The Evolution of the Aro Confederacy in Southeastern Nigeria, 1690-1720.

A Theoretical
Synthesis of State Formation Process in Africa
Author(s): Apollos O. Nwauwa
Source: Anthropos, Bd. 90, H. 4./6. (1995), pp. 353-364
Published by: Anthropos Institute
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463184 .
Accessed: 14/12/2014 11:32
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Anthropos Institute is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Anthropos.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Anthropos90.1995: 353-364

The EvolutionoftheAroConfederacy
in Southeastern
Nigeria,1690-1720

A Theoretical
ofStateFormation
ProcessinAfrica
Synthesis
ApollosO. Nwauwa
Abstract.- This workanalyzestheuniqueevolutionof theAro
state (Arochukwu)in southeasternNigeria in ca. 1690-1720.
The stateemergedfromtheunionof threedistinctethnicgroups
- Igbo, Ibibio,and Akpa - butthetraditions
have been distorted
forbothracial and adminby colonial officials/anthropologists
to correctthemisrepconvenience.This studyattempts
istrative
and offera moreplausible analysisby correlating
resentations
theprocessof thedevelopmentof theAro confederacywiththe
Because of the inherentdefectsof
theoriesof stateformation.
thisworkadvancesan alternative
theconventionalassumptions,
based on thejudicious mixof thescarceresource,
interpretation
Marxist,and multiethnic
hypotheses.Grantedthatmostof the
traditionaltheoriesof state formationexhibitrelevance,both
class and ethnicitywere powerfulinternalforces which not
only stimulatedchange but also determinedthe patternsof
relationswithintheAro society.[Nigeria,
inter-and intragroup
Aro Confederacy,
thesis,
Igbo, Ibibio,Akpa,oracle, multiethnic
ntinyay

andkingdoms
wereformed
betweenthe17thand
the20thcenturies,
thecourseof stateformation
had been even morecomplicated.
Not onlydid
Africabecomea classicexperimental
groundfor
stateformation
theories,
but,two historiographical problemsemanatedfromits history,
namely,
theEurocentric
neglectof Africanpoliticalinstitutionswhichdid not conform
to the European
and themodification
of stateformation
mind-set,
theoriesto embodythe trappings
of racialbias.
Whereverany organization
whichapproximated
theEuropeanmodelwas observed,thetendency
was to attempt
to discoverfromwhere,outside
such
"civilized"ideas had come.
tropicalAfrica,
was
often
seen
as thesourceandtheHamEgypt
iteswerenormally
considered
as thepropagators.
Apollos O. Nwauwa, Ph. D. (Dalhousie Univ., Halifax),Prof, Aro
constituted
one
such
history
misrepresentof AfricanHistoryat Rhode Island College. - Research on:
ation.
methodologyof chronologyfor acephalous Africansocieties;
The Aro confederacy
stateformation
emergeduniquelyas a
processin Africa;Britishwarrantchiefsystem
in Igboland; Britishimperialpolitics and the developmentof statein southeastern
in ca. 1690-1720,
Nigeria
universitiesin Africa; intellectualdependencyand underdeto
structure
the
workedout by
according
dating
velopmentin Africa.- His publicationsinclude: Integrating
Three
author
the
1990).
(Nwauwa
heterogeneous
Arochukwuinto the Regional ChronologicalStructure(HistoandAkpa
the
ethnic
Universities
Ibibio,
of
British
Establishment
The
in
groups,
namely,
Igbo,
1991);
ry Africa
in Tropical Africa, 1920-1948 (Cahiers d'Etudes africaines wereconfederated
to formAro stateor chiefdom
1993), UniversityEducation for Africans,1900-1935 (Asian (Arochukwu).
The realitiesof the foundation
of
and AfricanStudies 1994); see also ReferencesCited.
elements
of
theArostatesuggestthatit exhibited
of stateformation.
The
all thetraditional
theories
of ideas,monopolyof
diffusion
conquesttheory,
conAfricawas a comp- scarceresources,and class and interethnic
inprecolonial
Stateformation
flict
theories
all
exhibit
relevance.
formation
could
conState
which
no
lex processof
singletheory
explain.Each of the was notmerelythestoryof "Hamitic"influences
clusivelyand satisfactorily
and diffu- as racistscholarswouldtendto emphasize.No
traditional
theories(conquest/Hamitic
interclass
and -eth- one has yetutilizedthosehintsevidencedin the
sionof ideas,scarceresource,
toattempt
a theoretical
ra- peoples'traditions
has eitherbeen verysimplistic,
nic conflicts)
analysis
of
the
of
the
Aro
This mayexplain
from
state.
But
this
is
far
or
cial, ideological.
origin
suggesting
have notbeenmore whytheoriginof thepeopleand theirchiefdom
thatsomeof thehypotheses
inconfusion.
it havebeenshrouded
than
the
others.Rather,
elaborate
and
Thus,inorderto
empirical
themaze associatedwiththefoundation
thattheoriginof thestateis penetrate
is a clearindication
thisexerciseseeksto interrelate
intricate.
Despitethe factthatnone of of thechiefdom,
normally
withthe existingtheoriesof state
has been flawless,there oral tradition
theexistingassumptions
is no doubtthattheyhavebeenveryusefulfora formation.
The traditions
of the foundation
of thecomplicated
of the Aro
clearerunderstanding
process
In Africawheremanystates chiefdom
indicateconquest.An aliengroupinterof stateformation.

