Ultrasonic Testing

Part 4

DEFECT LOCATION
DEFECT LOCATION IN ULTRASONIC
TESTING IS BASED UPON THE PREMISE
THAT A MAXIMISED ECHO RESPONSE CAN
ONLY COME FROM A REFLECTOR WHICH IS
LYING ON THE BEAM AXIS.
THIS PREMISE CAN BE ASSUMED BECAUSE
THE GREATEST SOUND INTENSITY OR
PRESSURE IS CONCENTRATED IN A SMALL
VOLUME AROUND THE BEAM AXIS.

DEFECT LOCATION IN FUSION WELDS

S

600

S = STAND OFF DISTANCE FROM ANY CONVENIENT DATUM

POINT (IN THIS CASE THE WELD CENTRELINE)
R=

RANGE READ FROM THE FLAWDETECTOR SCREEN

DEFECT LOCATION IN FUSION WELDS

TO ACCURATELY LOCATE DEFECTS IN A BUTT WELD
THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA MUST BE MET:
1.

THE PROBE EXIT POINT MUST BE ACCURATELY KNOWN.

2.

THE BEAM ANGLE MUST BE ACCURATELY KNOWN.

3.

THE WELD CENTRELINE MUST BE ACCURATELY KNOWN.

4.

THE MATERIAL THICKNESS MUST BE ACCURATELY

KNOWN.

5.

THE FLAWDETECTOR MUST BE ACCURATELY

CALIBRATED.

DEFECT SIZING TECHNIQUES

1.

6 dB DROP TECHNIQUE (SOMETIMES

CALLED HALF AMPLITUDE OR BEAM
SPLITTING TECHNIQUE).

2.

20 dB DROP TECHNIQUE (SOMETIMES

CALLED BEAM BOUNDARY TECHNIQUE).

3.

MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE TECHNIQUE.

6 dB DROP
1.

THE DIMENSION OF THE REFLECTOR WHICH

IS BEING MEASURED MUST EXCEED THE
BEAM WIDTH.

2.

THE ULTRASONIC BEAM MUST BE

SYMMETRICAL IN THE DIRECTION OF PROBE
MOVEMENT.

3.

WORKS BEST ON UNIFORM REFLECTORS

WITH RELATIVELY STRAIGHT EDGES

Sizing Methods
6 dB Drop
For sizing large planar reflectors only
Signal / echo reduced to half the height
Example:
100% to 50%
80% to 40%
70% to 35%
20% to 10%

Centre of probe marked representing the edge

of defect.

6 dB DROP
LENGTH

6 dB Drop
Defect

BWE

The back wall echo reduced as some part

of the beam now striking the defect

Plan View

The echo of the defect has NOT yet

maximise as the whole beam Not yet
striking the defect

6 dB Drop
Defect

Now the whole beam is on the defect

Back wall echo is now may be
reduced or disappeared

Plan View

6 dB Drop
Defect

BWE

The probe is moved back until the echo

is reduced by half of its original height
At this point the probe centre beam is
directly on the edge of the defect
Plan View

The probe is then removed and the

centre is marked, and repeat to size the
whole defect

Equalization Technique
The equalization technique can ONLY be used
BWE
Defect
if the defect is halfway the thickness

At this point the whole beam is on

the back wall
At this point the whole beam is
on the defect
At the edge of the defect, half of
the beam is on the defect, and
another half is on the back wall

The BWE is at it maximum

The Defect echo is at it
maximum
The defect echo is at equal
height as the back wall
The point is marked as the edge of defect

20 dB DROP
1.

THE DIMENSION OF THE REFLECTOR

WHICH IS BEING MEASURED MAY BE
EITHER LARGER OR SMALLER THAN THE
BEAM WIDTH.

2.

THE ULTRASONIC BEAM NEED NOT BE

SYMMETRICAL IN THE DIRECTION OF
PROBE MOVEMENT.

3.

THE BEAM SPREAD PARALLEL TO THE

DIRECTION OF PROBE MOVEMENT MUST BE
KNOWN.

4.

WORKS BEST ON UNIFORM REFLECTORS

WITH RELATIVELY STRAIGHT EDGES.

