japanese
Grenade Ries and Launchers By Gregory A. Babich and
Thomas A. Keep
[3] George, John B. (LTC), Shots Fired In Anger, NRA Press
(1981), ISBN 0-935998-42-X, p. 343
[4] https://www.fbo.gov/index?s=opportunity&mode=
form&id=a0e2f0e52cfbd2e696b608d30fb6260f&tab=
core&tabmode=list&print_preview=1
[5] REFAIM Advanced Infantry Weapon System Israel Military Industries (Israel)". Defense Update. 2004.
[6] SIMON. Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.
[7] Rottman, Gordon (18 September 2012). US Army Infantryman in Vietnam 1965-73. Osprey Publishing. p.
57. ISBN 978-1-78200-468-4.
[8] Clancy, Tom (1996). Marine: A Guided Tour of a Marine
Expeditionary Unit. Berkley Books. pp. 8687. ISBN
978-0-425-15454-0.
151
Chapter 24
24.1 Classication
The term was originally used to refer to the generation
of machine guns which came into widespread use in
World War I. These red standard rie cartridges such
as the 7.92 Mauser, .303 British or 7.6254mmR, but
featured heavy construction, elaborate mountings, and
water-cooling mechanisms that enabled long-range sustained automatic re with excellent accuracy. However,
these advantages came at the cost of being too cumber-
152
153
24.2 History
In the late 19th century, Gatling guns and other externally
powered types such as the Nordenfelt were often made in
a variety of calibers, such as 0.5-inch and 1-inch. Due to
their multiple barrels, overheating was not so much of an
issue, but they were also quite heavy.
When Maxim developed his recoil-powered machine gun
using a single barrel, his rst main design weighed a modest 26 pounds (11.8 kg) and red a .45-inch rie-caliber
bullet from a 24-inch barrel. A famous photo of Maxim
showed him picking it up by its 15-pound tripod (6.8 kg)
with one arm. It was similar to present-day medium machine guns, but it could not be red for extended periods
due to overheating. As a result, Maxim created a water
jacket cooling system to enable it to re for extended periods. However, this added signicant weight, as did the
change to more powerful rie cartridges.
The lightest of the new designs were not capable of sustained automatic re, as they did not have water jackets
and were fed from comparatively small magazines. Essentially machine ries with a bipod, weapons like the
Lewis Gun, Chauchat and the Madsen were portable by
one soldier, but were made for single and burst re.
The medium designs oered greater exibility, either being tted with a bipod in the light machine gun role, or
on a tripod or other weapon mount as medium machine
guns. An example was the Hotchkiss M1909 machine
gun weighing 27.6 lb (12.2 kg) tted with a mini-tripod
and using linkable 30-round ammunition strips, but there
was also a belt-fed version.
This type of multipurpose machine gun would be further developed, and later given names such as universal machine gun, and later "general-purpose machine
gun", and would eventually supplant the water-cooled designs. These later designs used quick-change barrel replacement to reduce overheating, which further reduced
the weapon's weight, but at the cost of increasing the soldier's load due to the extra barrels. Some earlier designs
like the Vickers had this feature, but it was mainly for
barrel wear, as they normally used water cooling. It was
in the 1920s and 1930s that quick barrel replacement for
154
cooling purposes became more popular in weapons such
as the ZB vz. 30, the Bren, the MG34 and the MG42.
Chapter 25
Helicopter
Helicoptersredirects here.
For other uses, see early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter
Helicopter (disambiguation).
have been developed for specialized applications such as
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and unmanned drones.
25.1 History
25.1.1 Early design
See also: Bamboo-copter and Science and inventions of
Leonardo da Vinci
The earliest references for vertical ight have come
156
25.1. HISTORY
roplane No. 1 lifted its pilot into the air about two feet
(0.6 m) for a minute.* [6] The Gyroplane No. 1 proved
to be extremely unsteady and required a man at each corner of the airframe to hold it steady. For this reason, the
ights of the Gyroplane No. 1 are considered to be the
rst manned ight of a helicopter, but not a free or untethered ight.
157
Castelluccio, while working in Europe, demonstrated one
of the rst successful applications of cyclic pitch.* [6]
Coaxial, contra-rotating, biplane rotors could be warped
to cyclically increase and decrease the lift they produced.
The rotor hub could also be tilted forward a few degrees,
allowing the aircraft to move forward without a separate
propeller to push or pull it. Pateras-Pescara was also able
to demonstrate the principle of autorotation. By January
1924, Pescara's helicopter No. 1 was tested but was found
to be underpowered and could not lift its own weight. His
2F fared better and set a record.* [24] The British government funded further research by Pescara which resulted
in helicopter No. 3, powered by a 250 hp radial engine
which could y for up to ten minutes.* [25]* [26]
That same year, fellow French inventor Paul Cornu designed and built a Cornu helicopter that used two 20-foot
(6 m) counter-rotating rotors driven by a 24 hp (18 kW)
Antoinette engine. On 13 November 1907, it lifted its
inventor to 1 foot (0.3 m) and remained aloft for 20 seconds. Even though this ight did not surpass the ight
of the Gyroplane No. 1, it was reported to be the rst
truly free ight with a pilot.* [n 1] Cornu's helicopter completed a few more ights and achieved a height of nearly Oehmichen N2, 1923
6.5 feet (2 m), but it proved to be unstable and was abandoned.* [6]
On 14 April 1924 Frenchman tienne Oehmichen set the
The Danish inventor Jacob Ellehammer built the rst helicopter world record recognized by the Fdration
ying his quadrotor
Ellehammer helicopter in 1912. It consisted of a frame Aronautique Internationale (FAI),
*
helicopter
360
meters
(1,181
ft).
[27]
On 18 April 1924,
equipped with two counter-rotating discs, each of which
Pescara
beat
Oemichen's
record,
ying
for a distance of
was tted with six vanes around its circumference. After
*
736
meters
[24]
(nearly
a
half
mile)
in
4
minutes and 11
indoor tests, the aircraft was demonstrated outdoors and
seconds
(about
8
mph,
13
km/h),
maintaining
a height of
made several free take-os. Experiments with the heli*
six
feet
(1.8
meters).
[28]
On
4
May,
Oehmichen
set the
copter continued until September 1916, when it tipped
rst
1
km
closed-circuit
helicopter
ight
in
7
minutes
40
over during take-o, destroying its rotors.* [23]
seconds with his No. 2 machine.* [6]* [29]
25.1.3
Early development
In the USA, George de Bothezat built the quadrotor helicopter de Bothezat helicopter for the United States Army
Air Service but the Army cancelled the program in 1924,
and the aircraft was scrapped.
Albert Gillis von Baumhauer, a Dutch aeronautical engineer, began studying rotorcraft design in 1923. His rst
prototype ew(hoppedand hovered in reality)
on 24 September 1925, with Dutch Army-Air arm Captain Floris Albert van Heijst at the controls. The controls
that Captain van Heijst used were Von Baumhauer's inventions, the cyclic and collective. Patents were granted
to von Baumhauer for his cyclic and collective controls
by the British ministry of aviation on 31 January 1927,
under patent number 265,272.
158
25.1. HISTORY
159
25.1.5
Birth of an industry
160
25.1.6
Turbine age
In 1951, at the urging of his contacts at the Department of the Navy, Charles Kaman modied his K-225
synchropter a design for a twin-rotor helicopter concept rst pioneered by Anton Flettner in 1939, with the
aforementioned Fl 265 piston-engined design in Germany with a new kind of engine, the turboshaft engine. This adaptation of the turbine engine provided a
large amount of power to Kaman's helicopter with a lower
weight penalty than piston engines, with their heavy engine blocks and auxiliary components. On 11 December 1951, the Kaman K-225 became the rst turbinepowered helicopter in the world. Two years later, on
26 March 1954, a modied Navy HTK-1, another Kaman helicopter, became the rst twin-turbine helicopter
to y.* [44] However, it was the Sud Aviation Alouette
II that would become the rst helicopter to be produced
with a turbine-engine.* [45]
25.2 Uses
Due to the operating characteristics of the helicopterits
ability to take o and land vertically, and to hover for extended periods of time, as well as the aircraft's handling
properties under low airspeed conditions it has been
chosen to conduct tasks that were previously not possible
with other aircraft, or were time- or work-intensive to accomplish on the ground. Today, helicopter uses include
transportation of people and cargo, military uses, construction, reghting, search and rescue, tourism, medical transport, law enforcement, agriculture, news and media, and aerial observation, among others.* [46]
161
ambulances is often referred to as MEDEVAC, and patients are referred to as being airlifted, or medevaced. This use was pioneered in the Korean war, when
time to reach a medical facility was reduced to 3 hours
from 8 hours in World War II, and again to 2 hours by
the Vietnam war.* [50]
Police departments and other law enforcement agencies
use helicopters to pursue suspects. Since helicopters can
achieve a unique aerial view, they are often used in conjunction with police on the ground to report on suspects'
locations and movements. They are often mounted with
lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night pursuits.
Military forces use attack helicopters to conduct aerial attacks on ground targets. Such helicopters are mounted
with missile launchers and miniguns. Transport helicopters are used to ferry troops and supplies where the
lack of an airstrip would make transport via xed-wing
aircraft impossible. The use of transport helicopters
to deliver troops as an attack force on an objective is
referred to as Air Assault. Unmanned Aerial Systems
(UAS) helicopter systems of varying sizes are being developed by companies for military reconnaissance and
surveillance duties. Naval forces also use helicopters
equipped with dipping sonar for anti-submarine warfare,
since they can operate from small ships.
Rotor system
Most helicopters have a single main rotor, but torque created as the engine turns the rotor causes the body of the
helicopter to turn in the opposite direction to the rotor (by
conservation of angular momentum). To eliminate this
eect, some sort of anti-torque control must be used.
The design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300
was a smaller tail rotor. The tail rotor pushes or pulls
against the tail to counter the torque eect, and this has
become the most common conguration for helicopter
design.
162
The use of two or more horizontal rotors turning in opposite directions is another conguration used to counteract
the eects of torque on the aircraft without relying on an
anti-torque tail rotor. This allows the power normally required to drive the tail rotor to be applied to the main
rotors, increasing the aircraft's lifting capacity. There
are several common congurations that use the counterrotating eect to benet the rotorcraft:
25.4. FLIGHT
25.3.4
163
Flight controls
25.4 Flight
164
25.4.2
As a helicopter moves from hover to forward ight it enters a state called translational lift which provides extra
lift without increasing power. This state, most typically,
occurs when the airspeed reaches approximately 1624
knots, and may be necessary for a helicopter to obtain
ight.
25.4.3
Forward ight
25.5.1
Limitations
The main limitation of the helicopter is its low speed. During the closing years of the 20th century designers beThere are several reasons a helicopter cannot y as fast gan working on helicopter noise reduction. Urban comas a xed-wing aircraft. When the helicopter is hovering, munities have often expressed great dislike of noisy air-
25.5. SAFETY
165
craft, and police and passenger helicopters can be unpopular. The redesigns followed the closure of some city
heliports and government action to constrain ight paths
in national parks and other places of natural beauty.
jamming and subsequent fatalities, whereas loss of lubrication can trigger onboard re. Another weakness of mechanical gearboxes is their transient power limitation, due
to structural fatigue limits. Recent EASA studies point to
as prime cause of crashes just
Helicopters also vibrate; an unadjusted helicopter can engines and transmissions
*
after
pilot
errors.
[62]
easily vibrate so much that it will shake itself apart. To
reduce vibration, all helicopters have rotor adjustments By contrast, electromagnetic transmissions do not use any
for height and weight. Blade height is adjusted by chang- parts in contact; hence lubrication can be drastically siming the pitch of the blade. Weight is adjusted by adding plied, or eliminated. Their inherent redundancy oers
or removing weights on the rotor head and/or at the blade good resilience to single point of failure. The absence of
end caps. Most also have vibration dampers for height gears enables high power transient without impact on serand pitch. Some also use mechanical feedback systems vice life. The concept of electric propulsion applied to heto sense and counter vibration. Usually the feedback sys- licopter and electromagnetic drive was brought to reality
tem uses a mass as a stable referenceand a linkage by Pascal Chretien who designed, built and ew world's
from the mass operates a ap to adjust the rotor's angle rst man-carrying, free-ying electric helicopter. The
of attack to counter the vibration. Adjustment is di- concept was taken from the conceptual computer-aided
cult in part because measurement of the vibration is hard, design model on September 10, 2010 to the rst testing
usually requiring sophisticated accelerometers mounted at 30% power on March 1, 2011 - less than six months.
throughout the airframe and gearboxes. The most com- The aircraft rst ew on August 12, 2011. All developmon blade vibration adjustment measurement system is ment was conducted in Venelles, France.* [63]* [64]
to use a stroboscopic ash lamp, and observe painted
markings or coloured reectors on the underside of the
rotor blades. The traditional low-tech system is to mount 25.5.3 Hazards
coloured chalk on the rotor tips, and see how they mark
a linen sheet. Gearbox vibration most often requires a As with any moving vehicle, unsafe operation could result
gearbox overhaul or replacement. Gearbox or drive train in loss of control, structural damage, or loss of life. The
vibrations can be extremely harmful to a pilot. The most following is a list of some of the potential hazards for
severe being pain, numbness, loss of tactile discrimina- helicopters:
tion and dexterity.
Settling with power, also known as a vortex ring
state, is when the aircraft is unable to arrest its de25.5.2 Transmission
scent due to the rotor's downwash interfering with
the aerodynamics of the rotor.* [65]
Retreating blade stall is experienced during high
speed ight and is the most common limiting factor
of a helicopter's forward speed.
Ground resonance is a self-reinforcing vibration that
occurs when the lead/lag spacing of the blades of an
articulated rotor system becomes irregular.
Low-G condition is an abrupt change from a positive G-force state to a negative G-force state that
results in loss of lift (unloaded disc) and subsequent
roll over. If aft cyclic is applied while the disc is unloaded, the main rotor could strike the tail causing
catastrophic failure.* [66]
Pascal Chretien hovering the world's rst manned electric helicopter, August 2011
166
Brownout in dusty conditions or whiteout in snowy
conditions.
Monocopter
Transverse ow eect
Utility helicopter
Wire strike protection system, WSPSfor helicopters.
Helicopter Underwater Escape Training
25.9. REFERENCES
25.9 References
25.9.1
Notes
[1] Leishman, Dr. J. Gordon, Technical Fellow of AHS International. Paper.64th Annual Forum of the American
Helicopter Society International, on the aerodynamic capability of Cornu's design, arguing that the aircraft lacked
the power and rotor loading to lift free of the ground in
manned ight.
25.9.2
Footnotes
167
[7] Hirschberg, Michael J. and David K. Dailey, Sikorsky [27] "FAI Record ID #13093 - Straight distance. Class E for. US and Russian Helicopter Development In the 20th Cenmer G (Helicopters), piston " Fdration Aronautique Intury, American Helicopter Society, International. 7 July
ternationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
2000.
[28] Rumerman, Judy. Helicopter Development in the Early
[8] Leishman, J. Gordon. Principles of Helicopter AerodyTwentieth Century. Centennial of Flight Commission.
namics. Cambridge aerospace series, 18. Cambridge:
Retrieved 28 November 2007.
Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521[29] The JAviator Quadrotor Rainer K. L. Trummer, Uni85860-1. Web extract
versity of Salzburg, Austria, 2010, p. 21
[9] Early Helicopter History. Aerospaceweb.org. Re[30] Asboth Helicopter. The Evening Post (New Zealand),
trieved: 12 December 2010.
27 April 1935.
[10] Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from Antiquity
Through the First World War. Oxford University Press. [31] The rst Hungarian helicopter (1929) on YouTube Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
8 May 2003. pp. 2223. ISBN 978-0-19-516035-2.
[11] Goebel, Greg. The Invention Of The Helicopter. at
the Wayback Machine (archived June 29, 2011) Vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 11 November 2008.
[12] Fay, John. Helicopter Pioneers Evolution of Rotary
Wing Aircraft. Helicopter History Site. Retrieved: 28
November 2007.
[13] Charles H. Gibbs-Smith, Origins of the helicopter, New
Scientist, vol. 14.4, May 3, 1962, p. 229.
[37] "FAI Record ID #13059 - Straight distance. Class E former G (Helicopters), piston " Fdration Aronautique Internationale (FAI). Retrieved: 21 September 2014.
168
[58]
The UH-60 permits 95101% rotor RPM UH-60 limits US Army Aviation. Retrieved 2 January 2010
[62] EASA-Annual-Safety-Review-2011
[46] Helicopter Pilot Training Schools, Careers - Heliventures. heliventuresnc.com. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[47] Day, Dwayne A.Skycranes. Centennial of Flight Commission. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
[70] Crash Death, 3rd in 8 Years, Not Expected to Halt Future Shows. Retrieved: 12 December 2010.
[49] Butler, Bret W. et al. Appendix A: Glossary: Fire Behavior Associated with the 1994 South Canyon Fire on
Storm King Mountain, Colorado research paper. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, September 1998. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
[50] Kay, Marcia Hillary. "40 Years Retrospective: It's Been
a Wild Ride" Rotor & Wing, August 2007. Accessed: 8
June 2014. Archived June 8, 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
[51] Frawley 2003, p. 151.
[52] Helicopter Yaw Control Methods. aerospaceweb.org.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[53] Jay Leno's EcoJet Concept. businessweek.com, 2
November 2006. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[54] Skinner, Tony. Eurosatory 2010: Industry celebrates
rst helicopter biofuel ight. shephard.co.uk, 17 June
2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[78] Record File n9917. Fdration Aronautique Internationale. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
[79] Record File n11597. Fdration Aronautique Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
[80] Record File n15629. Fdration Aronautique Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
169
[81] First electric helicopter. Guinness World Record. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
25.9.3
Bibliography
Chapter 26
HK 4.630mm
The HK 4.630mm cartridge is a type of ammunition used in the Heckler & Koch MP7 Personal Defense
Weapon (PDW) and by the canceled HK UCP pistol. It
is an indigenous German cartridge. It is designed to minimize weight and recoil while increasing penetration of
body armor. It features a bottlenecked case and a pointed,
steel-core, brass-jacketed bullet.
26.1 Development
The 4.630mm cartridge was introduced in 1999.* [7] It
was designed as a competitor to FN Herstal's 5.728mm
cartridge.* [7]
26.2 Overview
Compared to conventional assault rie cartridges one can
carry more 4.630mm ammunition due to the lighter
weight and relative small dimensions of the cartridge.
Also, due to the lighter weight of the bullet, aiming in
rapid re is much easier as recoil depends much on the
weight of the bullet. CRISAT testing shows that because
of the smaller diameter and high projectile velocity of
the round, body armor penetration is higher than that of
traditional handgun projectiles.
The 4.630mm cartridge has been claimed to have low
terminal eectiveness, especially by those who disagree
with theenergy dumptheory of wound ballistics, such
as Dr. Martin Fackler. Kinetic energy manifests itself
in human tissue in temporary stretching of tissue, which
most tissue except for liver and neural tissue is able to
withstand with little ill eect. Slow motion videos show
that the 4.6 mm bullet yaws at impact on soft tissue. This
is because the center of mass of the bullet is behind the
geometric center, causing the back to come forward at
impact, and therefore tumbling through soft tissue, creating much greater damage, according to the energy
dumptheory.
A series of tests performed by NATO in the United Kingdom and France indicated that 5.728mm was the supe- The 4.630mm has 0.87 ml (13.4 grains) H2 O cartridge
rior cartridge.* [7] The results of the NATO tests were case capacity.
170
26.4. VARIATIONS
171
projectile will be travelling at approximately Mach 1.25
(425 m/s) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions
at sea level (air density = 1.225 kg/m3 ).
0.112 - 0.119
Accuracy at 50 m: 5 cm
Eective service range: 200 m (656 ft)
26.4 Variations
26.4.1
2 g DM11 Penetrator Ultimate ComThe Ball 4.630mm cartridge weighs 7 g and is loaded
bat
with a 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket projectile with a PbSb
172
0.171 - 0.187
26.4.4
Others
VBR produces a 4.630mm 2-part controlled fragmenting projectile that is claimed to increase the content of
the permanent wound cavity and double the chance to hit
a vital organ.* [14] Heckler & Koch claims that the CPS
Black Tip ammunition made by Fiocchi has a muzzle energy of approximately 525 J that would be comparable to
9 mm rounds.* [15]* [16]
26.6 References
[1] Gourley, S.; Kemp, I (November 26, 2003). The Duellists. Jane's Defence Weekly (ISSN: 02653818), Volume
40 Issue 21, pp 2628.
[2] Suppressed Rie Cartridges. Raygun.10gauge.de.
2007-04-23. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[3] Fiocchi - SFN Ram. Heckler-koch.com. Retrieved
2012-02-13.
[4] Heckler & Koch :: Products. Hkd-usa.com. Retrieved
2012-02-13.
[5] Modern Firearms - Pistol / SMG ammunition.
World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[6] 01 December 2011, brochure (Energy and velocity at
10 m)". Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[7] Oliver, David (2007). Global Defence Review In the
Line of Fire. GDR Publications. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
[8] Current C.I.P. decisions, texts and tables (Free C.I.P. CDROM version download in ZIP and RAR format)
[9] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g German Army 4.630mm Penetrator DM11 cartridge factsheet
[10] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[11] RUAG Ammotec 2.0 g Law Enforcement 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[12] RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Full Metal Jacket 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[13] RUAG Ammotec 2.7 g Full Matal Jacket 4.630mm cartridge factsheet
[14] The 4.6x30 mm B2F cartridge. Fsdip.com. Retrieved
2012-02-13.
[15] Heckler & Koch :: Products. Heckler-koch.de. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
[16] Modern Firearms - Pistol / SMG ammunition.
World.guns.ru. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
26.5.1
Weapons
173
Chapter 27
Infantry
Foot soldierredirects here. For other uses of foot
soldier, see Foot soldier (disambiguation). For the
computer game, see Infantry (computer game).
Infantry is the branch of a military force that ghts on
foot. As the troops who are intended to engage, ght, and
defeat the enemy in face-to-face combat, they bear the
brunt of warfare and typically suer the greatest number of casualties. Historically, as the oldest branch of
the combat arms, the infantry are the tip of the spear of
a modern army, and continually undergo training that is
more physically stressful and psychologically demanding
than that of any other branch of the combat arms.
Ancient Greek infantry: The GrcoPersian wars (449499 BC)
featured the light infantry slinger or peltast, and the heavy infantry hoplites; the shield of the hoplite had an anti-arrow curtain, meant to thwart the archer.
27.3. ORGANIZATION
fare, the classications of infantrymen have changed to
reect their formations on the battleeld, such as line
infantry, and to reect the modes of transporting them
to the battleeld, and the tactics deployed by specic
types of combat units, such as mechanized infantry and
airborne infantry.
175
However, the most eective method for locating all enemy forces on a battleeld is still the infantry patrol, and it
is the presence or absence of infantry that ultimately determines whether a particular piece of ground has been
captured or held. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most eectively as part of a combined
arms team including artillery, armour, and combat aircraft. Studies have shown that of all casualties, 50% or
more were caused by artillery; about 10% were caused by
machine guns; 25% by rie re; and 1% or less by hand
grenades, bayonets, knives, and unarmed combat combined. Several infantry divisions both Allied and Axis
in the European theatre of WWII suered higher than
100% combat and non combat casualties and some above
200%, meaning that the number of service personnel that
became casualties was greater than the sum of the divisions' available service positions at full strength.
27.3 Organization
176
Among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium French Resistance WWII, Iraqi Insurgency in Fallujah,
infantry.This refers to infantry which are less heavily American Revolution)
armed and armored than heavy infantry, but more so than
light infantry. In the early modern period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of 27.5 Operations
body armour up until the 20th century. In the United
States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavierthan light infantry but
lighterthan mechanized infantry.
27.4 Doctrine
Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry
forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles,
and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard
and fast rules.
Doctrine provides a very common frame of reference
across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms
operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks. Doctrine links theory, history,
experimentation, and practice. Its objective is to foster
initiative and creative thinking in the infantry's tactical
combat environment.
Doctrine provides the infantry with an authoritative body
of statements on how infantry forces conduct operations
and provides a common lexicon for use by infantry planners and leaders.
Until the development of eective artillery doctrines, and
more recently precision guided air delivered ordnance,
the most recent important role of the infantry has been
as the primary force of inicting casualties on the enemy
through aimed re. The infantry is also the only combat
arm which can ultimately decide whether any given tactical position is occupied, and it is the presence of infantry
that assures control of terrain. While the tactics of employment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the
infantry have not.
Retractions to the Infantry Concept: Although it has
been argued that infantrymen and infantry tactics are an
antiquated and careless use of military manpower and resources, the infantryman has proven quite capable against
many units, some much more technological and modern.
For instance, light infantry has proven to be extremely
eective against tank units by being able to take advantage of a tank's limited eld of re and sight by swarming enemy armor units and utilizing anti-armor rockets at
long range or grenades in close quarters. Furthermore,
air bombardment that can atten entire cities has been
shown to be completely useless against a dug in infantry
force. (see Battle of Stalingrad 19421943) Even an occupying enemy police force has sometimes been shown
to be a poor match against a clandestine infantry that
has secreted itself away in a civilian population. (see
27.5. OPERATIONS
cations to advantage; these reduce exposure to enemy re
compared with advancing forces. Eective defense relies
on minimizing losses to enemy re, breaking the enemy's
cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.
Patrol is the most common infantry mission. Full-scale
attacks and defensive eorts are occasional, but patrols
are constant. Patrols consist of small groups of infantry
moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to locate
the enemy and destroy them when found. Patrols are used
not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy
inltration or insurgencies are possible.
Pursuit is a role that the infantry often assumes. The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of withdrawing enemy forces which are not capable of eectively engaging friendly units, before they can build their
strength to the point where they are eective. Infantry
traditionally have been the main force to overrun these
units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue
enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in particular), where faster forces, such as armoured vehicles are
incapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.
177
armored vehicles for transport. These units can quickly
disembark and transition to light infantry, without vehicles, to access terrain which armoured vehicles can't effectively access.
Reconnaissance/intelligence gathering Surveillance
operations are often carried out with the employment of
small recon units or sniper teams which gather information about the enemy, reporting on characteristics such
as size, activity, location, unit and equipment. These infantry units typically are known for their stealth and ability to operate for periods of time within close proximity
of the enemy without being detected. They may engage
high prole targets, or be employed to hunt down terrorist
cells and insurgents within a given area. These units may
also entice the enemy to engage a located recon unit, thus
disclosing their location to be destroyed by more powerful
friendly forces.
Reserve assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in case of enemy inltration. This is usually the best time for infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain equipment.
Escort consists of protecting support units from ambush, Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness
should improve. However, the unit must be ready for departicularly from hostile infantry forces. Combat support
units (a majority of the military) are not as well armed ployment at any point.
or trained as infantry units and have a dierent mission. Construction can be undertaken either in reserve or on
Therefore, they need the protection of the infantry, par- the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for
ticularly when on the move. This is one of the most im- construction of eld positions, roads, bridges, airelds,
portant roles for the modern infantry, particularly when and all other manner of structures. The infantry is often
operating alongside armored vehicles. In this capacity, given this assignment because of the physical quantity of
infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring strong men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's
terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness
friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for and perform other missions. More often, such jobs are
attack by the heavier units.
given to specialist engineering corps.
Base defense Infantry units are tasked to protect certain
areas like command posts or airbases. Units assigned to
this job usually have a large number of military police
attached to them for control of checkpoints and prisons.
Raid/Hostage Rescue Infantry units are trained to
quickly mobilise, inltrate, enter and neutralise threat
forces when appropriate combat intelligence indicates to
secure a location, rescue or capture high prole targets.
178
179
27.7.1
tive gear comprises personal armor of some type. Ancient and medieval infantry used shields and wore leather
and metal alloys for armour, as defense against both missile and hand-to-hand weapons. With the advent of eective rearms such as the arquebus, large numbers of men
could be quickly trained into eective ghting forces, and
such armour became thicker while providing less overall coverage to meet the threat of early rearms, which
could only pierce this armour at close range. Generally, only pikemen were armoured in this fashion; gunners went largely unarmoured, due to the expense as well
as the impracticality of armouring large numbers of men
who were not expected to ght in close quarters where it
would be most useful. As rearms became more powerful
and armour became less useful against gunre, the ratio
of gunners to pikemen increased, until the advent of the
bayonet rendered the latter entirely obsolete. While it became clear to most military leaders that the pikeman was
now outdated, some armies stubbornly clung to the pike,
though pikemen, too, would abandon their armour, until only specialized and prestigious cavalry units retained
any signicant armour coverage; the infantryman from
this point went entirely unarmoured. The return to the
use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend
against high explosive fragmentation and concussion, and
further developments in materials led to eective bulletdefeating body armour such as Kevlar, within the weight
acceptable for infantry use.
Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers reInfantry protective gear includes all equipment designed quire for day-to-day survival in the combat environment.
to protect the soldier against enemy attack. Most protec- These include basic environmental protections, medical
180
27.12. REFERENCES
Aerial bombardment can obliterate, but only infantry can occupy. a Finnish Army ocer,
Operation Allied Force (1999), Kosovo.
There is no beating these [British and Spanish]
troops, in spite of their generals. I always thought
they were bad soldiers, now I am sure of it. I had
turned their right, pierced their centre, and, everywhere, victory was mine but they did not know
how to run!" Field Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult,
Battle of Albuera (16 May 1811), the Peninsular
War (180814).
Americans in 1950 rediscovered something that
since Hiroshima they had forgotten: you may y
over a land forever; you may bomb it, atomize it,
pulverize it and wipe it clean of life but if you desire to defend it, protect it, and keep it for civilization, you must do this on the ground, the way the
Roman legions did, by putting your young men into
the mud.Military historian T.R. Fehrenbach
181
27.12 References
English, John A., Gudmundsson, Bruce I., On Infantry, (Revised edition), The Military Profession
series, Praeger Publishers, London, 1994 ISBN 0275-94972-9
The Times, Earl Wavell, Thursday, 19 April 1945 In
Praise of Infantry
Tobin, James, Ernie Pyle's War: America's Eyewitness to World War II, Free Press, 1997
Airborne infantry
Light infantry
Line Infantry
Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol
Mounted infantry
School of Infantry
Naval Infantry
Air force infantry and special forces units
182
The Lagunari SerenissimaRegiment KFOR:
KFOR Chronicle.
Twenty-second and Last Patrol: A Struggle against
Bad Luck"---a U.S. Army LRRP / Ranger team's
experience during the Vietnam War.
Web Version of U.S. Army Field Manual 3-21.8
The Infantry Rie Platoon and Squad.
Chapter 28
An infantry ghting vehicle (IFV), or mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured
ghting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct re support.* [1] The Treaty on Conventional
Armed Forces in Europe denes infantry ghting vehicle
as an armoured combat vehicle which is designed and
equipped primarily to transport a combat infantry squad,
which is armed with an integral or organic cannon of at
least 20 millimeters calibre and sometimes an antitank
Combat applications in close-combat environments are
missile launcher.
likely to drive up survivability requirements necessitatIFVs are distinct from armoured personnel carrier, which ing the same protection level required by main battle
are purely transport vehicles armed only for self-defense tanks.* [2]
and not intended to provide direct re support. IFVs
also often have improved armour and some have ports
which allow the infantry to re personal weapons while
on board.
They are typically armed with a 20 to 40 mm caliber
autocannon, a coaxial machine gun and sometimes antitank guided missiles (ATGMs). IFVs are usually tracked,
28.2 Doctrine
but there are some wheeled vehicles too. IFVs are much
less heavily armed and armoured than main battle tanks,
but if they carry anti-tank guided missiles they pose a sigIn times of asymmetrical warfare, local crises, and urban
nicant threat to main battle tanks.
combat, the IFV is more important than ever. The IFV
oers a viable compromise between mobility, protection,
and repower. They can be used in high and low intensity
28.1 History
conicts as well as peacekeeping operations. The latest
vehicles, like the Patria AMV, have been designed with
The rst mass-produced IFV was the West German an emphasis on modularity that improves their ability to
Schtzenpanzer 12-3 which served in the Bundeswehr be repaired in the eld.
183
184
28.3.1
Protection
28.3.2 Weaponry
28.3.3
Mobility
185
railway, as required by tracked IFVs. Tracked IFVs need
to have their treads serviced or replaced on a regular basis. The tracks themselves and the weight of the IFVs
tend to be tough on road surfaces, wearing them down
more quickly than a wheeled IFV. Many wheeled IFVs
can extract themselves from a battleeld with specialised
run-at tires when not operating in dicult terrain, while
an IFV with damaged tracks would require its tracks repaired in the eld or an armoured recovery vehicle to tow
it out. However, tracks cannot be punctured like a tire so
are more dicult to immobilize. A weapon that destroys
a track will do signicantly more damage to a wheeled
vehicle (such as destroying the axles in which case the
vehicle will have to be towed away as well). Tracks also
oer far greater o-road mobility, greater obstacle climbing capabilities and greater maneuverability than wheels.
