PIPING DESIGN / STRESS ENGINEERING NOTES:

1. PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS.

PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS CALCULATES THE STESS IN PIPING SYSTEM
SUBJECTED TO THE FOLLOWING LOADS.
A. NORMAL OPERATING LOADS SUCH AS PRESSURE, WEIGHT AND THERMAL
EXPANSION.
B. OCASSIONAL LOADS SUCH AS WIND, EARTHQUAKE AND WATER
HAMMERING.
PIPING SYSTEMS ARE CONNECTED TO ROTARY AND STATIC EQUIPMENTS
THEREFORE THE PIPING CALCULATIONS OR STRESS ANALYSIS INVOLVES THE
EVALULATION OF THE EFFECT OF PIPING FORCES AND MOMENTS TO THE
CONNECTING EQUIPMENT.
2. HOW TO CONTROL PIPING STRESS.
PIPING STRESS GENERALLY CONTROLLED BY ADDING
RESTRAINTS, LOOPS AND BELLOWS TO THE PIPING SYSTEM.

SUPPORTS,

3. VERIOUS ENGINEERING ISSUES IN PROCESS PIPING THAT AN

ENGINEER MUST KNOW.
THERE ARE VARIOUS ENGINEERING PROBLEMS OCCUR WHILE DESIGNING A
PIPING SYSTEM THAT IF AN ENGINEER HAS AN IDEA ABOUT IT HE OR SHE
COULD SWIFTLY COME TO A REASONABLE SOLUTION AND AVOID REWORKING
FOR INSTANCE THEY ARE.
A. THERMAL STRESS
B. PRESSURE THRUST FORCE
C. THERMAL BOWING
4. WHAT
IF
APPROACH
OF
ENGINEERING
CALCULATION
DEVELOPMENT.
NOWADAYS, MAKING A CALCULATION WITH A COMPUTER IS SO FAST THAT WE
OFTEN HEAR ABOUT THE WHAT-IF APPROACH IN ENGINEERING. WHAT ALL
THIS WHAT-IF APPROACH ACCOMPLISHES IS MAKING NUMEROUS RANDOM
TRIALS AND THE WISH THAT ONE OF THESE TRIALS WILL HIT THE MARK
SOONER OR LATER. THE PROBLEM IS THAT AFTER A FEW TRIALS, MOST
PEOPLE LOSE THE ABILITY TO MAKE SENSE OF THE TRIALS. THE MORE THEY
TRY, THE MORE THEY GET CONFUSED. IN CONTRAST, THIS BOOK PUTS
EMPHASIS ON THE WHAT, WHY, AND HOW TO GUIDE THE READERS INTO
THIS 3-W APPROACH THAT IS, TO BE AWARE OF THE PROBLEM,
UNDERSTAND THE CAUSE OF THE PROBLEM, AND TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM
OR PREVENT IT FROM HAPPENING.
5. BRIEF INTODUCTION OF PIPING AND PIPING SYSTEMS.
A PIPING SYSTEM IS THE MOST EFFICIENT AND COMMON MEANS OF
TRANSPORTING FLUIDS FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER. WITHIN A
PETROCHEMICAL COMPLEX, ACRES AND ACRES OF PIPING CAN BE SEEN
RUNNING IN EVERY DIRECTION AND AT MANY DIFFERENT LEVELS. PIPING

CONSTITUTES 25% TO 35% OF THE MATERIAL OF A PROCESS PLANT,

REQUIRES 30% TO 40% OF THE ERECTION LABOR, AND CONSUMES 40% TO
48% OF THE ENGINEERING MAN-HOURS [1]. THE ACTUAL IMPORTANCE OF
PIPING, HOWEVER, CAN FAR EXCEED THESE PERCENTAGES. AN ENTIRE PIPING
SYSTEM IS COMPOSED OF A LARGE NUMBER OF COMPONENTS. THE FAILURE
OF JUST ONE SINGLE COMPONENT HAS THE POTENTIAL TO SHUT DOWN THE
ENTIRE PLANT OR, WORSE YET, CAUSE SERIOUS PUBLIC SAFETY PROBLEMS.
IN SPITE OF THIS, PIPING IS GENERALLY CONSIDERED A LOW-TECHNOLOGY
SUBJECT IN THE ACADEMIA. VERY FEW COLLEGES TEACH THE SUBJECT,
LEAVING ENGINEERS TO GAIN THIS KNOWLEDGE ONLY THROUGH ACTUAL
PRACTICE IN THE FIELD.
6. PIPING DESIGN
DICSIPLINES.

