Mr.

Stevens
American Government
Unit 1 Guided Notes (Foundations of American Government)
Chapters 1,2, 3
Principles of Government (1.1)
The Greeks were the first serious students of politics and government.
-Aristotle was one of the first authors on politics--people still reference his
writings today.
-He talked about states and nations
state=political community in a precise _____________________________.
nation=group of people united by race, language,
custom, or religion
The states that make up todays political world share four essential features:
-Population: need people to have a state
-Territory: need to have established boundaries
_______________________: has authority to set its own rules within its borders
-Government: the institution through which a state maintains social order,
provides public services, and enforces decisions that are binding on all its
residents
Origins of the State--how did it come to be?
-Evolutionary theory: some scholars believe that the state evolved from the
family--that it evolved from families over time.
The head of the primitive family supposedly served as the government
_______________________.
___________________ _______ theory: in early civilizations, people cooperated to
survive. They often built walled cities to keep out enemies.
Some scholars point to this behavior as proof that the state would not exist
except for the need to resist an enemy.
Divine Right Theory: the idea that a god or gods chose a certain person or
people to rule. The ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Aztecs believed that
their rulers were descendents of gods or chosen by them.
Divine Right is a term that refers specifically to European monarchs in the
1600s and 1700s. To oppose them (they said) it was not only treason, but a
____________________.
Social Contract Theory: beginning in the 1600s, some Europeans began to
challenge divine right theory.
-Among the earliest were English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John
Locke. Both men theorized that in any society there was a state of nature
without government.
-These two men had different ideas on this
contract they talked about though.
Thomas Hobbes: had a pessimistic view of _____________________. He said,
in the 1650s, that in the state of nature life would be nasty, brutish, and
short.

-Hobbes emphasized his belief that without order and protection, no decent
life of any kind would be possible. In the social contract he envisioned,
people surrendered their freedom to the state but in return, they received
order and security.
John Locke: had a much more optimistic view of people. He argued that
governments have a responsibility to the people they govern.
-People have natural ____________________, he said. And its a governments
responsibility to protect them.
-Americans looked to Lockes ideas when they felt like King George III wasnt
protecting their
rights. The results? Rebellion!
What purpose does government serve?
-Maintain social order
-Provide public services
-Provide security and defense
-Provide for the _____________________
Principles of Government
To fulfill all of these functions, governments make rules that everyone must
follow--and they have the authority to punish those who dont follow them.
-Governments derive their authority from two sources:
1. Legitimacy: the willingness of citizens to obey the government. Citizens
understand that if their representatives dont respond to their needs
they will be voted out of office.
2.) Their ability to use force: this includes, the police, the judiciary, and the
military.
-The government can force people to pay taxes and can punish offenders by
imposing fines or ______________________________.
The Formations of Government (1.2)
Countries have to decide how they will divide their power. Do they focus all
decision-making at the nations central government, or let smaller divisions
of government make important decisions too?
-There are many forms of government and the levels they have. Key types of
government are:
-Unitary
-Federal
Unitary system: In this form of government, all key powers are given to the
central government.
-This doesnt mean that only one level of government exists, but rather that
the central government is the unit with the power to create state, provincial,
or other local governments. It also may limit their sovereignty.
-Examples include Great Britain, Italy, and ________________________.
Federal system: where a government divides the powers of government
between the national and state or provincial levels. The United States is a
federal system.
-The U.S. began as a __________________________, or confederation--a loose
union of independent states.

-When the confederacy failed to provide an effective national government,

the Constitution made the national government supreme while preserving
some powers for the state governments.
Constitutions and Government
-A constitution is a plan that provides the rules, or outline, for government. It
serves several purposes:
1. it sets out ideals that the people bound by the ______________________
believe in and share
2. establishes the basic structure of government and defines the
governments powers and duties
3. provides the supreme law for the country. The Constitution provides
rules that shape actions of government and politics--much like rules
govern basketball or football.
Theres only one catch to all of this: nearly every country (even the ones
most Americans would consider bad) has a constitution. The Peoples
Republic of _____________________ has a constitution.
-A constitutional government, however, has a special meaning.
-This term refers to a government in which a constitution places limits on the
government and those who govern.
-This term refers to a government in which a constitution places limits on the
government and those who govern.
Incomplete Guides:
Constitutions themselves are important but _____________________ guides to
how a country is actually governed. They are incomplete for two reasons:
1. No written constitution can possibly spell out all the laws, customs, and
ideas that grow up around the document itself.
-For example, _____________________ was elected four times when the previous
custom had been limited to two terms. But since the constitution didnt say
he couldnt do that, it went through. Now, the 22nd Amendment limits the
president for two terms.
2.) A constitution does not always reflect the actual practice of government
in a country. Again, the Peoples Republic of China is an example.
-Although the government relaxed some restrictions in the late 1980s,
authorities crushed a pro-democracy movement in 1989.
A Statement of Goals
Most constitutions state the goals and purposes to be served by the
government (usually called the preamble).
A Framework for Government
-The main body of a constitution sets out the ______________________ for
government. In federal states such as the U.S., the constitution also
describes the relationship between the national government and state
governments.
-Most written constitutions also describe the procedure for amending, or
changing, the constitution.
The main body of a constitution is usually divided into parts, called articles
and sections.

