(1) L = a(a + b) .

.: a.
a
a

b
(2) L = (a + b) ab.
.: ab.
b

a
b
a
a
b

(3) L = (a + b) bb(a + b) a.
.: b, , bb, a.
a

b
a

b
b
a

(4) L = (a + ab) .
.: b, , bb, a.
a
b
a
a

(5) L = ( + b)(a + ab) .

.: b, , bb.
a
b
a
a

(6) L = (a + ba b) .
.: b.
a

a
b

b
(7) a a.
.: L = a(a + b) + (a + b) a.
a

b
a

b
b

(8) a a, .
.: L = a(a + b) b + b(a + b) a.
b

(9) .
.: L = a(a + b) a + b(a + b) b + a + b.
a

a
a

(10) = {a, b, c}, a, b (

) c, , cc.
.: L = a(a + c) b(a + c) b(a + c) cc.
a+c

a+c

a
c

c
a
a

(11) = {a, b, c}, b c.

.: L = (a + c) bc+ (a + c) .
a+c

c
c
b
b
a

(12) , , bab bb. (

babb bab bb, , ,
, 2 , babb ...)
.:

b
a

a
b

(13) .
.: L = (a + b)(a + b)

= (aa + ab + ba + bb) .
a+b

a+b
(14) .


.: L = (a + b) (a + b)(a + b) = (a + b)(aa + ab + ba + bb) .
a+b

a+b

(15) = {a, b, c}, 3.

.: L = (a + b + c)(a + b + c)(a + b + c) = (a + b + c)3 .
a+b+c

a+b+c

a+b+c

(16) = {a, b, c}, 3.

.: L = + (a + b + c) + (a + b + c)2 .
a+b+c

a+b+c

(17) = {a, b, c}, 3.

.: L = (a + b + c)3 (a + b + c)+ .
a+b+c
a+b+c

a+b+c

a+b+c

a+b+c

(18) ab .
.: L = (a + b )ab(a + b) .
b

a+b

a
a

(19) ab .
.: L = (a + b )ab(a + b )ab(a + b) .
b

a
a

b
b

a+b

a
b

(20) a, , aa.
.: L = (b + ab) ( + a).
b
a

b
(21) a , , aa .
.: L = (b + ab) aa(b + ab) .
b

b
b

a
a

(22) a , , aa
.


.: L = (b + ab) aa a + b+ (ab) aa (a + b) .
a

b
a

a
a
a

b
b

b
b

a+b

(23) a b, , aa bb.
.: L = (a + b) aa(a + b) bb(a + b) + (a + b) bb(a + b) aa(a + b) .
a
b
a
a

a
a

a+b

b
b

b
a
b
(24) ab ba.
.: L = (b ab+ a + a ba+ b)(a + b) .
a

b
b
b

a+b
b
b

a
a
a

(25) = {a, b, c}, a, , aa.

.: L = (b + c + ab + ac) ( + a).
b+c
a

b+c

(26) = {a, b, c}, a, , aa.

.: L = b + c + a(b + c) aa(a + b + c) .
a+b+c

b+c
a
a
b+c

(27) b, , bb.







.: L = a(ba) a
abb + bb(a + b) (a + b)(a + b) .
a+b

b
b
a

a+b
a

a
a+b
b
b
a

a+b

(28) = {a, b, c}, a.

.: L = (b + c)(b + c) a(b + c) (b + c)(b + c) + (b + c) (b + c)(b + c) a (b + c)(b + c) .
b+c
a
b+c
b+c

b+c
b+c
a
b+c

(29) a, , aaa.
.: L = b(a + b) + ab(a + b) + aab(a + b) = ( + a + aa)b(a + b) .
a+b

(30) a, , aaa.
.: L = (b + ab + aab) .
b
a
a
b
b
(31) aba.
.: L = a bb+ a

+ a + b + ab + ba .
a
b

a
a

b
b

(32) a ( na ) 3.
.: L = b (ab ab ab ) .
b
b

a
a
a
b

(33) nb < na 2.
.: L = L0 + L1 , L0 na = 2 nb = 0 1 L1
na = 1 nb = 0. , : L0 = aa + baa + aba + aab L1 = a.
a

(34) = {a, b, c}, nb + nc = 3.

