Upgrading the 69 kV transmission line between

Demerara and Berbice

A Proposal Submitted by Selwin Collier

Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Technology
University Of Guyana
January 30th, 2015

Summary/Abstract

This proposal is merely based on the upgrading of the 69kV transmission line between Demerara
and Berbice. The design and construction of the previous transmission line between Demerara and
Berbice has experienced an appreciable increase of loads in Berbice resulting in inconsistencies in
transferred power. These inconsistencies are causes for concern since there are plans to incorporate
the future Amaila falls project on this very network for the transfer of power to Berbice. Through
the use of calculations, modeling and operational data, identifying the transfer capability of the
present 69 kV line between Demerara and Berbice would be objectified. The present and future
Berbice loads would be accessed or developed and the possibility of a new transmission line would
be designed with specific voltage and current carrying capacity to meet the requirements of the
system over the next 20 years. Further analysis also would include possible route for this new
transmission line where all designs would be modeled to demonstrate their operational capability.

Table of Contents
Summary/Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 2
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ 4
Background ............................................................................................................................... 5
Statement of Problem ............................................................................................................... 6
Scope of Work ............................................................................................................................... 7
Overview .................................................................................................................................... 7
Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 8
Transmission Constraints .................................................................................................... 9
Thermal Constraints ........................................................................................................... 10
Voltage Constraints ............................................................................................................ 10
System Operated Constraints ............................................................................................ 11
Alternative Solutions .............................................................................................................. 13
Evaluation ................................................................................................................................ 15
Decision .................................................................................................................................... 16
Implementation of Work ............................................................................................................ 17
Facility .......................................................................................................................................... 18
Schedule ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Budget .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 21

List of Figures
Figure 1 Short Line Transmission................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2 HVDC and HVAC Transmission systems cost ................................................................ 9
Figure 3 Transmission-line loadability curve for 60-Hz overhead lines - no series or shunt
compensation ................................................................................................................................ 13

Introduction
There has been an increased percentage of load in the Berbice area resulting in a percentage voltage
drop along the Demerara Berbice transmission link. Other contributions to voltage drops arrived
from mechanical and electrical factors. With the advent of the hydropower project scheduled to
come online in the near future, expectations are that this same transmission link would be used to
continue distributing electrical power to Berbice. Coupled with the existing voltage drop on the
current transmission system and the expected increase in load demand, expectations are that further
voltage drops will occur requiring an improved design as well as a proposed new transmission
link.

Background

The first form of transmission link was in 1886 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts where a 1 kV
alternating current (AC) allocation system was established. AC power at 2 kV, transmitted 30 km,
was also installed at Cerchi, Italy, the same year. Nikola Tesla, a mechanical engineer, on May 16,
1888, conveyed a lecture on the topic A New System of Alternating Current Motors and
Transformers, explaining the equipment which let resourceful generation and use of poly-phase
(a means of distributing alternating current electrical power) alternating currents. The initial
transmission of three-phase alternating current using high voltage happened in 1891 at the time of
the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. The quick industrialization in the 20th century
made electrical transmission lines and grids a significant part of the infrastructure in many
countries [1]. Guyana took a while but in the late 1980s they had an installed electricity-generating
capacity of about 168,000 kilowatts, and annual production was some 385 million kilowatt-hours,
nearly all generated in thermal facilities [2].
The mining areas of Linden and Everton (Upper Berbice) received power from Alcan and
Reynolds, both expatriate companies that respectively owned the Mackenzie (Linden) and
Berbice-based bauxite operations [3] hence establishing the first transmission link to Berbice from
Linden. 22nd June, 2014 history was made when Guyana Power and Light (GPL) completed the

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transmission interconnection of the Demerara and Berbice Interconnected Systems. Overall
available generation capacity in Demerara and Berbice was then 100.6MW and the peak demand
was 95MW [4]. Since then there has been an increase in load resulting in low transferred power
from Sophia to Berbice as well as other contributing factors.

Statement of Problem

In the event of the loss of all its power generation in Berbice, and more particularly because of the
government's proposal to establish the Amaila Falls hydropower facility with cheaper electricity
supplies, GPL would like to have the transmission capability such that it can supply the entire
Berbice area from Demerara.

Scope of Work

Overview

Research has been done on understanding transmission upgrades and what are the requirements
for upgrading and possibly redesigning a new transmission link system, for, developing and
implementing a stable and highly efficient transmission system. Some results indicated that voltage
drop increases as transmission line length increases. Similarly, the terminating voltage at the
receiving end may vary above or below the recommended or nominal operating voltage, depending
on the types of loads connected to the receiving end. The criteria required the receiving-end
voltages to be maintained within specified bounds (usually 5% of the nominal voltage).
Customer and utility equipment operates most efficiently when operated near the nominal voltage
level [5].
The design of this project would be based on installing a capacitor bank to improve the transferred
power in the transmission network. The Demerara Berbice transmission link will be modelled
by creating equivalent circuits. Different sub stations would be represented by bus bars, each
having varying characteristics such as load, generating and slack bus. Power world and Matlab
would be used to simulate practical operating conditions and analyze systems parameters.