ENGINEERING

AND

THE

ROLE

OF

DIFFERENCE

TO FIND OUT EXACTLY WHERE PIPE STRESS FITS IN THE PIPING DESIGN
PROCESS, LET US FIRST FIND OUT WHAT PROCEDURES ARE INVOLVED IN
DESIGNING A PIPING SYSTEM. A PIPING SYSTEM IS DESIGNED IN THE
FOLLOWING STEPS BY DIFFERENT ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES:
A. PROCESS ENGINEERS.
PROCESS ENGINEERS, BASED ON PROCESS REQUIREMENTS AND PLANT
CAPACITY, DETERMINE, AMONG OTHER THINGS, THE FLOW PATH, THE
FLOW MEDIUM AND QUANTITY, AND OPERATING CONDITIONS. THEY THEN
PUT ALL THIS INFORMATION INTO PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS.
B. MATERIAL SPECIFICATION ENGINEERS.
MATERIAL SPECIFICATION ENGINEERS ASSIGN SUITABLE CATEGORIES OF
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE PIPING SYSTEM BASED ON THE PROCESS FLOW
AND REACTIVITY OF THE CONTAINED FLUID. EACH SPECIFICATION
APPLICABLE TO CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF FLUID TYPES, TEMPERATURE
RANGES, AND PRESSURE RANGES. MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS NORMALLY
INCLUDE PIPE MATERIAL, PIPE WALL THICKNESS FOR EACH PIPE SIZE, THE
CORROSION AND EROSION ALLOWANCES, FLANGE CLASS, VALVE TYPES,
FITTING AND BRANCH CONNECTION TYPE, BOLT MATERIAL, GASKET TYPE,
ETC.
C. SYSTEM ENGINEERS.
SYSTEM ENGINEERS COMBINE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS, MATERIAL
SPECIFICATIONS, AND EQUIPMENT DATA SHEETS TO CREATE OPERATIONAL
PIPING
DIAGRAMS.
THEY
SELECT
THE
APPLICABLE
MATERIAL
SPECIFICATION AND DETERMINE THE SIZE FOR EACH LINE BASED ON
FLOW QUANTITY, ALLOWABLE PRESSURE DROP, AND FLOW STABILITY.
PIPING DIAGRAMS ARE GENERALLY COMBINED WITH THE NECESSARY
INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL CIRCUITS TO BECOME PIPING AND
INSTRUMENT DIAGRAMS (P&IDS). SPECIAL ITEMS SUCH AS POTENTIAL

TWO-PHASE FLOW AND SLUG-FLOW ZONES ARE ALSO IDENTIFIED ON

THESE DIAGRAMS FOR SPECIAL CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS. IN ADDITION TO THE P&IDS, A LINE LIST COVERING ALL PIPE
SPOOLS IS ALSO CONSTRUCTED. THIS LINE LIST CONTAINS MOST OF THE
DESIGN, UPSET, AND OPERATING PARAMETERS TO BE USED IN THE
LAYOUT, ANALYSIS, AND FABRICATION OF THE PIPING SYSTEM.
D. PIPING DESIGN ENGINEERS.
PIPING DESIGN ENGINEERS IN COORDINATION WITH THE DISCIPLINES LIKE
PROCESS AND SYSTEM ENGINEERING, THEY CONCIEVE AN OVERALL
PLANT LAYOUT, PERFORM PIPING ROUTING STUDY, DETERMINE THE PIPE
RACK LOCATIONS, AND PLACE THE ACTUAL PIPING AND CONNECTS TO
THE DESIGNATED POINTS.
THEY LAY OUT AND SUPPORT THE PIPING BY FOLLOWING THE RULES AND
PROCEDURES SET UP BY EACH INDIVIDUAL COMPANY. IN GENERAL, THREE
SETS OF DRAWINGS ARE PREPARED.
THE FIRST SET IS THE SCHEMATIC PLANNING DRAWINGS, USED AS A
COMMUNICATION BOARD BETWEEN DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS. ACTIONS
AND COMMENTS FROM RELATED DISCIPLINES ARE ALL RESOLVED AND
RECORDED IN THESE DRAWINGS. PIPE SUPPORTS ARE ALSO RECORDED IN
THIS SET OF DRAWINGS.
THE SECOND SET IS THE COMPOSITE DRAWINGS, CONSISTING OF TOSCALE DRAWINGS OF ALL PIPES AND EQUIPMENT IN THE AREA. THESE
DRAWINGS, TO BE USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION, ARE EVOLVED FROM THE
PLANNING DRAWINGS.
THE THIRD SET OF DRAWINGS IS THE ISOMETRICS OF THE PIPING, USED
FOR STRESS CHECKS AND SHOP FABRICATIONS.
E. PIPING STRESS ENGINEERS.
PIPING MECHANICAL ENGINEERS CHECK THE STRESSES AND SUPPORTS OF
THE SYSTEMS. USING THE P&IDS, THEY DEVELOP OPERATING MODES SO
THAT ALL THE EXPECTED OPERATING CONDITIONS ARE PROPERLY
ANALYZED. PROPER SUPPORTS AND RESTRAINTS ARE SELECTED AND
PLACED TO OPTIMIZE THE OVERALL COST AND PERFORMANCE OF THE
SYSTEMS. THEY ALSO DESIGN OR SPECIFY PIPING SPECIALTY ITEMS, SUCH
AS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLUE HEADS, SPECIAL CONNECTIONS, SPRING
HANGERS, VIBRATION SUPPORTS, AND SO FORTH.
7. SCOPE OF PIPING STRESS ENGINEER.
PREVIOUSLY IN EARLY 50s AND 60s PIPING STRESS ENGINEERING WAS ONLY
CONSISITING HOW TO CATER THE THERMAL EXPANSION, IN OTHER WORDS
THEY WERE ONLY CHECKED WHETHER PIPING SYSTEM WAS ENOUGH