.: L = L0 + L1 + L2 + L3 , L0 nb = 3 nc = 0,
L1 nb = 2 nc = 1, L2 nb = 1 nc = 2 L3 nb = 0 nc = 3.
, : L0 = a ba ba ba , L1 = a ba ba ca + a ba ca ba + a ca ba ba , L2 =
a ca ca ba + a ca ba ca + a ba ca ca L3 = a ca ca ca .
a

a
b

b+c

c
b+c

b
c

b+c
c
a

10

(35) a b .
.: L = (b + ab + ba + aba) .
a

b
b
a

a
b
(36) 4
:
a
q0

q1
a

a
q3

q2
a

.:
q0 na = nb = .
q1 na = nb = .
q2 na = nb = .
q3 na = nb = .
,
. .., q3 :
a
q0

q1
a

a
q3

q2
a

q1 :

11

aa

bb
a

ab
q0

q2

q3
a

ba
b
b

q2 :
a(bb) a

aa + ab(bb) ba
b + ab(bb) a
q0

q3
b + a(bb) ba

, , ( na = nb =
) :












L = aa+ab(bb) ba b+ab(bb) a
a(bb) a b+a(bb) ba aa+ab(bb) ba b+ab(bb) a .
(37) 3
:
q1
a

a
b

b
b

q0

q2
a

.:
q0 na nb = 0 mod 3.
q1 na nb = 1 mod 3 nb na = 2 mod 3.
q2 na nb = 2 mod 3 nb na = 1 mod 3.

12

(38) 4
:
a
q0

q1
b

b
b

q3

q2
a

.:
q0 na nb = 0 mod 4.
q1 na nb = 1 mod 4 nb na = 3 mod 4.
q2 |na nb | = 2 mod 4.
q3 na nb = 3 mod 4 nb na = 1 mod 4.
(39) 9
:
b
q6

q7

q8
a

b
a

q3

a
q0

q4

q1

q5

a
b

q2

b
.:
q0 na = 0 mod 3 nb = 0 mod 3.
q1 na = 0 mod 3 nb = 1 mod 3.
q2 na = 0 mod 3 nb = 2 mod 3.
q3 na = 1 mod 3 nb = 0 mod 3.
q4 na = 1 mod 3 nb = 1 mod 3.
q5 na = 1 mod 3 nb = 2 mod 3.
q6 na = 2 mod 3 nb = 0 mod 3.
q7 na = 2 mod 3 nb = 1 mod 3.
q8 na = 2 mod 3 nb = 2 mod 3.
13

(40) ,
(i) ( {a, b}),
na = 1 mod 3 nb = 2 mod 3.
.: .
.
(0) :

q0
q0
q1
q2
q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
q8

q1
b

q2

q3
a

q4

q5

q6

q7

q8

a
b

a
b

b
a

b
a

(1) q8 :

q0
q0
q1
q2
q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
q8

q1
b

q2

q3
a

q4

q5

q6

q7

q8

a
b

a
b

aa

a
ab

b
a

ba

bb

(2) q7 :

q0
q0
q1
q2
q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
q8

q1
b

q2

q3
a

q4

q5

a
b
aa

q6

ba

aba
aa
bba

b
b

14

a
abb
ab
bbb

q7

q8

(3) q6 :

q0
q0
q1
q2
q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
q8

q1
b

q2

q3
a

b
b
a(bbb) a
abb(bbb) a
ab(bbb) a

q4

q5

q6

q7

q8

q5

q6

q7

a
a

a(bbb) ba

a(bbb) bba

aa + abb(bbb) ba
ab(bbb) ba

aba + abb(bbb) bba

aa + ab(bbb) bba

b
b
b

(4) q4 :

q0

q1
b

q2

q1

aabb(bbb) a

aaa+aabb(bbb) ba

b + aaba +
aabb(bbb) bba

q2

b
a(bbb) a +
babb(bbb) a

a(bbb) ba + baa +
babb(bbb) ba

a(bbb) bba +
baba +
babb(bbb) bba

ab(bbb) a

ab(bbb) ba

aa + ab(bbb) bba

q0

q3
q4
q5
q6
q7
q8

q3
a

q4

q8

(5) q3 :