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Apollos. Nwauwa

354

to tryto discoverthe
Arochukwu
was founded. scholarsand administrators
vened.Warwas fought.
is hardly
Aro.
It
of
the
The indigenous
surprising,
origin
peopleof theAro area werethe "outsider"
Palmer
that
quicklyconcludedthatthe
acephalousIbibio.In thepreviousyears,Igbo set- therefore,
ofHamiticancestry
tlershad settledamongthem.They came in as ArowerenotIgbo,butJukun
his
It
would
and
traders.
slaves,
(1921: 4-9). Elaborating thesis,Palmerargued
land-hungry
migrants,
out
the JukunwereHamiteswho migrated
that
assumed
time
the
in
of
Igbo
appearthat thecourse
in the Kanem-Kwararafa
in of Egyptand resettled
a positionof economicand socialpreeminence
theNigerand
The regionfromwheretheyinfiltrated
resented.
thearea whichtheIbibionaturally
situationhas been well describedby Mathews, Benuearea (1921: 4-9). Palmer'sproblemis unfoundation
SinceArochukwu's
intoa derstandable.
"theIgbo tendedto insinuatethemselves
prohe
clearof
element
the
exhibited
cess
that
with
the
result
influence
of
conquest,
position increasing
the ultimatealien "suofhostility
amongtheIbibio ly focusedupon finding
theyarousedfeelings
chiefhosts"(1927a: 9).
periorrace" who createdthe confederate
thesuc- dom.
land ownersresented
The indigenous
ButtheAroconqueststoryandstateformation
In an erawhen
cess oftheprosperous
immigrants.
buthow
are
thus
wealth
and
traders
unique.The Akpa wereforeigners,
possessed
long-distance
deitseemsthattheywoulddom- "foreign"
commanded
theywereis yetto be satisfactorily
respect,
conventional
in the
Unlikeconquerors
ofotherfactors. termined.
inatetheagriculturalists
regardless
with
It was probablethattheIgbo refusedto offerthe conquesttheory
who,as nomadicpastoralists
moved
ideasoforganization,
orndi-isi-ala
purposely
(own- "superior"
respectduetothendi-nwe-ala
"inferior"
coalesced about subjugating
ersoftheland).Thesetwinresentments
acephalouspeoples
Con- andcreating
states,theAkpahad beeninvitedby
around,andwerestrengthened
by,ethnicity.
in the Aro crisis.In fact,
intervene
to
anthe
irreconcilable
therewas almostan
Igbo
sequently,
the
to aid friends,
mercenaries
in
as
came
with
each
ethnic
the
two
between
they
groups
tagonism
unbe
were
to
As
that
It
would
control
the
other.
to
mercenaries,
paid,
they
Igbo.
appear
wanting
theAkpa
thesitu- less theywishedotherwise.
theIgbocouldnotfavourably
Evidently,
manipulate
ation,hence,theycalleduponNachi,a rovingIgbo were not the "superiorrace" withideas of hefromEdda,northof theAroregion. reditary
seekingconquestof thesogovernment
priest-doctor
as theconquest
societies
Nacalled
of
the
Overwhelmed
the
theory
unorganized
anarchy,
by intensity
would lead one to conclude.
chi invitedtheAkpa fromtheeast of theCross of stateformation
River,who arrivedarmedwithguns.Shankland The Akpa were armedwithguns. This is not
As earlytraderswiththe Europeans
(1933: 9), Mathews'Secondreport(1927ft:5f.), surprising.
Isichei(1976: 58), andFordeandJones(1962: 85) on the coast,the Akpa certainly
procuredthese
fromthelatteras Shankland(1933) and
all made references
to the use of guns in the firearms
crisis.The Igbo-Akpaallied forcesdefeatedthe Isichei(1976: 58) have pointedout. It is, thus,
endowed
in clearthattheAkpawerenotnecessarily
whichfollowedresulted
Ibibio.A reunification
thefoundation
of theAro chiefdom.
Clearly,the exclusivelywiththesuperioridea of technology
of theconquest
andthesubsequent
Akpaintervention
subjugation as thedogmaticpresuppositions
it
would
of theIbibiowereamongthedetermining
have
it.
factors theory
Rather,
appearthatthe
in theemergence
oftheIgbo,
oftheArochukwu
were
established
partners
trading
confederacy. Akpa
The factthatArochukwu
no
them.The
as
a
chiefNachi
had
hence,
inviting
difficulty
emerged
domafterthewarseemsto suggesttherelevance factthattheyalliedwiththeIgbotrading
migrants
of theconquesttheory
in thestateformation
Ibibiotendstosuggest
pro- andnotwiththeindigenous
cess. Undoubtedly,
the invadingAkpa were an a strongfellowship
withtheIgbo. Tradewas the
aliengroupbothto theIgbo and theIbibio.This likeliestbondin thisrelationship.
seemsto fitwellintotheassumptions
of theconThe settlement
of theAkpagroupin Arochukventionalconquesttheory,
as usuallyappliedto wu afterthewarwas notpremeditated.
It was a
"uncivilized"
thattheconquerors
were circumstance
of contingency.
Africans,
Theydid notinteran alienrace,probably,
Hamites.Equal- ferein theArocrisiswiththeavowedintention
of
normally
settleand createa state
ly,thepossessionoffirearms
bytheAkpaappears subduingtheinhabitants,
to lendcredenceto thepostulation
thatthecon- overthemas the"superior
race"of theconquest
wereoftenendowedwithsuperior
technol- theory.The primary
querors
objectiveof the Akpa was
ogy.These seemingallusionsto theassumptionsto assisttheir"cronies"- the Igbo - to assert
of orthodoxconquesttheoryof the racisttype themselves
overtheIbibio.Theywerehired.Aro
intheaccountsofthe
probablyprovidedthe impetusamongEuropean traditions
agreeas evidenced
Anthropos90.1995

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in Southeastern
oftheAroConfederacy
TheEvolution
Nigeria

355

1945: 1; Anicho to theroofingwall is called "Akpa."Obviously,

Aropeoplethemselves
(Okorafor
Untilan
of thewordis uncertain.
1926: 1-3; Okereke1945: 1). Like manyhired theetymology
it
is
is
research
interest.
vested
had
no
undertaken,
the
clearly
According ethnolinguistic
agents, Akpa
to ascribeit exclusivelyto a certain
Akumaand Osim, unrealistic
twobrothers,
to thetraditions,
led theAkpamercenary
troops.Osim was killed group.
hometo
However,the Jukunheartlandwas in the
in thewar.Akumawas afraidto return
andtheCrossRiverValley.Culturally
face the wrathof theirfather,
hence,he sought Cameroons
and
of
chunk
A
commensurate
theywere said to be related
linguistically,
compensation. large
ceded to him.The Akpa to and livedbesidetheEkoi (Webster1981: 92).
land was consequently
settled.Akumabecamethefirstchiefof theAro It seemsprobablethattheJukunand Ekoi were
threeethnicgroups themaintradersof theRio del Rey traderoute
unioncomprising
confederate
The firearms
at its inauguration.
probablyover- between1500and 1680.It also appearsthatthese
movednorthalongthisroute,
Akuma's rulership. Ekoi-Jukuntraders
awedthepeopleintoaccepting
intheBenueValdif- manyofthemultimately
saw theAkpasettlement
settling
However,Shankland
theCrossRiver,
trade
to
the
of
the
shift
With
to him:"On thedefeatof the ley.
According
ferently.
EkoiJukuntraders
the
about
to
Idah
and
1680,
Ibibiosby the combinedIbo and AKPA forces,
Those who
direction.
that
towards
drawn
were
of
thevictorswereleftin undisputed
possession
into
assimilated
trade
River
in
the
Cross
remained
realized
theland.The AKPAS,however,
quickly
was
It
societies.
or
the
Efik
the
either
reof
instead
of theirpositionand
Igbo-Ibibio
the strength
it
would
EkoiJukun
these
from
and
elements,
demanded
appear,
to theirowncountry,
they
turning
whoreferred
inthemercenaries
a largeslice of thenewly thatNachibrought
wereperforce
granted,
as "Akpa."Thismusthaveinformed
on whichtheyproceededto tothemselves
conqueredterritory
But
thattheArowereJukun.
conclusion
Palmer's
settle"(1933: 7f.).
been
have
would
he
Palmer
had
It
is
there,
Hamites.
not
were
the
stopped
Undoubtedly, Akpa
he wentontolinktheJukun
Rather,
tobelievethattheywereanykind morecredible.
equallydifficult
his problem.The Akpa
was
This
Hamites.
the
to
that
is
it
race."
of "superior
Although acceptable
there may have been Ekoi of the Okoyongregionas
oftheAkpahasposeda problem,
theidentity
evidenceto suggestthat traditions
no historical
suggest."Akpa"mayhavejust been a
is, however,
to tradersalongtheCross
term
who
Palmer
as
such
Scholars
referring
Hamites.
were
generic
they
One
more.
no
and
the
fit
to
strove
River,
connection
guesshas beenas good
Hamitic
a
postulated
theAkpa
Arointothegeneralracialthemeof theconquest as theother.Be thatas it may,whether
cerwere
or
or Ekoi, traders,
of Hamites wereJukun,
they
theubiquity
whichemphasizes
theory
a
but
It has provedan unpopular tainlynotHamites,
Negrogroup.Clearly,
civilization.
in African
theories
of theconquest/Hamitic
The variousAro tra- theassumptions
endeavour.
and a ridiculous
exhibited
Aro
circumstance
in
the
evidenced
as
thoseof theAkpa themselves,
ditions,including
werenotHamites.
areagreedthattheoriginalhomeoftheAkpawas a uniquetwist.The conquerors
race"seeking
a
of
no
evidence
was
There
and
"superior
Akankpain Okoyongclan,CalabarProvince,
of
the
domination
and
the
the
to
Ekoi
indigenous
conquest
thattheyhadbeenassociatedwiththe
east of the Cross River.1The term"Akpa" has acephalouspeoples.No doubt,the gunssuggest
It escapesa clannishconno- conquest.ButtheAroconqueststoryhad itsown
beenquiteconfusing.
to non-Mus- uniqueness.
it referred
tation.AmongtheJukun,
with
The diffusion
theoryhas been correlated
Hausa, or Kanuri,
lim northerners
(Abakwariga),
The
diffuconfederation.
Aro
the
of
formation
the
the
of
the
from
fled
whohad
Islamizingpolicies
Butamongneighbouring
north.
peoples,theJukun sionistswouldarguethatthealienAkpawerecerwhoseinvolvement
carriers
to as Akpa.In the tainlyHamiticculture
wereoftenreferred
themselves
"civilization"
diffused
amongthe
CrossRiverarea,the originalnameforCalabar in theArostrife
Ibibio.
Theywere
of thearea bear hitherto
Igbo and
"primitive"
was Atakpa,and theEfik-Ibibio
in
Aroland
bearinga
the name,"Akpan."Even, in Ghana,therewas believedto have arrived
ideasof
the
with
baggagereplete
an ethnicgroupknownas Apa (Meek 1969: 16). Hamiticcultural
centralized
and
divine
usedin hookingrafters stateformation,
kingship,
In Igboland,a metalstring
(Palmer1921: 4-7). It was equally
government
thatthesealienAkpa,whowere
arguedelsewhere
superiorto eitherthe Igbos,Ibibios,
"altogether
culturesuch
1933:8f.;Mathews1927a:11;Isichei1976:58; or Ekois,"possesseda semi-Bantu
1 Shankland
a
a
of
as
chief), practicebeJones1939:100.
ntinya(crowning
90.1995
Anthropos

