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Documente Cultură
SYSTEM PROTECTION
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INTRODUCTION TO
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTON
CONTENTS
Overview Of Protection Fundamentals
Notes Overcurrent Protection
Directional Overcurrnt
Transformer Protec:tion Notes
Transformer Setting Tutorials
Generator and Generator Transf - Protection
Generators Setting Criteria
Distance Protection Notes
Distance Protectiorr Schemes
Busbar Protection
Motor Protection
A C Motor Protection
Motor Setting Criteria
Notes 1 C T S
Notes Additional Analysis
Notes Unbalanced Faults
Tutorial Balanced Faults
Tutorial Grading Examples
Tutorials Generator Protection
Tutorial C T Selection
Tutorial Busbar Protection
Overview Of Protection
Fundamentals
INTRODUCTION
Relays are compact devices that are connected throughout the power
system to detect intolerable or unwanted conditions within an assigned
area. They are in effect, a form of active insurance designed to maintain
a high degree of service continuity and limit equipment damage. They
are "Silent Sentinels". While protective relays will be the main emphasis of
this chapter, other types of relays, applied on a more limited basis or used
as part df a total protective relays system will also be covered.
2.0
CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
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3.0
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A complex relaying system may result from poor system design or the
economic need to use fewer circuit breakers. Considerable savings can
be realized by using fewer circuit breakers and a more complex relay
system. Such systems usually involve design compromises requiring careful
evaluation, if acceptable protection is to be maintained.
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4.0
DESIGN CRITERIA
The application logic of protective relays divides the power system into
several zones, each requiring its own group of relays. In all cases, the five
design criteria listed below are common to any well-designed and
efficient protective system or system segment:
a. Reliability - the ability of the relay p r relay system to perform correctly
when needed (dependability) and to avoid unnecessary operalion
(security).
b. Speed - minimum fault time and equipment damage:
c. Selectivity - maximum service continuity with minimum system
disconnection.
d. Economics - maximum protection at minimum cost.
e. Simplicity - minimum equipment and circuitry.
Since it is impractical to fully satisfy all these design criteria simultaneously
the necessary compromhes must be evaluated on the basis of
comparative risks.
4.1
Reliability
System reliability consists of two elements - dependability and security.
Dependability is the certainty of correct operation in response to system
trouble, while security i s the ability of the system to avoid mis-operation
between faults. Unfortunately, these aspects of reliability tend to counter
one another: increasing security tends to decrease dependability and
vice versa. In general, however, modern relaying systems are highly
reliable and provide practical compromise between security and
dependability.
Protective relay system must perform correctly under adverse sysfem and
environmental conditions. Regardless of whether other systems are
momentarily blinded during this period, the relays must perform
accurately and dependably. They must either operate in response to
trouble in their assigned area or block correctly i f the trouble is outside
their designated area.
--
Applied to a relay, high speed indicates that the operating time usually
does not exceed 50 ms (3 cycles on a 60-hertz base). The term
instantaneous indicates that no delay is purposely introduced in the
operation. In practice, the terms high speed and instantaneous are
frequently used interchangeably.
4.3
Selectivity versus Economics
High speed relays provide greater service continuity by reducing fault
damage and hazards to personnel. These relays generally have a higher
initial cost, which, however, cannot always be justified. Consequently,
both low and high-speed relays are used to protect power systems. Both
types have high reliability records. Records on protective relay operations
consistently show 99.5% and better relay performance.
4.4
Simplicity
As in any other engineering discipline, simplicity in a protective relay
system is always the hallmark of a good design. The simplest relay system,
however, is not always the most economical. As previously indicated,
major economies are possible with a complex relay system that uses a
minimum number of circuit breakers. Other factors being equal, simplicity
of design improves system reliability - if only because there are fewer
elements that can malfunction.
5.0
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( 1 ) Correct
(2) No conclusion
( 3 ) lncorrect
lncorrect operation may be either failure to trip or false tripping. The
cause of incorrect operation may be, a) Wrong application, b) lncorrect
settings, c ) A personnel error or 4) Equipment mal-function. Equipment
that can cause an incorrect operation includes current transformers,
voltage transformers, circuit breakers, cable and wiring, relays, channels
or station batteries.
lncorrect tripping of circuit breakers not associated with the trouble area
is often as disastrous as c failure to trip. Hence, special care must be
taken in both appiication and installation to ensure against the possibility
of incorrect tripping.
" No conclusion" is the last resort when no evidence is -available for a
correct or incorrect operation. Quite often this is a personnel involvement.
6.0
Zones of Protection
The general philosophy of relay application is to divide the power system
into protective zones that can be protected adequately with the
mininwm amount of the system disconnected. The power system is
divided into protective zones for:
i1
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
.
Generators
Transformers
Buses
Transmission and distribution circuits
Motors
A typical power system and its zones of protection are shown in Figl. The
purpose of the protective system is to provide the first line of protection,
within the guide-lines outlined above. Since failures .do occur, however
some form of backup protection is provided to trip out the adjace13f
breakers or zones surrounding the trouble area. Protection in each zone is
overlapped to avoid the possibility of unprotected areas
8.1
Device Numb'erina
Device Number
Definition
Master Elemenl
1
Function
It is an initiating device, such as a
control switch, voltage relay, float
switch, etc., which serves either
directly or through such permissive
devices as protective and time
to
delay relays.
place an equipment in or out of
operation.
Time
Delay It i s a device which functions to give
Starting
or a desired amount of time delay
before or after any point of
Closing Relay
operation in a switching sequence
or
protective relaying
system,
except as specifically provided by
device function 48, 62 and 79
1 described later.
Checking
or It is a device which operates in
response to the position of a number
Interlocking
of other devices (or to a number of
Relay
predetermined conditions), in an
equipment, to allow an operating
sequence to proceed, to stop, or to
provide a check of the position of
these devices or of these conditions
i for any purpose.
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- --
--
ibined course
I Device Number
Function
It is a device, generally controlled by
the device No.1 or equivalent, and
the
required
perrr~issive and
protective devices, that serve to
make and break the necessary
control circuits to
place
an
equipment into operation under the
desired conditions and to take it out
of operation under other or
abnormal conditions.
Stopping Device It is a control device used primarily
to shut down an equipment and
hold it out of operation This device
may be manually or Electrically
actuated, but excludes the function
of electrical lockout (see device
1
function 86) on abnormal conditions. 1
Starting Circuit It is a device whose principal)
function is to connect a machine.to
Breaker
its source of staitina voltaae.
I
Anode
Circuit It is one used in-theanode circuits of
a power rectifier for the primary
Breaker
purpose of interrupting the rectifier
circuit if an arc back should occur.
Control Power It is a disconnecting device - such
as a knife switch, circuit breaker or
Disconnecting
pullout fuse block, used for the
Device
purpose
of
connecting
and
disconnecting the source of control
power to and from the control bus
or equipment.
Note: Control power is considered to
include auxiliary power, which
supplies such apparatus as sn~all
motors and heaters.
It is used for the purpose of reversing
Reversing
a machine field or for performing 1
Device
1
/ any other reversina functions.
I
( Unit Sequence ( It is used to change the sequence in 1
which units may be placed in and
Switch
Definition
Master
Contactor
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8.1
Device Numb'erina
Device Number -Definition
Function
Master Element It is an initiating device, such as a
control switch, voltage relay, float
switch, etc., which serves either
directly or through such permissive
devices as protective and time
delay relays.
to
place an equipment in or out of
operation.
Time
Delay It is a device which functions to give
Stariing
or a desired amount of time delay
before or after any point of
Closing Relay
operation in a switching sequence
or
protective relaying system,
except as specifically provided b y
device function 48, 62 and 79
described later.
It is a device which operates in
Checking
response to the position of a number
( Interlocking
of other devices (or to a number of
Relay
predetermined conditions), in an
equipment, to allow an operating
sequence to proceed, to stop, or to
provide a check of the position of
these devices or of these conditions
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Device Nurr~
ber
4
---=I :
Definition
Master
Contactor
Function
It is a device, generally controlled b y
the device No.1 or equivalent. and
the
required
permissive
and I
protective devices, that sr=rL/rs to
make and break the rlecessarY
control
circuits
to
place
art,
equipment into operation vrde! 'the I
desired ~onditiof?s
end to toke i i out
of operation
~ n d m TJ~I-!F-:
Or
abnormal conditic:;~.
____---. Stopping Device It is a coritiol d,-\:jCe usee ;,:irr~arily I
to shut down c;;equipn.5~1:
arid)
.
hold it out of oge:2-i&n- -,;rli:
C;e/ice i
-.
may be mancc:ii. or I:5c.::i~~lly ,
actuated, but exc,,zss ;r,5 f;,..ctior~
1 of elect!-ical I C ~ ~ - , - 1-, ~ :;edice
~
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I function 86)on c ~ - - ~ .~
~ = : :.~__
; ,-T ! C!J T~
I ~ . ~i ,
lt i s a device .....--zs5
5:ir!.cipaI /
Breaker
function is to c o ~ - - ~~ ~; ~- ~ vto! ! ~ r
its source of stariir:.~-.G ; T C ~ ~ .
- .
( .
2i:i of
Anode
Circuit It is one used in i.-e
a power- recjifie- :-r,gy,gr'j ;
- ,:- 4:;'l t l ~ e r
Breaker
purpose oi inte---, ---2
1
circuit if ar: arc
F7 :T;~,.J~.
Control
Power It i s a discanne;- -;
,I.
, - ;:,C~I
Disconnecting
as a knife switc:
L-.-=_
- L-3r;/er or
Device
pullout fuse b!.zqzq - ---the
.
;
:
I
d
purpose
of
I:-------,
disconnecting ii-5 5 z . - - z-l -' -_,<-,irC~l
I
power t2 ~ : ; df: I-- -- - - -- - * / r~1.J:
or equipr:ie!~i.
Note: C ~ r ] i l .PO\.*.
~ / 51 1 -;:;*5?
.
include zct..rilic-.
1 ... :- ,,.,< ~f-r
supplies sctci, r - - - - - -- -- --- *'5~\1
motors
a
r
~
c
nec:~.--,... - - )
it
i
s
used
iL7:.
:he
r*-.-.,2
...-cs~r~:;
Reversing
___
( Device
a mactlifie fiei& -- - :-- ---./-,s - -<,!irtr;
an other re\,ersir,z -- -.y
.T; :
Unit Sequence It is used :p , - ~ ? C ~-. -- . Z--.- _ - s - - - :=- 'c. irl
which ur;i;- _ -,?c.,v - _ -- -- - -,-'"; '
s-seL
- ---
- /
: A
p L
' -
__
:=.
-- -
b - - -
A,
-- ..
--...
--;
._
_.
.
4
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Device Number
25
Definition
Function
Synchronising or It is a device that operates when
Synchronismtwo ac circuits are within the desired
limits of frequency, phase angle and
Check Device
voltage, to permit' or to cause the
paralleling of these two circuits.
It is a device, which functions when
Apparatus
Thermal Device the temperature of the shunt field or
the armature winding of a machine,
or that of a load limiting or load
shifting resistor or of a liquid or other
medium exceeds a p.redefermined
value ; or if the temperature of the
protected appa~.atus, such as a
power rectifier, or of any medium
decreases below a predetermined
value.
I Under Voltage It is a device, which functions on a
Relay
given value 'of undervoltage.
Flanie detector
It is a device that monitors the
presence of the pilot or main flame
-In such apparatus as a gas turbine
or a steam boiler.
1 It is a device used for disconnecting
Isolating
one circuit from another for the
( Contcctor
purposes of emergency operation,
maintenance, or test.
It is a non-automatically reset
Annunciator
relay
device that gives a number of
separate visual indications upon the
functioning of protective devices
and which may also be arranged to
perform a lockout function.
It connects a circuit such as the
Sepcrzlte
shunt
field of a synchronous
Excitciion
converter, to a source of separate
Device
excitation
during
the
starting
sequence ; or one which energises
the excitation and ignition circuits of
a nower rectifier.
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Overview Of Protection Fundamentals
Page 15 of 0
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e Number
33
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34
35
36
1
37
Function
I
desired value of power fiow in
given direction, or upon reverse
power, like resulting from arc back in
the anode or cathode circuits of a I
power rectifier.
Position Switch
It makes or breaks contact when the
1 main device or piece of apparatus, 1
which has no device function
number, reaches a given position.
It is a device such as a motorMaster
operated multi-conjact switch, or
Sequence
Device
the equiv'alent, or a programming
device, such 0 s a computer, that
establishes or
determines
the
operating sequence of the major
devices in an equipment during
starting and stopping or during other
sequential operations.
It is used for raising, lowering, or
Brushor ] shifting, the brushes of a machine, or I
Operating,
for short circuiting its slip rings, or for
Slip-ring-shortengaging
or
disengaging the
circuiting
contacts of a mechanical rectifier.
Device
Polarity
or It operates or permits the operation
a,
of
another
device
on
Polarising
Voltage Device predetermined polarity only
verifies the presence of a polarising
voltage in an equipment.
Undercurrent or It functions when the current or
Under
power power flow decreases below a
predetermined value.
1 Relav
It functions on excessive bearing
Bearing
temperature, or on other abnormal
Protective
mechanical conditions, such as
Device
undue wear, which may eventually
result
in
excessive
bearing
Definition
Power Relay
Mechanical
Condition
Monitor
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occurrence
abnormal
I Device Number I
Definition
Function
associated with bearings as covered
under device function 38), such as
excessive vibration, eccentricity,
expansion, shock, tilting, or seal
failure.
It functions on a given or abnormally
Field Relay
low value or failure of machine field
current, or on an excessive value of
the
reactive
component
of
armature current in an ac machine
indicating abnormally low field
excitation.
Field
Circuit It is a device, which functions to
Breaker
apply, or to remove the field
excitation of a machine.
42
function is to connect a machine to
Breaker
its source of running or operating
voltage. This function may also be
used for a device, such as a
contactor, that is used in series with
1
a circuit breaker or other fault
protecting means, primarily for
frequent opening and closing of the
circuit.
Manual Transfer It transfers the control circuits so as
Selector to modify the plan of operation of
Device transfers the switching equipment or of some
of the devices.
Unit Sequence It is a device, whichfunctions to start
the next available unit in a multipleStarting Relay
unit equipment on the failure or on.
I
( the non-availability of the normally 1
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preceding unit.
It is a device that functions upon the
I Atmospheric
I Condition
occurrence
of
an
abnormal
atmospheric
condition,
such as
Monitor
damaging fumes, ex'plosive mixture,
smoke or fire.
46
I Reverse-Phase. It is a relav which functions when the 1
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Device Number
47
Definition
Phase-Balance,
Current Relay
Function
poly-phase currents are of reverse
phase sequence, or when the polyphase cu:cer?,?s fire vnbolonced zl;
contain negative phase-sequence
components
above
a
given
amount.
Phase
- It functions, upon a predetermined
1 Sequence
- 1 value of poly phase voltage in the ]
Voltage Relay
desired phase sequence.
It is a relay that generally returns the
Incomplete
Sequence Relay equipment to the normal, or off,
position and locks it out if the normal
starting, operating or stopping
sequence is not properly completed
within a predetermined time. If the
device is used for alarm purpose
only, it should preferably be
,
designated as 48A (alarm).
or It is a relay that functions w.hen the
temperature of
a
machine
Transformer,
armature, or other -load carrying
Thermal Relay
winding or element of a machine, or
the temperature of a power rectifier
or power transformer (including a
power rectifier transformer) exceeds
an medetermined value.
Ilnstantaneous
[ I t is a relay that
functions1
overcurrent, or instantaneously on an excessive
Rate
of
rise value of current, or on an excessive
current rise, thus indicating a fault in
Relay
the apparatus or circuit being
protected.
AC
Time It is a relay with either a definile or
an inverse time characteristic lhat
Overcurrent
functions when the current in an ac
Relay
circuit exceeds a predetermined
value.
I
AC
Circuit It i s a device that is used to close
I Breaker
and interrupt an ac power circuit
under normal conditions or to
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Overview Of Pr~?w-t!on
Fundamentals
Page 16 of 0
Device Number
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41
42
Function
1
associated with bearings as covered
under device function 38), such as
excessive vibration, eccentricity,
expansion, shock, tilting, or seal
failure.
It functions on a given or abnormally
Field Relay
low value or failure of machine field
current, or on an excessive value of
the
reactive
component
of
armature current in an ac machine
indicating abnormally low field
excitation.
Field
Circuit It i s :a device, which functions to
apply, or to remove the field
Breaker
Definition
'
Running
Breaker
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44
I Monitor
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~e/erie-phase,
Device Number
47
Function
poly-phase currents are of reverse
phase sequence, or when the polyphclse currents me unbalaficzd o i
contain negative phase-sequence
cornponents
above
a
given
amount.
It functions upon a predetermined
value of poly phase voltage in the
desired phase sequence.
Volta e Rela
It is a relay that generally returns the
Incomplete
Sequence Relay equipment to the normal, .or off,
position and locks it out i f the normal
starting, operating or stopping
sequence is not properly completed
within a predetermined time. If the
device is used for alarm purpose
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I
designated as 48A {alarm).
Machine,
or It i s a relay that functions when the
temperature
of
a
machine
Transformer,
armature, or other load carrying
Thermal Relay
winding or element of a machine, or
the temperature of a power rectifier
or power transformer (including a
power rectifier transformer) exceeds
an predetermined value.
It is a relay that functions
Instantaneous
overcurrent, o i instantaneously on an excessive
Rate
of
rise value of current, or on an excessive
current rise, thus indicating a fault in
, Relay
the apparatus or circuit being
~rotected.
Time / It i s a relay with either a definile or
AC
an inverse time characterisiic l l m t
Overcurrent
functions when the current in an ac
Relay
( circuit exceeds a predetermined
value.
AC
Circuit It is a device that is used to c:lose
1 and interrupt an ac power circuit
Breaker
under normal condilions or to
Definition
Phase-Balance,
Current Relay
--j"49
Device Number
Definition
67
1
68
Function
mechanical positioning.
AC
directional It is a relay that functions on a
Overcurrent
desired value of ac overcurrent
Relay
I flowing in a predetermined I
direction.
Blocking Relay
It is a relay that initiates a pilot signal
for blocking of tripping on external
faults in a transmission line or in other
apparatus under predetermined
conditions, or co-ordinates with
other devices to block tripping or to
block re-closing on an out-of-step
condition or on powerswing:.
ermissive
It is - generally a two position,
! Control ~ e v i c e ' manudlly operated switch that in
one position permits the closing of a
circuit breaker, or the placing of an
equipment into operation, and in
the other posilion prevents the
circuit breaker or the equipment
from being operated.
!
It is a variable resistance device
I Rheostat
used in an electric circuit, which is
electrically operated or has other
electrical accessories, such as
I
1
auxiliary position or limit switches.
I
It is a switch which operates on
1 Level switch
!
given values, or on a given rate of
1
change, of level.
I DC
circuit It is used to close and interrupt a dc
power
circuit
under
normal
Breaker conditions or to interrupt this circuit
1
under
fault
or
emergency
conditions.
i Load - Resistor It is used to shunt or insert a step of
load limiting, shifting, or indicating
' Contactor
resistance in a power circuit, or to
I
switch a space heater in circuit, or
to switch a light, or regenerative
load resistor of a power reclifier or
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72
73
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Device Number
Definition
Function
other machine in and out of circuit.
It i s a device other than the
annunciator, as covered under
device No.30, which is used to
operate in connection with a visual
Alarm ~ e b y
Changing
Mechanism
77
78
1
/
/(
Relay
0Flow Switch
1
1
81
-11
82
that controls
automatic reclosing and locking out
1I
1 given values, or
Device Number
Definition
Function
mechanical positioning.
1
AC
directional It is a relay that functions on a
Overcurrent
desired value of ac overcurrent
( Relay
flowing
in
a
predetermined
direction.
I
Blocking Relay
It is a relay that initiates a pilot signal
for blocking of tripping on external
faults in a transmission line or in other
/
apparatus under predetermined
conditions, or co-ordinates with
!
other devices to block tripping or to
block re-closing on an out-of-step
!
condition or on po\der swings:
1 Permissive
It is generally a two position,
i Control Device
manually operated switch that in
one position permits the closing of a
circuit breaker, or the placing of an
equipment into operation, and in
the other position prevents the
I
circuit breaker or the equipment
I
from being operated.
It is a variable resistance device
I Rheostat
used in an electric circuit, which is
electrically operated or has other
electrical accessories, such a:
auxiliary position or limit switches.
It is a switch which operates or
i Level Switch
given values, or on a given rate of
change, of level.
I DC
circuit It is used to close
power
circuit
under
normal
1 Breaker I
conditions or to interrupt this circuit
under
fault
or
emergency
conditions.
: Load - Resistor It is used to shunt or insert a step of
load limiting, shifting, or indicating
Contactor
I
I
resistance in a power circuit, or to
switch a space heater in circuit, or
to switch a light, or regenerative
load resistor of a power rectifier or
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68
1
/
69
70
71
72
73
Device Number
74
1i
75
I
76
77
I
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78
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79
,-
80
81
82
Function
other machine in and out of circuit.
It is a device other than the
Alarm ~ e l a y
annunciator, as covered under
device No.30, which i s used i o
operate in connection with a visual
or audible alarm.
It is a mechanism that i s used for
Position
moving a main device from one
Changing
position to another in an equipment
Mechanism
;as
for
example,
shifting
a
removable circuit breaker unit to
and
from
the
connected,
disconnected, and test posilions.
DC 0ve:current It is a relay that functions when the
l current in a dc circuit exceeds a
i
given value.
Pulse Transmitter It is used to generate and transmit
pulses over a telemetering or pilotwire circuit to the remote indicating
or receiving device.
I Phase
Angle It is a relay that functions at a
phase
angle
Measuring,
or predetermined
between two voltages or between
out-of-step
two currents or between voltage
Protective
and current.
Relay
AC
Re-closing It is a relay that controls the
automatic reclosing and locking out
Relay
of an ac circuit interrupter.
It is a switch, which operates on
Flow Switch
given values, or on a given rate of
change, of flow.
It is a relay that functions or-) a
~tequenc~
predetermined value of frequency,
Relay
e~therunderJover on normal system
frequency or rate of change of
frequency.
DC
Re-closing It is a relay that controls
automatic closing and reclosing of a
Relay
dc circuit inter~upter,generally in
response to load circuit conditions.
Definition
Device Number
Definition
to 94 i s suitable.
Function
ore
8.2
Devices Performing
Than One Function
If one device performs two relatively important functions in an equipment
so that it is desirable to identify both of these functions, this may be done
by using a double function number and name such as:
50/51 - Instantaneous and Time Overcurrent Relay.
8.3
SuffixNumbers
If h.10 or more devices with the same function number and suffix letter (if
used) are present in the same equipment, they rlay be distinguished by
numbered suffixes as for example, 52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3, when
necessary.
8.4
Suffix Letters
Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for va~~ious
purposes. In
order to prevent possible conflict each suffix letter should have only one
meaning in an individual equipment. All other words should use the
abbreviations as contained in ANSI Y 1.1 latest revision, or should use some
other distinctive abbreviation, or be written out in full each time they are
used. The meaning of each single suffix letter, or combination of letters,
should b e clearly designated in the legend on the drawings or
publications applying to the equipment.
Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all instances on
electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital
letters are generally used for all other suffix letters. Th,e letters should
generally form part of the device function designation, are usually written
directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS. 71 W, or
49D. When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection
with one function number, it is often desirable for clarity to separate them
by a slanted line or'dash, as for example, 20D/CS or 2OD-CS. .
The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and those which
cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are
generally written directly below the device function number on drawings,
as for example, 52/CC or 43/A.
-
8.9
Device
Power Circuit Breaker
Disconnecting Switch
Load-break swiich Valve
Gate
Clutch
-
Rheostat
Adjusting Means
Relay (2)
Contactor (21
Contactor (latched-in-type)
Temperature Relay (3)
Level Detector (3)
Flow Detector (3)
Speed Switch (3)
Vibration Detector (3)
1 Pressure Switch 131
) Vacuum Switch (3)
7
Note : If several similar auxiliary switches are present on the same device, they should be
designated numerically 1.2.3etc, when necessary.
( 1 ) 'These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting devices comprising
rheostats, springs. levers, or other components for the purpose.
( 2 ) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact
p,osition is dependent only upon the degree of energisation of the operating or
restraining or holding coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous
energisation. The de-energised position of the device i s that with all coils deenergised.
(3) The energising influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising
temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and
increasing pressure.
The simple designation "a" or "b" is used in all cases where there is no
need to adjust the contacts to change position at any particular point in
the travel of the main device or where the part of the travel, where the
contacts change position is of no significance in the control or operating
scheme. Hence fhe "a" or "b" designations usually are sufficient for
circuit breaker auxiliary switches.
OALSTOM Limited, Energy .4utomation & Information
Device Number
Definition
to 94 is suitable.
Function
8.2
Devices Performing ~ 6 r Than
e
One Funciion
If one device performs two relatively important functions in an equipment
so that it i s desirable to identify both of these functions, this may be done
by using a double function number and name such as:
Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all instances on
electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital
letters are generally used for all other suffix letters. The letters should
generally form part of the device function designation, are usually written
directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS, 71 W, or
490. When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection
with one function number, it is often desirable for clarity to separate them
by a slanted line or'das!?,as for example, 20DJCS or 20D-CS.
The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and those which
cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are
generally written direcily below the device function number on drawings,
as for example, 52lCC or 43lA.
-
8.9
. ..-
Device
I
I
Note : If several similar auxiliary switches are present on the same device, they should be
designated numerically 1,2,3 etc, when necessary.
( 1 ) These may be speed, voltage, current, load. or similar adjusting devices conlprising
rheostats, springs, levers, or other components for the purpose.
(2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact
position is dependent only upon the degree of energisation of the operating or
restraining or holding coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous
energisation. The de-energised position of the device is that with all coils deenergised.
(3) The energising influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising
temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and
increasing pressure.
The simple designation "a" or "b" is used in all cases where there is no
need to adjust the contacts to change position at any particular point in
the travel of the main device or where the part of the travel, where the
contacts change position is of no significance in the control or operating
scheme. Hence fhe "a" or "b" designations usually are sufficient for
circuit breaker auxiliary switches.
