Chapter 1

Introduction to
Human Body
Center for Foundation Studies
Management and Science University
(MSU)

Topical Outcome
By the end of this topic you are able
to:
Differentiate the term of anatomy and
physiology
Identify and explain the levels of
organization and body system
Describe the life process
Describe the mechanism of homeostasis

Why are we here?

To learn about human anatomy

and physiology.
Before we begin, weve got to
figure a few things out:
1. Whats a human?
2. Whats anatomy?
3. Whats physiology?

What are humans?

Organisms are classified as
human because they are:
Animals
Vertebrates
Possess backbones

Mammals
Possess:

Mammary glands
Hair
Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally)
Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different
shapes and functions)
3 middle ear bones.

What are
humans?
Primates
Possess:
Opposable thumbs (can you touch your pinky
with your thumb?). What advantage does this
confer?
2 clavicles (collarbones)
Only 2 mammary glands. Why only 2? (Think
about how many kids a woman normally gives
birth to.)
Forward facing eyes with stereoscopic vision
(for depth perception)

Hominids
Bipedal (walk on 2 legs)
Possess a large brain size/body size ratio

 What is anatomy?
Anatomy is defined as the study of

Structure refers to the shapes, sizes,

and characteristics of the
components of the human body.
The word anatomy comes from 2
words:
Ana which means up or apart
Tomos which means to cut

Why these two words????

Types of Anatomy

We can divide our study of structure into 2

parts:

Study of stuff seen by the naked eye (Gross Anatomy).

Study of stuff seen ONLY with the microscope

(Microanatomy).

We can divide microanatomy into:

Histology study of tissues
Cytology study of individual cells.

Physiology
Physiology is defined as
the study of function
so human physiology
attempts to explain how
and why humans
function.
Physiology is where we
figure out how stuff
works.
How do muscles contract?
How do we run?
How does our heart beat?

Some Important
Themes
1. Biology is hierarchical with each level
building on the level below it.
2. Each level of biological structure has
emergent properties.
3. Cells are an organisms basic unit of
structure and function.
4. Structure and function are correlated at
all levels of biological organization!!!!!!!!
5. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a
dynamic balance in living systems.

Levels of
Structure
In order to understand how
something is built and how
something works, you must
look at all of its components
and analyze them both
individually and together.
In doing these collective
and separate analyses, you
must examine things at
multiple structural levels,
i.e., one must break them
down from large to small
this is called reductionism
An organism (such as a
human being) may be
broken down as illustrated
on the left.

Organelle

Cell
Tissue

Organ
Organ System
Organism

Levels of
Structure
The basic unit of life is the cell.
All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
There are about 200 different types of cells in the
human body.
The different types of cells have different
features but for the most part, all cells are made
up of organelles and various macromolecules
(e.g., proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic
acids).
Organelles themselves are made of these
macromolecules and macromolecules are
polymers of smaller molecules which consist of
atoms of various chemical elements.

A Prototypical Cell

Important Organelles
Plasma Membrane Separates the cell exterior
from the cell interior (cytoplasm).
Nucleus Membrane bound structure that contains
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is the set of
instructions for the synthesis of all the bodys
proteins.
CAN YOU SEE THE NUCLEUS AND THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE IN THE CELL TO THE
RIGHT?
Mitochondria Structure bound by a double
membrane and the site at which the energy stored
in sugars and other organic molecules is
transferred to ATP, the chemical which acts as the
currency for energy in the cell.
Ribosomes Not bound by a membrane. Sites of
protein synthesis. May be free floating in the
cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Are the 2 pictures on this page to the same

scale? How do you know?

Important Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membranous set of tubes with
ribosomes studded along its
surface. Site of the synthesis of
proteins that are destined to be
exported from the cell.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
ER w/o the attached ribosomes.
Site of cellular lipid synthesis,
among other things.
Golgi Apparatus Membrane
bound organelle responsible for
determining the direction of
proteins synthesized in the rough
ER.
Lysosomes Membrane bound
organelle that houses digestive
enzymes that can be used to
break down ingested toxins or
worn out cell parts.

More Levels of Structure

Similar cells and cell
products come together
to form tissues.
A structure made of 2 or
more tissue types that
perform a particular
function is an organ.
A group of organs with a
unique collective function
is an organ system.
There are 11 of these in
the human body.

Integumentary
System

Structures:
-

Skin, hair, sweat and oil glands

Functions:
-

Forms the external body

covering
Protects deeper tissues from
injury
Involved in vitamin D synthesis
Prevents desiccation, heat loss,
and pathogen entry
Site of pain and pressure
receptors

Skeletal System
Structures:
The 206 bones of the human body

Functions:
Protects and supports body organs
What characteristics might bone have
that
allows it to support and protect?