-The U.S. Constitution has ____________________ articles containing 21

sections, total.
-The French constitution has 89 articles
-The Indian constitution, the longest in the world, has hundreds of articles
The field of law that studies questions on how to interpret the Constitution
and how far government power extends is called constitutional law.
The effort to control or influence the conduct and policies of government is
called politics.
The Constitution never prevented the development of politics because
politics and government are closely related. A major political
_________________________ developed over the ratification of the Constitution
itself.
-Within a few years, major political parties played key roles in elections.
-People are taking part in politics when they meet with the mayor to ask the
city to repave streets in their neighborhood, or when people vote on whether
or not to build a new school.
Why participate in politics?
-People participate in politics because they realize that government has the
potential to influence their lives in ___________________________.
-Construction workers may want the government to support the building of
new highways to create jobs. Conservationists may want the government to
spend its money on mass transit and public parks instead.
-Those who favor lower taxes may want neither new highways or public
parks.
In a big and diverse nation like the U.S., there is always a continual struggle
over what benefits government should provide, how much they should cost,
and who should pay for them. Many questions will arise. For example:
-Should taxpayers help pay for _________________________?
-Where should more focus be placed: education, infrastructure, or the
military? And it what proportions?
-Should there be more of a focus on conservation or job-creation? And who
gets to decide this?
Through politics, conflicts in society are managed. Its necessary to have
discussions on difficult issues that affect millions of people.
-As people seek rewards and benefits, ____________________ provides a
peaceful way for them to compete with one another and come up with
compromises that everyone can accept.
The outcomes of politics can affect key matters, such as:
-quality of air and water
-the economy
-peace and war
-citizens rights and freedoms
-Some people equate politics with ______________________ or corruption. The
misuse of politics (which can happen at times) shouldnt obscure the value of
a political system, though.

Types of Government
(1.3)
-There are many types of government in the world today. According to the
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, all governments belong to one of three
major groups:
1. autocracy-rule by ________________________
2. oligarchy-rule by a few persons
3. democracy-rule by many persons
-New terms have been used and added since Aristotles time, however. They
came from the various time periods and areas.
-One could not use totalitarian, for example, for an ancient society.
Totalitarian rules could develop only in later times (20th century) when
modern communications and transportation systems gave them some of the
tools needed to achieve total control.
Autocracy: system of government in which one person has all the authority
and power to rule (there are various forms, e.g. absolutism, totalitarianism,
dictatorship, monarchy).
-The term is used for dynastic kings and emperors who exercised personal
rule and maintained power through army and __________________________.
Monarchy: a form of government in which one person has great power; a
king, queen, or emperor inherits the throne and heads the state.
-Autocracy and kingship originated in ancient times when rulers were
considered sacred or sanctioned by religion.
-Unlike autocrats, however, a monarchs power was often limited in some
way. Medieval kings, for example, were expected to consult with a council of
_______________________.
Monarchy
-In France, a body of noble judges was supposed to review the kings laws to
give them formal sanction.
-A new type of government developed in France in the 1660s, that was very
important in European history. Louis XIV, the famous king who built the
Palace of Versailles, became an absolute monarch--his power was
________________________.
-In practice, this was the same as autocracy.
-Today, monarchies still exist in the world, but all of them are all limited or
constitutional monarchies (the king or queen is limited by the law).
-Examples include Great Britain, Sweden, Japan and the Netherlands. Their
rulers either share power with elected legislatures or serve merely as
ceremonial figures.
-A dictator is also a single ruler, but this term emphasizes the fact that this
person rules by force and by dictate alone.
-No support is found in custom or ___________________ for a dictatorship. In
modern times, dictatorship is often the result of a military coup, or seizure of
power.
-Totalitarianism is a special type of single-ruler government. Here the ruler
attempts to control the total society (thus the term totalitarianism).