20 dB DROP

LENGTH

20 dB Drop
20 dB Beam profile

Defect

BWE

10%

When the main beam is on the defect the defect signal is at it maximum
If the probe is moved and the signal is observed until it is reduced to
10% (20dB Drop), the edge of the beam is on the edge of the defect
Repeat the above at the other side of the defect
Using the pre-constructed Beam profile and a plotting card, the
defect maybe sized

MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE
1.

THE MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE TECHNIQUE IS AN

EXTENSION OF THE TECHNIQUE USED IN UT FOR
DEFECT LOCATION.

2.

IT WORKS ON THE PREMISE THAT A MAXIMISED

RESPONSE COULD ONLY COME FROM A POINT ON A
REFLECTOR WHICH IS ON THE SOUND BEAM AXIS.

4.

VOLUMETRIC REFLECTORS CAN BE SIZED VERY

ACCURATELY IF THEY CAN BE APPROACHED FROM
A VARIETY OF ANGLES.

3.

PLANAR REFLECTORS CAN OFTEN BE SIZED USING THIS

TECHNIQUE DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF TIP MAXIMA.

MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE
1.

THE DIMENSION OF THE REFLECTOR

WHICH IS BEING MEASURED MAY BE
EITHER LARGER OR SMALLER THAN
THE BEAM WIDTH.

2.

WILL WORK WITH ALMOST ANY

REFLECTOR.

Sizing Method
Maximum Amplitude Technique
For sizing multifaceted defect eg. crack
Not very accurate
Small probe movement

Maximum Amplitude

Multifaceted defect : crack

The whole probe beam is on the on the

defect
At this point, multipoint of the defect
reflect the sound to the probe
The echo (signal) show as a few peaks

Maximum Amplitude

Multifaceted defect : crack

The probe is moved out of the
defect, the signal disappeared
If the edge of the beam strike
the edge of the defect, a very
small echo appears

If the probe is moved into the defect,

the signals height increase
One of the peak maximised
At this point the MAIN BEAM is
directly at the edge of the
defect

Maximum Amplitude
Remember: The peak which maximised does
not have to be the tallest or the first one
Length

The probe is to be moved to the other

end of the defect
The signals will flactuate as the beam hits
the different faces of the defects
The probe is moved back into the defect
and to observe a peak of the signal
maximises

Mark the point under

the centre of the probe
which indicates the
edge of the defect
The length of the defect is
measured

MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE

MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE
LACK OF
FUSION

700

700

AMPLITUDE

TIP MAXIMA

ECHO DYNAMIC PATTERN

RANGE

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

PRIMARY OBJECTIVES:
1.

TO SCAN ALL FUSION FACES AT AN ANGLE

OF INCIDENCE = 00 +/- 200 (00 +/- 100 FOR
CRITICAL EXAMINATIONS).

2.

TO SCAN THE ENTIRE WELD VOLUME

INCLUDING THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE WITH
A MINIMUM OF TWO PROBE ANGLES.

3.

TO SCAN FOR POSSIBLE TRANSVERSE

IMPERFECTIONS

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

20

600

SINGLE SIDED BUTT WELD

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

450

THE 450 PROBE CAN NOT BE USED TO SCAN THE WELD ROOT
AT HALF SKIP, THEREFORE THE 700 PROBE MUST BE USED:
57

57

700

700
58

58

FIXED STAND-OFF SCAN OF WELD ROOT USING THE 700 PROBE

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

700 SCAN OF WELD VOLUME

120

120
23

700

700

23

700

COVERED AT
FULL SKIP
COVERED AT
HALF SKIP

COVERED AT HALF
& FULL SKIP

700

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

600 SCAN OF WELD VOLUME AND FUSION ZONES
80

80
23

600

23

600

600

COVERED AT
FULL SKIP
COVERED AT FULL
& HALF SKIP
COVERED AT
HALF SKIP

600

SCANNING FOR TRANSVERSE IMPERFECTIONS

PR

OB

B
RO

O
PR

PR

SCAN

BE

OB

RECOGNITION OF DEFECT TYPE

DEFECT TYPES SUCH AS CRACK, LACK OF FUSION, SLAG
INCLUSION etc WHICH ARE DETECTED BY UT CAN OFTEN BE
RECOGNISED AS SUCH BY:
1. OBSERVATION OF THE SHAPE OF THE ECHO RESPONSE
AND ITS BEHAVIOUR WHEN THE PROBE IS MOVED IN
VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.
2. OBSERVING THE SIZE OF THE ECHO RESPONSE.
3. OBSERVING THE POSITION OF THE REFLECTOR.
4. MEASURING THE SIZE OF THE REFLECTOR.
5. TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION THE TYPES OF DEFECT
WHICH ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE PRESENT.