Provides a framework that muscles can

use to create movement
Hemopoiesis (synthesis of blood cells)
Mineral storage
Bone contains 99% of the bodys store of
what mineral? (Hint you can get this
mineral from drinking milk)

Muscular System
Structures:
The 600+ muscles
of the body

Functions:
Locomotion
Manipulation of the
environment
Maintaining posture
Thermogenesis
(generation of heat)

Nervous System
Structures:
Brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves

Functions:
Fast-acting control
system of the body
Monitoring of the internal
and external
environment and
responding (when
necessary) by initiating
muscular or glandular
activity

Endocrine
System
Structures:
Hormone-secreting glands
Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus,
Pineal, Parathyroid, Adrenal,
Pancreas, Small Intestine,
Stomach, Testes, Ovaries,
Kidneys, Heart

Functions:
Long-term control system of
the body
Regulates growth,
reproduction, and nutrient
use among other things.

Cardiovascular System
Structures:
Heart, Blood vessels (arteries,
veins, and capillaries)

Functions:
The heart pumps blood thru
the blood vessels.
Blood provides the transport
medium for nutrients (glucose,
amino acids, lipids), gases (O2,
CO2), wastes (urea,
creatinine), signaling molecules
(hormones), and heat.

Lymphatic/Im
mune
System
Structures:
Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes,
Spleen, Thymus, Red bone marrow

Functions:
Returning leaked fluid back to
the bloodstream,
Disposal of debris
Attacking and resisting foreign
invaders (pathogens i.e., diseasecausing organisms)

Respiratory System
Structures:
Nasal cavity,
pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs

Functions:
Constantly supply
the blood with O2,
and remove CO2
Regulate blood pH

Digestive
System
Structures:
Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

Functions:
Ingestion and subsequent breakdown of
food into absorbable units that will enter
the blood for distribution to the bodys
cells

Urinary System
Structures:
Kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder,
urethra

Functions:
Removal of
nitrogenous wastes
Regulation of bodys
levels of water,
electrolytes, and
acidity

Reproductive System
Structures:
Male:
Testes, scrotum,
epididymis, vas deferens,
urethra, prostate gland,
seminal vesicles, penis

Female:
Ovary, uterine tube,
uterus, cervix, vagina,
mammary glands

Functions:
Production of offspring

Why Are Levels of Structure

Important?
In this class, well study all levels and see how they
work together to create structures and allow them to
function.
In essence, the combination of these different yet
connected levels allows life to proceed.
But we must also be aware of emergent properties.

Things are often much more than simply a sum of their

parts.
Consider a hammer which is made of a head and a handle.
Either piece by itself is of little use to drive a nail but
put together, they perform the task quite easily.
Or consider table salt sodium chloride (NaCl). By
themselves, chlorine is a poisonous gas and sodium an
explosive metal. But when bound together, they create
something much, much different.

We must be aware of emergent properties as well as

reducing structures to their component parts.

Can Anatomy & Physiology Be

Separated?
NOOOOOOO!!!!!
Absolutely not!
Structure and function are
undeniably connected. We cannot
divorce them.
What do we mean by this?
Can you eat soup with a fork?
Find 2 everyday items and determine
whether/how their structure
(anatomy) relates to their function
(physiology)

When you consider the structure of an organ, cell, or anything for

that matter you must also consider its function!

Stayin Alive
Your body has about 100 trillion cells in
it.
For your life to NOT end abruptly, these
cells need to have the correct amount
of:

Oxygen
Nutrients
Waste removal
Heat
Ions (sodium, calcium, etc.)
Lots of other stuff

The Cells Environment

In order to keep the right amount of stuff
in the cell, weve got to make sure that all
the fluid surrounding our cells (i.e., the
extracellular fluid) has the right
assortment of nutrients, ions, etc.
We keep both our cells and the fluid
surrounding our cells in a dynamically
stable environment via a process called
HOMEOSTASIS.

Homeostasis

Defined as the bodys ability to maintain

stable internal conditions in spite of the
changing external conditions.
We just said that our body needs to have
the right amount of stuff (i.e.,
temperature, blood [glucose], pH etc.) at
all times in order to function properly.
First, lets refer to all this stuff as
different variables
Note: the brackets surrounding the word glucose in the above paragraph mean concentration
of glucose, i.e., how much glucose is dissolved in a particular fluid (blood in this case)

Lets use a
thermostat as an
example

In order to keep the temperature in my

house at the right level, the thermostat must
first measure the current temperature in the
house.
After the thermostat measures the
temperature, it compares the current value to
a preset standard value.
If there is no difference then theres nothing to do.
However, if its too hot or too cold, the thermostat
has to send a signal to the furnace or air
conditioner to change the temperature of the
house so that it equals the standard value.