Unlike a wheeled vehicle, a tracked vehicle will not be
stopped by a spike strip or roadblock. A tracked vehicle can reach places a wheeled vehicle can not. As IFVs
often operate alongside tanks, being tracked means that
the vehicle can go everywhere that the tanks go, which a
wheeled vehicle could not. In this case wheeled vehicles
would either have to take another route (leaving the tanks
without IFV support and the IFVs without tank protection) or the tanks would have to stay where the wheeled
IFVs can go and drastically limit their own tactical mobility. Tracked vehicles can attack and operate from and in
areas which a wheeled vehicle could not which is a great
tactical advantage. A wheeled vehicle is limited to roads
and less dicult terrain which may enable the enemy to
predict where they will come from. Generally, therefore,
tracked vehicles have greater mobility except on roads
where wheeled vehicles have a greater top speed. Many
countries only use wheeled armour for support functions
or low-risk peacekeeping missions whereas combat functions are performed by tracked vehicles. A compromise
between wheels and tracks is the band track, which combines some of the advantages of wheels and tracks.
The mobility oered by IFVs is an asset in close combat, especially against xed artillery. American military
simulations in the 1980s concluded a three to ve-fold increase in artillery defence eectiveness when IFVs were
deployed.* [4]
Throughout its life cycle, an IFV is expected to gain 30%
more weight from armour additions. This complicates the
design by requiring additional power.* [5]
List of AFVs
List of modern armoured ghting vehicles
Armoured personnel carrier
Armoured warfare
BMP development
186
Improvised ghting vehicle
Mechanized infantry
Tank desant
Armored car (military)
28.5 References
[1] Martin J. Dougherty, Chris McNab (2010). Combat Techniques: An Elite Forces Guide to Modern Infantry Tactics. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-36824-1. Retrieved
5 March 2011.
[2] Scott Boston (Winter 2004).Toward a Protected Future
Force (PDF). p. 67. Retrieved 3 July 2011.
[3] http://www.military-today.com/apc/bmd_4.htm
[4] Jonathan B. A. Bailey (2004). Field artillery and repower. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-029-3. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
[5] Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security
Studies. Method Publishing. 2004. p. 30. Retrieved 31
March 2011.
Chapter 29
Iraq War
This article is about the war that started in 2003 and heavy criticism within the U.S. and internationally.
ended in 2011. For other conicts in Iraq, see Iraq War
As a result of the war, Iraq held multi-party elections in
(disambiguation).
2005. Nouri al-Maliki became Prime Minister in 2006
and remained in oce until 2014. The Maliki governThe Iraq War* [nb 1] was a protracted armed conict ment enacted policies that were widely seen as having the
that began with the 2003 invasion of Iraq led by the eect of alienating the country's Sunni minority, worsenUnited States. The invasion toppled the government of ing sectarian tensions. In the summer of 2014, the Islamic
Saddam Hussein. The conict, however, continued for State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) launched a military
much of the next decade as an insurgency emerged to oensive in Northern Iraq and declared a worldwide Isoppose the occupying forces and the post-invasion Iraqi lamic caliphate, eliciting another military response from
government.* [43] The United States ocially withdrew the United States and its allies. The Iraq War caused hunfrom the country in 2011, but the insurgency and various dreds of thousands of civilian and military casualties (see
estimates below). The majority of casualties occurred as
dimensions of the civil armed conict continue.
The invasion began on 20 March 2003. The U.S., a result of the insurgency and civil conicts between 2004
joined by the United Kingdom and several coalition al- and 2007.
lies, launched a "shock and awe" surprise attack without
declaring war. Iraqi forces were quickly overwhelmed as
U.S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led
to the collapse of the Ba'athist government; Saddam was
captured in December 2003 and executed by a military
court three years later. However, the power vacuum following Saddam's demise and the mismanagement of the
occupation led to widespread sectarian violence between
Shias and Sunnis as well as a lengthy insurgency against
U.S. and coalition forces. The United States responded
with a troop surge in 2007, identied as the COIN strategy; the heavy American security presence and deals
made between the occupying forces and Sunni militias reduced the level of violence. The U.S. began withdrawing
its troops in the winter of 20072008. The winding down
of U.S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President
Barack Obama. The U.S. formally withdrew all combat
troops from Iraq by December 2011.* [44]
The Bush Administration based its rationale for war principally on the assertion that Iraq possessed weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs) and that Saddam's government
posed an immediate threat to the United States and its
coalition allies.* [45]* [46] Select U.S. ocials accused
Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda,* [47]
while others cited the desire to end a repressive dictatorship and bring democracy to the people of Iraq.* [48]* [49]
After the invasion, no substantial evidence was found
to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and misrepresentation of pre-war intelligence faced
29.1 Background
29.1.1 Iraq disarmament and pre-war intelligence
See also: Lead up to the Iraq War, Rationale for the
Iraq War, Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion
of Iraq, Governments' pre-war positions on invasion of
Iraq, Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, Iraq and weapons
of mass destruction and Stovepiping
Main articles: Iraq disarmament timeline 19902003
and 2002 in Iraq
Prior to September 2002, the CIA was the Bush administration's main provider of intelligence on Iraq. In September, a Pentagon unit called Oce of Special Plans
(OSP), was created by Paul Wolfowitz and Douglas Feith,
and headed by Feith, as charged by then-United States
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, to supply senior
George W. Bush administration ocials with raw intelligence pertaining to Iraq.* [50] Seymour Hersh writes that,
according to a Pentagon adviser, "[OSP] was created in
order to nd evidence of what Wolfowitz and his boss,
Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, wanted to be true
that Saddam Hussein had close ties to Al Qaeda, and
that Iraq had an enormous arsenal of chemical, biological,
187
188
and possibly even nuclear weapons (WMD) that threatened the region and, potentially, the United States. [...]
'The agency [CIA] was out to disprove linkage between
Iraq and terrorism,' the Pentagon adviser told me.* [51]
29.1.2
Yellowcake uranium
In 1990, before the Persian Gulf War, Iraq had stockpiled 550 short tons (500 t) of yellowcake uranium at the
Tuwaitha nuclear complex about 20 kilometres (12 mi)
south of Baghdad.* [56] In late February 2002, the CIA
sent former Ambassador Joseph C. Wilson to investigate
reports (later found to be forgeries) that Iraq was attempting to purchase additional yellowcake from Niger. Wilson returned and informed the CIA that reports of yellowcake sales to Iraq were unequivocally wrong.The
Bush administration, however, continued to allege Iraq's
attempts to obtain additional yellowcake were a justication for military action, most prominently in the January
2003, State of the Union address, in which President Bush
declared that Iraq had sought uranium, citing British intelligence sources.* [57]
In response, Wilson wrote a critical New York Times oped piece in June 2003 stating that he had personally investigated claims of yellowcake purchases and believed
them to be fraudulent.* [58] After Wilson's op-ed, Wilson's wife Valerie Plame was publicly identied as an
undercover CIA analyst by a columnist. This led to a
Justice Department investigation into the source of the
leak. The federal investigation led to the conviction of
I. Lewis (Scooter) Libby, Vice President Dick Cheney's
chief of sta, on charges of perjury and obstruction of
justice.* [56]
On 1 May 2005, the "Downing Street memo" was published in The Sunday Times. It contained an overview of a
secret 23 July 2002, meeting among British government,
Ministry of Defence, and British intelligence gures who
discussed the build-up to the Iraq warincluding direct
references to classied US policy of the time. The memo
stated that Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through
military action, justied by the conjunction of terrorism
and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being xed
around the policy.* [59]
In September 2002, the Bush administration, the CIA and
the DIA said attempts by Iraq to acquire high-strength
aluminum tubes that were prohibited under the UN mon-
29.1. BACKGROUND
itoring program and which they said pointed to a clandestine eort to make centrifuges to enrich uranium for
nuclear bombs.* [60] This analysis was opposed by the
United States Department of Energy (DOE) and INR,
which was signicant because of DOE's expertise in such
gas centrifuges and nuclear weapons programs. The DOE
and INR argued that the Iraqi tubes were poorly suited for
centrifuges and that while it was technically possible with
additional modication, conventional military uses were
more plausible.* [61] A report released by the Institute for
Science and International Security in 2002 reported that
it was highly unlikely that the tubes could be used to enrich uranium.* [62]
189
Colin Powell presented evidence to the United Nations security council that Iraq had an active biological
weapons programs. On 15 February 2011, the defector
a scientist identied as Rad Ahmed Alwan al-Jana
admitted to journalists working for The Guardian newspaper that he lied to the Bundesnachrichtendienst in order
to strengthen the case against Saddam Hussein, whom he
wished to see removed from power.* [71]
Post-invasion views on WMD
In the days immediately following 9/11, the Bush Administration national security team actively debated an invasion of Iraq. A memo written by Sec. Rumsfeld dated 27
November 2001 considers a US-Iraq war. One section of
the memo questions How start?", listing multiple possible justications for a US-Iraq War.* [73]* [74]
190
191
almost 3,000 protests against war in Iraq, with demonstrations on 15 February 2003, being the largest and most
prolic.* [90] Nelson Mandela voiced his opposition in
late January, stating All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi
oil,.* [91]
In February 2003, the US Army's top general, Eric Shinseki, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that it
would takeseveral hundred thousand soldiersto secure
Iraq.* [92] Two days later, US Defense Secretary Donald
Rumsfeld said the post-war troop commitment would be
29.1.4 Opposition to invasion
less than the number of troops required to win the war,
Further information: criticism of the Iraq War, and that the idea that it would take several hundred
legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, legality of the thousand US forces is far from the mark.Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said Shineski's estimate
Iraq War and Protests against the Iraq War
was way o the mark,because other countries would
take part in an occupying force.* [93]
In October 2002 former US President Bill Clinton
warned about possible dangers of pre-emptive military In March 2003, Hans Blix reported that No evidence
action against Iraq. Speaking in the UK on a Labour Party of proscribed activities have so far been foundin Iraq,
conference he said:As a preemptive action today, how- saying that progress was made in inspections which would
ever well-justied, may come back with unwelcome con- continue. He estimated the time remaining for disarmabeing veried through inspections to be months
sequences in the future....I don't care how precise your ment
*
.
[82]
But the US government announced that diplobombs and your weapons are, when you set them o, inmacy
has
failed, and that it would proceed with a coalinocent people will die.* [87]* [88]
tion of allied countriesnamed the "coalition of the willing"to rid Iraq of its alleged WMD. The US government abruptly advised UN weapons inspectors to leave
Baghdad immediately.
There were serious legal questions surrounding the
launching of the war against Iraq and the Bush Doctrine
of preemptive war in general. On 16 September 2004,
Ko Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations,
said of the invasion, I have indicated it was not in conformity with the UN Charter. From our point of view,
from the Charter point of view, it was illegal.
192
2003 invasion of Iraq
See also: Coalition military operations of the Iraq War
and Iraq War order of battle
The rst Central Intelligence Agency team entered Iraq
on 10 July 2002.* [97] This team was composed of members of the CIA's Special Activities Division and was later
joined by members of the US military's elite Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC).* [98] Together, they
prepared for the invasion of conventional forces. These
eorts consisted of persuading the commanders of sev- The invasion was a quick and decisive operation encouneral Iraqi military divisions to surrender rather than op- tering major resistance, though not what the US, British
193
westward and then northward through the western desert
toward Baghdad, while the 1st Marine Expeditionary
Force moved more easterly along Highway 1 through the
center of the country, and 1 (UK) Armoured Division
moved northward through the eastern marshland. The US
1st Marine Division fought through Nasiriyah in a battle
to seize the major road junction and nearby Talil Aireld.
The United States Army 3rd Infantry Division defeated
Iraqi forces entrenched in and around the aireld.
194
29.3.1
On 1 May 2003, President Bush visited the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln operating a few miles west of
San Diego, California. At sunset Bush held his nationally televised "Mission Accomplished" speech, delivered
before the sailors and airmen on the ight deck: Bush
declared victory due to the defeat of Iraq's conventional
forces.
A Marine Corps M1 Abrams tank patrols a Baghdad street after
its fall in 2003 during Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Meanwhile, coalition military forces launched several operations around the Tigris River peninsula and in the
Sunni Triangle. A series of similar operations were
launched throughout the summer in the Sunni Triangle.
Toward the end of 2003, the intensity and pace of insur-
195
called the decision acatastrophic failure* [123] Bremer
served until the CPA's dissolution in July 2004.
Another group created by the multinational force in Iraq
post-invasion was the 1,400-member international Iraq
Survey Group who conducted a fact-nding mission to
nd Iraqi weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programmes. In 2004 the ISG's Duelfer Report* [124] stated
that Iraq did not have a viable WMD program.
on capturing the remaining leaders of the former government. On 22 July, a raid by the U.S. 101st Airborne Division and soldiers from Task Force 20 killed Saddam's
sons (Uday and Qusay) along with one of his grandsons.
In all, over 300 top leaders of the former government
were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel.
Most signicantly, Saddam Hussein himself was captured on 13 December 2003, on a farm near Tikrit
196
in Operation Red Dawn.* [125] The operation was conducted by the United States Army's 4th Infantry Division
and members of Task Force 121. Intelligence on Saddam's whereabouts came from his family members and
former bodyguards.* [126]
With the capture of Saddam and a drop in the number
of insurgent attacks, some concluded the multinational
forces were prevailing in the ght against the insurgency.
The provisional government began training the new Iraqi
security forces intended to police the country, and the
United States promised over $20 billion in reconstruction
money in the form of credit against Iraq's future oil revenues. Oil revenue was also used for rebuilding schools
and for work on the electrical and rening infrastructure. Coalition Provisional Authority director L. Paul Bremer signs
Shortly after the capture of Saddam, elements left out of
the Coalition Provisional Authority began to agitate for
elections and the formation of an Iraqi Interim Government. Most prominent among these was the Shia cleric
Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani. The Coalition Provisional Authority opposed allowing democratic elections
at this time.* [127] The insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area
around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from
Baghdad (Sadr City) to Basra in the south.
29.3.2
As the insurgency grew there was a distinct change in targeting from the coalition forces towards the new Iraqi
Security Forces, as hundreds of Iraqi civilians and police were killed over the next few months in a series of
massive bombings. An organized Sunni insurgency, with
deep roots and both nationalist and Islamist motivations,
was becoming more powerful throughout Iraq. The Shia
Mahdi Army also began launching attacks on coalition
targets in an attempt to seize control from Iraqi security
forces. The southern and central portions of Iraq were
beginning to erupt in urban guerrilla combat as multinational forces attempted to keep control and prepared for
a counteroensive.
The most serious ghting of the war so far began on 31
March 2004, when Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah ambushed
a Blackwater USA convoy led by four U.S. private milThe start of 2004 was marked by a relative lull in violence. itary contractors who were providing security for food
Insurgent forces reorganised during this time, studying caterers Eurest Support Services.* [129] The four armed
Footage from the gun camera of a U.S. Apache helicopter killing
suspected Iraqi insurgents.* [128]
197
contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona, and Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and
small arms re. Subsequently, their bodies were dragged
from their vehicles by local people, beaten, set ablaze,
and their burned corpses hung over a bridge crossing the
Euphrates.* [130] Photos of the event were released to
news agencies worldwide, causing a great deal of indignation and moral outrage in the United States, and prompting an unsuccessful pacicationof the city: the First
Battle of Fallujah in April 2004.
Hopes for a quick end to the insurgency and a withdrawal of US troops were dashed in May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion. Suicide bombers, believed
to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and
Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia
gatherings or civilian concentrations of Shias. As a result,
over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79
U.S. soldiers.
ernment in order to draft a permanent constitution. Although some violence and a widespread Sunni boycott
marred the event, most of the eligible Kurd and Shia populace participated. On 4 February, Paul Wolfowitz announced that 15,000 U.S. troops whose tours of duty had
been extended in order to provide election security would
be pulled out of Iraq by the next month.* [135] February to April proved to be relatively peaceful months comThe oensive was resumed in November 2004 in the pared to the carnage of November and January, with inbloodiest battle of the war so far: the Second Battle of surgent attacks averaging 30 a day from the prior average
Fallujah, described by the U.S. military as the heavi- of 70.
est urban combat (that they had been involved in) since The Battle of Abu Ghraib on 2 April 2005 was an
the battle of Hue City in Vietnam.* [131] During the attack on United States forces at Abu Ghraib prison,
assault, U.S. forces used white phosphorus as an incen- which consisted of heavy mortar and rocket re, under
diary weapon against insurgent personnel, attracting con- which armed insurgents attacked with grenades, small
troversy. The 46day battle resulted in a victory for the arms, and two vehicle-borne improvised explosive decoalition, with 95 U.S. soldiers killed along with approx- vices (VBIED). The U.S. force's munitions ran so low that
imately 1,350 insurgents. Fallujah was totally devastated orders to x bayonets were given in preparation for handduring the ghting, though civilian casualties were low, as to-hand ghting. An estimated 80120 armed insurgents
they had mostly ed before the battle.* [132]
launched a massive coordinated assault on the U.S. miliAnother major event of that year was the revelation of tary facility and internment camp at Abu Ghraib, Iraq. It
was considered to be the largest coordinated assault on a
widespread prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib which received
*
international media attention in April 2004. First reports U.S. base since the Vietnam War. [136]
198
A referendum was held on 15 October in which the new crimes for the involvement in the war crime, that became
Iraqi constitution was ratied. An Iraqi national assem- known as the Mahmudiyah killings.* [141]* [142]
bly was elected in December, with participation from the
Sunnis as well as the Kurds and Shia.* [137]
Insurgent attacks increased in 2005 with 34,131 recorded
incidents, compared to a total 26,496 for the previous
year.* [138]
29.3.4
On 6 June 2006, the United States was successful in tracking Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in
Iraq who was killed in a targeted killing, while attending a meeting in an isolated safehouse approximately 8
km (5.0 mi) north of Baqubah. Having been tracked
by a British UAV, radio contact was made between the
controller and two United States Air Force F-16C jets
which identied the house and at 14:15 GMT, the lead
jet dropped two 500pound (230 kg) guided bombs, a
laser-guided GBU12 and GPS-guided GBU38 on the
building where he was located at. Six othersthree male
and three female individualswere also reported killed.
Among those killed were one of his wives and their child.
199
replacing General George Casey. In his new position, Petraeus oversaw all coalition forces in Iraq and employed
them in the newSurgestrategy outlined by the Bush administration.* [147]* [148] 2007 also saw a sharp increase
in insurgent chlorine bombings.
In a speech made to Congress on 10 September 2007, Petraeusenvisioned the withdrawal of roughly 30,000 U.S.
troops by next summer, beginning with a Marine contingent [in September].* [154] On 13 September, Bush
backed a limited withdrawal of troops from Iraq.* [155]
Bush said 5,700 personnel would be home by Christmas
2007, and expected thousands more to return by July
2008. The plan would take troop numbers back to their
level before the surge at the beginning of 2007.
200
More than half of the members of Iraq's parliament rejected the continuing occupation of their country for the
rst time. 144 of the 275 lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition that would require the Iraqi government
to seek approval from Parliament before it requests an
extension of the UN mandate for foreign forces to be in
Iraq, which expires at the end of 2008. It also calls for
201
proof for these allegations. Further sanctions on Iranian
organizations were also announced by the Bush administration in the autumn of 2007. On 21 November 2007,
Lieutenant General James Dubik, who is in charge of
training Iraqi security forces, praised Iran for its contribution to the reduction of violencein Iraq by upholding its pledge to stop the ow of weapons, explosives and
training of extremists in Iraq.* [185]
Tensions with Turkey
Further information: 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq
202
Shortly after the incursion began, both the Iraqi cabinet and the Kurdistan regional government condemned
Turkey's actions and called for the immediate withdrawal
of Turkish troops from the region.* [205] Turkish troops
withdrew on 29 February.* [206] The fate of the Kurds
and the future of the ethnically diverse city of Kirkuk remained a contentious issue in Iraqi politics.
U.S. military ocials met these trends with cautious
optimism as they approached what they described as
the transitionembodied in the U.S.-Iraq Status of
Forces Agreement which was negotiated throughout
2008.* [193] The commander of the coalition, U.S. General Raymond T. Odierno, noted thatin military terms,
transitions are the most dangerous timein December
2008.* [193]
Spring oensives on Shia militias
Further information: Iraq Spring Fighting of 2008, Siege
of Sadr City and Battle of Basra (2008)
At the end of March, the Iraqi Army, with Coalition
air support, launched an oensive, dubbed Charge of
the Knights, in Basra to secure the area from militias.
This was the rst major operation where the Iraqi Army
did not have direct combat support from conventional
coalition ground troops. The oensive was opposed by
the Mahdi Army, one of the militias, which controlled
much of the region.* [207]* [208] Fighting quickly spread
to other parts of Iraq: including Sadr City, Al Kut, Al
Hillah and others. During the ghting Iraqi forces met
sti resistance from militiamen in Basra to the point that
the Iraqi military oensive slowed to a crawl, with the
high attrition rates nally forcing the Sadrists to the ne-
203
An Iraqi soldier and vehicles from the 42nd Brigade, 11th Iraqi
Army Division during a reght with armed militiamen in the
Sadr City district of Baghdad 17 April 2008.
gotiating table.
Following talks with Brig. Gen. Qassem Suleimani,
General David Petraeus in testimony before Congress on 8 April
commander of the Qods brigades of Iran's Revolutionary 2008.
Guard Corps, and the intercession of the Iranian government, on 31 March 2008, alSadr ordered his followers
to ceasere.* [209] The militiamen kept their weapons.
Iraqi security forces rearm
By 12 May 2008, Basra residents overwhelmingly reported a substantial improvement in their everyday lives
according to the New York Times. Government forces
have now taken over Islamic militants' headquarters and
halted the death squads and 'vice enforcers' who attacked
women, Christians, musicians, alcohol sellers and anyone
suspected of collaborating with Westerners, according
to the report; however, when asked how long it would take
for lawlessness to resume if the Iraqi army left, one resident replied, one day.* [208]
In late April roadside bombings continued to rise from a
low in Januaryfrom 114 bombings to more than 250,
surpassing the May 2007 high.
Congressional testimony
Speaking before the Congress on 8 April 2008, General
David Petraeus urged delaying troop withdrawals, saying,
I've repeatedly noted that we haven't turned any corners,
we haven't seen any lights at the end of the tunnel,referencing the comments of then President Bush and former Vietnam-era General William Westmoreland.* [210]
When asked by the Senate if reasonable people could disagree on the way forward, Petraeus said, We ght for
the right of people to have other opinions.* [211]
204
205
stretched from the Sadr City slum in northeast Baghdad
to the square around 5 km (3.1 mi) away, where protesters
burned an egy featuring the face of U.S. President
George W. Bush.* [248] There were also Sunni Muslims
in the crowd. Police said many Sunnis, including prominent leaders such as a founding sheikh from the Sons of
Iraq, took part.* [249]
Election map.
governorate.
206
29.3.8
207
Iraqi security forces transition towards self-reliance
Preparing to buy $13 billion worth of American arms, the
Iraq Defense Ministry intends to transform the country's
degraded conventional forces into a state-of-the-art military and become among the world's biggest customers
for American military arms and equipment. Part of the
planned purchase includes 140 M1 Abrams main battle
tanks. Iraqi crews have already begun training on them.
In addition to the $13 billion purchase, the Iraqis have
requested 18 F-16 Fighting Falcons as part of a $4.2 billion program that also includes aircraft training and maintenance, AIM9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles, laserguided bombs and reconnaissance equipment.* [276] If
approved by Congress, the rst aircraft could arrive in
spring 2013. Under the plan, the rst 10 pilots would be
trained in the United States.* [277]
The Iraqi navy also inaugurated U.S.built Swift Class patrol boat at Umm Qasr, Iraq's main port at the northern
end of the gulf. Iraq is to take delivery of 14 more of
these $20 million, 50foot craft before U.S. forces depart. The high-speed vessels' main mission will be to
protect the oil terminals at alBasra and Khor al-Amiya
through which some 1.7 million barrels a day are loaded
into tankers for export. Two U.S.built oshore support
vessels, each costing $70 million, were expected to be delivered in 2011.* [276]
208
UN lifts restrictions on Iraq
U.S. and Kuwaiti troops closing the gate between Kuwait and Iraq
on 18 December 2011.
29.4 Aftermath
withdrawal
post
U.S.-
209
On 22 July 2013, at least ve hundred convicts, most
of whom were senior members of al-Qaida who had received death sentences, broke out of Iraq's Abu Ghraib
jail when comrades launched a military-style assault to
free them. The attack began when a suicide bomber drove
a car packed with explosives into prison gates.* [296]
James F. Jerey, the United States ambassador in Baghdad when the last American troops exited, said the assault
and resulting escape will provide seasoned leadership
and a morale boost to Al Qaeda and its allies in both Iraq
and Syria ... it is likely to have an electrifying impact on
the Sunni population in Iraq, which has been sitting on
the fence.* [297]
By mid-2014 the country was in chaos with a new government yet to be formed following national elections, and
the insurgency reaching new heights. In early June 2014
the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) took over
the cities of Mosul and Tikrit and said it was ready to
march on Baghdad, while Iraqi Kurdish forces took control of key military installations in the major oil city of
Kirkuk. Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki asked his parliament to declare a state of emergency that would give
him increased powers, but the lawmakers refused.* [298]
In the summer of 2014 President Obama announced the
return of U.S. Forces to Iraq, but only in the form of aerial
support, in an eort to halt the advance of ISIS forces,
render humanitarian aid to stranded refugees and stabilize the political situation.* [299] On 14 August 2014,
Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki succumbed to pressure
at home and abroad to step down. This paved the way
for Haidar al-Abadi to take over On 19 August 2014. In
what was claimed to be revenge for the aerial bombing
ordered by President Obama, ISIS, which by this time
had changed their name to the Islamic State, beheaded
an American journalist, James Foley, who had been kidnapped two years previously. Despite U.S. bombings and
breakthroughs on the political front, Iraq remained in
chaos with the Islamic State consolidating its gains, and
sectarian violence continuing unabated. On 22 August
2014, suspected Shia militants opened re on a Sunni
mosque during Friday prayers, killing 70 worshippers.
Separately, Iraqi forces in helicopters killed 30 Sunni
ghters in the town of Dhuluiya.* [300] A day later, apparently in retaliation for the attack on the mosque, three
bombings across Iraq killed 35 people.* [301]
210
A local memorial in North Carolina in December 2007; U.S. casualty count can be seen in the background.* [302]
211
Endangerment and ethnic cleansing of religious and ethnic minorities by insur- Main articles: Humanitarian crises of the Iraq War and
gents* [176]* [314]* [315]* [316]* [317]
Refugees of Iraq
The child malnutrition rate rose to 28%.* [328] Some 60
Disruption of Iraqi oil production and related energy
security concerns (the price of oil has quadrupled
since 2002)* [318]* [319]
After President Barack Obama was inaugurated in 2009,
some anti-war groups decided to stop protesting even
though the war was still going on. Some of them decided to stop because they felt they should give the new
President time to establish his administration, and others
stopped because they believed that Obama would end the
war.* [320]
29.6.1
Financial cost
The nancial cost of the war has been more than 4.55
billion ($9 billion) to the UK,* [321] and over $845 billion to the US government. According to Nobel Prizewinning economist Joseph E. Stiglitz and Harvard public
nance lecturer Linda J. Bilmes it costs the United States
$720 million a day to wage the Iraq war. This number
takes into account the long-term health care for veterans, interest on debt and replacement of military hardware.* [322]
In March 2013, the total cost of the Iraq War was estimated to have been $1.7 trillion by the Watson Institute
of International Studies at Brown University.* [323] Critics have argued that the total cost of the war to the US
economy is estimated to be from $3 trillion* [324] to $6
trillion,* [325] including interest rates, by 2053.
As of 2011, nearly 3 million Iraqis have been displaced,
in neighA CNN report noted that the United States-led interim with 1.3 million within the Iraq and 1.6 million
*
[336]
More
boring
countries,
mainly
Jordan
and
Syria.
government, the Coalition Provisional Authority lasting
Iraqi
Christians
have
ed
to
neighboring
than
half
of
until 2004 in Iraq had lost $8.8 billion in the Development
*
*
Fund for Iraq. In June 2011, it was reported by CBS countries since the start of the war. [337] [338]
News that $6 billion in neatly packaged blocks of $100
bills was air-lifted into Iraq by the George W. Bush administration, which ew it into Baghdad aboard C130
military cargo planes. In total, the Times says $12 billion
in cash was own into Iraq in 21 separate ights by May
2004, all of which has disappeared. An inspector general's report mentioned that "'Severe ineciencies and
poor management' by the Coalition Provisional Authority would leave no guarantee that the money was properly
212
29.8.1
Iraqi government
29.8.2
213
Attacks against civilians including children through by the BBC found that two-thirds of the world's popubombing of market places and other locations reach- lation believed the U.S. should withdraw its forces from
able by suicide bombers.
Iraq.* [366]
Attacks against civilians by sectarian death squads In 2006 it was found that majorities in the UK and Canada
believed that the war in Iraq was unjustiedand in
primarily during the Iraqi Civil war.
the UK were critical of their government's support of
*
Attacks on diplomats and diplomatic facilities in- U.S. policies in Iraq. [367]
cluding; the bombing of the UN headquarters in According to polls conducted by the Arab American
Baghdad in August 2003 killing the top UN rep- Institute, four years after the invasion of Iraq, 83%
resentative in Iraq and 21 other UN sta mem- of Egyptians had a negative view of the U.S. role in
bers;* [355] beheading several diplomats: two Al- Iraq; 68% of Saudi Arabians had a negative view;
gerian diplomatic envoys Ali Belaroussi and Azze- 96% of the Jordanian population had a negative view;
dine Belkadi,* [356] Egyptian diplomatic envoy al- 70% of the population of the United Arab Emirates
Sherif,* [357] and four Russian diplomats.* [358]
and 76% of the Lebanese population also described
their view as negative.* [368] The Pew Global Attitudes
The February 2006 bombing of the al-Askari
Project reports that in 2006 majorities in the Netherlands,
Mosque, destroying one of the holiest Shiite shrines,
Germany, Jordan, France, Lebanon, Russia, China,
killing over 165 worshipers and igniting sectarian
Canada, Poland, Pakistan, Spain, Indonesia, Turkey, and
strife and reprisal killings.* [359]
Morocco believed the world was safer before the Iraq
War
and the toppling of Saddam, while pluralities in the
The publicised killing of several contractors;
United
States and India believe the world is safer without
Eugene Armstrong, Jack Hensley, Kenneth Bigley,
Saddam
Hussein.* [369]
Ivaylo Kepov and Georgi Lazov (Bulgarian truck
drivers.)* [360] Other non-military personnel
murdered include: translator Kim Sun-il, Shosei
Koda, Fabrizio Quattrocchi (Italian), charity 29.9.2
worker Margaret Hassan, reconstruction engineer
Nick Berg, photographer Salvatore Santoro (Italian)* [361] and supply worker Seif Adnan Kanaan
(Iraqi.) Four private armed contractors, Scott
Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona and
Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and
small arms re, their bodies dragged from their vehicles, beaten and set ablaze. Their burned corpses
were then dragged through the streets before being
hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates.* [362]
Iraqi opinion
29.9.1
International opinion
214
See also
29.14. REFERENCES
United Nations Security Council and the Iraq War
United States military casualties of war
War in Afghanistan (200114)
215
[14] 260 killed in 2003, 15,196 killed from 2004 through 2009
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29.13 Footnotes
[1] The conict is also known as the War in Iraq, the Occupation of Iraq, the Second Gulf War, Gulf War II,
and Gulf War 2. The period of the war lasting from 2003
to 2010 was referred to as Operation Iraqi Freedom by
the United States military.
29.14 References
[22] 33 Ukrainians , 31+ Italians , 30 Bulgarians , 20 Salvadorans , 19 Georgians , 18 Estonians , 16+ Poles , 15
Spaniards , 10 Romanians , 6 Australians , 5 Albanians,
4 Kazakhs , 3 Filipinos and 2 Thais for a total of 212+
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over o-duty soldiers and civilians who commit major
Study of War commentary
and premeditated crimesoutside of U.S. installations.
[200] EU terror list (PDF). Retrieved 23 October 2010.
These major crimes will need to be dened by a joint
committee and the United States retains the right to de[201] U.S. terror list
termine whether or not its personnel were on- or o-duty.
Iraq also maintains primary legal jurisdiction over con[202] NATO chief declares PKK terrorist group. Xinhua
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Chapter 30
30.1 Overview
The JSOC is the joint headquarters designed to study
special operations requirements and techniques; ensure
interoperability and equipment standardization; plan and
conduct joint special operations exercises and training;
and develop joint special operations tactics.* [4] For
this task, the Joint Communications Unit (JCU) is tasked
to ensure compatibility of communications systems and
standard operating procedures of the dierent special operations units.
227
30.1.2
30.1.3
228
Sometime in 2007, JSOC started conducting crossborder operations into Iran from southern Iraq with the
CIA. These operations included seizing members of AlQuds, the commando arm of the Iranian Revolutionary
Guard, and taking them to Iraq for interrogation, as well
as the pursuit, capture or killing of high-value targets
in the war on terror. The Bush administration allegedly
combined the CIA's intelligence operations and covert action with JSOC clandestine military operations so that
Congress would only partially see how the money was
spent.* [32]
30.6. REFERENCES
229
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erations the Yemen government allowed CIA drone opCommand", Washington Post, 4 September 2011.
erations to continue.* [37]
[12] John Pike.Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)".
30.6 References
[1] Jim Frederick (2013).Time: Special Ops. Time (Time
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[4] Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
[5] Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). Stymied Warriors. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
[8] North, Oliver (2010). American Heroes in Special Operations. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-47125.
[9] Naylor, Sean D. (3 Sep 2010). JSOC task force battles Haqqani militants. Army Times. Retrieved 16 May
2011.
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[28] Scahill, Jeremy (22 November 2010). America's Failed
War of Attrition in Afghanistan. Retrieved October 20,
2013.