-Both Adolf Hitler in Nazi ______________________ and Joseph Stalin in Soviet

Russia tried to control civil society completely, that is, every aspect of civilian
life, not just government institutions.
Oligarchy: any system of government in which a small group holds power.
-Oligarchs derive power from their wealth, social position, military power, or
a combination of these factors.
-Some scholars have said that the ancient Roman Republic was really an
oligarchy, because a few prominent ____________________ families dominated
the Roman Senate.
-Dictators or oligarchs might claim that they rule in the peoples interest to
give the impression that the people have some control. They might also hold
elections, but only one candidate is on the ballot.
-If there is a legislature, it is only able to approve policies. As in a
dictatorship, oligarchies often suppress opposition--sometimes ruthlessly.
-Modern examples: Peoples Republic of China
Democracy: a system of government in which rule is by the people, either
through representatives or__________________________.
Examples: classroom--all or raise hands to vote=direct
A few previously elected students who raise hands based on what their
constituency wants=representative
-The word democracy comes from two Greek words.
demos= the people
kratia= rule
-The ancient Greeks used democracy to mean government by the many
rather than a small elite.
-Not every person could vote, though. Only _____________________ could vote
and women, slaves, and foreign residents were not citizens.
-It was only in the early 1800s that some educated people in Western Europe
began to believe that every adult should have the right to vote--and these
people were often seen as radicals.
-Before that time, only a landowner, merchant, or professional person with
significant wealth was able to vote. This was true even in the European
country with the most progressive government, Great Britain.
-Over time, modern governments became more democratic. First workers,
and later minorities and women, were given the right to vote.
-In a representative democracy, the people elect representatives and give
them the responsibility to make laws and conduct
_____________________________.
-An assembly of the peoples representatives may be called a council, a
legislature, a congress, or a parliament.
-Representative democracies are an efficient way to ensure the rights of
individual citizens, who are part of a large group, are represented.
Republic: Where the head of state is not a king or queen, and voters elect
representatives to run the nations government.
-The United States is a republic, but not every _____________________ is a
republic. Great Britain, for example, is a democracy. But since they have

kings and queens and are limited by a constitution, they are called a
constitutional monarchy.
-A number of countries call themselves democratic or republican when
they are not. Their leaders may want to convey to the world that they treat
their people well.
-For example, North Korea is called the Democratic Peoples Republic of
Korea, but it is in fact an oligarchy because a few Communist Party leaders
run it.
A true democracy has a few key characteristics:
-Individual ___________________
-Majority rule with minority rights
-Free elections
-Competing political parties
Historically, few nations have practiced democracy. One reason for this may
be that real democracy seems to require a special environment.
-Democratic government is more likely to succeed in countries which to
some degree meet five general criteria that reflect the quality of life of
_________________________.
1. Active citizen participation-democracy requires citizens who are willing
to participate in civic life.
2.) A favorable economy-democracy succeeds more in countries that do not
have extremes of wealth and poverty and that have a large middle class.
3.) Widespread education-democracy is more likely to succeed in countries
with an educated public.
4.) Strong civil society-democracy is not possible without a civil society, a
complex network of voluntary associations, economic groups, religious
organizations, and many other kinds of groups that exist independently of
government.
-The U.S. has thousands of these kinds of organizations--the Red Cross, the
Humane Society, the NRA, your ___________________ and local newspaper.
-These organizations give citizens a way to make their views known to the
government. They also give citizens a means to protect their rights and
teach others about democracy.
5.) A Social Consensus-people have to have a social consensus that
democracy is best and share its values, such as individual liberty and
equality for all.
-There also must be general agreement about the purpose and
_________________ of government.
-History shows that conditions in the American colonies supported the
growth of democracy. People were educated and had the chance to advance
themselves economically.
Chapter 1, Section 4: Economic Theories
Economic Theories
Economics-the study of human efforts to satisfy seemingly unlimited wants
through the use of limited resources.
-Resources include natural materials such as land, water, minerals and trees.

-Resources also include human factors such as skills, knowledge, and

physical __________________________.
There are never enough resources to produce all the goods and services
people could possibly want.
-Therefore, people in every nation have to decide how these resources should
be used. Governments typically regulate this economic activity.
Governments around the world provide for many kinds of economic systems.
All economic systems, however, must make three major
_______________________ decisions:
1. What and how much should be produced
2. How goods and services should be produced
3. Who gets the goods and services that are produced
Capitalism
-Freedom of choice
-Individual incentive for workers, investors, consumers, and businesses
-Referred to as free enterprise
Capitalisms five main characteristics:
1. ___________________________ and control of property
2. free enterprise (operates outside government control)
3. competition among businesses
4. freedom of ______________________
5. the possibility of profits
-No one person invented capitalism, but it has developed over time.
-In 1776, Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher and economist described
capitalism in his book The Wealth of Nations.
-Smith wrote about the basic idea of Laissez-faire economics, which is a
French term that means to let alone.
-According to this philosophy, government should keep its hands off the
economy except for those few actions needed to ensure free competition in
the marketplace.
Socialism: a type of economic system in which the government owns the
means of production, determines the use of ________________________,
distributes products and wages, and provides social services such as
education, healthcare and welfare.
-Many of these ideas emerged in the 1800s in Europe when people felt that
industrialization caused too many problems, including:
-poverty
-poor working conditions
-slums in major ______________________
Communism
-Karl Marx, a German thinker and writer, was a socialist who advocated for
violent revolution.
-After studying the conditions of his time, he concluded that the capitalist
system would collapse. He published his ideas in The Communist Manifesto
in 1848.