OALSTOM Limited, Energy .4utomation & Informalion
-
Relays
I
Electromechanical
.--
-+
Analogue
Numerical
TYPES OF PROTECTION
FUSES
The simplest form of overcurrent protection is the fuse. The fuse is capable of operating
in less than 10ms for very large values of current, thus considerably limiting fault energy.
However, it does have a number of disadvantages, namely;
Can be difficult to co-ordinate
Its characteristic is fixed
Needs replacing ioiiowing iauit ciearance
Has limited sensitivity to earthfaults since it is rated above the full load current of the
feeder
Operation of single fuse results in a condition refereed to as single phasing. Single
phasing .can be disastrous for rotating plant such as motors.
The fuse characteristic is split into two sections, the 'Pre-arcing Time' and the 'Arcing
Time'. The addition of these times is referred to as the 'Total Operating Time'.
Fault
DISCRIMINATION BY CURRENT
Discrimination by current relies upon the fact that the fault curren't varies with the
position of the fault. This variation is due to the impedance of various items of plant,
such as cables and transformers, between the source and the fault. Relays throughout
the system are set to operate at suitable values such that only the relay nearest to the
fault operates.
of operation are generally termed Instantaneous
Relays which adopt this
overcurrent relays.
(Where the fault level does not vary greatly between two relay location then the use of
i n s t a n t a n e ~ sovercurrent relays is not possible).
DISCRIMINATION BY TIME
Page 1
.:
If the fault level over a system is reasonably constant then discrimination by current will
not be possible. An alternatlile Is tc use time discrimination in which each overcurrent
relay is given a fixed ?irr?edelay with the relay farthest away from the source having the
shortest time delay. Operating time is thus substantially,independent of fault level but
the main disadvantage is that the relay nearest the source will have the longest time
delay and this is the point with the highest fault level.
Relays which adopt this principle of operation are generally termed definite
(independent) time overcurrent relays.
NOTE : When applying definite time overcurrent relays care must be taken to ensure
that the thermal rating of the current measuring element is not exceeded.
TlME
IS
(Relay Current Setting)
Applied Current'
PRINCIPLES OF CO-ORDINATION
The principle of co-ordination refers to the procedure of setting overcurrent relays to
ensure that the relay nearest the fault operates first and all other relays have adequate
additional time to prevent them from operating. If the relay nearest fo the fault fails to
clear the fault, and the co-ordination is correct, then the next up-stream relay should
operate and so on towards the source, thus isolating the minimum amount of plant.
The principle of co-ordination is often referred to as 'grading'.
When performing any co-ordination exercise the following need to be considered:
Relay Characteristics
Relay Current Setting
Grading Margin
Time Multiplier Setting
-
Relay Characteristics
There are numerous characteristics, however they all confirm to either BS142lIEC or
ANSIIIEEE standards. The BS142lIEC standard incorporates the following
characteristics.
Standard Inverse
Very lnverse
Extremely Irlverse
Long Time Inverse
The ANSIIIEEE standard incorporates the following characteristics:
Moderately InverseVery lnverse
Extremely lnverse
Short Time lnverse
Inverse
The BS142lIEC standard curves are mainly adopted in the LIK and the most commonly
used ones are explained in more detail below:
Standard lnverse - This characteristic is commonly known as the 3110 characteristic,
i.e. at ten times setting current and TMS of 1 the relay will operate in 3 secs.
The characteristic curve can be defined by the mathematical expression :
where I
15
111,
applied current
setting current
multiple of setting current
The standard inverse time characteristic is widely applied at all system voltages - a s
back up protection on EHV systems and as the main protection on HV and MV
distribution systems.
'
There is minimal inrush on cold load pick up. Cold load inrush is that c u i e n t which
occurs when a feeder is energised after a prolonged outage. In general the relay cannot
be set above this value but the current should decrease below the relay setting before
the relay operates.
Very lnverse Time This type of characteristic is normally used to obtain greater time
selectivity when the limiting overall time factor is very low, and the fault current at any
point does not vary tno :vlde!y with system conditions. It is particularly suitable, if there is
a substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source increases.
The steeper inverse curve gives tonger time grading intervals. Its operating time is
approximately doubled for a reduction in setting from figures 7 to 4 times the relay
current setting. This permits the same time multiplier setting for several relays in series.
The characteristic curve can be defined by the mathematical expression :
t =
13.5
{i: I]
-
Extremely lnverse Time With this characteristic the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to the square of the current. The long operating time of the relay
at peak values of load current make the relay particularly suitable for grading with fuses
and also for protection of feeders which are subject to peak currents on switching in,
such as feeders supplying refrigerators, pumps, water heaters etc., which remain
connected even after a prolonged interruption of supply.
For cases where the generation is practically constant and discrimination with low
tripping times is difficult to obtain, because of the low impedance per line section, an
extremely inverse relay can be very useful since only a small difference of current is
necessary to obtain an adequate time difference.
Another application for this relay is with auto reclosers in low vo'ltage distribution circuits.
As the majority of faults are of a transient nature, the relay is set to operate before the
normal operating time of the fuse: thus preventing perhaps unnecessary blowing of the
fuse.
Upon reclosure, if the fault persists, the recloser locks itself in the closed posjtion and
allows the fuse to blow to clear the fault.
This characteristic is also widely used for protecting plant against overheating since
overheating is usually an I,t function.
Page 4
t =
80
{ti'
-
b o n g Time Inverse This type of characteristic has a long time characteristic and may
be used for protection of neutral earthing resistors (which normally have a 30 sec rating).
The relay operating time at 5 times current setting is 30 secs at TMS of 1.
This can be defined by :
Current Setting
The current setting of a relay is typically described aS either a percentage or multiple of
the current transformer primary or secondary rating.
If the CT primary rating is equal to the normal full load current of the circuit then the
percentage setting will refer directly to the primary system. This is an important point as
if, for example, the normal primary full load current was, say, 400 amp but the CT ratio
was 50015 then a relay with setting range 50-200% of 5 amp set at 100% would not
represent a "full load" setting;-the actual setting would in fact be 125% of full load
current.
The choice of current setting thus depends on the load current and the CT ratio and is
normally close to but above the maximum load current (typically'lO%) - assuming of
course the circuit is capable of carrying the maximum foreseeable load. It should be
stressed at this point, that the relay is neither designed nor intended to be used as an
overload relay but as a protective relay to protect the system under fault conditions.
It is also important to consider the resetting of the relay. The relay will reset when the
current is reduced to 90%-95% of the setting (Depending on relay design) and if the
normal load current is above this value the relay will not reset after starting to operate
under through fault conditions which are cleared by other switchgear.
The setting for a typical overcurrent relay with a reset ratio of 95% can be determined
using the following:
Where:
Is = Setting
IF^ = Full Load Current
Grading Margin
As previously mentioned, to obtain correct discrimination it is necessary to have a time
interval between the operation of two adjacent relays. This time interval or grading
margin depends upon a number of factors :
The circuit breaker fault interrupting time
a)
The overshoot time of the relay
b)
C)
Errors
Final margin on completion of operation (safety margin)
d)
The discriminating relay can only be de-energised when the circuit breaker has
completely interrupted the fault current. It is now normal practice to use a value of 50 Page !
100 ms for circuit breaker overall interrupting time but obviously if it is known that the
switchgear is slower than this time, this must be taken..injo account.Operating of the relay may continue for a short time after the relay is de-energised until
a n i stored energy is dissipated. For example, an induction disc 'element will have stored
kinetic energy (or inertia) and a numerical relay may have stored energy in capacitors.
Although these factors are minimised by design, some allowance is usually necessary.
It is common to use a figure of 50 ms.
NO-TE:
Travel
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward
operation takes plan but is the time that the relay would have taken to travel
the same distance had the relay remained energised.
looO/o
Overshoot
Travel
t l = relay de-energised
t3 - t l = actual overshoot time
t2 - t l = overshoot time used in the
calculation of margin
tl
t2
t3
All measuring dev~cessuch as rejays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error The t ~ m echaracteristic of either or both of the relays involved may have
positive or negat~veerrors. Current transformer errors are mainly due to the
rnagnetis~ngcharacteristic. It should be noted the CT errors do not affect definite time
overcurrent relays.
A safety margin of 100 ms is normally added to the final calculated margin to ensure
correct discrirn~nation.This additional time ensures a satisfactory contact gap (or
equivalent) is maintained.
In the past, a fixed margin of 0-4 secs was considered adequate for correct
discrimination. With faster modern switchgear and lower overshoot times a figure of
0.35 secs is quite reasonable and under the best possible conditions 0-3secs may be
feasible.
However, rather than using a fixed margin it is better to adopt a fixed time for circuit
breaker operation and relay overshoot and add to this a variable time value which takes
into account relay and CT errors and the safety margin. This is particularly so when
grading at low values multiples of setting current where the relay operating time is
longer and a fixed total margin may be of the same order as the relay timing error.
A fixed value 0-25 secs is chosen which is made up of 0.1 secs for circuit breaker
operating time. 0.05 secs for relay overshoot time and 0.1 sec for safety margin.
In considering the variable time value, it is assumed that each IDMT relay complies with
basic assigned error class 7.5 according to British practice in BS 142. The error for a
class 7.5 relay IS 5 7.5%, but allowance should be made for the effects of temperature,
frequency and departure from the reference conditions as laid down in the BS. A more
practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 7-5 i.e. 15% and
is to apbly to the relay nearest the fault which'is considered slow. To this total effective
relay error a further 10% is added to allow for overall CT error.
Page 6
Thus it is proposed to adopt the following equstior: ,:t determine the grading margin
between IDMT relays :
t'
As far as definite time overcurrent relays are concerned, the fixed value will remain the
same but the relays are assumed to comply with error class 10 i.e. 10%. For the
reasons stated .previously, a practical approximation is to assume a total effective error
of 20% with the relay nearest the fault considered slow. As previously stated, CT errors
will have little effect of the operating time, thus it is proposed to adopt the equation :
t'
For the majority of systems an overcurrent grading exercise can be performed quite
adequately using a fixed margin of 0.4 secs. It is only when a number of stages are
involved and difficulties are being encountered that it may become necessary to
invmtigate margin times in more detail. To summarise, each system is different and
should be treated as so, it is not possible to lay down rigid rules regarding grading
margins and every grading exercise will ultimately be a compromise of some form.
Grading Overcurrent Relays With Downstream Fuse
For some applications ~twill be necessary to grade overcurrent relays with fuses. When
the fuse is downstream of the relay the following formula can be used to calculate the
grading margin.
-1
I
TMS = Treq 1 T I
Plotting Of Characteristic
It is convenient to show the standard inverse time characteristic on logllog graph paper
with the 'y' axis scaled in seconds and the"x' axis in terms of "multiples of current
setting". By doing this the characteristic can be applied to any relay, irrespective of
setting range and nominal rating.
";
;:,
Page
Where the source impedance is small in comparison with the protected circ~lit.i.mped.ance,. .
the use of high set instantaneous overcurrent units can be advantageous (for example on
long transmission lines or transformer feeders).
I
f
f:
The application of an instantaneous unit makes possible a reduction in the tripping time at
high fault levels and also allows the discriminating curves behind the high set unit to be
lowered thereby improving overall system grading.
i i is important io note iiiai when grading with the relay immediately behind the high set
units, the grading interval should be established at the current setting of the high set unit
.and not at the maximum fault level that would normally be used for grading IDMT relays.
When using high set units it is important to ensure that the relay does not operate for
faults outside the protected section. The relays are normally set at 1.2 - 1.3 times the
maximum fault level at the remote end of the protected section.
.This particularly applies when using instantaneous units on the HV side of a transformer
when the instantaneous unit should not operate for faults on the LV side.
,
The 1-2- 1.3 factor allows for transient overreach, CT errors and slight errors in
transformer impedance and line length.
.'
Transient overreach occurs when the current wave contains a dc component. Although a
relay may have a setting above the rms value of current, the initial peak value of current
due to the dc offset may be sufficient to operate the relay, if it has high transient
overreach.
Percentage transient overreach is defined as
11-12
12
?OO
Where :
I1
12
=
=
Modern Relays have integral instantaneous elements which have low transient overreach.
The degree of transient overreach is normally affected by the time constant of the
measured fault current. For example, a typical transient overreacn of a numerical
overcurrent relay is less than 5% for time constants up to 30 ms and less than 10% for
t ~ m econstant up to 100 ms. This allows the instantaneous elements to be used as h ~ g h
set un~tsfor application to transformers and long feeders. The low'transient overreach
allows settings to be just above the maximum fault current at which discrimination IS
required. The instantaneous elements are also suitable for use as low set elements in
conlunction with auto-reclose on distribution systems
Earth faults, which are by far the most frequent type of fault, will be detected by phase
overcurrent units as previously described but it is possible to obtain more sensitive
protection by utilising a relay which responds only to the residual current in a system.
Residual (or zero sequence) current only exists when a current flows to earth.
The residual current can be detected either by connecting a CT in an available neutral to
earth connection or by connecting Ilne CT's in parallel. By using this parallel connection
the earth fault relay is completely unaffected by load currents whether balanced or
unbalanced. The parallel connection can be extended to include either two or three
Page 8
-.
overcurrent units without any effect on the earth fault relay. Two elements are often
considered sufficient 2s any interphase fault must affect at least one of the relays,
however, consideration must be given to the possibility of 2-1-1 current distribution i n the
system (refer deltalstar transformer protection).
It should be noted that on an LV 4 wire distribution system, 4 CT's will be required to
ensure stability under all load conditions, the 4th CT being placed in the neutral
connection. This fourth CT can be omitted if the earth fault relay setting is above the
maximum spill current caused byunbalanced loads, but as the degree of unbalance is not
riorii~aiiykiiowii (accilrately) the inclusion of the 4th CT is recommended.
Time Grading
The procedure for grading is similar to that for phase fault relays.
It is important to appreciate that fuses cannot discriminate between phase faults and earth
faults and therefore grading of earth fault relays (which have relatively sensitive settings)
with fuses is not possible.
When the system contains some neutral earthing impedance, the earth fault level is
practically constant over the whole system and grading is carried out at !his fault level. As
the fault level is consJant there is no particulai advantage is using IDMT earth fault relays
over definite time earth fault relays.
Sensitive Earth Fault Relays
Where the earth path resistivity is high which may be the case on systems that do not
utilise earth conductors, the earth fault current may be limited to such an extent that
normal earth fault protection may not be sensitive enough. To overcome these problems
a very sensitive relay is requirgd, but the relay must have a very low burden in order that
the effective setting is not increased. This very sensitive protection cannot be graded with
other conventional systems and it is normal to apply this protection with a definite time
delay of up to 10 or 15 secs. This time delay will prevent unwanted operation due to
transient unbalance under phase fault conditions. Care must be taken to ensure that the
relay setting is above any residual current that may be present under normal load
conditions. This may be due to slight d~fferencesin CT characteristics or unbalanced
leakage (capacitive) currents in the primary system. In order to ensure that the relay will
reset after the transient operation of the current measuring unit, the dolpu ratio should be
high, i.e.. approximately 99%.
IN'TERCONNECTED SYSTEMS
The foregoing has basically looked at grading procedure as applied to radial feeders. If
the system is interconnected and involves parallel paths and rings, the grading can
become increasingly more complex.
For example, the operation of a particular circuit breaker may not itself result in the
isolation of the faulty plant, but may affect the fault current distribution in the other circuits.
The affect of this may be to start other relays operating or to change the operating
parameters of relays that havealready started. On such interconnected systems the fault
level does not tend to vary very much and it may be found impossible to obtain correct
discrimination for all faults. The system must be looked at in detail under maximum and
minimum fault conditions and the best compromise reached. Very often directional
overcurrent relaying can help to overcome the problems slightly.
Page 9
Directional Overcurrent
RING MAINS
The more usual application of directional relays is to ring mains. In the case of a ring
system, fed at one point only the relays at the generafion end and at the mid-point
substation, where the setting of both overcurrent relays are identical, the relays can
be made non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the
same feeder, one at each substation. In this respect it is interesting to note that
when the numbers of feeders in the rings is an even number, the two relays with the
shme operating time are at the same substation and.will have to be directional
whereas when the number of feeders is odd, the two relays.with the same operating
time are at different substations and therefore, do not need'to be directional. Also at
intermediate substations it will be noted that whenever the times of the two relays at
a substation are different, the difference in operating time is never less than the
grading interval of 0-4 seconds and consequently it is permissible for the relay with
the larger operating time to be non-directional.
Grading Ring Mains
The usual practice for grading relays in an interconnected system is to open the ring
at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anti-clockwise.
Thus, the relays looking in a clockwise direction around the ring are arranged to trip
in the sequence 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 -3and the relays looking in the anti-clockwise
direction are arranged to trip in the sequence 1' - 2' - 3' - 4' - 5' - 6'. The arrows
indicate the direction in which the power must flow in order that the directional units
will close their contacts and prepare the overcurrent elements for operation. The
double headed arrows on each of the two ieeders at the generating station indicate
non-directional relays, directional features being unnecessary at these points,
because power can flow in one direction only, that is out of the generating station. At
all other points s~ngleheaded arrows are shown. These ind~catedirect~onalrelays
connected so as to operate with power flow in the direction of the arrow which is in
every case from the substat~onbus bars and into the protected line. See Figure 1.
This rule is invariable and applies to all forms of directional relays. Selection of the
faulty section is by time and fault power direction. Fault power has two phases x and
y. It divides between the two paths in the inverse ratio of the impedances an.d
passes through all the substations in the ring. Thus, at every substation one set of
relays will be inoperative because the power flow is against the arrow and other set
operative because the flow is with the arrow. In every case it will be found that the
time settings of the relays that are inoperative are shorter than those of the operative
relays, except in the case of substation C where the settings happened to coincide.
In this way, all relays with short time on sections between the fault one and the
generating station are prevented from operation. The others, which are operative are
graded downwards towards the fault and the last to be traversed by the fault current,
namely that on the faulty feeder section, has the shortest time and operates first.
This applies to both paths to the fault. Consequently, the faulty sectioh is the only
one to be isolated and supply is maintained to all substations.
Page 1
When grading ring systems with more than one infeed (say two sources of supply)
the best method of approach is to either :
a)
b)
Open the ring at one the supply points by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous overcurrent relays and then proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed.
Treat the inter-connector between the two sources of supply as a continuous
bus, separate from the ring and protect it by means of a unit system of
protection such as pilot wire relays. Then proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed.
PARALLEL FEEDERS
-
ESTABLISING DIRECTION
The direction of alternating current can only be determined with respect to a common
reference. In relay terms, the reference is commonly referred to as the polarising
quantity. The most convenient reference quantity is polarising voltage taken from the
power system voltages.
The relay compares the power system current against this fixed polarising reference
to determine direction of operation.
Page 2
RELAY CONNECTIONS
This is the angle by which the current applied to the relay is displaced from the
voltage applied to the relay at unity power factor.
The 90" connection (quadrature connection) is now used for all overcurrent relays.
n
30" and 60" connections were used in the past, but no longer, as the 90" conneciion
gives better performance. The 90" connection is achieved by using IA and VBC.
Hence, for an A phase fault the polarising voltage does not collapse. Without a
polaring voltage most relays are unable to make a directional decision. Modern
numerical relays are able to use prefault data to make a decision, a technique
referred to as memory .polarising.
Page 3
Page 4
The operation of earth fault indication relays on systems earthed through a Petersen
Coil or totally insulated system is dependent on the capacitive current flowing in the
healthy feeders and when a Petersen Coil is used on the current due to the
suppression coil flowing in the faulty phase.
In the case of overhead lines the majority of earth faults are of a transient nature and
it is preferred that these faults shall not lead to automatic isolation of the faulty line. It
is desirable, however, that an indication should be given of sustained system faults in
order that the system may be supervised continuously and so that the faulty section
of the network is indicated.
For detection of a system earth fault, a sensitive directional relay or wattmetric relay
is used (Petersen Cod Systems)
Petersen Coil Earthed System
The diagram in Figure 4 shows asystem 0-f radial feeders, with a phase to ground
fault on the 'C' phase of one of the feeders. No current will flow in the 'C' phase of
the healthy feeders as they will be at earth potential. Capacative current will flow in
the healthy phases of all feeders to earth and back to the source via the fault. The
vector sum of the currents-in the current coil of the relay on the faulty feeder Is is
':I
proportional to :
Where :
The vector diagram of the currents in the sound phases'shows that the total wattage
component of the currents in the restraining quadrant, hence the relays on the
healthy feeders will not operate. However, the current in the faulty feeder show that
the wattage component of the currents'is in the operating quadrant and hence, the
relay in the faulty feeder will operate.
1
I
The current transformers are of a special design, class 0.2, having an exceptionally
low phase angle error and because of this cannot be balanced accurately for currents
greatly in excess of rated current. The relay is provided with 0" MTA.
Insulated System
The diagram in Figure 5 shows a system of radial feeders, with a phase to ground
fault on the 'C' phase of one of the feeders. The residual current flowing in the
current coil of the relay on the faulty feeder, neglecting the effect of magnetising
current, is proportional to the 2 lc where lcis the vector sum of the currents in the
healthy phases Ica and Icb. Since the system is an insulated one, the fault has the
effect of raising the neutral point of the system by a voltage equivalent to the phase
voltage and the voltages'of the healthy feeders by A .
The relay is provided with a 90" leading MTA.
Page 5
FIGURE I
RING MAIN OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Page 6
. :.
FIGLIRE 2
RING MAIN OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
UNITY P.F.
+ZERO P.F.
- -
ZERO SENSITIWTY
LINE
FIGURE 3
90" CONNECTION 45O RCA
i
. .
I
Page 8
a b c
dB
ib
db
I
1
I
+La
w
+lcb
T.-A-----).--
Source
+lca
iD
4D
4D
dB
+Icb
1c
I
I
I
I
dD
1c
-\ - - ---+ - I- ,
1
I
----)
dB
0
4B
1ca
b
w
.
I
I
I
1
.
- - 1-1c
21,
/
-+-
Location of CT's
Restrain
Operate
Healthy Feeders
Faulty Feeder
FIGLIRE 4
I
I
I
I
I
I
a b c
~ o c a t i i nCT'S
Faulty Feeder
vRE
~VRE.
AVRE
kA
#
/
/
Restrain
'
- = -21,
RCA
+Operate
Restrain 4
'VPO
FIGURE 5
+ VPO
RCA
+Operate
ction Notes
Power transformer is one of the most important links in a power system. Its development stems
from the early days of electromagnetic induction, when it was discovered that varying magnetic
flux in an iron core linking two coils produces an inducted voltage. From the basic discovery
has evolved the power transformer we know today using advanced insulation materials and
having complex windings on a laminated core using special magnetic steels cold rolled to
ensure grain orientation for low loss and high operating density.
With transformers of large capacity, a single transformer fault can cause large interruption to
power supplies. If faulted transformer is not isolated quickly, this can cause serious damage
and also power system stability problems. Protective systems applied to transformers thus play
a vital role in the economics and operation of a power system.
In common with other electrical plants, choice of suitable protection is governed by economic
considerations brought more into prominence by the range of size of transformers which is
wider than for most items of electrical plant. Transformers used in distribution and transmission
range from a few KVA to several hundred MVA.
Fo( transformers of the lower ;stings, only the simplest protection such as fuses can be justified
and for large rating transformers; comprehensive protection scheme should be applied.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
With tlie development of polyphase systems with more complex transformer winding
connections and also possible phase displacement between primary and secondary windings,
standardisation was necessary to ensure universal compatibility. (BS171 : 1970)
There are a number of possible transformer connections but the more common connections are
divided into four main groups :
Group 1
0;
Phase displacement
e.g. Yyo
Ddo
Zdo
180..
Phase displacement
e.g. Yd6
Group 2
Dd6
026
Group 3
30"
lag Phase displacement
e.g. Y d l
D Y ~
Yz1
Group 4
30'
lead Phase displacement
e.g. Y d l l
Dyll
Yzl 1
High voltage windings are indicated by capital letters and low voitage windings by small letters
(reference to high and low is relative). The numbers refer to positions on a clock face and
Page 1
indicate the phase displacement of the low voltage phase to neutral vector with respect to the
high voltage phase to neutral vector, eg Y d l indicates that the low voltage phase vectors lag the
high voltage phase vectors by 30" (-30"phase shift).
Individual phases are indicated by the letters A, B and C, again capital letters for the high
voltage winding and small letters for the low voltage winding. All windings on the same limb of a
core are given the same letter. A further numerical subscript serves to differentiate between
each end of the winding.
8
,
!
!-
This is best illustrated by considering a particular example. The following points should be
noted:
a)
The line connections are normally made to the end of the winding which carries the
subscript 2, ie : A2, 62,C2 and a2, b2, c2.
b)
The line terminal designation (both letter and subscript) are the same as those of the
phase windins to w h ~ c hthc line terminal is connected.
i)
Draw the primary and secondary phase to neutral vectors showing the required phase
displacemed :
Phase rotation
Phase rotation
T
4
-
b
Secondary
Primary
ii) .
Complete the delta winding connection on the secondary side and indicate the respective
vector directions :
...
111)
A 4
B
\
It is now possible to indicate the winding subscript numbers bearing in mind t-hh if
the direction of induced voltage in the high voltage winding at a given instant is Crom
A1 to A2 (or vice verse) then the direction of the induced voltage in the low voliage
winding at the same instant will also be from a1 to a2.
Page 2
iv)
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Fuses
Small distribution transformers are commonly protected only by fuses. In many cases no circu~t
breaker is provided, making fuse protection the only available means of automatic isolation.
Fuses are overcurrent devices, and must have ratings well above the maximum transformer
load current in order to carry, without blowing, the short duration overloads that may occur
because of such as motor starting. Also the fuse must withstand the magnetising inrush of the
transformer. It follows that fuses will do little to protect the transformer, serving only to protect
the system by disconnecting a faulty transformer after the fault has reached an advanced stage
Overcurrent Relays
Overcurrent relays are often the only form of protection applied to small transformers. They are
used for backup protection for larger transformers and both instantaneous and time delayed
overcurrent can be applied.