[29] Scahill, Jeremy (18 January 2013). Dirty Wars. Retrieved October 20, 2013.
230
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2013.
[34] Drone kills two in Somalia: witnesses: Eyewitnesses say
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28 October 2013.
[35] Same US military unit that got Osama bin laden killed
Anwar al-Awlaki. Telegraph.co.uk. 30 September 2011.
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[37] http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/06/world/
delays-in-effort-to-refocus-cia-from-drone-war.
html?_r=0
[38] , Flight Sciences Corporation
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29, 2014.
30.6.1
Further reading
Chapter 31
232
31.1.1
Ammunition feed
31.2 History
31.3.1 1900s1940s
Madsen machine gun (Multi-caliber)
Bergmann MG15 nA Gun (7.92 x 57 mm)
The early INSAS LMG, a weapon of Indian origin.
233
Chapter 32
Machine gun
For other uses, see Machine gun (disambiguation).
A machine gun is a fully automatic mounted or
234
235
Other automatic weapons are subdivided into several categories based on the size of the bullet used, and whether
the cartridge is red from a positively locked closed
bolt, or a non-positively locked open bolt. Full automatic rearms using pistol-caliber ammunition are called
machine pistols or submachine guns largely on the basis of size. Selective re ries ring a full-power rie
cartridge from a closed bolt are called automatic ries
or battle ries, while ries that re an intermediate cartridge are called assault ries. The dierence in construction was driven by the dierence in intended deployment.
Automatic ries (such as the Browning Automatic Rie)
were designed to be a high duty cycle arm for support
of other troops, and were often made and deployed with
quick change barrel assemblies to allow quick replacement of over heated barrels to allow for continued re,
and may have been operated by both the person actually ring the weapon as well as an additional crewman
to assist in providing and caring for ammunition and the
barrels, similar to a reduced version of a squad weapon.
The assault rie generally was made for a more intermittent duty cycle, and was designed to be easily carried and
used by a single person.
Assault ries are a compromise between the size and
weight of a pistol-caliber submachinegun and a full
size traditional automatic rie by ring intermediate
cartridges and allowing semi-automatic, burst, or fullautomatic re options (selective re), often with two or
more of these available on the rie at once.
In certain states, like California, certain weapons that resemble true assault ries, but are only semi-automatic
(autoloading), are categorized as assault weapons and
possession by civilians is generally illegal. Supporters
of gun rights generally consider this application of the
phraseassault weaponto be a misnomer and this term is
in fact seldom used outside of the United States for these
civilian rearms.
236
32.2 Operation
direct impingement
gas piston
32.3. HISTORY
237
bers. As each round is red, electrically, the car- cases and can vary depending which language and exact
riage moves back rotating the chamber which also denition is used.
ejects the spent case, indexes the next live round to
be red with the barrel and loads the next round into
the chamber. The action is very similar to that of the 32.3.1 Early rapid-ring weapons
revolver pistols common in the 19th and 20th centuries, giving this type of weapon its name.
Firing a machine gun produces great amounts of heat.
In a worst-case scenario this may cause a cartridge to
re even when the trigger is not pulled, potentially leading to damage or causing the gun to cycle its action and
keep ring until it has exhausted its ammunition supply or
jammed. To prevent this, some kind of cooling system is
required. Early heavy machine guns were often watercooled; while very eective, the water also added considerable weight to an already bulky design. Air-cooled
machine guns feature quick-change barrels, often carried
by a crew member. The higher the rate of re, the more
often barrels must be changed and allowed to cool. To
minimize this, most air-cooled guns are red only in short
bursts or at a reduced rate of re. Some designs - such as
the many variants of the MG42 - are capable of rates of
re in excess of 1500 rounds per minute.
32.3 History
It would not be until the mid-19th century that successful
machine-gun designs came into existence. The key characteristic of modern machine guns, their relatively high
rate of re and more importantly machine (automatic)
loading, came with the Model 1862 Gatling gun, which
was adopted by the United States Navy. These weapons
were still powered by hand; however, this changed with
Hiram Maxim's idea of harnessing recoil energy to power
reloading in his Maxim machine gun. Dr. Gatling also
experimented with electric-motor-powered models; this
externally powered machine reloading has seen use in
modern weapons as well. The Vandenburg and Miltrailleuse volley (organ) gun concepts have been revived
partially in the early 21st century in the form of electronically controlled, multibarreled volley guns. It is important
to note that what exactly constitutes a machine gun, and
whether volley guns are a type of machine gun, and to
what extent some earlier types of devices are considered
to be like machine guns, is a matter of debate in many
238
In the early and mid-19th century, a number of rapidring weapons appeared which oered multi-shot re,
and a number of semi-automatic weapons as well as
volley guns. Volley guns (such as the Mitrailleuse) and
double barreled pistols relied on duplicating all parts of
the gun. Pepperbox pistols did away with needing multiple hammers but used multiple barrels. Revolvers further reduced this to only needing a pre-prepared magazine using the same barrel and ignitions. However, like
the Puckle gun, they were still only semiautomatic.
32.3. HISTORY
239
in World War II. The trend toward automatic ries, light
machine guns, and more powerful sub-machine guns resulted in a wide variety of rearms that combined characteristics of ordinary ries and machine guns. The
Cei-Rigotti (20th century), Fedorov Avtomat (1910s),
AVS-36 Simonov (1930s), MP44, M2 Carbine, AK47, and M16 have come to be known as assault ries
(after the German term sturmgewehr). Many aircraft
were equipped with machine cannon, and similar cannon
(nicknamed "Pom-pom guns") were used as antiaircraft
weapons. The designs of Bofors of Sweden and Oerlikon
of Switzerland were widely used by both sides and have
greatly inuenced similar weapons developed since then.
Future
A U.S. Navy 7.62 mm GAU-17/A Minigun. It is externally powered by an electric motor (seen on top) that powers the loading,
priming, and ring mechanism. Also, note the spade grips, pintle
mount and rapid cartridge case ejection.
240
train and weighs 85 pounds, factors which may, in some type is one that is disconnected from humans, as part of
circumstances, militate against its deployment.
an armament system, such as a tank coaxial or part of
Metal Storm has developed a new type of machine gun, aircraft's armament. These are usually electrically red
with rates of re up to 1.62 million rounds per minute. and have complex sighting systems, for example the US
The distinguishing features of this technology are the ab- Helicopter Armament Subsystems.
sence of ammunition feed and casing ejection systems Further information: Ground mount
(the only moving parts are the projectiles), and the electronic ignition of the propellant charges.
Closeup of M2 This machine gun is part of a complex armament subsystem; it is aimed and red from the aircraft rather
than directly
241
Chapter 33
Magazine (rearms)
Not to be confused with Magazine (artillery).
33.1 Nomenclature
For other uses, see Magazine (disambiguation).
A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding de- With the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic
rearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911
pistol, the termmagazinewas settled on by the military
and rearms experts, though the termclipis often used
in its place (though only for detachable magazines, never
xed).* [4]* [5]* [6] The dening dierence between clips
and magazines is the presence of a feed mechanism in a
magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower, which a clip
lacks. Use of the term "clip" to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement.* [2]* [7]* [8]* [9]
The Merriam-Webster dictionary denes a clip asa device to hold cartridges for charging the magazines of some
ries; also: a magazine from which ammunition is fed
into the chamber of a rearm.* [10]
33.2 History
The earliest rearms were loaded with loose powder and
a lead ball, and to re more than a single shot without reloading required multiple barrels, such as pepperbox guns and double-barreled shotguns, or multiple
chambers, such as in revolvers. Both of these add bulk
and weight over a single barrel and a single chamber, howA staggered-column 9x19mm Browning Hi-Power pistol box ever, and many attempts were made to get multiple shots
magazine; the top image shows the magazine loaded and ready from a single loading of a single barrel through the use
for use while the lower image shows it unloaded and disassem- of superposed loads.* [11] Breech loading designs such as
bled
the needle gun, and paper cartridges sped the loading process, but successful repeating mechanisms did not appear
vice within or attached to a repeating rearm. Magazines
until self-contained cartridges were developed.
can be removable (detachable) or integral to the rearm.
The magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored
in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded 33.2.1 Gravity magazines
into the chamber by the action of the rearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although The earliest magazines appeared not on rearms, but
this is technically inaccurate.* [1]* [2]* [3]
rather on air guns. Without the need for powder, the magMagazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those
of bolt action express ries that hold only a few rounds
to those for machine guns that can hold as many as one
hundred rounds. Various jurisdictions ban high-capacity
magazines.
242
33.2. HISTORY
parallel to the barrel. Due to the use of a large air reservoir, the rie could re all the shots in its magazine before
the reservoir was depleted enough to require recharging.
Firing was accomplished by raising the muzzle of the gun
to allow the balls to fall to the rear of the magazine, sliding a ball from the magazine into the barrel with a sliding
breech-block, then cocking the hammer (which was connected to a valve) and ring.* [12]
33.2.2
243
The rst magazine-fed rearm to achieve widespread success was the Spencer repeating rie, which saw service
in the American Civil War. The Spencer used a tubular
magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel and it used new rimre metallic cartridges.
The Spencer was successful but the rimre ammunition
did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and destroy
the magazine. It could also injure the user. The lever
action Henry and Winchester ries evolved from the earlier Volcanic and saw service with a number of militaries
including Turkey. Switzerland and Italy adopted similar
designs.* [13]
The new bolt action rie began to gain favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally
a single-shot action that added a tubular magazine in
its 1884 update. The Norwegian Jarmann M1884 was
adopted in 1884 and also used a tubular magazine. The
French Lebel Model 1886 rie also used 8 round tube-fed
magazine.* [14]
Tubular magazines
244
An interesting feature of many late 19th- and early 20thcentury bolt-action ries was the magazine cut-o, sometimes called a feed interrupter. This was a mechanical
device that prevented the rie from loading a round from
the magazine, requiring the shooter to manually load each
individual round as he red, saving the rounds in the magazine for short periods of rapid re when ordered to use
them. Most military authorities that specied them assumed that their riemen would waste ammunition indiscriminately if allowed to load from the magazine all the
Swedish Mauser stripper clip loaded with Swedish 6.555mm
time.* [21] By the middle of World War I, most manufacturers deleted this feature to save costs and manufacturing
The bolt-action Krag-Jrgensen rie, designed in Norway time; it is also likely that battleeld experience had proven
in 1886, used a unique rotary magazine that was built into the futility of this philosophy.
the receiver. Like Lee's box magazine, the rotary magazine held the rounds side-by-side, rather than end-to-end. One of the last new clip-fed, xed-magazine ries widely
Like most rotary magazines, it was loaded through a load- adopted that wasn't a modication of an earlier rie was
ing gate one round at a time, this one located on the side of the M1 Garand rie. The rst semi-automatic rie that
the receiver. While reliable, the Krag-Jrgensen's maga- was issued in large numbers to the infantry, the Garand
zine was expensive to produce and slow to reload. It was was fed by a special eight-round en-bloc clip. The clip
adopted by only three countries, Denmark in 1889, the itself was inserted into the rie's magazine during loading, where it was locked in place. The rounds were fed
United States in 1892,* [17] and Norway in 1894.
directly from the clip, with a spring-loaded follower in the
rie pushing the rounds up into feeding position. When
Clip-fed revolution
empty, the bolt would lock open, and a spring would automatically eject the empty clip, leaving the rie ready
A clip (called chargers by the British) is a device that is to be reloaded. The M14 rie, which was based on inused to store multiple rounds of ammunition together as
33.2. HISTORY
245
99.* [26] Other guns did not adopt all of its features until
his patent expired in 1942: It has shoulders to retain cartridges when it is removed from the rie. It operates reliably with cartridges of dierent lengths. It is insertable
and removable at any time with any number of cartridges.
These features allow the operator to reload the gun infrequently, carry magazines rather than loose cartridges, and
to easily change the types of cartridges in the eld. The
magazine is assembled from inexpensive stamped sheet
metal. It also includes a crucial safety feature for hunting
dangerous game: when empty the follower* [27] stops the
bolt from engaging the chamber, informing the operator
that the gun is empty before any attempt to re.
cremental changes to the Garand action, switched to a The Swiss Army evaluated the Luger pistol using a dedetachable box magazine.* [22] However, the M14 could tachable box magazine in 7.6521mm Parabellum and
also be loaded via 5-round stripper-clips.* [23]
adopted it in 1900 as its standard side arm. The Luger pisThe Soviet SKS carbine, which entered service in 1945, tol was accepted by the Imperial German Navy in 1904.
was something of a stopgap between the semi-automatic This version is known as Pistole 04. In 1908 the German
service ries being developed in the period leading up to Army adopted the Luger to replace the Reichsrevolver in
World War II, and the new assault rie developed by the front-line service. The Pistole 08 (or P.08) was chamGermans. The SKS used a xed magazine, holding ten bered in 919 mm Parabellum. The P.08 was the usual
rounds and fed by a conventional stripper clip. It was a side arm for German Army personnel in both world wars.
modication of the earlier AVS-36 rie, shortened and The M1911 semi-automatic pistol set the standard for
chambered for the new reduced power 7.62x39mm car- most modern handguns and likewise the mechanics of the
tridge. It was rendered obsolete for military use almost handgun magazine. In most handguns the magazine folimmediately by the 1947 introduction of the magazine- lower engages a slide-stop to hold the slide back and keep
fed AK-47 assault rie, though it remained in service for the rearm out of battery when the magazine is empty and
many years in Soviet Bloc nations alongside the AK-47. all rounds red. Upon inserting a loaded magazine, the
The detachable magazine quickly came to dominate post- user depresses the slide stop, throwing the slide forward,
war military rie designs.* [24]
stripping a round from the top of the magazine stack and
chambering it. In single-action pistols this action keeps
the hammer cocked back as the new round is chambered,
33.2.4 Detachable box magazines
keeping the gun ready to begin ring again.
During World War One, detachable box magazines
found favor, being used in all manner of rearms; such
as pistols, light-machine guns, submachine-guns, semiautomatic and automatic ries. However, after the War
to End All Wars, military planners failed to recognize the
importance of automatic ries and detachable box magazine concept, and instead maintained their traditional
views and preference for clip-fed bolt-action ries. As
a result, many promising new automatic rie designs that
used detachable box magazines were abandoned.
As World War II loomed, most of the world's major powers began to develop submachine guns fed by 20- to 40round detachable box magazines. However, of the major powers, only the United States would adopt a generalissue semi-automatic rie that used detachable box magazines; the M1 Carbine with its 15-round magazines.
The Lee-Metford rie, developed in 1888, was one of the
As the war progressed the Germans would develop the
*
rst ries to use detachable box magazine. [25] However,
Sturmgewehr 44 assault rie concept with its 30-round
the rst completely modern removable box magazine was
detachable magazine. After WWII, automatic weapons
patented in 1908 by Arthur Savage for the Savage Model
(left to right)
M1 Garand 8-round en-bloc clip,
M14 20-round magazine,
M16 STANAG 20- and 30-round magazines
246
Detachable box magazine for a SIG SG 550 with studs for stacking multiple magazines together.
SKS internal box magazine.
33.3.1 Tubular
33.3.2
Box
247
zines use en-bloc clips that are loaded into the magazine with the ammunition and that are ejected from
the rearm when empty.
A detachable box magazine is a self-contained
mechanism capable of being loaded or unloaded
while detached from the host rearm. They are attached via a slot in the rearm receiver, usually below the action but occasionally to the side (Sten,
FG42, Johnson LMG) or on top (Madsen machine
gun, Bren gun, FN P90). When the magazine is
empty, it can be detached from the rearm and replaced by another full magazine. This signicantly
speeds the process of reloading, allowing the operator quick access to ammunition. This type of magazine may be straight or curved, the curve being necessary if the rie uses rimmed ammunition or ammunition with a tapered case. Detachable box magazines may be metal or plastic. The plastic magazines are sometimes partially transparent so the operator can easily check the remaining ammunition.
Box magazines are often axed to each other with
clips, tape, straps, or built-in studs to facilitate faster
reloading: aka jungle style.
There are, however, exceptions to these rules. The LeeEneld rie had a detachable box magazine only to facilitate cleaning. The Lee-Eneld magazine did open, permitting rapid unloading of the magazine without having
to operate the bolt-action repeatedly to unload the magazine. Others, like the Breda Modello 30, had a xed
protruding magazine that resembled a conventional detachable box but was non-detachable.
Horizontal
The most popular type of magazine in modern ries and
handguns, a box magazine stores cartridges in a column,
either one above the other or staggered zigzag fashion.
This zigzag stack is often identied as a double-column
or double-stack since a single staggered column is actually two side-by-side vertical columns oset by half of
the diameter of a round. As the rearm cycles, cartridges
are moved to the top of the magazine by a follower driven
by spring compression to either a single feed position or
side-by-side feed positions. Box magazines may be integral to the rearm or removable.
An internal box or xed magazine (also known as
a blind box magazine when lacking a oorplate) is
built into the rearm and is not easily removable.
This type of magazine is found most often on boltaction ries. An internal box magazine is usually
charged through the action, one round at a time.
Military ries often use stripper clips or chargers
permitting multiple rounds, commonly 5 or 10 at a
time, to be loaded at once. Some internal box maga- The P90's magazine has a capacity of 50 rounds, and it
248
ts ush with the weapon's frame.* [29]
The FN P90 personal defense weapon uses the horizontally mounted feeding system; the magazine sits parallel
33.3.3
to the barrel, tting ush with the top of the receiver, and
the ammunition is rotated 90 degrees before being chambered. The AR-57, also known as the AR Five-seven, is
an upper receiver for the AR-15/M16 rie lower receiver,
ring FN 5.728mm rounds from standard FN P90 magazines.
Rotary
Casket
33.3.4 Pan
Often referred to as a drum magazine, the pan magazine diers from other drum magazines in that the cartridges are stored perpendicular to the axis of rotation,
rather than parallel, and are usually mounted on top of
the rearm. This type is used on the Lewis Gun, Bren
Diagram of the Spectre M4 casket magazine.
Gun,* [34] Degtyarev light machine gun and American180 submachine gun. A highly unusual example was
Another form of box magazine, sometimes referred to found on the Type 89 machine gun fed from two 45as a quad-column, can hold a great amount of ammuni- round quadrant-shaped pan magazines (each magazine
tion. It is wider than a standard magazine, but retains had a place for nine 5-round stripper clips).
the same length. Casket magazines can be found on the Media related to Pan magazines at Wikimedia Commons
Suomi KP/31, Hafdasa C-4, Spectre M4, QCW-05 and
on 5.4539mm AK rie derivatives. Magpul has been
granted a patent* [30] for a STANAG compatible cas- 33.3.5 Drum
ket magazine,* [31] and such a magazine was also debuted by SureFire in December 2010, and is now sold Main article: Drum magazine
as the High Capacity Magazine (HCM) in 60 and 100 Today, drum magazines are used primarily for light maround capacities in 5.56mm for AR-15 compatible with chine guns. In one type, a moving partition within a cylinM4/M16/AR-15 variants and other rearms that accept drical chamber forces loose rounds into an exit slot, with
249
Saddle-drum
Before WWII the Germans developed 75-round saddledrum magazines for use in their MG13 and MG15 machine guns. The MG34 machine guns could also use
saddle-drum magazine when tted with a special feed
cover. The 75 rounds of ammunition were evenly distributed in each side of the magazine with a central feed
towerwhere the ammunition is fed to the bolt. The
ammunition was fed by a spring force, with rounds alternating from each side of the double drum so that the gun
would not become unbalanced. The saddle-drum design
was reintroduced in the late 1980s with the 100-round
Beta C-Mag for use in multiple calibres, ries, pistols and
PDWs.
33.3.6 Helical
50- and 100-round drum magazines plus 20- and 30-round box
magazines for Thompson SMG
33.3.7 Hopper
250
and the compatibility of more powerful rie loadings with 33.5 High-capacity magazines
the operation of the machine gun, made this an impractical solution.* [35]
In the United States a number of federal or state laws have
banned high-capacity magazines.* [46] High-capacity or
large-capacity magazines are generally considered to be
those capable of holding more than 10 rounds, although
33.4 STANAG magazine
the denitions vary.* [46]* [47]* [48]
Other nations impose restrictions on magazine capacity
as well. In Canada, magazines are limited to ve or ten
rounds, depending on the rearm.* [49]
33.7 References
[1] NRA Firearms Glossary. National Rie Association.
Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved
2008-06-26.
Two STANAG-compliant magazines: A 20-round Coltmanufactured magazine, and a 30-round Heckler & Koch
High Reliabilitymagazine.
[2] Gun Zone clips vs. magazines. The Gun Zone. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[3] Handgunner's Glossary. Handguns Annual Magazine,
1994. Retrieved 2013-03-21.
[4] United States Army, American Expeditionary Force
(1917). Provisional Instruction on the Automatic Rie,
Model 1915 (Chauchat)., translated from the French edition, 1916
[5] United States Ordanace Dept. (1917). Description of the
Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, Model of 1911.
[6] United States War Dept (1907). Annual Reports of the
Secretary of War.
[7] Magazine. SAAMI. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[8] Cartridge Clip. SAAMI. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[9] Firearms Glossary. National Rie Association.
[10] Dictionary.
[http://www.merriam-webster.com/
dictionary/clip{[}2] Clip"].
Merriam Webster.
Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[11] Charles Winthrop Sawyer (1920). Firearms in American
History, volume III. Cornhill Company, Boston.
[12] Robert D. Beeman, Ph.D. Girandoni style air ries and
pistols - preliminary research presentation..
[13] A Naval Encyclopdia. L. R. Hamersly & Co. 1880.
[14] Military Small Arms Of The 20th Century, 7th Edition,
2000 by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks, p.179-180
33.7. REFERENCES
251
[34] http://www.cairdpublications.com/scrap/armbitguns/
images/Bren%20Guns.jpg
[35] James H. Willbanks. Machine Guns: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. p. 104.
[36] The M16, Gordon L. Rottman, Osprey Publishing,
2011, Page 35-36
[37] Future Weapons, Kevin Dockery, Penguin, 2007, Page
125-126
[38] Watters, Daniel: "The 5.56 X 45mm Timeline: A
Chronology of Development", The Gun Zone, 20002007.
[39] "NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization", NDIA Conference 2008
[40] https://books.google.com/books?id=8RxJxY7wQn0C&
pg=PA125&dq=stanag+magazine&hl=en&sa=
X&ei=GoNKVbGeIseLoQSdoYGQAw&ved=
0CCgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=stanag%20magazine&
f=true Future Weapons, Kevin Dockery, Penguin, 2007,
page 125
[41] https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZqtAAAAQBAJ&
pg=PT147&dq=STANAG+magazine&hl=en&sa=
X&ei=fX84VfHmGMHMsAWg1oDoAw&ved=
0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=STANAG%
20magazine&f=true The Book of Gun Trivia: Essential Firepower Facts. Gordon L Rottman. Osprey
Publishing, Oct 20, 2013
[42] Magpul Invents New Quad-Stack Magazine for ARs
Daily Bulletin. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
[43] David Crane (3 December 2010). DR Exclusive!:
SureFire MAG5-60 and MAG5-100 High Capacity
Magazine (HCM) Quad-StackAR Rie Magazines:
60-Round/Shot and 100-Round/Shot AR (AR-15/M16)
5.56mm NATO Box Magazines for SignicantlyIncreased Firepower during Infantry Combat and
Tactical Engagements of All Sorts. DefenseReview.com
(DR): An online tactical technology and military defense
technology magazine with particular focus on the latest
and greatest tactical rearms news (tactical gun news),
tactical gear news and tactical shooting news. Retrieved
15 November 2014.
[44] http://www.defensereview.com/
mwg-90-rounder-snail-drum-mag-90-rounds-of-immediate-556mm-firepow
Defense Review. MWG 90-Rounder Snail Drum Magazine: 90 Rounds of Immediate 5.56mm Firepower for
Your M4/M4A1 Carbine (or AR-15 Carbine) Posted by:
David Crane June 21, 2009
[45] The Gun Digest Book of the AR-15. Patrick Sweeney.
Gun Digest Books, Sep 9, 2005. page 106
[46] Large Capacity Ammunition Magazines Policy Summary. smartgunlaws.org. Law Center to Prevent Gun
Violence. May 31, 2013. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
[47] Rose, Veronica (January 24, 2013). Laws on High Capacity Magazines. cga.ct.gov. Connecticut General Assembly. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
252
[48] http://www.outdoornews.com/January-2014/
SAFEAct-court-ruling-dumps-7-bullet-limit/
Dumps Magazine Rule
Court
[49] Maximum Permitted Magazine Capacity. Special Bulletin for Businesses No. 72. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 2014-12-08. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
Chapter 34
34.1 History
34.1.1
Previous concepts
34.1.2 Trial by re
In spite of a great amount of theory and pre-war testing, the plans for armoured combat quickly proved themselves outdated. The battleeld did not bog down like
it did in World War I and tended to be much more mobile. This was especially evident in the great sweeping
battles in North Africa and the Soviet Union, where armoured forces executed drives of hundreds of miles. In
these cases the problems with having two designs became
especially evident; the tanks able to go toe-to-toe with
the enemy were generally found miles to the rear, trying to catch up. Those able to maintain the drive were
lightly armoured, and proved easy prey for enemy antitank guns and ries. Tank destroyers were particularly
derided, invariably nding themselves in the wrong place
at the wrong time, attacked by infantry when on their own
and rarely nding their intended prey.
253
254
34.1.3
Centurion Mk 3
Meanwhile the rapid increase in engine power in the aviation world had trickle-down eects in the tank world.
An especially notable example was the deal arranged between Rolls-Royce and Rover, which led to Rolls gaining access to early jet engines while Rover took over
development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine for tank
use. The latter, the 600 bhp Rolls-Royce Meteor, offered such a great improvement in power that the resulting Cromwell and related designs were considered cruisers (light or medium tanks) while oering repower and
armour similar to the infantry tanks. Continued development of the basic Cromwell design led eventually to the
Centurion. This design's armour was able to defeat all
small and medium anti-tank guns, mounted a gun able to
defeat even the largest enemy tanks, and oered manoeuvrability even better than earlier light tank designs. It was
so exible that they referred to it as the universal tank
, and it formed the backbone of post-war British Army
tank units.
An increasing variety of anti-tank weapons and the perceived threat of a nuclear war prioritized the need for
additional armor. The additional armor prompted the
design of even more powerful guns.* [4] The main battle tank thus took on the role the British had once called
the 'Universal tank', exemplied by the Centurion, lling almost all battleeld roles. Typical main battle tanks
were as well armed as any other vehicle on the battleeld,
highly mobile, and well armored. Yet they were cheap
enough to be built in large numbers. The rst Soviet main
battle tank was the T-64* [5] (T-54/55 and T-62 then considered mediumtanks) and the rst American MBT
was the M60 Patton.* [6]
The adoption of ceramic armor as well as greater armor
coverage necessitated by attacks from above by combat
aircraft such as helicopters also resulted in an eective
counter to nuclear explosion radiation.* [7]
By the late 1970s, MBTs were manufactured by China,
France, West Germany, Britain, India, Japan, the Soviet
Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.* [8]
34.2. DESIGN
255
vices.* [13] A relatively new type of remotely detonated
mine, the explosively formed penetrator was used with
some success against American armored vehicles. However, with upgrades to their rear armor, M1s proved to
be valuable in urban combat; at the Battle of Fallujah the
United States Marines brought in two extra companies of
M1s.* [14] Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq.
Nations such as Israel are reducing the size of their tank
eet and procuring more advanced models.* [15]
34.1.5
Though the Persian Gulf War rearmed the role of main 34.2 Design
battle tanks, MBTs were outperformed by the attack helicopter.* [11] Other strategists considered that the MBT
A main battle tank has been ocially described as
was entirely obsolete in the light of the ecacy and speed
a self-propelled armoured ghting vehicle, capable of
*
with which coalition forces neutralized Iraqi armor. [12]
heavy repower, primarily of a high muzzle velocity direct re main gun necessary to engage armoured and
other targets, with high cross-country mobility, with a
34.1.6 Asymmetrical warfare
high level of self-protection, and which is not designed
and equipped primarily to transport combat troops.* [20]
34.2.1 Overview
34.2.2 Countermeasures
where
The United States Army used 1,100 M1 Abrams in the MBT armor is concentrated at the front of the tank,
*
[21]
it
is
layered
up
to
33
centimetres
(13
in)
thick.
course of the Iraq War. They proved to have an unexpectedly high vulnerability to improvised explosive de- Missiles are cheap and cost-eective anti-tank
256
34.2.3 Weaponry
The (Russian designed) Indian T-90 Bhishma has a two-tier protection system.
Main battle tanks are equipped with a main tank gun, and
at least one machine gun.
34.2. DESIGN
be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect re.* [17]
The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely
delivering powerful re while minimizing collateral damage.* [12]
257
M2 Browning or DShK), which can be used against helicopters and low ying aircraft. However, their eectiveness is limited in comparison to dedicated anti-aircraft
artillery. The tank's machine guns are usually equipped
with between 500 and 3000 rounds each.
34.2.4 Mobility
French Leclerc
258
they can even dive into shallow water (5 m (16 ft) with
snorkel). However, treads are not as fast as wheels; the
maximum speed of a tank is about 65 km/h (40 mph)
(72 km/h (45 mph) for the Leopard 2). The extreme
weight of vehicles of this type (45-70 tons) also limits
their speed. They are usually equipped with a 1,200
1,500 hp (8901,120 kW) engine (more than 25,000 cc
(1,526 cu in)), with an operational range near 500 km
(310 mi).
34.2.5 Storage
Main battle tanks have internal and external storage
space. Internal space is reserved for ammunition. External space enhances independence of logistics and can
accommodate extra fuel and some personal equipment of
the crew.* [34]
The Israeli Merkava can even accommodate crewmembers displaced from a destroyed vehicle in its ammunition
compartment.* [29]
34.3 Crew
Emphasis is placed on selecting and training main battle
tank crew-members. The crew must perform their tasks
faultlessly and harmoniously so commanders select teams
taking into consideration personalities and talents.* [12]
34.4 Role
The main battle tank fullls the role the British had once
called the 'universal tank', lling almost all battleeld
roles. They were originally designed in the Cold War
Israeli Merkava Mark IV on a tank transporter
to combat other MBTs.* [17] The modern light tank supThe high cost of MBTs can be attributed in part to the plements the MBT in expeditionary roles and situations
high performance engine-transmission system and to the where all major threats have been neutralized and excess
259
U.S. Marines during the Iraq War ride on an M1A1 Abrams tank
in April 2003.
weight in armor and armament would only hinder mobility and cost more money to operate.
Reconnaissance by MBTs is performed in high-intensity Mechanics at Anniston Army Depot line up an M1 Abrams turret
conicts where reconnaissance by light vehicles would with its hull.
be insucient due to the necessity to 'ght' for information.* [31]
34.5.3 Marketing
In asymmetric warfare, main battle tanks are deployed in
small highly concentrated units. MBTs re only at targets Several MBT models, such as the AMX-40 and OF-40,
at close range and instead rely on external support such as were marketed almost solely as export vehicles.* [31]
unmanned aircraft for long range combat.* [35]
Several tank producers, such as Japan and Israel, choose
Main battle tanks have signicantly varied characteris- not to market their creations for export.* [31] Others have
tics. Procuring too many varieties can place a burden on export control laws in place.
tactics, training, support and maintenance.* [36]
The MBT has a positive morale eect on the infantry
it accompanies.* [37] It also instills fear in the opposing
force who can often hear and even feel their arrival.* [12]
34.5 Procurement
Cruiser tank
Infantry tank
34.5.1
34.5.2
Manufacture
260
34.7 References
Notes
[1] House (1984), Toward Combined Arms Warfare:A Survey
of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization
[2] Tranquiler, Roger, Modern Warfare. A French View of
Counterinsurgency, trans. Daniel Lee, Pitting a traditional
combined armed force trained and equipped to defeat similar military organisations against insurgents reminds one
of a pile driver attempting to crush a y, indefatigably persisting in repeating its eorts.
[3] . .
.. - .: , 197680 ., 8- ,
(Soviet Military Encyclopedia)
[4] Thomas W. Zarzecki (2002). Arms Diusion: The
Spread of Military Innovations in the International System.
Psychology Press. p. 212. ISBN 0-415-93514-8. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[5] T-64 manual (" 64.
. 1984) state T-64
as main battletank, while previous T-62 and T-55
(in corresponding military manuals, like " 62.
.
1968) stated as mediumtanks
[6] MIL-T-45308 state Tank, Main Battle, 105MM Gun,
M60, while MIL-T-45148 state TANK, COMBAT,
FULL-TRACKED, 90MM GUN, M48A2
[28] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Adiabatic Diesel Technology (1987). A review of the state of
the art and projected technology of low heat rejection engines: a report. National Academies. p. 108. Retrieved 2
April 2011.
[29] Robin Fletcher (May 1995). The Crewing and Conguration of the Future Main Battle Tank (PDF). ARMOR:
6-8, 42, & 43. Retrieved 4 May 2011. (HTML version)
[30] Michael Chichester, John Wilkinson (1987). British defence: a blueprint for reform. Brasseys Defence. p. 126.
Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[31] Mary Kaldor, Basker Vashee, World Institute for Development Economics Research (1998). [Restructuring the
Global Military Sector: The end of military Fordism Restructuring the Global Military Sector: The End of Military
Fordism]. Continuum International Publishing Group. p.
