Over three centuries of scholarly publishing He Brill Online Reference Works BRILL Home > ReligioisSiudlits > Religion Past and Present > Conversion Conversion (6.780 words) Conversion Article Table Of Contents I. History of Religions II. Greco-Roman Antiquity ~I1I, Bible -IV. Church History —V. ‘Systematic Theology ~ VI. Practical Theology — VII. Missiology - VIII. Judaism ~1X. Islam L History of Religions Roman An I. History of Religions ry of Religic mt “Comverson” denotes the religiously interpreted proces of otal reorientation in which ndvidualsor JV. Chareh History sroupereinterpret ther past ives, tur theirbacks on then and reeablih andreshape theiruture lives ina new network of oil relationships. The phenomenon wasintlly treated historically (eesti rlgionsand Early Church history, missionary history)late, primary inthe context of -VL-Exattcl Theclogy ‘American an Bish sociology ofrelign, twas examined in more depth. The pioneering work was YL. asiology done by Lflan and hisclleagues. Since the work of James, a total reorientation toward realy, ‘usually called “transformation” in the technical literature, has been considered the central mark of Sane eam conversion Confessional narratives and conversion sloriesbesrng witness tothe entrpretationof ‘TX.Lalam, the narrator's life are understood as biographical reconstructions (Biography). They deseribe the unsatisfactory life before conversion as empty and unhappy, life ater conversion as mesningful and hhappy. The reorientation of an entire if involves commitment tothe religious eommonity that made conversion possible or even served as its vehicle, matched by an enactment of membership inthe community in word and deed. Despite the importance converts often ascribe o an acute crisis ora single event, conversion shouldbe thought of not as a sudden and abrupt change but as process taking place in a specific milieu that triggers the experience of crisis and influences the active search fora new orientation. Future scholarship must gather and analyze conversion narratives from ll religions, with their own characteristic models of conversion, and engage in {greater interdiscipliary cooperation. Otto Bischotberger Bibliography 1W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, 1902 NN. Levtzion, ed, Camversiono stam, 1979 J.Loflend &N, Skonovd, “Conversion Motifs," SSR 20, 1981, 373-385 ‘T-Lackmann, “Kanon und Konversion," in: A. & J. Assmann, eds,, Kanon und Zensur, Beitrige cur Archdologie der literarischen Kommunikation, 1, 1987, 38-46 HIN, Malony & 8. Southard, eds,, Handbook of Religious Conversion, 1992 LR. Rambo, Understanding Religious Comerson, 1990. II. Greco-Roman Antiquity Conversion asa radical, deliberate, and often sudden change of religious orientation and association with particular cults was nota eonstant or ‘common pattern of religious experience, socialization, or expression in the ancient world, This holds true also forthe related phenomens of 1nission, call, and revival, as wells for the mysteries, even if based on ideas of innocence and redemption (Orphism). Someone seeking init into the mysteries of Dionysus did not have to forswear Athena, Someone wishing to cultivate a special relationship with a particular deity on account of personal deliverance, a sign, or an epiphany would establish a private cult without disavowing other gods, On the other hand, life-cycletransitions and changes in social status were often experienced and expressed as profound transformations, at times through the medium of religion. Roman citizenship didnot depend on a change of religion. Before a free and independent man cauld be adopted int a different elan (adrogatio) and on the occasion ofa particularly solemn marriage confarreatie), those involved had to renounce their own cults (abdcare; alienatio or detestatio sacrorum) (Rites of passage), ‘The lexical field of “conversion, acceptance, abjuration”is rich, but has to do primarily with pilosophicel and moral “conversion” and exceptional religious phenomena, The NT word for (religions) conversion, émorpipea0a, érwaxpogt/epistréphesthai, epistrophé" (Acts 15:9)is used in non- Christian texts for tuning to philosophy or the movement ofthe philsophers soul toward the deity. Conversion to philosophy or from one philosophical school to another is called “relearning, reeducation, moving on, crossing over, transferring” sin elevated literature itis represented by ‘wealth of images: enlightenment, awakening from sleep, healing, emancipation from slavery. The religions of Greece and Rome spread throughout ‘the Mediterranean world by diffusion, not through missionary appeal. The Greeks and Romans turn officially incorporated new alien cats or at least in prineple didnot interfere with their private practice. Normally thre were no conversions. Tecitus's description of the “improvement” of the Jews by Antiochus IV is typical (Hist. V 8.2): the Seleucid ruler wanted to free the Jers rom superstition (superstitio) nd give them Greek civilization (mores)~ but not religion. But, says the sme historian (Hist. V .18), those who "came over to thei religion” (transgress in morem) sbjare their national beliefs (religionibus paris) ~ clear evidence of Zthe attraction ofthe Jewish religion and the defensive attitude of an aristocratic Roman, who in his excursus on