-Marx believed that in industrialized nations the population is divided into

capitalists, or the bourgeoisie (who own the means of production), and the
workers, or the proletariat.
-Marx believed that all of human history as a class struggle
-Marx hoped that in time, socialism would develop into full communism. This
means that there would only be one social class and there would be no need
for government.
-In a communist country, the _______________________ owns the land,
natural resources, industry, banks, and
transportation.
Todays economic ideas largely influenced by:
John Maynard Keynes and Friedrich Hayek

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 2: Origins of American Government

Origins of American Government (2.1)
The first English settlement in North America was in _____________________, Virginia
(founded in 1607). That settlement, along with many more in America as time went
by, were filled with people of English background.
-Two ideas were central to their line of thinking:
1. Limited government
2. Representative government
Limited government:
-By the time the first English settlers arrived in America, the idea of
__________________ government was accepted in England.
-The seeds for the idea first appeared in the Magna Carta, which was signed by King
John in 1215. English nobles who were upset with the policies of the king forced him
to sign a document recognizing their rights.
-This is credited for being the __________________ of limited government--meaning the
monarchs rule was not absolute.
Petition of Right:
-In the centuries after the _____________________, the English monarchy was still
strong but they often consulted with Parliament, a group of English nobles.
Monarchs like Elizabeth I (1588-1603) gave it a sense that they rule alongside the
monarch.
-Other monarchs like Charles I, who took over in 1625, wanted to be completely in
control. He was forced to sign the Petition of Right in 1628, which limited him in a
number of ways. He battled with Parliament in control and war broke out in the
1640s.
-When Parliaments troops won, Charles was ____________________. After roughly a
decade of chaos, the monarchy was restored.

By 1688, King James II was removed from power and William and Mary took the
throne. This peaceful transfer of power was known as the Glorious Revolution. In
1689, Parliament passed the English Bill of Rights.
The English Bill of Rights set clear limits on the monarch. It stated:
-Monarchs do not have absolute authority, but rule with the consent of the peoples
representatives in Parliament
-The monarch cant interfere with parliamentary elections and debates
-The people have a right to petition their government and have a fair and speedy
trial by a jury of their peers
-The people cant be subjected to cruel and unusual punishments or to excessive
fines and bail
The influence of the _________________________ was felt directly in the American
colonies who believed the document applied directly to them.
-The monarchs believed differently, however, who believed that those living in
America were subjects of the British Empire.
-These differing ideas were a major cause of the American Revolution.
Representative government:
The English settlers also believed in representative government, which is where
people elect others to represent their views in an elected body called
______________________. Here, the representatives make laws and conduct
government.
The colonists in America brought these same ideas with them and formed their own
legislative bodies.
-Thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rosseau, and Thomas Hobbes were
influential throughout the colonies as time goes on.
-Colonies such as Virginia began to form
representative governments modeled after those found in England.
-The English founded thirteen colonies along the eastern coast of North America
between 1607 and 1733--from the New England colonies in the north to the
Carolinas and Georgia in the south.
-Each colony had its own government consisting of a governor, a legislature, and a
_______________________.
-Although each colony exerted its own influence on the people living there, the
British believed that all colonists owed allegiance to the monarch.
-For many years the colonists remained loyal to the monarchy.
-Only white men could vote (not women or slaves). Religious dissent was rarely
tolerated (perhaps especially so among Puritan communities).
Despite some shortcomings, the colonies established:
-a written __________________________
-a legislature of elected representatives
-separation of powers between the executive and the legislature
Uniting for Independence (2.2)
For more than a century, relations between Great Britain and the colonies were
_________________. The colonies were allowed to develop their own political
institutions with little interference.
By the 1760s, things began to change dramatically. The British decided to start
tightening control of the colonies and raise taxes on the colonies. This was to pay

for things such as the French and Indian War, which the British and colonists had
fought alongside each other in against France and their Native American allies.
-Raw materials from the colonies were seen, from the British point of view, as an
economic benefit to them. This reality ended up creating problems, later on.
-Because of the distance between Great Britain and the colonies, the colonists had
grown accustomed to governing themselves.
-This arrangement worked well until the mid-1700s. The British were happy about
the fact that the colonies added to their _______________________, and the British
presence in America helped to counter French influence in Canada.
Two events greatly changed the relationship between the colonies and the British:
1. French and Indian War. The colonists previously needed protection against
the French but after the British defeated them in 1763, their influence and
threat against the colonists was gone. The British wanted the Americans to
pay for much of this large expense.
2.) King George III takes the throne. He has different ideas about how the
colonies should be managed.
Uniting for Independence
King George III was determined to deal firmly with the colonies. The Sugar Act
placed taxes on sugar and molasses. The Stamp Act of ___________________ required
them to pay a tax on legal documents, pamphlets, newspapers, playing cards and
dice.
Parliament also passed laws regulating colonial trade in ways that benefitted Great
Britain, but not the colonies.
Many colonists were furious with the treatment they were receiving from the king.
Political protests became common and colonists often refused to buy British goods.
-The protests led to the repeal of the Sugar Act and Stamp Act, but the British
passed other tax laws to replace it.
-In 1770, British troops fired on American colonists, killing five of them (Boston
________________). In 1773, colonists dressed up as Mohawk Indians boarded a ship
and dumped hundreds of chests of tea into the Boston harbor (Boston
_____________________). Events such as these showed that a revolution may not be
far away.
In reaction to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed the
__________________________. The colonists called them the Intolerable Acts. Basically,
they were a punishment for the colonists. Among the punishments included:
-closing the Boston harbor
-withdrew the right of the Massachusetts colony to govern it
Another factor leading towards rebellion was the fact that many people stopped
thinking of themselves entirely as British subjects, but as New Yorkers, Virginians,
Georgians, etc.
The Intolerable Acts prompted Virginia and Massachusetts to call a general meeting
of the colonies. Delegates from all the colonies except Georgia met in Philadelphia
on September 5, 1774. This group of people was known as the First Continental
Congress.
-They adopted an ________________________, or an agreement prohibiting trade
against Britain and agreed not to use British goods.
-They also planned to meet again the following year if Britain did not change its
policies.
Uniting for Independence