Inverse time relays on the HV side of a transformer must grade with those on the LV
side which in turn must grade with the LV outgoing circuits. Due to this, the HV
overcurrent relays could have operating times which might cause operation of relays at
other substations. To overco-me this problem, high set instantaneous overcurrent relays
with low transient overreach are sometimes used. The settings of these relays should
be 120-13O0/0 of the through fault level of the transformer to ensure that the relays are
Page 3
.
.
~.
~~
stable for through faults. Care must also be taken to ensure that the relays d o not
operate under magnetising inrush conditions.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
The function of differential protection is to provide faster and more discriminative phase
fault protection than that obtainable from simple overcurrent relays. Overall differential
protection may only be justified for larger transformers( Typically >5MVA).
CTs on the HV side are balanced against'CTs on the LV side. There are a number of
different connections but there are some important points that are applicable to all
schemes.
Transformer Connection
Consider a deltalstar transformer. An external earth fault on the star side will result in
zero sequence current flowing in the line but due to the effect of the delta winding there
will be no zero sequence current in the line associated with the delta winding. In order to
ensure stability of the protection this zero sequence current must be eliminated from the
secondary connections on the star side of the transformer, ie the CTs on the star side of
the transformer should be connected in delta. With the CTs on the delta side of the
transformer connected in star, the 30" phase shift across the transformer is also catered
for.
Since the majorlty of faults are caused by flashovers at the transformer bushings, it is
advantageous to locate the CTs in the adjacent switchgear.
Interposing CT (ICT)
Where it is not possible to correct for zero sequence current and the phase shift across
the transformer by using delta connected line CT's on the star side of the transformer, or
were CT ratio mismatch exists between primary and secondary CT's, then interposing
CT's are used. Tranditional ICT's were external devices, however modern numerical
relays are able to account for ratio error, phase shift and zero sequence current within
the relay. This eliminates the use of external ICT's and allows the protection to be set up
and installed more easily.
General Rules for CT Connections
CT connections opposite to main-transformer :
ie.
If similar primary terminals ie PI or P2 are towards the transformer, then delta and star
connection for the CTs should be the same as the transformer (or 180" opposite).
It is usual to assume that if current flows from P i
flow from S2 -+ SI.
--+
Note :If the transformer induced voltage is A1 --+ A2 then the secondary induced voltage
will be a1 -+ a2. Therefor?, current flo'w will be A1 --+ A2 and
a2 -+ a1
Page 4
Tap Changers
Any differential scheme can only be balanced at one point and it is usual to choose CT ratios
that match at the mid point of the tap range. Note that this might not necessarily be the normal
rated voltage. For example, if the tapping range is +1O0h, -20% then the CT ratio should be
based on a current corresponding to the -5% tap. The theoretical maximum out of balance in
the differential circuit is then +_ 15%.
Three Winding Transformers
Differential protection of three winding transformers is essentially similar to that of two winding
transformers. The same rules regarding CT connections still apply but the CT ratios used
shpuld be based on the MVA rating of one of the windings (usually the highest rated winding)
and not on the ratings of each individual winding.
For example, consider a 13213311'I kV transformer with windings rated for 100/60/40 MVA
respectively, then the current transformer ratios at all voltage levels should be based on 100
MVA, ie 44011. 176011 and 528011 respectively (these effective ratios are normally obtained by
the use of interposing CTs which means that, for example, all the main CTs associated with the
11 kV system can be made equal to 200011 - rated current).
If there is a source associated with only one of the transformer windings, then a relay with only
two bias coils can be used.- the CTs associated with the other two windings being connected in
parallel. If there is more than one source of supply then it is necessary to use a relay with three
bias windings in order to ensure that bias is available under all external fault conditions.
Page 5
Although it is preferable to use separate CTs for restricted earth fault protection, it can be
combined with differential protection using the same current transformers, together with
interposing current transformers. A CT is required in the neutral connection and should be the
same ratio as the line current transformers.
i
I
II
'I
DIFFERENTIAL
Page 6
Magnetising Inrush
When a transformer is first energised, a transient magnetising currqnt flows, which may reach
instantaneous peaks of 8 to 30 times those of full load. The factors controlling the dirration and
magnitude of the magnetising inrush are :
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
There are three conditions which can produce a magnetising inrush effect :
i)
First energisation
ii)
iii)
Under normal steaay state cond'itions the flux in the core changes from maximum negative
value to maximum positive value duriqg one half of the voltage cycle, ie a change of 2 0
maximum. Since flux cannot instantly be created or destroyed this transformers are normally
designed and run at values of flux approaching the saturation value, an increase of flux to
double this value corresponds to relationship must always be true. Thus, if the transformer is
energised at a voltage zero when the flux would normally be at its maximum negative value, the
flux would rise to twice its normal value over the first half cycle of voltage. This initial rise could
be further increased if there was any residual flux in the core at the moment the transformer
was energised.
Since extreme saturation which requires an extremely high value of magnetising current.
As the flux enters the highly saturated portion of the magnetising characteristic, the inductance
falls and the current rises rapidly. Magnetising impedance is of the order of 2000% but under
heavily saturated conditions this can reduce to around 40% ie an increase in magnetising
current of 50 times normal, This figure can represent 5 or 6 times normal full load current.
Analysis of a typical magnitude inrush current wave shows (fundamental = 100%) :
Component
-DC
2nd H
3rd H
4th H
5th H
6th H
7th H
55%
63%
26.8%
5.1%
4.1%
3.7%
2.4%
The offset in the wave is only restored to normal by the circuit losses. The time constant of the
transient can be quite long, typ~cally0.1 second for a 100 KVA transformer and up to 1 second
for larger units. Initial rate of decay is high due to the low value of air core reactance. When
below saturation level rate of decay is much slower.
The magnitude of the inrush current is limited by the air core inductance of the windings under
extreme saturation conditions. A transformer with concentric windings will draw a higher
magnetising current when energised from the LV side, since this winding is usually on the inside
and has a lower air core inductance. Sandwich windings have approximately equal magnitude
currents for both LV and HV.
'
Resistance in the source will reduce the magnitude current and increase the'iate of decay.
Page 7
I
. ..
.:
Time delayed - acceptable for small transformers or where high speed operation is not so
important. (Note : necessary time delay when associated with parallel transformers could be
excessive).
-
Harmonic restraint - usual to use 2nd H restraint since magnitude inrush current contains
pronounced 2nd harmonics.
Note : 3rd H restraint should not be used for two reasons :
a)
Due to-delta connections in the main transformer and in the CT circuits (which provide a
closed path for third harmonic currents), no third harmonic current would reach the relay.
b)
CT saturation under internal fault conditions'also produces harmonics of which the 3rd is
the most predominant. Second harmonics are also produced under these conditions
(combination of dc offset and fundamental) so excessive saturation of CTs should be
avoided.
The problem of any restraining tendency due to 2nd H currents produced by CTs saturating
under heavy internal fault conditions is usually overcome by using high set instantaneous un~ts
set at 8-10 x rated current.
While the second harmonic produces a useful restraint during external faults, it can produce
unwanted restraint for Internal faults, due to dc saturation of CTs. Extremely large CTs are
required such that they do not saturate and affect the operating times of the differential relay.
Gap Detection - If the various current waveforms that occur during magnetising inrush are
analysed, it can be found that the magnetising currents have a significant period in each cycle
where the current is substantially zero. Fault current, on the other hand, passes through zero
very quickly. Detection of this zero is considered a suitable criteria.
Thus, a transformer differential relay can be made to restrain if zero is detected In a cycle for
more than a certain period (typically 114f seconds). With the above principle of detection of
magnetising inrush, fast operation of the relay can be achieved for internal faults and
economically designed CTs can be used, without affecting the speed of operation.
Page 8
;?
:j;
-$
;?
. .
1
I
a path exists for the current to flow into and out of the windings, ie a zero sequence path
The magnitude of earthfault current is dependent on the method of earthing solid or resistance
and the transformer connection.
Star Winding
- Resistance Earthed
An eadhfault on such a winding will give rise to a current which is dependent on the value of
earthing impedance and is also proportional to the distance of the fault from the neutral point,
since the fault voltage will be directly proportional to this distance.
The ratio of transformation between the primary winding and the short circuited turns also varies
with the position of the fault, so that the current which flows through the transformer terminals
will be proportional to square of the fraction of the winding which is short circuited.
Page 9
-
:.
xL
= --F
\I
Y'
> 20/c
Oh
of winding protected
If as
multiple
of ~ F . L .
Pase 10
Star Winding
Solidly Earthed
In this case, the fault current is limited only by the leakage reactance of the winding, which
varies in a complex manner with the position of the fault. For the majority of the winding the fault
current is approximately 3 x Iflc, reaching a maximum of 5 x Iflc.
From a study of the various current distributions shown for earth faults, ~tis evident that
overcurrent relays do not provide aaequate earth fault protection. If the system is solidly
earthed, some differential relays adequately cover the majority of faults, but in general separate
earth fault protection is necessary.
Balanced earth fault for a delta (or unearthed star) winding can be provlded by connecting three
line CTs in parallel (residual connection). The relay will only operate for internal earth faults
since the transformer itself cannot supply zero sequence current to the system. The
transformer must obviously be connected to an earth source.
Source
(Earthed)
Balanced
Earth Fault
For an earthed star winding, the residual connection of line CTs are further connected in parallel
with a CT located in the transformer neutral. Under external earth fault conditions the current in
the line CTs is balanced by the current in the neutral CT. Under internal fault conditions. current
only flows in the neutral CT and since there is no balancing current from the line CTs, the relay
will operate.
On four wire systems in order to negate the effect of the neutral return current a further CT
placed in the neutral and wired in parallel with the existing CT's. On a four wire system with the
transformer earthed at the neutral point 5 CT's are required. However, if the transformer is
earthed at the LV switch board only 4 CT's are required. If no neutral CT is used then therelay
will have to be set above the maximum expected unbalance current in the neutral return.
' I
Page 11
A relay, insensitive to the dc component of fault current is normally used for this type of
..
.
protection. If a "current operated" relay is used, an external stabilising resistor is placed in
series with the relay to ensure protection stability under through fault conditions. The protection
setting voltage is calculated by conventional methods. To reduce the setting voltage it is often
useful to run three cores from the neutral CT in order that the relay is connected across
equ~potentialpoints.
.. .. .
..:
Solidly earthed
Resistance earthed
.;
..
:.
On resistance earthed system, unrestricted earth fault protection is referred to as standby earth ,..;
fault protection. An inverse time relay is used which matches the thermal characteristic of the .::
earthing resistor. Earthing resistors normally have a 30 second rating and are designed to limit :
the earth fault current to transformer full load current.
4
: :,
b2
Source
__t
PH-E Fault
I3
Source
c2
PH-PH Fault
BUCHHOLZ PROTECTION
All types o i fault wlth~na transformer w~llproduce heat which will cause decomposition of the
transformer oil The resulting gases that are formed rise to the top of the tank and then to the
conservator. A buchholz relay connected between the tank and conservator collects the gas
and glves an alarm when a certain volume of gas has been collected. A severe fault causes so
much gas to be produced that pressure is built up in the tank and causes a surge of oil. The
buchholz relay will also detect these oil surges and under these conditions is arranged to trip the
transformer circu~tbreakers.
The maln advantage of the buchholz re4ay is that it will detect incipient faults which would not
oiherw~sebe detected by conventional protection arrangements. The relay is often the only way
of detect~nginterturn faults which cause a large current to flow in the shorted turns but due to
the large ratlo between the shorted turns and the rest of the winding, the change in terminal
currents IS very small
PARALLEL TRANSFORMERS
Parallel transformers are typically protected by directional overcurrent and earthfault protection
on the LV side set to look back into the transformers. Where an LV bussection exists the
directional relays can be replaced by non-directional relays, with the addition of a non-directional
overcurrent and earthfault relay at the bus-section.
Page 14
I
,
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
Overloads can be sustained for long periods with the limiting factor being the allowable
temperature rise in the windings and the cooling medium. Excessive overloading will result in
deterioration of insulation and subsequent failure.
p s far as protection IS concerned, non-harmonic restraint should not be used due to the long
time delay required. A harmonic restrained relay should be used for each transformer since if a
common relay were used the 2nd harmonic resGaint could be lost due to cancellation as
described above.
Overloads in which an allowance is made for a rapid use of life than normal.
The length of life of insulation is not easily determined but it is generally agreed that the rate of
using life is doubled for every 6C temperature increase over the range 80-140C (below 80C
the use of life can be considered negltgible).
A hot spot temperature of 98C gives what may be considered the normal rate of using life, ie a
normal life of some tens of years. This temperature corresponds to a hot spot temperature.rise
of 78C above an ambient temperature of 20C. The graph below indicates the relative'rate of
using life against hot spot temperature.
Relative
rate of
using
life
Hot Spot T e m p
Protection f o r Overloads
Since overloads cause heating of the transformer above the normal recommended
temperatures, protection against overloads is normally based on winding temperature
Page 15
INTRODUCTION
TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
With the development of poly phase systems with more complex
transformer connections and also poss~ble phase displacement
between primary and secondary windings, standardisation was
necessary to ensure universal compatability( BS 171: 1970)
There are a number of possible transformer connections but the more
common connections are divided into four groups.
Group1
E.g YyO
DdO
ZdO
?$
Group2
Group3
E.g Yy6
Dd6
Dz6
E.g Ydl
DY1
Yzl
Group4
Plain overcurrent and earth fault protection utilising IDMTL relays are
used primarily to protect the transformer against the effects of
exiernal short circuits and excess overloads. The current settings of
the protection must be above the permitted sustained over load
allowance and below the minimum short circuit current. The ideal
characteristic i s the extremely inverse (CDG14)as it is closely
approximates to the thermal curve of the transformer.
The protection is located on the supply side of the transformer and is
arranged to trip both the H V and LV circuit breakers. In many cases
the requirements for protecting the transformer and maintaining
discrimination with similar relays in the remainder of the power syslern
are not corilpatibile. In these circumstances , negative sequence
filter protecrion or under voltage blocking may be used to obtain the
desired ser?sii~vity..
1
f
,5-
,.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
.->?
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m:.
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The rated currents of the primary and the secondary sides of a two
winding transformer will depend on the MVA rating of thetransformer
and will be in inverse ratio to the corresponding voltages. For three
winding transformers the rated current will depend on the MVA rating
of the relevar-rt winding. Line current transformers should therefore
have primary ratings equal to or above the rated currents of the
transiormer windings to which they are applied.
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Figure 1
If the transfor-n~er
hcs a tapping range enabling its ratio to be varied ,
this must be allowed for in the differential system. This is because the
CTs selecled to balance, for the mean ratio of the power transformer, ,
a variation in ratio from the mean will create an unbalance
proportional to the ratio change. At maximum through fault current ,
the spill oputput produced by the small percentage unbalance may
be substantial.
Differential protection should be provided with a proportional bias of
at-\ amount which exceeds in effect the maximum ratio deviation. This
stabilises ihe protection under through fault conditions while still
permitting the system to have good system sensitivity.
The bias characteristic for a typical differential protection is shown in
figure2, iron-\ which it can be seen that the cursent required to
operate the relay increases as the through fault increases.
.-
-.
--
Figure 2
20--
'
.. ..
- -
-----.-.
OPERATE
to-
- - . - . --
2-0
'-
- . --.
A
--
3;O
---
4-0
The Merz-price principle remains valid for a system having more than
two connections, so a transformer with three or more windings can
still be protected by the application of above principles.
When the power transforn~erhas only one of i t s three windings
connected to a source of supply, with the other two windings
feeding loads at differ-er~tvoltages, a relay of the same design. as
that used for two winding transformer can be employed.
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SUPPLY'END
BlAS\'I'WDINGS
. .. - . , .
. - ..
SUPPLY
Em
[c)
!. -.-
..
First the primary ratings of 1600A and200A chosen for the main CTs
should not be less than the max. full load currents in each winding ,
which are ,
30 x 100
= 1575 A
For 1 1 KV winding
3 3 i~i x 103
30 x 10.
= 164 ,A
For 132KV winding
\/3x 132 x 103
r the 1 1 KV winding this is also the nominal full load current , but for 1172
132KV winding , with -5% tap , the latter is:
30 x 10"
43 x 0.95 x 132 x 103
= 138A
For 1 1 KV winding
Equivaienf secondary currents in the line CTs are 0.984 A and 0.69 A.
Thus the ratio of the star /delta interposing CTs to achieve ideal
n7atching is given by:
0.69 /
0.984
\'3
= 0.70 / L
\\
A OR 0.70/0.577 A
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R E U Y RATED CURRfNT 1A
Figure 5
The pro!eciiori of three winding transfor-nier-sis complicated by the
fact that line
CTs for each winding ar-e riormally based on different MVA levels and
will 1701 ttienlselves achieve balance under ttirough current
ronditior~s.To achieve correct balarice , it is necessary to use
inlerposir~gCTs wllicti hlill provide the relay with raied currerli when
the rating of the highest rated winding is applied to all windings.
KV =
120 x 10"
- ~ x500x
3
10"
= 138.6A
t-
,- ,-4
.? ~p-.-_ll
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.I
.-
= 376.5 A
= 1288 A
= 502 A
~ 5 1 5 1A
12OMVA
2OO/M
W k V
Tutorials
Page 14 of 33
SOMVA
1 W V
!2.
-.
lnele iore ratio of required starldelta interposing CTs
= 3.461 5 A OR 3.461 2.89 A
\'3
Secondary current from 138 KV line CTs corresponding io 120 M V A
1
I
Els/
1
I
1
I
i
Under full load conditions of 30MVA, for the 13.45 KV delta winding ,
the current appearing in the primary of the 17.17/5 A inter posing CT
will only be 4.29 A , the corresponding secondary current being 1.25
A . However the ratings of the primary and the secondary windings
should ideally be 17.1 7 A and 5 A respectively to minimise winding
resistances.
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Higher harmonics ,
All other harmonics are theoretically present in inrush current but the
relative magnitude diminishes rapidly as the order of harmonic
increases; there may be 5% of fourth harmonic in a given inrush
'current. This component would be similar in response to the second
harmonic but the small magnitude hardly justifies the provision of an
extra filter circuit.
,
A simple overcurrent and earth fault system will not give good
The system is operalive for faults within the region between current
transformers, t h a t Is, fs: fai;lts on the star winding in question. The
system will remain stable for all faults outside this zone
HIGH lMPEDANCE
RELAY
P
a
g
e
1:
for earth faults if obtained, which is a gain compared with the
performance of systems which do not measure the neutral conductor
current.
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It can be seen frorn the figure that during an external fault current
should circulate between the current transformer secondaries. The
only current that can flow through the relay circuit i s due to any
difference in CT output for the same primary current. Magnetic
saturation will reduce the output of a CT and the most extreme case
of stability will be if one CT is completely saturated and the other
unaffected. At one end of the CT can be considered fully saturated
with i t s magnetising impedance , while the CT at the other end being
unaffected , delivers its full current output which which will then
divide between the relay and the saturated CT. This division will be in
the inverse ratio of R relay circuit and Rct +2RL and obviously if R relay
circuit is high compared with Rct +2RL, the relay will be prevented
from undesirable operation.
.!:..?.
,
:-:
.,"::!.
To achieve the stability for external faults, the.stability voltage for the
protection Vs must be determined by the formula,
Vs = If (Rct +2RL )
Where Rct = CT secondary winding resistance
RL= max. lead resistance from the CT to the common point
. .._.
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lr
Rr
-1
.t
. .
Page 22 of 33
-
%
.,.%
:
:g
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v=
l-10 2 5
Where
V= Instantaneous voltage applied to the non-linear
res~stor(metrosils)
C= Constant of the non-linear resistor (metrosil)
I = lnstantaneous current through the non-linear resistoi
(metrosil)
For satisfactory application of a metrosil, its characteristic should be
sucli that i t requires the following requirement.
At the relay voltage setting , the non linear resistor, current should be
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Base current = 80 x 10 6
43x415
= 1 1 1 296 Amps
There fore fault current = If = 3x 0.071 4 ~ 1 1 1 2 9 6
= 23840 dmps ( Primary)
= 14.9 Amps (Secondary)
Setting voltage Vs = If ( R c t + 2 R L )
Assuming Earth CT saturates,
Rct = 4.8 ohms
2RL = 2x 100 x 7 . 4 1 ~
10-3
= 1.482 ohms
...
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Stabilising Resistor
= 836 ohms
EFFECTIVE SElTlNG OF THE RELAY
Protection
Tutorials
Page 25 of 33
Line side CT
Earth CT
1 58
236
1 0.341
1 0.273
4 2 Vk
(Vf
Therefore Vp = 2
1
1
OVERFLUXING PROTEC'TION
effect
causes
an
increase ip
the
iron
loss . and
8.
& Information
OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation
-
Page 30 of 33
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The use of instantaneous relays for the primary side of the transformer
is recommended inorder to improve fault clearance time and enable
a lower time multiplier setting on relays elsewhere on the system. The
relay should have low transient overreach and be set to
approximately 125% of the maximum through fault level of the
transformer, in order to prevent operation for faults on the secondary
side.
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b. overload
d. unbalanced loading
Industrial or commercial plants w i t h a requirement for
steamlhot water n o w often'include generating plant
utilising or producing steam t o improve overall
economics, as a Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
scheme. The plant w i l l typically have a connection t o the
public Utility distribution system, and such generation is
referred t o as 'embedded' generation. The generating
plant may b e capable of export nf w r p l u s power, or
simply reduce the i m p o r t o f power from the Utility. This
is shown i n Figure 17.2.
e. overfluxing
f. inadvertent energisation
e. rotor electrical faults
f. loss o f excitat~on
g. loss of synchron~sm
h. failure o f prlme mover
m. rotor distortion
n. difference i n expansion between rotating an
stationan/ parts
........................................
o. excessive v i b r a t ~ o n
PCC
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lop
= prima y operating current
N = CT ratio
ls
= relay
l setting
Hcalthy CT
Saturated CT
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wherc J . O < K r l . S
Stabilising resistor, R,, limits spill currcnt to <I, lrclay sctting)
R,,=
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For larger gener
Overcurrent protection can be applied as remote ba
~rotection,to disconnect the unit from any uncl
external fault. Where there is only one set of differ
main protection, for a smaller generator, the OverC
protection will also provide local back-up protecti
the protected plant, i n the event that the
protection fails t o operate. The general princi~
setting overcurrent relays are given in Chapter 9.
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In a balanced network, the addition of the three phaseearth voltages produces a nominally zero residual
. voltage, since there would be little zero sequence voltage
Present. Any earth fault will set up a zero sequence
system voltage, which will give rise t o a non-zero
residual voltage. This can be measured by a suitable
relay element. The voltage signal must be derived from
a VT that is suitable - i.e. it must be capable of
transforming zero-sequence voltage, so 3-limb types and
those without a primary earth connection are not
suitable. This unbalance provides a means of
detecting earth faults.
The
element
be
'nsensitive
third harmonic voltages that may be
Present in the system
as these will
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/,g",c
,,7
j(j..
;,,>,<
; ,...
(
.;
,, , , , , ,
- ,- .......
...
. ,,:.... .
..L.J?.&'L
":',?>.;:.
fI
m l o r qcr;r~irluri
:;:*;w:
q>'a;uS,
&
.:&
-!
.:&s!:
,,..:
1 I . iIj.7 N:~;J-.I,!~,I',;L:.V
:,b::::.:.::i
I: a .
. . ~iun
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..:
i!L..
.'
:.
.?(;:;>
........
.:,,.......
. .:.,..;s.;.:; .,
..
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CTpriinary current
IN
....
.L.
Kg
-280-315
17/06/02
10:46
Page 295
:
.
.
2.:
!.
L!. .
v ~ ~
r . t rr , ri i , m
.....
~ . r , - a r i a *
~ . i , r
......
Most AVRs' have an overfluxing protection facility
- -.;$>.
< .........
- ..
.:;,.?,
.......
.: -r.....
.-..,?. .
included. This may only be operative when the generator
. . ,.:
is on open circuit, and hence fail to detect overfluxing
. : ; s : ~ . : . : .,:... .
.,y:.:.h
conditions due to abnormally low system frequency. " .
p..;~::*-.:. .' .
this facility is not engineered t o protection z....$
....
:.?~:.u.
..i.
::;.
*,:,,. ,:- Q ::
.
relay standards, and should not be solely relied upon t o
.,. r
.1.
...
'Iprovide o v e k ~ u x i nprotection.
~
A separate relay element Y':>&
is therefore desirable and provided i n most modern
CI
relays.
E
.,&
.:.z
ow ever,
$;%;z'
:
.?
5.
. . .
. . . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. . . ? . . : > : .
t~
-1:':- i
....z...
.-
. . .
&, . : - .
W .
:.:
:<;.
'
-%
2
2
17 -
I- ,>-.
:hepl7-280-325
17/06/02
10:48
Page 2 9 6
%.A
...
"
3
=c
L
.=
where:
%.A
2Q
A = area
,.,::
. . .!r:!.;,!>.!>,:
,,. .,,,,
. . . . . . . . .. ~
;
8rc
;><<>f<~,,,:.;,jg.:
F=- B ' A
: >;-::;j;jit
;
:
. .
:,!.
; :<,<;;;<,!
a. potentiometer method
%.A
=
--
;.
flux density
:-.
. .,*--
..
.....
..
.*:.
't
.;
Short Circtiil
.
I
,
1
,
E
c2
17.
..
: . . . . . . .. .
,.
.. .,. r,. . -
LI;;:: : U ! I I : p x : ~ c t t ~~fi;&f
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,:ir8::,:: !~y?,):#:r!!;?;cc!,.r?crno,i
..
. .:..
:.,
:.i
....
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.,
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.
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:
g
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.........
.
.
.
.
.
.
_
.
.
.
.
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_
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-
196
.............................
,
~ 8 l w ~ ' rP kr , l r < , i . q
,.,+.-!?.&$%.
:L:-.:;'r.*.
:
,.'.i.'..;.f~;l
....... .',
;;:->-...>.
..%.
,,,
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,- <.b,
.?
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.
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.
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C w i l t
1-280-315
I
1
17/06/02
10:48
Page 297
.j;;+zS;:-.
.!.?p*y$@;:
The low-frequency
injection scheme is also
advantageous in that the current flow through the field
winding shunt capacitance will be lower than for a
power frequency scheme. Such current would flow
through the machine bearings to cause erosion of the
bearing surface.