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Apollos. Nwauwa

356

from
and centralization
lievedto be alien to the originalAro.2Palmer formation
solelydiffused
also pointedoutthattherealreligionof theAro the Akpa groups,and thatthe indigenousculJebelsof Kordofan," turewas passive,hence,quicklydislodged.It is
from"theSouthern
diffused
to arguingthatonlytheAkpagroup,
a
Nilo-Sudanic
probably
group,and "theDinka tantamount
endowedwith
andShillukson theNile,its 'sacra' beinga spear whoever
theywere,wereinherently
whichwhenplantedbesidesan altarensuresthe the qualitiesand capabilitiesof makingcultural
a confederate
suchas adopting
system
presenceof the N'yakangor Juck(i.e., deified innovations
based
on therealitiesof
the
in
a
multiethnic
In
whether
society,
ancestor)"(1921: 6f.). any case,
Of course,thisis ahistorical.
theHamiticor theircircumstance.
Arochukwu
cultureapproximated
as a racialarcriticized
wouldhave It has been consistently
thediffusionists
Sudaniccivilizations,
Arochukwu
of gument.
no doubtthatit was a classic manifestation
societywas ofa tripleethnic
of state mix,unlikemostIgbo and Ibibio societies.Obof thediffusionist
theassumptions
theory
betweenthe
formation.
viously,therewas an intermutation
Thismayhave
It was an interplay.
Whatwouldhave impressedthe diffusioniststhreecultures.
of theAro stateshortly explainedwhytheemergent
mostwas theformation
politicalorganization
nordivinekinga villagegerontocracy
Thishastendedtosup- wasneither
after
theAkpaintervention.
thattheideasof stateforma- ship.Palmerwouldappearto haveacknowledged
porttheircontention
as "a comevolvedina fewplaces,and it whenhe describedtheorganization
tionandcentralization
..."3
two
the
between
or promise
wereonlyspreadthrough
imitation,
systems (1921: 4).
imposition,
itwouldbe clearlyabsurdto
of Arochukwu In thiscircumstance,
Beforethefoundation
borrowing.
theIgbo and theIbibioof thearea pointtotheAkpaas havingsolelycreatedthenew
confederacy,
in theAro confederaa
resulting
operated politicalsystem- villagerepublican- politicalstructure
to regardit
seems
more
it
the
end
ism - based on gerontocracy.
However,
appropriate
cy. Rather,
and
intermixture
the
a
of
as
the
of Igbo-Ibibiohostilities,
producedby
synthesis
following victory
cultures
of
three
distinct
transfusion
the
culminated
alliance
representative
against Ibibio,
Igbo-Akpa
in thefoundation
of theAro chiefdomcompris- oftheIgbo,Ibibio,andAkpa.
theoThereareseriousflawsin thediffusionist
ing elementsof the threeethnicgroups.Thus,
to
two
reduced
is
If
term
the
thepoliticalsystemwhichultimately
meanings,
"Akpa"
emerged ry.
- appearedtobe an namely,
andtheEkoi-Jukun,
federation
underone authority
traders,
long-distance
favourthelatter
wouldnaturally
ostensible
aberration
ofthetraditional
Igbo-Ibibio thediffusionists
It is in thatsensethattheybelieved
organi- connotation.
systembasedon kinship.In theemergent
arrivedwithideas of kingship,
zation,therewas a king(chief)witha councilof the Ekoi-Jukun
in theircultural
and stateorganization
of thevarioustowns.This struck heredity,
representatives
thediffusionists.
To them,therefore,
this"alien" baggage.However,thereis no evidenceforthis.
in theircoastalhomelanddo not
idea of centralization
clearlydiffusedfromthe The Ekoi-Jukun
Recentstudysuggests
Not
have
been
Shutestated:"Settlementsseemto
chiefly.
Akpa.
surprisingly,
of theAkpaswereplacednearthesettlements
of thattheJukun(Akpa) adopteda chieflyformof
theinferior
northto theBeaftertheymigrated
people (Igbo and Ibibio) to keep an government
them
Those
who remained
on
and
while
the
and
customs
nue
eye
respecting
Valley(Webster1981).
socialorganization
ofthesepeoples,theAkpassu- in theirhomeland- east of the Cross Riveron themtheirownpoliticalstructure"wereprobably
perimposed
acephalousliketheIgboandIbibio.
in
cited
their
When
Akuma's
soldiershadbeenvictorious,
1971/72:
(as
95).
Afigbo
No doubt,theAkpaintervention
a
and
leader
received
the
played sigleadershiprole
respect
nificantrole in the foundation
of Arochukwu. whichany victormightexpect.In thatsense,it
Thereis also no controversy
aboutthefactthat is hardlysurprising
thathe foundedArochukwu.
theAro political,social, Nevertheless,
Akuma's
death,none of his
Akpaculturepermeated
upon
and economiclife. However,it would amount sons attempted
to fill his role. NeitherAkuma
to prejudiceto concludethatthe idea of state norhis Akpa followersobjectedwhenthe Igbo
his
Nachi,took over and through
priest-doctor,
son, Okenachi,createdan hereditary
chieftaincy
2 Cf. Shute 1926: 3f.; Falk 1927: 1. - The Igbo and Ibibio in Arochukwu.
the Akpa had
Yet, presumably,
weretheoriginalAro in thesense used. The Ibibio practised
thentinyaceremony,butunlikethatof theAkpa whichwas
political,thatof theIbibio were said to be purelyreligious.
The ntinyaanalysiswas to demonstrate
thatthe Akpa possessed and broughtthe idea of kingshipto Arochukwu.

3 The two systemsreferto whatPalmercalled "Primitive"or

Graded Organization,and divine kingshipof the Hamitic
origin.
Anthropos90.1995

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in Southeastern
TheEvolution
oftheAroConfederacy
Nigeria