THREADLIKE DEFECTS, POINT DEFECTS AND FLAT

PLANAR DEFECTS ORIENTATED NEAR-NORMAL TO
THE BEAM AXIS ALL PRODUCE AN ECHO RESPONSE
WHICH HAS A SINGLE PEAK:

THE ECHO RESPONSE FROM A LARGE SLAG

INCLUSION OR A ROUGH CRACK IS LIKELY TO HAVE
MULTIPLE PEAKS:

IN CASE A IT WILL BE DIFFICULT TO DETERMINE

WHETHER THE DEFECT IS SLAG OR A CRACK.
ROTATIONAL OR ORBITAL PROBE MOVEMENTS
MAY HELP:

ORBITAL

ROTATIONAL

TYPICAL ECHO DYNAMIC PATTERNS

CRACK
ORBITAL
SCAN

ROTATIONAL
SCAN

SLAG

Ultrasonic Testing
Sensitivity
Defect sizing
Scanning procedures

Sensitivity
The ability of an ultrasonic system to
find the smallest specified defect at the
maximum testing range
Depends upon
Probe and flaw detector combination
Material properties
Probe frequency
Signal to noise ratio

Methods of Setting Sensitivity

Smallest defect at maximum test range

Back wall echo
Disc equivalent
Grass levels
Notches
Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves

Artificial / actual defect

Example: The defect echo is set

to FSH (Full Screen Height)

Ultrasonic Inspection
Part 3

Ultrasonic Inspection
Sensitivity
Scanning procedure
Defect sizing

Sensitivity
The ability of an ultrasonic system to
find the smallest specified defect at the
maximum testing range
Depends upon:
Probe and flaw detector combination
Material properties
Probe frequency
Signal to noise ratio

Methods of Setting Sensitivity

Smallest defect at maximum test range

Back wall echo
Disc (flat-bottom hole) equivalent
Grass levels
Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves

Scanning procedure (welds)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Parent material
Root inspection
Fusion face & HAZ inspection
Weld volume
Transverse scan

ULTRASONIC SENSITIVITY
THE SOUND PRESSURE AND INTENSITY ALONG THE
AXIS OF AN ULTRASONIC BEAM VARY WITH RANGE:
THEREFORE THE ECHO HEIGHT FROM AN IDENTICAL
REFLECTOR WILL VARY WITH RANGE.
VARIOUS METHODS ARE USED IN ULTRASONIC
TESTING IN ORDER TO COMPENSATE FOR THIS
VARIATION IN ECHO HEIGHT.
THESE METHODS ARE REFERRED TO AS SETTING
SENSITIVITY OR DISTANCE AMPLITUDE
CORRECTION.

DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION

VARIOUS STANDARD REFLECTORS ARE USED IN ULTRASONIC
TESTING IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE DISTANCE AMPLITUDE
CORRECTION. THESE COULD BE:
1.

BACKWALL REFLECTIONS

2.

GRAIN RESPONSE (GRASS)

3.

SIDE DRILLED HOLES

4.

FLAT BOTTOMED HOLES

5.

SURFACE NOTCHES

6.

DISTANCE GAIN SIZE (THEORETICAL METHOD)

DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION

NATIONAL CODES AND
STANDARDS SUCH AS BS EN 5832, ASME V OR AWS D1.1 SPECIFY
STANDARD METHODS OF
ACHIEVING DISTANCE AMPLITUDE
CORRECTION.