For power frequency schemes, a
solution is to insulate the bearings and provide an
earthing brush for the shaft.
'
L
'PI"
'
...:
'.
CI
:;!.#~:.:;!
!:.
.-:
,.....<....\:..
%=
L
E:
As detailed in Section 17.15 a shorted section of field
2
winding will result in an unsymmetrical rotor flux
pattern and in potentially damaging rotor vibration. ... b . . ..
& . -..: . ~etection
of such an electrical fault is possible using a -;.
*..
probe consisting of a coil placed i n the airgap. The flux. -1: .-ct.. . . .
C-'
.
pittern i f t k positi"e and negative poles is me&ured". ,
2C .
and any significant difference in flux pattern between .".- PI
the poles is indicative of a shorted turn or turns.
'U
,.
;;rator
'
winding
I.
L.F. injection
- currcnt
mcarurcmcnt
?J
t,
'1
0
- 17-
197
.........
.. ,
, .,.,
1
1
'
0
w
+r
L.
9
,
s!,rl.?fiy;;o:.i
-1'
?g:)';Ei;;iQx.i
$,;:.
&;
-$$
3:
'4:
.::*.
The protection used varies according to the s.ize of .i.2:
.;.,.
generator being protected.
....
. -. -+S+:. r!
%
;-.
.:.-v
On the smaller machines, protection again&.%
;$
asynchronous running has tended t o be optional, but it$$
may now be available by default, where the functionality iz
,is available within a modern numerical generator.:;d!
protection package. I f fitted, it is arranged either to.:ii
provide an alarm or t o trip the generator. If the
generator field current can be measured, a relay element ;!;
can be arranged t o operate when this drops below a
preset value. However, depending on the generator
design and slze relative to the system, it may well be that
the machine would be required to operate synchronously
with little or no excitation under certain systemconditions.
.?
-:
field
!.
!_. .
a
r=
17.
n i ~ g l cby 11~11icll
E(; 1cc~tl.cli,
7;-:Fi$y
- (x, + x , 4 - ~ , ) ( 1 - , c o l O
2)
.,
i
' 9 9
'
:;-.
-,..I..&
-.
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.
.,..
.. .,..,.>?
:;:s+<,:.,:&';;>:~:
,L>%...+
.,..-.i..!:.-
.............
.,;.;.
.$;:f, 5;;;"..<-..:.:
;,;:.;tg,..,
........
.. ,.:,?.,';*.,:.':.-'."...
..
.. . ..,?....<,,,
.
;?.,.
+*
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.:ca51:~,:.
I'
1s.
f :'
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XG=2Xd.
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ti
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1
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=t
I .
t..
;.::
1:
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k;r.
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g-..
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figvrc ;7.2;:
.o.::,
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c>c!,v:!th!
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- ---- .-
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~ : O : C f ' ~ ~ 2 : 1S~l:!r,v:
ii0-315
17/06/02
l0:re
page 301
.! 7:!?.1
02.
fdl
-0.75X;
= 0.5s - 10s
fietypical impedancesettings
for the second element, if
impedance element diameter
xb2 =
Protectio:~usinq Rc-VC~SC
Pov:r: Eic!-ynt
. : ~ . ~ < ~ ~ 2 . . ~ . y ; . . .
:...,jj.?$.:.:"<.;"'.'
' j '.:+!(:.
, ,
%
:,!
E
L
%
.r
2
. . . . .
kV
-
:. : ,-,.!-!.,~~,~:::.,.;:? k ;:..,.:i
;:i.)
;,;;?c8,.:
;,y!t:c:;k.,.:,
...
- . Q
MVA
<:..;.>.-,.,...a,..........
. .
.. .
.
.
. .
The time delay settings i d 2 and tdO2 are Set to zero to give
instantaneous operation and reset.
-.
it.
+..
.
- . =.-*
r : 2.:.
.
.
.
,.
::
-.
.
&.
. pi
.-
:+
CY
fs
r=
2
2
- 17.
... .
'
.'
JOI '
:y;::r;
.:" .........
........
'-.5<:e(<:
.:
....
..-?,+
,:
.
.1. .::; .
.. ;,.. ......,.
...
-..::.: ....y8.s. .
." ~,':::~.:,~:,~~:.'.
:,.
%
..
'
_ _ -. .. .
. .
.
4
3
P
,.
6
5
-
tz
+j.Y
Ohm relay 1
........
.*
.....
.,
. .. . .. . .
. . .
.......
.
;9
A<'
-280-315
17/06/02
10:48
Page 303
....
...................
.:;.%E.$$~:s
-N
,$:.2*;ccf7':ii-.--.
'-
I f the impedance locus lies above line PP', the swing lles
far out i n the power system - i.e. one part o f the power
system, including the protected generator. is swinging
against the rest of the network Tripping may still occur,
but only if swinging is prolonged - meaning that the
power system is i n danger of complete break-up Further
confidence checks are introduced by requiring t h a t the
.
~mpedancelocus spends a minimum tlme withln each
zone for the pole-slipping condition t o be valid. The trip
signal may also be delayed for a number o f slip cycles
even i f a generator pole-slip occurs - thls IS t o both
provide confirmation of a pole-slipping condition and
allow time for other relays to operate i f the cause of the
pole slip lles somewhere In the power system. Should
the impedance locus traverse the zones i n any other
sequence. trlpping IS blocked.
3.
L
I
Overheating of the stator may result from:
-. .................
JOJ
....
:.- 2
I
:
.. f l
I ~hap17-280-315
17/06/02
10: 50
Page 304
..
GEFJERAioz pr<(jiEn!Q>:
17-20 CO>JP;flE
;,@{
:$&,
>.,-
-7
'gig.
iii. tripgenerator
circuitbreaker onlywhen
5;:
0
-N
k
--a
P1
*CI
E,
?
is
.-.
vh
I
L
0
>
..-
':%<
:g
. .. . . .
.,
.. . .. . .
. ... :
.
:.:
.... ..
..-"
.zc.,
I.
5 , .
3
L
Elcctr~caltrlp of govcmor
Emcrgcncv push b u ~ o n
E)
II:
Q.,
Iv
'3
P
Stator
1
Loss
- 0
Stator winding tcmpcraturc
Excitation
Unbalanced loading
Undcrlovcrvoltagc
circult
brcakcr
Low powcr
~nlcrlock
Gcncrator
p
-
Mechanical fatrlts ( n o n - u r g c n t l ~
brcakcr
circuit
i7-280-315
17/06/02
Page 3 0 5
10:50
2. overcurrent protection
dependent
conventional or voltage
4. over;o!:agc
protection
5. undervoltage protection
6. overloadllow forward power1 reverse.-power
protection (according t o prime mover type)
7. unbalanced loading
8. overheating
9. pole slipping
10. loss of excitation
'11. underfrequency
12. inadyertent energisation
13. overfluxing
14. mechanical faults
These units are generally of higher output than directconnected generators, and hence more comprehensive
protection is warranted. In addition, the generator
transformer also requires protection,. for which the
protection detailed in Chapter 16 is appropriate
Overall biased generatorlgenerator transformer
differential protection is commonly applied i n addition,
or instead of, differential protection for the transformer
alone. A single protection relay may incorporate all of
the required functions, or tbe protection o f the
transformer (including overall generatorlgenerator
transformer differential protection) may utilise a
separate relay.
.
.
. -.... ,.:
:
.
. .
':
a. overvoltage
.
..........
.......
.,......
.-
;.;.,,. . , .
.?. .-.>,A:
. ,
........
..:. .
. ..-
......
......
....
;
.7;,-'r...
..
....
.=.,I...
.. >+.A i
.2:,.:..,,
,.
.,.;.',
;.,
..-., .. . .
..
,+!
b. undervoltage
"-5'
-I-.
e. loss o f ~ t i l i t ~ s .u.:, ~ .~ l ~. .
. - .:
'
'
....C,(..*-
%
..
..:-. ...i;g
";:*
may require:$
3..
:if
,:->
.:!4
,:,
'3
-315
17/06/02
10:50
Page 307
17.27.2
ROCOF
Ee;ay Description
. .
.'
''-'"
..'.::;.:(!.:
.*
::.!,.:,
'$.;.-,.1:,ir
. %
..
~ ; : ! ; itj~
.::s:v;;;..::::!]
j
?.%
C-
s.
L
-E
P
&
-:;...::k;
;. . . .:
.
2:;.
sho;ld loss
of the Utility supply occur, .it is
. - & - , .; c .
"nlikely that there will be an exact match between'the 5': o, : - - -...
:; .
:
output o f the. embedded generator(s) and the connected -.?,. o, -.:load. A small frequency change or voltage bhase angle
+I
-3
change will therefore occur, t o which can be added any
changes due t o the small natural variations i n loading o f
L
an isolated generator with time. Once the rate of change
2
of frequency exceeds the setting of the ROCOF relay for
2
a set time, or once the voltage phase angle drift exceeds
the set angle, tripping occurs t o open the connection
between the in-plant and Utility networks.
While
it is possible to estimate
the rate of change of
.17
N,tw.rl
P,.rr,ti.m
-. . . . . . . . . . . .
rl.r.-.ri..
Gmil*
'\
- J07
-..-.....-
.-
.: . . '
:'.;\ ,i<.......: ...,i:
';.'':.:;'
~~;$:$~&$,c.;~~-
!p$riq;i:?-;
..5.:.-.:
.<*,,,
.;i:$?j!c
..
!!
?.+:?:.:--:<!:
-" ...
,,....:....
:... -r
......
. .:..
. .
...."....< + ..:'.
?
,
...A',
.
-..
'
.-:::!....
...
-. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........
. .
. .. .% . = . .. . : .
-*,-;;
:-..
.::
ii.
;.-. . .
..'.
:;
,
1
.
.
. ... : . . .
<
:.,.:
:+:.. . . .. . . .
....
:,.. . . :
. :
.*;..
.,
17
, ,
......
....,,:.
. . . . ... .. . .
kv*
AWL'
Lw : PF
. -c--"-.,
Ra;~d
Rarcd
wl;agc
llw
.r.;i
;::: / 6250 1 ,5000 1 0.8 j
. . ..,-;
..:>..;.,,:3.:5+
I
m,">y;.::.
....... . .,..... !
+A-l-Gwkcib!
,:
'
.
.,F.:.,<
..
.>!
.. .. . .
::
...
Gcncrator hlpc
hlicm ~
,.
... ,......
.-,
.. ..-.
:-.G
/
!
. 3. v. ,.
...
...
..
.,....,. ..,,..
,..
. .,...
x*~.L.
2349
Rarcd
.:&;
>.
...-
=.x
Ralcd
.-.
:.3:.
..-.I*
,3
.$
-.%,
...:,
%.:.
&>.*~.d*4
frcqucncy
Primc Movcr
328
50
spccd
0.pc
: 1500 !Stcam Turbinc
'
--;
a. . . ,
...
.
,
.
.
d
:
Eanhing
rcsistor
.
.
/ . 31.7.n >:I,';:
..*,.-o>-.
,, . . . .
::;;A+::::,~
-:2004
1..
,'..
Maximum downslrcam
p h a faull
~
CunCnl
145.
, .2,,<e:Js:.!
:;.%>.?
!.;'i$aig&,.
:&
?:?.
kc?*:
ih?
~.,,.:F,>,,,;g<:.: ?r' 2:
,:.;!.,
", ".'.,>
. i.
. .. -..
.....
.:I
cuncnl
al---
..-, ,. . . .
'!x$s-
---
. ,~
. ... ...,.. :-.,. .....
.$@
. z
<..
:,
.:
commissioned.
,4'L
.:.'.?;,,
.<
.. '
?.
.......
..',&..',
>::::;<,!:;
j 20011 j"'
,SI
;144 1
0.176
51
1.
-.::...:.v.*,,:Ui
.i.C.;.<<,-.
- ' ..Z
.......
2:
<-.,s .... :.
>-i.
1 T#rl~lcI?.?:
i
........ -
Oslo I:,,:.:r:::'.
.....
~ : c ~ c ~ ' : l,?,,::r+.:*o~
or
c,:
.......
.-;..
...
: 48A
j 0.15
... .;
....-..-..
of the
generator steady-state current contribution to an
uncleared remote fault. This information is not available
=45.6V
L
where:
0
h
a
L ..
P1
I,,,
Z,
==0.362
3.01
eaflhing resistarlce
r
~1
C3
17
K/(M-I)sec
;..:.,*.>,
Vrnvd
= relay setting voltage
. .
?<,.+,. :...
.,
31s
10:sO
17/06/02
.,
:;.,71.7.5 loss
(1:'
Page 3 1 0
quantities (corresponding t o
voltage) is typically used, with
'10s t o allow for transients
offlrejection, overvoltages on
motor starting, etc.
-14.5n
..
The nearest settings provided by the relay are X, = 14.552 Xb = 22752. The time delay t d l should be set t c
avoid relay element operation on power swings and a'
typical setting of 3s is used. This value may need t o be
modified i n the light of operating experience. To prevent
cyclical pick-up of the relay plement without tripping.
such as might occur during pole-slipping conditions, a
drop-off time delay td,, is provided and set t o 0.5s.
. ,,,.,,..... :.,:
:.:+., (<.
.,.-%;>..<,;;c
G.e:<;><
= < ,, .;:.::s:c
! < .:
,
,
.#/,
.::<::.:k<.-!.':j:.
.
.
<
$
F
@
-'
@$
<;.
x?..
'
1 .
:.:I;.'
.........
.. ..
--.,
,....-.
..; . - .
:-.:+
8"-.
.,..,
a
:..:,
r,-i.l
:j:..:. ,.:, ,
;.;j.:
..:: :.
!C
0.05~5~10~
.:.?
-L:
.G
;.:
..v
500 X 100
-.
=5W
.V.
"
,
.~
.
... ,
. .i. . . D
. . ;:,..
. . ,... ,:
. J10
.
J
Neruer)
...
Pr.rrrri.m
...
Awr.m.iia.
__-A
C.;!'
,..
: :.!
....
'.
>
/06/02
10:50
Page 3 1 1
1.:
_ ..
...+.
ixG~MwGtik>;
....... ,
-..;,..
...I:
i Gcncrator voltagc
( r..........,..........-....
.,...
187.65
18
MVA
~~~<~;$~2~~;5]~~~~3,2$~~~\'32~
'i:s@{
~ ~ ~ ~ ! , e ~ F : ~ 2 ~ F ! ! ~ i ;
;.
.'
.
'
:.. ~ .
Loss of excitation
xb
Id 1
...
I,,,
.:
,"I...".
ovcrc"ncnt
.""'."ll..J
pu
'
,:.
0.08
. .
,:*&.>:
,.
pu
'
,'
. ,.
. : : . a
Gcncntormotoring powcr
3s
Gcncrator ovcwoltagc
0.55
0.73-
vs
K
i z ? ~ ' ::
'
Iw1
.-._ ...........
....
-14.5Q
()A':::::
0.189
'3
Gcnuator ~ n d c w o l t y c
0.6
yi
ir>>
,,<\.
X"
0.05
. I
',G..
Kme
tmi.
86s
~mox
'.
\ '
8.6s
1.5s
6005
-.
kc-phasc
V, mcas modc
205
48k
F<2 timc
dclay
- .-....
- . . . . . . . . . .0.5s
........
PI h a r t i o n
; lrvmc powcr
-.-.-.-. . . . . - .
PI tirnc dclay
-......
5s
PI DO limc
Or
!
............
,.,
:,
: I
....
- r
.....
- 5
pu
056
mfl
OD199
80
dcg
-ap311
; lRWo/lZO
. .
. . i~
0.8
.... .!
:::!
\.:;.~l::~;:..j..:
...
'
Z
.?
'5
'I
...........
,:I. w '::
&
.....
.....
: pu
12
Gcncrator VT ratio
DU
1 .
Undcrfrcqucncy
0.244
I.'..
2
2
9)
r:
P,
C3
- 17-
$>:
d,..
The data for this unit are given i n Table 17.4. It is fitted
with t w o main protection systems t o ensure security of
$ : ' tripping i n the event of a fault. To econornise on space.
I.- .
.
the setting calculations for only one system, that using a
MiCOM P343 relay are given. Settings are given i n
P r h a r y quantities throughout.
2.-
ct::;
where:
VN =
The settings follow the guidelines previously stated. AS
1OOoIo stator winding earth-fault protection is provided.
.
,,.high sensitivity is n o t required and hence J,, can bc set
;::"' to 1O0Io of generator rated current. This equates t o 602A.
and the nearest settable value on the relay is M O A I=
0.08 of rated CT current]. The settings for K , . I,, and K,
f0ll0w the guidelines i n t h e relay manual.
.:<'.
8:
E''
'
,L
Xd
110-load p h n r c - ~ r e u t r a gl o l c r a t o r volrngc
= golerator
'
>,
..
,-hap17-280-315
10:50
17/06/02
Paqe
312
hence.
IJlr = 2893A
=
;;,72,7,6 ':()L?<b
:S:r;[oi
0.361,y
and
vN.\I?Gf
I ' + I x , + ~ ~1')
x~
---f i I ' ~+ I X~~ + X~, + j~2 ~ X ~
VPr=
=J304V
=0.07UN
.u
9,
-4"
--
3
%
h
;
I
P,
E Q
a
%
--
. . . . .
.'a
VJ
17
. . . . . .
.. ...
.....
..,,
. ..
.., ..
Alarm:
<.
...
. .. .
- c..........
..........
:.;,A
,..
. ... . .. , .
Trip:
...... ;
yf
> I .J
;>:".:.....,
+ .......
,..
....
;. ; p y<;?
~.?
.,.I.s>.;!.,
.',
Hence
.+~;i;~
:::.
/ ,:
i.
+,.i'.i.
. .<":
.::>,_:.
.....I.-, .
'.,.?> . .
..' .3,
.-.-.'
I :
:-.?..;
.,
i
h: .
.>:.
..
,-.<..
.:.Ly+.s
'$$z..:'.
.
...
I;6:"'
c;:'
:I.
6;:
..,,
.+. v.:
'.$.%.'j'.,,.
-...a:,
....
.:.c.->.:..
.... ,. .
=956.7V
Use a value of 935.3~, nearest setfable value
ensures
of the
iscovered. A 0.5s definih,
time delay is used t o prevent spurious trips. The third;
harmonic voltage
under normal conditions is 20h of rated
voltage, giving a value of:
....
.....
..
. ..
.
0.92x18kVxO. 1
..-.
crrr[,+6:::~
p::r:~:~c-$un
78kV xO.02
4T
=207.8V
.
..
;:,;:>.., :::
;;::;c
(;.<:::<;<i.:!:
Xbl = O.SXd
1.666f2
X a , = 0.75X',j = 0.245R
Use nearest settable values of 1.669fl and 0.25
time delay of 5s is used to prevent alarms
transient conditions. For the trip stage, settings fo
load as given in Section 17.16.3 are used:
k V 2 - 18'
Xb,=-------=1.727Q
MVA 187.65
Xa,=-0.75X;=-0.
1406R
Loss of cxcitalion
, time delay
tage trip: 5 8 . 2 ~ z Is
d.
Reverse reach. Zn
gh
~ W C ~
Forward reach, Z,
+ Z,
Z,,
0.02 + 0.22
ZGr,,
:er
Rrvcnc P
~ o Slipping
~ c
Protcclion
Rcrcnc Powcr
0.652fl
0 . 9 x 0.22
0.138R
o~cdrcqu~nq
Undcrfrcqucnol
2,
rlerluork impcrior~ce
;irrb!r
/'L
N ~ f w . t k P r a r a c r i s a ff A s f . - . r i . m
~
i 5 . R*r?
~ . .
J I J
~
'
I.,,
i-~~rx
powcr
1.6MW
- 0.5s
:.
s sos
j,-..-.- --
'<
..
F<fxttifi$ "...'
0.5s
. - :58.7Hz
...
,:.::,:-.
lOOs
.(
5821ii
'
Is
blrgc ~ C I I C I O I ~ I I , ~ ~ O ; C C : ~ ~C~A U ~ P ! C
:.
.. . ...
.
. .. .
.
. ... .
.. .:.. . .
.<....
. .
:,..... :!
.. ,
.I
'
'
':
.
.? .7,:'
;.:.;:<';:
i>;:;&
-- ,.?;:
:*.
..
::.
i&,%:i.-.
.. .?. . . .
ky$z7L;. .. .:,
.,-....
.*- . : ... .
..
...
.><;:.,;.
. .,....--. .- -:... !.
=.::!
.:...
j
3
,x7:.. ,.,.: ., ..>
:?,-$;
2.
G m i l c
:.<i:roty,
105
PI
. DO
. tirnc
F<Isetting '.
Fcl i i c dclay
, ..
i . ,,F+ xnilig ,.::.
.
where:
PIfunction
PI scrling
PItimc dclay
.-r
.,..
,.:.cP '.,.
;ks
,
:%
;'
yd
i"
.:.
::
;<
..
,. ....
-.
;:;;.'
-,y:
-. - .<<.s:
. >; .-... . .
:;,~ ,
, ~ h * " ' ~
~
. ..;-.
.. . . .,;....
..L.
..
.
{ ~ h a ~ 1 7 - 2 8 0 - 3 1 5 17/06/02
10:50
Page
314
amin
= 62.5'
Use the minimum settable value of 90". The blinder angle,
8,is estimated to be 80', and requires checking during
commissioning. Timers T, and T, are set to l5ms as
experience has shown that these settings are satisfactory
to detect pole slipping frequenries up to IOtlz.
--..c1
*-r
o
;?,
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c
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k
Technology Ltd.
ng Criteria
Page 1 of 45
1
. ...
..
I.
..:.<.
,:
,.
.:i p
. ..-.
\
:-
. .: :.... ,.
* . ..
.::.
..+'..
..d... .
a.-..;:- ;'.-.
.,.... ,,
,..
~...:
.&:'.
.<
i
..
Urgent shutdown
7
Non-urgent shutdo.:.
'i Alarm only
i
- A n urgent shutdown .:I 3uld .be required, for example, if a phase to phase
fault occurred within -vie generator electrical connection. A non-urgent
shutdown might be s ~ ~ u e n t i awhere
l,
the prime mover may be shutdown
prior to electr-ically ur, zading the generator, in order to avoid over- spesd.
A non-urgent shutdc.-,,n may be initiated in the case of continued
unbalar~cedloading. n this case, it is desirable that an alarm should b e
given before shutdo\/. .- becomes necessary, in order to allow for operator
intervention to remed.. -iie situation.
For urgent tripping, - may be desirable to electrically niaintain The
shutdowr-7 condition :.!ith -latching protection output contacts, which
would requir-e manuc resetting. For a non-urgent shutdown, i?rnay be
required that ttie oc-zvt contacts are self-reset, so that production of
power can be re-stcr-53 as soon as possible.
Generator differential protection
--
--
Page 3 bf 45
Protected z o n e
V o i l a g e a c r o r s relay circuit
..<?'.!
..~ . .
.. .
j where K .- i .S
Srab:li s i n g r e s i s t o r , R
R st
-VS
Is
. limits
s p i I:
, .:"!
.:-:md
.51fi
g.4
<;.g
.. .
.;:*:n
- R~
-.
*
.!*
. ...
;:
. =.:
...,
.:
To ensure that the protection will operate quickly during an internal fault
the CTs used to operate the protection must have a kneepoint voltage of
at least 4Vs.
42:;
"7%'.
.Is?
:g,
....
.p,
.
..G
,C:
..
..I*!
;:%$.
$.-
I:.
5r.
his'%
%
:
&;
Page 5 of 45
I.
11.
...
111.
nle )
= (CT ratio) x (
ldiil
+ nle)
Vs
(I diff)
,'
4
'
Metrosils are used to limit the peak voltage developed by the current
transformers under internal fault conditions, to a value below the insulation
level of the current transformers, relay and interconnecting leads, which
are normally able to withstand 3000V peak.
The following forn~ulaeshould be used to estimate the peak transienl
voltage that could be produced for an internal fault. The peak voltage
produced during an internal fault will be a function of the current
transformer kneepoint voltage and the prospective voltage that would be
produced for an internal fault if current transformer saturation did not
occur. This prospective voltage will be a function of maximum internal
.
-..<
..:
. .
fault secondary current, the current transformer -ratio, . . t h e .current::$
transformer led resistance to the common point; the relay lead resistonc&-"j
.
.
. .
and the stabilising resistor value.
.
..
Vp = 2
< 2 Vk
(Vf
Vk)
Where
Vp = peak voltage developed by the CT under internal fault condiiiol-1s.
Vk = current transformer knee-point voltage
Vr = Maximum voltage that would be produced if CT saturation did not
occur.
-- ----
',.:
?.
f3
!+-:.
Page 7 of 45
.-
The protection must be time graded with other earth fault protection.
The setting employed should be less than 33% of the earth fault level.
A setting of 5% of the earth fault level should be applied for applications
where the differential protection provides less than 95% coverage of the
stator winding.
Applied to in-directly connected generators.
(with the generator earthed via a distribution transformer)
generator of a parallel set is earthed at any one time, with the earth
connections of other machines left open. If the generating plant can also
be run directly in parallel with a medium voltage public supply, it i s a
common requirement that all generator earth connections are left open
during parallel operation. In such circumstances, the main earth fault
-
-!
The conventional unit type generator has the neutral earthed through a
resistance loaded distribution type transformer. For a single ground fault
near the neutral end of the winding , there will be proportionately less
voltage available l o drive the current through the ground, resulting in a
lower fault current and a lower neutral bus voltage.
8,
i'
Figure 4
If an earth fault occurs and remains undetected because o its location (
otherwise the probability of a second fault occurring is much greater. Ttsecond fault may result from insulation deterioration caused by transie
overvoltages due to erratic , low current , unstable arcing ut the first fat
point. This second fault may yields of larger magnitudes.
--
Page 11 of 45
AC generators in service produce a certain magnitude of third harmonic
voltages in their windings. Under healthy conditions of working the third
harmonic voltage developed by the machine is shared between the
phase to ground capacitive impedance at the machine terminal and the
neutral to ground impedance at the machine neutral. In general, under
healthy conditions the line and neutral impedances are fixed. Thus
irrespective of the magnitudes of the generated third harmonic V3, the
third harmonic voltages at the machine line end VL3 and neutral end VN3
should bear a constant ratio.