357

thiswas not viewedas

guns.IftheAkpabelievedinheredity,
chieftaincy,an acephaloustradition
and possessedthe force unusual.Therewereno successiondisputes.Unand stateorganization,
thechief'spositionwas notconsidered
to imposetheirideas, it thenbecomesdifficultdoubtedly,
allowed
Nachi's
takeover
to appreciate
whythey
important.
Onlyuponthedeathof Okenachidid
the
the
were
not
the
succession
without
Clearly, Akpa
objections.
pass as onemight
expectina chiefthe
of
which
diffusionists
then
the
state
had
formed.
Okenaly society.By
instigators chieftaincy
chi lived ca. 1750-1780,and thewholeprocess
wishedto argue.
In an acephaloussociety- and usingtheIgbo hadbegununderAkumaca. 1690-1720(Nwauwa
successionmightbe ac- 1990).Consequently,
it couldbe arguedthatAro
as themodel- hereditary
formation
took
in
The
state
almosta century
fromthe
three
situations.
(head
onye-isi-ala
ceptable
of the land) is alwaysrecognizedas hereditary.accessionofAkumaca. 1690to theenthronement
to a villageor town'sdeityis equally of Okenachi'sson ca. 1780.
Priesthood
in
Theremusthavebeenuniquecircumstances
1976:25; Green1964:49; Nwa(Isichei
hereditary
betweenca. 1690-1780whichled to
bara 1977:22-43). The possessionof a skillsuch thecentury
Fivefactors
ofthestateinArochukwu.
could be inherited thetriumph
or doctoring
as ironsmithing
The first,
if a fathergroomedhis son forthatoccupation. mightbe citedas influential.
probably,
of Calabar,andevenBonny.It
Akuma'sAkpawerenottheisi-alainArochukwu. was theinfluence
mighthavecome
By the is believedthatAroimmigrants
They werenot priestsor priest-doctors.
of theacephaloussocietiesfromwhich fromtheNigerDelta(Dike 1962:40). Arotraders
principles
the Igbo, Ibibio,and Akpa derived,the Akuma wouldhave been onlytoo consciousof therole
trade.One
chieftaincy.of thesetwo kingdomsin promoting
familycouldnotjustifya hereditary
the
class
would
assume
that
the
state
The hereditary
trading
support
might
principleand therefore
the state.This was, of course,
obviouslycame fromthe Nachi family.Nachi, thosepromoting
of ideas through
But it was diffusion
like Akuma,possessedprestigebecause he had diffusion.
thefirst
not
economic
of
the
after
thepeace
contact, conquest.Secondly,
years anarchy.
engineered
He appearedto be the logical choice afterthe Arocolonythatwe haverecordof,wasestablished
It
deathofAkuma.ButwhenNachi'ssoneffectivelytowardstheend of this"foundation
century."
tookoverafterhisdeath,itmightbe said thatthe wouldappearthattheEdda, Abam,Ohafia,and
hadbeencreated.Akumaand otherrelatedgroupswereeagerlyharassing
stateofArochukwu
Igbo
overquitea largearea.Whether
which andIbibiofarmers
and influence
Nachipossessedtheprestige
whoresented
hunters
agriculany menmighthave achievedin an acephalous theywereprimarily
their
and
for
turalists
circumstance.
a
similar
were,
hunting
ground
destroying
They
societygiven
to the
notunusual.ButitwouldseemthatNa- game,or feltsomeotherproprietary
rights
therefore,
an alienconcept land,somegroupshadbegunto appealto theAro
chi's son,Okenachi,represented
to all thethreeethnicgroups.He was a chief.His forprotection
(Umo n.d.).
againstthemarauders
fromEdda,
a
Nachi and Okenachi,as migrants
roleinArochukwu
represented
kingly
hereditary
withthesemaseemto have had someinfluence
of all hispeople.
fromthetraditions
deviation
TheearliestArocolonyofwhichwe have
The manwho reallycreatedand consolidated rauders.
butnot a recordwas Nkaluntafoundedca. 1735-1765.
was Okenachi,a technical,
thechiefdom
to "The earliestsettlersin the land ... weredriven
born
a biologicalson of Nachi.Okenachiwas
or marauders.
One of
of
outby theragingwarriors"
father
a youngwifeof Nachi,his actual
being
then
"afraid
of
heredithe
the
that
Thisdemonstrated
slaveorigins.4
beingdriven
indigenous
people
the
warriors
... conor
the
taken
not
even
was
by
by
away beingdestroyed
seriously
taryprinciple
In
return
for
the
Aro
traders...."
tacted
Nachi's
that
no
tradition
There
is
Nachi group.
protection,
biologicalsons objectedto Okenachitakingthe the Aro trader,Ukpabi,was to be emissaryto
The conductof the soci- the"Chuku"oracleforthepeople."The contract,
positionof leadership.
of a heincludedtheslaughtering
to theaccessionof whichformally
Akuma
of
death
the
from
ety,
out of tunewith goat or a ram,was to descendto thechildren's
Okenachihad been completely
ofthetwocontracting
thenormswhichone wouldexpectamongpeo- children
parties"(Umon.d.:
Aro
to offer
individual
traders
The
of
and
in
a
believed
who
29).
power
leadership
hereditary
ple
theresultofAroof a stateapparatus.Clearly,in thiskindofservicewas directly
the importance
withtheEdda and other
chukwu'sgood relations
of thisnaturewere
relations
External
marauders.
4 Cf. Mathews'9X7a: 2. Nachi'sbiologicalsonsare noted
a
state.
conducted
most
Thus,theinfluby
easily
in
Mathews'
contained
in thelineagegenealogies
Report
of
enceofCalabaras anexample,andthenecessity
(1927a: 14.)
90.1995
Anthropos

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Apollos. Nwauwa

358

relations
bothfavoured
conducting
king- tradewiththeEuropeanson theBightof Biafra
"foreign"
influence.
Aro commercial
Following
shipideas.Lateryet,theEdda,Abam,andOhafia burgeoned
traditional
trade
Aro
the
wouldagreeto makewar on behalfof the
routes,Europeangoodssuch
and
state.The otherthreefactorswererelatedto the as tobacco,cloth,liquor,guns,gunpowder,
articles
African
for
were
other
trade
with
the
associated
economiccircumstances
exchanged
imports
of amongstwhichwere slaves, beads, and ivory.
routes,exotictradegoods,and thedispensing
The expanArochukwu.
justice,all ofwhichmaybe linkedto a monopoly All thesepassedthrough
theconcomsionof theAtlantictradewitnessed
of scarceresources.
as they"secured
The scarceresourcetheoryof stateformationitantincreasein Aro dominance
in theanalysisofArochuk- forthemselves
relevant
was therefore
supplybothof trade
monopolistic
andtheproduceassociatedwiththem
waslocatedastride commodities
Thechiefdom
wu'sfoundation.
two majortraderouteswhichconvergedat the to the exclusionof tradersoutsidetheirgroup"
confluence
of theEnyongand theCross Rivers. (Ekejiuba1972/11:
10).Thiscommercial
advantage
ethnicgroupsinto
was thusa receptacleforthe trade mayhavedrawnneighbouring
Arochukwu
The
musthaveresulted.
of the Igbo Arochukwu.
routeswhichran fromthe interior
Competition
a
conseas
founded
was
Aro
chiefdom
where
the
del
to
the
Rio
probably
Europeans
Rey
country
of
redistribution
were tradingbetween1500 and 1680, and that quence.Clearly,themonopolistic
theCrossRiverto exotictradegoods by theAro,accordingto the
fromtheupperBenuethrough
of state
ofthescarceresourcetheory
Calabar.Nevertheless,
by the timethe firstEu- assumptions
in the
consideration
was a significant
ropeantradersappearedon the Bightof Biafra, formation,
ca.
Aro
of
the
of internal
trade emergence
thesesroutesand regularpattern
polity, 1690-1720,and
chiefdom
as
a
its
consolidation
well
were
betweenthecoastaland inlandpeoples
by ca. 1780.
internal
induced
resources
The
Scarce
established(Ukwu 1967; Ofonagoro1976).
competition.
stimulatedRivalrywas notonlyAroagainstexternal
commerce
oftheAtlantic
groups,
development
If the
ofpeoples, butalso amongthelineagesofArochukwu.
andrelocation
thesouthward
migration
Rivers
of
the
Oil
states
the
of
on
settlements
andinitiated
trading
along analogy
push
population
was one mightbe applied(Dike 1962; Jones1963; Ayanthemajorarteriesof trade.Arochukwu
of thesesettlements
amongthelineagesmight
alongthemajortraderoutes dele 1966),competition
thanwithforeigners.
more
fierce
have
been
far
whichexperienced
an unprecedented
population
ofthe
thearbitration
demanded
A
The
scarce
from
communities.
rivalry
surely
pressure neighbouring
At
solvedan Aroproblem.
loca- state.Akumaprobably
resourcetheorist
wouldregardthisstrategic
of his deaththepopularfeelingwouldhavebeenin
tionas a significant
factorin the foundation
But
to"acephalousdemocracy."
theAro chiefdom.
The Igbo and Akpa had been favourofa return
In thecitywas inhibitive.
commerce
drawnintothe Arochukwu
area because of the competitive
commercial
offered
advantage
byitsvitallocation statesof the NigerDelta, enhancedcommercial
resultedin
ofcommunication
withthe rivalryamongthelineagesultimately
arteries
alongprincipal
coastand thehinterland.
It wouldappearthatthe slavesofexceptional
ability
beingelevated
trading
crisiswhichresultedin theformationto chiefs.The case of Jaja and Alali in Bonny
subsequent
of thechiefdom
was provokedby theambitious weregood examples(Dike 1962: 182-202;Jones
in
commercial
manoeuvres
of the immigrant
Igbo- 1963: 105-132).So it seemsto haveoccurred
elements
over
the
who
Akuma
had
Ibibio.
Arochukwu.
ruled
after
Okenachi
Hence,
Akpa
indigenous
thatArochukwu's
observed
locationmay a slave connection.
Northrup
By his death,a wholegenerhaveplayeda profound
rolein thestateformationationof Arohad livedtheirlivesin a centralized
s son,Eko Oke,
Okenachi'
process(1978: 42; Ekejiuba1972: 15).
systemof government.
The Aro monopolizedexotictradegoods. In succeededhim. Hence, the hereditary
principle
the internal
fromthe hinter- hadbeenadoptedandthecontinuation
of a chieftrade,commodities
landsuchas yams,livestock,
assured.It is possible
beads,and ironim- dom formof government
were exchanged to assumethatapartfrombeinga technicalson
plementsof Igbo manufacture,
forsmokedfishand saltfromthecoastaldwell- of Nachi,Okenachi'
s rule was greatlyjustified
ers. These commodities
acumen.Unquestionably,
the
passed along the major by his commercial
routesstraddledby Arochukwu.
commerce
andthefierceinternal
Thus, the Aro vastlyincreasing
becamethe prominent
tradersin, and competition
whichaccompanied
for
it - a rivalry
naturally
distributors
of, commodities
amongthe riverine scarceresources was a keyfactorin legitimizandhinterland
inhabitants
beforetheinception
of ing a chiefdom
based on thehereditary
principle
tradewiththe Europeans.The development
of diametrically
of
opposedto traditional
philosophy
Anthropos90.1995