FOR CONSTRUCTING DAC, A BLOCK CONTAINING 3

mm DIAMETER SIDE DRILLED HOLES:

3 mm Through drilled holes

DAC

BS EN 583-2
The DAC reference block shall be either:
1) a general purpose block of uniform low
attenuation and specified surface finish, and
having a thickness within 10% of the test object;
Or
2) a block of the same acoustic properties,
surface finish, shape and curvature as the test
object.

TRANSFER LOSSES
AS ULTRASOUND PASSES FROM THE PROBE INTO THE
MATERIAL THERE IS ALWAYS A LOSS OF ENERGY.
THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY LOST FOR THE SAME
MATERIAL WILL BE LESS IF THE SURFACE IS
PERFECTLY SMOOTH AND FLAT AND MORE IF IT IS
NOT.
UT OF WELDS IS OFTEN CARRIED OUT FROM AS
ROLLED, CURVED OR CORRODED SURFACES.
IF THE SURFACE OF THE CALIBRATION BLOCK
DIFFERS FROM THAT OF THE COMPONENT THEN THE
DIFFERENCE IN TRANSFER EFFICIENCY HAS TO BE
COMPENSATED FOR.

ATTENUATION
AS ULTRASOUND PASSES THROUGH ANY MATERIAL
ENERGY WILL BE LOST DUE TO SCATTERING AND
ABSORPTION OF THE SOUND ENERGY. THIS LOSS OF
ENERGY IS TERMED ATTENUATION.
IN THE ULTRASONIC TESTING OF TYPICAL
ENGINEERING ALLOYS THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF
ATTENUATION IS SCATTERING.
WHEN THE GRAIN SIZE OF A MATERIAL EXCEEDS
HALF OF THE WAVELENGTH OF THE SOUND HIGH
ATTENUATION WILL ALWAYS BE EXPERIENCED.

ATTENUATION
THE GRAIN SIZE IN ANY GIVEN METAL
COMPONENT DEPENDS ON:
1.

THE METHOD OF PRODUCTION

(CAST/FORGED /ROLLED etc)

2.

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

3.

HEAT TREATMENT

Transfer &
Attenuation
loss
METHODS OF COMPENSATING FOR TRANSFER AND
ATTENUATION LOSS DIFFERENCES FOR 00
COMPRESSION PROBES AND FOR SHEAR WAVE
PROBES. THESE ARE BASED ON OBTAINING SIMILAR
ECHO RESPONSES ON BOTH THE CALIBRATION
BLOCK AND ON THE COMPONENT.

FOR 00 PROBES BACKWALL ECHOES ARE USED TO

ESTABLISH TRANSFER AND ATTENUATION
CORRECTION.
FOR SHEAR WAVE PROBES TWO IDENTICAL PROBES
ARE USED IN PITCH - CATCH IN ORDER TO OBTAIN
WHAT ARE EFFECTIVELY BACKWALL ECHOES
EITHER METHOD CANNOT BE USED IF THE
COMPONENT DOES NOT HAVE A CONVENIENT
PARALLEL SECTION.

TRANSFER & ATTENUATION

CORRECTION: 00 PROBES

24 dB

30 dB

36 dB

EXAMPLE:
ECHOES
OBTAINED ON
40 mm THICK
CALIBRATION
BLOCK

40 mm

80 mm

160 mm

TRANSFER & ATTENUATION

CORRECTION: 00 PROBES

26 dB

32 dB

38 dB

EXAMPLE:
ECHOES
OBTAINED ON
30 mm THICK
COMPONENT

30 mm

60 mm

120 mm

TRANSFER & ATTENUATION

CORRECTION: 00 PROBES
BLOCK

TRANSFER CORRECTION
APPROXIMATELY 4 dB AT
ALL RANGES

EXAMPLE:

30

40

IF THE RESULTS ARE

PLOTTED ON LOG LINEAR PAPER THEY
WILL FORM
STRAIGHT PARLLEL
LINES PROVIDED
THAT THERE IS NO
ATTENUATION
DIFFERENCE

20

DECIBELS

50

COMPONENT

10

100

RANGE / mm

1000

IF AN ATTENUATION
DIFFERENCE
OCCURS THEN THE
RESULTANT LINES
WILL NO LONGER BE
PARALLEL.