.-
i:.
;:,.
r'r
g.
F:
ic
$!
Page 12 of 45-
f!.: .
5::
I..;:
:
r
[rom the figure 5 it is clear that in order to remain stable under healthy
conditions the relay should restrain with in the two lines . The slopes of the
two lifles namely n11 & m2 can be suitably set to ensure stability and the
same will vary from n~achineto machine.
Voltage operated
Single n7easuring element two time delay stages.
In~muneto third harmonics.
Page 13 of 45
For .tl-~is
mode of application, the neutral voltage displacement protection
should be driven from a broken-delta-connected secondary
f a,n,-tin
ILII,~
faults.
For this type of application, the voltage operated stator earth fault
protection function should be driven from the secondary winding of a
distribution earthing transformer. In the case of direct resistive.earthing, or
of no deliberate earth connection, the protection should be driven from a
VT winding.
The voltage setting of the protection function should be set to 5% of the
voltage that would be applied to the relay in- the event of a solid fault
occurring on one of the generator terminals. This would offer
approximately 95% coverage of the generator winding. The voltage
operated protection function might be used to complement the current
operated protection fundion in the case of distribution transformer
earthing.
I1
At normal system voltage the current setting should be 5% above full load
current.
$
APPS Combined course
%:
.' ':,A.
.":
,$
.
X ti
:
.., .
*.
possible, voltage-dependent overcurrent protection provides limedelayed backup protection with adequate sensitivity for a multi-phase
busbar or feeder fault, whiist remaining siabie for ;he highest aniicipaieci
level of generatar load current. The generator terminal voltage is
monitored as a way of being able to distinguish between normal load
and system fault conditions.
!$i
i;
.+%
. ....
...*."
.. :.:.
. ....,.:,,
*;:;
,>
., ..a
, \,
~..>.
,:
The level of power required to motor the generator will depend on the :;$
,.
type of prime move[.
...$
.!
p.
..i.
..>$
A high sensitivity current input is used to monitor the system power. his$
may be connected to the main system protection CT's or, for
which require a sensitive setting, the input can be driven from a high4
3%
accuracy measuren7ent CT.
$3
application^,$
QALSTOM ~ i k i t e dEnergy
,
Automation & Information
>mbinedcourse
Generator Protection -Setting
To detect fluctuating reverse power flow, which could result from failure of
a reciprocating prime mover, a delay on drop off timer is available, in
addition to .the delay on pick up timer.
11
Operates when the fom/ard power falls below the set level.
Operation can be instanianeous or time delayed.
-
Prime mover
Gas Turbines
10-i5%
-
Blade
and
runner
cavitation
Thermal
stress
in
blades
Steam Turbines
The need for automatic disconnection is arguably less for plant that is
continuously supervised, but, in .the event of prime mover failure, the
attention
of control
staff could be diverted by other aspects of the
t
.:
....-g<
-.--
->
.
.
.
,.A- .,*..
.t:xd
.>',.;:2
. ..
. .--4
,$g
..-<
r.T7-
3
g.
.,:,:
.:3.
:+
>
:
..I;:?;
. .,.This protection function is offered for those users who wish to interlock non-
power measuring element confirms that the mechanical drive has bee
cut. Such an arrangement would ensure that there w o ~ ~be
l d no possibilif
of generator set over speed when any restraining electrical load is cut b
electrical tripping.
OALSTOM Limited, Energy Automation & Information
-.
.--
Page 19 of 45
Even where valves, etc., do close fully, there will be some lag in dissipating
all the energy within a prime mover, especially in the event of a shutdown
from full-load. Some types of plant, are very prone to over speed following
rejection of full-load, but have a good over speed tolerance, e.g. slowspeed hydro generators. Large turbo-alternators, with slender,low-inertia
rotor designs, do not have a high over speed tolerance and trapped
steam in the turbine, downstream of a valve that has just closed, can
rapidly lead to over speed. To reduce the risk of over speed damage to
such sets, it i s sometimes chosen to interlock non-urgent tripping of the
generator breaker and the excitation system with a low forward power
check. The delay in electrical tripping, until prime mover energy has been
completely absorbed by the power system, may be deemed acceptable
for 'non-urgent' protection trips; e.g. stator earth fault protection for an
indirectly connected generator. For 'urgent' trips by instantaneous
electrical protection, e.g. stator winding current differential protection,
any potentially delaying interlock should not be imposed. With the low
probab~lity of 'urgent' trips, the risk of over speed and possible
consequences must be accepted.
With a large generator, even a very small percentage of rated power
could quickly accelerate an unloaded machine to a dangerous speed. A
typical under power setting requirement would be 0.5% of rated power.
The time delay associated with the low forward power protection function
(t) could be set to zero. However, some delay is desirable so that
permission for a non-urgent electrical trip is not given in the event of
power fluctuations arising from sudden steam valvelthrottle closure. A
typical time delay for this reason is 2s.
..
.i
,.:
$
:!
The trip threshold should be set slightly higher than the constant negative
phase sequence current withstand of the generator.
.-
The alarm element is commonly set to 70% of the trip setting with a time
delay well above the time taken to clear any system faults. The alarm element functions directly on the measured level of negative phase
sequence current.
Page 21 of 45
forced cooling employed and the presence of any ancillary metallic rotor
components.
'
I
I
Figure 6
Complete loss of excitation-may arise as a result of accidental tripping of
the excitaiion system, an open circuit or short circuit occurring in l11e
excitation DC circuit, flashover of any slip rings or failure of the excilolion
power source. A pure open circuit in the excitation system i s unlikely to he
long-lasting in view of the high voltage that would be developed crc~oss
the open circuit with the machine running and connected to a po\ver
system. Such a fault is likely to evolve quickly into a short circuit fauli.
..
?
Page 24 of 45
of false tripping due to stable power swings with the above impedance
settings, would be of the order cf 0.5s.
Some operators have traditionally interlocked operation of impedancetype field failure protection with operation of under voltage detection
elements in order to allow a low field failure protection time delay without
the risk of unwanted tripping for stable power swings. This arrangement
may also have been used to prevent field failure protection operation for
hydrogenerators that may be run as synchronous compensator's, with the
turbine mechanically decoupled.
,
Operates when the three phase voltages fall below the common set
point. An adjustable timer is available.
Can be interlocked with the field failure protection to prevent its
operation during stable power swings.
Can be used to initiate dead machine protection
Can detect failure of the AVR or system faults which have failed to be
cleared by other means.
Prevents damage to any connected loads which could occur- during
operation at less than rated voltage.
nrc
;:<,
F;;7;
The pick up level sho~lldbe set to less than the voltage seen for a three
phase fault at the remote end of any connected feeder.
*...
.2-' 9..
t:2t-
#*?.;,.
$..
The time delay should be set to allow the appropriate feeder protection
to operate first to clear the fault, and. also to prevent operation of the
protection during transient voltage dips.
..:
.,
:-
;.,..,. :..
..
g::::
,
+:.
&.&:,.:,l::
.:-.:
kf'
r.
...
3.;::.
.C
.;, :..
1:
,p
'
s..:;
:,
Fe;::
.~
,,
..,._
..
5~:..
.'
%..
:.'. ,
,.
;
;
i
. ...
:?:
I+'c
l.IC,
.>.<
,...
>
:;,
..
~s;.
:""
,
,:.> :
:;5
$:. .4;
I.
g2:.
;,:
v>;y,.:
&
L~
:,.,>-..
:,.;
&;,:!
,2i:.....,
r.lr.bl-.
:
.:
?%
3
,:s<.
!B
<j
is relatively remote from the generators, even the generator voltagedependent proteciion r i i a y fail to respond to the fault. If the fault is
asymmetric, and if the negative phase sequence thermal protection
function has been set and enabled, the unbalanced fault current may be
sufficient to operate this form of generator protection. The worst situation
would be for an uncleared three-phase fault. Although such a fault would
be rare, it may be that the only form of protection that would reliably
detect the fault would be generator under voltage protection.
,$
$
";
Page 27 of 45
* Operates when the three phase voltages are above the common s e t
point.
t
i1
Recommended for
rejection.
fi
*Time delayed protection should be set with a pick up voltage of 100120% of the nominal voltage and a time delay ~ufficientto overcome
operation during transient over voltages.
II
-.
L-
E:
When a generator
i s synchronised to a power system with other sources, a
synchronised over voltage could only arise i f the generator was lightly
loaded and was requiced to supply a high level of power system
capacitive charging current. An over voltage condition might also be
possible following a system separation, where a generator might
experience full-load rejection whilst still being connected to part of the
original power system. The automatic voltage regulating equipment
should quickly respond to correct the over voltage condition, but over
voltage protection is advisable to cater for a possible failure of the
voltage 'regulator to correct the situation or for the possibility .of the
regulator having been set to manual control.
t.
4g
The worst case of generating plant over voltage following a system
separation, which results in full-load rejection, could be experienced by
hydrogenerators. The response time of the speed governing equipment
can be so slow that transient over speeding up to 200% of nominal speed
could occur. Even with voltage regulator action, such over speeding can
result in a transient over voltage as high as 150%. Such a high voltage
could result in rapid insulation damage.
The time-delayed over voltage protection function threshold (V>) should
typically be set to ] 00%-120%of the nominal voltage . The time delay (t>)
silould be set to prevent unwanted tripping of the delayed over voltage
protection function due to transient over voltages that do not pose a risk
to the generating plant; e.g. following load rejection with non-hydro sets.
The typical delay to be applied would be 1s-3s.
3
;
- .
.-
the alternator rating, but not the prime mover rating, the alternator could
become overloaded without a frequency drop. !t would therefore be
important for the alternator manufacturer to provide stator winding
temperature measurem-entdevices, to give alarm or to automatically shut
down the generator before winding thermal damage results.
-
._
.
.. .
.
Power system overloading can arise when a power system becomes split,
with load left connected to a set of 'islanded' generators that is in excess
of their capacity. Such events should be allowed for by system planners
and automatic system load-shedding should be implemented so that the
load would rapidly be brought back within the generation capacity. In
this case, under frequency operation would be a transient condition; as
during power swings. The degree of load shedding would have to take
into account the fact that some generating plant, e.g. gas turbine plant,
may have a reduced power capability when running below nominal
frequency. In the event of under shedding of load, the generators should
be provided wit,h backup under frequency protection to shut down the
generating plant before plant damage or unprotected system load
.damage could' occur.
..
Under frequency running at nominal voltage will result in some over fluxing
of a generator, and its associated electrical plant, which needs to b e
borne in mind. However, the more critical considerations would b e in
relation to blade stresses being incurred with high-speed turbine
generators; especially steam-driven sets. When running away from
nominal frequency, abnormal blade resonance's can be set up which, if
prolonged, could lead to turbine disc component fractures. Such effects
can be accumulative and so operation at frequencies away from
nominal should be limited as much as possible, to avoid the need for early
plant inspections/overhaul. Under frequency running is most difficult to
contend with, since there is little action that can be taken at the
generating station in the event of load under shedding, other than to shut
the generator down.
--
KT!
8 . 7
A nnc r , , ~ : - ~
r r ~au r ~ i ~ A
~ course
r- i-.t .-f u-
Page 30 of 4
5
ti
i
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,;,2!.
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..,&.
...
ri
:,.
?.+$;
.'L:Lz*!
,
&
i
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Should be set abdve the sustainable over frequency level with a time
delay sufficient to overcome transient over frequencies following load
rejection.
3;..
.
.:,so<>
,!.:?>
..>
..:
'..83
..*ln.:.4:?
.:....
..C i i
3;
3
r L
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.rr)
,:?L
.in.
r.:
i.:
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. ..<?
ti
-.,$
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,.+..;
t;
r:
i.",
f!
f.
.....LJ
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Ci
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.:5<
:%
.;?;%.
Detects VT fuse failure.
-Supplied from the secondaries of two VTs or two separately fused'..
. ..
secondary circuits of a single VT.
Used to raise an alarm and block voltage sensitive protection if,::
necessary.
-.... ..
.>:
,>
:$L
3'?
Page 31 of 45
@$
A number of
Page 32 of 45
CTlG -
a a
dead tl~lachine
?rip ping
Backup
Tripping
Pole-slipping protection
A generator might pole-slip, or fall out-of-step with other power system
C#
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The pole slipping relay ZTO has been designed to protect Synchronous
generators against the possibility of the machine running in the unstable
region of the power angle curve which would result in pole slip.
The relay consists of one directional relay and one blinder relay operating
in conjunction with 40-80 mSec timer . Both characteristics look into the
source and consequently ignore all condifions of load other than those
which produce a reversal of power flow such as would occur with a
condition of pole slip or power ;wing exceeding 90 degree.
..
If the fault never reaches the operate regionof the b1inder:or moves
between the directional and blinder char.acteristics in a time less than
the timer setting , no operation will occur.
lpodorro
.X
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE:
Generator Details
Terminal voltage
Synctironous Reactance Xd
Transient Raactance Xd'
Sub-Transient Reactance Xd' '
Continuous Negative withstand capability
12' t
Length of longest line emanating from the bus
Impedance of the line
Bus fault MVA
247 MVA
15.75 KV
205 %
23.4 %
17.9 %
2071-5 MVA
h.
i:',.
'%;
k '.
6'-
.
'
5
c
Page 35 of 45
CT/ PT Ratio
CT primary for inter turn protection
CT secondary for in-terturn protection
CT sec resistance
Lead resistance
5000 A
5A
0.75 ohms
1 ohm
250 MVA
14%
93.68 V
183.4
(Voltage developed across the relay-Voltage acro'ss rely at pick up/ Pick
25183 A
*
.
.
Page 36 of 45
69.25 V
134.5
Stabilising resistance value
ohms
(Voltage developed across the relay-Voltage across rely at pick up/ Pick
up current)
'
'
..
Diameter setting
(0.5 x synchronous recatance)
1.03 ohms
1.68 ohms
Timer settings:
Pick up timer
Drop off timer
10 Sec
2 Sec
..
Protection-Setting
Criteria 8, Tutorials
Page 37 of 45
0.1 6 ohms
0.14 ohms
0.22
3.07 ohms
75 degree
55
- .-
Page 38 of 45
Generaivr Irr-~pedzjiice
Generator transformer impedance
Source impedance angle (generally assumed to be 80")
Rate of slip ( should be provided by the manufacturer, otherwise
assumed to be .I 600 Elec. Deg per second)
-~
:.A,
,...
,..
.-,.
,.,+
.. .:>
>;<
,
26
:$*
-i*
I I.ti.,
,r
.p.
',,:.
,:2
...,.;-..
....,
Procedure :
.*,
I'
.$
; .>:
1. Select a suitable scale for the diagram. Draw the X and Y axes with
Origin as (0)
-
(8
5,.
?:,
:..$
.*.
a
'i
2. Plot .the Generator impedance along the negative "Y- axis" to get
point (G)
... .
J
:..
..
, ...
,.8'
-a
.:
. :,$<
. -.
;1
6. The locus of Pole slip will be nearer to either (G) or (S) depending on the
ratio between emfs at (G) and (S). We assume this ratio to be equal to
1. Thus the pole slip locus is the bisector of line (G)---(S). Mark the point
( 1 ) on the line (G) ---(S) where the Pole slip locus cuts it (centre of the
line).
7. With point ( 1 ) as center and (1)---(GIas radius draw a circle. Mark the
point where this circle cuts the locus as ( 2 ) .
8. Draw a line passing through the origin (0) at 75". Mark the point v,/here
this line cuts the pole slip locus as (3).This is the directional line.
9. Measure the obtuse angle at point (4) between the lines (G)---(4)and
(S)---(4).
This is named as (4.
1O.The obtuse angle at point (2) should be 270". Name this as (a,).
.. .
. .
,
.-.
:.-
..
2,.:'
;.:
'
:d
.7:
APPS C o m b i n e d course'
Generator Protection -Setting
Criteria 8. Tutorials
Page 40 of 45
;G
;*?,.;f '
....,
:rrc
3
. . . .%.
p"-
g;::
g::. :
:?,:
g: .
secondary
.~
:
..
. ._..
-
;
~
~ : ~ o w areach
rd
to be set in relay
ohms
Reverse reach
(25% of forward reach)
= 0.98 ohms
Timer setting
= I sec
= 5%
= 8
- .
.-
12 Alarm setting
-
- WCDM + VTT
Pick-up setting
(depends on the type of prime mover)
Time delay
= 5 Sec
.-
Voltage setting
= 5.4 V
. .:Q
'>
= 1 Sec
Time delay
..
/!.'.-.*
:.%;
<
.A*
.
;$
Time setting need to be co-ordinated with down stream Earth Fault relays in;'!
.-:+
case of Direct connected svstems.
The required settings for this 95-100 % protection can be selected only on
measurement and studying the machine third harmonic behaviour a1 site.
Measurement of Generator
Third
Voltaaes
- - . - - - - -~
~ . ~ ~ Harmonic
. ..~
~
-~
-~ -~
J
9
Page 43 of 45
a) Measure the filtered third harmonic voltages from neutral side (VN3) and
Line side (VL3) at the following TEST SOCKET pins provided on the front of
the reiay PVMM. Digital muitimeter in AC millivolts range can be used for
this purpose.
VN3 - Across 1 & 7
VL3 - Across 2 & 7
b) 'These measurements areto be made during voltage build up of
Generator before synchronization and after' synchronizing at different load
(MW) and excitation (MVAR j conditions.
The third harmoni; voltages measured above are plotted in a graph with
VN3 on X-axis and VL3 on Y-axis. Drawtwo lines enclosing.all,measured
values with some tolera-nee.
.
~
.. . v ' a l ~ a t e ~ i i o ~ e
.and,m2
s ' m l of these lines. The
slopes can b e calculbted by ielecting any pointalongthe line-andb y
..
computing its V N ~ / \ /ratio;
L~
.
. .
I'
..
..
The dead band setting K and the null setting potenliometer "a" can be
calculated as given below and set it accordingly in the relay.
Example:
I'..
4
i
3,$g
Generator Protection-~eftj,$
Criteria 8, TvtorialSPage 44 o f z
-,
The following table shows the actual values of the generator VL3 and VN3
obtained from site:
1. Before Synchronization:
Vn3(mvolts) Point: 187
V13(mvolts) Poi1
Volta e kV
4
5
6
7
8
9
193.6
324
49 1
658
810
967
-1 1 16
1306
1570
1 680
1730
2
3
!-L
20.9
- 76.4
1 28
194.5
263 325 390.
452
534
650
698
720
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
SI.No -
Active
Load(MW)
Reactive
,
--
Page 45 of 45
0.414
0.415
.
-
0.427
0.435
0.436
0.448
0.393
0.395
0.405
-.
..
..
- CTIG+VTUM+VTT
Overcurrent setting
'FLC
Under voltage relay setting
-
Timer setting
= 1 Sec
.r-
....
1.6.1
Zone 1 Setting
1.6.2
Zone 2 Setting
1.6.3
Zone 3 Setting
1.6.4
1.7.:
1.7.4
1.7.4.3
1.7.8
1.9
Introduction
The problem of combining fast fault clearance with selective tripping of plant is a key aim
for the protection of power systems. To meet these requirements, high-speed protection
systems for transmission and primary distribution circuits that are suitable for use with the
automatic reclosure of circuit breakers are under continuous development and are very
widely applied.
Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unit system of protection offering
considerable economic and technical advantages. Unlike phase and neutral overcurrent
protection, the key advantage of distance protection is that its fault coverage of the
protected circuit is virtually independent of source impedance variations. This is illustrated
in Figure 1.1, where it can be seen that overcurrent protection cannot be applied
satisfactorily. Distance protection is comparatively simple to apply and it can be fast in
operation for faults located along most of a protected circuit. It can also provide both
primary and remote back-up functions in a single scheme. It can easily be adapted to
create a unit pr'otection scheme when applied with a signalling channel. In this form it is
eminently suitable for application with high-speed auto-reclosing, for the protection of
critical transmission lines.
I 1SIN
. . . .
. :. . . . . . . .. .
. .. . . .. . . .
. .
Page 3
1.2
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distana
measurement it is appropriate to-use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of :
line up to a predetermined point (the reach point). Such a relay is described as a distana
relay and is designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location an(
the selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur in differen
line sections.
The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at th
relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated
compared with a predetermined impedance (normally the impedance of the circuit tieir
protected multiplied by some factor), known as. the reach point. If the measurc
impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on-tt
line between the relay and the reach point.
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersect
by the boundary characteristic of the relay. Since this is dependent on the ratio of volta
and current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on an RMdiagram. 7
loci of power system impedances as seen by the relay during' faults, 'power swings c
load variations may be plotted on the same diagram and in this manner the performar
of the relay in the preser,ce of system faults and disturbances may be studied.
'
7.3
Relay Performance
Distance relay performance is defined in terms of reach accuracy and operating t
Reach accuracy is a comparison of the actual ohmic reach of the relay under prac
conditions with the relay setting value in ohms. Reach accuracy particularly depend
the level of voltage presented to the relay under fault conditions. The imped:
measuring techniques employed in particular relay designs also have an impact.
Operating times can vary with fault current, with fault position relative to the relay sc
and with the point on the voltage wave at which the fault occurs. Depending o
measuring techniques employed in a particular relay design, measuring signal t r a ~
errors, such as those produced by Capacitor Voltage Transformers or saturating
can also adversely delay relay operation for faults close to the reach point. It is us1
electromechanical and static distance relays to claim both maximum and mir
operating times. However, for modern digital or numerical distance relays, the va
between these is small over a wide range of system operating conditions an1
positions.
1.3.1 ElectromechanicallStatic Distance Relays
Page 4
'
and
% relay rated v o l t a g e
L
,
Ll
rn
(a)
Phase-earth f a u l t s
(c)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fault position (% relay setting)
ioio3o4b~o6b70ao901bo
Fault position (Oh relay setting)
: .
=.
6
'
. . .
..
. ...
. .. .
. . . . . .. . .. .
.
. . . ..:...' . . . . . .:.
. . . . . . . . . .. . . ,
' : !
0.4 ............ J-! .
;..
.:.:;+;:
.
. ...
;
: : i
..
. .. .
. . ..
o o1
. . . - . .. .. . . .
0.1
-..
..........
. . . . . . . :....
.
. .
..-:-..;
:.
. . . .
. . . _ . . . . .
. . .:
02 -
;;
.:>...
...
. . . - . .
03
0,.
... . ..
. -. :
.
.:. , .. .
I :
'.
... ...
...
:.-
/ - -
. .
t~
$to
Z p , or S i.R.
(a) Zone 1phase-phase fault: minlmum operation tlmeS
.
%o,in<&sr
.I . . . . . ,
.......
. . . . . . . .. .: .' ;.'
....
'
..
.'.I ................ I , .
, .
, -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. I.. . . . . . . . . .
T.i~~,u
-y~-?-...,,.
i : ;;4-I.: ............. - !...-.i
.
...
..........................
...-....
.. ,
..
....... .-...
,. I
.
I : .
. .
..
..
.......
. .
_ . . __,.__
.:!
-..._
I
. . . . . ..
...'.,.
.
I
.
.
. ..
'!
I . .
.
.
..
:
Z,fZ, or S1.R.
:b)
. . .
VR = IRZL
where :
. .
therefore :
V,
(Zs / Z L )
V
+
(a) P o w e r s y s t e m configuration
. .
0.1
. . . . . . .
..I.
.:.
012 0.3
.
......
i.. . . ! ..
. .
:
i
s
<
i ; ! !
...
.-
...........-.....
,. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: .
0.5
System ~ m p e d a n c eratio
...-..-
.-
3 4 5
10
zs
--
=,
Figure 1.5: Relationship between source to line ratio and relay voltage
VR =
(Zs / Z L ) + 1
"P -P
Paoe 8
and
zone' 1 Settinq
Electromecha~nicallstaticrelays usually have a reach setting of up to 80% of the
protected line impedance for instantaneous Zone 1 protection. For
digitallnumerical distance relays, settings of up to 85% may be safe. The resulting
15-20% safety margin ensures that there is no risk of the Zone 1 protection overreaching the protected line due to errors in the current and voltage transformers,
inaccuracies in line impedance data provided for setting purposes and errors of
relay setting and measurement. Otherwise, there would be a loss of discrimination
with fast operating protection on the following line section. Zone 2 of the distance
protection must cover the remaining 15-20% of the line.
Page 9
A- <*
T~mel
Source
Sol
Time)
Zone 1 = 80435% of protected line impedance
Zone 2 (minimum)= 120% of protected line
Zone 2 (maximum) < Protected line + 50% of shortest second line
Zone 3F =-I .2 (protected line + longest second line)
Zone 3R = 20% of protected line
Figure 7.6: Typical time/distance characteristics for three zone distance protection
1.6.3
Remote back-up protection for all faults on adjacent lines can be provided t
third zone of protection that is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 2 protec
plus circuit breaker trip time for the adjacent line. Zone 3 reach should be set 1
least 1.2 times the impedance presented to the relay for a fault at the remote
of the second line section.
.. ..
_.
:tx;.
Zorie 3 Settinq
Page 10
,
A'.
..
. ..
On interconnected power systems the effect of fault current infeed at the remote
busbars will cause the impedance presented to the relay to be much greater than
the actual impedance to the fault and this needs to be taken into amount wilen
setting Zone 3. In some systems, variations in the remote busbar infeed can
prevent the application of remote back-up Zone 3 protection. but on radial
distribution systems with single end infeed, no difficulties should arise.
&:
%:
i'.
*:
:.
:+'.
L..
1:':
.:.
.
!
'.
1.7. Distance
Relay characteristics
. .
. . .
.
.
Page 11
.
. .
..
. .
.-
..
.:
This characteristic takes no &ccount of the phase angle between the current an
the voltage applied to it; for this reason its impedance characteristic when plotted
on an R/X diagram is a circle with its centre at the origin of the co-ordinates and
radius equal to its setting in ohms. Operation occurs for all impedance values le
than the setting, that is, for all points within the circle. The relay characteris
shown in Figure 11.7, is therefore nondirectional, and in this form would oper
for all faults along the vector AL and also for all faults behind the busbars up to
impedance AM. It is to be noted that A is the relaying point and R A B is the a
by which the fault current lags the relay voltage for a fault on the line A 5 and
is the equivalent leading angle for a fault on line AC. Vector A 5 represents the
impedance in-front of the relay between the relaying point A and the end o
AB. Vector A C represents the impedance of line A C behind the relaying point. AL
represents the reach of instantaneous Zone 1 protection, set to cover 80% to 85%
of the protected line.