the Jews (Hist. V) created the prototype of classical anti-semitism. Accounts of religious conversion are few and their seriousness is disputed. A lightning bolt convinees Horace to sail back and honor the gods more liberally (Carm. 1.34; ef. erm. 2.3) Aevout Greek vinedreser uses miracles to teach a skeptical Phoenician to believe inthe hero Potesalus (Philostrats, Heroieu).The peripeteia in Apuiius’s Golden Ass (written 160/170 8) is a conversion to Iss, Hubert Canele Bibliography AD, Nock, Conversion: th Ol and the New in Religion from Alexander to Augustine, 699, rept. 1972 J. Moles, “The Career and Conversion of Dio Chrysostom,” JHS 98, 1978, 79-100 H.D. Betz, “Heroenverehrung und Christusglaube," in: H. Cancik, H. Lichtenberger & P. Schifer, eds., Geschichte, Tailition, Reflexion. FSM. Hengel, vol, 1996, 119-199 1H. Cencik, “Lucian on Conversion," in: A.Y. Collins ed, Ancient and Modern Perspectives on the Bible and Culture, FS H.D. Betz, 1998, 26-48. Il. Bible 1. Old Testament ‘The OT has no technical term that would clearly distinguish conversion from comparable concepts such as repentance, obedience, or remorse. The ‘most commonly used word isthe verb a14/0b, averb of motion with abroad spectrum of meanings in secular usage; in theological contexts, it ean ‘mean both “return to” (Deut 30:2; Hos 14:2f (Eng. 14:16) and “turn away from” Yahweh (Josh 22:16; Jer 9:19).'The corresponding nouns are returning (Isa 30:15 and turning away (Hos 11:7; Jer 3:6, 8,11). The noun ngwnSibah, which means “conversion” in postbiblicl Hebrew, appears only in secular contexts in biblical Hebrew. ‘There are, however, two different contexts in the OT that speak of conversion in that narrower sense. The first isthe command addressed to Israel to return or turn back to Yahweh This context presupposes an exclusive relationship with God, so that Israel's turning away from Yahweh is understood as asin agalnst the fist commandment, The call to return s presented as a genuinely prophetic there, Only with certain restrictions, however, can this retrospective estimate (2 Kgs 17:13; Jer 25:4f 2 Chr 24:19; but ef. Lam 2:14) be supported within the prophetic tradition itself. It istrue thatthe theme of repentance and return originated in 8th-century prophecy, above all in the preaching of Hosea. But this theme does not appear initially in prophetic admonitions; it serves exclusively to display the guilt of Israel and thus justify God's inexorable judgment (Hos 5:4; ‘Amos 4:6—11; 18a 9:12; 31:1). Preexiie prophecy of judgment is unanimous in believing that lerael has equandered the chanee to return (Hos 7:14~ 16;11:7; Amos 8:2). The vision of judgment, found from Hosea and Amos on, extends to Jeremiah, where it culminates (ef. the stipulation in Deut 24:14) n the image ofa divorced woman who has become another man's wife and eannot return to her first husband (Jer 9:1). From this perspective, return appears possible only after judgment has been carried out (ef. Hos 2:15~17 (Eng. 2:19~15]; Isa 1:21~26). This the view lived on inthe traditions ofthe exilic and postexilie period (Deut 4:30; 1 Kgs 8:gaft), including the addenda to the prophetic material (Hos 3:5). After the experience of catastrophe, however, there emerged from the admonition to return a choice between salvation and disaster (Deut 30:1ff.;Jer 4:1— 4). The return ofthe people af Yahweh can then also be sealed with renewal of the covenant (Josh 24:21~28;2 Kgs13:173 23:13). With the realization that every generation must bear responsibility for its own fae (Ezek 18), there appeared the notion that all lerael might not be converted but only a “remnant” (Isa 10:20~23; Ezek 33:10ff;Zeph 3:12; Zech 8:1ff. The notion of an individuals repentance and return appears in the Psalter (Pss 32; 51; 180; 14). Taken asa group, these very different ideas all reflect the convietion tht Yahweh himself must bring about the conditions for Israels return (er gr-gaff Baek 11:19f, 36:26). Even where penitent return is equated with keeping God's commandments, only partly is ita prerequisite for salvation (ef. Deut 4:29 30:6). Inthe OT, the call to turn to Yahweh is generally limited to Tstael and s therefore only rarely linked with a "missionary" purpose. Nevertheless we also find inthe OT the notion of turning to Yahweh as conversion from other gods, The regulations governing observance ofthe Sahbath (Exod 20:10; par. Deut 5:14), for example, and well as Passover (Exod 12:19) and ircumeision (Gen 17:12), astme that aliens living within the ambit ofIsraelite society will participate inthe cult and be subject tothe same cultic norms as Isreelites, This assumption appears to presuppose an act of conversion, even though none is mentioned explicitly. The same is true in the story of Ruth (ef. Ruth 1:16f£). The narratives connected with the Aramaean Naaman (2 Kgs 5) refer explicitly to conversion. The notion that entire nations might convert to Yahweh is closely associated with the Zion tradition in late OT tests (Isa 2:24; 45:18-25; 6o:1ff; Zech 6:20~29; 9:66; 14:16~21; Ps 22:28 (Eng, 22:27)). According to Isa 19:22, the conversion of Egypt ~ asin the prophetie conception of Israel's return ~is associated with a preceding judgment carried out by Yahweh, The book ‘of Jonah speaks of both conversion and return. The conversion of th sailors ftom their gods to Vahweh is occasioned by the cosmic ascendancy of ‘the God of Israel Gonah 1:14); Yahweh's omnipatence is demonstrated when the prophet's presching of judgment to Nineveh induces the citizens to tum from ther evil ways (3:8, 10). Eenst-Joachim Waschke Bibliography EK Dietrich, Die Umohr im Alten Testament und Judentum, 1936 4J.deremias, “Zar Eschatologie des Hoseabuchs (1981)," in dem, Hosea und Amos, FAT 13, 1996, 67-85 A. Graupner & H.