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

TheEvolution
oftheAroConfederacy
in Southeastern
Nigeria

359

Internal
demandedstate commercialrelations,and growingenslavement
government.
competition
mediation.
dictated
thatimpartial
a serjusticewas becoming
a
was
controlled
vice
for
whichthe societydemonstrated
a need.
Equally, justice system
by
the Aro. Beforethe formation
of the chiefdom, It hadbecomea scarcecommodity
whichtheAro
an oracleofverylocal significance,
Ibini-Ukpabi,monopolized.
was controlled
by theIbibio.It has beenpointed
Clearly,the Aro controlledthreescarce reout thatduringtheAro strife,
the
itinerNachi,
sources,namely,majortraderouteslinkingthe
antEdda priest-doctor
whomtheIgbo invitedto Bightof Biafrato thehinterland,
theredistribumake war medicineagainstthe Ibibio,initiated tionof exotictradegoods,and a justicesystem.
and"developeditfroma comparatively
local ora- Therefore,
as the scarceresourcetheoryof state
cle to the widespreadpowerwhichit attained" formation
assumes,a statewouldlikelyemerge,
drewa as it actuallydid in the Aro case. However,in
(Mathews1927a:9). Shortly,
Ibini-Ukpabi
from
far
towards
Arochukwu
and spiteof theattractive
and apparently
largepopulation
spectacular
of this theoryin the Axochukwu
wide.The oraclebecamefamous;itwas believed, manifestation
it has to be consideredwithcaution.
"becauseof theprecisionwithwhichit detected situation,
andforecast
the Thistheory
theunfamiliar
toreducethecomplexfactors
crimes,
attempts
deciphered
foundation
tothesingle
unknown"(Dike and Ekejiuba 1978: 273). The involvedinthechiefdom's
ofthemonopoly
ofscarceresources.
Delta peoplesconsultedit. The Igbo and Ibibio circumstance
venerated
it.TheIgbocametoregardtheoracleas It is evidentthattherewere equallysocial and
all of whichcompounded
theirchukwu
(HighGod). To themandneighbour-politicalconsiderations,
theformation
of theAro confederaexternal to influence
ingpeoples,theoraclewas an impartial
in acknowledgement
of this
as thechil- cy. It was,therefore,
The Arocameto be regarded
arbiter.
that
Dike
and
observed
that
fact
drenofthe"HighGod"(umuchukwu).
Hence,they
Ekejiubaaptly
which
from
a
"the
Aro
state
combinaand
developed
unique
acquiredenormousprestige authority
enabledthemto travelandtradefreely
throughouttionofprocessesthatreacheda culminating
point
theregionwherea long-distance
(Dike and Ekejiuba
century"
journeyrequired in the seventeenth
thethescarceresource
Althoughthe oraclewas dis- 1978:270). Consequently,
specialprotection.
of the
forenslavementorydoes notsolelyexplaintheformation
coveredtobe an elaboratesystem
ithadbeenverysigwhenthetradein slaves Arochiefdom.
Nevertheless,
duringthe 19thcentury
and
nificant.
to
Arochukwu
drew
it
climaxed,
population
TheMarxist
ofclassandstateformation,
a greatfollowingwhichmusthave
theory
engendered
on
have also
conand
Webster's
thesis
and
the
influenced
multiethnicity
emergence
significantly
of theAro chiefbeen appliedto thefoundation
ofthechiefdom.
solidation
BoththeoriesappearinIn an acephaloussystem,
justicewithineach dom.Theyare relevant.
The Marxists
claimthatclassformation
as terrelated.
villagegroupappearstohavebeenadministered
thefoundation
ofthestateandgovernas inanychiefdom
andsatisfactorily
system. preexisted
fairly
ofthestatebeingan outcome
theweaknessoftheacephalousmodeof ment,theemergence
However,
In prechiefdom
Arochukwu
the
rela- of class struggle.
was in dealingwithintervillage
government
in tradeeven though
and disputes.Wherelandwas plentiful,immigrant
Igbo dominated
tionships
clashingwith theIbibioownedtheland.Thisis hardlysurprisexpandwithout
villagegroupsmight
for
Butas population
oneanother.
density
grew,inter- ing. Till now, the Igbo have a predilection
has
shown
that
the
were
trade.
to
were
certain
increase,
Abiriba-Igbo
Njoku
villageand-towndisputes
tradersin the Cross Riverarea long
mechanism prominent
and therewas clearlyno established
of Arochukwu
to deal withthem.Such disputesweremorein- beforethefoundation
(1986: 292towards
the
Ibibio
and
ofland,property,
tenseinmatters
inheritance, 294). Igbo push
regionand
were
settlement
recourse
the
"Sometimes
warfare.
subsequent
probablycommerceonly
persistent
tradewiththeEuthatcouldbe agreeduponwas to consultan out- driven.In an era of increasing
thatthe
oracle"(Ottenbergropeanson thecoastitmightbe surmised
sideagency,theArooranother
- wherecommercial
activities
tradeincreased landin Arochukwu
1958: 303). Whenlong-distance
- was notveryimportant.
if
the flourished
as it had in the 18thcentury,
as dramatically
Therefore,
the
comto
each
other,
trading
entrepreneurs
monopolized
Igbo
greatly
"foreign"
interacting
groups,
intheArochukwu
mercialactivities
ofhostility.
enhancedthepossibility
area,theyconFurthermore,
in slaveswhichwas trolledtheeconomicandproductive
forcesof the
thetradewas predominantly
theco- society.As such,thesedominant
an obviousrecipeforanarchy.
Therefore,
entrepreneurial
land disputes,escalating Igboformed
theownership
class.Thetrading
class
alescenceof increasing
90.1995
Anthropos