FLEXIBLE TO ABSORB THE THERMAL EXPANSION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

CHANGES AND THIS ANALYSIS WAS CALLED AS PIPE FLEXIBILTY
ANALYSIS.
LATER ON, AS TECHNOLOGY ADVANCED, PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS WAS MORE
THAN JUST CHECKING FLEXIBILTY, EVEN NOW A DAYS MANY ENGINEERS STILL
REFER TO PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS AS FLEXIBILTY ANALYSIS. HOWEVER, THE
CONCEPT THAT FLEXIBILITY IS THE ONLY CONSIDERATION IN PIPING STRESS
ANALYSES CAN LEAD TO AN EXPENSIVE, AND UNSAFE, SUB-STANDARD
DESIGN. FOR INSTANCE, MANY ENGINEERS TEND TO CONSIDER THAT
PROVIDING ADDITIONAL FLEXIBILITY IN THE PIPING IS A CONSERVATIVE
APPROACH. IN REALITY, ADDITIONAL FLEXIBILITY NOT ONLY INCREASES THE
MATERIAL COST AND PRESSURE DROP, IT ALSO MAKES THE PIPING PRONE TO
VIBRATION, THE BIGGEST PROBLEM AREA OF THE PIPING IN OPERATION.
SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF THE 1955 PIPING CODE [10] AND KELLOGGS [3]
BOOK, FAILURES DUE TO INSUFFICIENT FLEXIBILITY HAVE BECOME VERY
RARE. NOWADAYS, MOST FAILURES ARE CAUSED BY VIBRATION, THERMAL
BOWING, CREEP, THERMAL FATIGUE NOT RELATED TO FLEXIBILITY,
STEAM/WATER HAMMER, EXPANSION JOINTS, AND SO FORTH. THESE
FACTS SHOULD SERVE AS CLUES TOWARD DESIGNING BETTER PIPING
SYSTEMS.
AN EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS.
EXAMPLE FIG.

FOR INSTANCE FOLLOWING LOADS AND STRESS CASES ARE TO BE CONSIDERED

WHILDE DESIGNING A PIPING SYSTEM
A. SHELL DISPLACEMENT
BULGING.

AND

ROTATION

DUE

TO

HYDROSTATIC

THIS TEMPERATURE-INDEPENDENT DISPLACEMENT AND ROTATION WILL EXERT A

GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE CONNECTING PIPING. FURTHERMORE, THE TANK NOZZLE
CONNECTION IS FAR FROM RIGID. ITS FLEXIBILITY HAS TO BE ESTIMATED AND
INCLUDED IN THE ANALYSIS. THEN, AFTER THE PIPE FORCES AND MOMENTS AT THE
CONNECTION ARE CALCULATED, THEY HAVE TO BE EVALUATED FOR THEIR
ACCEPTANCE.
B. MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES ACROSS FLANGES.
THE NEXT ITEM TO BE VARIFIED IS WHETHER FLANGES AND VALVES CAN
MAINTAIN TIGHTNESS UNDER FORCES. CAN VALVES OPERATE PROPERLY
UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF FORCES AND MOMENTS.
C. SUPPORT FRICTION.