-J. Fabry, atta, TAWAT VIL, 1993, 1218-1175) (D1) K. Zobel, Prophetie nd Deuteronamium, BZAW 199, 1992. 2. New Testament ‘The NT documents use the noun émotpoy}/epistrophé” (found only in Acts 15:9) and the verb éxarpéipas/epistréphd, "be converted” (36 ‘occurrences, 18 of which ae theological). [n he LXX, conversion ischaracterized by reeiprocity (God and Istael turn to each other); in the NT itis conceived more anthropologically, In contrast to repentance, conversion means primarily the (returning ofa person to the God revealed in Jesus CChrist (Acts 11:21; 1 Pet 2:26). Conversion isthe result of faith and implies submission to a new lord. {tis nevertheless not a human work but, remains the work of God. It results in the forgiveness of sins, Secondary the same word can denote turning away from the tre faith and reversion toaperverted way offife (Gal 4:95 2 Pet 2:22). ‘The terminology of conversion does not occur inthe earliest dominical lia. The Synoptics borrowed the term from the LXX inthe quotation from {sa 6:9 that speaks of Israel's hardness of heart (Mark 4:12; Matt 13:15; Acts 28:27; ef. John 12:40). Lake 1:16 remains inthe malnstream of OT ‘though, thinking of conversion as the return of many of the Israelites to their God, Luke-Acts (esp. the later) devote particular attention to conversion. The missionary Kerygma invites both Jews (Acts 319, 26; 9:35) and ~ especially — Gentiles (11:21; 4:15; 15:3, 19; 6:18-20) to turn to the Lord. Conversion coincides with becoming a believer. The juxtaposition of Emiotpépa and jetavoti/metano6s (9:19; 26:20) shows that conversion expresses the element of turning o God, but itcannot be thought of apart froma fundamental transformation ofthe convert’ life (24215). In Acts the phenomenon of conversion is also given narrative form (8:26~40: the Ethiopian eunuch; o:22: Paul; 10:1~11, 18; Cornelis; ef also 2341-42; 4:4; 9:35, 42). The purpose of Acts is not to establish a sot model of conversion but to document the successful spread of the gospel ‘throughout the world (accomplishment of 3:8) Inthe Paulines, conversion is understood as turning tothe Christian faith. m1 Thess 1:9, Pal draws on a statement ofthe earliest Christin tradition that desribes conversion as turning from idols to the true God: in 2 Cor $16, a Cristian midrash on Exod 34:39~35, he emphasizes the epistemic character of conversion: only a person who has turned tothe Lord can understand Scripture correctly. Inthe few relevant first-person statements ofthe apostle (Phil 3:4b-11; Gal:14~16; 1 Cor 91-2; 15:8-10), Paul interprets his own conversion as aradical transformation of his understanding of God Crrighteousness from God!) and as all to be the apostle tothe Gentiles, He describes the conversion of the Gentiles using the terminology of justification (Rom 3:21~31), emancipation (Rom 6:17-18), God's eall (+ Cor 1:2), and redemption (i Cor 6:20), always ‘emphasizing the liberating, gracious initiative of Gd. {WJohn does not use the term conversion ina religious sense, but the radical transformation of existence brought about by turningto the living God ‘finds expression inthe theme of nev birth, which isthe work ofthe Spirit (John gaff). Also germane are the many utterances relating to the ‘transition from darkness to light (ohn 91. In.Ja 5:19~20, conversion appears inthe context of pareness: the addressees are exhorted to “convert” the sinner, ie. to bring the erring sinner back to the proper way of life, Jean Zumetein Bibliography J. Schniewind, Des bibische Wort von der Bekehring, 1948 P. Aubin, Le probléme dela ‘conversion’. Etude sur un terme commun dUhellénisme et au chrstianisme des trois premiers sieles, THHL1, 1963 'W. Barclay, Turning to God, 1963 BAR, Gaventa, rom Darkness to Light. Aspects of Conversion in the New Testament, 1986.IV. Church History 1. Early Church Conversion inthe sense of change of religion or confession on the bass of personal conviction (cf. Mision) wes unknown to Greco-Roman, Antiquity before the appearance of Christianity. Religion was an expression of membership in a femily, aclan, ora people; it meant cultivation of the group's approved way of lf, guaranteed by the gods, nd the resultingreligious duties (cult; thies), from which it was impossible to tum away. {In philosophy conversion was spoken of asa turn from darkness to light, as in Plato's parable ofthe cave (Polit.VII 5154-517A:, eprayoyh/periagég@ ef. éx1otpoop). But the Christian Platonist Justin was the first to goto amartyr’s death for his convictions. His, understanding of religion was rooted in the Jewish tradition, with its confession of the one God (Monothelsm), who brooks no other gods (Exod :20:2~-6) and, unlike the gods ofthe pagans, calls his rebellious people to repentance (aevdwvoa/meténo‘a), to the true worship of God. Inthe Hellenistic period, this faith attracted many (Proselytes; Gad-fearers), who later turned to Christianity, But confession of Jesus as the Christ ‘Messiai did not lead to separation from Judaism, As confession of the inearnate Logos of God, however, it separated Christians from Greco- ‘Roman religiosity and became the basis ofa new religion, into which one was not born but baptized by virtue of conversion. in baptism the change to the lordship of Christ and incorporation into the new people of God, comprising Jews and Gentiles, found visible expression, It was associated ‘with the transmission ofthe confession of Christ and a charge tothe beptized to live according to the new fit (as disciples of Christ) But baptism. alone does not guarantee perseverance in the tre faith and its corresponding way of life, It does not prevent apostasy. But there remains the possibilty of repentance, also which was also understood as conversio, and in monasticism found a speciel way of life (ef. Augustine). Not by chance were monastic vows sometimes thought of asa second baptism. Wolfgang A. Bienert Bibliography LAW, Hamack, Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhundert, 2vols., #1924 (1981) E Siegert, "Gottesfirchtige und Sympathisanten," 84, 1973, 109 ~ 164 H.Frohnes, etal, eds., KEMGI,1974 G. Bardy, La conversion au christianisme durant les premiers siéles, 1949. 2. Middle Ages and Modern Times a. Europe Angustine made conversio, the beginning of salvation, a fundamental concept ofthe doctrine of grace, using itto examine the relationship between God's effectual grace and the cooperation of the human will, as well as ofa mystical theology with Neo-Platonic overtones, Besides this theological aspect, the term also had a devotional aspect in the sense ofa conversion experience brought about by grate (the Pauline motif of subita conversio}, in which the essential focus of Christin fit lights up anew and presses tobe translated into life. Conversion could also be used ina missionary sense, It could take place in many contexts. Unbelievers” could be converted to Christianity, particularly inthe Christianization of Europe during the early Middle Ages, when decision for Christianity meant a decision for the moze powerful God, able to bestow help and victory, and included the cultural superiority and power to impose order on the Christian Empire. Opposing forced conversion, Aleuin required free decision tobe baptized as essential to the nature of Christianity. Conversion of Jews to Christianity took place voluntarily only in isolated, sensational cases (Herman of Sched, Peter Alfonsi). At the same time, ‘the poverty movement (Cathar, Waldenses, Spiritual Franciscans) confronted the medieval church with the problem of converting heretics in part because it rejected the hierarchical odo. Only afew groups organized around the Waldensian preachers Durand of Huesca and Bernardus Primus ‘voluntarily joined the Catholic Church atthe beginning ofthe 13th century. Within Christianity, conversion took the form of a decision to forsake the world and take seriously the radical demands of Christ and the Bible (Monasticism), Frome. 1100 onward, members ofthe nobility, merchants, and even edueated clerics converted to the vite apostotica, renouncing possessions and practicing ly discipleship as itinerant preachers, During the Reformation, finally, conversion led to explicit rejection ofthe ascetic life: justifying faith was to be lived in “daily coaversion” within the order of the secular world. The spiritual leadership of the Catholie Reformation, ‘onthe other hand, was marked by monastic conversion and the establishment of new orders (Teresa of Avia, Ignatius of Loyola). Within Pietism and among the Methodists, the unique moment of rebirth took on new significance as an experience of grave through which “dead! fith eame alive ‘and grace became effectuel inthe convert’ life. With increasing secularization, conversion became a {religious “awakening” from the sleep of sin and religious indifference. Finaly, as religious divisions hardened, there appeared conversion between Protestantism and Catholicism, originally stil thought of as conversion of hereties. People converted to Protestantism to turn from superstition and “idolatry,” to Catholicism to eseape from Protestant subjectivism and rationalist distortions of the faith. In the wake of Pietism and the Enlightenment, the convietion that doctrinal differences between the confessions were relevant to salvation lost its hold. Ute Mennecke-HausteinBibliography K. Aland, ber den Glaubenswechsel in dler Geschichte der Christenheit, 1961 1H. Grundmann, “Adelsbekehrungenen im Mittelalter, "in: idem, Ausgewdhite Aufeatze, vl. 1, 1976, 125-149 4. Schilling, Gewesene Ménche, 990 F Ridle & F. Niewohner, eds, Konversion im Mittelalterund in der Frihneuwzeit, 1998. b. Outside Europe During the Middle Ages, European efforts t conversion wore largely limited othe continent itself. Christan contacts with Muslims took the form of witness rather than direct proselytizing, The polities and cultural eonques of America was earvied out in partinthe name of conversion. The forms of coercion used by Spain inthe New World infact amounted o conversion without amissionary apostolate. They were a continuation ofthe Christian Spanish reconquest of the old Muslim Spanish kingdom in the previous century. Only