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Apollos. Nwauwa

360

- Igbo and Ibibio- whichwas dominated

thereweretwo ethnic
by the the state.In Arochukwu,
would
in
It
societies
conflict.
theupperclassaccording
to
former,
appearthatmilitary
clearlyformed
The strife actioncreateda singlesocietyorderedin hierartheassumptions
of theMarxisttheory.
whichresultedcould be seen as a class strug- chicalclasses.In any case, theMarxistanalysis
of the
fora clearerunderstanding
by Igbo is important
gle betweenthe upperclass dominated
of
in
the
foundation
involved
Ibibio
tradersand thelowerclass dominated
complexprocesses
by
Arochukwu.
the
Edinvitation
of
the
farmers.
Nachi,
Later,
'analysison class conby theIgbo entrepreneurial Relatedto theMarxists
da-Igbopriest-doctor
This
on
thesis
Webster's
flict
is
as
the
class and thesubsequent
war,
multiethnicity.
Igbo-Ibibio
theoretical
in
the
useful
has
become
thesis
the
wouldargue,wereattempts
Marxists
very
by upper
of theAro stateformation
assistanceand fosterethnic consideration
class to enlistforeign
process.
heterwhen
two
contends
that
Webster
the
Yet
consciousness.
to
obscure
class
culturally
solidarity
in
a
coexist
societies
could
the
mercenaries
of
the
given
acephalous
ogeneous
Igbo
by
hiring
Akpa
wereboundto arise,andbe
of theupper area,crucialconflicts
be seen as a coercivemanipulation
over followedby anarchy
its dominance
class to assertand perpetuate
(Webster1983: 10). Accordandcrisisproducea hiatusin
as theMarx- ingtohim,"anarchy
class. Thereafter,
thedisadvantaged
was foundedas a thenewbipolarsocietywhichitappearsunableto
istswouldbelieve,Arochukwu
interbelievesthattheresulting
To theMarxists, resolve."Webster
ofclassantagonism.
consequence
irreconcilable
almost
becomes
theimmigrant
therefore,
Igbo alreadydominated ethnicantagonism
intothe
theupperclassbeforethearrivaloftheAkpa,and such that"once a thirdgroupintrudes
whether
an
arbiter
itself
finds
it
anarchic
of thechiefdom.
theemergence
society,
or
not"
the
role
it
seeks
were
Marxist
"classes"
Butit does appearthat
(1983: 10f.).ConsequentA languagegroupis certainly ly,a chiefly
judgeemergesfromthethirdgroup,
actuallyethnicities.
thejudge wieldspower
nota class in theMarxistsense.It maybehave and through
arbitration,
likea classsometimes,
butthisdoes notmakeita aroundhimselfand a stateis founded.Since the
as a thirdgroupheld a balanceof powerin thenew
class.The Marxiststendto classifyethnicity
inflamed
the
falseconsciousness
society,the ultimatesupportforthe
by rul- multiethnic
purposely
new
and
in
class
order
to
maintain
chiefly
judge was thethreatthattwoethnic
ing
groupsolidarity
between
classes.As elementsmightcombineagainsttheotherto enobscuretherealcontradictions
ofstateformation,
or "tribalism" forcethelaw.Webster's
Claude Ake pointedout,ethnicity
theory
flourishes
arguesthatthe stateis oftenfounded
mainlybecause"it servestheeconomic therefore,
coninterethnic
andarbitrate
andpoliticalinterests
oftheAfrican
bourgeoisie
by in Africato mitigate
theoriginal
solidaristic
(sic) tiesacrossclass lines" flict.Forhim,once a stateis formed,
promoting
or are forcedinto,a
formthemselves,
case, all the Igbo ethnicities
(1981: 2). In the Arochukwu
Once theoriginallanguages
wouldnot accurately
be classifiedin the upper class-likehierarchy.
customsare abandoned,and
class. Afterall, Igbo slaves and farmers
werea fade,distinguishing
factor
inthesituation.
would assimilation
Thus,as theMarxists
homogeneous
producesoneculturally
remains(Webster
assume,theentrepreneurial
group(theupperclass) group,theclass-likehierarchy
- a majority
of whomwereIgbo - wouldmanip- 1983).Thiswouldappeartohavebeenthecase in
is a
ulatetheothersin defenceof theirethnicity
even Arochukwu.
Without
doubt,Webster's
theory
on
state
formation
the
new
in
the
social
order
well
dimension
though resulting
thoughts
mightvery
of somepeople. in Africa.It fitstheAroalmostperfectly.
operateagainsttheclass interest
For manyyearsit was orthodoxMarxistbelief
In prestateArochukwu,
two distinctethnic
thatclass formation
had to precedethestate.But groups,the Igbo and Ibibio,coexisted.Cultural
thisorthodoxy
has been challengedeven inside heterogeneity
andeconomicissuescreatedconflict
the SovietUnionwhereit has been pointedout between
them.TheIgboinflux
continued.
Thisagthatclasses may be a productof the emergent gravated
dissension.
Therewasanarchy
interethnic
state(Alesandrov
et. al. 1980). Beforethe state, as warresulted
between
thetwoethnicgroups.The
thecondition
border
However, thesesofboth,theMarxists'andWebster's,
mighthavebeenanarchy.
no singlesociety on societalconflicts.
However,whiletheMarxists
againsttheMarxistassumptions,
existed.Ethnicity
canno longerbe wavedasideas focus upon class conflict,
Websterconcentrates
a falseconsciousness.
The former
SovietUnion on interethnic
of
strife.Thus, the involvelment
and former
As
Yugoslaviadisintegrated
partlyas a thethirdgroup,theAkpa,was as an arbiter.
resultof ethnicnationalism
and conflicts.
Ethnic- Websterwouldclaim,the Akpa leader,Akuma,
ityis no longermerelya deliberatecreationof becamethe firstprotochiefly
judge of ArochukAnthropos90.1995

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in Southeastern
TheEvolution
oftheAroConfederacy
Nigeria

361

wu. His reignbroughtpeace at the expenseof andtheIgbotookoverthethrone.

Thus,theAkpa
a hierarchy
of ethnicgroups.The chiefdom
was groupwas demoted.Thistendsto disproveWebas Webster'sthesiswouldsuggest,as a ster'sargument
that"whatever
socialstratification
founded,
of
and
the
interethnic
resultant
takes
and
at a minimum
thejudge and
crisis,
consequence
place
interference
of an arbiter.
Arochukwu
tendedto his immediate
will
form
an
elite- it ocfamily
be a classicexampleofa statewhichemerged
out cursat themoment
thestateis founded"
(Webster
ofinterethnic
conflict.
Webster's
thesisclearlyfits 1983: 11). In otherwords,Websterseemsto be
whenit contending
thecircumstances
thatclassesare notformed
beforethe
verywell.Nevertheless,
is realizedthattheAkpacamein as hiredmerce- stateis founded,
butafter,
whentheethnicgroups
withtheiremployer, fall intoa class-likehierarchy.
narieswhoalliedthemselves
He wouldclaim
theirrole thatitcontinues
class-likebecausethedominating
theIgbo,to crushtheIbibioopponent,
was actually groupsremainsociallyprominent
eventhough
in theIgbo-Ibibioconflict,
the
arguably,
ofitsmembers
be
In
line
with
as an ally ratherthana judge,an abettorrather majority
may poor.
thatclasses are formedafter
shoulddisplay Webster'sargument
thanan arbiter.
Sincean arbitrator
of thestate,it was expectedthat
Webster's
a certain
analysis thefoundation
degreeofimpartiality,
theupperclass,the
some theAkpashouldhaveformed
tendstosuffer
totheArosituation
inrelation
crisisofrelevance.
Igbothemiddle,andtheIbibiothelowerclass.But
as theMarxto notea pointof dissimilar- thiswas notwhathappened.Rather,
It is important
Whilethe istswouldargue,theIgbo who controlled
trade,
itybetweentheMarxistsand Webster.
theentrepreneurial
class (upperclass)
wasgenerated dominated
thatclassconflict
maintain
Marxists
was confederated.
Soon after,
and beforethechiefdom
by economicissues such as overproduction
andtheAkpa
of surplusesby one class, Webster theupperclassusedthepriest-doctor
appropriation
thestate.5By using
forcesto dominate
setsof customary mercenary
sees it in termsof "conflicting
control
secured
the
ofthejustice
state
and
the
laws" suchas "sex roles,responsibility,
power,they
which
trade.
The
the
1983:
..."
ofoffspring (Webster
11).
Clearly,
expanded
system, oracle,
ownership
do notmakeit clearwhatwerethe economiccontrolled to politicalpreponderance
Arotraditions
It
causes or excusesfortheIgbo-Ibibiostrife.The whichwas usedto securereligiousdominance.
the
Marxists'
stress
that
does not an- would,therefore,
revoltof theIgbo slave,Uruk-nta,
appear
as Webswerthequestionsincethereasonsforhisactions on economicconflictwas as important
of Arothesisin thefoundation
In anycase, it is assumedthat ster'sinterethnic
remainuncertain.
the chukwu.The Igbo toppedthe "class" hierarchy,
theIbibio,as theownersof thesoil,resented
them.It theAkpacamein themiddleandtheIbibiowere
whotendedto dominate
Igboimmigrants
to thebottom.
to relegated
assumedthatbecausetheIgboturned
is further
thata greatextheAkpa,theysurelyhad had previthetraders,
However,it mustbe admitted
alteredthe
have
of
commerce
From
these
them.
with
ous commercial
vastly
may
pansion
dealings
of
Akuma
and that
advent
the
between
situation
that
the
would
it
Igbo-Ibibio
appear
assumptions,
conflictwas twofold.The firstseems to be an of Nachi.Economicfactorswereprobablymuch
at thetimeAkumacameto power,
economicclash,as theMarxistswouldcontend, less important
of
classdominated
theentrepreneurial
between
bythe hence,hisrolemayhavebeenlargelyas arbiter
classmayhaveinitiated
Thetrader
class dominated ethnicconflict.
and theagricultural
Igbo traders
to Akumabut been fartoo small
bytheIbibio.Bothgroupsmayhavesubsequentlythe invitation
withthe
control
to
economfortheirvarious
ethnicsolidarity
thereafter,
enlisted
politicalsituation
In
of
the
collaboration
out
the
was
of
the
The secondaspect
ic interests.
Akpa group. the
hostility
commerce
thereafter
Webster
as
frictions
cultural
caused
interethnic
mayhavegreatly
generation
by
that expanded,and thetraderclass achievedgrowing
would believe.It was probable,therefore,
and control.It encouragedNachi,an
hostili- confidence
the economicclash precededinterethnic
theMarxistanalysis.Yet,both Igbo, to asserthimselfas a resultof whichhis
ties.Thissupports
Howev- "technical"son,Okenachi,assumedpower.This
clashesmayhavehappenedconcurrently.
who
role
of
Akuma
the
on
the
stress
er,
judicial
forceto back it up, and thenecescommanded
groupsin any situation 5 Beforethearrivalof both,Nachiand theAkpa,it would
sityforthreecontending
followWebster'sthesisrather appearthatthemajorityof the Igbo tradershad begun
of stateformation,
The arrivalof Nachi,theEdda
to dominate
economically.
closely.
the
themthereligious
control
whereas
offered
priest-doctor,
exhibitsa uniqueconvolution. involvement
YetArohistory
of theAkpasubsequently
invested
themwith
tilldate.
politicalpowerwhichpersists
Upon thedeathof thefirstchief,Akuma,Nachi
90.1995
Anthropos