Britain adopted even stronger measures. George III firmly stated that, The New
England governments are in a state of rebellion. He added that, Blows must
decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent.
The first blow fell early on the morning of April 19, 1775 when British redcoats and
colonists clashed at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. This skirmish was the
first battle of the Revolutionary War.
-Within three weeks, delegates from all thirteen colonies gathered in Philadelphia for
the Second Continental Congress. They immediately assumed the powers of a
central government. It chose John Hancock as its president.
-They organized an army and navy, issued money, and appointed George
Washington as commander of the _________________________.
As the Congress got to work, the independence movement rapidly grew. Thomas
Paines Common Sense influenced many people to join in rebellion against King
George III.
Paine argued that monarchy was a corrupt form of government and that George III
was an enemy to liberty.
Samuel Adams and Richard Henry Lee also influenced people to join the
revolutionary cause. In July 1776, the Congress approved the Declaration of
Independence. It was primarily authored by Thomas _________________________.
The Declaration of Independence is one of the most famous documents in world
history. Jefferson drew on ideas from Locke and other philosophers to explain the
colonists need for freedom.
The Declaration has three main parts:
-a statement of purpose and basic human rights
-list of specific complaints against George III
-expression of colonists determination to separate from
________________________________.
-By the end of 1776, 10 states as they now saw themselves, had their own
constitutions. Within a few years, each state had a new constitution or had
converted old colonial charters into a constitution.
-Most of the new constitutions contained a bill of rights, recognizing the rights of
their citizens. All of the constitutions recognized the people as the sole source of
authority.
The Articles of Confederation (2.3)
The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution the government of the
United States ran on. By March 1781, all 13 states had ratified, or approved, the
Articles.
-The Articles called for a unicameral (single chamber) _________________________.
Each state got one vote in Congress, no matter what the size of that state happened
to be.
-The Articles had the authority to make war and peace, send and receive
ambassadors, make treaties, raise and equip a navy, maintain an army, regulate
Indian affairs, set up post offices, and decide some state disputes.
The Articles had many _________________________, however. The national government
was given little authority and it was ineffective. Each state was reluctant to give up
its sovereignty to a central government.
First, Congress did not have the power to levy, or collect _________________. It could
only borrow or request money from states. Each state had to collect taxes from its

citizens and turn that money over to the national treasury. Congress could do little if
a state refused.
Congress also had no authority to regulate trade among the states or force people
to obey the laws. It was also difficult to pass laws and amend the articles because it
required every state to agree.
The Articles did have some successes, including handling land issues west of the
Appalachian Mountains. It also was in effect when the U.S. signed its peace treaty
with Great Britain in 1783.
Congress also set up various departments during this time, including the
departments of Foreign Affairs, War, Marine, and the Treasury. This set a precedent
for the creation of cabinet departments under the Constitution of 1787.
Despite its achievements, the Confederation had difficulty in dealing with all of the
issues facing the nation. States were quarreling with one another over
_____________________, tariffs, and taxes on goods between the various states.
-New Jersey farmers, for example, had to pay fees to sell their vegetables in New
York.
-Some economic issues led to rebellion (Shays Rebellion) were farmers were angry
with the government.
Many people were starting to get on board with the idea of a stronger federal
government.
Discussions took place across the nation with how to best deal with the issues of the
times. A meeting was requested in Philadelphia, in May _________________.
The Constitutional Convention (2.4)
In May 1787, the Constitutional Convention began the daunting task of how to
address the problems with the Articles of Confederation and create a newer, better
way of operating government in the United States.
State legislatures were allowed to send 74 delegates, but only 55 attended. In the
end, 39 of them signed the final draft.
The demographics of the people in attendance was male, white, and many had a
great deal of political experience. Seven had served as governors of their states.
Thirty-nine had served in the Congress.
-Eight had signed the Declaration of Independence, and six had signed the Articles
of Confederation.
-A number of the men stood out as leaders. Men like George Washington and
Benjamin Franklin (81 at the time) helped bring ___________________ and respect to
the conventions decisions.
James Madison from Virginia, in his mid-30s at the time, wrote the basic plan for
government that was eventually adopted.
The convention began by unanimously choosing George Washington to preside over
the meetings.
The delegates agreed to abandon the former government altogether, even though
they met to revise the Articles.
They also all agreed on a limited and _______________________ government. The
debate, however, was how limited should the government be? And how many
representatives should each state get?

They agreed that there should be a limit on states being able to coin their own
money, and that the national government needed to be strengthened.
The Virginia Plan:
Virginia presented a plan from the beginning that started debate. They suggested
that the national legislature should be composed of _____________________. The
power in Congress would rest in the larger states because the amount of
representatives was based on population.
The New Jersey Plan:
-Smaller states such New Jersey believed that they would be best served if that
national government wasnt very strong. They wanted freedom and independence
to make their own decisions.
The Connecticut Compromise:
-Delegates from Connecticut proposed parts of both the Virginia and New Jersey
plans. It said the House would be based on a states population and the Senate
would be given two reps per state, regardless of size. This is the system that we use
today.
There were still problems with how each state would count its population.
Specifically, how would the slave populations for each slave-holding state count?
-Almost of the people in the Southern states were enslaved African Americans.
-Southern states wanted them to count towards their _____________________ for the
purposes of influence in the legislature, but not for levying taxes.
-Northern states wanted Southern states to have to count their population for tax
purposes, but not for representation purposes.
The Three-Fifths Compromise settled this. It stated that slaves counted as of a
person.
Another compromise settled issues around business and taxes. Congress was given
power to regulate both interstate commerce and foreign commerce.
Congress was also ______________________ to impose any export taxes. As a result,
the U.S. is one of the few nations in the world today that does not tax the goods
that it exports.
Slavery
-Most northern states were against slavery. But, a new government was badly
needed and they believed that southern states would never approve of a
constitution that banned its practice entirely.
-The authors of the constitution left it to future generations to decide what to do
with the major issues surrounding _________________________.
Other compromises:
-Other compromises included how to elect the president. Should it be directly by the
people, by Congress, or state legislatures? They settled on the Electoral College
system, which is where each state selects electors to choose the president.
(Nebraska has 5 total votes for president).
They also settled on a 4-year term for the president. By September 17, 1787, the
final draft of the U.S. Constitution was ready for signatures.
Two major groups of people emerged in the debate over ratification:
Federalists: wanted the constitution approved as is. They argued that a strong
national government was ________________________.
Anti-Federalists: did not want the constitution approved as is. They argued that
the Constitution was drafted in secret and was only meant to change the Articles,
not to come up with something new entirely. They believed that the national

government was too strong and took too many powers away from the states. They
also wanted a bill of rights ____________________to citizens.
-With the promise of a bill of rights, the tide turned in favor of the Constitution.
Many small states ratified it quickly because they were pleased with equal
representation in the new Senate.
Ratification, or approval, of the constitution required that 9 of the 13 states to ratify
it. On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state. The political debate
finally ended when Rhode Island voted for approval on May 29, 1790.
Although the Constitution went into effect when ______________________ratified it, the
legislatures in Virginia and New York had not yet held a vote on the new
Constitution. Everyone believed that without the support of these two large states,
the Constitution would fail.
-In Virginia, George Washington, James Madison, and Edmund Randolph argued in
support of the new Constitution. They won a close vote on June 25, 1788.
-In New York, Alexander Hamilton argued the case for six weeks. To help win the
battle in New York, he helped write a series of essays with John Jay and James
Madison. The collection of essays was put together in a book called The Federalist.
-On July 26, 1788, New York ratified the Constitution by __________________ votes.
The Constitutional Convention
-George Washington was elected President and John Adams Vice President. On
March 4, 1789, Congress met for the first time in Federal Hall in NYC--the temporary
capital. Washington was sworn in on April 30.
-Congress approved 12 amendments and the states ratified 10 of them, which
became known as the _____________________________.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 3: The Constitution
Structure and Principles (3.1)
Compared with constitutions from other nations, the U.S. Constitution is
______________ in length.
-It sets out the structure and powers of the government, yet it does not spell out
every detail of how the government should work.
-The Founders left it to future generations to decide how to best interpret the
Constitution and figure out the best course of action when situations arise.
Dividing power among the three branches of government (Legislative, Executive,
Judicial) is a key principle of the Constitution.
-The authors of the Constitution feared the possible tyranny of government. They
understood that if power were concentrated too much in one ____________________,
that they could in turn destroy freedoms and liberties for others.
-Three branches were created in government, and each is given significant power.
They all have the ability to check and balance each other as well.
The Constitution established the United States as a republic, meaning it has no king
or queen and elects its leaders.