108. ISBN 1-85567-428-9. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
34.7. REFERENCES
[32] Brian MacDonald (1997). Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?. McGill-Queen's
Press - MQUP. p. 136. ISBN 0-88629-314-6. Retrieved
2 April 2011.
[33] Michael Green (2008). War Stories of the Tankers: American Armored Combat, 1918 to Today. Zenith Imprint. p.
281. ISBN 978-0-7603-3297-9. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[34] David Miller (2000). The illustrated directory of tanks of
the world. Zenith Imprint. p. 384. ISBN 0-7603-0892-6.
Retrieved 4 April 2011.
[35] David Eshel, Bill Sweetman (25 April 2011). New Designs Suit Tanks For Asymmetric War. The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
[36] Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-rst Century: The Military and International Security Dimensions. Greenwood
Publishing Group. 2003. p. 140. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
[37] Stanley Sandler (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 59. ISBN
1-57607-344-0. Retrieved 5 April 2011.
[38] United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations (1990). Department of Defense Appropriations
for 1991, Part 6. U. S. Govt. Print. O. Retrieved 4
April 2011.
261
Chapter 35
Military helicopter
A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A
military helicopter's mission is a function of its design
or conversion. The most common use of military helicopters is transport of troops, but transport helicopters
can be modied or converted to perform other missions
such as combat search and rescue (CSAR), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), airborne command post, or even
armed with weapons for attacking ground targets. Specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specic missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are attack helicopters, observation helicopters
and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.
35.1.1 Equipment
Armour, re suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection, as
a cost-cutting measure some nations and services have
been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example it has been
reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement
of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version
of the Mil Mi-17.* [1] These helicopters without armour
and electronic counter measures will function well enough
for training exercises and photo opportunities but would
262
35.1.2
Attack helicopters
263
zone (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport
and land a large number of troops and equipment in a
relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and
overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of
air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the
helicopters to continually resupply the force during the
operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow-on location if
the mission dictates.
Transport helicopters
264
Observation helicopters
A Gazelle helicopter of the French ALAT.
35.1.5
Maritime helicopters
Maritime helicopters
A Royal Navy Merlin HM1 anti-submarine warfare
helicopter in 2007
A SH-60B Seahawk 2 helicopter
A Kamov Ka-27 shipborne helicopter, showing
its contra-rotating rotor system, and bulbous radar
radome
A Harbin Z-9
265
ight environment. Anti-tank missiles, such as the Nord
SS.11 and the Arospatiale SS.12/AS.12 were developed
and mounted on French military helicopters. In turn, the
United States adapted its BGM-71 TOW for ring from
helicopters and eventually developed the AGM-114 Hellre. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union adapted the 3M11
Falanga missile for ring from the Mil Mi-24.
In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout
helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter,
ying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and
to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include
laser designators to guide missiles red from the attack
helicopters. After nding a target, the scout helicopter
can locate it and then direct the attack helicopter's missile where to re. The attack helicopters have only to rise
from cover briey to re their missiles before returning
to a concealed location.* [7] Late-development of attack
helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52,
and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for
scout helicopters.
An OH-58 and an AH-1 of the Hawaii ARNG, such a combination would have formed hunter-killer team during the Cold
War.* [7]
35.2.1
266
35.5 Notes
35.3 Manufacturers
35.6 References
[1] Kanwa Defense Review No26,Is China's 20-year buildup Army Aviation Corps eective, February 2007.
[2] Give us an enemy to ght, says chief of Britain's Apache
helicopter eet
[3] Rotary Aircraft:Doctrinal Development
[4] OH-58D Kiowa Warrior Reconnaissance / Attack Helicopter, USA
[5] Comanche's Child: The ARH-70 Armed Reconnaissance
Helicopter
[6] Filling Comanche's Shoes
Helibras HM-1 Pantera under construction in Brazil.
35.6.1
267
Further reading
Chapter 36
Pistol
Pistoletredirects here. For the Belgian bread roll, see
Pistolet (bread).
For other uses, see Pistol (disambiguation).
A pistol is a type of handgun. Some handgun experts
268
36.2. ACTION
269
after Pistoia, a city renowned for Renaissance-era gun- Multi-barreled pistols were common during the same
smithing, where hand-held guns (designed to be red time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways
from horseback) were rst produced in the 1540s.* [10] to increase re rates, multiple barrels were added to all
The rst suggestion derives the word from Czech pala, guns including pistols. One example of a multi-barreled
a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during pistol is the Duck's foot *pistol, which generally had eithe 1420s. The Czech word was adopted in German as ther four or eight barrels, [13]* although some 20th century models had three barrels. [14]
pitschale, pitschole, petsole, and variants.* [11]
The second suggestion is less likely; the use of the word as
a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in
Italy, long after it was used in French and German. The 36.2.3 Harmonica pistol
Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in
1420s.* [12]
Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun
Other suggestions include from Middle High German pis- were produced that had a sliding magazine. The slidchulle or from Middle French pistole. Also it is suggested ing magazine contained pinre cartridges or speedloadthat early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung ers. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many
from the pommel (or pistallo in medieval French) of a designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic
horse's saddle.
pistols.* [15]
36.2 Action
36.2.4 Revolver
The most common types of pistol are the single shot, and
semi-automatic.
36.2.1
Single shot
Colt Model 1873 Single-ActionNew Model Army Metallic Cartridge Revolving Pistol
36.2.2
Multi-barreled (non-rotating)
With the development of the revolver in the 19th century, gunsmiths had nally achieved the goal of a practical
capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun
barrel in quick succession. Revolvers feed ammunition
via the rotation of a cartridge-lled cylinder, in which
each cartridge is contained in its own ignition chamber, and is sequentially brought into alignment with the
weapon's barrel by an indexing mechanism linked to the
weapon's trigger (double-action) or its hammer (singleaction). These nominally cylindrical chambers, usually
numbering between ve and eight depending on the size
of the revolver and the size of the cartridge being red,
are bored through the cylinder so that their axes are parallel to the cylinder's axis of rotation; thus, as the cylinder
rotates, the chambers revolve about the cylinder's axis.
270
36.2.5
[8]revolver, n.. OED Online. December 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/
164985 (accessed January 21, 2015).
[9] revolver: denition of revolver. Oxford Dictionaries.
Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Semi-automatic
[17] Biggs, John. What You Need To Know About The Liberator 3D-Printed Pistol. TechCrunch. Retrieved 13
May 2013.
The Liberator is a physible, 3D-printable single shot [18] Hutchinson, Lee. The rst entirely 3D-printed handgun
is here. Ars Technica. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
handgun, the rst such printable rearm design made
widely available online.* [16]* [17]* [18] The open source
[19] Greenberg, Andy. 3D-Printed Gun's Blueprints Downrm Defense Distributed designed the gun and released
loaded 100,000 Times In Two Days (With Some Help
the plans on the Internet on May 6, 2013. The plans
From Kim Dotcom)". Forbes. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
were downloaded over 100,000 times in the two days before the US Department of State demanded Defense Distributed retract the plans.* [19]
36.4 References
[1] Pistol Denition. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
Retrieved January 19, 2015.
[2] British Dictionary denitions for pistol.
nary.com. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Dictio-
[3] Revolver Denition. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved January 19, 2015.
Chapter 37
Reconnaissance vehicle
37.2 History
During World War II, the British generally used armoured
cars for reconnaissance, from the machinegun armed
Humber Light Reconnaissance Car and Daimler Dingo
to the 6-pdr (57 mm) gun equipped AEC Armoured Car.
Post war the British Army used the Ferret and later, Fox
scout cars.
A reconnaissance vehicle, also known as a scout vehicle, is a military vehicle used for forward reconnaissance.
Both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles are in
service. In some nations, light tanks such as the M551
Sheridan and AMX-13 are also used by scout platoons.
Reconnaissance vehicles are usually designed with a low
prole or small size and are lightly armoured, relying on
speed and cover to escape detection. Their armament
ranges from a medium machine gun to a large cannon.
Modern examples are often tted with ATGMs and a South African expeditionary forces in Angola also emwide range of sensors.
ployed wheeled reconnaissance vehicles for their strategic
Some armoured personnel carriers and infantry mobility and tactical mobility, sometimes engaging Angolan units
vehicle, such as the M113, TPz Fuchs, and Cadillac Gage up to brigade strength. Scout cars such as the Eland Mk7
were used to lure hostile T-34s or T-54/55s into prepared
Commando double in the reconnaissance role.
ambushes, where they were destroyed by heavier vehicles,
ATGMs, and artillery.* [4]
37.3 Role
37.1 Design
Smaller caliber weapons help reduce the vehicle's prole and noise signatures.* [1] In contrast, French doctrine
was to t reconnaissance vehicles, such as the EBR and
the AMX 10 RC, with the heaviest weaponry possible on
their light chassis, so as to allow them a further role for Dismounted operations by armed scouts include
observation post manning, reconnaissance of areas
defence of the anks.
271
272
EE-3 Jararaca
EE-9 Cascavel
Eland
ERC 90 Sagaie
Ferret
Fox
FV101 Scorpion
FV102 Striker
FV107 Scimitar
Gagamba
Komatsu
Lynx
M1127
Zimbabwean Eland.
Fennek
Mowag Spy
Otokar Cobra
Panhard AML
Alvis Saladin
RBY MK 1
AMX-10 RC
ASLAV
Rooikat
BRDM-1
BRDM-2
Sphpanzer Luchs
Coyote
Namco Tiger
D-442 FG
VEC-M1
Dozor-B
VBC-90
37.5. REFERENCES
Wiesel
XAV
37.5 References
[1]return re
[2] Bill Yenne (2006). Secret Gadgets and Strange Gizmos:
High-Tech (and Low-Tech) Innovations of the U.S. Military. Zenith Imprint. p. 97. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[3] Bourque, Stephen. Jayhawk!: The VII Corps in the Persian
Gulf War (2003 ed.). Diane Publishing Company. pp.
136137. ISBN 978-0756728632.
[4] Mobile repower for contingency operations: Emerging
concepts for US light armour forces
[5] Groman, Je (1985). Weapons of war. Multimedia Publications (UK). p. 128. ISBN 978-1-85106-031-3. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[6] Michael Green, Greg Stewart (2004). Weapons of the
Modern Marines. Zenith Imprint. ISBN 0-7603-1697-X.
Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[7] U.S. Army (December 2010). Stryker Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Reconnaissance Vehicle (NBCRV)".
p. 93. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
[8] http://defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=
com_content&view=article&id=15327:
baes-reveals-rg35-rpu-variant&catid=50:Land&
Itemid=105
273
Chapter 38
Rie
This article is about the long gun. For other uses, see lets (as opposed to the spherical balls used in muskets)
Rie (disambiguation).
and thus improves range and accuracy. The wordrie
originally referred to the grooving, and a rie was called
a ried gun.Ries are used in warfare, hunting and
shooting sports.
Typically, a bullet is propelled by the contained
deagration of an explosive compound (originally black
powder, later cordite, and now nitrocellulose), although
other means such as compressed air are used in air
ries, which are popular for vermin control, hunting
small game, formal target shooting and casual shooting
("plinking").
In most armed forces the term gunis incorrect when
referring to small arms; in military parlance, the word
gunrefers to an artillery piece or crew-served machine
gun. Furthermore, in many works of ction a rie refers
to any weapon that has a stock and is shouldered before
ring, even if the weapon is not ried or does not re solid
projectiles (e.g. a laser rie).
274
275
Girdled bullet and twin rie groove of the Brunswick rie, mid19th century
276
60th Regiment, (Royal American), as well as American
sharpshooters and riemen during the War of 1812, used
the rie to great eect during skirmishing. Because of a
slower loading time than a musket, they were not adopted
by the whole army. Since ries were used by sharpshooters who didn't routinely re over other mens shoulders,
long length was not required to avoid the forward line.
A shorter length made a handier weapon in which tighttting balls did not have to be rammed so far down the
barrel.
The invention of the minie balls in the 1840s solved the
slow loading problem, and in the 1850s and 1860s ries quickly replaced muskets on the battleeld. Many
ries, often referred to as ried muskets, were very similar to the muskets they replaced, but the military also experimented with other designs. Breech-loading weapons
proved to have a much faster rate of re than muzzleloaders, causing military forces to abandon muzzle loaders
in favor of breech-loading designs in the late 1860s. In
the later part of the 19th century, ries were generally
single-shot, breech-loading designed for aimed, discretionary re by individual soldiers. Then, as now, ries
had a stock, either xed or folding, to be braced against
the shoulder when ring. The adoption of cartridges and
breech-loading in the 19th century was concurrent with
the general adoption of ries. In the early part of the
20th century, soldiers were trained to shoot accurately
over long ranges with high-powered cartridges. World
War I Lee-Eneld ries (among others) were equipped
with long-range 'volley sights' for massed ring at ranges
of up to 1.6 km (1 mi). Individual shots were unlikely to
hit, but a platoon ring repeatedly could produce a 'beaten
ground' eect similar to light artillery or machine guns;
but experience in World War I showed that long-range
re was best left to the machine gun.
38.2.1 Muzzle-loading
Main article: Muzzle-loading rie
Gradually, ries appeared with cylindrical barrels cut
with helical grooves, the surfaces between the grooves being lands. The innovation shortly preceded the mass
adoption of breech-loading weapons, as it was not practical to push an overbore bullet down through a ried barrel,
only to then (try to) re it back out. The dirt and grime
from prior shots was pushed down ahead of a tight bullet
or ball (which may have been a loose t in the clean barrel before the rst shot), and, of course, loading was far
more dicult, as the lead had to be deformed to go down
in the rst place, reducing the accuracy due to deformation. Several systems were tried to deal with the problem,
usually by resorting to an under-bore bullet that expanded
upon ring.
277
278
38.2.4
Cartridge storage
An important area of development was the way that cartridges were stored and used in the weapon. The Spencer
repeating rie was a breech-loading manually operated
lever action rie that was adopted by the United States.
Over 20,000 were used during the American Civil War.
It marked the rst adoption of a removable magazine-fed
infantry rie by any country. The design was completed
by Christopher Spencer in 1860. It used copper rimre
cartridges stored in a removable seven round tube magazine, enabling the rounds to be red one after another.
When the magazine was empty, it could be exchanged for
another.
Blaser R8 Professional
By contrast, civilian rie design has not signicantly advanced since the early part of the 20th century. Modern hunting ries have berglass and carbon ber stocks
and more advanced recoil pads, but are fundamentally the
same as infantry ries from 1910. Many modern sniper
ries can trace their ancestry back for well over a century,
and the Russian 7.62x54mm rimmed cartridge, as used in
the front-line Dragunov Sniper Rie (SVD), dates from
1891.
A youth rie is a rie designed or modied for tting children, or small-framed shooters. A youth rie is often a
single shot .22 caliber rie, or a bolt action rie, although
Riing
38.6.2
Barrel wear
279
some machine-guns are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in
earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon
steel barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots
before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern
stainless steel barrels for target ries are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be
red before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small
arms have chrome-lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This is rare on ries designed
for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is dicult
and liable to reduce the eect of the riing.) Modern
ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer
cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and
nickel - cupro-nickel. Some ammunition is even coated
with molybdenum disulde to further reduce internal friction - the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet.
38.6.3 Rate of re
Main article: Rate of re
Ries were initially single-shot, muzzle-loading weapons.
During the 18th century, breech-loading weapons were
designed, which allowed the rieman to reload while under cover, but defects in manufacturing and the diculty
in forming a reliable gas-tight seal prevented widespread
adoption. During the 19th century, multi-shot repeating
ries using lever, pump or linear bolt actions became
standard, further increasing the rate of re and minimizing the fuss involved in loading a rearm. The problem of
proper seal creation had been solved with the use of brass
cartridge cases, which expanded in an elastic fashion at
the point of ring and eectively sealed the breech while
the pressure remained high, then relaxed back enough to
allow for easy removal. By the end of the 19th century,
the leading bolt-action design was that of Paul Mauser,
whose actionwedded to a reliable design possessing a
ve-shot magazine became a world standard through
two world wars and beyond. The Mauser rie was paralleled by Britain's ten-shot Lee-Eneld and America's
1903 Springeld Rie models (the latter pictured above).
The American M1903 closely copied Mauser's original
design.
38.6.4 Range
Barrel riing dramatically increased the range and accuracy of the musket. Indeed, throughout its development,
the rie's history has been marked by increases in range
and accuracy. From the Mini rie and beyond, the rie
has become ever more potent at long range strikes.
In recent decades, large-caliber anti-materiel ries, typAs the bullet enters the barrel, it inserts itself into the ri- ically ring between 12.7 mm and 20 mm caliber caring, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and tridges, have been developed. The US Barrett M82A1 is
also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, probably the best-known such rie. These weapons are
280
red through a rie's barrel. Armies have consistently attempted to nd and procure the most lethal and accurate
caliber for their rearms.
38.6.5
38.6.6
Caliber
0-9623208-7-0.
[6] 3D printed plastic rie successfully res 14 rounds - as gun
advocates predict it will force changes in the law, DailyMail, 9 August 2013. (archive)
[7] First 3-D printed rie res bullet, then breaks, NBC News,
26 July 2013. (archive)
[8] World's rst 3D-printed rie gets update, res 14 shots,
The Verge, 4 August 2013.(archive)
[9] Friscolanti, Michael (2006-05-15). We were abandoned. Maclean's (Rogers Publishing): p1825.
[10] Drury, Ian (2 May 2010). The super sniper: Hero picks
o two Taliban from a mile and a half away. Mail Online
(London). Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[11] Calculating Bullet RPM Spin Rates and Stability.
AccurateShooter.com. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[12] Topic of the Month: July 2001 - Twist Rate. Load
From A Disk. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
281
Chapter 39
Shotgun
This article is about the type of gun. For other uses, see American forces used 12-gauge pump action shotguns in
Shotgun (disambiguation).
close-quarters trench ghting to great eect. Since then,
it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications.
The shot pellets from a shotgun spread upon leaving the
barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided
among the pellets, which means that the energy of any
one ball of shot is fairly low. In a hunting context, this
makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds and
other small game. However, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes
the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or
a defensive weapon. Shotguns are also used for target
shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays.
These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons,
thrown in various ways.
A pump-action Remington 870, two semi-automatic Remington
1100 shotguns, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a clay trap, and three
boxes of clay pigeons
A shotgun (also known as a scattergun and peppergun,* [1] or historically as a fowling piece) is a rearm
that is usually designed to be red from the shoulder,
which uses the energy of a xed shell to re a number
of small spherical pellets called shot, or a solid projectile called a slug. Shotguns come in a wide variety of
sizes, ranging from 5.5 mm (.22 inch) bore up to 5 cm
(2.0 in) bore, and in a range of rearm operating mechanisms, including breech loading, single-barreled, double
or combination gun, pump-action, bolt-, and lever-action,
semi-automatic, and even fully automatic variants.
39.1 Characteristics
Shotguns come in a wide variety of forms, from very
small up to massive punt guns, and in nearly every type
of rearm operating mechanism. The common characteristics that make a shotgun unique center around the requirements of ring shot. These features are the features
typical of a shotgun shell, namely a relatively short, wide
cartridge, with straight walls, and operating at a relatively
low pressure.
39.2. USES
283
Series of individual 1/1,000,000 second exposures showing shotgun ring shot and wadding separation
39.2.1
Sporting
weighs 28 grams (432 grains). For comparison, a common deer-hunting rie round is a 7.62 mm (.308 inch)
slug weighing 9.7 grams (150 grains), but the dynamics
of the rie cartridge allow for a dierent type of wound,
and a much further reach.
Shotguns are often used with ried barrels in locations
where it is not lawful to hunt with a rie. Typically, a
sabot slug is used in these barrels for maximum accuracy
and performance. Shotguns are often used to hunt whitetail deer in the thick brush and briers of the Southeastern
and upper Midwestern United States, where, due to the
dense cover, ranges tend to be close - 25m or less.
Sabot slugs are essentially very large hollowpoint bullets, and are streamlined for maximum spin and accuracy when shot through a ried barrel. They have greater
ranges than older Foster and Brenneke-type slugs.
Hunting
In the US and Canada, shotguns are widely used as a support weapon by police forces. One of the rationales for
issuing shotguns is that, even without much training, an
ocer will probably be able to hit targets at close to intermediate range, due to thespreadingeect of buckshot. This is largely a myth, as the spread of buckshot at
284
39.2.4
Military
On average, a quality pump-action shotgun is generally less expensive than a quality handgun (selfloading shotguns are generally more expensive than
their pump-action counterparts).
When loaded with smaller shot, a shotgun will not
penetrate walls as readily as rie and pistol rounds,
making it safer for non-combatants when red in
or around populated structures. This comes at a
price, however, as smaller shot may not penetrate
deeply enough to cause an immediately incapacitating wound; those who recommend birdshot for minimizing wall penetration also suggest backing it up
with a larger buckshot if the rst shot fails to stop
the threat.* [4]
39.4 Types
The wide range of forms the shotgun can take leads to
some signicant dierences between what is technically a
shotgun and what is legally considered a shotgun. A fairly
broad attempt to dene a shotgun is made in the United
States Code (18 USC 921), which denes the shotgun as
a weapon designed or redesigned, made or remade, and
intended to be red from the shoulder, and designed or
redesigned and made or remade to use the energy of the
explosive in a xed shotgun shell to re through a smooth
bore either a number of ball shot or a single projectile for
each single pull of the trigger.
39.5. HISTORY
285
for civilian ownership in some jurisdictions. Coach guns
are also more commonly associated with the American
Old West or Australian Colonial period, and often used
for hunting in bush, scrub, or marshland where a longer
barrel would be unwieldy or impractical.
39.5 History
Most early rearms, such as the blunderbuss, arquebus,
and musket had large diameter, smoothbore barrels, and
could re shot as well as solid balls. A rearm intended
for use in wing shooting of birds was known as a fowling
piece. The 1728 Cyclopaedia denes a fowling piece as:
Fowling Piece, a portable Fire Arm for the
shooting of Birds. See Fire Arm.
286
Confederate cavalryman
shotgun, and was 157 cm (62 in) long, just short of the
above recommended 168 cm (51 2 feet). On the other
hand, records from the Plymouth colony show a maximum length of 137 cm (41 2 feet) for fowling pieces,* [6]
shorter than the typical musket.
Shot was also used in warfare; the buck and ball loading,
combining a musket ball with three or six buckshot, was
used throughout the history of the smoothbore musket.
The rst recorded use of the term shotgun was in 1776 in
Kentucky. It was noted as part of thefrontier language
of the Westby James Fenimore Cooper.
With the adoption of smaller bores and ried barrels,
the shotgun began to emerge as a separate entity. Shotguns have long been the preferred method for sport hunting of birds, and the largest shotguns, the punt guns,
were used for commercial hunting. The double-barreled
shotgun has changed little since the development of the
boxlock action in 1875. Modern innovations such as
interchangeable chokes and subgauge inserts make the
double-barreled shotgun the shotgun of choice in skeet,
trap shooting, and sporting clays, as well as with many
hunters.
As wing shooting has been a prestige sport, specialty gunsmiths such as Kriegho or Perazzi have produced fancy
double-barrel guns for wealthy European and American
hunters. These weapons can cost US$5,000 or more;
some elaborately decorated presentation guns have sold
for up to US$100,000.* [7]
During its long history, the shotgun has been favored by
bird hunters, guards, and law enforcement ocials. The
39.5. HISTORY
used in Europe both in war and sport although hammer
guns were still very much in the majority. The rst signicant encroachment on hammer guns was a hammerless patent which could be used with a conventional sidelock. This was British gunmaker T Murcott's 1871 action
nicknamed the 'mousetrap' on account of its loud snap action. However, the most successful hammerless innovation of the 1870s was Anson and Deeley's boxlock patent
of 1875. This simple but ingenious design only used four
moving parts allowing the production of cheaper and reliable shotguns.
287
Due to the cramped conditions of trench warfare, the
American shotguns were extremely eective. Germany
even led an ocial diplomatic protest against their use,
alleging they violated the laws of warfare. The judge advocate general reviewed the protest, and it was rejected
because the Germans protested use of lead shot (which
would have been illegal) but military shot was plated.
This is the only occasion the legality of the shotgun's use
in warfare has been questioned.* [8]
39.5.3
One of the men most responsible for the modern development of the shotgun was prolic gun designer John
Browning. While working for Winchester Firearms,
Browning revolutionized shotgun design. In 1887,
Browning introduced the Model 1887 Lever Action Repeating Shotgun, which loaded a fresh cartridge from its
internal magazine by the operation of the action lever.
Before this time most shotguns were the 'break open'
type.
This development was greatly overshadowed by two further innovations he introduced at the end of the 19th century. In 1893, Browning produced the Model 1893 Pump
Action Shotgun, introducing the now familiar pump action to the market. And in 1900, he patented the
Browning Auto-5, the world's rst semi-automatic shotgun. The Browning Auto-5 remained in production until
1998.
39.5.4
World wars
A United States Marine carrying a Winchester M97 shotgun during World War II
During World War II, the shotgun was not heavily used in
the war in Europe by ocial military forces. However,
the shotgun was a favorite weapon of Allied-supported
partisans, such as the French Resistance. By contrast,
in the Pacic theater, thick jungles and heavily fortied positions made the shotgun a favorite weapon of
the United States Marines. Marines tended to use pump
shotguns, since the pump action was less likely to jam
in the humid and dirty conditions of the Pacic campaign. Similarly, the United States Navy used pump
shotguns to guard ships when in port in Chinese harbors
(e.g., Shanghai). The United States Army Air Forces
also used pump shotguns to guard bombers and other aircraft against saboteurs when parked on airbases across
the Pacic and on the West Coast of the United States.
Pump and semi-automatic shotguns were used in marksmanship training, particularly for bomber gunners. The
288
39.5.5
Since the end of World War II, the shotgun has remained
a specialty weapon for modern armies. It has been deployed for specialized tasks where its strengths were put
to particularly good use. It was used to defend machine
gun emplacements during the Korean War, American and
French jungle patrols used shotguns during the Vietnam
War, and shotguns saw extensive use as door breaching
and close quarter weapons in the early stages of the Iraq
War, and saw limited use in tank crews.* [9] Many modern navies make extensive use of shotguns by personnel
engaged in boarding hostile ships, as any shots red will
almost certainly be over a short range. Nonetheless, shotguns are far less common in military use than ries, carbines, submachineguns, or pistols.
On the other hand, the shotgun has become a standard
in law enforcement use. A variety of specialty less-lethal
or non-lethal ammunitions, such as tear gas shells, bean
bags, ares, explosive sonic stun rounds, and rubber projectiles, all packaged into 12 gauge shotgun shells, are
produced specically for the law enforcement market.
Recently, Taser International introduced a self-contained
electronic weapon which is red from a standard 12 gauge
shotgun.* [10]
The shotgun remains a standard rearm for hunting
throughout the world for all sorts of game from birds and
small game to large game such as deer. The versatility of
the shotgun as a hunting weapon has steadily increased as
slug rounds and more advanced ried barrels have given
shotguns longer range and higher killing power. The shotgun has become a ubiquitous rearm in the hunting community.
Another, less commonly encountered type of breakaction shotgun is the combination gun, which is an over
and under design with one shotgun barrel and one rie
barrel (more often rie on top, but rie on bottom was
39.6.1 Action
not uncommon). There is also a class of break action
Action is the term for the operating mechanism of a gun. guns called drillings, which contain three barrels, usually
There are many types of shotguns, typically categorized two shotgun barrels of the same gauge and a rie barrel,
by the number of barrels or the way the gun is reloaded. though the only common theme is that at least one barrel be a shotgun barrel. The most common arrangement
was essentially a side by side shotgun with the rie barrel
Break-action
below and centered. Usually a drilling containing more
than one rie barrel would have both rie barrels in the
For most of the history of the shotgun, the break-action same caliber, but examples do exist with dierent caliber
breech loading double was the most common type, typ- barrels, usually a .22 long rie and a centerre cartridge.
289
Although very rare, drillings with three and even four (a outdoors for a tighter spread pattern or increased accuvierling) shotgun barrels were made.
racy of slug projectiles. Home-defense and law enforcement shotguns are usually chambered for 12-gauge shells,
providing maximum shot power and the use of a variety
Pump-action
of projectiles such as buckshot, rubber, sandbag and slug
shells, but 20-gauge (common in bird-hunting shotguns)
or .410 (common in youth-size shotguns) are also available in defense-type shotgun models allowing easier use
by novice shooters.
A Winchester M1897, one of the rst successful pump-action
shotgun designs
290
working of the action of the shotgun, could often result manufactured a single-shot .410 bore shotgun based on
in cartridges getting crushed and becoming unusable, or the SMLE Mk III* rie. The Russian Berdana shotgun
even damaging the gun.
was eectively a single-shot bolt-action rie that became
Lever shotguns have seen a return to the gun market in obsolete, and was subsequently modied to chamber 16
recent years, however, with Winchester producing the gauge shotgun shells for civilian sale. The U.S. military
Model 9410 (chambering the .410 gauge shotgun shell M26 is also a bolt-action weapon. Bolt-action shotguns
and using the action of the Winchester Model 94 series have also been used in the goose gunapplication, inlever-action rie, hence the name), and a handful of other tended to kill birds such as geese at greater range. Typically, goose guns have long barrels (up to 36 inches), and
rearm manufacturers (primarily Norinco of China and
ADI Ltd. of Australia) producing versions of the Winch- small bolt-fed magazines. Bolt-action shotguns are also
used in conjunction with slug shells for the maximum
ester Model 1887/1901 designed for modern 12-gauge
*
smokeless shotshells with more durable plastic casings. possible accuracy from a shotgun. [12]
There has been a notable uptick in lever-action shotgun
sales in Australia since 1997, when pump-actions were
Other
eectively outlawed.
Semi-automatic
Gas, inertia, or recoil operated actions are other popular methods of increasing the rate of re of a shotgun;
these are generally referred to as autoloaders or semiautomatics. Instead of having the action manually operated by a pump or lever, the action automatically cycles each time the shotgun is red, ejecting the spent
shell and reloading a fresh one into the chamber. The
rst successful semi-automatic shotgun was John Browning's Auto-5, rst produced by Fabrique Nationale beginning in 1902. Other well-known examples include the
Remington 1100, Benelli M1, and Saiga-12.
In addition to the commonly encountered shotgun actions already listed, there are also shotguns based on the
Martini-Henry rie design, originally designed by British
arms maker W.W. Greener.
Some of the more interesting advances in shotgun technology include the versatile NeoStead 2000 and fully automatics such as the Pancor Jackhammer or Auto-Assault
12.
In 1925, Rodolfo Cosmi produced the rst working hybrid prototype semi-automatic shotgun, which had an 8round magazine located in the stock. While it reloaded
automatically after each shot like a semi-automatic, it had
a break-action to load the rst shell. This design has only
been repeated once, by Beretta with their UGB25 automatic shotgun. The user loads the rst shell by breaking
the gun in the manner of a break-action shotgun, then
closes it and inserts the second shell into a clip on the
gun's right side. The spent hulls are ejected downwards.
The guns combine the advantages of the break action
(they can be proven to be safe by breaking open, there
are no ying hulls) with those of the semi-automatic (low
recoil, low barrel axis position hence low muzzle ip).
291
which the barrels are bored out slightly larger than their
actual gauge. This reduces the compression forces on the
shot when it transitions from the chamber to the barrel.
This leads to a slight reduction in perceived recoil, and an
improvement in shot pattern due to reduced deformation
of the shot.
39.6.3 Shot
are commonly called snake shot cartridges. rimre caliber.* [13] Larger gauges, too powerful to shoulder, have
been built but were generally axed to small boats and
referred to as punt guns. These were used for commercial
water fowl hunting, to kill large numbers of birds resting
on the water. Although relatively rare, single and double
derringers have also been produced that are capable of
ring either .45 (Long) Colt or .410 shotgun shells from
the same chamber; they are commonly known as 'snake
guns', and are popular among some outdoorsmen in the
South and Southwest regions of the United States. There
are also some revolvers, such as the Taurus Judge, that are
capable of shooting the .45LC/.410 rounds; but as with
derringers, these are handguns that shoot .410 shotgun
shells, and are not necessarily considered shotguns.
The .410 bore (10.4 mm) is unusual, being measured in
inches, and would be approximately 67 realgauge,
though its short hull versions are nominally called 36
gauge in Europe. It uses a relatively small charge of shot.
It is used for hunting and for skeet. Because of its very
light recoil (approx 10 N), it is often used as a beginners
gun. However, the small charge and typically tight choke
make it more dicult to hit targets. It is also frequently
used by expert shooters because of the diculty, especially in expensive side by side and over/under models for
hunting small bird game such as quail and doves.* [14] Inexpensive bolt-action .410 shotguns are a very common
rst hunting shotgun among young pre-teen hunters, as
they are used mostly for hunting squirrels, while additionally teaching bolt-action manipulation skills that will
transfer easily later to adult-sized hunting ries. Most of
these young hunters move up to a 20-gauge within a few
years, and to 12 gauge shotguns and full-size hunting ries by their late teens. Still, many who are particularly
recoil-averse choose to stay with 20-gauge shotguns all
their adult life, as it is a suitable gauge for many popular
hunting uses.
292
39.6.4
Shot, small and round and delivered without spin, is ballistically inecient. As the shot leaves the barrel it begins to disperse in the air. The resulting cloud of pellets is known as the shot pattern, or shotgun shot spread.
The ideal pattern would be a circle with an even distribution of shot throughout, with a density sucient to ensure
enough pellets will intersect the target to achieve the desired result, such as a kill when hunting or a break when
shooting clay targets. In reality the pattern is closer to a
Gaussian, or normal distribution, with a higher density in
the center that tapers o at the edges. Patterns are usually
measured by ring at a 30 inches (76 cm) diameter circle on a large sheet of paper placed at varying distances.