TRANSFER & ATTENUATION CORRECTION:

SHEAR WAVE PROBES
THE PRINCIPLE FOR OBTAINING TRANSFER
CORRECTION FOR SHEAR WAVE PROBES IS THE SAME
AS IT WAS FOR COMPRESSION PROBES EXCEPT THAT
BACKWALL ECHOES ARE REPLACED BY PITCH - CATCH
RESPONSES.
TRANSMIT

450

ONE SKIP

RECEIVE

450

TRANSMIT

RECEIVE

450

450

TWO SKIPS

ASME V CALIBRATION BLOCK

BLOCK MATERIAL: CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION, PRODUCT FORM
AND HEAT TREATMENT TO EXACTLY
REPLICATE THAT OF THE
COMPONENT.

SURFACE NOTCHES
PROVIDED TO ASSIST
WITH THE
INTERPRETATION OF
SURFACE BREAKING
INDICATIONS

BLOCK SURFACE FINISH AND

CURVATURE TO REPLICATE
THAT OF THE COMPONENT

SIDE DRILLED HOLE

DIAMETER VARIES WITH
THE BLOCK THICKNESS

ASME V DOES NOT ALLOW

TRANSFER CORRECTION.

AVG (DGS) SYSTEM

THE DISTANCE GAIN SIZE SYSTEM WAS
DEVELOPED IN GERMANY BY KRAUTKRAMER.
IT IS A THEORETICALLY BASED SYSTEM FOR
SETTING ULTRASONIC SENSITIVITY AND
DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION.
IT IS HIGHLY VERSATILE AND CAN BE VERY
CONVENIENT TO USE, PROVIDED THAT THE
ULTRASONIC OPERATOR IS SUFFICIENTLY
WELL TRAINED.

DGS CHART FOR A 10 mm DIA. 2 MHz 00

COMPRESSION PROBE
Range / mm
50

100

150

200
0

30
40
50
60

60

2 mm

50

3 mm

1.5 mm
70

70

50

100
Range / mm

150

200

80

80

dB

4 mm

dB

40

6 mm

30

8 mm

20

20

10

10
BWE

DGS
THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF DGS IS THAT BY
COMPARING THE ECHO HEIGHT FROM A FLAW WITH
THE ECHO HEIGHT FROM A KNOWN REFLECTOR
(USUALLY A BACKWALL ECHO) AT THE SAME RANGE
THE FLAW CAN BE CATEGORISED AS BEING
EQUIVALENT TO A FLAT BOTTOMED HOLE REFLECTOR
OF A GIVEN SIZE AT THE SAME RANGE.
ALTHOUGH, WHEN USING DGS, IT IS USUAL TO TALK
ABOUT A FLAW AS BEING AN X mm FLAT
BOTTOMED HOLE EQUIVALENT THIS IS NOT A DIRECT
MEASURE OF THE SIZE OF THE FLAW.

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
TIMEBASE LINEARITY

2.0

4.0

6.0

ACCEPTABLE

8.0 10.0

2.0 3.7

5.85 7.9

NOT ACCEPTABLE

10.0

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
AMPLIFIER LINEARITY
INDICATION SET
AT (%FSH)

dB CONTROL
CHANGE (dB)

ACCEPTABLE
LIMITS FOR
RESULTANT ECHO
HEIGHT
(BS 3923)

ACCEPTABLE
LIMITS FOR
RESULTANT ECHO
HEIGHT
(ASME V)

80%

-6 dB

36-45%

32-48%

80%

-12 dB

18-22%

16-24%

80%

-24 dB

visible

N/A

40%

+6 dB

71-90%

64-96%

20%

+12 dB

71-90%

64-96%

(+/- 1 dB)

(+/- 2 dB)

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO

+14 dB
NOISE
SIGNAL

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO = 5:1 = 14 dB

RESOLUTION
BS 2704 A7 BLOCK:
2, 3, 4 & (5) mm Steps

1.5 mm
holes @
4 mm
centres

mm
1.5 s @
le
ho mm
2.5 tres
cen

BS 2704 A5 BLOCK

BS 2704 A2 BLOCK
100, 85 & 91 mm Dimensions

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
RESOLUTION

RESOLUTION HOLES IN A5 BLOCK

WITH 10 mm 450 4 MHz PROBE

RESOLUTION HOLES IN A5 BLOCK

WITH 10 mm 450 2 MHz PROBE

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
DEAD ZONE

1.5 mm Through drilled

holes at depths of 1, 2, 3, 5,
10, 15 & 20 mm below the
surface.