q0
q0

aa(bbb) a+ababb(bbb) a

q1
q2

aabb(bbb) a
b

q5

ab(bbb) a + ba(bbb) a +
bbabb(bbb) a

q1
b + aa(bbb) ba + abaa +
ababb(bbb) ba
aaa + aabb(bbb) ba

q2
aa(bbb) bba + ababa +
ababb(bbb) bba
b + aaba + aabb(bbb) bba

ab(bbb) ba+ba(bbb) ba+

bbaa + bbabb(bbb) ba

aa + ab(bbb) bba +
ba(bbb) bba + bbaba +
bbabb(bbb) bba

q5

15

(6) q2 :

q0
+ ababb(bbb) a +

aa(bbb) bbab + ababab +

ababb(bbb) bbab
aabb(bbb) a + bb + aabab +
aabb(bbb) bbab
ab(bbb) a + ba(bbb) a +
bbabb(bbb) a + aab +
ab(bbb) bbab + ba(bbb) bbab +
bbabab + bbabb(bbb) bbab
aa(bbb) a

q0
q1

q5

q1

q5

b + aa(bbb) ba + abaa +
ababb(bbb) ba

aa(bbb) bbaa + ababaa +

ababb(bbb) bbaa

aaa + aabb(bbb) ba

ba + aabaa + aabb(bbb) bbaa

ab(bbb) ba + ba(bbb) ba +
bbaa + bbabb(bbb) ba

aaa + ab(bbb) bbaa +

ba(bbb) bbaa + bbabaa +
bbabb(bbb) bbaa

(7) q1 :

q0

q5

q0
b +
aa(bbb) ba + abaa +
ababb(bbb) ba aa(bbb) a + ababb(bbb) a +

aa(bbb)
+

bbab + ababab

ababb(bbb) bbab aabb(bbb) a
+ bb + aabab +

aabb(bbb) bbab

ab(bbb)
ba + ba(bbb) ba + bbaa +

bbabb(bbb) ba aa(bbb) a + ababb(bbb) a +

aa(bbb)
+

bbab + ababab

ababb(bbb) bbab aabb(bbb) a
+ bb + aabab +

aabb(bbb) bbab

q5
b +
aa(bbb) ba + abaa +
ababb(bbb) ba aa(bbb) a + ababb(bbb) a +

aa(bbb)
+

bbab + ababab

ababb(bbb) bbab aa(bbb) bbaa

+
ababaa +

ababb(bbb) bbaa
ab(bbb)
ba + ba(bbb) ba + bbaa +
bbabb(bbb) ba aa(bbb) a + ababb(bbb) a +

aa(bbb)
+

bbab + ababab

ababb(bbb) bbab aa(bbb) bbaa

+
ababaa +

ababb(bbb) bbaa

, ,
( Aij 2 2):
A22

A11
A12
q0

q5
A21

, :


L = (A11 ) A12 (A22 ) A21 (A11 ) A12 .

16

(41) :
(i) na 1 nb = 2.
(ii) na 2 nb 2.
(iii) na 4 nb 2.
. (i):
a

q4

q5

b
a

q2

q3

q0

q1

q8

. (ii):
q6

b
q3

b
a

b
q0

q7

q4

q5

q1

17

q2

. (iii):
a
q10

a
a

b
q5

b
a

b
q0

q11

q6

q1

b
a

q12

q7

q2

18

b
a

q13

q8

b
a

q3

q14

q9
b

q4


:
(1) S aSa | aBa, B bB | b.


n
m
k
.: S = an San = an am Bam an = an+m bk Ban+m an+m bk+1 an+m . ,
L = {ai bj ai: i 0, j > 0}.
(2) S aSdd | A, A bAc | bc.


n
m
.: S = an S(dd)n an A(dd)n = an bm Acm (dd)n an bm bccm (dd)n
an bm+1 cm+1 (dd)n . , L = {ai bj cj d2i: i 0, j > 0}.