Lets clarify some stuff.

In the previous example we had a:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Variable temperature
Measuring implement thermostat
Control center also the thermostat
A preset or standard value for the variable
Effectors the air conditioner and
furnace

Similar situations arise in the human

body where there are lots of variables
that we want to maintain at certain
precise levels

Blood
Pressure
BP is a variable that weve got to
maintain at a certain level
We have sensory receptors that
measure the BP in the body. Theyre
located in the aorta (the big blood
vessel coming out of the heart) and
in the carotid arteries (the large
vessels that bring blood to the brain).
These pressure receptors measure BP
and then send the info (we can call
this input) to a control center in
the brain the particular BP control
center is in the medulla oblongata of
the brain

Blood Pressure
We call the connection btwn the
receptor and the control center the
afferent pathway.
In the control center, the input BP is
compared with a set value.
If there is a difference between the
current BP value and the reference
BP value then weve got an error.
And weve got to fix that error!

Blood Pressure
The control center will signal
effector organs such as the heart
in this case to alter their activity.
This process is called output.
The connection between the control
center and the effector organ is
called the efferent pathway.

Blood Pressure
Suppose the current BP is too high.
The effector must act in a way to decrease
it so the medulla oblongata (the control
center) would signal the heart to decrease
the force and rate of its contractions; this
would decrease BP.
Notice that the original stimulus was an
INcrease in BP and the bodys response
was to act so as to DEcrease BP.
The stimulus is opposite the
response!

Negative Feedback
B/c the movement of a variable in
one direction causes the body to
enact processes that cause the
variable to move in the opposite
direction (so as to return the value to
the correct level) we call it
negative feedback
Lets look at BP again:

Increased
BP

Sensed by pressure
receptors in aortic arch
and carotid sinus

Input sent via

afferent pathway
to medulla
oblongata

BP DECREASES
Heart rate & force
of contraction
decrease
Blood
vessel
diameter
increases

Output sent along

efferent pathway to
heart and blood
vessels

Current BP
compared with
set point and
error signal
generated

Why is Negative
Feedback so common in
the body?

Think about it! Every time a variable

starts changing too much, weve got
to bring it back to normal. Weve got
to counteract its change.
THATS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Other examples you will encounter:

Maintenance of blood [Ca2+], blood
[Glucose], blood pH, and many others

When does a negative feedback process end?

THINK ABOUT IT!
A negative feedback
process begins when a
particular variable leaves
its homeostatic range.
The process ends when
that variable is back
within its normal range.
Negative feedback
processes (or loops) are
self-terminating.
MAKE SURE YOU
UNDERSTAND WHY!

Homeostasis is
Important!
Most of the physiological processes that
occur in your body are designed to
maintain homeostasis.
ALWAYS KEEP THIS IN MIND!

Question: Does the magnitude (i.e., size)

of the error signal influence the magnitude
of the response?
Just to recap, lets look at a couple more
figures!

Homeosta
sis is
DYNAMIC
!

What this means is that the homeostatic variables are NOT kept
rigidly fixed upon a single value. They are kept within a certain
range, and when they exit that range thats when negative
feedback loops turn on to bring them back.
Is your body temperature always exactly 98.6F?

What about Positive

Feedback?
Positive feedback occurs when the
response amplifies or magnifies the
stimulus that produced it.
In other words, a variable is altered and
then the bodys response alters that
variable even more in the same
direction.
How does this differ from negative
feedback?
Which do you suppose is more common in
the body: positive or negative feedback?

Positive
Feedback
in
Childbirth

Positive
Feedbac
k
in Blood
Clotting

Dangerous Positive
Feedback
Rise in body temperature

Increase in body
heat
production

Increase in body
metabolism

What stops a positive

feedback loop?

Water, water
everywhere!

About 60% of the human body is

water
2/3 of this water is found within your
cells so we refer to it as intracellular
fluid (ICF)
The other 1/3 is outside your cells so
we call it extracellular fluid (ECF)
The 2 main types of ECF are:
1. The fluid that surrounds the cells the
tissue fluid or interstitial fluid
2. Blood!

Minor types of ECF include

cerebrospinal fluid and intraocular fluid

Related Fields of Study

Obviously, anatomy and physiology
come under the rubric of biology
the study of life.
An incredibly integral field is
pathology the study of disease.
Why is pathology so important in
learning A&P?

Another super important field is

embryology, the study of how a
single zygote (i.e., a fertilized egg)
turns into a fully-fledged human
being with trillions of cells.
Why is embryology so important to A&P?