when some ofthe conquerors were themselves converted were those converted by force shown model of Christian conversion. The classic example in which ll these elements come togethers the conversion of the Spanish land and slave owner, and later Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas In contrast to Spanish Christianization, English Christianization inthe New World was not an attempt to exercise sovereignty but more away to support the colonists inthe nev territories. ‘The Puritans viewed ther settlements onthe North Atlantic coast asthe embodiment of rebirth and conversion. The eystem of faith and lif rooted {nthe preaching ministry of J Wesley concentrated ona specific conversion experience, which included cognizance and commitment. Here, t00, succesful conversion of others was contingent upon one's own conversion. The encouragement of conversion dung the 19th and 20th centuries ‘complemented or was entangled with economic and eutural dominance, the “new imperialism," xo that advocacy of personal conversion to Christ ould simultaneously be a promotion of eultral submission tothe colonial power. Joseph F. Bymes Bibliography 6. Gutirrer, Las Casas: In Search ofthe Poorof Jesus Christ 1993 RW. Hefner ed, Conversion to Christianity, 99 V. Systematic Theology 1. Philosophy of religion Inthis discussion, conversion is understood asa transitive existential movement, in the sense of deliberate acceptance ofa new underSstanding of ‘oneself and the world, grounded ina coincidence of two complex experiences in arbitrary sequence: an experience of deficiency (onxiety, emptiness, dissatisfaction, guilt) and an experience disclosing a new reality that corzects the deficiency while promising liberation and fulfillment. Genuine conversion (in contrast to “mass baptisms" and forced or merely outward conversions) manifests itself as areal transformation of life not based on extrinsic motives (such as avoiding disadvantages or gaining material, socal, or political advantages), as aturning of one's back on previous attitudes and values and an embracing of new ones. It implies forsaking situations and relationships previously considered part of one's ‘own life and reliance on anew (higher, better, true) reality (or realities), which the convert seeks to reflect ina fundamentally transformed way of life. uch an elemental transformation of a purely ideological or philosophical orientation ean also be called conversion, but the religious dimension. with ts aspect of transcendence lends such events a depth they would not sttain otherwise. In conversion the “personel correspondence” (Bruner) ‘between God and the individual i perceived not as symmetrical but as grounded ina prevenient action of God. Regardless ofthe nature of the ‘conversion ~ whether it occurs as a sudden spectacular reorientation or asa gradual process, whether it arises from an experience of eriss and frustration or follows a search undertaken by a maturing individual ~, direct involvement on the part ofthe subject isnot ruled ont but isin fact ‘made possible and encouraged by encounter with God. Conversion culminates in enlightenment, which can be associated both with dismay at one’s own person and with “an exhilarating feeling of liberation, celf-confidence, and assurance of salvation” (Wagner). Always, therefore, it points Deyond itself. Manfred Marquardt Bibliography Brunner, Wahrheit als Bepegmung,1998,?1969 P. Tile, Systematic Theology, 1958-1966 E, Hirsch, Hauptfragen christlicher Religionsphilosophie, 1963Wagner, “Bekehrung Il und 1," 7REV, 1980, 459-480 (ib) 2. Dogmatics Inits transitive sense, the verb convert points to the working of the Holy Spirit (gratia praeveniens);in tsintransitive sense, it points to ‘acceptance of God's call by those who center on God with ll their being, all thelr thought, will, and action. As aterm designating nota temporal sequence (as in the oro salutis of Protestant orthodoxy) but a comples of distinct elements constituting God's single act of salvation, conversion is associated above all with the concepts of justification and regeneration; it denotes most profoundly the act of turning to the one true God, anact associated with cognizance of God's grace, which makes it possible; t can take place both as return to the God whom one has turned avy from and sa (first) tuming to the God who reveals himself. The salvation offered in {the invitation to turn and accept the sovereignty of God ean be recognized and experienced in faith as the git of communion with God justification) and renewal of life (regeneration) — without synergism, The divine activity that enables the human espouse is not deterministic but rather sets people within freedom in which "No" remains possible but the “Yes” of fat sthe only appropriate response to God's call. The relationship at work in conversion between the Christ who calls and those who turn to/him makes clear the “dialogical character ofthe perconal correspondence” (Brunner) characteristic ofthe Judeo-Christian understanding of faith; it makesit essonable to speak not ofa “state of conversion" that seems to guarantee salvation but ofthe “fruit of repentance” (Matt 3:8 par.) and “daily repentance” (Lather) as signs of personal communion with Christ. In conversion there takes place a turn froma self-consttution focused solely