(3) S aSb | aSbb | .

n
m
.: S = an Sbn = an am S(bb)m bn an+m bn+2m . , L = {ai bj : 0
i j 2i}.
(4) S abScB | , B bB | b.

n
n
m
.: S = (ab)n S(cB)n (ab)n (cB)n = (ab)n c(bm B) (ab)n (cbm+1 )n . ,
L = {(ab)i (cbj )i: i 0, j > 0}.
:
(5) L = {ai bi: i 0}.
.: S aSb | .
(6) L = {(ab)i: i 0}.
.: S abS | .
(7) L = {ai bi+1: i 0}.
.: S aSb | b. S Bb, B aBb | .
(8) L = {ai b2i: i 0}.
.: S aSbb | .
(9) L = {ai bj : i > 0, j 0}.
.: S AB, A aA | a, B Bb | .
(10) L = {ai+2 bi: i 1}.
.: S aSb | aaab.
(11) L = {ai bi3: i 3}.
.: S aSb | aaa.
(12) L = {ai bj : j > i 0}.
.: S aSb | Sb | b.
(13) L = {ai bj : i 6= j}.
.: S S> | S< , S> aS> b | aS> | a, S< aS< b | S< b | b.
(14) L = {ai bj : i j + 3}.
.: S aaaB | aaB | aB | B, B aBb | Bb | .
(15) L = {ai bj : i 6= j 1}.
.: S A | B, A aAb | aA | , B aBb | Bb | bb.
(16) L = {ai bj : i 6= 2j}.
.: S A | B, A aaAb | aA | a, B aaBb | aBb | Bb | b.
19

(17) L = {ai bj : 2i j 3i}.

.: S aSbb | aSbbb | .
(18) L = {a2i b3j : i, j 0}.
.: S AB, A aaA | , B Bbbb | .
(19) L = {ai bj ck: i = j j k}.
.: S S1 C | AS2 , S1 aS1 b | , C Cc | , A aA | , S2 bS2 c | S2 c | .
(20) L = {ai bj ck: i = j j 6= k}.
.: S S1 C | AS3 , S1 aS1 b | , C Cc | , A aA | , S3 S2 | S4 ,
S2 bS2 c | S2 c | c, S4 bS4 c | bS4 | b.
(21) L = {ai bj ck: i 6= j j 6= k}.
.: S S1 C | AS3 , S1 S5 | S6 , S5 aS5 b | aS5 | a, S6 aS6 b | S6 b | b, S3 S2 | S4 ,
S2 bS2 c | S2 c | c, S4 bS4 c | bS4 | b.
(22) L = {ai bj ck: k = i + j}.
.: S aSc | S1 , S1 bS1 c | .
(23) L = {ai bj ck: k 6= i + j}.
.: S S1 | S2 , S1 aS1 c | S3 | c, S3 bS3 c | S3 c | c,
S2 AS4 , A aA | , S4 aS4 c | S5 | a, S5 bS5 | b.
(24) L = {ai bj ck: i + 2j = k}.
.: S aSc | S1 | , S1 bS1 cc | .
(25) L = {ai bj ck: k = |i j|}.
.: S S1 | S2 S3 , S1 aS1 c | S2 | , S2 aS2 b | , S3 bS3 c | .
(26) L = {ai bi ck: i 0, k 3}.
.: S S1 C, S1 aS1 b | , C Cc | ccc.
(27) (i) L = {w (a + b): |w| = }.
(ii) L = {w (a + b): |w| = }.
.: (
):
a+b
S

T
a+b

(i) S : S aT | bT | , T aS | bS.
(ii) T : S aT | bT, T aS | bS | .
(28) (i) L = {w (a + b): |w| mod 3 = 0}.
(ii) L = {w (a + b): |w| mod 3 > 0}.
(iii) L = {w (a + b): |w| mod 3 6= |w| mod 2}.
(iv) L = {w (a + b): |w| mod 3 |w| mod 2}.
.: (
):
20