. .
Line GK
Line G H
Page 12
..,
Iirect i I
el erne
I
(a) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c o m b i n e d directional!
impedance r e l a y
2 e- ...a.
source
:
.
\-,>
; Source
,--.
..
. - . . ..
..
j
+-/
C-
---.
D
-.._- ..\
..
.
2
.
..
I
'
. ;,
.*>:
ti-
relay:
: ,R
,
d i s t a n c e element at A
R
:,,
directional element at A
( c ) Logic f o r directional and impedance
elements at A
Figure 1.8: Combined directional and impedance relays
.-.
y+:
.. r
F.:.
fi:
32:
,-a.
,!?
--
Page 13
--
i.
i.
iii.
.,
:::
:.,
'i
.,
.-
..
..
.-.
.
.. +
:,
,,..
It will be noted that the impedance reach varies with fault angle. As the line to be
protected is
up of resistance and inductance,. its fault angle will be
dependent upon the relative values of R and X at the system operating frequency.
Under an arcing fault condition, or an earth fault involving additional resistance,
such as tower footing resistance or fault through vegetation, the value of the
resistive component of fault impedance will increase to change the impedance
angle. Thus relay having a characteristic angle equivalent to the line ang!e will
under-reach under resistive fault conditions.
( a ) P h a s e comparator i n p u t s
/x
Restrain
i
( b ) M h o impedance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
Page 15
Relay i m p e d a n c e s e t t i n g
Relay c h a r a c t e r i s t i c angle setting
GL P r o t e c t e d l i n e
PQ Arc r e s i s t a n c e
6' L ~ n eangle
GQ
It is usual, therefore, to set the RCA less than the line angle, so that it is possi
to accept a small amount of fault resistance without causing under-rea
However, when setting the relay, the difference between the line ar
"EQUATION MISSING" and the relay characteristic angle cp must be known. resulting characteristic is shown in Figure 11,9(c) where AB corresponds to
length of the line to be protected. With cp set less than 0, the actual amount of
protected, AB, would be equal to the relay setting value AQ multiplied by CO!
(0-cp). Therefore the required relay setting AQ is given by:
Page 16
..
,,
12
. . . ,., .
Distance Protection
:,
..
..
..
. . . .
l a ) Srcppcd tirncldisrancc
..
characlcri:lics
..
.. .
.!
',
-- .. . . .. . - .
fr1Ii.a
A.r.-.,i..
C.idr
..
:hap12
exe
14/06/02
13::s
Page
194'
..
..
. ... .. . ......
..
. ..
-... .-
Zone 2
Zonc 3
(b) Simplilicd logic
~eclose~facility
is o u t of service: Reversion t o the
reach setting occurs only a t the end of the reclaimt
For interconnected lines, the Z1X scheme is establis
-.
...
. ?..
......>..-A
..
...
:-., .. . -
,"..$;.::.c.::,...,,
::;:e.: ....
.
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-,< s-.
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:.
. .:..-. . . .
,,..::. .
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.-*. -. .:. . . . .
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2 s : \ - L > . : : . . ., )I.*
Fi =-
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.
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.
+*,,
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g..zL--
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.,;':!,.:s
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:,;:,c . r L .::.,
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r ' .~ . : ~ ,.
,,.
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zi
Signal rcccivc -0
3 .
7Sggnal scnd
Signalling cquipmcnl
-End A
u
'
Signal r c c c w c
.
-
3.:
'$%:&%'
.........
....
2:>?s.~,:.?
,*iq;
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!?. $2":;.:,
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140602
13:15
Page 196
?#
3~
..
>
-.
.=
-
.
..
..
.
.
. -
;. ..
**
Distancc/timccharactcristics
,.'
:
I
-.
- 2:,
.>l
(a)
2'
i!3
S~gnalrcccivc
Trip
t
(
1I
1
Signal
. "9
.Y
(b) Signal l o g ~ c
I
......
8
,.,
.%
This scheme
IS
- :.+
. I..:keq
.:?;,
!,'
r;
In this scheme, a distance relay element set t o re?:
beyond the remote end of the protected line is used:
send an intertripping signal t o the remote end. Howev;
it is essential that the receive relay contact is monito!:
by a difectional relay contact t o ensure that trippl!
does not take place unless the fault is within
protected section; see Figure 12.8. The instantane6
contacts of the Zone 2 unit are arranged t o send
signal, and the received signal, supervised by zone;
operation, is used to energise the trip circuit.
scheme is then known as a 'permissive over-rc
transfer tripping scheme' (sometimes abbreviate1
'POP'). 'directional comparison scheme', or 'permi:
ov~rreachdistance p r o t e c f i o ~scheme'.
9
$
14/06/02
:3:15
Page
15-
. . . . . .
w Signal
.-
<.,.
..
:
.: . .
.
7
-
Trip
;
j
.-
23
Trip
s i g n a ~ i v c ~ F ~ f p ' p ~
iI
':
3.
. -
--
From
'POP' signal
!gi.-l
lap12 exe
14/06/02
Page
13:15
158
(a1 D ~ s r a n c c l r ~ r ncharaclcristics
c
- 12 -
Chacncl In 5 c ~ i c c
a Signal scnd
ZI
Zone 1 elements.
Signalling cquipmcnl
-End A
Signalling cquipmcnl
-End B
196
,.
13::s
Page 1 9 9
e!..:,,.
.+:: .: .:,
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-+.:<.I.:.; - 4 . ~:-..;
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;Chap12 exe
14/06/02
13:lS
Page 200
qi~~ing.*mf;!~:~*~*;~:?~?~
Spccd of opcrarion
Fast
Slowcr
Ycs
Scarify against
malopcraticm duc l a :
Cumnr r r v c m l
Lou of communica~~ons
Wrak l n l r r d l O ~ nCB
Not as fast
A$ fast
YC8
!
Special fcalurcs rcqulrcd
Good
-..
-.:
:
f;;
:.
f$:
R,
;,:.<-.
h
.,..:.
....
'1
r.:
C-:
Busbar Protection
.:I
g&=@$$;;,
:;*.<&;;+-:=;>
.'.
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.?$ ,:*+;++,
:,:..?,c;T?-7:<
p,:<"<;;.+-::,,.-<
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t.'"",,'
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sh.::<+$2;-.
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*...
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-................
.............
.a:..'.
.....
.
'
.
L
'
.
;
:
..............
..........
....'. .-:.,.
..........
,.: .-;..\ .--... '
.:.... . . . .
._.
.I.:
;"
..
.:
.:
...; .
:;;../, .
.: .
:,
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;.:.:.
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p15-232-253
17/06/02
9:4i
Page 234
incidence, amounting to no
fault per busbar in twenty years, it is clear that u
the stability of the protection is absolute, the degr
disturbance to which the power system is li
subjected may be increased by the insta
protection. The possibility of incorrect operation h
the past, led to hesitation in applying bus protectio
has also resulted in application of some very co
systems. Increased understanding of the response of
differential systems t o transient currents enable
systems to be -applied w i t h confidence i n their
fundamental stability.
The theory of differential
protection is given later i n Section 15.7.
Notwithstanding the complete stability of a correctly
applied protection system,
number of reasons. These are:
a. interruption of the secondary circuit of a
transformer will pr
might cause trippin
relative values of circuit load and effective setting.
It would certainly do so during a through fault,
producing substantial fault current i n the circuit in
question
..',... .
:;
:.
.;.
b. a mechanical shoc
cause operation, although the likelihood
occurring- with modern numerical sch
reduced
c. accidental interference'with the relay, aris
a mistake during maintenance testing, may lead to
operation
>
:
'
. .,.
l J 4
....
-.
..
current
--
253
17/06/02
9:46
Page 2 3 5
be maintained t h r o u g h o u t the
he case of l o w impedance, biased differential
mes t h a t cater for unequal ratio CTs, the scheme
be energised from either one or t w o separate sets o f
%
'
. ... . . .. . . .. . .
-
..
. . . . . . :;..: . . . . . . .
..
....
',
'
-.
.LI
b
CI
>
c
-a
C,
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e:
i
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i.
!
15-
-. .
.
...
....
..
..,.
-..... . .
... .
~
,.
.~
.
.253
17/06/02
9:46
.: .
.:.
.. . .. .
Past 2 3 6
. . . . . . . . .
.....
A
'
Switchgear framc
C-_________________-~----------------------------------~
7
~
Frame-carth
fault rclay
I
..
," 0 -
..-.
. - --:
.
.''.
.
. . . .:'. .
'
...&,
... .
'
,.~
...L..: ..'
...
Neutral
check rclav
:
,c:.2.;:<.
circuit
brcakcr
. . . ,! "
:,.$
:,.'7+?
:......
,:$:,
.*!Z
,$
:,
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-.c
!XI
- 15.
,.I*.
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earthing electrode.
necessary.
........
-~....
......
2-253
Page 237
9:iS
17/06/02
. . . . .
...................
Outgoing
feeder
Switchgear
frame
barriers
'
G
:, framcZonc
lcakagc
rclay
t
I
'
Zonc 11
framclcakagc
rclay
A:
,- 1- - - -
--,
,-
'
:&
I
- - - -1- -
rcsistancc to caYn
:
:
;;<,;,-
'>
.------f
C,;:;cni
:..
,>.
:!
,. ; .
.....I...-.
;;,
Trip L
Trip i;
Trip iI1
&
lniul~tion
barrier
Zonc I1
..*
$&B--&
Zonc H
-2
Zonc G
8-
I..
L - - - - - - J
Trap J
Trip A'
Tr~pL
15
.. ,i ?..
' .:
....
..:..
i:,.
...
Chap15-232-253
17/06/02
Page 238
9:46
.
2
,!.>X.
'
. ., . .;....,
..: i
::i.
-,
.:
'::
I,
Trip relays
Insulation
A b a r r i c r s
. .
Zonc G
5
:
I I
Zonc 1,
Zonc
74 Alarm canccllat~onrelay
Tripptng
rclayr
:1z.,.c.
! 5 ;.
,.,r,'s:::
:;
!,:2f:?
:3
.:A
rrar;c.-lrc.oyc. ,<!~c:nr
'.!
'.
' J
.
r
rwitchcs
..
il
.?'.,.i
Pj'.'.
162L253
. . .-
17/06/02
Paae 2 3 9
9:46
',
busbar faults
b&?!.
y:
prc::diofi
ifi service
'
The phase and earth fault settings are identical, and this
scheme is recommended for its ease of application and
good performance.
. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ................ . . .
. . . .; + ? ! ,,,:. ,;: . L i.
. 3.
8
+:
..
> . . . . .
.............
.........
........
= - f
-o
........................................
---
...............................:.......)
. . . . . .
Zonc B
El
......
Q
9
.....
C,
..'
15
Zonc C
......
.......
1,: ~ 1 r ~ : c ~ f ~ : l l ~
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
.....:!j;i....-s>y
'
Diffcrcntial r c h y
/
i
./-.'iz;c
.......
-. . . - . . . . . .
>I:;!,<,,:
---. i
15.9: C i r c o l o r i n g c u r r c n r schcn;r
*?
.;.;,<
;:.
,-;:;,:z.;z.'::<:::. :. .
I, . .
.J.w.:
;
.,I . +:.*.
.:, , -e;,>.
B
:.Y
:.;...;,+,$.&$;.:~;;y:..
..,.; *;;-a,..
:. &
..;
~ , r - . ~ p
l r.rrrri..
A.r.-.ri*;
Gail*
\_
ZJ9
\*
t>.:..v,;.;.:?<
ir.;,;44,5x.2;:,:.q:.-
...
:.i;:>5fi5c.-.,.,
-.
. .
.
...
. . . . . .
...
.
.
.,:
.. .
. -
;.;.
.
e.
....
Chap15-232-253
17/06/02
9:48
Page
240
:.. :
.:;.y:<:.?:
:..\ ..
. . ......
.
. . . .
'
:.,
*.
L a
-':/::.
'L
W1
:
j
i
<$@
.....
.>?$
;, :.g
, ,
. -..- .
--
..
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32-253
17/06/02
'
9:48
Page 241
:.
!.,ti
,.I
: I.
.. . .
-$-
.-
-- ---...-.. -. - -.-...... -. -
-.
I
'\$
I
hout any means of determining the faulted
'connection. Protection CT's must therefore be located on . :
each connection, as shown in Figure 15,11(b). This leaves
R a
RLG
RR
.
. ..... . .
.
.
Id>
;.2
k;g,
.'I::;
: .
>k>:C.5
~ h , current
transformen
are replaced inthe diagram by
of flux
.
-;
winding
.resistance, ..and
a i s o . t h e resistan,&
'
,,
:j:,-~;~~~;~:~.~:;i:
..,: ..
df .;I.:-.;.-
j:;
:-.;.
.,
.
4
1
1
region of the
characteristic; this
not in itself
a spill
output from a pair of balancing current transformers
provided
that
are identical and equally
b e of
A group of
transformers, though
the same design, will not be completely identical, but a
important factor is inequaliOl of burden in the
case of a differential system for a busbar, an external
fault may be fed through a single circuit, the current
being supplied to the busbar through all other circuits.
The faulted circuit is many times more heavily loaded
than the others and the corresponding current
transformers are likely to be heavily saturated, while
those of the other circuits are not. Severe unbalance is
., therefore probable, which, with a relay of normal burden,
could exceed any acceptable current setting. For this
reason such systems were at one time always provided
dclay. This practice is, however, no longer
may
23
a7
15-
I=
"I
RR+R,.,i +RUN
..
.
:<,dG!,:,a
T5.!
. . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. .. ,.:......c
. . ..:........ ,~,!<
..
... ;$:;..>..
?, ...........
-. . ..:.
2.
..\IU.
.: ,,.+,
;;. .
.,?'
,,,:,.
?:-:.4c-.:,",
!5 . 2
..........
:,:
C-id,
141
.. ?
;
.
I
.
..
.
,:
.
.. . .-... .
.:$,.
...<,::;S;t.i'
I . r . - # l * . .
",%.7,.
,'.."'
;::$!;$&ii$.,*"..
... .- . . . . . . . . . . .
.xe&+,;::pz-.~
..:,
,,.&&:
....
R ~ + R f f i + R ~ ~ i
Pr.rr,ri..
>,:. ~+;$;>;~,5~;~<.
,T<-27-,A... . ,..
- ~ , ( R u i +&H)
.,.f ">I!
a.
'
,*a.
.....$,,,.'k
L?<!s,<
;
r,
>:
:j
I ;
..
..---.. . ..-
- ;a!i.,,i
-253
17/06/02
9:48
I # = - -V,
=
RR
Page 2 4 2
I,(R,+Rm)
.RR
... E g u o t i o n !5.3
or alternatively:
IR = IS + l l I C s
IR
eflective setting
Equoliorr 1 5 . 5
stabiliry of schetne
/
.
p__.__-d A . t . r , r i . m
N ~ f w a r kP r . r r r t i . m
Cailr
Fi;
E'
TI.
y
..
, .
b!
. .-
,.
..
'
':h resistance
8.:
Zonc R
.......... *.
. .:
.....
r21.
1'
Zonc AIZ
.
/
''
'1
Zonc A I I
Bus wircs
Zonc A12
Bur wircl
Zonc
Bur wi
Chcck 208
Bur wir
~ u l l rn aclay
w m e ar chcct
L V ~ Cnr
r rcla
u m c ar chcci
--...,..-... ",
samc as chcck
5tabiliring Rcrirtor
Iligh lmpcdancc
Ctrculattng Currcnt
Rclav
53
17/06/02
9:48
Page 2 4 4
.......................
..............................
..........
IS30
74
80
87
95
. . .
. .-.
LI
L2
CSS
,
244
-4-
......
N,rr.rk
Pr.rrrri.m
U A,r.n.ri..
.PL
cubicle.
It is possible that special circumstances
involving onerous conditions may over-ride this
convenience and make connection t o some other part o f
the ring desirable.
Connecting leads will usually be not less than 710.67mm
(2.5mm1), but for large sites or in other difficult
circumstances it may be necessary to use cables of, for
example 711.04mm (6mm1] for the bus wire ring and the
CT connections t o it. The cable from the ring to the relay
need not be of the larger section.
When the reserve bar is split by bus section isolators and
the t w o portions are protected as separate zones, it is
necessary to common the bus wires by means o f auxiliary
contacts, thereby making these two zones intb one when
the section isolators are closed.
. .:
.8.5 krrangc:-- .i - ;
...
.!-.
Car
:i.;:
...... '..
i:
-5
&.
E,
C
- .
2
rq
15.
high impedance
protection schemes should meet the requirements of
Class PX of IEC 60044-1.
. I
v,> I f ( R , + Red
.I..,.
. ,.,
.., ,
.,;:
where:
VI
If
R,.
Rcr
!':..,
. .,..,..
.. .,.<
.f.
*:I'
.:!,.?;*
,!:
:I,
., . , .
il.
;3 *>:.
ICSiStetICe
I-.
>
LC).
.
. : ,..!I
.. ;I$
,.i .
.: ,.wk;
I.,
: I$I.*
."..L,?.: '
.
*I
', ,~
[,:c;.,:
,.?,
.: , I.,,.
'hap15-232-253
9:4a
Page 246
- ,.
,..:.
. .
.'
,\L
17/06/02
.?&;.<,:;...,?u"4'+
.,.G*.g
:
,.
-.
;;
f5.&.6.<</:(:'<-3:?j17;.,;:.-..- ..~fa:I:;~:ie:-?:
, . . . ,.,r..;Ii!:,...'..r\
,<>
.,.+x?,<
:$<.:
. - $2:
...:brs
.,.,'.
;.*.>,>
7..:vr<-b
..
.:'..:'.
I f =fault current
Ic
= exciting
k current a t knee - point voltage
-.
..
Is
= relay-circuit current settirlg
Ic
= CT
s
exritatiol~current at voltage seffi~lg
simple combination of burden and exciting impedance
by the CT turns
For the primary fault setting multiply IR
ratio.
-=
..
E,
. . ..
,~:~.~.z,,.>
L',.:,:
:.;.:..
.
,
:,
,. . .
, .,/..
-*
+,
'a
15 .
where:
This formula does not hold for the open circuit condition
and is inaccurate for very high burden resistances that
approximate to an opcn circuit, because simplifying
assumptions used in the derivation of the formula are
not valid for the extreme condition.
,: . ,
c; ...?--
.,
VK =
v = CP
.,:,..,
,
,: ,: .
32-25:
&nique.
17:05/02
9:48
Page 2 4 7
En .
'kr_
'
tis=
3
!:,
,.I
;!< With some biased relays, the stability is not assured by.
I:...
;:
'
where:
IR
= eflecfive 1nii1i111uii1o p r n t i ~ i g
currer~t
- .
;-
G = relay s e n i i ~ gc u n e i l t
. . .
.;:s&:,;._.-::
~
'.
.:._
where:
-
LH
CT ratio
<;!I
t3
It is interesting to note that the value of the stabilising
resistance is independent of current level, and that there
would appear to be no limit to the through-faults
stability level. This has been identified [15.1] as 'The
Principle of Infinite Stability:
The stabilising resistor still constitutes a significant
burden on - the current transformers during internal
faults.
An alternative technique, used by the MBCZ system
described i n Section 15.9.6, is to block the differential
measurement during the portion of the cycle that a
current transformer is saturated. If this is achieved by
momentarily short-circuiting the differential path, a very
low burden is placed on the current transformers. In this
way the differential circuit of the relay is preventtd from
responding to the spill current.
:-4
-..
:.
As IF
is generally much greater than Is,
the relay
= B k approximately.
effective current, IR
:.--:-..'
..c>
.*
. - , ........
.
..;..
. . . . . . . . . - . . .;,
applying' .thi~.1:6:.....1<.~....~~...r.
,.,-.-.
...........
(bl Currcnt
dcfinition
hapis-232-253
17/06/02
9:54
Page 2 4 8
'
:.
.'!
:
15.9.6, the
provision of auxiliary CT's as standard for ratio matching
also provides a ready means for introducing the check
feature duplication at the auxiliary CT's and onwards to
the relays. This may be an attractive compromise when
3nly one set of main CT's is available.
. ..
..,.
:
..
. L. . . .
. . ,. . ....
. .
. . .. ,
.. .
...
.. .
:'.
. ..
..
f,
,.
,
..~. .
1
. -.
I .
,.,.::.,
;;r,f:,
,I!:.,!:
g:.
~ , , : ,
..
.!!
range of CT mismatch.
188
..
,.
:., .,:,;;<.:;
- TYl"
p.:lEjU
. ,.\ior::,
..!
. ..
.! :;;i,
- 8 . .
. .. .~
,'
-A
...
N<lo.r&
Pr.~rrti..
A.I.r.1
..
&yL
-lntcrmodulc
5
:
i'*..
,:.
6..
......-........
::.;rc.int!;!r!
\.j,..
2.
...
..:
;I: figure
,&:.
'?
'
'-,.$;,.beakers
.
and the protection modules for a typical double
~ ~ % u s.b 8 r i n s t a l l a t i o nIn
. practice the modulesare mounted
@?nia,,multi-tier rack or cubicle:
i+._
'
'cI "
y',::
.r... .. . .
,
;4
Ill.
" ..
-..:
},
r .J
6p?
5. .;
+,,!'
F&,.;:
V.
;.&:
5.':"
. >
'
.,
::
_;
. .
. .
'
Out of scrvicc
'-3.1
!,.&!
!$$':
. .:
..
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I"
r
i.
,.
I
t.
. . . . .-..
. . .
. . .;::
. . .j <;: .. '. .:.,
'
.,
j.
.-;.
- ---
. . . . . . .. . .
,A?<..;.:-.:
Y-
,.>;:.;
ji::.
...
-r(:or;;r;ng o n i f
..
. ..
",
i -:
tji
.>;t
..
i,
9::?$:i :i;vu,::r::
5 .3
.
.
.:.
.
. . .
cheek zonc
Main zonc
!
i.
.,.
Me's
. , . .
...
....
.;I
.,
5,
i +vc
.-..a,-.-
. . . . . . .. . .
.,
.*'
....I
; 7..
..........;.......
,...,
..
n$
fat
.:I
13
,. r!
17/06/02
9:54
+I+
Page 2 5 1
Ccntral Unit
CU
... '
.-..
p;;:
;ig?.
*;> .
r.
:
-'.
. . . ., ..
. .
.,-..
.
c.
j
i
i
;
i
2,
a. protection
b. backup overcurrent protection
c. breaker failure
..
.
. . . . . . .
. .
;;,
.
.
;
--
.:.z
iP
:,
,:':,
:CbaplS-232-253
17/06/02
9:5i
Page 2 5 2
i6
,::-'
.:+
?
'..:
.
,
;
:
A
>;
b. numerical
schemes
include
sophisticated
monitoring features which provide alarm facilities
i f the scheme is faulty. In certain cases, siniularion
of the scheme functions can be (performed on line
f r o m the CT inputs through i o the tripping o ~ i p d t c
and thus scheme functions can be checked on a
regular basis t o ensure a f u l l operational mode is
available a t all times
Reliabil~tyanalyses using fault tree analysis methods
have examined issues o f dependability (e.q. the ability t o
operate when required) and security (e.g.-the ability n o t
t o provide spurious/indiscriminate operation). These
analyses have shown that:
high
-.
""
Motor Protection
lNTRODUCTlON
The following table indicates typicall protection depending on the size of the motor. However,
other factors should be considered when selecting motor protection, for example importance of
PROTECTION
Contactor
1. Fuses
2. Fuses + ' ~ h e r r n a l
Overload + U N
'I MW-3MW
overcurrent +
Page 1
b
'15
where T,,
ii
Thus T
K I ,: - ! 1 - e
'
.i
..
i:
..-.......(2)--
8.
>:
*-
t;.,
.
i',
i
L
equatim (1).
'
ij:
!. .
I-lcncc K I , , -
ii.
g.
s;.
Rr
,.,:;:.
or
t =
r.10~~
I-:
5.)
....:....
-..
ti'
>;.
C::,
1.
:.STARTISTALL
PROTECTION
t.
:A Direct-On-Line machine (DOL) will typically draw a starting current of approximately 6 times
\full load current for a period defined by the machines starting time. This is because the
:impedance of the machine is related to the slip frequency, which varies during start up; the
:impedance beirlg smaller at low speeds where the slip is larger.
With normal 3-phase supply, should a motor stall when running, or be unable to start due to
excessive load, it will draw a current equivalent to the locked rotor current. On the basis of
starting current being equal to locked rotor current it is not possible to distinguish between
3-phase stalling and healthy starting by monitoring the current alone.
In the majority of cases, the starting time of a normal induction motor is less than the maximum
stalling. time allowable to avoid excessive deterioration of the motor insulation.. Under this.
condition it is possible to discriminate on a tim.e basis between the two and provide' protection
against. stalling. In applications where the stalling time is less than the startingtime 'such' as
motors driving high inertia loads, it is more difficult to discriminate between a healthy start and a
stall condition. A separate stalling relay may be required depending on the type of overload
xotection relay used and the ratio of normal starting time to the allowable stall time.
The following conditions may be examined
lssume startrng current = stall current
ST
~ S L
1s
'
..
ii)
ST
In this case no stalling protection
is provided by the thermal
overload relay even though the
stall time is greater than the
starting time. A separate stalling
relay is required. If the difference
between tsL and t s ~
is adequate
to cater for relay errors a simple
single phase definite time overcurrent relay may be used.
,Thermal
'1 ----------------
:?,
. .,
Is current setting < locked rotor current hut > load current
ts time setting < t s ~but > t s ~
. . ..
....
overcurrent
..
starting
cilaracteristic
Motor
IS
OIC = overcurrent
TD = time delay
86 = trip relay
tsL > TD > tsT
- a a
'TRIP
.z<
-:L4
. ..
..i.
.:,5~
..*
:??
.,.
d.
.*
.~.