on one's own person (Sin) and from relationships, forms of conduct, and structures that are destructive and hostile to lif (sins) as well as @ ‘tur fo a receiving from God that enables loving and lfe-beneficial actions in Christian discipleship (along 8i Gye Evepyovutyn/ pists a agdpes «energowméné: Gal 56). ‘Manfred Marquardt Bibliography Wacker, Ondo sluts 1960 .Bronner, Dopmatik vol. T1960 ‘W. Klaiber, Rufund Antwort, 1990. VI. Practical Theology Borrowing from sociological concepts, we can identify the following characteristics of conversion as relevant to the field of practical theology: (a)a shift from one ~ not necessarily religious ~ schema for interpreting the self and the world to another worldview, ths time explicitly religious or functionally equivalent; () enlistment ina religious organization, movement, or group that represents the newly aequired schema; and (c)change of lifestyle to conform to the new worldview. These elements, however, cannot be placed ina clear hierarchy of sequence and dependence. One constitutive condition for conversions the breakdown ofthe old schema for interpreting oneself and the world, resulting from the general social situation (eg, acrsis of values ora sense of anomia brought about by the social structure) and/or a situation immanent in the convert’sovm life. ‘The newly accepted belie is secured in the narrative and discussion of the individual's own conversion through the association of selected biographical events with elements of the new worldview, so that they are set in a (new) framework and given meaning, Thus the identity ofthe ‘convert is brought into harmony with the expectations of his or her reference group or theofficial teaching ofthe corresponding organization. Recently the sociology of religion has discussed the question ~ also relevant to practical theology ~ whether the conversion event derives essentially froma single identifiable psychie experience or must involve discussion with ike-minded people, or Sat least takes final shape inthe context of such communieative assurance, Volkhard Krech Bibliography H. Knoblauch, V. Krech &M. Wohlrab-Sahr, eds.,Religidse Konversation. Systematische und fallorientierte Studien in soziologischer Perspektive, 1998. VII. Missiology ‘Conversion is a process that includes a personal decision, reached by the convert alone or as part ofa group, to give one’s life anew focus, essumed tobe more liberating and bring one closer to the truth. The process also includes a change inthe convert’ self-image and normally involvesjoining ‘anew community, which wll affect one's life at various levels ~ body, heart, mind, and soul ~ and leads to perceptible changes in behavior and religious practice. Should conversion inthe sense of membership ina new religious community be encouraged? Mahatma Gandhi sai to Christian missionaries: “Why {do you want to convert Hindus? If contact with you enables ther to lay aside untruth and everything evil and brings them aray of light ~is that not ‘enough? Isthat notin itself the reward? Or must you have a mechaniesl confession froma Hindu that he is now a Christian?” Gandhi wished that (Christian missionaries would enable Hindus to become better Hindus, Muslims better Muslims, and Christians better Christians. In general this isthe position of those witha pluralistic theology of religions. Is conversion essential for redemption? From this perspective, salvation depends on a personal acceptance of Jesus, One becomes a Ch through baptism, the sign of being born again. This exclusvist theology entails the conclusion that putatively valuable aspeets of another religion ‘cannot be salvific, because true revelation comes only in Jesus Christ and salvation only through his eros. Isthe growth of the church through conversion the core ofthe mission task? In this view, the outward and visible sign of Christ's presence isthe church, the hody of Christ Its within this context that the “church growth movement,” associated with the name of Donald MacGavran, arose ‘within the Christan missionary enterprise, Following the resolution passed by the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh (1910) and the eal to “evangelize the world," this movement sims at rovith ofthe church by converting as many people as possible. According to this school of thought, the goal is achieved through the “homogenous growth principle.” God works through human communities and cultures. People prefer to stay “with their own kind” and are more likely to be converted through “their own kind.” We should therefore encourage locel leadership, especially in evangelization, so that churches are best made up of particular groups tribes, or casts, Isthe quality of the church a more decisive influence in conversion than the nurnber ofits members? The Tehurch should be the body in which there is “neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free,” but “all are one in Christ.""The church that transcends cultural boundaries is part ofthe ‘gospel, as Paul knew well when he struggled to strike a balance between a Jewish Christian and a Gentile Christian charch, He was not concerned ‘ith the number of members but the character of the church. If we follow this principle, iis important to recognize thatthe faithful come together ‘out of various contexts to form a new