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Apollos. Nwauwa

362

to a society'ssearchforjustice.Undoubtsince the Akpa primacy

appearedas an easy transition
did
not
raise
While
it
is
the
Aro chiefdomwas uniquein thatthe
edly,
group
majorobjections.6
to all current
ofthestatelendssupport
it
infoundation
the
of
this
still
raises
research,
beyond scope
theories.
of
slave
as
to
Okenachi
teresting
possibilities why
to arguethatit was a littleof all
founded Nevertheless,
origins- anotheroutsider- ultimately
oftheAro
which
ledtotheemergence
the
theories
the
rise
a hereditary
1780.
Given
ca.
chieftaincy
seemstobe an easywayout.Keeping
and confederacy
of theslave classesin thecoastalcity-states,
arealso susthe accessionof slave kingsin some,one won- inmindthatmonocausal
explanations
thatsome
of sucha social pectamonghistorians,
dersif theearliestmanifestation
analysisrequires
The Arostate
orderis necessary.
In the kindof ranking
in Arochukwu.
hadnotoccurred
revolution
the rise of the slave classes maybe comparedto the vast heartof Igboland
coastal city-states
contact.
linkedto a vastexpansionoftrade withwhichtheywereinintimate
was intimately
Manyof
ofslaves, thefactorsrelevantto theAro werealso present
whichrequired
a substantial
assimilation
bothIgboandIbibio.Yet
some of whombecameleadersof themerchant in neighbouring
regions,
class (Jones1963: 124-134; Dike 1962: 69-80; suchpeoplesawno reasontoabandontheiracepheven fora chieftaincy
researchmightindicate alous "democracies"
very
Ayandele1966). Further
and power.Mostacephalous
a similarsocialrev- limitedin authority
whether
Okenachirepresented
olutionin Arochukwu.
Igbo wouldhave been awareof thechieftaincies
in the
ihe stateformation
processin Aro- withintheirown cultureas exemplified
Evidently,
Nri
and
of
states
of thechief centralized
chukwuwas unique.The foundation
Onitsha,Ogutaand
as Arochukwu.
well
as
Osomari
theories
domexhibited
elementsof all themajor
(Nzimiro1972),
of how,why,and wherea statewas likelyto be Still,theydid not choose to imitatethem.The
in diffusionist
to firearms
andwarfare
The reference
founded.
therefore,
appearsless than
argument,
tendsto suggestthecon- strong.Even insideArochukwu
thepeople's traditions
itself,thediffuweakestcase.
have
had
the
to
be
said
sionists
could
the
The
of
the
third
group,
questtheory. coming
the
diffusion
and
were
In
all
was
crucial.
this,
likelihood,they
theory
ironically,
Despite
Akpa,
on theAro.
literature
the interpretive
state dominated
of the Akpa-Jukun
awareof theformation
in theBenueValley,and Calabar.Hence,thedif- The conquesttheoryappearsjust as threadbare,
There
ideaswereprobably
formativeexpeciallyif it is devoidof "outsiders."
fusionofthestatist
in earlyArochukwu. was no place in acephalouspoliticalculturefor
in themindsofthemajority
theisi-ala
ofmajortraderoutes, conquestto takeoverlandor subjugate
theAromonopoly
Similarly,
for
Warsweretopunisha neighbour
of exotictradegoods,and a justice (landowners).
redistribution
behaviour.
The victornormally
systemlendcredenceto thenotionthatthescarce someundesirable
to his homelandand people afterthe
resource
wasequallyapplicabletothefoun- withdrew
theory
oftheland,
dationof thechiefdom.
The invitation
of Nachi, hostilities.
An attempt
atexpropriation
theEddapriest-doctor,
theAkpa it was believed,usuallyelicitedthewrathofAla,
andsubsequently,
of whomalreadyformed theEarthgoddess(Nwabara1977:26-43). Conseby theIgbo,a majority
theupperclass, as theMarxistwouldconclude, quently,
of
totheassumptions
conquest,
according
werean attempt
the
class
to
the
outside
the
assert
orthodox
by
ownership
theory,
requiredmoving
and perpetuate
its dominance.Theyappealedto culture.
ethnicsolidarity.
To the Marxists,therefore,
the
Scarceresourceswereas mucha factorin the
which
in
culminated
the
Aro
war
was
heartland
as in Arochukwu.
As tradeexpanded
antagonism
more
than
a
class
and
the
state
all
over
the
conflict,
nothing
acephalousregion,it did notinduce
whichemergedwas its directoutcome.Finally, stateformation.
The scarcityof justicewas as
theIgbo-Ibibioconflicts
correlate
withWebster's mucha factoramongthe Igbo generallyas in
thesis.Webster
wouldcertainly
see Arochukwu.
In fact,theAwkaconducted
thesecmultiethnicity
the Akpa involvement
as thatof a thirdgroup, ond largestamountof tradein Igboland.They
thearbiter,
andthefoundation
ofthechiefdom
as spreadtheinfluence
oftheiroraclejustas theAro
an aftermath
of interethnic
He wouldgive had. Theyhelda monopolyof a scarceresource
strife.
- ironimplements
- overhalfof theacephalous
region.Locatedas close to Onitshaand Nri as
the Aro to Calabar,theywereintimately
aware
6 Nachi's rolewas crucialin thathe expandedtheinfluenceof
of
the
Awka
made
Yet,
chieftaincy
organizations.
theoracle whichprovidedan essentialelementin therapid
towardscentralization
and chieftaincy
expansionof commerceand Aro power.Nachi servedIgbo no effort
aninfluential
tradinginterestsverywell.
oracle,and
despitea trademonopoly,
Anthropos90.1995

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in Southeastern
TheEvolution
oftheAroConfederacv
Nigeria