Literature Review

Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk transfer of electrical
energy, from generating power plants to substations located near population centers. This is
distinct from the local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is typically
referred to as electricity distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other,
become high voltage transmission networks [6]. Alternating current (AC) is the main driving force
in the industries and residential areas, but for the long transmission line (more than 400 miles) AC
transmission is more expensive than that of direct current (DC) [7]. Other approximations of
transmission lines are:
1. Short transmission line (less than 80 km)
2. Medium transmission line (between 80 and 250 km)
3. Long transmission line (more than 250 km)
The longest single line transmission within the Demerara Berbice transmission link is 55.904
km highlighting that short line approximations are used for carrying out line analysis. Only the
series resistance and reactance are included for short line approximations. The shunt admittance
is neglected [8].

Figure 1 Short Line Transmission

Current and voltage limits are the two important factors of the high voltage transmission line. The
AC resistance of a conductor is higher than its DC resistance because of skin effect, and eventually
loss is higher for AC transmission. The switching surges are the serious transient over voltages for

9
the high voltage transmission line, in the case of AC transmission the peak values are two or three
times normal crest voltage but for DC transmission it is 1.7 times normal voltage. High voltage
direct current (HVDC) transmission has less corona and radio interference than that of high voltage
alternating current (HVAC) transmission line [7]. In other words, it is safe to use HVAC
transmission for this identified area of study especially due to cost attached.

Figure 2 HVDC and HVAC Transmission systems cost

Transmission lines, however, have been susceptible to many influential factors that determines its
effectiveness in terms of its ability to transfer power effectively. Some of these factors include
environmental, electrical, mechanical and economic factors. As a result reliability and congestion
issues are birthed such as (1) transmission constraints, (2) thermal constraints, (3) voltage
constraints and (4) system operated constraints [5].
Transmission Constraints
As the transmission system has expanded over the years, surplus capacity available on
transmission lines always seems to be consumed as the system grows or as transmission users find
more economical ways of meeting system demands. Expansion leads to more usage that leads to
more expansion. Transmission congestion results when a particular electricity transmission path

10
cannot accommodate increased power flow. Although the reasons for congestion vary, the
common consequence is that increased power flow on a particular transmission path is not possible
without risking system reliability.
Thermal Constraints
Line sag caused by exceeding a transmission lines thermal limit can result in a line fault, which
is an arc between the transmission line and nearby vegetation, structures, or ground. When line
faults occur, protective transmission line components remove the line from service to protect
terminal equipment from serious damage. Once the faulted line is removed from service, other
transmission lines in the system experience increased loads as they compensate for loss of the
faulted line. Overloading can then occur on these transmission lines, which might exceed thermal
operating constraints. If not controlled promptly, additional transmission line faults may occur. To
ensure reliable system operation, a thermal operating constraint (specified in real power, or
megawatts) is often placed on troublesome transmission lines to control the permissible power
transfer across the lines. This limit establishes an upper bound on a particular lines transfer
capability. It is important to note that in some cases, the transfer limit set on a particular line may
actually minimize the overheating of a different transmission line. Transmission line additions tend
to alleviate the potential for exceeding transmission line capacity limits, at least until future uses
of the additional transfer capacity are discovered and new limiting factors are reached.
System operators understand that, as a short-term workaround, the thermal limit may be exceeded
in emergency situations. For this reason, transmission lines may also carry an emergency rating
subject to a length of time that permits a higher transfer limit as long as the length of time the
transfer is in effect does not exceed the specified period, for example, a 10-min emergency rating.
In general, thermal constraints are more common in areas where the transmission system is tightly
interconnected (shorter lines) [9].
Voltage Constraints
Primarily as a result of transmission line reactance, the voltage at the receiving end of a conductor
will be less than the voltage applied on the sending end. Large voltage deviations either above or
below the nominal value may damage utility or customer equipment. Therefore, operating voltage
constraints are employed to preserve operating conditions that meet necessary voltage
requirements. In general, voltage constraints are more typical in areas where transmission lines are

11
sparse and long [9]. It may be more economical to address voltage constraints by modifying
existing lines, such as adding capacitance, rather than by adding new transmission capacity.
System Operated Constraints
Parallel Flows
System operators can estimate the impacts of contract flows (those flows defined as point-to-point
transactions) on parallel paths in the transmission system. These estimates allow operators to adjust
contract schedules to minimize the likelihood of encountering a transfer limit on system
transmission lines caused by loop flows. Therefore, specific operating constraints may be in place
to mitigate the effects of parallel path power flows.
Operating security
To ensure system operating reliability, an industry-derived set of standards and procedures has
been recommended by the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC). These
recommendations suggest, for example, that the system should be operated so that it remains
reliable in spite of disruption of a single system component (e.g., loss of one generator or loss of
one transmission line). As a result, NERC operating guides tend to limit the maximum allowable
operating capacity of a transmission line to a value less than its actual thermal limit to ensure
available capacity in the event of a nearby transmission line outage. Similarly, NERC guidelines
call for a generation margin to assure that sufficient generation remains on-line in the event of a
generator outage. Likewise, operating guides exist to limit system effects caused by other types of
conditions that affect system stability. All of these operating conditions are recommended as a
means to improve overall system reliability while underutilizing specific system components. In
addition, all system operators follow preventive operating guidelines to assure overall system
integrity and reliability.
System and Voltage Stability
Because loads constantly change, small variations in frequency occur as the mechanical power at
generator turbines adjusts to variations in electrical power demand. As long as frequency variations
are small (i.e., small-signal stability), the interconnected system remains synchronized. The system
will continue to operate in a stable manner unless the variations continue to gain in magnitude and

12
oscillate at low frequencies. These oscillations can lead to more threatening voltage and frequency
problems that may lead to instability and potentially to cascading outages.
Larger oscillations occur when system components are removed from service because a fault or
disruption occurs. For example, frequency variations caused by a generator that goes off-line tend
to be larger in magnitude than small-signal oscillations caused by load variations. Larger frequency
swings provide more potential for uncontrolled swings that could lead to steady-state instability.
Preventative measures are needed to minimize the likelihood of system instability, which could
lead to widespread system outages. A system that lacks transient stability can produce these
operating characteristics if corrective measures are not exercised to eliminate the condition.
Voltage instability occurs when the transmission system is exposed to large reactive power flows.
As previously described, large reactive power flows on long transmission lines result in voltage
drops at the receiving end of the line. Lower voltage causes increased current, which causes
additional reactive losses. The end result is voltage collapse, which can damage equipment and
cause additional outages, if left unresolved.
In general, long transmission lines are stability limited, not thermally limited [9]. Generally,
depending on the system conditions, equipment enhancements to add more reactive power or
additional transmission lines can relieve steady-state and voltage stability problems.
Moreover, in practice, power lines are not operated to deliver their theoretical maximum power,
which is based on rated terminal voltages and an angular displacement = 90 across the line.
Figure 3 shows a practical line loadability curve plotted below the theoretical steady-state stability
limit. This curve is based on the voltage-drop limit VR/VS 0:95 and on a maximum angular
displacement of 30 to 35 across the line (or about 45 across the line and equivalent system
reactances), in order to maintain stability during transient disturbances. The curve is valid for
typical overhead 60-Hz lines with no compensation. Note that for short lines less than 80 km long,
loadability is limited by the thermal rating of the conductors or by terminal equipment ratings, not
by voltage drop or stability considerations [8].

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Figure 3 Transmission-line loadability curve for 60-Hz overhead lines - no series or shunt
compensation

Alternative Solutions

There are a variety of approaches that may provide incremental improvements to transfer
capability [5]: 1. Permit Higher Line Operating Temperatures: - This approach is not generally
recommended for extended periods of time, higher line operating temperatures may be
permissible as line ratings are increased. However, increased sag and insulator integrity
may be compromised. This alternative should be used with caution and should not be
viewed as a permanent solution to a thermal line limit.
2. Improve Transmission Line Real-Time Monitoring: - The actual temperatures occurring
on transmission lines depend on the current, as well as on ambient weather conditions, such
as temperature, wind speed, and wind direction. Because the weather affects the dissipation
of heat into the air, an effort to monitor environmental conditions can result in higher line
loading, if ambient conditions permit. When actual monitored values are used to establish

14
line ratings, generic ratings based on nonspecific environmental conditions that are often
very conservative can be avoided.
3. Uprate Substation Equipment: - Just as thermal limits define maximum current flow values
on transmission lines, equipment located at the terminating ends of a transmission line also
have maximum current limits. In some situations, the limiting capacity may be linked to
the equipment capabilities at the substation and not to the transmission line. If this is the
case, the equipment at the substation can be replaced with larger components to increase
the effective transfer limit of the line and its associated equipment.
4. Re-conductor Existing Transmission Lines: - To mitigate underrated transmission lines,
the actual line conductors can be replaced with larger conductors to increase the transfer
limit of the transmission line. Sometimes, multiple conductors are bundled together to
obtain this improvement. As long as existing tower structures are adequate to support the
additional weight of the new conductors, this alternative is useful to increase transfer
capability. In some situations, this alternative may be cost-effective even when tower
structures and insulators require modifications.
5. Install Phase-Shifting Transformers: - Loop flows can have a significant effect on
designated transfer limits. One method to reduce loop flows is to uses phase-shifting
transformers to help direct flows to transmission lines with sufficient transfer capability.
As a result, transfers that take place on transmission lines that are not part of the primary
flow path are lessened so that transfer limit violations are not attained. Although phaseshifting transformers are costly and consume additional energy.
6. Install Capacitors for Reactive Power Support: - In situations where voltage support is
problematic, capacitor banks can be used to increase the reactive power at a system bus to
return voltage levels to nominal operating values. This method of increasing reactivepower support is often used to minimize voltage support problems and improve system
stability.
7. Design a new transmission line: - Transmission lines may reach the point of no return
whereby upgrades to existing transmission lines may not be too effective. Hence, the
implementation of a new transmission line is advised. In other scenarios where new designs
may be very effect but not necessary due to the status of the current transmission line are
not advised. This is mainly due to the financial impact new design inflicts.

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Evaluation
Solutions

Permit Higher Line

Time

Efficiency

Risk Level

Cost
Short

Long

Term

Term

Low

High

Cheap

Costly

Low

Medium

Cheap

Cheap

Medium

Low

Costly

----

High

Low

Costly

Costly

Low

Low

Costly

----

High

Low

Costly

----

High

Low

Costly

----

Operating Temperatures
Improve Transmission
Line Real-Time
Monitoring
Uprate Substation
Equipment
Re-conductor Existing
Transmission Lines
Install Phase-Shifting
Transformers
Install Capacitors for
Reactive Power Support
Design a new
transmission line

Table 1 Decision Matrix

Time: - 0 means very little time
5 means requires allot of time
Time was rated from 0 to 5 for every possible alternative solution.

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Decision

The primary objective of this project does not lead to a definitive decision. The research invested
in this project is to explore all possibilities associated with not just upgrading the current
transmission line between Demerara and Berbice but through parameters manipulation be able to
establish a close to ideal transmission line to facilitate primarily the eventual implementation of
the Amaila Falls hydro project. This in itself may most likely lead to the design of a new
transmission line.

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Implementation of Work

The upgrade to the 69 kV transmission link will be designed and modelled using the
MatLab/Simulink software as well as the Power World software. The processes that needs to be
undertaken in order to complete this design are as follows:
Obtain all the systems parameter information as it relates to the present transmission link
between Demerara and Berbice
Develop an equivalent circuit of the network
Developing an equivalent model makes model the entire system very simple cause
you generally sum all the main parameters such as Load, Generation etc.
Model equivalent circuit using Matlab and Power World simulation softwares
Apply various load ratings on transmission line to analyze system behavior
Doing the following allows us to understand the actual capability of the system. We
would then have an idea exactly where maximum voltage drop occurs in the system
as well as how to implement solutions.
Improve system conditions by applying various alternatives solutions for the improvement
the systems stability and efficiency
The objective at this point of the project is to improve the maximum power transfer
capabilities of the present transmission line.
Maximum load will be applied to the line in order to observe reactions after system
improvements
Carryout various calculations to develop further solutions based on forecast load demand
for next twenty (20) years for loads in Berbice.
The concept of developing a new transmission line beckons at this point of the
project.
Analysis will be done to identify if the present transmission line can withstand
future load capacities applying considerations for electrical, mechanical,
environmental and economic factors.
Design new transmission line

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Facility

This project design will be done in an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) which is a
software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software
development Schedule. The computer softwares that would be used are the MatLab/Simulink and
the Power World software.

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Schedule

Gantt chart

20

Budget

Items

Cost

Printing

$5000

Transportation

$10000

Total

$15000

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[3]

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http://www.gplinc.net/about/history. [Accessed 17 January 2015].

[4]

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[5]

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[6]

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[Online]. Available:
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ml. [Accessed 24 January 2015].

[7]

K. Meah and S. Ula, "Comparative Evaluation of HVDC and HVAC Transmission

Systems," IEEE Xplore, Wyoming, 2008.

[8]

J. D. Glover, M. S. Sarma and T. J. Overbye, Power System: Analysis and Design,

Connecticut: Global Engineering, 2012.

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[9]

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1986.

[10] Artsofte, "Reactive Power Compensation Devices," SverdlovElektro Group, 2015.

[Online]. Available: http://svel.ru/en/catalog/ukrmsvel?id=53. [Accessed 26 January
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