4
'3
;i
In this case a separate stalling relay in the form of a definite time over-current relay and a shaft
monitoring device are required. The latter is used to check the motor speed while the relay
measures the motor current. Instead of the overcurrent relay a simple definite time delay relay
may also be used as shown below :
Page 4
'<
.,2
j-e
..
*a
TD
-43-
! '
F.i!i!
TRIP
:.
TD < tSL
ii)
TD < tsL
OIC < stall current,
> load current
iii)
-0-OcFTRl P
TDI
TD2
OIC
-10-
TRIP
Page 5
>t s ~
<t s ~
< stall current
> load current
If tsL > tsT the same arrangement can be used in which case stalling protection is provided
during the starting period. This method provides additional advantage for motors with different
hot and cold stall times in that TD2 cah be set to less than hot stall time irrespective of cold stall :,
time.
'
TD1
'ST
(TD1 + TD2)
..
....-:,: ..,.
-...<<
.. .
. ..-.
;s,
.....
/_--
.L.
.
.l..j.
- - '5.
...7c
:.<-
I-S
S
R'2
-R'2
' ' .
With positive phase sequence voltages a rotating field will be set up and the rotor will rotate in
the direction of rotation of the filed giving a slip s and slip frequency sf. With negative phase
sequence voltages the field will rotate in the opposite direction cutting a rotating rotor conductor
at almost twice the frequency. The actual frequency of negative phase sequence voltage and
current in the rotor circuit is (2 - s)f. From the equivalent circuits:
Motor +ve sequence impedance at a given slip s
= [ ( R ~+ R ' ~ )
+ (XI + X',
)~j"
when s = 1 at standstill.
Page 6
(R, +
i
' 22
' 22
+ (x, +
l2
1
1"
The value of resistance is generally much less than the leakage reactance.
Therefore
j neglecting the resistance term the motor -ve phase sequence impedance at normal running
i.:
starting current
normal load current
If a motor has a starting current 6 x the full load current, the -ve sequence impedance would be
about 116'~of the +ve sequence impedance.
Therefore if 1 pu +ve sequence voltage applied to the motor would produce 1 pu of +ve
;.;..sequence current, the same 1 pu of -ve sequence voltage would produce 6 pu - ve sequence
!::.'current.
Consequently, if there is 5% -ve sequence voltage present in the supply it would result
.'
. .
:z:;in-an
.
approximate 30% of -ve sequence component of current.
I.--
~. ..
'The ac resistance of the rotor conductor to the induced -ve sequence current is greater than the
dc resistance due to the higher frequency [(Z-s)fl causing skin effect. The heating effect of -ve
sequence current is therefore greater and increases the motor losses. The machine output
must be reduced to avoid overheating.
Because of the reversed rotation of the magnetic field due to -ve sequence current, a small -ve
torque is also produced.
As mentioned previously one unit of -ve phase sequence current has a greater heating effect
than one unit of +ve phase sequence current, this unequal heating effect should be taken into
account in the design of a thermal characteristic based on:
I equivalent =
JF"17
Page 7
I.
..
..
.-. .. ..
. ... -_
-
..
.
.. .
i.e, Starting current with one phase open circuited = 0.866 x normal starting current.
Page 8
1
3
- (ItA +
a IaB
)
delta-connected winding motors the actual line starting current with one phase open circuit
:Ir. :
ii;. actual
I<..:
<f: -
i.
I.
V AS
,fi x z
VAB
Actual starting current = 21122
A-
--
!
;
t
Page 9
Heating increases considerably due to high rotor losses caused by the -ve s
current
ii)
Output of motor is reduced and depending on the load it could stall altogether.
-
iii)
. ..
...
..
.. .
. . .,
.+:
."
..:.;:$
..
I.
The disadvantage of the above methods is that in order for them to operate the motor must be:;
switched on, dpending on the inertia of the motor it may start to turn in the wrong direction.
this is unacceptable then a negative phase sequence voltage monitoring device can be used- *.
This device will monitor the phase rotation of the incoming supply to the motor and if interlocked.:
with the motor switching device will prevent closure onto a revese phase sequence supply. his':
,z
approach is also used when the motor can only draw very low load currents.
Page 70
-
A;
!for induction motor the torq;e
developed is approximately proportional to the square of the
Tapplied voltage. Low voltage level prevents motors from reaching rated speed on starting or
'may draw heavy current on losing speed. Some form of undervoltage protection is therefore
desirable with suitable time delay to disconnect the motors when severe low voltage conditions
tpersist for more than a few seconds. The time delay is required to prevent tripping on
' momentary voltage dips
I INSULATION FAILURE
.The majority of stator winding faults are the result of prolonged or cyclical overheating which
causes the insulation to deteriorate. Most faults are cleared by instantaneous earth fault
protection as the windings are generally surrounded by earthed metal. Sensitivity of the earth
fault relay is limited by the spill current from residually connected CTs during starting, usually
20%.
Most other faults are cleared by thermal or unbalance protection. Instantaneous overcurknt
units if fitted protect only against terminal flashovers and other heavy short circuits. This is
because of the high settings necessary to prevent maloperation on starting current surges. For
motors above say 1MW differential protection may be used to give high speed clearance of
phase and earth faults. This usually takes the form of high impedance differential or biased
differential. 6 current transformers are required with 2 per phase at the two ends of winding.
'
.:;,..-. . .
:'. .,.SELF
(r
.. .
I
41
fb
' ,
shown above
If conductors are placed reasonably bncentric w~thinthe window of the core balance current
W ~ t hthis low spill current and a
;
: transformers, spill current can be kept to a minimum.
.-.
~
1 ,
Page 11
reasonably indepenaence of CT ratio to full load a lower fault setting could be achieved than:.
conventional high impedance circulating current differential schemes.
Disadvantages :
.,;q
i)
the necessity of passing both ends of each phase winding through the CT and hence the
need for extra cabling on the neutral end.
ii)
to avoid long cabling position of CTs are restricted to the proximity of the machine output
terminals in which case the cable between the machine output terminals and controlling
.
switchgear might not be included within the differential zone.
.3
-I,
;. $
3~
-'q
:+F
'.
. .:.
.;i
-..
j:
.-r.
Where the motor is switched via a fused contactor, the interrupting capacity of the contactor ':,
must be taken into consideration. In general they will not be rated to break the maximum fault
current. In this case it is important to prevent the protection attempting to operate the contactor '%
above its maximum rating. This is usually achieved by disabling all instantaneous tripping .'.
3
elements and time co-ordinating with the associated fuije. This is illustrated in the following .?
,.
diagram:
::
T*
..a.
...
TIME
Ts .
MPR
I
I
I
I
ELEMENT
Ice
CURRENT
Page 12
anical Failure - results in increased friction, generating heatirig and eventually failure of
ii)
Sleeve Bearings
;''
.
13
1I
1
It is generally accepted that the bearing will need replacing following failure, however stall
protection will help niinimise damage to the motor itself. Unfortunately, in extreme cases
this .is not the case and distortion of the shaft may occur. One method used to prevent
this is direct temperature monitoring of the bearings using RTD's for example.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Out-Of-Step Protection
A synchronous motor decelerates and falls out of step when it is subjected to a mechanical
overload exceeding its maximum available output. It may also lose synchronism from a fall'in
field current or supply voltage. An out-of-step condition will subject the motor to undesirable
Overcurrent and pulsating torque leading to eventual stalling.
Two methods are available to detect out-of-step condition in a synchronous motor:
i)
Disadvantages :
a)
b)
This method makes use of the change of power facto that occurs when, the motor
poles. When the motor loses synchronism a heavy current at a very low power fac
drawn from the supply.
Av
-
r 1'
..."ti:
-
:.;$
., .
Stator current on
loss of synchronism
.:,+5
-.q
.;I<"
::+*
-.*
..
'-32
i*
..t
. -.;+
.-.!,<>
.,.,-:
'I
-8
*?:-
-."
...-.I
..
:?:
i)
ii)
..
.
Underpower - arranged to look into the machine; applicable when there is a possibility of
no load connected on loss of supply.
Reverse power - arranged'to look away from the machine; applicable where there is
always load connected.
Time delay is required to overcome momentary power reversal due to faults etc.
;3'
'::!I A
. ~
Page 14
A C Motor Protection
A. C. Motor Protection
.
.. , .. ,
..
!
. '>;: .
i
i::.<&>r,
.
gi;$p
. ...
. + .
...;:.j.,-2'
:;:A,,.-&
\
?;;.p:..:
,<...,-'":'
,.
.
. .
',
."
. .... .
.;.
,A<-
<
.-.'.
"'
- '
".'
'-
<-
Extcmal Faults
--
---
-. .
- -,
Unbalanced rupplics
Bcating failurcs
Undcrwltagcs
Winding faults
Overloads
Singlc phasing
--
In:crnal faults
!-
j
--.
T,,,,,, ( 1 - e-fk)
where:
i. undervoltage protection
T,,,,
j. loss-of-load protection
k. out-of-step protection
I. loss of supply protection
T=
--
_;
. u:
. ..?.. i.
.'
.
.
.-
.
. . ,.
... ..
. .
..... ..
.
-.
Q.
-.
3
rr
. 19 -
t x l o I [ (
lcq =
where
I2
,q=
,=
T0
[k2 - A
j 2 -7
_ ...;
&,.'
.>
.A
;
,>...'.
,:-.'-.
....
. ...:<c.&
:
;f i>,...
. *,
.~
JJ8
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.?
''
:... -,+,.:+.-,
.
I,
2nd
-..
.-..
.
.
7 - (I,?11)
Q
C
~i
( 1 - e-'I7
where:
4-
\ . , ~ . o r h
P r . ( r . t i o .
[,7*
,.,,(." ; . j ,
..
V A W I . - . , ; . ~
C i l r
:;
10:42
Page 339
-: 9,.{ START!ST,?[.L
....
,_. . ..
= heating time c o ~ i s t a ~ t t
knee
rjtarterA
E;
:m
f the
and
. . . >. .
CQ
. . . ..
.
. -
:.
\ .
,. . . . . . .
.
.
. . . .. ..
.....
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'<-+..
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:
'
:.
.:. iZ--:.
'
'-
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.... .
..
2;
U .- .L1
.,.
.....
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'i'
2..
.....
..
CL
.: .
1'-
.-
2
b
:. . .
.................
..
. .. .
....
.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .
. . . .
r;
. . .. . . .
......
DOL starting
current.
,:<ri.
. . .
.. .
. ..: . . ..
. ...
dd motor
fikt"
=. -
>R!lTCC-fO?;
c=
mechanical problems
h
\
19-
.......
......
...
...- ..
!..
:--...............
............
1: -... . . .. . . . . . . . .
..
. - ......
...
.........-..-..-..-
.-...
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.
..I, . . .
0.
I
10
- -..
thermal lhrcrhold
9.:' TI:,.?!,-,,!
--
<#..,.;I,,'.:
I,>
:.,,<;,,,:!: *
.:<
<.u.r;<.>
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-.
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-. . . . . . . ~ ~ . r . ~ r , .u. ~ . r . ~ a r i . r n G - i l *
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-351
20/06/02
10-42
Page 340
"(
i.
'-.?
<
:!
2;
':;
:;.,*
CB Closcd
. :S$
.:$
:;:
i$J
:$
'I
36
~t
..*a
...............
Timc
Currcnt
Spccd
Swctch
Information
Ot
Trip
31
Command
oi
rime
............
"
I-'
,..B
.A,<
I
....
:.&
'3,
Ce Closcd
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T;m.
.,.,,.
..
.-..qfi-
1
.. . -
o ---J
r--
oI.....
_
..,
Currcnt
Spccd
Switch
Information
Trip
Command
,i
1.
'
';
o'
.........
,>,a>, ,>,>*C
rcnms .
~i~~
--
Time
.:-.=a
.r .
p.?;
. . ....-L.,4
?Av,.
. .-.-,,
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~
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1
Currcnt (p.u.
.:.
. . i : . .
10
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..................................................
......
--- .....
......
............
I:
*:
!T.
. . .
S t a a lockout
i ;
> .
..............
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lime
3
9
:3
. ...;:,,?fit,,..
.
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:>:;:,:I. i ,!".:
Cha~ ~ 1 9 - 3 3 6 - 3 5 12 0 / 0 6 / 0 2
10:42
Page 3 4 2
,... :. . . .
I:!';
. . . .
;, , , . . :..
... E < - . . - . . z
....... ;"i
$:.
:g
,';$
r.7
Uosrrcam
.,1.1
Flow of
c"'i'"r
Downsrrcam
.r.-..
where:
.,,<,;+
5.B
,:G$
;::#
,.
L
Page 3 4 3
CT connection factor
L
1 for star p t at CT
m,
Cablc b o x .
Timc
. Furc
Cablc gland
: Contactor
brcaklng
: capacnty
8
, .,
I
C / f rclay
: Contaclor
:brcaking
iurc
...,,,,.:
;!I
. .; .....'.,
:!.......I
;,,:!.-.!.;,;,.~
r :';
' capacity
Current
\;
(b) Correct
:.
.-.
.
,
-
b.vai.in!cr.:ro:
I,:..
7;
. . .
. . .. .. ..
. ,..::
.I :. ,
,:.....
..
...
I%
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$
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. ,
Chap19-336-351
20/06/02
10:46
Page 344
.\.;:
.. .
.. .
..
I \
..'P
.+.
'i
.#
'I, I
I T
R
O g m e HV systems, high resistance earthing is used t o
&rt the earth fault current t o a f e w amps. I n this case,
S;c system capacitive charging current will normally
&vent conventional sensitive earth fault protection
&ng applied, as the magnitude of the charging current
ill be comparable w i t h the earth fault current i n the
of a fault. The solution is t o use a sensitive
ircctional earth fault relay. A core balance CT isused in
rnjunction w i t h a VT measuring the residual voltage of
he system, with a relay characteristic angle setting o f
45' [see Chapter 9 for details). The VT must be suitable
the relay and therefore the relay manufacturer should
:consulted over suitable types - some relays require
)at the VT must be able t o carry residual flux and this
lies out use-of a 3-limb. 3-phase VT. F,. setting o f 125%
f the single phase capacitive charging current for the
hole system is possible usins this method. The time
:lay used is not critical but must be fast enough to
sconnect equipment rapidly in the event o f a second
~ r t hfault occurring immediately after the first.
'inimal damage is caused by the first fault, b u t the
,cond effectively removes the current l i m i t i n g
sistance from the fault path leading to very large fault
!rrents.
1 alternative
...
NII-..~
Pr.rr<ri..
ff A . f . - . I i * n
csirt
dl.;:.
.-,
.
.... -.
--.
\
J4rr
... ;
I
'
Zi.2
'
.
'
.
.
. .
. .
..
'
I
.
.
.
. ,
.
. . . . . .- ..
. . :
. . .: . .
.. . .. . . . . . .
. . .
' 8
't
..
!L.,
., .,'4
.'i
. .., ,
...
, ' :,
..:;fia
rice, a t
j(X,
X;l
.'..
.
..
,..
rr:
A typical setting for negative sequence current
o
protection must take into account the fact that the
motor circuit protected by the relay may not be the f!:.:'
:..;
?ource of the negative 5equence current. Time s h ~ u \ d b e =% . :
allowed for the appropriate protection to clear -the
.: 1:
source of the negative sequence current without
;
introducing risk of overheating to the motor being
considered.
This indicates a two stage tripping
o
%
characteristic, similar i n principle t o overcurrent
<
protection. A low-set definite time-delay element can
be used to provide an alarm, with an IDMT element used
to trip the motor in the case of higher levels of negative
seq"ence current, such as loss-of-phase conditions at
start, occurring. Typical settings might be 20% o f CT
' 19 '
rated primary current for the definite time element and
50010 for the IDMT element. The IDMT time delay has to
be chosen to protect.the motor while, if possible, grading
negative sequence relays on the system.
s may not incorporate two ekments, i n which
ingle element should be set to protect the
motor, with grading being a secondary consideration.
-+.
y;::i,..:c.:.-..
rf f -SJSI I
:-
R;
.<
-'
j ( X , + X;/
K,+ R ;
R , + R;
. .
11
....
suffix
. . .
.. ....
...
,-
;. ...,.
starting current
rated current
,,.,.:. .,
: . . ; ;;\;
,,:j';..);:~?ib' :
':>:.'
. .,,,...
!. .
:
.
.:,;.>.:..; ..>*.,,, ::;,.
. ... .
?:.:
..
,
. ,. ,+..;~:-..;..{.;
.:
..
;<g';;::;:
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.. . . .. . . . .. . ..
h f ~ f - . r lP , . r r r r ; . .
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3 4 7
..
. . ~~..
....
. .
-1ap19-336-351
. ,.:c. ;...
. :.:.v.,,
....
<?,::~
.,....
-!
10:46
Page 348
"
20/06/02
"
.s,.ha
;.?*+\.V":
:br,kgat i m e delay o f approximately 3 0 milliseconds is
:;;.. +$:$.:&$.
-..,..++.z;
incorporated.
It should be noted that faults occurring i n
:
;.3:::*&:$
;
:. .c ~ ~
., y,~.~ : : .t hi e rotor windinq would n o t be detected b y any
:::<!;>;$e:::.:
.
.
d~fferentialprotection applied t o the stator.
;$;:?*;!@*->
.
;**:..?&$
..........
>+:..5:.:
<.
:::
:.:@s.~:..........
.:. ..,....
e:::~.
A\.. ',!
.:.:.*>:,:
>
>
,,
factors in mind.
.I
.-
;.-:-:
+:;: .
- .
_
.I
.......
maloperation.
.;
,
.. ,, \. l- ! ; ,
;<;{\.j'5,;
. . . . . ... . . .
. .......
. . . .
.-.r::Z..
.-I.
,.......<,
..... . .
;x:....
..-
-., .
-.,...
..
.
...
a9,'.;'
$7~.
r:.:,: :
a:
sections.
- 1 %
p2;.;
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F?:
,-,r,
z.%r
.......
>:
?'
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........
.
....
t\;;i;.;;.;
'
6-351
20/06/02
:C:46
Page 3 4 9
A low forward power relay can detect this condition. SeeSection 19.12 for details. A time delay will be required
to prevent operation during system transients leading t o
momentary reverse power flow i n the motor.
..
!.I
<
Ratcd Voltagc
Ratcd frequency
Ratcd powcr
Slaning cumnt
CI ratio
4.
start tirncal-
,.
,-c
2017s
312
250/1
.
.
4s
1
.
5=
-< ..
..0
.--
.
;
.55s .
.. .. .. ..
.
5505 DOL
. . . . . .
;.,&"tro,.(j,.&
WHz
0.9lO.92
~ltagc
1.
factorlcficicncy
33kV
=.-:.
.i
,..
. .,
..: .>::. . .
. . . . . .Solid.
;! . .:<y:: .- 0
.
j.;-.:.: ,.~ii~ltBrcak&...'
...
." -1 . :..
. .% . .
<
.q.
--.
-
Iorder
The current setting IT" is set equal to the motor full load
current, as it is a CMR rated motor. Motor full load
current can be calculated as 211A, therefore (in
secondary quantities):
-19.
@;$i$zi&;;.,
..
... . . . . ..,.'..
?.:?,;i.
A><'
r,= 3 x r ,
. . . .- . :..:.:
. . . . .:..
......
'
<
:.
47..,.
condition at starting.
19.1.I..? Ptotcctioti of
2O0I0
;at;
S! r ~ i ~ , t < j :
/02
Page351
10:46
where
\I
Contactor
250
(a1 LV motor cxamplc data
setting
M r l o a d tirnc dclay
&niaIaIK:c
2:Unbalance
timc dclay
4.4
15
12
20
'XI
I2>t
25
P~xlimcdcla~..;..
.....5!> ..........
:.
b. .
%b;cr3.3: ;L:!.<c:arpn!r<f
. . .
Ib
I>t
..
--
:ion
"
1
I
'3
1:
..
Ib
IlIllp
N,ru.rl
.
..............
P,.rrrri..
3 A.r.r.1i.m
-- .
C.iJr
7
..........
fcd cxamplc
l b l Rclay settings
w!;r;g
c,.oc;,?i
- contactor
. . . . . . . . . . .
\-\
1
..
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................................
....
....- . - . . . . . . . . .
....................................
..................
. . . ..
....................... .
....................................
.
..__
......
..............................
. . . . . . .
. . .. .. . .. ..........
.. .... ...... .. ..;:-.. . . . ........
....-...
..
--
............................
.......
-
.
.
I
4
.-
I//,
[b] Rclay trip c h a r a c l c ~ ~ ~ t i c
..
-:?.,
....
.::' .
.:
.
..
&*?
,..
Motor Details :
r,
by.
..-
M ~ t o Rating
r
iri KW
.-
Rated Voltage in KV
Motor Application
Others
,:I:
- ' '
CB
230 Amps
CT Ratio
300/1 A
DOL
1 380
1104
Moto~'
Starting time in seconds ( 100 % Voltage )
Available
1380
20
30
Cold Characteristics
4000
750
Hot Characteristics
2700
500
X 4.0
X 5.0
X Stalling current
85
48
30
57
30
20
Calculations
Thermal Overload Protection:
The operating time for the thermal overload characteristic available in the
relay is as follows :
t = T x In { ( PSM2)/( PSM2- 1 )
''
.
......
. .
. .
.
.
Calculation for the time constant at overload levels ( leq > 2) times the
pic k-up current
At 2 time rated current the relay curve is adiabatic.
:,
.::.
. - ;. 3
.. . . .,>:.I:
..., ,..
..
I. :
-I:.,
.c9q
Motor Protection sewrn
. ..
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.. -
<:;.+g
...
;..-
. -. ,
..:@
..:__
r,:
_ I
.d3
:;iQ
i
; i.2
.....
j:.?
Based on the above setting, the hot curve based on the Hot to Cold R ~ I
.. .$
setting can be calculated as follows.
For Hot curve
. - -.
. . ..-,-54
. ... ..?>3
..7.
. .,-;<
.-e
:.?.+
..
4
,
;
;
I.
59,
pmparing the above values with the hot withstand characteristic of the
&tor, we find that the safety margin between relay curve and the motor
h e is clearly more than 30 %.
$>L
available )
-3%
.<+3
:-,q
.<A-.:
.2.F:,
-.
&
;.
.-
1 380 Amps
Maximum ~ o t o starting
r
current
at lower voltage of say 80%
1 104 Amps
3.76
Time Setting will determine after how much time with this current will the
relay detect it as a prolonged start. This requires the value of the
maximum starting time, which is applicable, when the motor starts with
low voltage.
Is, = 8 + 4 seconds ( margin) = 12 seconds
GALSTOM
Limited, Energy Automation & Information
..
of start limita.lions
!&' Number of Cold starts per hour Set = 3 as motor is rated for 4 starts per
hour
Number of Hot starts per hour Set = 1 as motor is rated for 2 starts per hour
This setting can be changed
depending on how frequently we use the
Phase Sequence Startinq
d
i..i
1380 Ar;ips
1 104 Amps
3.76
0.78
Set 1st- = 3.76
Time Setting will determine after how much time with this current will the
relay detect it as a prolonged start. This requires the value of the
maximum starting time, which is applicable, when the motor starts with
low voltage.
1st = 8 + 4 seconds ( margin) = 12 seconds
g;?
.. . .
f .:
g.
..
i Number of Cold starts per hour Set = 3 as motor i s rated for 4 starts per
;hour
,I: Number of Hot starts per hour Set = 1 as motor is rated for 2 starts per hour
''
F
1'
.%t'ui:
Ne~ativePhase Sequence:
The negative phase sequence protection has to be graded with the NPS
withstand levels of the motor. In absence of this, it is recommended to
provide current setting equal to rated current.
Set current setting
1 .oo
..:
.,
...
.:
...
.. ...
.
q:
.. . .
. .
. .
:1
'
1 .oo
Current setting
0.1-x230 x 1 x 1000
300
=
76.67
Set lo = 80mA
Time delay setting may be set to instantaneous which will be 0.1 sec (
100mA ) . This is an intentional delay and is used to prevent inrush currents,
which last for couple of cycles from operating the e/f element during
-.
-.
1 -00
:-A
.:.g
.,.<,./>f'
.<..
..:-"$
;
:>&<
,,\
,,$!
.4b,
* .I.$
:.a>
.:x.
.'Y%
.':.A
,
c.
,!,.jn.*
I
This means that if the negative sequence settings reaches rated current,
the relay will operate instantaneously.
-
$
!
:.$
.&:
..?.
.:.,
,"..,i
..
- -
\_
1
'The earth fault setling shall be based on the standing leakage currents
and the method of system earthing. If the system is resistance earthed,
CBCT may be required and the required primary operating current may
be studied based on system study.
c-
Current setting
Set lo = 80mA
Time delay setting may be set to instantaneous which will be 0.1 sec (
100mA ) . This is an intentional delay and is used t o prevent inrush currents,
which last for couple of cycles from operating the e/f element during
starting.
Notes 1 C T S
!g
'-';Current h n s f o r m e r s are among the most commonly used items of electrical apparatus and yet,
"~surprisingly,there seems to be a general lack of even the most elementary knowledge
-2*.
$'concerning their characteristics, performance and limitations among those engineers who are
$,continually using them. The importance of current transformers in the transmission and
:&distribution of electrical energy cannot be over emphasised because it is upon the efficiency of
+<.
Ecurrent transformers, and the associated voltage transformers, th& the accurst=: metering and
" effective protection of those distribution circuits and plant depend.
-
Current and voltage transformers insulate the secondary (relay, instrument and meter) circuits
from primary (power) circuit and provide quantities in the secondary which are proportional to
those in the primary. The role of a current transformer in protective relaying is not as readily
defined as that for metering and instrumentation. Whereas the essential role of a measuring
transformer is to deliver from its secondary winding a quantity accurately representative of that
which is applied to the primary side, a protective transformer varies in its role according to the
type of protective gear it serves.
. Failure of a protective system to perform its function correctly is often due to incorrect selection
of the associated current transformer. Hence, current and voltage transformers must be
regarded as constituting part of the protective system and carefully matched with the relays to
fulfil the esseqtial requirements of the protection system.
There are two basic groups of current transformer, the requirements of which are often radically
different. It is true in some cases the same transformer may serve both purposes but in modern
practice this is the exception rather than the rule:
1. Measurement CT's - The measuring current transformer is required to retain a specified
accuracy over the normal range of load currents.
2. Protection CT's - The protective current transformer must be capable of providing an
adequate output over a wide range of fault conditions, from a fraction of full load to many
times full load.
Therefore they generally have different characteristics.
'
EUROPEAN
8RI-rISH
AMERICAN
CANADIAN
AUSTRALIAN
'
IEC 185.1987
IEC 44-6:1992
IEC 186.1987
BS 7625
BS 7626
BS 7628
BS 3938:1973
BS 3941 :1975 ANSI C51.13.1978
CSA CAN3-C13-M83
AS 1675-1986
CTs
CTs
vrs
vrs
CTs
CT+VT
CTs
vrs
CTs and VTs
CTs and VTs
CTs
Page 1
-.
.
..
Please note that the above are the applicable standards at the ti,me of print of this document an'
therefore they may vary.
:*
.?.s.
. ....:...
+,;c
. .
A current transformer consists essentially of an iron core with two windings. One winding is
connected in the circuit whose current is to be measured and is called the primary and the other
winding is connected to burden, and called the secondary. Two of the most basic construction of
current transformers are the bar type and wound type:
1. Bar Type - Sometimes referred to as 'Bushing Type'. Such current transformers normally
have a single concentrically placed primary conductor, sometimes permanently built into the.
CT and provided with the necessary primary insulation, but very often the bushing of a circuit
breaker or power transformer. At low primary current ratings it may be difficult to obtain
~ufficientoutput at the desired accuracy because a large core section is needed to provide
enough flux to induce the secondary emf in the small number of turns.
'
PRIMARY
DARY
2. Wound Type -With this device it is possible to change the number of primary turns, thus
increasing the CT output voltage with altering the turns ratio. Therefore, for the same output
the wound CT is smaller in CSA than the bar type.
Page 2
3w current in the primary winding produces an alternating flux in the core and this flux
2s an e.m.f. in the secondary winding which results in the flow of secondary current when
~ndingis connected to an external closed circuit. -The magnetic effect of the secondary
~ t in
, accordance with fundamental principles, is in opposition to that of the primary and the
of the secondary current automatically adjusts itself to such a value, that the resultant
2tic effect of the primary and secondary currents, produces a flux required to induce the
necessary to drive the secondary current through the impedance of the secondary. In an
ransformer, the primary ampere-turns are always exactly equal to the secondary ampereand the secondary current is, therefore, always proportional to the primary current. In an
current transformer, however, this is never the case. All core materials, so far discovered,
e a certain number of ampere-turns to induce the magnetic flux required to induce the
sary voltage.
lost accurate current transformer is one in which the exciting ampere-turns are least in
rtion to the secondary ampere-turns. Exciting ampere-turns may be reduced in three
~ l ways:
e
By improving the quality of the magnetic material
Cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel (C.R.O.S.S.) has a magnetisation characteristic
with a knee point at 1.6 tesla.
. ,, ,
.4!
, .
,.
....I
Nickel steel (Proprietary name Mumetal) has a knee point of 0.7 tesla.
:! . . .
,
..
:,t.,
,I
.C
'
..a
.,
..I
.
:!
. 2.
:
."; Q:.
./
>,
:7:;
.<
:?.;&A
:I. $'.&
8
,:.L .g+\;
:,; ,b#
': >;:g ;.
. . ,.
(,!b!,I$t
:!'.
;,
.,
;!$;pb
:.'.:,;:,$,!)i
!, 2 .y
p,,: :,
Page 3
.
,
i,;::
,r:r:.a.>L.
'!
.$
.;*
-'a
.....
...,.
Protective relays are designed to operate from secondary quantities supplied from current
transformers and from voltage (or potential) transformers. The secondary output of these
devices is the information used by the relays to determine the conditions existing in the plan
>
being protected. It is necessary, therefore, that the secondary output of current and voltage
?
present a true picture to the relays of the conditions in the primary circuit during faults as well as -,.
during normal loads. Or, alternatively, that their performance be known under extreme
conditions so that any error in reproduction in the secondary circuit can be partially or completely
compensated for in the setting and characteristics of the relay.
In many applications, core saturation will .almost inevitably occur during the transient phase of a
heavy short circuit. The performance of the associated instrument transformers during faults is,
therefore, an important consideration in providing an effective relaying scheme. The relays and
their associated current transformers must be considered as a unit in determining the overall
performance of the protective scheme. Consequently, the characteristic of the current and
potential transformers at high currents and low voltage respectively, must be known. In any
current transformer the first consideration is the highest secondary winding voltage possible prior
to core saturation. This may be calculated from :
Ek = 4.44 x B A f N volts
Where :
Ek = secondary induced volts (rms value, known as the knee-point
voltage)
N = number of secondary turns
f
= system frequency in hertz
A = net core cross-sectional area in square meters.
This induced voltage causes the maximum current to flow through the external burden whilst still
maintaining a virtually sinusoidal secondary current. Any higher value of primary current
demanding further increase in secondary current would, due to core saturation, tend to produce
a distorted secondary current.
The relevant circuit voltage required is typically :
Equation 1
Where :
Is
ZB
ZS
ZL
In any given case, several of these quantities are known or can usually be estimated in order to
predict the performance of the transformers. From the ac magnetisation characteristic,
commonly plotted in secondary volts versus exciting current, Es can be determined for a
minimum exciting current. The equation for the relevant circuit voltage given above then
indicates whether the voltage required is adequate.
Page 4
--
at a bar primary type 200015A (CROSS core) current transformer having a core csa
square cm's is available with a secondary resistance of 0.31 ohm. The maximum
to which the transformer must maintain its current ratio is 40,000 amperes. It is
k:required
to
determine the maximum secondary burden permissible if core saturation is to be
P'
Assume that the current transformer core will start to saturate at 1.6 tesla.
)
P
r From the data given :
N =
f
= 50 H z .
= 284 volts
Maximum burden permissible (including ct secondary resistance and lead burden) is equal to
= 2 84 ohms
284 / 100
Consequently, the connected burden including that of the p~lotscan be as high as 2.84 - 0.31 = 2
-53 ohms for negligible saturation in the core. Thus it mav be seen that the secondary burden
and the maximum available fault current are two important criteria in determining the
performance of a given current transformer.
A current transformer may operate satisfactorily :
a)
b)
..
'The primary current contains two components. These are respectively the secondary current
which is transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns ratio and an exciting current, which supplies
the eddy and hysteresis losses and magnetises the core. This latter current flows in the primary
winding only and therefore, is the cause of the transformer errors. It is, therefore, not sufficient to
assume a value of secondary current and to work backwards to determine the value of primary
current by invoking the constant ampere-turns rule, since this approach does not take into
account the exciting current. From this observation it may be concluded that certain values of
secondary current could never be produced whatever the value of primary current and this is of
course, the case when the core saturates and a disproportionate amount of primary current is
required to magnetise the core.
, ,;.
- ..C<,
The amount of exciting current drawn by a current transformer depends upon the core m
and the amount of flux which must be developed in the core to satisfy the burden require
the current transformer. The appropriate current may be obtained directly from the exciting
characteristic of the transformer since the secondary e.m.f. and therefore the flux develope
proportional to the product of secondary current and burden impedance.
-
The general shape of the exciting characteristic for a typicai yrade of CRZSS (cold rol!e
orientated silicon steel) is shown. The characteristic is divided into three regions, define
'ankle-point' and the 'knee-point'. The w o r k i ~ grange of a protective current transformer e
over the full range between the 'ankle-point' and the 'knee-point' and beyond, while a mea
current transformer usually only operates in the region of the 'ankle-point'. The difference in
working ranges between metering and protective current transformers stems from the radical
difference in their functions. Metering current transformers work over the range 10% to 1
load and it is even an advantage if the current transformer saturates for currents above this
range in order to provide thermal protection for the instruments. Protection current trans
on the other hand are required t o operate correctly at many times-rated current-.
:
;
@
&&1x..
.@$
,$X
-;z':
,, . ; + i
.-;+?
;
A
.:
g
(+
.gg
.-.
'
.::yzc
**.
..c::
. ,.
.,!...
(>
,' .
...A
.-:<.I.'
b'
.:
::.
!,
Page 6
equation, the flux density 6 is in teslas and the core cross-sectional area is in squar
e exciting current le in amps can be obtained from the M'MF using the relationship:
le = Ki x
MMF
3'
g.
rf
i
I?:;.
$.!
L
Ki = - where L is in metres
I1
g...
! EXAMPLE
' Consider the case of a current transformer
: burden at minimum tap setting of 1O0/0 of rated current is given as 2 VA. Calculate the required
' values of Kv and Ki to provide the necessary output up to 10 times the plug setting, with :
1
ii)
i)
L
-- -
.-
= 4 volts
0.5
=
Therefore, 40 volts must correspond to the knee-point of the saturation curve which
represents a flux density of 1.6 tesla.
With a bar primary, secondary number of turns = 20
Assuming :
I.D.
=
O.D. =
Depth =
18 cms
30 cms
10.2 cms
Wound Primary CT
..
--. . -
l o o = 100
econdary turns = 5 x 5
49 = 4-44 x 53
m - le. csa
1 1.26
-= 12.24 cm'
0.92
18 cm
30 cm
2.04 cm
2 6 x 100
= 25
45
= 0.754 c m 1 turn
Page 9
EQLIIVALENT CIRCUIT
The errors of a current transformer may be considered as due to the whole of the primary current :&
not being transformed, a component thereof being required to excite the core. Alternatively, we .. '2
may consider that the whole of the primary current is transformed without loss, but that the
,,,,;(:
.-..~
secondary current is shunted by a parallel circuit the impedance of which is such that the
...
..2...
equivalent of the exciting current flows there in. The circuit shown is the equivalent circuit of the ':1
current transformer.. The primary current is assumed to be transformed perfectly, with no ratio or
phase single error, to a current Ip/N which is often called 'the primary current referred to the
secondary'. A part of the curre'nt may be considered consumed in exciting the core and .this
current leis called the secondary excitation current. The remainder Is is atrue secondary
current. It will be evident that the excitation current is a function of the secondary excitatbn
voltage Es and the secondary excitation impedance Ze. It will also be evident that the secondary
current is a function of Es and the total impedance in the secondary circuit. This total impedance
consists of the effective resistance (and any leakage reactance) of the secondary winding and
the impedance of the burden.
.I!"
.?..
SATW RATION
Beyond the knee-point the current transformer is said to enter saturation. In this region the major
part of the primary current is utilised to maintain the core flux and since the shunt admittance is
not linear, both the exciting and secondary currents depart from a sine wave. For example, in
the case of a wholly resistive burden, correct transformation takes place until saturation flux
density is reached. The secondary volts and current then collapse instantly to zero, where they
Page 10
TRODUCTION
110 = R
jX = Zi (cos 0 + jsin 0) =
i B 1 and Z2 = iZ2!
JZ1l1Z21 LO, +(I2 and
z1
=--
22
= I-
Ijz2
i1
1
Z
l ejO
L O 1 -(I2
OPERATORS
a2 = 1 L240
a2 + a
1= 0
Current I flowing in direction shown produces a voltage drop in Z such that A is positive with
respect to B.
!
\,
. - ..
Page 1
3
This is particularly useful when analysing large systems with several voltage levels. Before any j?s
system calculations can take place the system parameters must all be referred to common Q4+
base quantities. The base quantities are fixed on one part of the system and base quantities .-$
on other parts at different voltages will depend
on the ratio of intervening power transformers.
-1
The base quantities used are :,.<.::yr<*
Base voltage
kVb
2
:w
A
.
Base MVA
.,>!
,:.;@$,
5 .-
MVAb
..
-$
.r
..
-5
.,.>'
.v
Base current
Ib F
Zb
~,
(kVb)' in ohms.
MVAb
in M.
MVAb
J3.kvS
Per unit values are obtained by dividing actual values b y base values as follows :-
Actual im~edance
Base impedance
Z,
MVA
kVa
--
MVA,
-
la
-
11,
Percentage values are commonly used for transformer impedances and where per unit values
are very small. Percentage values are 100 times the equivalent per unit values.
Page 2
..
- ,
.
.r;y$
:%
.:.:
L+
EXAMPLE 1
Base kVb = 3 1
Base MVA
?,
= kv;
132
= 50
= 2.42~
MVA b
50
Z2.u 3 n
0.3 x - = 0.75,,
common base
20
0.1 p u
p..
g.;
g.
k:ti.
p
$
.*.
Zp.u.2
zp.u,lx
i
2
MVAbl
MVAb2
(kvb2)*
-
Page 3
The base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the same ratio as the voltage ratio
of the transformer.
C)!STR!BCITIS:4
SYSTEM
OVERHEAD
LINE
11.8 kV
132 kV
I 1 kV
132 kV
I 1 kV
141-
>.
iornative
Selection of kVh 11.8 kV
,,,-...- Correction
-.
141 kV
141x11 =11.75kV
EXAMPLE 3
...
..
'.;
The per [,]nitimpedance of a transformer is the same on each side of the transforni e r
Consider a transformer with voltage ratio kVllkV2.
1:
i
MVA
zp.u 1
z a ~
Zp.u.2 -
Zbl
za2
= Zal
MVA
kv12
- Za2 X MVA
kv2
zb2
kv2
kv1
:.
Zp,u,2
Za1 x
MVA
= Z
L:
kV12
Page 5
CIRCUIT LAWS
i)
Ohms Law
ii)
'r
'
i.e. 1, + I2 + l3 = 0
13
' -
iii)
El = il Z1 + il Z3
Page 6
- i2
Z3
CIRCUIT THEOREMS
These are derived from the circuit laws. The three most commonly used for system analysis
are Thevenins, Star/Delta Transform and Superposition Theorems.
i)
Thevenins Theorem
This is useful for replacing part of a network which is noi of pan~cularinterest.
Any active network viewed from any 2 terminals can be replaced by a s~ngledrivirlg
voltage in series with a s~ngleimpedance where :Driving voltage
Impedance
Example :
Where E' =
L3.4
L3
E, and Z' = ---
z3
ii)
z1
z3
z1
Page 7
212 =
z10
iii)
220
z10.z20
+
z30
z12.z31
ZI2+
+ Z31
Superposition Theorem
In any linear network the current in any b r a ~ c h
du
different driving voltages is equal to the vector sum
voltage acting alone with the others short circuited.
Example :
l3 =
z1
1
131
+ 13?
..,..
..,: ...-:
Page 8
INTRODUCTION
.
In a balanced three-phase system, each of the three phases of any part of the system will have
currents and voltages which are equal and 120 displaced with respect to each other. To
maintain balanced operation, each Item of system plant must be symmetrical: i.e. have identical
impedances In each line, equal mutual impedances between phases and ground, and equal
Vb = Vbl
+ Vb2 + Vb3
+ ... +
Vbn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
Vn = Vnl
Where
Val , Vbl , etc. are phasors of the first set of balanced n-phase
system. Phasors are single spaced. .
Va2 , Vb2 , etc. are phasors of the second set of balanced n-phase
system. Phasors are double spaced.
Page 9
And so on.
First set of
aalanced Phasors
Second set of
Balanced Phasors
Fourth set of
Balanced Phasors
Fifth set of
Zero Sequence Phasors
vc1
Positive
Sequence
v,. .
v t>
I
fi
Negative
Sequence
vc2
Zero
Sequence
. ..:$7
. .,
1
. , ,..
. T,.:
.,
..
Multiply equation 2 by u2 and equation 3 by a and add the resulting equations to equation
[VP = [A]
PSI
....................
Example
Resolve the following 3-phase unbalanced voltages into their symmetrical components.
Fig. 1
Symmetrical
Components
t;:
..
Fig. 2
/ .
?
Take a set of symmetrical three phase impedances (equally spaced, fully transposed, etc.)
carrying unbalanced phase currents L a , Ib and I,.
Z,
.
I
Page 15
[:
I
where
2:a
I; [i i; [i ;*I
;2
Z1 = Z, - Z,
Therefore, if the system is. symmetrical in its normal state the symmetrical co~~?poiaent
impedance becomes diagonal (equation 11) and, therefore, isolated sequence networks are .
obtained with impedances Z1, Z2 and Zo. These three networks will become interconnected
when an unbalance such as a fault or unbalanced loading is introduced. The manner of
interconnection will depend on the new constraints: i.e. the additional system connect~or~s.
Page 16
r
F
$
For static networks i.e. non-rotating plants, the positive and negative sequence Impedances are
the same. These are the leakage impedance of the transformers and the normal phase
impedance of the transmission circuits.
Zero sequence impedance of overhead line and cable circuits is determined by the return path
of the zero sequence currents through earth, earth wires or cable sheaths. The zero sequence
impedance is generally' greater than the positive and negative sequence impedance, being
usually of the order of two to three times the positive sequence value in the case of overhead
lines.
For transformers, if zero sequence currents have an available path and can flow, they will again
see the leakage reactance in each phase. If no path exists, an open circuit must be shown for
the particular windings in the zero sequence network. The flow of zero sequence current in any
winding is possible only if other windings provide a path for the flow of balancing zero sequence
currents.
,-
1.
-.
. .
.....
J .
.. ....-
ZL*
> .
...
Zm
zLp=
In the zero sequence network, although the leakage impedance is identical to the positive
sequence value (when zero sequence path is available) the zero sequence rnagnetising
impedance is dependent upon the transformer core construction and can be much lower. In
three-phase banks of single phase transformers and in three-phase shell cored transformers,
the zero sequence magnetising impedance is ,large and can be ,ignored as in the positive and
negative sequence networks. In three-limb core type transformers, however, the zero sequence
flux must be completed through the oil or tank. Owing to the high reluctance of the flux path,
zero sequence magnetising impedance is of the order of only 100% to 400%. However, this is
still high enough to be neglected in most fault studies, particularly when a delta winding Is
present.
Page 17
Therefore, consider zero sequence circuit of transformer as a series impedance Zt. The mode
of connection of Z, to the external circuit is determined by taking account of each winding
arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground.
-
Imaginary links 'a' and 'b' (see Figure 4) are used to derive the connections. If zero sequence
currents can flow into and out of a winding, for example a solidly earthed star winding, the
winding terminal is connected to the external circuit, that is link 'a' is closed.
'a'
'a'
Fig. 4
,!:
k
d'
..ti:.
If zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding without flowing in the external circuit, for
example a delta winding, the winding terminal is directly connected to the zero bus, that is link
'b' is closed.
..
'
!i .
il:
b
Example 1
..:
'a'
'a'
Page 18
.*.
..iL
...
-.;
At the neutral point the zero sequence currents I0 in the three phases combine to give 310 in the
neutral earthing impedance. The zero sequence voltage at the neutral point is given by
.
.
vo =
3I0Zn
zo = vo = 32"
.. .
.. .
. . ..
-.
.
lo
Example 2
Transformer Connections
'a'
'a'
Page 19
3R
.
.
.
.
The positive sequence impedance of synchronous machines is the normal machine reactan
There are three defined values of positive sequence impedances, namely the synchron
transient and subtransient impedances and they are used according to whether steady st
transient or initial short-circuit values of current are required.
&
Unlike the non-rotating networks, the negative sequence impedance of the rotating plants is
equal to the positive sequence impedance. It relates to mmf at synchronous speed travelli
the opposite direction to the rotor. Its value is usually less than that of the positive sequ
impedance.
, <.,.,~<
..
.~..
.,
. .....
..
,'.;!&
In the zero sequence network, the winding connection and earthing arrangement must be
considered as for transformers. Any earthing impedance will be seen by each phase and
therefore the correct voltages will be obtained if three times the impedance value is included in
the zero sequence network.
'$$$
.;$@
. .,?.
:,.;3j?
.,;:
Y%
. %.
. s.
.,/?;.,T?.
..
",:,e"'
;,
G.
--
,:a?%!
.....;,.:.4::
1.0 p.u.
0.15 p.u.
0.10 p.u.
0.13 p.u.
0.04 p.u.
=
-
.:.>
,,
>.+<;-, .%:.
. ..
.+....<.
. . .:. .,&xS!
,*-
"
. .
For anygiven fault there a% six quantities'to be mnsidered at the.fault point; Vat Vb, V,,
I,, It,, lc. If any three are known(provided they are not all voltagesor all currents) or.if
any two are known and two others known to have a specific relationship, then a
relationship between V1,Vp and Vo and 11, 12 and 10 can be established.
. :;T.><.>.
Z&,
'>.c:~
.. <. 6.
. ~ . >. -
. .
(a)
.".
.., .,
",:$:<'
.'.,?'
.,
~
y!j$
.:,:.:<:.
:.:$&$
..,:-,
":r
.,.
. . .
..
~.!j~$v.,,
i
:2-%
...-.
.;:!
..,?
. . ,.
t
.
'
f
.
.. .'...:.
..
- ...?
From the circuit constraints we can determine the manner in which the isolated sequence
networks can be interconnected.
,: . ..
,...
.%.
.
,. . .
...
(b)
The relationships are derived with phase 'a' as the reference phase and the faults are
selected to be balanced relative to the reference phase. This yields the simplest
interconnection of the sequence networks. If this is not done the interconnections of the
sequence networks require additional transformations which are achieved by the
introduction of phase shifting transformers. This will be apparent in the case of
simultaneous faults where it is not possible for both the faults to be symmetrical about the
reference phase.
:.,?"
.$$:
*
;:,
...$
,.:(,
..:?
:.
..
..:;yfi
.:$
Page 20
:: :)
..?
i t Faults
F;
ine-to-ground faults, line-to-line faults, line-to-line to ground faults and three phase faul'ts all
,fall into the category of shunt faults.
/(a)
\:
i,
I
, (b)
Figure 6 shows a system with a fault at F. The positive, negative and zero sequence
networks of the system are shown in Figure 7. The fault terminals for the positive
sequence network are F1 and N1, and the corresponding fault terminels for the negative
and zero sequence networks are F2, N2 and Fo, No respectively. It is at these terminals
that the interconnection of the networks will occur. In the denvation of sequence network
interconnections, it is convenient to show the sequence networks as blocks with fault
terminals F and N for external connections (F~gure8)
To derive the system constraints at the fault terminals, it IS convenient to imagine three
short conductors of zero impedance connected to the three line conductors at the point of
fault (F~gure9). The terminal conditions imposed by the different types of faults will be
applied to these imaginary leads, t h e potential to ground of which will be V, Vb and V,
and the currents ,I I b and I,. .,
Fig. 9
--
PF
6 ~ ,
.
Pos~tiveSequence Network of System
@ Sequence & k k
of System
Sequence
Network
Sequence
Network
etwork Blocks
Page 22
v,
v,
v*
vo
But Va = 0
.'.
v, + v 2 + v o = o---------------------
But
:.
10
= 1/3(la+
lb
= Ic= 0
l b +
1,)
.-
10 = 113 ,1
L
= 113 (I,
lb +
= 113 1,
Equations 3 & 4 are the CIRCUIT CONSTRAINTS. They suggest that the sequence netwo
are connected in series. -
Sequence
Network
Network
Network
Page 23
:.
I0 = 113 ,I
since lb = 1,
= 0
Similarly,
:. 11 = 12 = 10 = 113 1,
We know
But V,
+ve
Sequence
Network
11
F1
A
N1
-ve
12
F2
Network
F4
Zero
Sequence
Network
lo
Fo
No
Page 24
.....................
Similarly,
2
= 1/3(a-a)
2
= -113 ( a - a )
Ib
Ib
.....................
:. I1 + 12 = 0
- Vb)
+ a Vb + a ~ i =
) 113 (V,
- Vb)
From equations 5, 6 & 8, the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel but the
zero sequence network is unconnected.
Sequence
Network
Sequence
Network
Sequence
Network
No
Line to Line Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C' through Fault Impedance ZF
Page 25
At point of fault,
I, = 0
Ib +
lc = 0
Vb - Vc = IbZf
:. 10
11 =
2
.2
113 (I, + a l b + a 1,) = 113 (a - a ) lb
2
1 2 = 113(1, + a
:.
= 0
Ib +
al,)
= -1/3(a-a)lb
.....................
I0 = 0
I1 +
I2 = 0
2
We know Ib = 10 + a I l + u12 )
--------------------- 5
Substituting equation 4 in 5
Vb = VO +
V,=
aLvl +
aV2
2
Vo + rxVl + cr V2
... V b - V C =
(a2 - a ) V 1
- (a2 - a ) V 2
.....................
Sequence
Network
Sequence
Network
I
Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C'
Page 26
Network
At fault point :,
vb
vc = 0
I, = 0
V2 = 113 (V,
+ a Vb + UV,)
= 113 V,
From equation 3 & 4, it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected in parallel.
11
-C-OFl
+ve
Sequence
Network
-ve
Sequence
Network
O N 1 -
12
w
F
ON
-FO
Zero
Sequence
Network
Line to Line to Ground Fault on Phases 'B' and 'C' through Fault Impedance Z,
At fault point :,
Page 27
QNO
V1 = 113 (V,
v2 =
+ aVb +
113(~, +
2. .
a vc)
a2vb+
+ (a + a)Vbl = II~(v,-
aVc) = II~[V,
.....................
.'. v1 = v2
Vo
Substitute equation 4 in 6
vo - v1 =
31ozf
+ve
-L
11
-FI
-ve
Sequence
Network
Network
N1
I2
-- l o
~2
Zero
sequence
Network
~2
ON
/
Page 28
-
Fo
L.
3Zf
1.
Figure 1 shows a system with an open circuit PQ. The positive, negative and zero
sequence networks of the open-circuited system are shown in Figure 2. Unlike the
case of shunt faults, the fault terminals for interconnection are P and Q, therefore
not I nvolving the neutral. The sequence equivalent network blocks (Figure 3) will
have terminals P and Q for interconnection. Terminal N is also indicated in the
blocks although it is not used for interconnections.
(b)
The terminal conditions imposed by different open circuit faults will be applied
across points P and Q on the three line conductors (see Figure 4). Therefore the
fault terminal currents will be IA, IB and Ic flowing from P to Q on the three
conductors, and the terminal potentials will be the potential across P and Q, i.e. V,
- V,',Vb - Vbl, Vc - V;
Figure 4
Page 29
vb and vc respectively.