-It also lists how each branch of the government _________________________, what
they can and cannot do, as well as lists the rights of citizens like us.
The Constitution is divided into three parts (roughly 7,000 words):
-Preamble (We the people)
-Articles (7 total)
-Amendments (27 total)
Preamble:
Articles:
I.
____________________ Branch (Congress)
II.
Executive Branch (Presidency)
III.
Judicial Branch (Supreme Court)
IV.
Relations between the states and to the national government
V.
Process for amending the Constitution
VI.
Establishes Constitution as supreme over all other constitutions
VII.
Ratification process and explanation
Major principles of the Constitution:
Popular sovereignty-rule by the people. Government gets its authority from the
people and without this consent, there is no government.
Federalism-establishes the relationship between states and the national
government.
Separation of powers: power in the government is divided into three branches
instead of just one or two.
Checks and balances: each branch has the ability to check and balance each
other. For example:
#1) The President (executive branch) can nominate someone for the Supreme Court
(judicial branch). But, the final say has to come from the last remaining branch
(legislative--specifically, the U.S. Senate).
#2) Congress passes a law. But, the president doesnt like it. So, he vetoes it. Or,
Congress can pass a law that the president signs, but the Supreme Court can later
declare it unconstitutional.
Judicial review: this is the power of the courts to say that __________________________
of local, state, or national governments are invalid because they conflict with the
principles of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court is the final authority on the meaning of the Constitution.
Three Branches of Government (3.2)
The Legislative Branch:
-Congress is given enumerated powers--those that are ______________________ and
directly listed in the Constitution. They are found in Article I, section 8.
-There are 18 of them, ranging from the ability to raise an army and navy to
regulating currency, declaring war, protecting copyrights, and establishing post
offices.
The final enumerated power is referred to as the elastic clause because it gives
Congress the power to make all laws necessary and proper to carrying out the
powers expressed in Article.
-Naturally, necessary and proper can mean a lot of different things to different
people, so many say its power stretches however those in Congress want it to.

-Congress has the power to introduce bills and get them passed as laws. There are
435 Representatives in the House, and 100 Senators.
The Executive Branch:
-The President of the United States belongs to this branch. The office of the
presidency was initiated in response to the ______________________ of the Articles of
Confederation.
-Its office is described in the second (not the first) article in the Constitution.
The president serves as the face of the nation in many ways. They work with
Congress to carry out laws and nominate justices for the Supreme Court.
-The Constitution grants the president broad, but rather vague, powers.
-The presidents powers can, at times, be a matter of interpretation.
Three Branches of Government
Article II begins simply stating: The executive Power shall be vested in a President
of the United States of America.
-Many scholars call this sentence the wild card of presidential powers--because it
seems the executive power can be played in different ways, like a wild card in a
game.
-A president can fire officials in the executive branch, make agreements with foreign
nations, or take emergency actions to help the nation (even though none of these
executive actions is specifically mentioned in the Constitution).
-Article II, sections 2 and 3 define all the specific ________________________ of the
presidency. The 21st century president has powers that extend beyond those listed
in sections 2 and 3, though.
-Those powers listed to the president are...
Three Branches of Government
1. Commander in chief of the armed forces and the state militias (National
Guard)
2. Appoints heads of executive departments, such as the Department of
Defense (with the approval of the Senate)
3. Can pardon people convicted of federal crimes, except in cases of
impeachment, or reduce a persons sentence or fine
4. makes treaties with foreign nations (with the consent of Senate)
5.) Appoint ambassadors, federal court judges, and other top officials
6.) Delivers annual ______________________________ message to Congress
7.) Calls Congress into special session when necessary
8.) Meets with heads of state, ambassadors, and other foreign officials
9.) Commissions all military officers of the United States
10.) Ensures that the laws Congress passes are faithfully executed
Three Branches of Government
The Presidency: Then and Now
-In 1789 presidential government was a novel idea. A great deal depended on the
character and integrity of the first president.
-George Washington was the person nearly everyone wanted, but he was
____________________. Historians say he wasnt overly enthusiastic about becoming
president at that point in his life.

Early presidents wouldnt recognize the presidency of today. Washington had little to
do on some days and a very small staff. He had tea parties on Friday evenings for
anyone properly attired for the occasion.
-By contrast, modern presidents schedules are timed by the minute. They have a
White House staff numbering in the hundreds and a military force in the
_____________________. A vast federal bureaucracy is made up of many employees.
-Today, a fleet of airplanes and helicopters stands ready to move the president
wherever they may need to go.
The Judicial Branch:
-Article III of the U.S. Constitution outlines the Judicial Branch. It makes up the court
systems (including the U.S. Supreme Court)
-Article III is short in length, but the Judicial branchs power is hard to overstate.
The American judiciary is made up of two different court systems.
1. The federal court systems (power comes from Constitution and federal laws)
2. Courts of the 50 states (power comes from state constitutions and various
state laws)
-Every court has the authority to hear only certain kinds of cases. This authority is
known as the courts jurisdiction.
-Two factors determine _____________________: the subject matter of the case and
who is involved in it. Federal courts try cases that involve federal laws, foreign
treaties, international law, bankruptcy cases, and interpretations of the Constitution.
-In 1800 when the federal government moved to Washington, D.C., the Supreme
Court was assigned a small chamber on the main floor of the Capitol because
capital architects had _________________ to design its own building.
-In the very beginning, justices were required to fulfill their duties when court was in
session and travel by horseback to hear appeals in different district courts when not
in session.
-It was such a tiring job that the first chief justice declined an invitation to serve
again.
-It wasnt until 1891 that Congress created the modern federal court system. The
Supreme Court didnt have its own building until 1935.
-The Supreme Court had humble beginnings in some ways, but its power is
immense. They can interpret the meaning of the Constitution which can have huge
influences. For example, their decision in Brown v. Board of Education allowed black
students into public schools.
-Congress can overturn a Supreme Court decision, however, by either passing a new
law or __________________________the Constitution (the latter isnt easy, though).

Amending the Constitution (3.3)

The first ten amendments compose the Bill of Rights. Since then, the U.S.
Constitution has added _________________ more.
-The Constitution allows itself to adjust to the needs of the times by allowing its
people to decide what is best for them.
-Many amendments have been proposed, but its hard to get them completely
ratified, or passed.
-To propose an amendment and get it passed, you must... (draw diagram from the
slides onto your sheet)

The Constitution can be changed and clarified through _____________________, too.

For example, Article I gives Congress the power to lay and collect taxes. But what
does this mean, exactly?
-Over decades, Congress has expanded the scope of its meaning by passing
complex tax laws filling many volumes.
-The same is true of the executive branch (established by Article II). Congress has
greatly expanded the power of president through creating various cabinet
departments, agencies, boards and commissions (these werent mentioned in the
Constitution when it was written).
-Article III establishes the courts, and Congress has made many changes over the
years to them as they have deemed necessary.
Informal Presidential Changes:
-In 1841, William Henry Harrison (9th President) became the first president to die
while in office. It was ______________________ what was supposed to happen next.
-Vice President John Tyler assumed the powers of the president. He took the
presidential oath of office, although some opposed Tylers interpretation of the
Constitution.
-It wasnt until 1967 (the __________________ Amendment) that presidential
succession rules were made clear (and Tylers precedent was endorsed in the
Constitution).
Modern presidents often conduct foreign affairs by executive agreement. These are
agreements between heads of states, as opposed to treaties, which are between
nations.
-Treaties require Senate approval, _______________________________ do not.
-The Founders thought the executive branch would be concerned mostly with
carrying out laws initiated by Congress. But in the 20th and 21st Centuries,
presidents have been aggressive in requesting legislation from Congress.
-In this way, the president plays a far bigger role than most of the Founders could
have imagined.
The Supreme Court practices judicial review to interpret the meaning of the
Constitution. People often disagree, however, over how the Court should use this
power.
-Some support judicial ____________________, which advocates that the Court should
leave policy making to others.
-Others support judicial __________________________, which argues that the Court
should be active in making changes and settling difficult social and political
questions of the day.

The Constitution has changed in many ways since 1787. Since it is short (relatively)
and allows for people to change it as necessary, it is said to be a living document
and a bundle of compromises.
-Its nature allows it to be durable and stand the test of time.

The Amendments (3.4)

11th Amendment: A state cant be sued in federal court by its residents or
residents of other states or countries.
12th Amendment: Electors shall cast separate ballots for the president and VicePresident.
13th Amendment: Eliminated and forbids ______________________ except for
criminal punishment
14th Amendment: Anyone born in the U.S. is a naturalized citizen. States cant
deprive citizens of life, liberty, or property without due process and must protect
equally the legal rights of all of its citizens.
The Amendments
15th Amendment: States and the U.S. government cant deny citizens the right to
___________________ because of race, color, or having been a slave.
16th Amendment: Congress has the power to collect an income tax.
17th Amendment: Senators are elected by popular vote and if there is a vacancy
there must be an election to fill it. State governors can appoint someone until there
is an election held.
18th Amendment: The making, selling, or transport of alcoholic beverages is
prohibited.
19th Amendment: No citizens can be denied the right to vote because of
___________________.
The Amendments
20th Amendment: The date when the president, vice president, and members of
Congress begin their terms is moved from March to January. Also establishes who
becomes president if the president-elect dies between the election and
inauguration.
21st Amendment: Repeals the 18th Amendment and ____________________ is
allowed again.
22nd Amendment: No person shall be elected to the Office of President more than
twice.
23rd Amendment: Allows residents of the District of Columbia to participate in
Presidential elections and gave them 3 electors.
The Amendments
24th Amendment: The right to vote in federal elections cant be denied because
of a poll tax.
25th Amendment: If the president dies, resigns or is removed from office, the vice
president becomes president. It also establishes succession if the vice president is
unable to perform the duties of president.
26th Amendment: Voting age is set at ______________________ of age.
27th Amendment: Any increase in congressional pay does not take effect until
after the next regular congressional election (first proposed more than 200 years
earlier).
Review of the 3 Branches (on the test)

Executive: President of the U.S. the Cabinet-enforces laws.

Judicial: Supreme Court and other courts-interprets laws.
__________________________: Congress-makes laws.