D. THERMAL BOWING.
DUE TO TEMPERATURE GRADIIENT BOWING EFFECT DOES OCCUR AT BENDS.
E. INTERACTION WITH ROTARY EQUIPMENT.
PIPING CONNECTED TO ROTARY EQUIPMENT SUCH AS PUMPS AND
COMPRESSORS THE PIPE LOAD SHELL BE IN RANGE THAT IS PROVIDED BY
MANUFACTURER OF THE EQUIPMENT TO AVOID EXCESSIVE VIBRATIONS,
WEAR AND OVER HEATING.
THE PIPING CONNECTED TO THE ROTARY EQUIPMENT SHALL WITHSTAND THE
EFFECTS PRODUCE BY THESE EQUIPMENT SUCH AS WATER HAMMER,
PULSATION AND OTHER DYNAMIC EFFECTS.
F. VIBRATIONS
USE THE PROPER SPRING HANGERS AND SUPPORTS TO CATER PIPING VIBRATIONS.

G. OCCASIONAL LOADS

PIPING SUPPPORTED STRUCTURE SHALL BE ENOUGH STRONG THAT SUSTAINS THE

WIND, SEISMIC, HURRICANE AND SNOW LOADINGS.
H. AT NOZZLE
AS PIPING IS TERMINATED ON THE NOZZLE ON THE OTHER VESSEL OR ANY OTHER
EQUIPMENT THEREFORE NOZZLE SHALL BE ADEQUATELY REINFORCED TO SUSTAIN
THE ALOWABLE PIPING LOADS.

IN GENERAL THE PIPING STRESS ANALYSIS Is:

A. ENSURE STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY.
B. MAINTAIN OPERATION STABILITY.

8. PIPING COMPONENTS.
FOLLOWING DIAGRAM WILL DEFINE THE PIPING COMPONENTS.
A. PIPES
B. WELDS
C. WELD REDUCTION FACTORS
IN ADDITION TO THE JOINT EFFICIENCY THAT AFFECTS THE GENERAL
STRENGTH OF THE PIPING, THE WELD ALSO HASTENS CREEP FAILURE AT
CREEP TEMPERATURE. THE ADDITIONAL REDUCTION OF CREEP STRENGTH
OVER THE NON-WELD-AFFECTED BODY IS CALLED THE WELD STRENGTH
REDUCTION FACTOR. THIS IS THE FACTOR APPLIED, OVER THE JOINT
EFFICIENCY, AT HIGH TEMPERATURE RANGES. THE SAME FACTOR IS APPLIED
AT BOTH LONGITUDINAL WELDS AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS. HOWEVER,
LONGITUDINAL WELD AFFECTS ONLY THE CALCULATION OF WALL THICKNESS,
WHICH IS GOVERNED BY THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL HOOP STRESS. ON THE
OTHER HAND, CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELD AFFECTS ONLY THE SUSTAINED
LONGITUDINAL STRESS DUE TO PRESSURE, WEIGHT, AND OTHER
MECHANICAL LOADS. THE WELD STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR IS NOT
APPLICABLE TO OCCASIONAL STRESS DUE TO THE GENERALLY SHORT
DURATION OF THE STRESS. IT ALSO DOES NOT AFFECT THERMAL EXPANSION
AND DISPLACEMENT STRESS RANGE DUE TO THE SELF-LIMITING NATURE OF
THE STRESS. GENERALLY, THE TEMPERATURE THAT REQUIRES THE
APPLICATION OF THE WELD STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR STARTS FROM
950F (510C). HOWEVER, B31.1 AND B31.3 TREAT IT SLIGHTLY DIFFERENTLY.

D. FLANGES
E. BRANCHES
FORGED TEE, UNREINFORCED FABRICATED TEE, REINFORCED RABRICATED
TEE, EXTRUDED TEE THERE IS A TABLE THAT DEFINES THE STRESS
INTENSIFICATION FACTOR, FLEXIBILITY FACTORS.
F. VALVES (GATE VALVE, GLOBE VALVE, BALL VALVE, BUTTERFLY VALVE,
NEEDLE VALVE, PLUG VALVE CHECK VALVE)
G. FLEXIBLE JOINTS (TIED BELLOW EXPANSION JOINT, HINGED BELLOW
JOINTS, GIMBALED BELLOW JOINTS, BALL JOINTS, FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS,
AND FLEXIBLE HOSES)
H.
I.
J.
K.

TERMINAL CONNECTION
SHELL CONNECTION
TUBE BUNDLE HEADER CONNECTION
ROTARY EQUIPMENT CONNECTION.

9. MODES OF FAILURE.