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
DEAD ZONE

DETERMINE THE DEAD ZONE BY

FINDING THE HOLE ECHO WHICH
IS EASILY IDENTIFIABLE FROM
THE PROBE NOISE AT THE
SHORTEST RANGE

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
EXIT POINT
450

USING THE A2 BLOCK

EXIT POINT
450

S
D

450

USING THE A5 BLOCK

(MORE ACCURATE METHOD)

EQUIPMENT CHECKS
BEAM ANGLE
700

600

350

450

600

450
QUICK CHECK: USE THE SCALES
PROVIDED ON THE A2 BLOCK.

BEAM ANGLE
450

S
D

450

USING THE A5 BLOCK (MORE ACCURATE METHOD)

NOTE: The probe exit point can be marked either
before or during this operation.

20 dB BEAM PROFILE
(VERTICAL PLANE)

450

S
D

450450 450

USING THE A5 BLOCK

NOTE: The probe exit point can be marked either
before or during this operation.

20 dB BEAM PROFILE
(HORIZONTAL PLANE)

X Y

USE THE CORNER REFLECTION

FROM THE 1.5 mm HOLE.

LINES OF SYMMETRY IN VARIOUS ULTRASONIC

BEAMS

0 Single Compression

0 Twin Compression

FULLY
SYMMETRICAL

TWO LINES OF
SYMMETRY
Single Shear

Twin Shear

SINGLE LINE
OF SYMMETRY

0-6 dB

6-12 dB

12-20 dB

SOUND PRESSURE IN THE FAR ZONE

-16

-12

dB

-12
-2

-1

25 dia.

-24

4 MHz

10 dia.

-20

-16
-20

2 MHz

-24

dB

-8

-8

-4

-4

(IN A SECTION THROUGH THE BEAM)

CRYSTAL DIAMETERS

-2

-1

CRYSTAL DIAMETERS

DEFECT LOCATION
IN FUSION WELDS

450
S
S = STAND OFF DISTANCE FROM ANY CONVENIENT DATUM
POINT
R=

RANGE READ FROM THE FLAWDETECTOR SCREEN

ULTRASONIC
EXAMINATION OF
WELDS
40

450

BACK
GOUGE

DOUBLE SIDED T JOINT

40

450

ULTRASONIC
EXAMINATION OF
WELDS

COVERAGE
OF FUSION
FACES

COVERAGE
OF WELD
VOLUME

100
(approx.)

00

00

ULTRASONIC
EXAMINATION OF
WELDS

COVERAGE
OF FUSION
FACES

450

450

450

450

COVERAGE
OF WELD
VOLUME

SCANNING FOR TRANSVERSE IMPERFECTIONS

45

SCANNING FOR TRANSVERSE IMPERFECTIONS

THESE DEFECTS CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED BETWEEN

BY OBSERVING THE ECHO DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR IN
LENGTH AND DEPTH SCANS:
POINT

THREADLIKE

PLANAR
(NEAR NORMAL INCIDENCE)

DEPTH
SCAN

LENGTH
SCAN

NOTE: THE RESPONSE FROM A PLANAR DEFECT WILL BE STRONGLY AFFECTED

BY PROBE ANGLE WHILE THAT FROM A THREADLIKE REFLECTOR WILL
REMAIN ALMOST UNCHANGED IF A DIFFERENT PROBE ANGLE IS USED.

SOMETIMES IT WILL BE POSSIBLE TO DIFFERENTIATE

BETWEEN THESE 2 DEFECTS SIMPLY BY PLOTTING
THEIR POSITION WITHIN THE WELD ZONE:

A. PROBABLE SLAG, POSSIBLE

CENTRELINE CRACK

B. PROBABLE HAZ CRACK