The hits inside the circle are counted, and compared to
the total number of pellets, and the density of the pattern
inside the circle is examined. An idealpattern would
put nearly 100% of the pellets in the circle and would
have no voidsany region where a target silhouette will
t and not cover 3 or more holes is considered a potential
problem.
39.7. AMMUNITION
shooting, where angular speeds are small (trap shooting; quail, pheasant, and waterfowl hunting), tend to have
longer barrels, 28 to 34 inches (860 mm). The longer
barrels have more angular momentum, and will therefore
swing more slowly but more steadily. The short, low angular momentum barrels swing faster, but are less steady.
These lengths are for pump or semi-auto shotguns; break
open guns have shorter overall lengths for the same barrel length, and so will use longer barrels. The break open
design saves between 9 and 15 cm (3.5 and 5.9 in) in overall length, but in most cases pays for this by having two
barrels, which adds weight at the muzzle, and so usually
only adds a couple of centimetres. Barrels for shotguns
have been getting longer as modern steels and production
methods make the barrels stronger and lighter; a longer,
lighter barrel gives the same inertia for less overall weight.
Shotguns for use against larger, slower targets generally
have even shorter barrels. Small game shotguns, for hunting game like rabbits and squirrels, or shotguns for use
with buckshot for deer, are often 56 to 61 cm (22 to 24
in).
293
Of this general class, the most common subset is birdshot, which uses a large number (from dozens to hundreds) of small pellets, meant to create a wide kill
spreadto hunt birds in ight. Shot shells are described by
the size and number of the pellets within, and numbered
in reverse order (the smaller the number, the bigger the
pellet size, similar to bore gauge). Size nine (#9) shot is
the smallest size normally used for hunting and is used on
small upland game birds such as dove and quail. Larger
sizes are used for hunting larger upland game birds and
waterfowl.
Buckshot is similar to but larger than birdshot, and was
originally designed for hunting larger game, such as deer
(hence the name). While the advent of new, more accurate slug technologies is making buckshot less attractive
for hunting, it is still the most common choice for police,
military, and home defense uses. Like birdshot, buckshot
is described by pellet size, with larger numbers indicating
smaller shot. From the smallest to the largest, buckshot
sizes are: #4, (callednumber four), #1, 0
( one-aught
), 00 ("double-aught"), 000 (triple-aught) and 0000 (
four-aught). A typical round for defensive use would
be a 12 gauge 2 3 4 inches (7.0 cm) length 00 buck shell,
which contains 9 pellets roughly 8.4 mm (.33 inch) in diameter, each comparable to a .38 Special bullet in damage potential. Newtacticalbuckshot rounds, designed
specically for defensive use, use slightly fewer shot at
lower velocity to reduce recoil and increase controllability
of the shotgun. There are some shotgun rounds designed
specically for police use that shoot eectively from 50
yards (46 m) with a 20diameter grouping of the balls.
Shotguns intended for all-round hunting are a compromise, of course, but a 72 to 74 cm (28 to 29 in)ch) barrel pump-action 12-gauge shotgun with a modied choke
can serve admirably for use as one gun intended for general all-round hunting of small-game such as quails, rabbits, pheasants, doves, and squirrels in semi-open wooded
or farmland areas in many parts of the eastern US (Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee) where dense brush is less of a
hindrance and the ability to have more reach is important.
For hunting in dense brush, shorter barrel lengths are often preferred when hunting the same types of game.
Slug rounds are rounds that re a single solid slug. They
are used for hunting large game, and in certain military and law enforcement applications. Modern slugs are
moderately accurate, especially when red from special
39.7 Ammunition
ried slug barrels. They are often used inshotgun-only
hunting zones near inhabited areas, where ries are proMain article: Shotgun shell
hibited due to their greater range.
The extremely large caliber of shotgun shells has led to a
Sabots are a common type of slug round. While some
slugs are exactly thata 12-gauge metal projectile in a
cartridgea sabot is a smaller but more aerodynamic projectile surrounded by a shoeof some other material.
This sabotjacket seals the barrel, increasing pressure
and acceleration, while also inducing spin on the projectile in a ried barrel. Once the projectile clears the barrel,
the sabot material falls away, leaving an unmarked, aerodynamic bullet to continue toward the target. The advantages over a traditional slug are increased shot power, increased bullet velocity due to the lighter-mass bullet, and
increased accuracy due to the velocity and the reduction
in deformation of the slug itself. Disadvantages versus a
traditional slug include lower muzzle momentum due to
Loading 12-gauge shells
reduced mass, reduced damage due to smaller bullet diameter, and signicantly higher per-unit cost.
wide variety of dierent ammunition.
Shotshells are the most commonly used round, lled
with lead or lead substitute pellets.
294
39.7.1
Specialty ammunition
and cut the person or animal being red at. For this reason, these types of rounds are referred to as less lethal, as
opposed to less-than-lethal.* [19]
Gas shells spray a cone of gas for several meters. These
are primarily used by riot police. They normally contain
pepper gas or tear gas. Other variations launch a gasgrenade-like projectile.
Rock salt shells are hand loaded with coarse rock salt
crystals, replacing the standard lead or steel shot. Rock
salt shells could be seen as the forerunners of modern lesslethal rounds. In the United States, rock salt shells were
and are sometimes still used by rural civilians to defend
their property. The brittle salt was unlikely to cause serious injury at long ranges, but would cause painful stinging injuries and served as a warning. British gamekeepers
have used rock salt shells to deter poachers. Rather than
get into a physical confrontation, they stalk the poachers,
Frag-12 shotgun rounds are a series of special purpose making themselves known by a loud shout of Run!"
shotgun grenades, including high explosive blast, frag- just before ring, to avoid hitting the now-eeing subject
mentation, and HEAP grenades intended to be red from in the eyes.
any 12-ga shotgun. They are distinguished from regular Rubber slugs or rubber buckshot are similar in prinshotgun rounds by a green hull. It has been proposed as an ciple to the bean bag rounds. Composed of exible rubarmament for modern UAVs and is currently being tested ber or plastic and red at low velocities, these rounds are
for military deployment.* [17]
probably the most common choice for riot control.
Grenade rounds use exploding projectiles to increase Taser International announced in 2007 a new 12 gauge
long range lethality. These are currently experimental, eXtended Range Electronic Projectile or XREP,
but the British FRAG-12, which comes in both armor which contains a small electroshock weapon unit in a carpenetrating and fragmentary forms, is under considera- rier that can be red from a standard 12 gauge shotgun.
tion by military forces.* [18]
The XREP projectile is n stabilized, and travels at an
initial velocity of 100 m/s (300 ft/s). Barbs on the front
attach the electroshock unit to the target, with a tassel
Less lethal rounds, for riot and animal control
deploying from the rear to widen the circuit. A twentyFlexible baton rounds, commonly called bean bags, re second burst of electrical energy is delivered to the tara fabric bag lled with birdshot or a similar loose, dense get. This* product is expected to be released to market
substance. The puncheect of the bag is useful for in 2008. [20] They were used despite still being subknocking down targets; the rounds are used by police to ject to testing, in breach of the supplier's license by
subdue violent suspects. The bean bag round is by far the Northumbria police in their stando with Raoul Moat in
most common less lethal round used. Due to the large 2010.
Flechette rounds contain aerodynamic darts, typically
from 8 to 20 in number. The echette provide greatly
extended range due to their aerodynamic shape, and improved penetration of light armor. American troops during the Vietnam War packed their own echette shotgun
rounds, called beehive rounds, after the similar artillery
rounds. However, terminal performance was poor due to
the very light weight of the echettes, and their use was
quickly dropped.
Breaching rounds, often called Frangible, Disintegrator, or Hatton rounds, are designed to destroy door locking mechanisms without risking lives. They are constructed of a very brittle substance that transfers most of
the energy to the primary target but then fragment into
295
39.8.2 Canada
Canada has three classications of rearms: nonrestricted, restricted, and prohibited. Shotguns are found
in all three classes.
All non-restricted shotguns must have an overall length of
660 mm (26 in). Semi-automatic shotguns must also have
a barrel length of more than 470 mm (19 in) and have a
capacity of 5 shells or less in the magazine to remain nonrestricted. All other shotgun action types (pump/slide,
break open, lever, bolt) do not have a magazine limit restriction or a minimum barrel length provided the overall
length of the rearm remains more than 660 mm (26 in)
and the barrel was produced by an approved manufacturer. Shotgun barrels may only be reduced in length to
a minimum of 457 mm (18.0 in). Non-restricted shotguns may be possessed with any Possession and Acquisition Licence (PAL) or Possession-Only License (POL)
and may be transported throughout the country without
special authorization and may be used for hunting certain
species at certain times of the year.
296
is less than 660 mm (26 in) is considered prohibited.* [24] Restricted and prohibited shotguns may be
possessed with a PAL or POL than has been endorsed
for restricted or prohibited grandfathered rearms.
These shotguns require special Authorization to Transport (ATT).<ref name=""canUS95trans">Transporting
Firearms. Canada Firearms Centre. Retrieved 200806-21.</ref>
The Canadian Firearms Registry was a government-run
registry of all legally owned rearms in Canada. The government provided amnesty from prosecution to shotgun
and rie owners if they fail to register non-restricted shotguns and ries.* [25] The long gun portion of the registry
was scrapped in 2011.
An SGC holder can own any number of shotguns meeting these requirements so long as he/she can store them
securely. No certicate is required to own shotgun ammunition, but one is required to buy it. There is no restriction on the amount of shotgun ammunition that can
be bought or owned. There are also no rules regarding
the storage of ammunition.
However, shotgun ammunition which contains fewer than
6 projectiles requires a section 1 Firearms Certicate
(FAC). Shotguns with a magazine capacity greater than 2
rounds are also considered to be section 1 rearms and,
as such, require an FAC to own. An FAC costs 50 but is
much more restrictive than an SGC. The applicant must
nominate two referees who are known to the applicant to
vouch for his or her character; a new 'variation' is required
for each new caliber of gun to be owned; limits are set on
how much ammunition a person can own at any one time;
and an FAC can be denied if the applicant does not have
sucient 'good reason'. 'Good reason' generally means
hunting, collecting, or target shooting - though other reasons may be acceptable, personal defence is not an acceptable reason.
See online* [26] for an ocial Canadian list of nonrestricted and restricted and prohibited rearms.
Any pump-action or semi-automatic smooth-bore gun
(such as a shotgun) with a barrel length of less than 24
inches or total length of less than 40 inches is considered
39.8.3 UK
to be a section 5 rearm, that is, one that is subject to
general prohibition, unless it is chambered for .22 caliber
In the United Kingdom, a Shotgun Certicate (SGC) is rimre ammunition.* [27]
required to possess a Section 2shotgun. These cost
50 and can only be denied if the chief of police in the
area believes and can prove that the applicant poses a real
danger to the public, or if the applicant has been convicted of a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term
of three years or more or if the applicant cannot securely
297
39.10 References
Notes
39.8.4
US
In the US, federal law prohibits shotguns from being capable of holding more than three shells including the
round in the chamber when used for hunting migratory
gamebirds such as doves, ducks, and geese. For other
uses, a capacity of any number of shells is generally permitted. Most magazine-fed shotguns come with a removable magazine plug to limit capacity to 2, plus one in
the chamber, for hunting migratory gamebirds. Certain
states have restrictions on magazine capacity or design
features under hunting or assault weapon laws.
Shotguns intended for defensive use have barrels as short [6] Firearms in Plymouth Colony.
Plyas 18 inches (46 cm) for private use (the minimum shotmoutharch.tripod.com. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
gun barrel length allowed by law in the United States without federal registration. Barrel lengths of less than 18 [7] Fjestad, S. P. Blue Book of Gun Values, 13th Ed.
inches (46 cm) as measured from the breechface to the [8] Bruce N. Caneld (May 2004). Give Us More Shotmuzzle when the weapon is in battery, or have an overguns!". American Rieman.
all length of less than 26 inches (66 cm) are classied as
short barreled shotguns (SBS) under the 1934 National [9]
Firearms Act and are regulated. A similar short barreled [10] Taser Xrep. Taser.com. Retrieved 2008-09-05.
weapon having a pistol grip may be classied as an AOW
or Any Other Weapon. A shotgun is dened as a [11] Mossberg & Sons | Products. Mossberg.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
weapon (with a buttstock) designed to be red from the
shoulder. The classication varies depending on how the [12] April, 97 Browning. Gun-tests.com. Retrieved 2008weapon was originally manufactured.
09-05.
Shotguns used by military, police, and other government
agencies are regulated under the National Firearms Act
of 1934; however, they are exempt from transfer taxes.
These weapons commonly have barrels as short as 12 to
14 inches (30 to 36 centimetres) so that they are easier
to handle in conned spaces. Non-prohibited private citizens may own short-barreled shotguns by passing extensive background checks (state and local laws may be more
restrictive) as well as paying a $200 federal tax and being issued a stamp. Defensive shotguns sometimes have
no buttstock or will have a folding stock to reduce overall
length even more when required. AOWs transfer with a
$5 tax stamp from the BATFE.
[13] Popular
Mechanics
Google
Books.google.com. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
Books.
Books.
298
Bibliography
Bob Brister (1976). Shotgunning, The Art and the
Science. New Jersey: New Win Publishing. ISBN
0-8329-1840-7.
Elmer Keith (1950). Shotguns. Pennsylvania: The
Stackpole Company. ISBN 0-935632-58-1.
Michael McIntosh (1999). Best Guns. Alabama:
Countrysport Press. ISBN 0-924357-79-7.
Jack O'Connor (1965) [1949]. The Shotgun Book.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-501381.
Chapter 40
300
40.2 Design
The Shoulder-launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
has an 83.5mm tube and res 83-millimetre (3.3 in) rockets. It is a man-portable weapon system consisting of the
MK153 launcher, the MK 3 encased HEDP rocket, the
MK 6 encased HEAA rocket, and the MK217 spotting rie cartridge. The launcher consists of a berglass launch
tube, a 9mm spotting rie, an electro-mechanical ring
mechanism, open battle sights and a mount for the MK42
Day Sight and AN/PVS-17B night sights.
A newer MK153 Mod 2 variant is currently in development. It features a modular ballistic sight (MBS) in
place of the 9 mm spotting system. The MBS has a laser
range nder and thermal weapon sight to provide a ring solution using a displaced reticle, where crosshairs
are adjusted for distance and environmental factors. The
MBS is lighter, more reliable, and can be detached from
the launcher. While the Mod 0 weighs 16.5 lb, the
Mod 2 weighs 13 lb with the MBS attached, and 8.5 lb
with the MBS detached. Other improvements include increased pad size on the forward grip and foldable backup
sights.* [10] Mod 2 improvements are to be ready for
elding by early 2017.* [9]
40.2.1 Rockets
The High Explosive, Dual Purpose (HEDP) rocket is effective against bunkers, masonry and concrete walls and
light armor. Initiated by a crush switch in its nose the
HEDP rocket is able to distinguish between hard and soft
targets resulting in greater penetration into soft targets for
increased damage potential. The HEDP round is capable
The SMAW MK153 Mod 0 launcher is an improved of penetrating 20 centimetres (7.9 in) of concrete, 30 cenand enhanced development of the Israel Military Indus- timetres (12 in) of brick or up to 210 centimetres (6.9 ft)
tries' B-300 weapon. The weapon consists of the launch of wood-reinforced sandbags.
tube, the spotting rie, the ring mechanism and mountThe High Explosive Anti-Armor (HEAA) rocket is efing brackets. The launch tube is made of berglass-epoxy
fective against current tanks without additional armor and
composite material with a gelcoat on the bore. The spotutilizes a stando rod on the detonator, allowing the exting rie is mounted on the right side of the launch tube.
plosive force to be focused on a small point and for maxiThe ring mechanism mechanically res the spotting rimum damage against armored targets. The HEAA round
e and uses a magneto to re the rocket. The mounting
is capable of penetrating up to the equivalent of 60 cenbrackets connect the components and provide the means
timetres (24 in) of rolled homogeneous steel.
for boresighting the weapon while the encased rockets are
loaded at the rear of the launcher. The spotting cartridges The Novel Explosive (SMAW-NE) rocket is eective
are stored in a magazine in the cap of the encased rocket. against caves and bunkers. The SMAW-NE uses a
thermobaric warhead which produces an overpressure
The 9 mm spotting round is ballistically matched to the
wave capable of collapsing a lightly constructed buildrocket and serves to increase the gunner's rst-round hit
ing. The Naval Surface Warfare Center teamed with the
probability. Each round consists of a special 9mm tracer
Marine Corps Systems Command, NSWC Indian Head
bullet, crimped into a 7.62x51mm NATO casing with a
and Talley Defense Systems responded to an urgent U.S.
.22 Hornet blank cartridge for propellant.* [8] The system
Marine Corps need for a shoulder-launched enhancedcan be used in conjunction with the AN/PEQ-4 aiming
blast warhead in 2003. It was used in combat during both
light in place of the spotting rie.
the First and Second oensives in Fallujah 2004.
Training is accomplished with the MK7 Mod 0 encased
common practice rocket and the MK213 Mod 0 noise
cartridge. At 152.3 decibels, the weapon is one of the 40.3 Users
loudest on the battleeld, second only to a mine-clearing
line charge.
Pakistan army
As with all of these types of rocket weapons, the backblast
that is created when it is res is a primary safety concern.
40.5. REFERENCES
40.5 References
[1] Sta. United States Marine Corps Weapons & Equipment Shoulder-Launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon
(SMAW)". About.com. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
[2] GlobalSecurity.org
[3] Follow-On To SMAW (FOTS) Global Security.
[4] LOCKHEED MARTIN TO DEVELOP FOLLOW-ON
TO SHOULDER-LAUNCHED MULTI-PURPOSE ASSAULT WEAPON FOR U.S. MARINE CORPS.
[5] Lamothe, Dan (November 8, 2010). Redesigned
SMAW II set for review. Marine Corps Times. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
[6] DefenseNews video at Association of the US Army 2010
Convention
[7] Accurate and Safe Alternative Targeting Solution for Man
Portable Rocket Weapon (PDF le)
[8] 9 x 51mm SMAW International Ammunition Association
[9] SMAW upgrade will put rounds on targets faster MarineCorpstimes.com, 3 November 2014
[10] New Modular Ballistic Sight Added to Marine SMAW
. Military.com. DVIDS. 7 August 2013. Retrieved 10
August 2013.
301
Chapter 41
Sniper rie
nology, specically that of telescopic sights and more accurate manufacturing, allowed armies to equip specially
trained soldiers with ries that enable them to deliver
precise shots over greater distances than regular infantry
weapons. The sniper rie itself could be based on a standard rie (It's hard to dene a sniper rie by the re modes
as some latest designed sniper ries are semi-automatic
re, for example the M110); however, when tted with a
telescopic sight, it becomes a sniper rie.
The 7.6251mm M40, United States Marine Corps standardissue sniper rie.
41.1 History
302
41.2. CLASSIFICATION
fore limited its range. By the 1870s, the perfection of
breech loading magazine ries led to sniper ries having
eective accurateranges of up to a mile away from its
target.* [4]
During the Boer War, the latest breech-loading ried guns
with magazines and smokeless powder were used by both
sides. The British were equipped with the Lee-Metford
rie, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser ries from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa
the marksman was a crucial component in battle. The
Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899
who were renowned for their expert marksmanship and
their stalking skills. They wore ghillie suits for camouage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh
Hesketh-Prichard said of them that keener men never
lived.* [5] After the Boer War the Scouts became the
rst ocial sniper unit in the British Army.
303
to conduct that even until as recently as 1970, the reasoning for having trained snipers as a part of an army was
deemed questionable.* [14] In Britain, sniper ries were
not seen as being an integral part of an army until after
the Germans boasted so much success with sniper teams
during the early months of World War I. The British army
advisors supposed that the telescopic sights attached to
sniper ries were too easily damaged and thus not well
suited for military use.* [9] However, they soon realized
that these telescopic sights could be improved and made
sturdy enough to withstand a sniper rie shot.* [9]
41.2 Classication
Modern sniper ries can be divided into two basic classes:
military and law enforcement.
41.2.1 Military
Sniper ries manufactured for military service are often
designed for very high durability, range, reliability, sturdiness, serviceability and repairability under adverse environmental and combat conditions, at the sacrice of a
small degree of accuracy. Military snipers and sharpshooters may also be required to carry their ries and
other equipment for long distances, making it important
to minimize weight. Military organizations often operate
304
U.S. Marine Corps SRT sniper team with an M24 sniper rie,
during sniper training.
41.2.2
Law enforcement
Sniper ries built or modied for use in law enforcement PSO-1 Sniper Scope Reticle
are generally required to have the greatest possible accu- 1 - Lead/deection scale
2 - Main targeting chevron
racy, but do not need to have as long a range.
Law enforcement-specic ries are usually used in noncombat (often urban) environments, so they do not have
the requirement to be as hardy or portable as military versions; therefore, they may be smaller, because they do not
need very long range.
41.3.2
Action
305
higher volume of re, but sacrice some long range accuracy. They are frequently built from existing selective
re battle ries or assault ries, often simply by adding a
telescopic sight and adjustable stock.
A police semi-automatic sniper rie may be used in situations that require a single sniper to engage multiple targets
in quick succession, and military semi-automatics such as
the M110 SASS are used in similar target-richenvironments.
41.3.3 Cartridge
In a military setting, logistical concerns are the primary
determinant of the cartridge used, so sniper ries are usually limited to rie cartridges commonly used by the military force employing the rie and match grade ammunition. Since large national militaries generally change
slowly, military rie ammunition is frequently battletested and well-studied by ammunition and rearms experts. Consequently, police forces tend to follow military
practices in choosing a sniper rie cartridge instead of trying to break new ground with less-perfected (but possibly
better) ammunition.
Before the introduction of the standard 7.6251mm
NATO (.308 Winchester) cartridge in the 1950s, standard military cartridges were the .30-06 Springeld or
7.6263mm (United States), .303 British (7.756mmR)
(United Kingdom) and 7.9257mm (8mm Mauser) (Germany). The .30-06 Springeld continued in service with
U.S. Marine Corps snipers during the Vietnam War in the
1970s, well after general adoption of the 7.6251mm. At
the present time, in both the Western world and within
NATO, 7.6251mm is currently the primary cartridge of
choice for military and police sniper ries.
Worldwide, the trend is similar. The preferred sniper cartridge in Russia is another .30 caliber military cartridge,
the 7.6254 mm R, which has similar performance to the
7.6251mm. This cartridge was introduced in 1891, and
both Russian sniper ries of the modern era, the MosinNagant and the Dragunov sniper rie, are chambered for
it.
Certain commercial cartridges designed with only performance in mind, without the logistical constraints of most
armies, have also gained popularity in the 1990s. These
include the 7 mm Remington Magnum (7.264mm),
.300 Winchester Magnum (7.8/7.6267mm), and the
.338 Lapua Magnum (8.670mm). These cartridges
oer better ballistic performance and greater eective
range than the 7.6251mm. Though they are not as powerful as .50 caliber cartridges, ries chambered for these
cartridges are not as heavy as ries chambered for .50
caliber ammunition, and are signicantly more powerful
than ries chambered for 7.6251mm.
306
M82A1 SASR (Special Applications Scoped Rie or SemiAutomatic Sniper Rie), a .50 caliber sniper rie used as an antimateriel rie.
41.3.5 Stock
41.3.4
Barrel
H-S Precision Pro Series 2000 HTR sniper rie with adjustable
stock and accessories rails.
41.3.6 Accessories
An adjustable sling is often tted on the rie, used by the
sniper to achieve better stability when standing, kneeling, or sitting. The sniper uses the sling to lock-in
by wrapping his non-ring arm into the sling forcing his
arm to be still. Non-static weapon mounts such as bipods,
monopods and shooting sticks are also regularly used to
aid and improve stability and reduce operator fatigue.
Capabilities
Accuracy
Sniper-rie barrels may also utilise a threaded muzzle or A military-issue battle rie or assault rie is usually cacombination device (muzzle brake or ash suppressor and pable of between 3-6 minute of angle (MOA) (1-2 mrad)
41.4. CAPABILITIES
307
1.5 MOA (0.5 mrad) extreme vertical spread. All accuracy will be taken at the 1,500 meter point.* [29]* [30] In
2008 the US military adopted the M110 Semi-Automatic
Sniper System which has corresponding maximum allowed extreme spread of 1.8 MOA (0.5 mrad) for a 5-shot
group on 300 feet, using M118LR ammunition or equivalent.* [22]* [23]* [31] In 2010 the maximum bullet dispersion requirement for the M24 .300 Winchester Magnum
corresponds* [22]* [23] to 1.4 MOA extreme spread for 5
shot group on 100 meters.* [32]
Although accuracy standards for police ries do not
widely exist, ries are frequently seen with accuracy levels from 0.5-1.5 MOA (0.2-0.5 mrad).* [33] For typical
policing situations, an extreme spread accuracy level no
better than 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) is usually all that is required. This is because police typically employ their ries at short ranges.* [34] At 100 m or less, a rie with a
relatively low accuracy of only 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) should
be able to repeatedly hit a 3 cm (1.2 inch) target. A 3 cm
diameter target is smaller than the brain stem which is targeted by police snipers for its quick killing eect.* [35]
308
[4] Raudzens, George. War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4,
1990, p. 415.
[11] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 19.
[12] Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 19-20.
[13] Raudzens, George. War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4,
1990, p. 420.
[14] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Ries: From the 19th to the 21st
Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 6.
[15] Lebleu, Jon. Long Rie: One Man's Deadly Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford: The Lyons Press,
2008, p. 11.
[16] Pegler, Martin. Sniper Ries: From the 19th to the 21st
Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 75.
[17] Popenker, Max. Modern sniper ries. World Guns,
2001.
[18] The Ultimate Sniper: an Advanced Training Manual
for Military and Police Snipers, Maj. John L. Plaster, 1993. The information about counter-sniper operations describes techniques for identifying snipers amongst
groups of other soldiers. The most easily recognizable feature of a sniper from a great distance is the fact that the
sniper's rie is longer than all the others.
[19] T.W. Lee. Military Technologies of the World. p. 237.
41.6 Notes
[1] Whitworth Rie.
[2]Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 19By Institution of Civil Engineers
(Great Britain)
[3] Pegler, Martin (2011). Out of Nowhere: A history of the
military sniper, from the Sharpshooter to Afghanistan. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
41.7 References
Tobias, Ronald (1981). They Shoot to Kill: A
Psycho-History of Criminal Sniping. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-207-4.
De Haas, Frank (1995). Bolt Action Ries. Krause
Publications. ISBN 0-87349-168-8.
Lebleu, Jon (2008). Long Rie: One Man's Deadly
Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford:
The Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1599214405.
309
Pegler, Martin (2004). Out of Nowhere: A History
of the Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 978-1846031403.
Pegler, Martin (2010). Sniper Ries: From the 19th
to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 978-1849083980.
""Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers"". vol. 19. Institution of Civil Engineers
(Great Britain). 1860.
Raudzens, George (1990).
""War-Winning
Weapons: The Measurement of Technological
Determinism in Military History"". vol.54 (no.4).
The Journal of Military History. p. 403434.
""Telescopic Sights for Ries"". vol.1 (no.2891).
The British Medical Journal. 1916. p. 765.
Popenker, Max (2001). Modern Sniper Ries.
http://world.guns.ru/sniper-e.html.
Chapter 42
Submachine gun
cause they re pistol-caliber ammunition, for example,
the MP-40 and MP5, where MPstands for Maschinenpistole (machine pistolin German).* [5] However,
the term "machine pistol" is also used to describe a
handgun-style* [6] rearm capable of fully automatic or
burst re, such as the Stechkin and the H&K VP70.
Personal Defence Weapons (PDW) such as the FN P90
and H&K MP7 are also commonly referred to as submachine guns.* [3] In addition, some compact assault ries,
such as the Colt XM177, HK53 and AKS-74U, are also
referred to as SMGs, because they are used in the submachine gun role.* [7]
42.1 History
42.1.1 1900s to 1920s
A submachine gun (SMG) is an air-cooled, magazinefed, automatic carbine designed to re pistol cartridges.
The term submachine gunwas coined by John T.
Thompson, the inventor of the Thompson submachine
gun.* [1]
The submachine gun was developed during World War
I (19141918). At its zenith in World War II (1939
1945), millions of SMGs were made. Today, submachine guns have been largely replaced by assault ries, Artillery Luger P08 pistol with snail-drum magazine and removwhich have a greater eective range and are capable of able stock.
penetrating the ballistic helmets and body armor used by
modern infantrymen.* [2] However, submachine guns are
still widely used by police and military special forces,
who value the SMG's reduced recoil and noise signature, especially when suppressed. Its reduced risk of
overpenetration is also a particularly valuable trait to police forces.
There are some inconsistencies in the classication of
submachine guns.* [3] British Commonwealth sources often refer to SMGs as machine carbines.* [4]* [3] The Bergmann MP18 was the world's rst practical submachine
Other sources refer to SMGs as machine pistolsbe- gun
310
42.1. HISTORY
In the early 20th century, experimental machine pistols
were made by converting pistols such as the Luger P-08
and Mauser C96 from semiautomatic to full-automatic
operation and adding detachable stocks. Carbine-type automatic weapons ring pistol rounds were developed during the latter stages of World War I by Italy, Germany and
the United States. Their improved repower oered an
advantage in trench warfare.* [8]
311
and other U.S. police forces themselves showed no reluctance to use and prominently display these weapons.
Eventually, the submachine gun was gradually accepted
by many military organizations, especially as World War
II loomed, with many countries developing their own designs.
1930s to 1940s
312
STEN MK II
Czechoslovak Sa vz. 25
In 1939, the Germans introduced the 9 mm Parabellum MP38 during the invasion of Poland. However, the
MP38 production was still just starting and only a few
thousand were in service at the time. It proved to be
far more practical and eective in close quarters combat than the standard-issue German Kar 98K bolt-action
rie. From it, the nearly identical, MP40 was developed
and made in large numbers; about a million were made
during World War II. The MP40 was lighter than the
MP38. It also used more stamped parts, making it faster
and cheaper to produce.* [12] The MP38 and MP40 were
the rst SMGs to use plastic furniture and a practical folding stock.* [12] They would set the fashion for all future
SMG designs.* [12]
During the Winter War, the badly outnumbered Finnish
used the Suomi KP/31 in large numbers against the
Russians with devastating eect.* [13] Finnish ski troops
became known for appearing out of the woods on one side
of a road, raking Soviet columns with SMG re and disappearing back into the woods on the other side. During
the Continuation War, the Finnish Sissi patrols would often equip every soldier with KP/31s. The Suomi red 9
mm Parabellum ammo from a 71-round drum magazine
(although often loaded with 74 rounds). This SMG
showed to the world the importance of the submachine
gun to the modern warfare.* [13] Prompting the development, adoption and mass production of submachine
guns by most of the World's armies. The Suomi was used
in combat until the end of Lapland war, was widely exported* [13] and remained in service to the late 1970s.
In 1940, the Russians introduced the 7.6225mm PPD40 and later PPSh-41 in response to their experience during the Winter War against Finland. The PPSh's 71 round
drum magazine is a copy of the Suomi magazine. The
USSR would go on to make over 6 million PPSh-41 by
the end of World War II. The Soviet Union had elded
large numbers of submachine guns, with whole infantry
battalions being armed with little else. Even in the hands
MAT-49 on display
of conscripted soldiers with minimal training, the volume
of re produced by massed submachine guns could be
The Italians were among the rst to develop submachine overwhelming.
guns during World War I. However, they were slow to In 1941, Britain adopted the 9 mm Parabellum
produce them during World War II. The Beretta Model
42.1. HISTORY
Lanchester submachine gun. Following the Dunkirk
evacuation, and with no time for the usual research and
development for a new weapon, it was decided to make a
direct copy of the German MP 28. However, the Lanchester proved to be dicult and expensive to manufacture.
Shortly thereafter, the much simpler, cheaper and faster
to make STEN submachine gun was developed. Over 4
million STEN Guns were made during World War II. The
STEN gun was so cheap and easy to make that Germany
started manufacturing their own copy (the MP 3008) towards the end of World War II. After the war, the British
replaced the STEN with the Sterling submachine gun.
Britain also used many M1928 Thompson submachine
guns during World War II.
313
in Africa and the Middle East with variants made by several countries. The vz. 23 inspired the development of
the Uzi submachine gun.* [15]
In 1949, France introduced the MAT-49 to replace the
hodgepodge of French, American, British, German and
Italian SMGs in French service after WWII. The 9mm
Parabellum MAT-49 is an inexpensive stamped steel
SMG with a telescoping wire stock, a pronounced folding
magazine housing and a grip safety. Thiswildebeast like
designproved to be an extremely reliable and eective
SMG, and was used by the French well into the 1980s. It
was also widely exported to Africa, Asia and the Middle
East.
The United States and its allies used the Thompson submachine gun, especially the simplied M1. However, 42.1.3
the Thompson was still expensive and slow to produce.
Therefore, U.S. developed the M3 submachine gun or
Grease Gunin 1942, followed by the improved M3A1
in 1944. The M3 was not more eective than the Tommy
Gun. However, it was made primarily of stamped parts
and welded together. So, it could be produced much
faster and at fraction of the cost of a Thompson. It could
be congured to re either .45 ACP or 9mm Luger ammunition. The M3A1 was among the longest serving submachine guns designs, being produced into the 1960s and
serving in US forces into the 1980s.
1950s to 1990s
After World War II, "...new submachine gun designs appeared almost every week to replace the admittedly rough
The UZI
and ready designs which had appeared during the war.
Some (the better ones) survived, most rarely got past the
glossy brochure stage.* [14] Most of these survivors were
cheaper, easier and faster to make than their predecessors.
As such, they were widely distributed.
In 1945, Sweden introduced the 9mm Parabellum Carl
Gustav M/45 with a design borrowing from and improving on many design elements of earlier submachine-gun
designs. It has a tubular stamped steel receiver with a
side folding stock. The M/45 was widely exported, and
especially popular with CIA operatives and U.S. Special
Forces during the Vietnam War. In U.S. service it was
known as the Swedish-K.
In 1946, Denmark introduced the Madsen M-46, and
in 1950, an improved model the Madsen M-50. These
9mm Parabellum stamped steel SMGs featured a unique
clamshell type design, a side folding stock and a gripsafety on the magazine housing. The Madsen was widely
exported and especially popular in Latin America, with
variants made by several countries.
Beretta M12S
314
blowback-operated submachine gun called the Uzi (af- larly when loaded with subsonic ammunition. Variants of
ter its designer Uziel Gal). The Uzi was one of the rst the Sterling and Heckler & Koch MP5 have been manuweapons to use a telescoping bolt design with the maga- factured with integral suppressors.
zine housed in the pistol grip for a shorter weapon. The
Uzi has become one of the most popular submachine guns
in the world, with over 10 million units sold,* [16] more 42.2 Personal defense weapons
than any other submachine gun.* [17]
In 1959, Beretta introduced the Model 12. This 9mm
Parabellum submachine gun was a complete break with
previous Beretta designs.* [18] It is a small, compact, very
well made SMG and among the rst to use telescoping
bolt design.* [18] The M12 was designed for mass production and was made largely of stamped steel and welded together.* [18] It is identied by its tubular shape receiver,
double pistol grips, a side folding stock and the magazine
housed in front of the trigger guard. The M12 uses the
same magazines as the Model 38 series.
In the 1960s, Heckler & Koch developed the 9mm Parabellum MP5 submachine gun. The MP5 is based on FN P90
the G3 rie and uses the same closed-bolt roller-delayed
blowback operation system. This makes the MP5 more
accurate than open-bolt SMGs, such as the UZI. The
MP5 is also one of the most widely used submachine guns
in the world,* [19] having been adopted by 40 nations and
numerous military, law enforcement, intelligence, and security organizations.* [20]
In the 1970s, extremely compact submachine guns, such
as the .45ACP Mac-10 and .380 ACP Mac-11, were developed to be used with silencers or suppressors.* [21]
While these SMGs received enormous publicity, and
were prominently seen in lms and television, they were
not widely adopted by military or police forces.* [21]
These smaller weapons led other manufacturers to develop their own compact SMGs, such as the Micro-UZI
and the H&K MP5K.
In the 1980s, Colt developed the Colt SMG and in the
1990s Izhmash developed the Vityaz-SN. Both are 9mm An MP7A1 with a 20-round magazine, and a reex sight
Parabellum, closed-bolt blowback-operated SMGs based
Developed during the late 1980s, the personal defense
on the M16 and AK-47 ries respectively, and are widely
weapon (PDW) is touted as a further evolution of the
used by their country's police and security forces.
submachine gun. The PDW was created in response to
a NATO request for a replacement for 919mm Parabellum submachine guns. The PDW is a compact au42.1.4 Today
tomatic weapon that can defeat enemy body armor and
which can be used conveniently by non-combatant and
Today, submachine guns are facing sti competition from support troops, and as a close quarters battle weapon for
compact assault ries. Factors such as the increasing use special forces and counter-terrorist groups.* [22]* [23]
of body armor and logistical concerns have combined to Introduced in 1991, the FN P90 features a bullpup delimit the appeal of submachine guns. As a result, com- sign with a futuristic appearance. It has a 50-round magpact assault ries have been replacing submachine guns azine housed horizontally above the barrel, an integrated
in many roles.
reex sight and fully ambidextrous controls.* [24] A simHowever, SMGs are still used by police and military
special forces units for close quarters combat. They are
also used as defense weapons for vehicle and air crews.
SMGs still have a strong hold on niche users, due to their
reduced size, recoil and muzzle blast. Submachine guns
also lend themselves to the use of suppressors, particu-
315
Introduced in 2001, the Heckler & Koch MP7 is a direct [9] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
rival to the FN P90. It is a more conventional-looking
2000. pages 116
design. The MP7 uses a short-stroke piston gas system as
used on H&K's G36 and HK416 assault ries, in place [10] Frank Iannamico, American Thunder: The Military
of a blowback system traditionally seen on submachine
Thompson Submachine Gun 1928, 1928A1, M1, M1A1,
guns.* [25] The MP7 uses 20-, 30- and 40-round magaMoose Lake Publishing, 2000.
zines and res 4.6x30mm ammunition which can penetrate soft body armor. Due to the heavy use of polymers [11] Dunlap, Roy F., Ordnance Went Up Front, Samworth
Press, (1948), p. 58
in its construction, the MP7 is much lighter than older
SMG designs, being only 1.2 kg (2.65 lb) with 20-round [12] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
empty magazine.
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
2000. pages 118-120
42.4 References
[1] http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Thompson+
submachine+gun%3A+shooting+a+20th+century+icon.
-a0172907495
[13] armies.http://world.guns.ru/smg/fi/suomi-m31-e.html
[14] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
2000. pages 93-94
[15] Hogg, Ian V. (1979). Guns and How They Work. New
York: Everest House. p. 157. ISBN 0-89696-023-4.
[16] McManners, Hugh (2003). Ultimate Special Forces. New
York: DK Publishing. p. 157. ISBN 0-7894-9973-8.
OCLC 53221575. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
[17] Hackathorn, Ken (1995). Using the Uzi. Fighting
Firearms (Soldier of Fortune) 3 (1): 1823.
[18] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
2000. pages 138-139
[19] Hogg, Ian (2002). Jane's Guns Recognition Guide. Jane's
Information Group. ISBN 0-00-712760-X.
[20] Tilstra, Russell C. (2012). Small Arms for Urban Combat.
US: McFarland. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-7864-6523-1.
[2] http://www.defensereview.com/
[21] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
submachine-guns-smgs-outpaced-by-today%E2%80%
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
99s-modern-short-barreled-rifles-sbrssub-carbines-or-still-a-viable-tool-for-close-quarters-battleclose-quarters-combat-cqbcqc/
2000. page 166
[3] Military Small Arms of the 20th Century. 7th Edition.
by Ian V. Hogg & John S. Weeks. Krause Publications.
2000. pages 93-94.
[25] Cutshaw, Charles Q. (2003).Heckler & Koch's cuttingedge compacts G36C and MP7 PDW: when less really is
more. Guns Magazine.
Chapter 43
Surveillance aircraft
Surveillance aircraft usually carry no armament, or only Observation was the term used for surveillance when the
limited defensive armament. A surveillance aircraft does main sensor was the human eye.
not necessarily require high-performance capability or
stealth characteristics. It may be a modied civilian aircraft. Surveillance aircraft have also included moored
balloons (e.g. TARS) and Unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs).
43.2 History
43.1 Denitions
The Global Hawk family's US DoD designation - RQ4 - may belie the Block 40's true calling. Ris the
Pentagon's designator for reconnaissance, .... But the
true calling ... is surveillance, not reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance missions are typically more oriented for
long-term intelligence-gathering purposes. The surveillance mission is much more integral to the kill chain, with
more tactically oriented operations servicing the shortterm decision-making process.* [1]
316
43.3. ROLES
317
duction of airborne radar.
43.3 Roles
43.3.1 Maritime patrol
Maritime patrol aircraft are typically large, slow machines capable of ying continuously for many hours,
with a wide range of sensors. Such aircraft include
the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod, the Breguet Atlantique,
43.2.2 World War I
the Tupolev Tu-95, the Lockheed P-2 Neptune and the
One of the rst aircraft used for surveillance was the Lockheed P-3 Orion/CP-140 Aurora.
Rumpler Taube during World War I, when aviators like
Fred Zinn evolved entirely new methods of reconnaissance and photography. The translucent wings of the 43.3.2 Law enforcement
plane made it very dicult for ground based observers
to detect a Taube at an altitude above 400 m. The French Main article: Surveillance Aerial surveillance
also called this plane the Invisible Aircraft, and it
is sometimes also referred to as the world's very rst Predator UAVs have been used by the U.S. for border
stealth plane. German Taube aircraft were able to de- patrol.* [6]
tect the advancing Russian army during the Battle of Tannenberg (1914).
318
such as Sky Sentinel* [7] and HiSentinel 80* [8]and airplanes.
Most air forces around the world lack dedicated surveillance planes.
Several countries adapt aircraft for electronic intelligence
(ELINT) gathering. The Beech RC-12 Super King Air
and Boeing RC-135 Rivet Joint are examples of this activity.
43.6 References
[1] Next generation of Global Hawks ready to roll, Flight International, August 16, 2010
[2] The Rise of Surveillance, Lt Col James O. Norman,
USAF (page 18)
[3] F. Stansbury Haydon, Military Ballooning During the
Early Civil War, pp.5-15
[4] Charles Coulston Gillispie, Science and Polity in France:
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years, pp. 372-373
[5] Canadian Warplane Heritage: Auster Beagle AOP
[6] LA Now Southern California, Secember 7, 2009,.
Latimesblogs.latimes.com. December 7, 2009. Retrieved
May 20, 2010.
[7] Govers, Francis X., III (2013-06-11).Nevada company
launches silent Sky Sentinel UAV airship. gizmag.com.
Retrieved 2014-08-16.
[8] Perry, William D. (FallWinter 2010). Sentinel in the
Sky (PDF). Technology Today. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
Chapter 44
44.1 Mission
320
44.2.2
19th century
The American Civil War was the most costly war for the
U.S. in terms of casualties. After most slave states, located in the southern U.S., formed the Confederate States
of America, C.S. troops led by former U.S. Army ocers, mobilized a very large fraction of Southern white
manpower. Forces of the United States (theUnionor
the North) formed a large new volunteer army.
For the rst two years Confederate forces did well in set
battles but lost control of the border states.* [13] The Confederates had the advantage of defending a very large
country in an area where disease caused twice as many
deaths as combat. The Union pursued a strategy of seiz-
44.2. HISTORY
ing the coastline, blockading the ports, and taking control of the river systems. By 1863 the Confederacy was
being strangled. Its eastern armies fought well, but the
western armies were defeated one after another until the
Union forces captured New Orleans in 1862 along with
the Tennessee River. In the famous Vicksburg Campaign of 186265, Ulysses Grant seized the Mississippi
River and cut o the Southwest. Grant took command
of Union forces in 1864 and after a series of battles
with very heavy casualties, he had Lee under siege in
Richmond as William T. Sherman captured Atlanta and
marched through Georgia and the Carolinas. Lee lost his
Confederate capital in April 1865 and was captured at
Appomattox Court House; the other Confederate armies
quickly surrendered.
321
sure safety to lives and property. In 1916, Pancho Villa,
a major rebel leader, attacked Columbus, New Mexico,
prompting a U.S. intervention in Mexico until 7 February 1917. They fought the rebels and the Mexican federal
troops until 1918. The United States joined World War I
in 1917 on the side of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and
other allies. U.S. troops were sent to the front and were
involved in the last oences that ended the war. With the
armistice in November 1918, the army once again decreased its forces.
The war remains the deadliest conict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers. Based
on 1860 census gures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to
43 died in the war, including 6.4% in the North and 18%
in the South.* [14]
Following the Civil War, the U.S. Army had the mission
of containing western tribes of Native Americans on their
reservations. There were many forts set up, and several
campaigns.
The key battles of the SpanishAmerican War of 1898
were fought by the Navy. Using mostly new volunteers,
the US Army defeated Spain in land campaigns in Cuba
and played the central role in suppressing a rebellion in 3rd battalion, 504th PIR advance in a snowstorm behind a tank,
January 1945
the Philippines.
44.2.3
20th century
322
army due to the use of drafted personnel, the unpopularity of the war with the American public, and frustrating
restrictions placed on the military by American political
leaders. While American forces had been stationed in the
Republic of Vietnam since 1959, in intelligence & advising/training roles, they did not deploy in large numbers
until 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. American
forces eectively established and maintained control of
the traditionalbattleeld, however they struggled to
counter the guerrilla hit and run tactics of the communist
Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army. On a tacThe end of World War II set the stage for the EastWest
confrontation known as the Cold War. With the outbreak tical level, American soldiers (and *the U.S. military as a
whole) did not lose a sizable battle. [16]
of the Korean War, concerns over the defense of Western
Europe rose. Two corps, V and VII, were reactivated under Seventh United States Army in 1950 and American
strength in Europe rose from one division to four. Hundreds of thousands of U.S. troops remained stationed in
West Germany, with others in Belgium, the Netherlands
and the United Kingdom, until the 1990s in anticipation
of a possible Soviet attack.
44.2. HISTORY
323
which deployed over 500,000 troops, the bulk of them
from U.S. Army formations, to drive out Iraqi forces.
The campaign ended in total victory, as Western coalition forces routed the Iraqi Army, organized along Soviet
lines, in just one hundred hours.
After Operation Desert Storm, the army did not see major combat operations for the remainder of the 1990s
but did participate in a number of peacekeeping activities. In 1990 the Department of Defense issued guidance forrebalancingafter a review of the Total Force
Policy,* [21] but in 2004, Air War College scholars concluded the guidance would reverse the Total Force Policy
M1 Abrams move out before the Battle of Al Busayyah during which is an essential ingredient to the successful application of military force.* [22]
the Gulf War
war without the support of the American people, Gen- 44.2.4
eral Abrams intertwined the structure of the three components of the army in such a way as to make extended
operations impossible, without the involvement of both
the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve.* [19]
21st century
On September 11, 2001, 53 Army civilians (47 employees and six contractors) and 22 soldiers were among
the 125 victims killed in the Pentagon in a terrorist attack when American Airlines Flight 77 commandeered
by ve Al-Qaeda hijackers slammed into the western
side of the building, as part of the September 11 attacks.* [23] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude was the
highest-ranking military ocial killed at the Pentagon,
and the most senior U.S. Army ocer killed by foreign
action since the death of Lieutenant General Simon B.
324
44.3.1
Army components
Since the adoption of the total force policy, in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, reserve component soldiers
have taken a more active role in U.S. military operations.
For example, Reserve and Guard units took part in the
Gulf War, peacekeeping in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and the
By the twentieth century, the U.S. Army had mobilized 2003 invasion of Iraq.
44.3. ORGANIZATION
44.3.2
325
Army commands and army service four military services belonging to the Department of Defense who advise the President of the United States, the
component commands
Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council on operational military matters, under the guidance
of the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
Headquarters, United States Department of the
of Sta.* [50]* [51] In 1986, the GoldwaterNichols Act
Army (HQDA):
mandated that operational control of the services follows
Source: U.S. Army organization* [47]
a chain of command from the President to the Secretary
of Defense directly to the unied combatant commanders, who have control of all armed forces units in their
44.3.3 Structure
geographic or function area of responsibility. Thus, the
secretaries of the military departments (and their respecMain article: Transformation of the United States Army tive service chiefs underneath them) only have the responThe United States Army is made up of three components: sibility to organize, train and equip their service components. The army provides trained forces to the combatant
commanders for use as directed by the Secretary of Defense.* [52]
326
United States Army Europe headquartered at Clay The U.S. Army currently consists of 10 active divisions
Kaserne, Wiesbaden, Germany
as well as several independent units. The force is in the
process of contracting after several years of growth. In
United States Army Pacic headquartered at Fort June 2013, the Army announced plans to downsize to 32
Shafter, Hawaii
active combat brigade teams by 2015 to match a reduction
in active duty strength to 490,000 soldiers. Army Chief
United States Army Africa headquartered at of Sta Raymond Odierno has projected that by 2018 the
Vicenza, Italy
Army will eventually shrink to 450,000 in the active
component, 335,000 in the National Guard and 195,000
in U.S. Army Reserve.* [53]
Within the Army National Guard and United States Army
Reserve there are a further eight divisions, over fteen
maneuver brigades, additional combat support and combat service support brigades, and independent cavalry,
infantry, artillery, aviation, engineer, and support battalions. The Army Reserve in particular provides virtually
all psychological operations and civil aairs units.
United
(FORSCOM):
U.S. Army Special Forces soldiers from the 3rd Special Forces
Group patrol a eld in the Gulistan district of Farah, Afghanistan
States
Army
Forces
Command
44.4 Personnel
44.4. PERSONNEL
327
signia are the same. Certain professions, including physicians, pharmacists, nurses, lawyers, and chaplains are
commissioned directly into the army and are designated
by insignia unique to their sta community.
Most army commissioned ocers are promoted based on
an up or outsystem. The Defense Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980 establishes rules for timing
of promotions and limits the number of ocers that can
serve at any given time.
Army regulations call for addressing all personnel with
the rank of general as 'General (last name)' regardless of the number of stars. Likewise, both colonels
and lieutenant colonels are addressed as 'Colonel (last
name)' and rst and second lieutenants as 'Lieutenant (last
name).'* [58]
44.4.2
Warrant ocers
328
or even a licensed practical nurse. For commissioned ofcers, ASI training includes pre-commissioning training
either at USMA, or via ROTC, or by completing OCS.
After commissioning, ocers undergo branch specic
training at the Basic Ocer Leaders Course, (formerly
called Ocer Basic Course), which varies in time and location according their future assignments. Further career
development is available through the Army Correspondence Course Program.
Many units are supplemented with a variety of specialized weapons, including the M249 SAW (Squad Automatic Weapon), to provide suppressive re at the reteam level.* [64] Indirect re is provided by the M203
grenade launcher. The M1014 Joint Service Combat
Shotgun or the Mossberg 590 Shotgun are used for door
breaching and close-quarters combat. The M14EBR is
used by designated marksmen, and the M107 Long Range
Sniper Rie, the M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rie, and the
M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper Rie are used by snipers.
Hand grenades, such as the M67 fragmentation grenade
and M18 smoke grenade, are also used.
44.5 Equipment
Main article: Equipment of the United States Army
3rd Infantry Division soldiers manning an M1A1 Abrams in Iraq
44.5.1
Weapons
Individual weapons
The army employs various individual weapons to provide light repower at short ranges. The most common
weapons used by the army are the compact variant of the
M16 rie, the M4 carbine,* [62] as well as the 7.62x51
mm variant of the FN SCAR for Army Rangers. The
primary sidearm in the U.S. Army is the 9 mm M9 pistol
The army employs various crew-served weapons to provide heavy repower at ranges exceeding that of individual weapons.
The M240 is the US Army's standard Medium Machine
Gun.* [65] The M2 heavy machine gun is generally used
as a vehicle-mounted machine gun. In the same way, the
44.5. EQUIPMENT
329
40 mm MK 19 grenade machine gun is mainly used by will be used for training, and the remainder will be spread
motorized units.* [66]
across the active force. The Oshkosh M-ATV will be kept
The US Army uses three types of mortar for indirect re the most at 5,681 vehicles, as it is smaller and lighter than
support when heavier artillery may not be appropriate or other MRAPs for o-road mobility. The other most reavailable. The smallest of these is the 60 mm M224, tained vehicle will be the Navistar MaxxPro Dash with
normally assigned at the infantry company level.* [67] 2,633 vehicles, plus 301 Maxxpro ambulances. ThouAt the next higher echelon, infantry battalions are typ- sands of other MRAPs like the Cougar,* BAE Caiman,
ically supported by a section of 81 mm M252 mor- and larger MaxxPros will be disposed of. [77]
tars.* [68] The largest mortar in the army's inventory is The U.S. Army's principal artillery weapons are the
the 120 mm M120/M121, usually employed by mecha- M109A6 Paladin self-propelled howitzer* [78] and the
nized units.* [69]
M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS),* [79]
Fire support for light infantry units is provided by towed both mounted on tracked platforms and assigned to heavy
howitzers, including the 105 mm M119A1* [70] and the mechanized units.
155 mm M777 (which will replace the M198).* [71]
The US Army utilizes a variety of direct-re rockets and
missiles to provide infantry with an Anti-Armor Capability. The AT4 is an unguided projectile that can destroy armor and bunkers at ranges up to 500 meters.
The FIM-92 Stinger is a shoulder-launched, heat seeking
anti-aircraft missile. The FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71
TOW are anti-tank guided missiles.
44.5.2
Vehicles
44.5.3 Uniforms
Main article: Uniforms of the United States Army
330
44.5.5 3D printing
In November 2012 the United States Army developed a
tactical 3D printing capability to allow it to rapidly manufacture critical components on the battleeld. (BBC)
Berets
The Army black beret (having been permanently replaced
with the patrol cap) is no longer worn with the new ACU
for garrison duty. After years of complaints that it wasn't
suited well for most work conditions, Army Chief of Sta
General Martin Dempsey eliminated it for wear with the
ACU in June 2011. Soldiers may still wear colored berets
who are currently in an airborne unit (maroon beret),
Rangers (tan beret), and Special Forces (green beret) and
may wear it with the Army Service Uniform for nonceremonial functions. Unit commanders may still direct
the wear of patrol caps in these units in training environments or motor pools.
44.5.4
Tents
44.7. REFERENCES
44.7 References
[1] Wright, Jr., Robert K. (1983). The Continental Army
(Army Lineage Series). Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army. ISBN 9780160019319.
OCLC 8806011.
[2] Maass, John R. June 14th: The Birthday of the U.S.
Army. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved
30 October 2013.
[3] Department of the Army, Deputy Chief of Sta (Human
Resources/G-1), Army Demographics FY12 Army
Prole (demographics brochure)
[4] Us Future Combat & Weapon Systems Handbook By Ibp
Usa, p.15
[5] 14 June: The Birthday of the U.S. Army. United States
Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
an excerpt from Robert Wright, The Continental Army
[6] Library of Congress, Journals of the Continental
Congress, Volume 27
[7] Army Birthdays. United States Army Center of Military History. 15 November 2004. Archived from the
original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved Jun 2010.
[8] The United States Army - Organization. army.mil.
Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[9] DA Pamphlet 10-1 Organization of the United States
Army; Figure 1.2 Military Operations.
[10] 10 USC 3062: Policy; composition; organized peace
establishment. US House of Representatives. Retrieved
21 Aug 13. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
[11] Ron Field and Richard Hook, The Seminole Wars 1818
58 (2009)
[12] The U.S.-Mexican War - PBS. pbs.org. Retrieved 1
April 2015.
[13] McPherson, James M., ed. The Atlas of the Civil War,
(Philadelphia, PA, 2010)
[14] Maris Vinovskis (1990). "Toward a social history of the
American Civil War: exploratory essays". Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-521-39559-3
[15] Cragg, Dan, ed., The Guide to Military Installations,
Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, 1983, p. 272.
331
[32] Finnegan, John Patrick; Romana Danysh (1998).Chapter 2: World War I. In Jerey J. Clarke. Military Intelligence. Army Lineage Series. Washington, D.C., United
States: Center of Military History United States Army.
online. ISBN 0-16-048828-1. OCLC 35741383.
[34] http://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/pdf/go1204.pdf
[19] Carafano, James, Total Force Policy and the Abrams Doctrine: Unfullled Promise, Uncertain Future, Foreign Policy Research Institute, 3 February 2005.
332
[36] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1202.pdf
[37] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1402.pdf
[38] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1026.pdf
[40] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1475.pdf
[41] The Relationship of U. S. Army Cyber Command and
Second Army, U.S. Army Cyber Command, last accessed
12 January 2015
[42] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1215.pdf
[43] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go0633.pdf
[44] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/go1390.pdf
[56] http://www.armytimes.com/story/military/2015/01/14/
south-korean-troops-form-combined-division-with-us-army-2nd-infantry-korea-combined-division/
21748841/
Bailey, Beth. America's Army: Making the All[57] From the Future Soldiers Web Site.
[58] Army Regulation 600-20
[59] Department of Defense - Ocer Rank Insignia. defense.gov. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
[60] From the Enlisted Soldiers Descriptions Web Site.
[61] http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r600_20.pdf
[62] M4. U.S. Army Fact Files
[63] M9 pistol. U.S. Army Fact Files
[64] M249, U.S. Army Fact Files
[65] M240, U.S. Army Fact Files
[66] MK 19, U.S. Army Fact Files
333
Chapter 45
45.1 Mission
334
45.1. MISSION
Marine Corps of 1834, and Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps of 1798. In 1951, the House of
Representatives' Armed Services Committee called the
clause one of the most important statutory and traditional functions of the Marine Corps.It noted that
the corps has more often than not performed actions of a
non-naval nature, including its famous actions in Tripoli,
the War of 1812, Chapultepec, and numerous counterinsurgency and occupational duties (such as those in Central America), World War I, and the Korean War. While
these actions are not accurately described as support of
naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature,
using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign aairs on behalf of American interests.* [22]
45.1.1
Historical mission
335
fending the ship's ocers from mutiny; to the latter end,
their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned
between the ocers' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at
sea and ashore. America's rst amphibious assault landing occurred early in the Revolutionary War on 3 March
1776 as the Marines gained control of Fort Montague
and Fort Nassau, a British ammunition depot and naval
port in New Providence, the Bahamas. The role of the
Marine Corps has expanded signicantly since then; as
the importance of its original naval mission declined with
changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing
on formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced
Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codied their
combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the
seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval
campaigns.
Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and
carriers. Marine detachments (generally one platoon per
cruiser, a company for battleships or carriers) served their
traditional duties as ship's landing force, manning the
ship's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine
detachments were augmented by members of the ship's
company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran
Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and
Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines
would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War
II.* [26] During World War II, Marines continued to serve
on capital ships. They often were assigned to man antiaircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the
1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen
on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security nally ended in the 1990s as the
battleships were retired and nuclear weapons were withdrawn from deployment on aircraft carriers.
45.1.2 Capabilities
The Marine Corps fullls a vital role in national security
as an amphibious, expeditionary, air-ground combined
arms task force, capable of forcible entry from the air,
land, and sea. It is capable of asymmetric warfare with
conventional, irregular, and hybrid forces.
While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique
combat arms, as a force it can rapidly deploy a combinedarms task force to almost anywhere in the world within
days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a
Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat element, an aviation combat
element and a logistics combat element under a common command element. While the creation of joint
commands under the GoldwaterNichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between each branch,
the Corps' ability to permanently maintain integrated
336
Bravo Battery, 1st Battalion, 11th Marines, a.k.a. the Beastmasters ght o Iraqi unit on 26 March 2003
The Marine Corps relies on the Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Fleet Marine Force in Japan, Marine
Expeditionary Units (MEU) are typically stationed at sea.
This allows the ability to function as rst responders to international incidents. The United States Army maintains
light infantry units capable of rapid worldwide deployment, but those units do not match the combined-arms
integration of a MAGTF and lack the logistics that the
Navy provides.* [14] Therefore, the Marine Corps is often assigned to non-combat missions such as the evacuation of Americans from unstable countries and providing humanitarian relief during natural disasters. In larger
conicts, Marines act as a stopgap, to get into and hold
an area until larger units can be mobilized. The Corps
performed this role in World War I and the Korean War,
where Marines were the rst signicant combat units deployed from the United States and held the line until the
country could mobilize for war.* [32] To aid rapid deployment, the Maritime Pre-Positioning System was developed: eets of container ships are positioned throughout the world with enough equipment and supplies for a
45.2. HISTORY
337
45.1.3
Doctrine
45.2 History
Main article: History of the United States Marine Corps
45.2.1
Origins
The Marines' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (18011805) against
the Barbary pirates,* [37] when William Eaton and First
Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led eight Marines and 500
mercenaries in an eort to capture Tripoli. Though they
only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines' hymn and the Mameluke Sword
carried by Marine ocers.* [38]
During the War of 1812, Marine naval detachments took
part in the great frigate duels that characterized the war,
which were the rst and last engagements of the conict.
Their most signicant contribution was holding the center
of Gen. Andrew Jackson's defensive line at the Battle of
New Orleans, the nal major battle of the conict. By
the end of the war, most notably during the capture of
HMS Cyane, Levant and Penguin, the nal engagements
between British and American forces, the Marines had
acquired a well-deserved reputation as expert marksmen,
especially in ship-to-ship actions.* [38]
338
World War I
45.2.2
45.2. HISTORY
339
Marines fought their famed battle at Belleau Wood, creating the Marines' reputation in modern history. While
its previous expeditionary experiences had not earned it
much acclaim in the Western world, the Marines' ferocity and toughness in France earned them the respect of
the Germans, who rated them of stormtrooper quality.
Though Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden as meaning
"Devil Dogs", there is no evidence of this in German
records (as Teufelshunde would be the proper German
phrase). Nevertheless, the name stuck.* [44]
Photograph of the USMC War Memorial, which depicts the agraising on Iwo Jima. The memorial is modeled on Joe Rosenthal's
famous Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.
45.2.4
World War II
340
F4U Corsairs provide close air support to Marines ghting Chinese forces, December 1950.
withdrawn in 1971, and returned briey in 1975 to evacthe 1st Marine Division and the Army's 7th Infantry Diviuate Saigon and attempt a rescue of the crew of the
sion, regrouped and inicted heavy casualties during their
Mayagez.* [54]
ghting withdrawal to the coast, now known as the Battle
Vietnam was the longest war for Marines; by its end,
of Chosin Reservoir.
13,091* [55]* [56] had been killed in action, 51,392 had
The ghting calmed after the Battle of the Chosin Reserbeen wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor had been
voir, but late in March 1953 the relative quiet of the war
awarded.* [57]* [58] Due to policies concerning rotation,
was broken when the Chinese Army launched a massive
more Marines were deployed for service during Vietnam
oensive on three outposts manned by the 5th Marine
than World War II.* [59]
Regiment. These outposts were codenamed Reno,
Vegas, and Carson. The campaign was collec- While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detritively known as the Nevada Cities Campaign. There was mental low point in its service history caused by courtsbrutal ghting on Reno hill, which was eventually cap- martial and non-judicial punishments related partially to
tured by the Chinese. Although Reno was lost, the 5th increased unauthorized absences and desertions during
Marines held both Vegas and Carson through the rest of the war. Overhauling of the Corps began in the late
the campaign. In this one campaign, the Marines suf- 1970s, discharging the most delinquent, and once qualfered approximately 1,000 casualties, while the Chinese ity of new recruits improved, the Corps focused on resuered at least twice as many. Marines would continue forming the NCO Corps, a vital functioning part of its
*
a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953 forces. [14]
*
armistice. [52]
The Korean War saw the Corps expand from 75,000 reg- 45.2.7
ulars to a force of 261,000 Marines, mostly reservists.
30,544 Marines were killed or wounded during the war
and 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor.* [53]
45.2.6
Vietnam War
45.2. HISTORY
341
45.2.8
In spring 2009, President Barack Obama's goal of reducing spending in the Defense Department was led by
Secretary Robert Gates in a series of budget cuts which
did not result in signicant changes in the Corps' budget and programs, cutting only the VH-71 Kestrel and resetting the VXX program.* [62]* [63]* [64] However, the
National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform singled the Corps out for the brunt of a series of
recommended cuts in late 2010.* [65] In light of budget
sequestration in 2013, commandant Amos set a goal of
a force of 174,000 Marines.* [66] He testied that this
was the minimum number that would allow for an eective response to even a single contingency operation, but
it would reduce the peacetime ratio of time at home bases
to time deployed down to a historical low level.* [67]
Marines and other American forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as
early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom.* [68] The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were the rst conventional forces into
Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom
in November 2001, and in December, the Marines seized
Kandahar International Airport.* [69] Since then, Marine battalions and squadrons have been rotating through,
engaging Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces. Marines of
the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit ooded into the
Taliban-held town of Garmsir on 29 April 2008, in
Helmand Province, in the rst major American operation
342
45.3 Organization
Main article: Organization of the United States Marine
Corps
The Department of the Navy, led by its Secretary, is the
federal government agency which oversees the Marine
Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine ocer
is the Commandant, responsible to the Secretary of the
Navy for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping
the Marine Corps so that its forces are ready for deployment under the operational command of the Combatant
Commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four
principal subdivisions: the Headquarters (HQMC), the
Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the
Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR).
45.3. ORGANIZATION
343
COM has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC has operational control of
the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force.* [32]
344
Marines and Sailors share many naval traditions, especially terminology and customs. Marine Corps Medal
of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of this and
other awards;* [26] and with few exceptions, the awards
and badges of the Navy and Marine Corps are identical.
Much of testing for new Marine Corps aircraft is done
at NAS Patuxent River. The Navy's Blue Angels ight
Assault Amphibious Vehicles approach the well deck of USS Bon- demonstration team is staed by both Navy and Marine
homme Richard.
ocers and enlisted men, and includes a Marine C-130
Hercules aircraft.* [26]
pers and promotional literature have commonly used the
phraseNavy-Marine Corps Team,* [83]* [84] or refer
to the Naval Service. Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps
report directly to the Secretary of the Navy.
Cooperation between the two services really begins with
the training and instruction of Marines. The Corps
receives a signicant portion of its ocers from the
United States Naval Academy and Naval Reserve Ocer
Training Corps (NROTC). NROTC sta includes Marine instructors, while Marine drill instructors contribute
to training of ocers in the Navy's Ocer Candidate
School. Marine aviators are trained in the Naval Aviation training pipeline and are winged as Naval Aviators.
45.3. ORGANIZATION
345
A team of Marine Force Recon operators training during a Maritime Interdiction Operation (MIO) exercise-example of black
operations.
ground combat element (GCE), an aviation combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE)* [90]
under a common command element (CE), capable of operating independently or as part of a larger coalition. The
MAGTF structure reects a strong tradition in the Corps
towards self-suciency and a commitment to combined
arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force often called upon to act independently in discrete, timesensitive situations. The history of the Marine Corps as
well has led to a wariness of overreliance on its sister services, and towards joint operations in general.* [14]
A MAGTF varies in size from the smallest, a Marine
Expeditionary Unit (MEU), based around a reinforced
infantry battalion and a composite squadron, up to the
largest, a Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), which ties
together a Division, an Air Wing, and a Logistics Group
under a MEF Headquarters Group. The seven MEUs
constantly rotate between themselves and their attached
components to maintain a high state of readiness. Each
MEU is rated as capable of performing special operations.* [91] The three MEFs contain the vast majority of
active duty deployable forces.
tribution to the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the founding of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the
Marine Corps. Then-Commandant Paul X. Kelley ex-
346
45.3.4
Budget
45.4 Personnel
45.3.5
45.4. PERSONNEL
As stated above, the Commandant of the Marine Corps is
the highest-ranking ocer of the Marine Corps; though
he may not be the senior ocer by time in grade and/or
position of oce. He is both the symbolic and functional head of the Corps, and holds a position of very
high esteem among Marines. The Commandant has the
U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to man, train, and equip
the Marine Corps. He does not serve as a direct battleeld commander. The Commandant is a member of the
Joint Chiefs of Sta, and reports to the Secretary of the
Navy.* [102]
The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps acts as
a deputy to the Commandant. The Sergeant Major of
the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine, and acts
as an adviser to the Commandant. Headquarters Marine
Corps comprises the rest of the Commandant's counsel
and sta, with deputy Commandants that oversee various
aspects of the Corps assets and capabilities.
The current and 36th Commandant is Joseph F. Dunford, Jr., who assumed the position on 17 October
2014.* [103]* [104] The 33rd and current Assistant Commandant is John M. Paxton, Jr.,* [105] while the 17th
and current Sergeant Major is Micheal P. Barrett. Other
Marine generals may be senior to the Commandant or
Assistant Commandant in terms of time in grade and/or
billet.
45.4.2
Rank structure
Commissioned ocers
Commissioned ocers are distinguished from other ocers by their commission, which is the formal written authority, issued in the name of the President of the United
States, that confers the rank and authority of a Marine ofcer. Commissioned ocers carry thespecial trust and
condenceof the President of the United States.* [22]
Marine Corps commissioned ocers are promoted based
on anup or outsystem in accordance with the Defense
Ocer Personnel Management Act of 1980.
Warrant ocers
See also: Warrant ocer (United States)
347
Warrant ocers are primarily former enlisted experts in a
specic specialized eld and provide leadership generally
only within that speciality.
Enlisted
Enlisted Marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3 make up
the bulk of the Corps' ranks, usually referred to simply as
Marines. Although they do not technically hold leadership ranks, the Corps' ethos stresses leadership among
all Marines, and junior Marines are often assigned responsibility normally reserved for superiors. Those in the
pay grades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned ocers
(NCOs). They primarily supervise junior Marines and act
as a vital link with the higher command structure, ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines E-6 and
higher are Sta Non-Commissioned Ocers (SNCOs),
charged with supervising NCOs and acting as enlisted advisers to the command.
The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two and three ranks
per pay grade, respectively, each with dierent responsibilities. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks
are command-oriented, serving as the senior enlisted
Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding ocer in matters of discipline, administration and the morale
and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master
Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specic MOS. The Sergeant
Major of the Marine Corps also E-9, is a billet conferred
on the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps,
personally selected by the Commandant. It is possible
however for an enlisted Marine to hold a position senior
to Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps as has been the
case since the 1 October 2011, appointment of Sergeant
Major Bryan B. Battaglia to the billet of Senior Enlisted
Advisor to the Chairman which is deemed the senior enlisted member of the United States military.
Dierent forms of address can be found at United States
Marine Corps rank insignia and List of United States Marine Corps acronyms and expressions.
348
45.4.4
Initial training
45.5 Uniforms
Every year, over 2,000 new Marine ocers are commis- Main article: Uniforms of the United States Marine
sioned, and 38,000 recruits accepted and trained.* [32] Corps
All new Marines, enlisted or ocer, are recruited by the The Marine Corps has the most stable and most recMarine Corps Recruiting Command.* [107]
Commissioned ocers are commissioned mainly
through one of three sources: Naval Reserve Ocer
Training Corps (NROTC), Ocer Candidates School
(OCS), or the United States Naval Academy (USNA).
Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned
ocers, regardless of accession route or further training
requirements, attend The Basic School (TBS) at Marine
Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. At TBS, second lieutenants, warrant ocers, and selected foreign ocers
learn the art of infantry and combined arms warfare.* [22]
45.6. CULTURE
There are three dierent forms of the Dress uniform,
the most common being the Blue Dress Uniform, called
Dress Bluesor simply Blues. It is most often seen
in recruiting advertisements and is equivalent to black tie.
There is aBlue-WhiteDress for summer, and Evening
Dress for formal (white tie) occasions. Versions with a
khaki shirt in lieu of the coat (Blue Dress Charlie/Delta)
are worn as a daily working uniform by Marine recruiters
and NROTC sta.* [110]
The Service Uniform was once the prescribed daily work
attire in garrison; however, it has been largely superseded
in this role by the utility uniform. Consisting of olive
green and khaki colors, it is commonly referred to as
Greens. It is roughly equivalent in function and composition to a business suit.* [110]
The Utility Uniform, currently the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, is a camouage uniform intended for
wear in the eld or for dirty work in garrison, though it has
now been standardized for regular duty. It is rendered in
a distinctive MARPAT pixelated camouage (sometimes
referred to as digitals or digies) that breaks up the wearer's
shape, and serves to distinguish Marine uniforms from
those of other services. In garrison, the woodland uniform is worn in winter, and the desert uniform is worn in
summer.* [111] Marines consider the utilities a working
uniform and do not permit their wear o-base, except in
transit to and from their place of duty and in the event of
an emergency. This, too, distinguishes them from other
services, which have less stringent restrictions.* [110]
45.6 Culture
Main article: Culture of the United States Marine Corps
349
As in any military organization, the ocial and unocial 45.6.2 Unocial traditions and customs
traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps' Marines have several generic nicknames:
embrace of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason
for its high esprit de corps.* [22]
Devil Dog has several oft-disputed explanations,* [117]* [118]* [119] but the tradition has
expanded to include the English bulldog's association with the Corps, especially as a mascot.* [32]
gyrene has dropped out of popular use.* [120]
Leatherneck refers to a leather collar formerly part
of the Marine uniform during the Revolutionary
War period.* [121]
Jarhead has
tions.* [122]
Eagle, Globe and Anchor along with the U.S. ag, the Marine
Corps ag and the Commandant's ag.
several
oft-disputed
explana-
350
45.6.3
Veteran Marines
45.7. EQUIPMENT
transfer from Jujitsu, ground grappling involving joint
locking techniques and chokes from Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu,
and a mix of knife and baton/stick ghting derived from
Eskrima, and elbow strikes and kick boxing from Muay
Thai. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp,
where they will earn the rst of ve available belts.* [127]
351
gun and MK19 automatic grenade launcher (40 mm) are
available for use by dismounted infantry, though they are
more commonly vehicle-mounted.
Precision repower is provided by the M40 series, and
the Barrett M107, while designated marksmen use the
DMR (being replaced by the M39 EMR), and the SAMR.* [131]
45.7 Equipment
Main pages: Category:United States Marine Corps
equipment and List of United States Marine Corps
individual equipment
As of 2013, the typical infantry rieman carries $14,000
worth of gear (excluding night-vision goggles), compared
to $2,500 a decade earlier. The number of pieces of
equipment (everything from radios to trucks) in a typical
infantry battalion has also increased, from 3,400 pieces
of gear in 2001 to 8,500 in 2013.* [128]
45.7.1
Infantry weapons
Main article: List of weapons of the United States MaThe Marine Corps utilizes a variety of direct-re rockrine Corps
The basic infantry weapon of the Marine Corps is the ets and missiles to provide infantry with an oensive
and defensive anti-armor capability. The SMAW and
AT4 are unguided rockets that can destroy armor and
xed defenses (e.g., bunkers) at ranges up to 500 meters.
The smaller and lighter M72 LAW can destroy targets
at ranges up to 200 meters.* [132]* [133] The Predator
SRAW, FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are antitank guided missiles. The Javelin can utilize top-attack
proles to avoid heavy frontal armor. The Predator is a
short-range re-and-forget weapon; the Javelin and TOW
are heavier missiles eective past 2,000 meters that give
infantry an oensive capability against armor.* [134]
The USMC is currently seeking to purchase commercial o-the-shelf bullet-trap or shoot-through rie*
Marines ring the MEU(SOC) pistol while garrisoned aboard grenades. [135] These grenades will provide individual
Marines additional repower and will allow indirect re
ship.
against targets in delade, behind walls and buildings or
M16 assault rie family, with a majority of Marines be- rooftops and elevated positions at ranges between 30 and
*
ing equipped with the M16A2 or M16A4 service ri- 150 meters. [135]
es (the M16A2 is being phased out). The M4 carbine* [129] and Colt 9mm SMG* [130] have also been issued. The standard side arm is the M9A1 pistol. The 45.7.2 Ground vehicles
Colt M1911A1 is also being put back into service as
the M45A1 Close Quarter Battle Pistol (CQBP) in small Main article: List of vehicles of the United States Marine
numbers. Suppressive re is provided by the M249 SAW Corps
(currently transitioning to the M27 IAR) and M240 machine guns, at the squad and company levels respectively. The Corps operates the same HMMWV and M1A1
In addition, indirect re is provided by the M203 grenade Abrams tank as does the Army. However, for its spelauncher and the M32 grenade launcher in reteams, cic needs, the Corps uses a number of unique vehicles.
M224 60 mm mortar in companies, and M252 81 mm The LAV-25 is a dedicated wheeled armored personmortar in battalions. The M2 .50 caliber heavy machine nel carrier, similar to the Army's Stryker vehicle, used
352
to provide strategic mobility.* [136] Amphibious capability is provided by the AAV-7A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, an armored tracked vehicle that doubles as
an armored personnel carrier, due to be replaced by the
Amphibious Combat Vehicle, a faster vehicle with superior armor and weaponry. The threat of land mines
and improvised explosive devices in Iraq and Afghanistan
has seen the Corps begin purchasing heavy armored
vehicles that can better withstand the eects of these
weapons as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected
vehicle program.* [137] The Marine Corps has ordered
1,960 MRAP vehicles, hoping to use them to replace
HMMWVs and some Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacements on patrols in Iraq.* [138] The Logistics Vehicle
System Replacement began replacing the Logistics Vehicle System in 2009.* [139]
Prior to 2005, the Marines operated exclusively tube artillery the M198 155 mm howitzer, now being replaced
by the M777 155 mm howitzer. However, the Corps has
expanded its artillery composition to include the High
Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), a truckmounted rocket artillery system. Both are capable of ring guided munitions.* [140]
45.7.3
Aircraft
353
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January 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
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[131] M40A1 Sniper Rie. USMC Fact File. U.S. Marine
corps. Archived from the original on 25 February 2007. [150] Scully, Megan.Army assumes Navy, Marine UAV training. Seapower. Retrieved 6 December 2007.
[132] John Antal Packing a Punch: America's Man-Portable
Antitank Weaponspage 88 Military Technology 3/2010
This article incorporates public domain material
ISSN 0722-3226
from websites or documents of the United States
[133] Light Assault Weapon (LAW)". FBO.gov.
[134] Tube Launched, Optically Tracked, Wire Guided
(TOW) Missile Weapon System. USMC Fact File. U.S.
Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 11 February
2007.
[135] 13-Ammunition and Explosives M6785412I1003
(Archived) Federal Business Opportunities: Opportunities. Fbo.gov (9 November 2011).
[136] Light Armored Vehicle-25 (LAV-25)". USMC Fact File.
U.S. Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 11 December 2006.
[137] U.S. Marine Corps Orders More Force Protection Vehicles. Force Protection, Inc. In the News. Force Protection, Inc. August 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2007.
[138] Andrew Feickert (21 August 2007). Mine-Resistant,
Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicles: Background and
Issues for Congress (PDF). United States Congress.
Marine Corps.
358
Chapter 46
46.1 History
359
360
Implementing the provisions and mandates of the NunnCohen Act, however, was neither rapid nor smooth. One
of the rst issues to surface was appointing an ASD
(SO/LIC), whose principal duties included monitorship
of special operations activities and low-intensity conict
activities of the Department of Defense. The Congress
even increased the number of assistant secretaries of defense from 11 to 12, but the Department of Defense
still did not ll this new billet. In December 1987,
the Congress directed Secretary of the Army John O.
Marsh to carry out the ASD (SO/LIC) duties until a suitCongress held hearings on the two bills in the summer of able replacement was approved by the Senate. Not until 18 months after the legislation passed did Ambas1986. Admiral William J. Crowe Jr., Chairman of the
Whitehouse assume the duties of ASD
Joint Chiefs of Sta, led the Pentagon's opposition to the sador Charles
(SO/LIC).* [17]
bills. He proposed, as an alternative, a new Special Operations Forces command led by a three-star general. This Meanwhile, the establishment of USSOCOM provided
proposal was not well received on Capitol HillCongress its own measure of excitement. A quick solution to manwanted a four-star general in charge to give SOF more ning and basing a brand new unied command was to
clout. A number of retired military ocers and oth- abolish an existing command. United States Readiness
46.1. HISTORY
361
46.1.1
362
46.1.2
Somalia
46.1. HISTORY
363
Serpent to capture Aidid. This was an especially arduous mission, for Aidid had gone underground, after several Lockheed AC-130 air raids and UN assaults on his
strongholds.* [9]* [23]* [24]
While Marines from the 24th MEU provided an interim
QRF (Force Recon Det and helicopters from HMM263), the task force arrived in the country, and began
training exercises. The Marines were asked to take on
the Aidid snatch mission, but having the advantage of
being in the area for more than two months, decided after mission analysis that the mission was a no-godue
to several factors, centered around the inability to rescue the crew of a downed helicopter (re: the indigenous
forces technique of using RPGs against helicopters and
blocking the narrow streets in order to restrict the movement of a ground rescue force). This knowledge was not
passed on to the Rangers, due to the Marines operating
from the USS Wasp and the Rangers remaining on land.
TF Ranger was made up of operators from Delta Force,
75th Ranger Regiment, 160th SOAR, Air Force special
tactics units, and SEALs from the Naval Special Warfare Development Group.* [9]* [23] During August and
September 1993, the task force conducted six missions
into Mogadishu, all of which were successes. Although
Aidid remained free, the eect of these missions seriously limited his movements.* [24]
On 3 October, TF Ranger launched its seventh mission,
this time into Aidid's stronghold the Bakara Market to
capture two of his key lieutenants. The mission was expected to take only one or two hours.* [23] Helicopters
carried an assault and a ground convoy of security teams
launched in the late afternoon from the TF Ranger compound at Mogadishu airport. The TF came under increasingly heavy re, more intense than during previous
missions. The assault team captured 24 Somalis including Aidid's lieutenants and were loading them onto the
convoy trucks when a MH-60 Blackhawk was hit by a
rocket-propelled grenade (RPG).* [9]* [24] A small element from the security force, as well as an MH-6 assault helicopter and an MH-60 carrying a fteen man
combat search and rescue (CSAR) team, rushed to the
crash site.* [9]* [23]* [24] The battle became increasingly
worse. An RPG struck another MH-60, crashing less
than 1 mile (1.6 km) to the south of the rst downed
helicopter. The task force faced overwhelming Somali
mobs that overran the crash sites, causing a dire situation.* [23] A Somali mob overran the second site and, despite a heroic defense, killed everyone except the pilot,
whom they took prisoner. Two defenders of this crash
site, Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First
Class Randall Shughart, were posthumously awarded the
Medal of Honor.* [9]* [23]* [24] About this time, the mission's quick reaction force (QRF) also tried to reach the
second crash site. This force too was pinned by Somali
re and required the re support of two AH-6 helicopters
before it could break contact and make its way back to the
base.* [9]
364
46.1.3
Iraq
War in Afghanistan
In the initial stages of the War in Afghanistan, USSOCOM forces linked up with CIA Paramilitary Ocers
from Special Activities Division to defeat the Taliban
without the need for large-scale conventional forces.* [34]
This was one of the biggest successes of the global War on
Terrorism.* [35] These units linked up several times during this war and engaged in several furious battles with
the enemy. One such battle happened during Operation
Anaconda the mission to squeeze life out of a Taliban
and Al-Qaeda stronghold dug deep into the Shah-i-Kot
mountains of eastern Afghanistan. The operation was
seen as one of the heaviest and bloodiest ghts in the War
in Afghanistan.* [36] The battle on an Afghan mountaintop called Takur Ghar featured special operations forces
365
Brennan said that the United States will not merely respond after the factof a terrorist attack but willtake the
ght to al-Qaeda and its extremist aliates whether they
plot and train in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia
and beyond.Olson said, In some places, in deference
to host-country sensitivities, we are lower in prole. In
every place, Special Operations forces activities are coordinated with the U.S. ambassador and are under the operational control of the four-star regional commander.
*
[32]
366
stringent training and selection process. Delta recruits primarily from the most talented and highly
skilled operators in the Army Special Forces and
the 75th Ranger Regiment although Delta will take
anyone and everyone that can pass their screening.* [23]* [47] Recruits must pass a rigid selection
course before beginning training. Delta has received
training from numerous U.S. government agencies
and other tier one SOF and has created a curriculum based on this training and techniques that it
has developed.* [47] Delta conducts clandestine and
covert special operations all over the world.* [47] It
has the capability to conduct myriad special operations missions but specializes in counter-terrorism
and hostage rescue operations.* [23]* [46]* [48]
46.3.3 Army
On 1 December 1989 the United States Army Special
Operations Command (USASOC) activated as the 16th
major Army command. These special operations forces
have been America's spearhead for unconventional warfare for more than 40 years. USASOC commands such
367
or airelds.* [58]
USASOC patch.
Units
The 75th Ranger Regiment (U.S. Army Rangers)
is the premier light-infantry unit of the United
States Army and is headquartered at Fort Benning,
Georgia. The 75th Ranger Regiment's mission is to
plan and conduct special missions in support of U.S. Special Forces on a patrol in Afghanistan.
policy and objectives.* [57] The Rangers are a exible and rapid-deployable force. Each battalion can
The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment
deploy anywhere in the world within 18 hours no(Night Stalkers) headquartered at Fort Campbell,
tice. The Army places much importance on the 75th
Kentucky provides aviation support to units within
Ranger Regiment and its training; it possesses the
USSOCOM. The Regiment consists of MH-6 and
capabilities to conduct conventional and most speAH-6 light helicopters, MH-60 helicopters and
cial operations missions. Rangers are capable of inMH-47 heavy assault helicopters. The capabilities
ltrating by land, sea, or air and direct action operations such as conducting raids or assaulting buildings
of the 160th SOAR (A) have been evolving since the
368
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center (USAJFKSWCS) trains USSOCOM and Army Special Operations Forces through development and evaluation
of special operations concepts, doctrines and trainings.* [70]
369
46.3.5
Air Force
Pararescuemen (PJ) are the only Department of Defense specialty specically trained and equipped to
conduct conventional and unconventional personnel
recovery operations. A PJ's primary function is
as a personnel recovery specialist with emergency
trauma medical capabilities in humanitarian and
370
371
rity and force protection; weather; information technologies and transformation support and current operations.* [86]
The 353d Special Operations Group (353 SOG) is
the focal point for all U.S. Air Force special operations activities throughout the United States Pacic
Command (USPACOM) theater. Headquartered at
Kadena AB, Okinawa, Japan the group is prepared
to conduct a variety of high-priority, low-visibility
missions. Its mission is air support of joint and allied
special operations forces in the Pacic. It maintains
a worldwide mobility commitment, participates in
Pacic theater exercises as directed and supports humanitarian and relief operations.* [87]
The United States Air Force Special Operations
School (USAFSOS) at Hurlburt Field, Florida is a
primary support unit of the Air Force Special Operations Command. The USAFSOS prepares special
operations Airmen to successfully plan, organize,
and execute global special operations by providing
indoctrination and education for AFSOC, other USSOCOM components, and joint/interagency/ coali- DA/SR Operators from 1st SOB (Special Operations Battalion)
tion partners.* [88]
respond to enemy re in Afghanistan
46.3.6
Marine Corps
372
46.7. REFERENCES
[15] Special Operations/Low Intensity Conict & Interdependent Capabilities (ASD SO/LIC & IC)". DoD. Retrieved 19 March 2008. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
list (help)
[16] Giles, James E.; Altizer, Harrell B. ; Glass, David V.
Parker, Robert W. (March 1989). Providing Resources
for Special Operations Forces: Completing the Transition. Retrieved 19 March 2008.
[17] Lewis, Paul (1 July 2001). Charles S. Whitehouse, 79,
Diplomat and C.I.A. Ocial. New York Times.
373
[33] Turse, Nick, A Secret War in 120 Countries: The Pentagon's New Power Elite, CounterPunch, 4 August 2011.
Retrieved 5 August 2011.
[34] Washington Post op-ed, John Lehman former Secretary of
the Navy, October 2008
[35] Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). The CIA Secret
Army. Time Magazine (Washington). Retrieved 28
September 2009.
[36] Operation Anaconda. Time. 10 March 2002.
[40] Luttrell, Marcus; Patrick Robinson (2007). Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and
the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-06759-8.
[43] http://www.imgc-global.com/testimonials.html.
trieved February 2012.
Re-
[27] Dao, James (28 April 2003). Aftereects: Special Operations Forces; War Plan Drew U.S. Commandos From
Shadows. The New York Times.
[46] Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). Stymied Warriors. New York Times.
[28] Kruzel, John (26 May 2007). Navy SEALs share war
stories from Anbar province. American Forces Press
Service.
[31] Thom Shanker, Eric Schmitt (2 August 2004). The [50] Gellman, Barton (23 January 2005). Secret Unit ExReach of War: Military; Special Warriors Have Growing
pands Rumsfeld's Domain. Washington Post.
Ranks and Growing Pains in Taking Key Antiterror Role
[51] Gerth, Je; Philip Taubman (8 June 1984).U.s. military
. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2008.
creates secret units for use in sensitive tasks abroad. New
[32] DeYoung, Karen, and Greg Jae, U.S. 'secret war' exYork Times.
pands globally as Special Operations forces take larger
role, Washington Post, 4 June 2010. Retrieved 5 Au- [52] Schmitt, Eric (19 March 2006). In Secret Unit's 'Black
gust 2011.
Room,' a Grim Portrait of U.S. Abuse. New York Times.
374
[54] SOCJFCOM transitions to USSOCOM and becomes Special Operations Command Joint Capabilities, 2 May
2011
[80] Combat Control Fact Sheet. Air Force Special Operations Command. United States Air Force. Archived from
the original on 21 February 2013. Retrieved 13 January
2013.
[81] Combat Control career description. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
[82] 1st SOW Fact Sheet. AFSOC. Retrieved 20 January
2008.
[83] Air Force launches rst special tactics wing. 201206-13. Archived from the original on December 12, 2012.
Retrieved January 15, 2013.
[84] 24th SOW Factsheet. Retrieved January 15, 2013.
[85] N.M. Delegation Welcomes 27th Special Ops. Wing to
Cannon (Press release). 29 August 2007. Retrieved 21
March 2008.
[86] 352nd Fact Sheet. AFSOC. Retrieved 21 January
2008.
[87] 353rd SOG Fact Sheet. AFSOC. Retrieved 21 January
2008.
[88] USAFOS Fact Sheet. Archived from the original on
9 January 2008. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
[89] Kenyon, Henry (May 2006).Marine Corps Special Operations Command Hits the Beach. Signal Magazine.
Retrieved 10 April 2008.
[68] 95th Civil Aairs Fact Sheet. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
46.7.2
Bibliography
Briscoe, Charles (2001). Weapon of Choice: ARSOF in Afghanistan. Combat Studies Institute Press.
Couch, Dick (March 2007). Chosen Soldier: The
Making of a Special Forces Warrior. Three Rivers
Press. ISBN 0-307-33939-4.
Couch, Dick (2006). Down Range: Navy SEALs in
the War on Terrorism. New York, New York: Three
Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-8101-7.
Kelley, Stephen Andrew (June 2007). Better
Lucky Than Good: Operation Earnest Will as
Gunboat Diplomacy (PDF). Naval Postgraduate
School. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18
March 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2008.
Luttrell, Marcus; Patrick Robinson (June 2007).
Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10.
Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-06759-8.
Pirnie, Bruce R. (August 1998). Assessing Requirements for Peacekeeping, Humanitarian Assistance
and Disaster Relief. RAND Corporation. ISBN 08330-2594-5.
Pushies, Fred (2007). U.S. Air Force Special Ops.
Osceola, Wisconsin: MBI Publishing Company.
ISBN 0-7603-0733-4.
Smith, Michael (2007). Killer Elite: The Inside Story
of America's Most Secret Special Operations Team.
New York, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN
0-312-36272-2.
Sweetman, Jack (March 1999). Great American
Naval Battles. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750794-5.
David Tucker, Christopher J. Lamb (2007). United
States Special Operations Forces. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13190-9.
Wise, Harold Lee (May 2007). Inside the Danger
Zone: The U.S. Military in the Persian Gulf, 1987
1988. US Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114970-3.
Web
USDOD. U.S. DOD Dictionary of Military Terms.
United States of America: U.S. Department of Defense. 5 June 2003.
USDOD. U.S. DOD Dictionary of Military Terms:
Joint Acronyms and Abbreviations. United States of
America: U.S. Department of Defense. 5 June 2003.
375
Talmadge, Eric (27 February 2008).New US Submarines Trade Nukes for SEALs. Fox News. Associated Press.
Eric Schmitt, Michael R. Gordon (4 February
2008). Leak on Cross-Border Chases From Iraq
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von Zielbauer, Paul (27 April 2007). Criminal
Charges Are Expected Against Marines, Ocial
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Graham, Bradley (2 November 2005). Elite Marine Unit to Help Fight Terrorism. Washington
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in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
Chapter 47
Utility aircraft
A utility aircraft is a general-purpose light aircraft or
helicopter, usually used for transporting people or freight,
but also for other duties when more specialized aircraft
are not required or available.
The term can also refer to an aircraft certied under
American, Canadian, European or Australian regulations
as a Utility Category Aircraft, which indicates that it is
permitted to conduct limited aerobatics. The approved
maneuvers include chandelles, lazy eights, spins and steep
turns over 60 of bank.* [1]* [2]* [3]
In the United States, military utility aircraft are given the
prex U in their designations.
47.2 References
[1] Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 535. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997.
ISBN 1-56027-287-2
[2] Federal Aviation Administration (July 2011). Title 14:
Aeronautics and Space PART 23 Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes, Subpart A General. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
[3] Transport Canada (July 2011). Part V - Airworthiness Manual Chapter 523 - Normal, Utility, Aerobatic
And Commuter Category Aeroplanes. Retrieved 15 July
2011.
376
377
Text
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5.5645mm NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.56%C3%9745mm%20NATO?oldid=662772581 Contributors: The Epopt,
BlckKnght, Banshee~enwiki, Cyde, JidGom, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Random832, Topbanana, Riddley, Dale Arnett, Modulatum,
Adeio, Cyrius, Alan Liefting, Dbenbenn, DocWatson42, Oberiko, MathKnight, HangingCurve, Marcika, Lefty, Shane Lin, Bobblewik,
Maclyn611, AlexanderWinston, Pettifogger, Ary29, Phil1988, Gurkha, Tobias Wolter, AliveFreeHappy, Avriette, Rama, Darren Olivier,
Fluzwup, Paul August, Night Gyr, Bender235, ESkog, GeZe, Iamtheari, El C, Kiand, Sietse Snel, Chuckstar, Sukiari, Thatguy96, Redxiv,
The RedBurn, TheAznSensation, AN(Ger), Aquaseafoam, Bobrayner, Pekinensis, D.E. Watters, Mrbigg9969, Je3000, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Graham87, Tomtheman5, SchuminWeb, Nemo5576, Rune.welsh, BjKa, Pete.Hurd, WouterBot, MoRsE, Chobot, Bgwhite, Sus
scrofa, Measure, YurikBot, Noclador, RussBot, Superknijn, Junky, Epolk, Russoc4, CambridgeBayWeather, Adam Martinez, Evan-
378
turner, Alex43223, EEMIV, Shotgunlee, Gadget850, Kassie, Asams10, Stiletto Null, Chriszuma, Hayden120, Curpsbot-unicodify, Diagraph01~enwiki, Tirronan, SmackBot, Reedy, Gigs, Boris Barowski, Scott Paeth, JLRAtwil, KingRaptor, Winterheart, Bluebot, JackSparrow, LinguistAtLarge, Jprg1966, Scienz Guy, Htra0497, Chameleons84, Squalla, Sommers, ThirtyOneKnots, Magore, Blake-, TGC55,
P33M, Synthe, BHC, Jpogi, Hotspur23, LWF, AllStarZ, Tim bates, Breno, Stevecudmore, Stwalkerster, Beetstra, 2T, Andrwsc, Krispos42,
Ossipewsk, Johnnydc, Sketch051, Musashi1600, Orca1 9904, Overmind 900, Fnlayson, Meno25, AtTheAbyss, Gbondy, Myscrnnm,
Nabokov, Aldis90, Thijs!bot, Oldwildbill, Donovan515, Deathbunny, Ryan Scott, Hcobb, Rotundo, Blauer Heinrich, USMA, Bobbfwed,
Twagger, JAnDbot, Mark Grant, Mstrawn, Cgwhitsett, Acroterion, J.R.W., JamesBWatson, Cantle, Gabe1972, Degenret01, Thernlund,
Nubius, Eastsidehastings, Xen 7, BeadleB, Bissinger, Trixt, CommonsDelinker, Smokizzy, Dutchguy, NATOss109, Reginhild, Bjsdoc,
Erik1980, Cannibalicious!, AntiSpamBot, SJP, Robertgreer, DanMP5, Ana Nim, Kyle the bot, Achroma, FergusM1970, Takeitupalevel,
Broadbot, Mzmadmike, Shdowcrwler, Andy Dingley, Synthebot, Francis Flinch, Bahamut0013, Insanity Incarnate, Koalorka, C0N6R355,
MattW93, AdRock, SieBot, Work permit, Chinese3126, BonesBrigade, ToePeu.bot, Tonemanbam, Cadwallader, Radon210, Recon sunshine, Buttons, Jackal214, Lightmouse, Michael Courtney, Spartan198, ZH Evers, The9breaker2001, Francvs, Hoplon, Malis-cs, ClueBot, Scartboy, Cfsenel, MrBelvadere, Alexbot, Anon lynx, PixelBot, John Nevard, Rhododendrites, Thewellman, Pichpich, Nukes4Tots,
MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Wiki Mateo, Boomur, CarsracBot, SpBot, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, MTWEmperor,
IW.HG, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Ccyg8774, 661kts, C-D-P78, Sophus Bie, Nantucketnoon, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Wikipe-tan, RicHard-59, Kalel007, MGA73bot, MythMech, Wksdj, Nikto, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding,
BufordTJustice, Darkman IV, RedBot, DixonDBot, AntiNegativity, Jsbrigo, Math.geek3.1415926, 777sms, ROG5728, Remnar, Sheltot, Ceg098, DASHBot, EmausBot, FatherSarducci, Dewritech, Faceless Enemy, ZroBot, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Casual
Internet Surfer, MithrandirAgain, Nickjf22, , Kyle Jewell, L1A1 FAL, Obotlig, Avatar9n, ChuispastonBot, Jill Orly, FeatherPluma, Mjbmrbot, Support.and.Defend, Lukeno94, Frietjes, BG19bot, Lck222, Hackercraft, Registreernu, MusikAnimal, 30.06fan,
Virtuallyironic, Themanwich212, Socom385, Tpmcnamara, Zackmann08, Alex 25032, America789, Spurrious, Modernarms, AceraUSA, JYBot, Brainplay, BTRand1, Gbeecher54, Gato63, Bouowmx, RAF910, Kingrhem, StraightAsADie, Ballistic studies, Stamptrader,
946towguy, Press2eject, Rickysnips, Grizzly chipmunk, Shane Stachwick, Abbotjom, Crystallizedcarbon, DrawnLotus, Osmrford, Soletmansin, Thandieu123, California Walnut, Bopinbop and Anonymous: 292
7.6251mm NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm%20NATO?oldid=662665212 Contributors: The Epopt,
Maury Markowitz, Leandrod, GTBacchus, Zoicon5, David.Monniaux, Riddley, Sbisolo, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Tom harrison, Bobblewik, Vvizard, Neilc, One Salient Oversight, Sam Hocevar, Karl Dickman, BMS, AliveFreeHappy, Twinxor, Fluzwup, JPX7, Night Gyr,
Iamtheari, El C, Dennis Brown, Bobo192, Harald Hansen, Diceman, King nothing, Thatguy96, Anthony Appleyard, The RedBurn, TaintedMustard, Dziban303, Kmartin, Kurmis~enwiki, D.E. Watters, Raygun, Je3000, Bluemoose, GraemeLeggett, Marudubshinki, Patl,
BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Brighterorange, Nemo5576, Kolbasz, WouterBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Peregrine Fisher, Gaius Cornelius, Shanel, Ve3,
Asams10, Curpsbot-unicodify, Ilmari Karonen, Mikkow, Diagraph01~enwiki, SmackBot, Padawane, Bjelleklang, Pielover87, Rfugina,
Boris Barowski, Kintetsubualo, Geo B, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Oatmeal batman, Yaf, OrphanBot, Squalla, Thatnewguy, TGC55,
Pkang0327, Malambis, Tazmaniacs, Jpogi, Hotspur23, LWF, Mr. Vernon, Ransom Stoddard, JoeBot, Grendzy, Izaakb, Sanandros, CapitalR, CP\M, Supersquid, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Orca1 9904, Hga, CumbiaDude, Mato, AtTheAbyss, Argus n, Kevin23, Myscrnnm,
Nabokov, Aldis90, CynicalMe, Commander Zulu, Headbomb, Deathbunny, Nick Number, MarvinCZ, DagosNavy, Arsenikk, JAnDbot, PhilKnight, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, HanzoSword2517, Climax Void, Ordosingularis, Bissinger,
Nono64, Dutchguy, BJ Axel, Notreallydavid, Cannibalicious!, Robertgreer, DanMP5, TeamZissou, VolkovBot, Thomas.W, Mudwater,
Stopping Power, T0008sa, TXiKiBoT, Eddiehimself, Dictouray, Indochinetn, Liko81, Broadbot, Capper13, Clmckelvie, Francis Flinch,
Koalorka, AlleborgoBot, Solicitr, Karmo0, ToePeu.bot, Kurokishi, ShadowSix, Lightmouse, Michael Courtney, Spartan198, Alatari, Maliscs, EoGuy, Winky Bill, Ridge Runner, DragonBot, Ghostrider, Cglabe, Jellysh dave, Sustructu, Jfunnyguy, DumZiBoT, Nukes4Tots,
MystBot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Heavenlyblue, Magus732, U000tbm, Pietrow, Takashi kurita, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Winged Brick, Tragino, GrouchoBot, Anotherclown, Tornadowhiz, CaboverPete, D'ohBot, MGA73bot,
Ferkeundigung, BenzolBot, MythMech, Wksdj, Diremarc, Footwarrior, 777sms, Vovchyck, ROG5728, Ceg098, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, Faceless Enemy, Ksu6500, Kyle Jewell, 3006fan, L1A1 FAL, JeBengtson, George Makepeace, ClueBot NG, Dr-liberal,
DieSwartzPunkt, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, America789, Sixgunslinger, Liamsoprych, Juanitoy32, Khazar2, Mogism, Nosaj2011,
Kingrhem, Shane Stachwick, Wqwt, Hibob841 and Anonymous: 241
919mm Parabellum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9%C3%9719mm%20Parabellum?oldid=662819069 Contributors: The
Epopt, Zippy, Delirium, JonathanDP81, Jeq, Riddley, Romanm, Profoss, Seano1, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Tom harrison, Marcika, Wwoods, Meswiss, Bobblewik, Maclyn611, Chowbok, Sonjaaa, Mark5677, Qleem, Tin soldier, Phil1988, Marc Mongenet, Oknazevad, AliveFreeHappy, Eyrian, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, 3~enwiki, Fluzwup, MDCore, Bender235, S.R. Heller, Srbauer,
BenM, Jigen III, Linmhall, Super-Magician, Wterrell, Gene Nygaard, Dan100, D.E. Watters, Raygun, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, Gerbrant, DePiep, Mendaliv, Jshadias, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Wikibofh, Authalic, Nemo5576, Moroboshi, Scimitar, Chobot, Bgwhite, Sus scrofa,
YurikBot, Jimp, RussBot, Spirituallyinsane, Allister MacLeod, KamuiShirou, DanMS, Kirill Lokshin, Gaius Cornelius, Haizum, Welsh,
Dudtz, Ve3, Moe Epsilon, Elkman, Botteville, Asams10, Sandstein, CWenger, Ilmari Karonen, Sacxpert, SmackBot, Lepeu1999, Gigs,
CyclePat, KocjoBot~enwiki, Boris Barowski, Kintetsubualo, ZS, TOMNORTHWALES, Geo B, Hmains, Winterheart, Kaiserb, JudithSouth, Thumperward, Cbh, Trekphiler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chlewbot, MJBurrage, UNHchabo, KaiserbBot, Squalla, RavenStorm, Mr.Z-man, ThegunsofNevada, Ohconfucius, Lambiam, Swatjester, John, CorvetteZ51, Jpogi, Hotspur23, Twalls, Funnybunny,
Torana, Jachim, Nfutvol, Rkosh, Tawkerbot2, EightyOne, CuriosityCosby, VoxLuna, CmdrObot, Vyznev Xnebara, WeggeBot, LCpl,
Orca1 9904, Phdrus, Rieman 82, Myscrnnm, SquareWave, Legend78, Nabokov, Old port, Thijs!bot, Mr kitehead, Zaphar, Headbomb,
Titofer, Wikidenizen, Doktor Faustus, JAnDbot, Ktt, Max Hyre, Appraiser, Gabe1972, Paularized, Thernlund, Eastsidehastings, Mike
Searson, ROsattin, CeeWhy2, FlieGerFaUstMe262, GoldThong, R'n'B, PrestonH, Rrostrom, Austin512, Tatrgel, DanMP5, BrettAllen,
Ana Nim, Shraka, Hunter2506, S, Dragor66, Thomas.W, Vandervahn, DOHC Holiday, TobyDZ, WatchingDragon, Secarius, Technopat,
Rei-bot, Liko81, Broadbot, Kilmer-san, SQL, Francis Flinch, Koalorka, Wavehunter, AlleborgoBot, C0N6R355, NHRHS2010, SieBot,
Tiddly Tom, Work permit, BonesBrigade, Jack wallace, MazVaz, Lcurtis-GIG, HappyStopper, Spectre9, Happysailor, ShadowSix, Mark
Aged, Greatrobo76, Michael Courtney, EFrahm, Spartan198, Alatari, Escape Orbit, Msjayhawk, ClueBot, PipepBot, Niceguyedc, Jersey emt, Marlow10, Clantz1, Thewellman, MelonBot, Berean Hunter, DumZiBoT, Pichpich, Bilsonius, Feinoha, WikHead, SilvonenBot,
Nukes4Tots, Elmo iscariot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, JBsupreme, Magus732, Glane23, HandThatFeeds, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Zorrobot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Letuo, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Gevar234, Plexipajzs, GrouchoBot,
Morgan Phoenix, Surv1v4l1st, D'ohBot, MGA73bot, Keserman, Javert, DrilBot, Metricmike, Shashwat986, Maltedneon, SoloUnEditor,
Darkman IV, RedBot, Macgyver-bd 896, IVAN3MAN, 777sms, Pilot850, ROG5728, Grasparv, Sideways713, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot,
Ripchip Bot, Noommos, Burmiester, DASHBot, Zaqq, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Sophie, Faceless Enemy, Bobkart,
Kekator, Thecheesykid, Bollyje, Ksu6500, H3llBot, 3006fan, Niggon, BP OMowe, XxDestinyxX, L1A1 FAL, ChuispastonBot, Disphenoidal, Support.and.Defend, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, Loginnigol, NamenlosX, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kungfu2187, Amk10003, Lucwelch976,
379
PhnomPencil, Trevayne08, Infomationist, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, America789, ChrisGualtieri, Uno b4, DA - DP, CorneliusA, Connor 12345, Ovsek, M11rtinb, SMGeorge34, 8000Shooter, Tekogi, Gbeecher54, Shooter8000, Smokemup, Someone not using his real
name, StraightAsADie, Bigdaddygirl, BethNaught, Grizzly chipmunk, Publius-Mad, Shane Stachwick and Anonymous: 271
Anti-materiel rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-materiel%20rifle?oldid=650915606 Contributors: Julesd, Owen, Riddley,
Donreed, Rholton, DocWatson42, Djinn112, Gtrmp, Greyengine5, St3vo, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Twinxor, Avriette, Roo72, Kross,
Tronno, LtNOWIS, Calton, TaintedMustard, SteinbDJ, D.E. Watters, Dmol, Abel29a, BlaiseFEgan, GraemeLeggett, Allen3, DVdm, Rollie, Hydrargyrum, Neilbeach, Sandstein, Mursel, Faulty, Matt Heard, Deon Steyn, Geo B, Bluebot, Silent SAM, Shabbs, Yaf, Frap,
Addshore, WhosAsking, Nakamura2828, Gjp23, Hvn0413, Vanisaac, DiVaD, Shoe1127, N5iln, Deathbunny, Nick Number, DPdH, FidelFair, Adavies42, Thernlund, Gwern, Alexmcalpine, R'n'B, Jizzy p, Catobleman, Dawright12, Halmstad, Bharanideepan, Dirkbb, Francis
Flinch, UnneededAplomb, Imthelimodriver9, Spunking, Socrates2008, Lopbisz, Shem1805, Aloysius the Gaul, Addbot, Leszek Jaczuk,
Eivindbot, Dominicg100, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Donfbreed, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Ajpralston1, Amendola90, Chaheel Riens, Beiktal48,
Rushbugled13, TheMightyGeneral, EmausBot, Slightsmile, Donedata, CRCJianan, ClueBot NG, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, Lukas Tobing, Polmas,
AvocatoBot, MilitaryHistorian1990-PD, G PViB, Maxx786, SatCa, Carbon dubbs, Ne2641, Verosaurus and Anonymous: 79
Anti-tank warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank%20warfare?oldid=659916914 Contributors: Christian List, Deb,
Maury Markowitz, JohnOwens, Ahoerstemeier, Jll, Nikai, Itai, Riddley, AlainV, Securiger, Radomil, Matt Gies, Oberiko, Marcika, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Geni, Mzajac, Wikster E, Balcer, Sam Hocevar, Klemen Kocjancic, Ularsen, Rama, Xezbeth, Aerodotus, SpookyMulder, Night Gyr, Darkone, RJHall, Bobo192, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, Maurreen, Espoo, Wendell, The RedBurn, Joshbaumgartner,
Bukvoed, Hohum, Ashlux, Gene Nygaard, Dennis Bratland, SteveHFish, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, LOL, Tabletop, GregorB, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Eyu100, Muchenhaeser, MWAK, SchuminWeb, Catsmeat, Ahpook, BlueJaeger, Sus scrofa, RussBot,
Arado, Gaius Cornelius, Los688, Nahallac Silverwinds, Rmackenzie, FoolsWar, DisambigBot, Jinxs, SmackBot, DMorpheus, Mike McGregor (Can), Hmains, Ppntori, Chris the speller, Rcbutcher, Emrrans, MinuteHand, Latre, Wiki.capwn, The PIPE, DMacks, Mlorton,
Falard, ZBrisk, Zahid Abdassabur, LWF, AllStarZ, RomanSpa, Swartik, Ka34, Therealhazel, CBM, Neelix, Fnlayson, Cancun771, Aldis90,
Epbr123, Kubanczyk, Nick Number, -m-i-k-e-y-, Corella, Ingolfson, Mwarren us, Hut 8.5, Meeowow, RebelRobot, Fairnokesh, Magioladitis, Lenticel, The Sanctuary Sparrow, STBot, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, MoiraMoira, Yonidebot, Mrg3105, Youngjim, MisterBee1966, The Spanish Inquisitor, Inwind, Idioma-bot, RaptorR3d, Philip Trueman, Gypsyjosh, Josepy, BotKung, Cuddlyable3, Usergreatpower, Testmaennchen, MajorHazard, Logan, Lyh, Skipweasel, Cryonic07, SieBot, DerbyCountyinNZ, Dreamafter, Trigaranus,
Flyer22, Spartan-James, Anchor Link Bot, Brian Geppert, ClueBot, Egermino, Hutcher, Lastdingo, Chmelchert, Richrakh, Mild Bill Hiccup, NiD.29, Foofbun, Masterblooregard, Auntof6, DragonBot, NinSmartSpasms, Eeekster, Zarzhu, ShipFan, DumZiBoT, Alanthehat,
Addbot, Dieydierson, PaterMcFly, SpellingBot, Favonian, Fireaxe888, Lightbot, Pietrow, Mfhulskemper, MuZemike, The Bushranger,
Luckas-bot, Vedran12, Yobot, PentiumIV, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Guy1890, AnomieBOT, Srobak, LordShonus, Metalhead94, Safferon Spano, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Dellant, Glisenti, ThuVT, Vladchan, Mark Schierbecker, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, FrescoBot, Remotelysensed, JolietJakeBlues, Koakhtzvigad, TobeBot, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, Oddbodkin, Beyond My Ken, Chessofnerd, John of Reading, Slightsmile, K6ka, Fencebridge, AutoGeek, Victory in Germany, ClueBot NG, Hofmic, Ur gay 666, Jigben, Yowanvista, Katangais,
Khazar2, DA - DP, Cerabot~enwiki, Rajmaan, URTh, Kratos007745757, Dough34, HHubi, Vareckin, Samf4u and Anonymous: 155
Armored car (military) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored%20car%20(military)?oldid=659075099 Contributors: Fubar Obfusco, Topory, Patrick, Liftarn, DJ Clayworth, David.Monniaux, Riddley, AlainV, Altenmann, Ojigiri~enwiki, Wikibot, Leonard G., Per
Honor et Gloria, Piotrus, Mzajac, Blue387, Tsemii, Jcw69, Klemen Kocjancic, Intrigue, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Rama, Roo72,
MBisanz, Kross, Cmdrjameson, QuantumEleven, Denniss, Hohum, XB-70, J Heath, Axeman89, JohnC, Jdorney, GraemeLeggett, Mandarax, Graham87, XLerate, Ian Dunster, Catsmeat, Bubbleboys, Elmer Clark, Sus scrofa, Hairy Dude, Op. Deo, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Msoos, Dudtz, Taco325i, Rmackenzie, DeadEyeArrow, Zzuuzz, GraemeL, Tyrenius, ArielGold, Nixer, SmackBot, Bigbluesh,
GoldDragon, Jibbajabba, Thumperward, BrendelSignature, Tewk, OrphanBot, Newsmare, Drunken Pirate, JackLumber, Vgy7ujm, Gobonobo, Volker89, Muadd, Therealhazel, Peter Horn, Phuzion, Hetar, OnBeyondZebrax, Clarityend, Octane, CmdrObot, Gogo Dodo, Hebrides, Thijs!bot, Liquid-aim-bot, Ingolfson, Niagara, Argie boy, Pax:Vobiscum, JRWalko, KTo288, Jcraig, ArmorSolutions, Ian.thomson,
DkEgy, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, YorkshireM, A4bot, Mbvanleeuwen, Mkpumphrey, Brianga, SieBot, Sdlewis, Seedbot, Hutcher, Mild
Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Niceguyedc, Fatsamsgrandslam, Mumia-w-18, Niteshift36, MickMacNee, Eddaido, Berean Hunter, NocturnalA6 2.7, Wikiuser100, MatthewVanitas, Download, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, PMLawrence, Karanne, ZapThunderstrike,
4twenty42o, Lordelicht, Anna Frodesiak, Doorvery far, Mark Schierbecker, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Ionisiso, ,
EmausBot, Akerans, Guiltlessgecko, SporkBot, Noodleki, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, Biggleswiki, Hengistmate, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcosarts, Katangais, R9109, Glacialfox, Yadsl, Mediran, Kbog, Frosty, SteenthIWbot, DMorpheus2, Jamesw007, Lesser Cartographies,
Ultimate Broseph Stalin, Monkbot, Mitchell328, Tomandjerry211 and Anonymous: 100
Armoured personnel carrier Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured%20personnel%20carrier?oldid=655514785 Contributors:
The Epopt, Bryan Derksen, Heron, Patrick, Nikai, Rob Hooft, Cabalamat, David.Monniaux, AlainV, RedWolf, Pibwl, Altenmann, Nurg,
Wikibot, GreatWhiteNortherner, Marc Venot, Oberiko, Pretzelpaws, MathKnight, Brona, DO'Neil, Bobblewik, Christopherlin, Mzajac,
Burgundavia, Klemen Kocjancic, Leibniz, Pmsyyz, Rama, Night Gyr, CanisRufus, KuriosD, Harald Hansen, Get It, Maurreen, Russ3Z,
Haham hanuka, DimaY2K, Sandstig, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, TaintedMustard, Gene Nygaard, Tobyc75, Bastin, Shikai shaw, Drak2,
GraemeLeggett, Descendall, Muchenhaeser, Ian Dunster, MWAK, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Noclador, Borgx, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Theredstarswl, Gaius Cornelius, PatCheng, Ergbert, Breathstealer, OettingerCroat, Nate1481, Mieciu K, Zzuuzz, Nikkimaria, Petri Krohn, NickD, Groyolo, SmackBot, Brossow, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris, Redline, Ajaxkroon, Radagast83,
Pissant, Jiddisch~enwiki, Wiki.capwn, Kukini, Rheo1905, Synthe, Khazar, Gobonobo, AllStarZ, Darz Mol~enwiki, Wilhelm Wiesel,
Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, SkyWalker, Zarex, Noha307, Fnlayson, Danrok, Aldis90, Ildin~enwiki, PaulVIF, JAnDbot, Magioladitis,
Flayer, MajesticX, Arz1969, Martynas Patasius, Bobanny, JaGa, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Rebell18190, Numbo3, Rencas, Wickiwolf, TXiKiBoT, Plaidwarrior101, Tmaull, Andy Dingley, Mharrsch, SieBot, Dreamafter, Lightmouse, Seedbot, Nhacdangian~enwiki,
CohesionBot, Estirabot, Arjayay, Peter.C, Xander89, SchreiberBike, Vivo, SilvonenBot, Jaanusele, Addbot, Pelex, AndersBot, Abi.insani,
Numbo3-bot, Pietrow, Beren, Ptbotgourou, IraqVet225, Jimderkaisser, Um, Kalamkaar, Pipeafcr, ArthurBot, B. Fairbairn, Xqbot,
Sharpterov, Ricosenna, Doorvery far, GrouchoBot, Mark Schierbecker, Scoot-Overload, Bus-bus-bus, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Simalsim, Tobby72, D'ohBot, Rgvis, RJE2012, Degen Earthfast, Rastaman3000, Solid State Survivor, DocYako, Ionisiso, FoxBot,
DexDor, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Mircea87, Italia2006, Oblivion Lost, SporkBot, KazekageTR, AgentTasmania, Biggleswiki, Delusion23,
MilyMart, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, GeoMartal, Ranggamalvino, Mdann52, ZuluKane, 93, Alfy32, Jloughry, YiFeiBot,
Ancholm, Abe Atkins, Ronald Ledecky, 2TonyTony and Anonymous: 119
Armoured recovery vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured%20recovery%20vehicle?oldid=662585327 Contributors:
Alan Liefting, MathKnight, Mark.murphy, Quadell, Mzajac, Rama, Harald Hansen, RussBlau, Bukvoed, Hohum, Bobrayner, Mindmatrix, Wdyoung, PoccilScript, Tabletop, GraemeLeggett, BD2412, Ian Dunster, Catsmeat, RussBot, Los688, Royalbroil, Mieciu K, BOT-
380
Superzerocool, JakkoWesterbeke, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, H2ppyme, Trekphiler, PsychoCola, Semi-Lobster, Corran.pl, Avantman42, Trelio, RSido, SuperTank17, Wikist, CmdrObot, Michal.Pohorelsky, Aldis90, SGGH, DPdH, Lklundin, Ingolfson, Siman, Magioladitis, MCG, Pax:Vobiscum, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Cannibalicious!, Nwbeeson, TXiKiBoT, JhsBot, Telecineguy, Andy Dingley,
Zephyrus67, Seedbot, ZH Evers, Ibericus Lusitanus, Reforger, Ridge Runner, Wikiuser100, WikHead, SelfQ, Dave1185, Addbot, Nohomers48, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Delta 51, Luckas-bot, MileyDavidA, Themfromspace, Mark Schierbecker, Some standardized rigour,
FrescoBot, Lotje, IRISZOOM, John of Reading, GoingBatty, L1A1 FAL, Plinio Cayo Cilesio, SojerPL, KLBot2, Glevum, ChrisGualtieri,
LittleFoxJpn, Cadet Pilot, ZBIGNIEW1963, Mogism, Lemnaminor and Anonymous: 19
Assault rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault%20rifle?oldid=662864157 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Robert Merkel,
Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, 0, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, Edward, Patrick, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Stw,
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MIKE0311, KasparBot and Anonymous: 582
Attack helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack%20helicopter?oldid=662782857 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Rlandmann, David.Monniaux, Finlay McWalter, Mirv, SoLando, Rossrs, MathKnight, Trujaman, Gadum, Latitudinarian, Sam Hocevar, C14,
Karl Dickman, Darren Olivier, GeZe, Cap'n Refsmmat, PPGMD, Kross, Sietse Snel, Amerika, Harald Hansen, Hooperbloob, Denniss, Dr
Gangrene, Akerkhof, GSlicer, Alvinying, Miq, Rjwilmsi, Carl Logan, GagHalfrunt, Russavia, Vidkun, Coolhawks88, Ahpook, Sus scrofa,
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Dodo, GSTQ21C, Thirdstar, Thijs!bot, Kubanczyk, Hcberkowitz, Dfrg.msc, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Spud Gun, Born2ie, Dan D. Ric,
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381
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Filedelinkerbot, GSh630, Sir Richard Richard VC and Anonymous: 129
Carbine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbine?oldid=661044505 Contributors: Mav, Timo Honkasalo, The Anome, Alex.tan,
David spector, Ixfd64, Delirium, Claypipe, Aarchiba, , Ugen64, Fuzheado, Selket, Ed g2s, Flockmeal, Riddley, Astronautics~enwiki, Nurg, Alba, Profoss, Kent Wang, Buster2058, Fudoreaper, MathKnight, Marcika, Per Honor et Gloria, Jasontn, Bobblewik,
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16@r, K K~enwiki, Naaman Brown, Krispos42, Marysunshine, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, CmdrObot, CBM, Neelix, Cydebot, Future
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Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Tosh.0expert, DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Vjvjfjnbhvnvfnfv, ChrisGualtieri,
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Cargo aircraft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo%20aircraft?oldid=662900179 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Xlation, Arpingstone, AugPi, Karl Dickman, Ericg, N328KF, Ularsen, Marsian~enwiki, Kross, Adrian~enwiki, Alansohn, Iothiania, GL, Korrigan,
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JetLover, Anchor Link Bot, Alpha Centaury, YSSYguy, MenoBot, Martarius, Ramif 47, T18, XLinkBot, MystBot, Addbot, Andyjamesuk,
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Omid, Spray787, Dagmar.reinerth, EPsi, Phantom1209, HuTheWeevil, Justinalanbass, KasparBot and Anonymous: 74
Cartridge (rearms) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge%20(firearms)?oldid=656261148 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The
Anome, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Ellmist, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Sannse, Aarchiba, Julesd, Jll, Whkoh, RadRafe, Nikai,
, JidGom, Jon Roland, Riddley, Robbot, Moriori, Pibwl, Seano1, Buster2058, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Greyengine5, Ferkelparade,
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S1D3winder016, ChrisGualtieri, Fundamental Motivation, Nouniquenames, Kjorg23, Aymankamelwiki, Reconmarinecanada, YiFeiBot,
Pravito, StraightAsADie, NoMoreGuns, JaconaFrere, Dict1111, Figugegl and Anonymous: 196
CBRN defense Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN%20defense?oldid=661316787 Contributors: The Anome, Karada, Jerzy,
DocWatson42, Michael Devore, Falcon Kirtaran, Zantolak, Mzajac, Pippo~enwiki, Urhixidur, Nick Precision, Hohum, Zntrip, Pol098,
382
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SmackBot, Vincent de Ruijter, Mauls, Hibernian, Factorylad, Radagast83, Thegraham, Jvandyke, Zaniac, Beetstra, Dl2000, Eastlaw,
JohnCD, Cahk, Kenster102.5, Alphachimpbot, CosineKitty, Magioladitis, Yurei-eggtart, Chris G, D.h, IvoShandor, Pvosta, Lithium57,
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Sameer0s, Dave1185, Iceblock, Fieldday-sunday, Arunrama, Curlupndie, Csf.shoot, Fraggle81, TehGus, Hvannorman, Roux-HG, GB fan,
Kddodge, Biophysiscool, Brad101AWB, Tsuchida54, Iljambonsen, Hsrc, Pratheekrebala, Diannaa, Fry1989, Afcbrne, DexDor, Slatibarfast, Maliepa, Tyrsepheus, Heralder, ClueBot NG, Jgkratky, Delusion23, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Goldwindow47, Yowanvista,
AdFerrao, Yash528, Ligne11, ChrisGualtieri, Hmainsbot1, Lugia2453, Josephc3000, Limnalid, Curlupndie85, Iljamb, Jimbock, IrishSpook, Trendyrandy7290, IQLessThanCustard, Jlayerbear and Anonymous: 97
Combat engineer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat%20engineer?oldid=662370538 Contributors: Hephaestos, Rschroev, Liftarn, CORNELIUSSEON, Stan Shebs, CatherineMunro, Aarchiba, Nikai, Netsnipe, Mako, Lou Sander, Wik, Maximus Rex, Grendelkhan,
Wernher, Cjrother, Greybeard, Johnleemk, David.Monniaux, Securiger, Chris Roy, Rholton, Steeev, GreatWhiteNortherner, Andries,
MathKnight, Btphelps, SimonArlott, Mzajac, Necrothesp, Neutrality, Gest, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Fluzwup, Neko-chan, CanisRufus, El C, Sietse Snel, Bobo192, Harley peters, Sentience, Alansohn, TShilo12, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Turnstep, Mandarax,
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DougsTech, Leszek Jaczuk, Glane23, West.andrew.g, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Pietrow, QuadrivialMind, Legobot II, Fizyxnrd, Washburnmav, AnomieBOT, VeroAraujo, RandomAct, Materialscientist, Erud, TurboLT, Aristeiakorps, Pinethicket, Hillarin, Monstrelet, Saayiit,
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Designated marksman rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designated%20marksman%20rifle?oldid=662389401 Contributors:
Riddley, Xanzzibar, MathKnight, Avriette, Bobrayner, Dmol, GraemeLeggett, Mmx1, Jimp, Shotgunlee, Phichanad, Ominae, Deon Steyn,
JudithSouth, Chris the speller, Bluebot, JHunterJ, Dl2000, Eastlaw, Orca1 9904, Tr1290, Gogo Dodo, Darrenhusted, Mike Searson, CommonsDelinker, Francis Flinch, Drmies, Kjeserud, Pigoutultra, Markunator, Pmfap, C.Mezzo-1, Mark Schierbecker, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Shiftyfty, EmausBot, Mircea87, Shuipzv3, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Sonaz, BG19bot, Cosmosgu, Oinbuh, BattyBot, Squirrel523, G PViB, DanieB52, Leobold111 and Anonymous: 36
Electronic warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20warfare?oldid=656058015 Contributors: The Anome, Karen
Johnson, Europrobe, Heron, Michael Hardy, Wernher, Rossumcapek, Robbot, Donreed, GreatWhiteNortherner, Tim, Micru, Andycjp, Beland, Gazpacho, Rama, El C, Pjrich, Art LaPella, Cmdrjameson, ZayZayEM, Maurreen, John Fader, Dziban303, Sylvain Mielot,
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BigO717, Gunningmt, Neutralphrasing, Moonbeamio, Quantres and Anonymous: 84
Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20of%20Medium%20Tactical%20Vehicles?oldid=
661706243 Contributors: Finlay McWalter, Chowbok, Hohum, Gene Nygaard, Bobrayner, Before My Ken, Rjwilmsi, Mark83, Choess,
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Sammy D III, Ickandgak and Anonymous: 31
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383
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Anonymous: 580
General-purpose machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose%20machine%20gun?oldid=658879760 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Michael Hardy, Big Bob the Finder, Cjrother, Securiger, Buster2058, DocWatson42, Oberiko, MathKnight,
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Maphisto86, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Tyrenius, Appleseed, Hirudo, Diagraph01~enwiki, SmackBot, Billy Goat, Winterheart,
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not using his real name, RAF910, Oowayaway, America M60E4 Guys, JaconaFrere, Krutoi dezigner and Anonymous: 72
Grenade launcher Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenade%20launcher?oldid=659258232 Contributors: TomCerul, Docu, Kingturtle, Lommer, Dysprosia, Furrykef, Thue, Riddley, Jmabel, Pibwl, Tom harrison, MathKnight, Per Honor et Gloria, Bobblewik, Joseph
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9904, Tr1290, Lord Hawk, N5iln, Deathbunny, Mentisto, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Dor Posner, Mike Searson, BilCat, Mschel, Nono64,
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Ministerzzz, RAF910, Pravito, ScrabbleZ, Felsic and Anonymous: 133
Heavy machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy%20machine%20gun?oldid=630335407 Contributors: Maury Markowitz,
Mzajac, WegianWarrior, ZeroOne, Longhair, Harald Hansen, Tronno, Kaganer, Thatguy96, Arthena, Denniss, Cal 1234, Gene Nygaard,
384
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Helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter?oldid=662725999 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Peter Winnberg, The Epopt,
Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Drj, Rjstott, Andre Engels, Snorre, Rmhermen, Christian List, PierreAbbat, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, Panairjdde~enwiki, Heron, Jinian, Olivier, Paul Ebermann, Edward, Patrick,
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Anonymous: 391
Infantry ghting vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry%20fighting%20vehicle?oldid=659640245 Contributors: Patrick,
386
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389
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Joint Special Operations Command Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20Special%20Operations%20Command?oldid=
659311506 Contributors: Edward, Nurg, JerryFriedman, DocWatson42, Beland, OwenBlacker, DragonySixtyseven, Canterbury Tail,
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static, Lotje, EmausBot, Dewritech, ZroBot, Shuipzv3, Pathnder71, H3llBot, Julierbutler, Thewolfchild, ChuispastonBot, Afranelli,
TheTimesAreAChanging, ClueBot NG, Zechola, Intforce, Kevin Gorman, Widr, Paolau.kalani, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Chris0834,
Mark Arsten, Dainomite, WikiHannibal, BattyBot, Choor monster, EvergreenFir, Trident1983, Monkbot, Ceboolitas Chavarria and Anonymous: 120
Light machine gun Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20machine%20gun?oldid=662667596 Contributors: The Anome, Marknen, Romanm, Securiger, Halibutt, Buster2058, Oberiko, Piotrus, Pettifogger, One Salient Oversight, Phil1988, WikiDon, RevRagnarok,
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FAL, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Raghith, Hengistmate, Widr, McCull1n, Ranggamalvino, Glevum, Oinbuh, 0989bv, Touranushertz,
390
391
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Kateszymborski, Monkbot, KitFistoPL, Rezin, Everybodyswillyisaspeedboat, Ibropalic and Anonymous: 173
Main battle tank Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20battle%20tank?oldid=661274945 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Andrewman327, Bender235, Giraedata, Anthony Appleyard, Ashley Pomeroy, Denniss, Hohum, A D Monroe III, Pol098, BD2412,
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Military helicopter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20helicopter?oldid=662737593 Contributors: Lowellian, Jason Quinn,
Woohookitty, Pol098, Hovea, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, SchuminWeb, Chwyatt, Cornellrockey, Arado, Saberwyn, Chris93, SmackBot, Flamarande, Tnkr111, Chris the speller, Neo-Jay, Colonies Chris, Will Beback, Willy turner, Levineps, Stewartp, Fnlayson, Barticus88, Bobblehead, BenTremblay, Darklilac, Born2ie, BilCat, Ekki01, Anaxial, R'n'B, KTo288, Bapho~enwiki, Tatrgel, VolkovBot,
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Citation bot, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, MGA73bot, Theo10011, Jerd10, DexDor, EmausBot, John of Reading, Naev, ClueBot NG, AktiNo, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Jay8g, Northamerica1000, MusikAnimal, Hurricanefan24, Cyberbot II, Adnan
bogi, MilleniumBlue, Keijhae, KasparBot and Anonymous: 33
Pistol Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol?oldid=662889138 Contributors: Patrick, Andrewman327, Altenmann, Antandrus,
Rama, Dbachmann, LtNOWIS, Spangineer, Svartalf, Woohookitty, GraemeLeggett, Mandarax, Koavf, Tedd, Huw Powell, NawlinWiki, ThunderE6, A.BigHead, CWenger, SmackBot, Skizzik, Emurphy42, Seduisant, Lambiam, Mouse Nightshirt, Ergative rlt, J 1982,
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and Anonymous: 112
Reconnaissance vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance%20vehicle?oldid=662859828 Contributors: Versageek,
GraemeLeggett, Rjwilmsi, Aldis90, Lexington50, Andy Dingley, Addbot, Rubinbot, Mark Schierbecker, Kyng, Jonesey95, John of Reading, SporkBot, ChuispastonBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Katangais, DanieB52, Monkbot, Cavalryman V31, Inyouchuu shoku, KasparBot and
Anonymous: 2
Rie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle?oldid=654561308 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Ed Poor, LA2,
Rmhermen, Hephaestos, Stevertigo, Edward, Banshee~enwiki, Patrick, Voidvector, Oliver Pereira, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, Stan
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Ed g2s, Jason M, Nptr, Riddley, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jwpurple, Kadin2048, Romanm, FeZn~enwiki, Ojigiri~enwiki, Meelar, Marc Venot,
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392
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478
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Rezin and Anonymous: 589
393
394
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