type of community. This implies giving up anything suggestive of inherent superiority based on origin, culture, orrace. Is conversion essentially the decision of individuals or of families and groupe? The answer depends onthe socal and familial structure. It also ‘depends on the circumstances within which conversion takes plac. It can arse from an intense pertonal experience that cannot be shared by the ‘community and can even lead to alienation or exclusion from the family or community. Nevertheless, where decisions are usually made ‘communally, the leader ofthe family, the group the village, or the caste plays a key role. The decision to convert ean lso be made communally, ‘which does not make it any les alid and enduring than a decision reached individually In the first type of community. How are religion and eulture related in conversion story? This will determine what must be given up as irreconcilable with the new faith and what ‘canbe retained as part of culture, This can mean thatthe convert takes anew name, wears special clothing, uses certain symbol, takes part in certain community activities and special life-cycle events. At the wedding ofa relative, for example it ean be possible to participate in certain parts of the ceremony shaped by the rituals ofthe earlier religion while not participating in others. Probably each convert must decide individually; no ecision can be imposed. Is baptism and ecclesiastical conversion essential? Can aperson be “converted to Christ” and remain in is or her former religious community? Can ‘we allt “conversion,” for example, when someone remains within the Hind community while secretly beings believer or quite openly a dseiple ‘of Christ? Is it possible tobe a Hind Christian? Some have so argued in India, where there are a great many people who have not left their former ‘community to joina minority church. Others have taken the position that they have to separate from thelr former community and, if eed be, face persecution, for discipleship and true conversion propare the convert to take up the cross and follow Christ. These differences have provoked a large debate about the nature of baptism and the church, ‘What are the causes of conversion? There are causes in religous, social, and psychological areas. There are also both push and pull factors, In ‘many eases, for example, the person of Christ exerts an attractive force, as does the church community through the interest and love shown by a pastor or lay person, or the quality of the preaching. Push factors may include the psychological disposition to make a new beginning. One push factor inthe social realm is leaving the familial context to study or seek new work ~in other words, breaking ties with one’s accustomed surroundings. In these areas, however, there are also impediments ~ the strong family ties that restrain the potential convert, the sense of betrayal ‘when someone breaks with a previous religion, dislike of identfying with a new and often culturally alien organization. These factors are not always determining, but they are worth analyzing. Inthe West, conversion is usually understood to mean turning from no religious faith to the Christian faith. Many ofthe above questions also apply here ~eg, should we promote churehes for people from different socal and cultural contexts: the working class, the midale class, blacks, white, Asian communities, ete? To what extent ean a conver live within the norms that govern a secular society? Must he or she take the position of an ‘outsider and go another way? One consequence of such a course is increasing immersion in chureh activities end ever-decreasing influence on the ‘outside world. ‘The crucial question, finally, is whether the new religion ~in the West orn the Bast — is seen as more liberating and more related to truth than the old. Another vital, essentially unquantifiable factor is what Christians eall the Holy Spirit, the mystery of God at work inthe sitvation, taking people toplaces they never expected tobe; for ultimately, fr all our mission strategies, tis God and God alone who converts. Andrew Wingate Bibliography .MeGavran, Understanding Church Growth, 1970, ep 1990 RW. Hefner, ed, Conversion to Christianity, 1998 R, Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, 1998.VII. Judaism Inthe medieval and moder periods, conversion of the Jews to Christianity or Islam was the predominant policy ofthe religious authorities and organizations ~ and sometimes even the political authorities ~ in the lands where the Jews lived. After 1096 the Crusaders (Crusades) confronted Jews with a clear choice: convert or die. Thousands of Jews in Germany, France, and England preferred to die or even killed themselves and their families to escape forced conversion (giddaé hatiem, “sanctifying the Name of God,” the Hebrew term for martyrdom). Many others were ‘converted, some of whom returned to Judaism after the Crusaders left. In the sme period the Almohades Muslims, who conquered North Afric and Spain in the middle of the 12h century, compelled many Jewish communities to convert. More common was a choice between conversion and exile, the elearest example being the expulsion ofthe Jews from Spain in 11492. A significant proportion of the Jews, often the weelthiest and best educated, opted for conversion and