U
a+b
S

a+b
T

a+b

(i) S : S (a+b)T | , T (a+b)U, U (a+b)S

( S (a + b)3 S | ).
(ii) T U : S (a + b)T, T (a +
b)U | , U (a + b)S | ( S (a + b)T | (a + b)2 U, T (a + b)3 T | , U (a + b)3 U | ).
(iii) , |w| mod 3 = |w| mod 2 |w| mod 6 = 0, |w|
mod 3 6= |w| mod 2 |w| mod 6 = 1, 2, 3, 4 5. ,
:
X

a+b

W
a+b

a+b
S

a+b

a+b
T

a+b

, : S (a + b)T, T (a + b)U | , U (a + b)V | , V (a +

b)W | , W (a + b)X | , X (a + b)S | .
(iv) , |w| mod 3 |w| mod 2 |w| mod 6 =
6 3, |w|
mod 3 |w| mod 2 |w| mod 6 = 0, 1, 2 4, 5, 6. ,
:

a+b

a+b

a+b

V
a+b

a+b
T

a+b

, : S (a + b)T | , T (a + b)U | , U (a + b)V | , V (a + b)W, W

(a + b)X | , X (a + b)S | .
(29) (i) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = }.
(ii) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = }.
(iii) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = nb (w) = }.

21

(iv) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = nb (w) = }.

.: (
):
a
S

T
a

a
V

U
a

(i) S V : S aT | bV | , T aS | bU, U
aV | bT, V aU | bS | .
:
na (w) na (ww) , , ,
na (ww) , na (bw) na (wb) ,
() : S AA | , A AAA | bA | Ab | a.
(ii) T U : S aT | bV, T
aS | bU | , U aV | bT | , V aU | bS.
: na (w)
na (www) , , , na w(ww) , na (bw) na (wb) ,
() : S AAA, A AAA | bA | Ab | a.
(iii) S : S aT | bV | , T aS | bU, U
aV | bT, V aU | bS.
(iv) V : S aT | bV, T aS | bU, U
aV | bT, V aU | bS | .
(30) L = {w (a + b + c): abc w}.
.: (
):
a

U
a

b
c

a
b

b+c
S, T U : S aU | bS | cS | , T
aU | bS | , U aU | bT | cS | .

22

(31) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = 1}.

.: :
b

b
a

T : S aT | bS, T bT | .
(32) L = {w (a + b): na (w) 1}.
.: , T
( a T ): S aT | bS, T aT | bT | .
(33) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = 2}.
.: :
b

b
a

U : S aT | bS, T aU | bT, U bU | .
(34) L = {w (a + b): na (w) 2}.
.: , U
( a U ): S aT | bS, T aU | bT, U aU | bU | .
(35) L = {w (a + b): na (w) 3}.
.: :
b

b
a

b
a

b
a

S, T, U V : S aT | bS | , T
aU | bT | , U aV | bU | , V bV | .
(36) L = {w (a + b): na (w) 3}.
.: :
b

b
a

a+b

b
a

S, T, U V : S aT | bS, T aU | bT, U
aV | bU, V aV | bV | .
23

(37) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = nb (w)}.

.: w L w1 w2 L, w1 , w2 L, awb L
bwa L, : S SS | aSb | bSa | .
(38) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = nb (w) + 1}.
.: S0 a b
( ), : S S0 aS0 , S0 S0 S0 | aS0 b | bS0 a | .
(39) L = {w (a + b): na (w) > nb (w)}.
.: S0 , :
S S0 AS0 , S0 S0 S0 | aS0 b | bS0 a | , A aA | a.
(40) L = {w (a + b): nb (w) na (w)}.
.: , , : S SS | aSb | bSa | bS | .
(41) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = 2nb (w)}.
.: , ,
aab, aba baa, : S SS | aSaSb | aSbSa | bSaSa | .
(42) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = 2nb (w) + 1}.
.: S2 a
b ( ), : S S2 aS2 , S2
S2 S2 | aS2 aS2 b | aS2 bS2 a | bS2 aS2 a | .
(43) L = {w (a + b): na (w) = 2nb (w) 1}.
.: , na (w) = 2nb (w)1 na (w)1 = 2(nb (w)1),
, w L, a b
w, , , a
b. , a
b, , ab ba. ,
, a b,
ab ba, L.
a b :
S SS | aSaSb | aSbSa | bSaSa | . , S
ab ba, () ab ba,
S .
,
a b
S . S SS
: .., S aSaSb
S Saab | aSab | aaSb | aabS ... ,
L :

S Saab | aSab | aaSb | aabS |

Saba | aSba | abSa | abaS |
Sbaa | bSaa | baSa | baaS |
ab | ba.

24

(44) L = {w (a + b): |na (w) nb (w)| = 1}.

.: , : S S0 aS0 | S0 bS0 , S0 S0 S0 | aS0 b | bS0 a | .
(45) L = {w (a + b): w = wR }.
.: , : S aSa | bSb | a | b | .
(46) L = {wwR: w (a + b)+ }.
.: , : S aSa | bSb | aa | bb.

25


:
(1) L = {ai bi: i 0}.
a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

| ,

| ,

(2) L = {ai b2i: i 0}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

| ,

| ,

(3) L = {a2i bi: i 0}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

a | ,

| ,

| ,

(4) L = {a2i b3i: i 1}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

a | ,

| ,

26

| ,

(5) L = {ai bj : i 6= j, i, j 0}.

a | ,
a | ,

a | ,
| ,

b | ,
| ,

a | ,

| ,

| ,

| ,
| ,
a | ,
a | ,

b | ,
b | ,

b | ,

(6) L = {ai bj : 0 i j 2i}.

a | ,
a | ,
a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

| ,

| ,

(7) L = {ai bi: i 6= 0 mod 3}.

a | ,
b | ,

b | ,
a | ,

a | ,
a | ,

| ,

b | ,

27

 :
a | , 0
a | 0 , 1 0
a | 1 , 2 1
a | 2 , 0 2

b | 0 ,
b | 1 ,
b | 2 ,

b | 0 ,
b | 1 ,

| ,

(8) L = {ab(ab)i b(ba)i: i 0}.

a | ,

b | ,
b | ,

b | ,

b | ,
b | ,

a | ,

a | ,

(9) L = {an w : n 0, w (a + b) |w| n}.

a | ,
a | ,

a + b + | ,

| ,

| ,

(10) L = {w (a + b): |w| }.

a + b | ,

a + b | ,

| ,

28

| ,

b | ,

(11) L = {w (a + b): |w| }.

| ,

a + b | ,

| ,

a + b | ,

(12) L = {w1 aw2 (a + b): |w1 | |w2 | }.

a + b | ,

a + b | ,

| ,
a | ,

a + b | ,

a + b | ,

(13) L = {ai bj ci: i, j 0}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

| ,

c | ,

| ,

| ,

(14) L = {ai bj ck: i = j + k}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

| ,

c | ,

| ,

29

| ,

(15) L = {ai bj ck: j = i + k}.

b | ,
b | ,
b | ,

a | ,
a | ,

| ,

c | ,

| ,

| ,

(16) L = {ai bj ck: k = i + j}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,
b | ,

| ,

c | ,

| ,

| ,

(17) L = {a3 bi ci: i 0}.

a | ,
a | ,

a | ,

c | ,

a | ,

a | ,

| ,

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,

c | ,

| ,

(18) L = {ai bj ck: i = j j = k}.

| ,

| ,

| ,

| ,

| ,

| ,
| ,
a | ,

b | ,
b | ,
b | ,

30

c | ,

(19) L = {ai bj ck: j < i j < k}.

a | ,
a | ,

b | ,
| ,

a | ,

c | ,
| ,

| ,

| ,

| ,

| ,
| ,
b | ,
b | ,

c | ,

(20) L = {ai bi ci: i 0}.

a | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2 2
a | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2 2

b | 1 , ; 2 , 2

c | 1 , 1 ; 2 ,

| , ; ,

| , ; ,

| 1 , ; 2 ,

b | 1 , ; 2 , 2 2
b | 1 , ; 2 , 2 2

c | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 ,
c | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 ,

d | 1 , ; 2 , 2

(21) L = {ai bi ci di: i 0}.

a | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2
a | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2

| , ; ,

| , ; ,

| , ; ,

| 1 , ; 2 ,

(22) L = {ai bj cj di: i, j 0}.

a | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2
a | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2

b | 1 , 1 ; 2 , 2 2
b | 1 , 1 ; 2 , 2 2

| , ; ,

c | 1 , 1 ; 2 ,

| , ; ,

d | 1 , ; 2 , 2

| , ; ,

31

| 1 , ; 2 ,

(23) L = {a3i bj ci d2j : i, j 0}.

a3 | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2
a3 | 1 , 1 1 ; 2 , 2

b | 1 , 1 ; 2 , 2 2 2
b | 1 , 1 ; 2 , 2 2 2

| , ; ,

c | 1 , ; 2 , 2

| , ; ,

d | 1 , 1 ; 2 ,

| , ; ,

| 1 , ; 2 ,

(24) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) = nb (w)}.

a | , a
a | a , a a
a | b ,

| ,
b | , b
b | b , b b
b | a ,
(25) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) = nb (w) + 1}.
na = nb

a | ,

na = nb

| ,

(26) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) nb (w) + 1}.

a | ,

a | ,

| ,

na = nb

a | ,

a | ,

| ,

na = nb

| ,

| ,

(27) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) < nb (w)}.

b | ,

b | ,

| ,

na = nb

| ,

b | ,

| ,

32

na = nb

| ,

| ,

(28) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) = 2nb (w)}.

a | b ,
b | , b b
b | b , b b b
b | a ,

a | , a
a | a , a a

| ,
a | ,
a | a , a
a | , a
| ,

b | , b b
b | b , b b b
b | a ,

| ,

a | b ,
b | , b b
b | b , b b b
b | a ,
(29) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) = 2nb (w) + 1}.
na = 2nb

a | ,

| ,

| ,

na = 2nb

a | ,

na = 2nb

a | ,

| ,

na = 2nb

33

| ,

(30) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) > 2nb (w)}.

a | b ,
b | , b b
b | b , b b b
b | a ,

a | , a
a | a , a a

| a ,
| ,
| a ,
a | ,
a | a , a
a | , a
| a ,
| ,

b | , b b
b | b , b b b
b | a ,

| ,

| a ,
| ,

a | b ,
b | , b b
b | b , b b b
b | a ,
():
| a ,

na = 2nb

| a ,
| ,

| ,

34

(31) L = {w (a + b)?: na (w) = 3nb (w)}.

E4

E1
| ,
E2
| ,

E6
E3

E5

| ,

E4

E1 : a | , a

E4 : b | , b b b

a | a , a a
E2 : a | ,

b | b , b b b b
b | a ,

a | a , a

a | b ,

E3 : a | ,

E5 : b | , b b b

a | a , a

b | b , b b b b

| ,

b | a ,
E6 : a | , a

35

(32) L = {w (a + b)?: 2na (w) nb (w) 3na (w)}.

E4

E1
| ,
E2
| ,

E6
E3
| ,

E5

E4

E4 : b | , b b b

E1 : b | , b

a | , a a a a

b | b , b b

b | b , b b b b

E2 : b | ,

a | a , a a a a a

b | b , b

a | b ,

E3 : b | ,

b | a ,

b | b , b

E5 : a | , a a a

| ,

a | , a a a a
a | a , a a a a

E6 : b | , b

a | a , a a a a a

36

(33) L = {w (a + b): |na (w) nb (w)| = 2}.

a | , a
a | a , a a
a | b ,

a | ,

b | , b
b | b , b b
b | a ,

a | ,

a | , a
a | a , a a
a | b ,

| ,

b | ,

a | , a
a | a , a a
a | b ,

b | ,

b | , b
b | b , b b
b | a ,
(34) L = {w (a + b + c)?: na (w) + nb (w) = nc (w)}.
a | ,
a | ,
a | ,
b | ,
b | ,
b | ,

| ,
c | ,
c | ,
c | ,

37

b | , b
b | b , b b
b | a ,

(35) L = {wwR: w (a + b)? }.

a | , a
a | a , a a

a | a ,

| ,
b | , b
b | b , b b

| ,
b | b ,

(36) L = {wcwR: w (a + b)? }.

a | , a
a | a , a a

a | a ,

c | ,
b | , b
b | b , b b

| ,
b | b ,

(37) L = {w (a + b)?: w = wR }.
.: , w = wR w = zz R w = zz R ,
z (a + b) = a b. :
a | , a
a | a , a a

a | a ,
| ,
| ,
| ,

b | , b
b | b , b b

b | b ,

38