363

knowledgeof anothersociopoliticalsystem.All Alesandrov,Yuri,et.al. (eds.)

andAgrarian
in theDeveloping
Evolution
without
a centralized
he- 1980 Government
thesetheyaccomplished
ofAsia andAfrica.Moscow:TSL Press.
Countries
it
research
makes
chief
very
reditary ship.Njoku's
was highlydevel- Ayandele,E. A.
clearthatclass differentiation
ImpactonModernNigeria,1842-1914.
familiesrevelling 1966 TheMissionary
opedin Awka,theblacksmith's
London:Longman.
of
wealth
in theostentatious
their
(Njoku
display
outofthis Dike,K. O.
1986:322-361).Still,no stateemerged
thesiswillnotfit 1962 TradeandPoliticsin theNigerDelta.Oxford:Clarencontradiction.
Hence,theMarxist
donPress.[1956]
seemed
Awka.WhattheacephalousIgboheartland
to lack was theclashproducedby multiethnicity.
Dike,K. O., andFeliciaI. Ekejiuba
in
The Igbo statesand kingdomswere all located 1978 The Aro State:A Case Studyof StateFormation
Southeastern
Society
Nigeria.JournaloftheHistorical
were
conflicts
wheremultiethnic
on theperiphery
ofNigeria5/3:268-300.
of thesekingdoms
likelyto occur.The traditions
did take Ekejiuba,Ifeoma
all indicatethatsuchhostileintermixing
Century;
that 1972 The Aro Systemof Tradein theNineteenth
to
seems
the
Thus
suggest
Igboexample
place.
PartsI andII. Ikenga1/2:1-26.
factorforstateforwas a necessary
multiethnicity
mationas evidencedin theNigerstatesinfluenced Forde,Daryll,andG. I. Jones
1962 TheIbo-andIbibio-Speaking
PeoplesofSouth-Eastern
byBeninas wellas Arochukwu.
and
Cox
Ltd.[1950]
London:
Stone
Nigeria.
of
assessment
a hierarchical
Havingattempted
to contend Green,M. M.
it wouldbe vulnerable
all thetheories,
London:FrankCass. [1947]
culturalgroupsalone lead to the 1964 IgboVillageAffairs.
thatconflicting
for
of the state.A potentiallocation
emergence
Isichei,Elizabeth
for monopoly 1976 A HistoryoftheIgboPeople.London:The Macmillan
economicgain and opportunities
whichshouldin turnproduce
Press.
of scarceresources
to
class differentiation
may,in fact,be necessary
G. I.
of otherethnicgroups,and Jones,
attract
the attention
Field8/3:100-103.
1939 WhoaretheAro?TheNigerian
and 1963 The TradingStatesof theOil Rivers.London:Oxford
Interethnic
population.
producea multiethnic
Press.
wouldbe a probablephenomenon
-classrivalries
University
or alWhencompetition
in suchan intermixture.
Meek,C. K.
and anarchyset in, 1969 A SudaneseKingdom:An Ethnological
conflicts
mostirreconcilable
Studyof the
thesocietywouldclearlybe ripefora chiefwho
Peoplesof Nigeria.New York:Negro
Jukun-Speaking
Press.[1931]
Universities
at leastheldouttheappearanceof beingwilling
un- Njoku,O. N.
andable to arbitrate.
Usually,sucharbitration
state
of
the
formation
in
the
resulted
in Igboland,c. 15421986 A Historyof IronTechnology
consciously
1900.[Ph.D.Thesis,DalhousieUniversity,
Halifax]
One mightimaginea situation
and government.
cametogether,
in whicha multiethnic
population
David
Northrup,
butwheretherewas no resourcewhichcouldbe 1978 TradeWithout
Economic
Rulers:Pre-Colonial
DevelopPress.
Clarendon
mentinSoutheastern
enemies
In theabsenceofpowerful
Nigeria.Oxford:
monopolized.
one wondersifthejudicialfuncor landscarcity,
Nwabara,S. N.
tionof an arbiteralone wouldsustainthe state. 1977 Iboland:A Century
1860-1960.
withBritain,
ofContact
fromthelack
Press.
Humanities
NewJersey:
mightdisintegrate
Anystateformed
to maintain
of resources
itself,and be lostto the
Nwauwa,A. O.
of oraltradition.
memory
of CorA Synthesis
1990 The Datingof theAroChiefdom:
inAfrica17: 227-245.
relatedGenealogies.
History

Nzimiro,Ikenna
andPoli1972 Studiesin Ibo PoliticalSystems:
Chieftaincy
ticsin FourNigerStates.London:FrankCass.

ReferencesCited

Walter
Ofonagoro,
1976 The Aro and the Delta Middlemenof Southeastern
Nigeriaand theChallengeof theColonialEconomy.
A. E.
Afigbo,
JournaloftheHistoricalSocietyofNigeria3/2:1431971/72TheAroofSoutheastern
Nigeria:A Socio-Historical
164.
Analysisof Legendsof theirOrigin;PartII. African
Notes1'/I:91-106.
Simon
Ottenberg,
Relations.Southwestern
1958 Ibo Oracles and Intergroup
Ake,Claude
14: 295-317.
Journal
1981 A PoliticalEconomyofAfrica.New York:Longman.
ofAnthropology

90.1995
Anthropos

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Apollos. Nwauwa

364

AroM.P.No.24/1927/25,
NationalArchives.
Nigerian
Ukwu,I. Ukwu
div.20/1/15.
in Iboland.
of TradeandMarketing
1967 The Development
Reporton Aro. Enugu:Nigerian
JournaloftheHistoricalSocietyofNigeria3/4:647- 19276 SecondIntelligence
Arodiv.20/1/15
NationalArchives.
662.
Umo,Kanu R.
ofAroSettlements.
n.d. History
Yaba-Lagos:MbonuOjike
Press.

Okereke,Kanu,et al.
of Ibom-IsiVilof Eze Ibom-Isi.Petition
1945 Re-Payment
Aro-ItuDivision.Enugu:
lage to theDistrictOfficer,
Arodiv.3/1/55.
NationalArchives.
Nigerian

J. B.
Webster,
State.
A Peripatetic
1981 The ThreePhasesof Kwararafa:
Halifax:DalhousieUniversity.
(BenueValleyResearch Okorafor,Solomon,et.al.
toD.O.
ofAro.Amanagwu
1945 Chieftaincy
VillagePetition
Collections)
Papers;KillamLibrary
AroArchives.
National
Arochukwu.
Nigerian
Enugu:
in Africa.Conference
Social Formation
1983 Pre-Colonial
div.3/1/55.
Studies.
African
of
Association
Canadian
QuePaper:
bec.
Palmer,H. R.
attachedto M.P.
and Questionnaire,
1921 Memorandum
Southern
of 13/7/21
No.PI 195/1921
(FromSecretary,
ArchivalDocuments
Arochukwu).
Provincesto AssistantDistrictOfficer,
Arodiv.20/1/1.
NationalArchives.
Enugu:Nigerian
Anicho,Oti Nwa
NationalAr- Shankland,T. M.
1926 Accountof AroOrigin.Enugu:Nigerian
Dischives.Arodiv.20/1/1.
1933 Intelligence
Reporton theAroClan,Arochukwu
CalabarProvince.Enugu:NigerianNationalArtrict,
Falk,E.
chives.Arodiv.20/1/15
1927 Memoon AroOriginandtheBasis of theWidespread
to
Province
Calabar
Aro Influence(FromResident,
H.F. Mathews).Enugu:NigerianNationalArchives. Shute,D. A. F.
1926 "Ntinya"
amongtheEhums,Semi-Bantu
Organization
Arodiv.
Peoples,anditsPossibleRelationtotheReligionofthe
to D.
Aro. (FromA. D. O. Arochukwu
Ugwuakuma
Mathews,H. F.
O. IkotEkpene).Enugu:NigerianNationalArchives.
1927a Discussionof Aro Originand theBasis of theWideArodiv.20/1/1.
Report.Enugu:
Intelligence
spread"Aro Influence."

90.1995
Anthropos

This content downloaded from 141.213.236.110 on Sun, 14 Dec 2014 11:32:59 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions