‘Advanced Testing and Characterization of Bituminous Materials ~ Loizos, Partl, Scarpas & Al-adi (eds) © 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-55854-9. Age hardening behaviour of bituminous stabilized materials MLE. Twagira & K.J. Jenkins University of Stellenbosch, South Africa ABSTRACT: In recent times, fundamental durability properties of bitumen stabilized materials (BSMs), in-terms of age hardening and moisture damage, have been a concern for practitioners. It is known from hot-mix asphalt (HMA) that age hardening occurs dur- ing in-plant mixing, construction and long-term in-service conditions in the pavement. The same principle has been used to investigate the age hardening behaviour of BSMs, but look- ing at in-plant production and in-service condition, which are critical for BSMs. This paper discusses the results on the behaviour of bitumen age hardening in the foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion mixes. The study shows that short term age hardening can occur in foamed bitumen due to long hours of circulation of the binder at high temperature (between 170° to 180°C) before mixing. However, it has been shown that the foaming process itself does not alter the physical properties of the bitumen significantly. For bitumen emulsion, the theo- logical properties (penetration, viscosity, and softening point) of residual emulsified bitu- men afler evaporation of the water found to be consistent with the base bitumen. During long-term in-service conditions, however, foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion mixes yield significant age hardening of the binders. At the same time, age hardening behaviour differs for the foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion, with the formed bitumen having higher age hardening potential. 1 INTRODUCTION ‘The durability properties in terms of resistance to ageing of the bitumen binder, is the key factor for the binder characterization in asphaltic mixes, and hence pavement performance ‘The limited research done in the past has indicated that BSMs can age significantly during in-service pavement life (Jenkins et al. 2000, Overby et al. 2004, Gueit et al. 2007, Serfass et al 2008). Jenkins’ research on foamed bitumen mastic indicated that the thin film binder thick- ness and high surface area of bitumen in BSM-foam can render it susceptible to premature ageing if not properly compacted or sealed on surface. Overby et al’s investigation of the field performance of foamed bitumen, indicated that bitumen properties reduced from 80/100 pen- etration to approximately 10 dmm penetration after 10 years of pavement life. Guites et al recognized the need for investigating age hardening behaviour of bitumen emulsion. How- ever their emphasis was on finding the appropriate method for binder extraction. Serfass et al investigated age hardening behaviour of emulsion mixes in the laboratory prepared samples and field constructed sections. Their results found that bitumen penetration decreases from 88 dmm to 42 dmm in 90 days under accelerated curing at 35°C and 20% relative humidity, and field age hardening from 82 dmm penetration to 7 dmm for unsealed and 14 dmm for sealed sections. For these reasons binder ageing of BSMs has been of concern to practition- ers globally, hence the need for further investigation of this behaviour. Short term age hardening of the original bitumen in HMA is different from that of BSMs ‘The variables that can cause age hardening of the HMA are high aggregate and bitumen temperatures, thin binder films and presence of air during in-plant mixing, and mixing time on construction. These phenomena do not occur during the BSM mixing process because field or in-plant mixing and construction are done at ambient temperature of the aggregate Some researchers have indicated concern at the high bitumen temperature required during 239foaming process, i.c. where bitumen is heated at 170°C to 180°C and combined with moisture The physiochemical change of bitumen which might be influenced by these factors needs to be investigated. For bitumen emulsion, elevated temperature is not an issue for both mixing and construction. Therefore, short term hardening due to high temperature will not play a key role. However, influence of chemical reaction of bitumen with emulsifying agent and high shearing process during production of emulsion requires investigation During the long-term in-service conditions of an asphalt pavement the bitumen can undergo age hardening, depending on mixture characteristics and environmental conditions. The rate of age hardening process will be dictated by factors such as the severity of the tem- perature, time of exposure, ultraviolet light, access of air and water into the mix, and the intrinsic reactivity of the bitumen. Unlike HMA, which is exposed directly to environmental conditions (at the surface of the pavement structure), access of oxygen into thin films of binder in BSM base layers is linked to high air void content, presence of moisture in the mix, and inadequate compaction or sealing on the surface. The high surface area of bitumen droplets and non-continuous nature of the dispersed bitumen, particularly on the mortar fractions, could influence the rate of age hardening of BSMs. Tulfour & Ishai (1990) expressed the dependency of binder age hardening in terms of the variation in value of physical or rheological properties with time, as illustrated in Equation 1: P(t) = ACT, t, 1, K) ay where P(t) = physical or rheological properties of bitumen; T = environmental temperature; (= time of exposure; 1 = length of diffusion path; and K = intrinsic reactivity of bitumen. Parameter P(t) measures resistance to detrimental effects of the oxidation process, where durable bitumen would reflect little change in P(t). Modelling of age hardening is not an objective of this paper, hence the age hardening function is not discussed further. In this study the short-term ageing to simulate in-plant production, was first investigated using different types of bitumen from different refineries. The base and foamed bitumen were tested for its rheological properties i.e. viscosity, penetration and softening point with respect to time after circulation of bitumen in the laboratory foam plant (WBL10). The same theological properties were determined for the residual of bitumen emulsion after evapora- tion of moisture. Secondly, medium term age hardening was investigated from laboratory prepared speci- mens of foamed bitumen or bitumen emulsion mixes. BSMs produced from different aggre- gate types were mixed in the laboratory (compacted and cured). The bitumen was then extracted and rheological properties of recovered bitumen were tested. Thirdly, the long-term age hardening was investigated on cores extracted from pavements that had been in-service for five to ten years, In this way, the differential ageing (if any) of the foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion was investigated for purpose of guiding the mix design process for BSMs The extraction and recovery of bitumen from the field cores and compacted specimens for both foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion binders was carried out using a cold centrifuge with minimum force of 3000 times gravity the Abson method. The Abson method was per- formed in accordance to ASTM D1856-95a immediately after cold centrifuge. 2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 2.1 Materials Four types of straight run bitumen (penetration grade) from two different refineries and slow setting emulsion were procured for the laboratory investigation on this study. Two penetra- tion grade binders i.e. 80/100 and 60/70 were sourced from NATREF in Gauteng Province, and two binders i.e. 80/100 and 60/70 were sourced from CALTEX in Western Cape Province ‘These bitumen types are commonly used for the foaming process in South Africa. Therefore, the selection was made to compare age hardening behaviour of bitumen of different grade and from different source of refineries. The slow setting emulsion (ANi B SS-60) commonly used for recycling process was also procured from COLAS-SA in Western Cape Province. 240Table 1. List of pavement section selected for field ageing studies. Bitumen emulsion ‘oamed bitumen NT TR 11/1, near Cape Town, 1243/1, near Vereeniging Grassy park, Cape Town, N7TRIIMI, near Cape Towa Grassy Park, Cape Town, Shedgum road, Saudi Arabia Table 2, Summary of cores sourced for investigating BSMs field age hardening behaviour. Cores Location of Pavement section Mix type number cores Remark Grassy Park at the robot Foam, 4 owr, BWP Binder Straight section Foam 6 OWP. BWP, YL extracted Straight section Emulsion 6 IWP, BWP, YL. and tested NI TRII/I, near Cape Town Straight section Foam 6 OWP BWP, YL Ongoing Straight section Emulsion 6 OWP, BWP, YL 1243/1, near Vereeniging Straight section Foam 18 OWP. BWP. YL — Ongoing Straight section Emulsion 18 OWP, BWP. YL Shedgum road, in Saudi Arabia Binder — Straight section Foam 6 owe. IWP, extracted BWP and tested ‘Note: OWP = outer wheel pass, BWP = between wheel pass, IWP = inner wheel pass, YL = yellow line. Pavement sections constructed with either foamed bitumen or bitumen emulsion were listed for the field age hardening experimental investigation. To be able to compare the effect of different environmental conditions, 28 cores were sourced from Western Cape Province, and 36 cores from Gauteng Province. An additional 6 cores were sourced from Saudi Arabia ‘The list of pavement sections included in this study is indicated in Table 1 above. Table 2 isa summary of the source of cores and pavement sections, mix type, cores number, and location of extractions in pavement. 2.2. Method of binder extraction and recovery ‘The conventional methods for qualitative extraction and recovery of asphalt from paving mixture are done either by centrifuge, vacuum, or reflux extraction (ASTM, 2003). Differ~ ent common solvents have been used in the binder extraction and recovery procedures, e.g. trichloroethylene (TCE), methylene chloride, benzene, I-trichloroethane (TCA). The extraction and recovery of bitumen has an important influence on the binder charac- teristics. Many studies have been performed to define the most suitable extraction method and solvent, sometimes with contradictory conclusions with no consensus (Okan & Mang 2003) To date there are several extraction-recovery methods and solvent choices for both binder content determination and binder performance characterization, However, the consensus in Europe for the removal of solvent is by using rotavapour distillation, with an alternative of 241using the Abson method (ASTM, 2003). The studies have indicated that the standard Abson recovery method may leave a residual amount of solvent in the recovered binder or could cover heat the bitumen, if not done with care, which might result in change of viscosity prop- erties (Burr et al. 1990, SABS 307 1993, Peterson et al. 2000, National Highway Cooperative Research Program 2000). In this study, the extraction and recovery of the bitumen from the extracted field cores was done using standard Abson method according to ASTM D 1856-95a. The process consists of cold centrifuge with minimum force of 3000 times gravity. Centrifuge cups were used to collect filler. Trichloroethylene solvent was used to separate binder from aggregates It was observed during extraction that the first application of the centrifuge process is unable to capture all fillers. Therefore, the centrifuge processes was repeated three to four times. The tendency of foamed bitumen or emulsion binders to adhere to the filler particles ‘on the mix created challenges for total separation of binder-aggregate using the cold cen- trifuge process. This resulted in some super fines (significantly smaller than 0.075 mm ic. about 0.002 mm) being recovered with bitumen. The recovery of bitumen from the aqueous phase in bitumen emulsion was achieved through evaporation method in accordance to ASTM 244-A. 200 g of ANi B SS-60 was poured into a container placed on a burner with a controlled flame using a thermometer, and stirred continuously until no remaining moisture was observed. Check on complete evapora- tion of water from emulsion was done by placing clear glass on top of the container to check any trace of water vapour. 2.3 Determination of rheological properties Physical or rheological properties of recovered bitumen were determined by carrying out penetration, viscosity and softening point tests. The penetration test was performed at 25°C with 100 g of loading weight and needle penetrating bitumen for 5 seconds in accordance to ASTM DS-IP49. The softening point test was done in accordance to ASTM D36. The viscos- ity test was done in accordance to ASTM D4402 using a Brookfield Model DV-I viscometer with thermocel temperature control system. The applied spindle was SC-29 at the 60°C and SC-21 at 135°C. These temperature ranges are standard for determining viscosity behaviour of bitumen at field condition and in plant mixing condition respectively. The results that were obtained could be compared with the South African SABS 307 specification. The SABS 307 standard specification for the penetration, softening point and viscosity are indicated in Table 3 below. 24 Characterisation of age hardening of BSMs 24.1 Temperature susceptibility ‘The approach used for characterisation of temperature susceptibility of the bitumen of differ ent grade from different refineries was Penetration Index (PI). The PI of bitumen is calculated from the relationship between bitumen penetration value on a log scale and the corresponding temperature (softening point) as indicated in Equation 2 below (Shell Bitumen, 2003): Table 3. Specification for road bitumen in South Africa, SABS 307. Penetration grade ———— Test Properties 40/50 60/70 80/100 method Penetration at 25°C, ASTM 1/10 mm [dma], 40.50 60-70 80 100 DS-IP49 Softening point, [°C], 49-59 46-56 42-51 ASTM D36 Viscosity at 60°C, [Pa.s] 220-400 120-250 75-150 ASTM D4402 Viscosity at 135°C, [Pa.s] 0.27-0.65 0.22-0.45 0.15-0.4 ASTM D4402 2421952~500-logPen -20SP ‘S0logPen —SP—120 Q) where SP = Softening point (°C); Pen = Penetration at 25°C (dmm). 24.2 Ageing index ‘The factors influencing age hardening on BSMs have been stated above. Shell Bitumen (2003) indicated that the effect on change of bitumen viscosity due to thin film binder dispersed in the mix can be measured by the Ageing Index (AI). AI is determined by the ratio of the viscosity of the aged bitumen (n,) to the viscosity of the original base bitumen (n,) both measured at the same temperature. 3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 3.1 Short-term age-hardening behaviour of BSMs The consistency of foamed bitumen during in plant circulation (ie. | hr, 4 hrs, and 8 hrs) was measured to investigate a short term age hardening of foamed bitumen during production (mixing) process. The initial rheological properties of the grades of bitumen obtained from NATREF and CALTEX refineries, both 80/100 and 60/70 were tested and the results are indicated in Table 4. The total circulation time in the plant was 8 hours. Rheological properties were measured ‘on samples taken at intervals of 1 hh, 4 hrs, and 8 hrs from the base bitumen (before foaming) and from the foamed bitumen. The 8 hours of circulation is considered minimum applicable for in plant and field construction. The decline in penetration values shown in Figure 1 indi- cates that 80/100 base bitumen from both NATREF and CALTEX refineries undergoes age hardening of approximately 30% in short term, when circulated at a temperature between 170°C to 180°C. The circulation temperature between 170°C to 180°C is considered suitable for producing best foam properties in the mix (Jenkins et al. 2000). Similar trends of age hardening occurred for the foamed bitumen that was tested after collapse. The comparison between the two refineries indicates that the higher the penetration of the base bitumen (e.g. initial 96 penetration vs. 84 penetration) the lower the age hardening effect. Figure 2 shows the ageing behaviour of the base bitumen versus foamed bitumen made from 60/70 penetration binder circulated at a temperature of between 170°C and 180°C. Both base bitumen and foamed bitumen show no signs of significant ageing in the first four hours However after eight hours of age hardening, a drop in penetration of 17% for the NATRE] and 12% for the CALTEX was realized. It can be seen from the results that initial penetration value for CALTEX 60/70 base bitumen did not comply with SABS 307 specification, with a Table 4, Initial rheological properties of NATREF and CALTEX pen-grade bitumen. NATREF bitumen CALTEX bitumen Penetration grade Properties 80/100 60/70 80/100 60/70 Penetration at 25C/100 g/5 s, 1/10 mm, 96 65 84 3 Softening Point, [°C], 47 50 47 50 Viscosity at 60°C, [Pas], 132.0 220.2 134.0 202.0 Viscosity at 135°C, [Pa.s] 0.306 0.370 0.342 0.361 Penetration Index, (PI) 0.324 0.574 0.721 0,284 243120 ONAREF (80/100) Bit 100 [DNATREF(80/100) Foam ACALTEX (80/100) Bit 80 OCALTEX(80/100) Foam i 60 E40 | = 20 0 ° 2 4 6 8 10 Bitumen circulation time [hr] at 170°C-180°C Figure 1, Penetration versus ageing time [hr] of base bitumen and foamed bitumen (80/100 penetra- tion) circulated at temperature between 170°C 180°C. 90 80 z 70 = 60 a g 50 & 40 © NATREF (60/70) Bit i 30 [CNATREF(60/70) Foam & 20 ACALTEX (60/70) Bit 10 © CALTEX (60/70) foam | 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Bitumen circulation time [hr] at 170°C-180°C. Figure 2, Penetration versus ageing time [hr] of base bitumen and foamed bitumen (60/70 penetration) circulated at temperature between 170°C 180°C. result of 73 dmm maximum penetration as opposed to 70 maximum specified. The penetration. of residual foamed bitumen circulated for one hour is higher than the base bitumen ‘The relationship between penetration and softening point of 80/100 penetration grade from NATREF and CALTEX is shown in Figure 3. The relationship reveals an increase in binder hardness over the short term. This behaviour gives an insight into the behaviour of BSM-foam, Foam bitumen is recognised as having a high affinity for the fine aggregate 244Penetration at 25°C, (dmm) 120 ‘ONATREF (80/100) Bit [UNATREF (80/100) Foam A CALTEX( 80/100) Bit > CALTEX (80/100) Foam, 100 80 eo } 46 47 48 49 50 51 82 Softening point °C) Figure 3. Penetration versus softening point of 80/100 base bitumen and foamed bitumen 3000 2500 = CALTEX E2000 S & 1500 3 ‘© NATREF (80/100) Bit 2 100 DNATREF (80/100) Foam g A CALTEX (80/100) Bit gs soo © CALTEX (80/100) Foam oo ° 2 4 6 8 10 Bitumen circulation time [hr] at 170°C. 180°C Figure 4. Viscosity versus Circulation time [hr] of 80/100 base bitumen and foamed bitumen at temperature between 170°C-180°C. 0.000 0200 0.500 0400 Penetration Index, PI 1.000 -1200 Figure 5, bitumen. one Lhe hrs Shrs GNATREF(60/100) Bit m= NATREF(80/100) Foam |B CALTEX(80/100) Bit ( CALTEX(80/100) Foam = EMULSION(80/100) Bit 1 EMULSION(80/100) Resid} Bitumen cireulation time (hr) at 170°C-180°C Penetration Index, (PI) of the base bitumen versus foamed bitumen for 80/100 penetration 245particles with high surface area to mass ratio, The effect on age hardening of foamed bitumen could influence cohesive behaviour of foam mastic both positively and negatively. The positive effect would be increase in stiffness of the mix, while the negative effect is the influence on moisture damage (Jenkins et al. 2008). In addition, it should also be noted that the foamed bitumen is dispersed in a non-continuous form in the mixture, which means age hardening could significantly influence long term durability behaviour of the BSM-foam. Figure 4 above shows viscosity behaviour of 80/100 base bitumen and foamed bitumen at 60°C, It is evident from the trend line that viscosity increases as the bitumen hardens. CALTEX bitumen shows higher rate of change of viscosity with time than NATREF bitu- men, However, the behaviour of NATREF bitumen and foamed bitumen show minimal ther- mal susceptibility during the first 4 hours, with a sharp increase at 8 hours of thermal ageing. It can be concluded from this behaviour that foamed bitumen mixes produced with binder that has been circulated at high temperatures for extended periods (>8 hours) may compro- mise the mix performance. In addition, it is apparent that age hardening differs, depending on the binder source and refining process. The bitumen age hardening characteristics should therefore be considered during mix design. Although not presented, 60/70 penetration grade provided similar results. 3.2 Effect on bitumen grade and source on temperature susceptibility Figure 5 shows the relationship between PI and bitumen circulation time, for 80/100 penetra- tion grade binder at a temperatures range between 170°C-180°C. The calculated PI values for base bitumen and foamed bitumen ranges between -0.32 to 1.13. According to Shell Bitumen (2003), most good paving binder has PI values ranging between +1 to -1. This reveals the age hardening effects and temperature susceptibility of the bitumen types that have been tested. It is evident from Figure 5 that bitumen emulsion has higher thermal sus- ceptibility than foamed bitumen. Foamed bitumen and base bitumen from NATREF lie within the limits while CALTEX base bitumen and foamed bitumen shows relatively high temperature susceptibility compared to NATREF, 3.3. Field age hardening behaviour of BSMs ‘The recovered bitumen from the laboratory prepared specimens and field cores were tested for rheological properties. At present, the results of BSM-emulsion from laboratory speci- mens and two pavement sections from field cores are available and only these will be pre- sented. The testing program is on-going to accomplish the list indicated in Table 2 above The rheological properties results of laboratory prepared specimens (Iornfels aggregates stabilized with emulsion at 0% (H + 0CE) or 1% (H+ 1CE) cement) and field cores (sourced from Shedgum and Grass park road sections) are summarized in Table 5 below. Figure 6 shows ageing behaviour of foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion with respect to laboratory accelerated cure and position of extracted cores in the pavement. It can be seen from the graph that the age hardening effects of the bitumen are more prevalent in trafficked position (OWP and IWP) compared to un-trafficked position (YL and BWP) and laboratory. The age hardening behaviour of foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion mixes in the field cannot be distinguished easily from the results in Figure 6. However, itis evident from the figure that foamed bitumen mixes experience more age hardening effects than bitumen emulsion mixes, whilst accelerated curing in the laboratory results in age hardening behaviour similar to the field IWP. It can be concluded that the expected age hardened penetration values of the foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion in trafficked pavement sections lies between 10 dmm and 20 dmm and on the un-trafficked sections it lies between 30 dmm to 50 dmm. This behaviour however contradicts other studies on HMA which indicated that age hardening is more prevalent in un-trafficked sections due to higher void contents, Therefore further investigation on BSMs behaviour is needed to verify these effects. 246Table 5, Recovered bitumen rheological properties for different location on pavement, BSM-foam BSM-emulsion Road ae EMI name Properties BWP OWP IWP YL Lab BWP IWP YL H4+0CE Penetration, 25°C [émm] 17 Softening point, [°C] 8 H41CE Penetration, 25°C [dma] 25 Softening point, [°C] 6 Shedgum Penetration, 25°C [dmm] 22 7 nT Softening point.["C] 6774 BL Grassy Penetration, 25°C [mm] 4915 7 4 2 39 park Softening point, [°C] 56 80 51 54 6 56 ‘Note: BWP = between wheel path, OWP = on-wheel path, [WP Penetration at 200, [dam] Figure 6 emulsion. Ageing Index, na/no owP ow? ow z BWP a inner wheel path, YL = yellow line, Emulsion | | | ae "8B BWP WP HACE HHCE Position of extracted cores Field ageing behaviour in respect to coring position of foamed bitumen versus bitumen Ageing time (hrs) Figure 7. Age hardening behaviour, short term medium term & long term of BSMs combined, 2473.4 Age hardening effect on viscosity behaviour of BSMs ‘The access of oxygen into the thin film of binder in foamed or emulsion mixes is linked to the air-void content in the mixture, The high surface area of bitumen in foamed mixes and uneven distribution of the bitumen over the different granular fractions, coupled with ageing during mixing is likely to influence the viscosity behaviour of BSMs, Indeed, as the bitumen disperses selectively into the mortar fraction, the binder is distributed discretely (in droplets) on the larger aggregates. The droplets of bitumen have high surface area and could have a tendency to ‘age more rapidly during long term in-service pavement. The probable difference of the binder hardening between the course and filler fractions of BSMs should be further investigated. At the same time, the non-continuous nature further complicates the condition of the binder. The use of the AI method can distinguish the ageing hardening behaviour of foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion (see Figure 7). This principle can be applied to determine the relationship of the age hardening behaviour during in plant or field mixing (short term) and in-service condition (long term). The viscosity at 135°C was used in calculating the AI of BSMs, The use of viscosity at 60°C was inappropriate because most of bitumen had no flow properties at 60°C. Figure 7 shows the age hardening behaviour of BSMs in the short term (hours), medium term (1-2 years) and long term (5-8 years) combined, with medium. term considered as age period during laboratory accelerated curing. However, from the graph it can be seen that there is no clear distinction in the trend of age hardening behaviour of foamed bitumen with bitumen emulsion mixes. This could result from variability introduced due to the recover methods. The presence of super fines in the recovered bitumen would influence variability in the viscosity test results. Therefore, the extent of the age hardening of BSM-foam or BSM-emulsion has not been clearly defined, making the limits of mix design properties difficult to establish. The study is ongoing, with a strategy to acquire sufficient data for a better understanding durability behaviour in terms of age hardening on BSMs 4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ‘The age hardening of BSMs and fundamental characteristics of BSMs associated with short term and long term age hardening have been investigated through laboratory testing. Based on the data of the study, the following conclusions are drawn: The time bitumen is kept in circulation in the laboratory plant at elevated temperatures before producing of BSM-foam, contributes to the age hardening of the binder, especially after 8 hours. The effects of age hardening are more notable for softer bitumen (80/100) than hard bitumen 60/70. — It is apparent from the study that some short term age hardening of foamed bitumen during mixing occurs. However, the trend follows that of the age hardening of the base bitumen. Nevertheless, the foaming process in itself does not appear to alter the bitu- men properties. For the bitumen emulsion, negligible age hardening occurs in short term because no elevated temperature is used in the mixing process, The study has also shown that bitumen from different refinery sources, ages at different rates. This is consistent with other studies, as the compositional balance and chemistry of the binders varies even if they comply with the same classification requirements — Age hardening behaviour of the foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion has proved to bea point of considerations during mix design and long term performance. The drop of penetration to an estimated average of 30% of the original value, in short term ie. 10 to 20 dmm for the trafficked section, and an increase in viscosity at 60°C to a stiffness that resists flow is a major concern. ‘The impact of these changes in the binder on the mix dura- bility behaviour remains to be investigated. Presently, the Ageing Index has shown no clear distinction on the trend of age harden- ing of BSMs, duc to variability in the measured viscosity of the recovered bitumen. This emphasises the need to acquire more data to be able to determine the boundaries for age hardening, and thereafter proposing parameters for mix design considerations. 248The studies have also indicated that age hardening of the foamed bitumen and bitumen emulsion mixes is dependent on the effects of traffic. Ageing occurs differently in traf- ficked versus un-trafficked locations in the pavement. The trafficked position (OWP and IWP) have higher ageing influences than un-trafficked locations (YL and BWP). This tendency is contrary to previous studies on HMA, where lower air voids in the wheel paths reduced rutting. These factors require further investigation. — The extreme values measured for penetration of binders exposed to field ageing are ques- tionable, raising the concern that total separation of filler with bitumen during extraction is very difficult, The centrifuge extraction might not be able to capture all filler (super fines) which is a key component on the mix design of the BSMs. The Abson method of recovery can also cause variability of the results by leaving some solvent in the residual and or over-heating the bitumen. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge SABITA and Gauteng Department of Transport and Public Works, South Africa for sponsoring this research work. REFERENCES American Standard Test Method 2003. Standard test for recovery of asphalt from solution by Abson method. ASTM Designation D 1856-95a. Burr BL, Davidson R.R., Glover C.J. & Bullin J.A., 1990, Solvent removal from asphalt. Transport Research records TRR, 1269. 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