Chapter 02

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.
Gonzalez & Woods

www.ImageProcessingPlace.com
Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals
Element of Visual Perception

Structure of the human eye (~20 mm)
3 membranes ():
Sclera () Choroid ()
Retina()
2 chambers ():
Anterior chamber()
Posterior chamber ()
Six Ciliary, body, fiber and muscle (
)
Control the lens and protect the
human eye (
)
19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

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Receiver of Retina ()
Cone ( ): 6~7 million
Photopic vision, Bright-light vision
Rod ( ): 75~150 million :
Scotopic vision, Dim-light vision

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Lens shape controlled by the tension of ciliary fiber

Focal length: 17 mm ~ 14mm

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Range of light intensity that human
can adapt
1010
Transition from scotopic to photopic
vision is gradual
From 0.001 to 0.1 millilambert
(-3 to -1 in log)
Vision system cannot operate over
such a range simultaneously
Brightness adaptation level: current
sensitivity level of the visual system

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Uniformly illuminated background, occupying entire field of view.

Add a short duration of flash I.
I c: the increment of illumination discriminable 50% of the time
with background illumination I.
I c/ I : Weber ratio

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Rod vision (photopic vision): Weber ration larger
brightness discrimination poor
Cone vision (scotopic vision): Weber ration smaller

brightness discrimination better

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Human Vision Phenomenon: Mach Band
The visual system tends to undershoot

or overshoot around the boundary of
regions of different intensities.
Ernst Mach first described
the phenomenon in 1865.

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Human Vision Phenomenon: Simultaneous Contrast

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Human Vision Phenomenon: Optical Illusion

A few lines are sufficient to
give the illusion of a circle.
The outline of a square

is seen clearly.

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Light and EM Spectrum
v
E hv

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Visible band: 0.43 um (violet)~0.79 um (red)
Achromatic or monochromatic light

Gray level, intensity
Radiance (watts): total energy from light source
Luminance (lumens): energy that an observer perceives
Brightness : subjective descriptor of light perception
hard to measure
Ex. The light emitted from a source operating in the far infrared region of
the spectrum could have significant energy, but an observer would
hardly perceived it.

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Image sensing and acquisition

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Image acquisition using a single sensor

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Image acquisition using sensor strips
1. OA: scanner.
2. Airborne: the imaging system is
mounted on an aircraft that flies at a
constant speed over the geographical
area to be imaged.

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A simple image formation model
f(x, y) = i(x, y) r(x, y)
i(x, y) : the amount of illumination incident on the scene
r(x, y) : the reflectivity function (or transmissivity function)
0 f
x, y
0 i
x, y
0 r
x, y
1

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Image Sampling and Quantization

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Sampling and Quantization with a Sensing Array

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Representing Digital Images

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0,0
f
0,1
f
f
1,0
f
1,1
f
x, y

M 1,0 f
M 1,1
f
f
0, N 1
f
1, N 1
f
M 1, N 1
a0, 0
a
1, 0
A
aM 1,0
a0,1
a1,1
aM 1,1
a0, N 1
a1, N 1
aM 1, N 1

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Lmin ,
Lmax
Dynamic range/ Image contrast
Lmin
Lmax

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Image Size
The number of gray levels: L = 2k
The number of bits required to store a digitalized image:
b= M*N*k
When M=N:
b = N2 * k

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Spatial and Gray-Level Resolution

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Spatial and Gray-Level Resolution

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Zoom in to show the effect of subsampling
Blocking effect

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False contouring

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Detail increased

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Isopreference curves tend to become more vertical in the

Nk-plane as the detail in the image increases.
For images with a large amount of detail only a few gray
levels may be needed.

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Aliasing and Moire Pattern

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A moir pattern formed by incorrectly downsampling

the image left.

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Zooming and Shrinking Digital Images

Zooming: oversampling
Need interpolation
Superresolution
Shrinking: undersampling
Better to apply LPF (blurring of digital image) before
subssampling to avoid aliasing
Need interpolation for non-interger factor

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Image Interpolation
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation

Bilinear Interpolation
Bicubic Interpolation
etc
Application
Image Scaling/Resize
Image Rotation
Image Warping
Image Morphing
etc
Image Morphing

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Nearest-neighbor
Interpolation
Bilinear
Interpolation

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Neighbors of a pixel
A pixel p at coordinate (x, y)
N4(p): 4-neighbors of p
(x+1, y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x, y-1)
ND(p): 4 diagonal neighbors of p

(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)
N8(p): N4(p) together with ND(p)

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Adjacency
Let V be the set of gray-level values used to define adjacency
4- adjacency
Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4- adjacency if q is in the
set N4(p).
8- adjacency
Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8- adjacency if q is in the
set N8(p).
m- adjacency (mixed adjacency)

Two pixels p and q with values from V are m- adjacency if
(i) q is in N4(p), or
(ii) q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p) N4(q) has no pixels whose values
are from V.

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m- adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency

V={1}
Multiple 8-adjacency
ambiguous
Ambiguity is removed by
m-adjacency

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Connectivity
A digital path from pixel p(x, y) to pixel q(s, t)
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), ,(xn, yn)
(x0, y0)= (x, y), (xn, yn)=(s, t)
(xi, yi) and (xi+1, yi+1) are adjacent
n is the length of the path
If (x0, y0)= (xn, yn), the path is a closed path.
S: a subset of pixels in an image
Two pixels p and q are said to be connected in S if there exists a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels in S.
The set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a connected
component of S.
If it is only one connected component, then S is called a connected set.

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Regions and Boundaries

R: subset of pixels in an image
We call R a region of image if R is a connected set. Two pixels p and
Boundary of R:
The set of pixels have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
Edge
: intensity discontinuities (
local concept
)
Boundary : closed paths (
global concept
)

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Distance Measures
For pixels p, q, and z, with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), and (v, w)
D is a distance function or metric if
(a) D(p, q) 0
(b) D(p, q)= D(q, p), and
(c) D(p, z)D(p, q)+ D(q, z)
Euclidean distance between p and q:
De
p, q
x s
y t
2 1/ 2

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D4 distance between p and q:
D4
p, q
x s y t
2
1
2
2
1
0
1
2
2
1
2
D8 distance between p and q:
D8
p, q
max
x s , y t
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
0
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2

Gonzalez & Woods
Linear and Nonlinear Operations

Let H be an operator whose input and output are images.
H is said to be a linear operator if
H
af bg aH
f bH
g
Where f, g are two images, a and b are two scalars

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Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Gonzalez & Woods

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Element of Visual Perception

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Lens shape controlled by the tension of ciliary fiber

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Uniformly illuminated background, occupying entire field of view.

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Cone vision (scotopic vision): Weber ration smaller

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Human Vision Phenomenon: Mach Band

The visual system tends to undershoot

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Human Vision Phenomenon: Simultaneous Contrast

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Human Vision Phenomenon: Optical Illusion

The outline of a square

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Light and EM Spectrum

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Visible band: 0.43 um (violet)~0.79 um (red)

Achromatic or monochromatic light

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Image sensing and acquisition

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Image acquisition using a single sensor

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Image acquisition using sensor strips

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals

Image Sampling and Quantization

19922008 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

Digital Image Processing, 3rd ed.

Chapter 2 Digital Image Fundamentals