joined the renks of converts after persecutions began in 1391, Many Jews who left Spain migrated to Portugal ‘but in 1497 they, too, were forced to convert, without being given an alternative. Thus a large proportion of the Jews on the Iberian Peninsula were forced to convert, only to be persecuted hy the Inquisition for the next two centuries as "hidden Jews" and hereties. During these centuries, afew small groups fled the Iberian Peninsula and returned to Judaism in other countries But descendants of the converts often became prominent in ‘Spanish culture, in commerce, the religious hierarchy, and mystical creativity. Amilder policy consisted in compulsory disputations between Christian and Jewish scholars to prove (by interpretation of Hebrew biblical texts) ‘that Christianity was the true religion. Jews were often compelled to attend the sermons of Christian preachers. Throughout the Middle Ages, one result of social, economic, and religious pressure wasa constant trickle of free-will conversions. Some of these converts entered the clergy or ‘monastic orders; others wrote treatises against the Jews or Judaism ~ examples include Peter Alfons atthe beginning ofthe 12th century and ‘Johannes Pfefferkom, a Jewish convert, who became a Dominican in the early 16th century. Some converts beeame influential Christian scholars, such as Flavius Mithridates, who translated Hebrew esoteric works for G Pico della Mirandola. These conversions increased during the Enlightenment, when Jews sought integration into European society while most social positions remained closed to them unless they converted, Conversions and mixed marriages became common among affluent European Jewish families. There were eolated instances of voluntary conversion on the part of Jewish groups, including the group that accepted Shabbetai Tzevi as messiah. Another group, followers of the messianic pretender Jakob Frank (Erankist mavemen), converted to Catholicism following the Lvov disputation 01760. During this period only a very few non-Jews converted to Judaism, A famous instance was Ovadia ha-Gerin the 22th century, discussed in detail by M, Maimonides. Traditional rrabbinie teaching as well as contemporary social and political conditions prevented Judaism from encouraging non-Jews to convert. The attitudes of Jewish thinkers and lawyers toward those who converted from Judaism, especially to Chris discussed the question. On the one hand, conversion was viewed asthe worst possible religous crime, never to be forgiven; onthe other, those who ‘had succumbed under intolerable pressure were shown understanding and compassion. Joseph Dan Bibliography P.B. Browe, Die Judenmission in Mittlalter und die Papete, 1952 5, Katz, xelusiveness and Toleranee, 1980. IX. Islam Like every universal religion, Islam acts on the assumption that it possesses absolute truth exclusively. Inthe historical context of Islam, however, is conviction dd not lead toa missionary conversion “mania” in part because inhis early years the prophet Munammad thought of himself as preaching to Arabs and in theirlanguage ~ the same basic religious truths that had been revealed to others before him (in his eyes primarily Jews and Christians). Those who had already received prophetic revelations were thus ~ ashe thought a first ~ already “Muslims” and therefore not ‘within his prophetic mandate. This perspective did not change until Muhammad moved to Medina, where the local Jewish clans refused to recognize him asa prophet: This disappointment led to sometimes violent altercations with the Jews, ut above all tos newrtheologieal assessment of pre-Islamic monotheists, including Christians: the fundamental eternal truths had been revesled to them in writing, butin time they had altered or falsified these truths in many ways, Therefore they were no longer full believers (ike the Muslims; but ~since they were still monotheists and. believed in a resurrection and last judgment ~ they were also not idolatrous “heathen’ like most ofthe Arab tribes. In particular, as “semibelievers” ‘oF dhimmis they enjoyed the privilege of Muslim protection of their lives, property, and eultie sites (+ religious observance) if they paid a capitation (quraniejzya).All*idolators, however, were to be converted to Islam, if ned be by foree. After the tribes ofthe Arabian Peninsula adopted the cult of Islam (c, 634) almost all the non-Muslims were dhimmis, not least because that eategory was constantly being expanded: in addition to Jews and Christians it eventually came to include Zoroastrians, Yaris, Buddhists, ete In other words, the financial profit of the ‘capitation Gjzya) was the controlling “option.” The Muslim ecumene did not do badly with this pragmatic solution: the most diverse religions were able to develop their cultures under the umbrella of the Muslim ecumene and contribute greatly to the cosmopolitan variety of the Muslim lands, especially in the great cities. "Opportunistic" conversions to Islam (‘social pressure”) accounts for the ongoing quantitative decrease of non= ‘Muslims in Muslim societies. Forced conversions and persecutions (eg. by the Egyptian Fatimid ealiph al-hakim and the Berber dynasties in Spain inthe xath/13th cent.) were the exception showing the (pragmati) rule. 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