Introduction

Preparing Buffer Solutions

Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.

Origin of the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

References
Contributors
When it comes to buffer solution one of the most common equation is the Henderson-Hasselbalch approximation. An
important point that must be made about this equation is it's useful only if stoichiometric or initial concentration can be
substituted into the equation for equilibrium concentrations.

Origin of the Henderson-Hasselbalch

Equation
Where the Henderson-Hasselbalch approximation comes from

HA+H2OH3O++A(1)
where,

A is the conjugate base

HA is the weak acid
We know that Ka is equal to the products over the reactants and, by definition, H O is essentially a pure liquid that we
2

consider to be equal to one.

Ka=[H3O+][A](2)
Take the log of both sides:

logKa=log([H3O+][A])(3)
logKa=log[H3O+]log[A](4)
Using the following two relationships:

log[Ka]=pKa(5)
log[H3O+]=pH(6)

We can simplify the above equation:

pKa=pHlog[A](7)
If we add log[A] to both sides, we get the Henderson-Hasselbalch approximation:

pH=pKa+log[A](8)
This approximation is only valid when:
1.
2.

The conjugate base / acid falls between the values of 0.1 and 10
The molarity of the buffers exceeds the value of the Ka by a factor of at least 100

Example 1
Suppose we needed to make a buffer solution with a pH of 2.11. In the first case, we would try and find a weak acid
with a pKa value of 2.11. However, at the same time the molarities of the acid and the its salt must be equal to one
another. This will cause the two molarities to cancel; leaving the log[A] equal to log(1) which is zero.

pH=pKa+log[A]=2.11+log(1)=2.11
This is a very unlikely scenario, however, and you won't often find yourself with Case #1

Example 2
What mass of NaC7H5O2 must be dissolved in 0.200 L of 0.30 M HC7H5O2 to produce a solution with pH = 4.78?
(Assume solution volume is constant at 0.200L)
SOLUTION

HC7H5O2+H20H3O++C7H5O2
Ka=6.3105
Ka=[H3O+][C7H5O2][HC7H5O2]=6.3105
[H3O+]=10pH=104.78=16.6106M[HC7H5O2]=0.30M[C7H5O2]=
[C7H5O2]=Ka[HC7H5O2][H3O+]
1.14M=6.31050.3016.6106
Mass = 0.200 L x 1.14 mol C7H5O2- / 1L x 1mol NaC7H5O2 / 1 mol C7H5O2- x 144 g NaC7H5O2 / 1 mol NaC7H5O2 = 32.832
g NaC7H5O2

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Acids_and_Bases/Buffers/Preparing_
Buffer_Solutions

Preparing Buffer Solutions

HPLC A Basic Knowledge of Analysis
The pH of the mobile phase (eluent) is adjusted to improve component separation and to extend the
column life. This pH adjustment should involve not simply dripping in an acid or alkali but using buffer
solutions, as much as possible. Good separation reproducibility (stability) may not be achieved if
buffer solutions are not used.

A buffer solution is prepared as a combination of weak acids and their salts (sodium salts, etc.) or of
weak alkalis and their salts. Common preparation methods include: 1) dripping an acid (or alkali) into
an aqueous solution of a salt while measuring the pH with a pH meter and 2) making an aqueous
solution of acid with the same concentration as the salt and mixing while measuring the pH with a pH
meter. However, if the buffer solution is used as an HPLC mobile phase, even small errors in pH can
lead to problems with separation reproducibility. Therefore, it is important to diligently inspect and
calibrate any pH meter that is used. This page introduces a method that does not rely on a pH meter.
The method involves weighing theoretically calculated fixed quantities of a salt and acid (or alkali) as
shown in the table below. Consider the important points below.

Denoting Buffer Solutions

A buffer solution denoted, "100 mM phosphoric acid (sodium) buffer solution pH = 2.1," for example,
contains phosphoric acid as the acid, sodium as the counterion, 100 mM total concentration of the
phosphoric acid group, and a guaranteed buffer solution pH of 2.1.

Maximum Buffer Action Close to the Acid (or Alkali) pKa

When an acetic acid (sodium) buffer solution is prepared from 1:1 acetic acid and sodium acetate, for
example, the buffer solution pH is approximately 4.7 (near the acetic acid pKa), and this is where the
maximum buffer action can be obtained.

Buffer Capacity Increases as Concentration Increases

The buffer capacity of an acetic acid (sodium) buffer solution is larger at 100 mM concentration than
at 10 mM, for example. However, precipitation occurs more readily at higher concentrations.

Beware of Salt Solubility and Precipitation

The salt solubility depends on the type of salt, such as potassium salt or sodium salt. Salts precipitate
out more readily when an organic solvent is mixed in.

In addition, avoid using buffer solutions based on organic acids (carboxylic acid) as much as possible
for highly sensitive analysis at short UV wavelengths. Consider the various analytical conditions and
use an appropriate buffer solution, such as an organic acid with a hydroxyl group at the position
(see Supplement) to restrict the effects of metal impurity ions. (J.Ma,Y.Eg)

http://www.shimadzu.com/an/hplc/support/lib/lctalk/38/38lab.html

A buffer is a solution of weak acid and

conjugate base or weak base and conjugate
acid used to resist pH change with added
solute.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Describe the properties of a buffer solution.

KEY POINTS

Buffer solutions are resistant to pH change because of the presence of

an equilibrium between the acid (HA) and its conjugate base (A-).
When some strong acid is added to a buffer, the equilibrium is shifted to the
left, and the hydrogen ionconcentration increases by less than expected for the amount of
strong acid added.
Buffer solutions are necessary in biology for keeping the correct pH for proteins
to work.
Buffers can be prepared in multiple ways by creating a solution of an acid and its
conjugate base.

TERMS

aqueous

Consisting mostly of water.

equilibrium
The state of a reaction in which the rates of the forward (reactant to product) and
reverse (product to reactant) reactions are the same.

pKa
A quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution; a weak acid has a pKa
value in the approximate range 2 to 12 in water and a strong acid has a pKa value of
less than about 2.
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FULL TEXT

Buffers
A buffer is an aqueous solution containing a weak acid and its conjugate
base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. A buffer's pH changes very
little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. It is used to
prevent any change in the pH of a solution, regardless of solute. Buffer
solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a
wide variety of chemical applications. For example, blood in the human body
is a buffer solution.
Buffer solutions are resistant to pH change because of the presence of an
equilibrium between the acid (HA) and its conjugate base (A -). The balanced
equation for this reaction is:
HA H+ + A

When some strong acid (more H+) is added to an equilibrium mixture of the
weak acid and its conjugate base, the equilibrium is shifted to the left, in
accordance with Le Chatelier's principle. This causes the hydrogen ion (H +)
concentration to increase by less than the amount expected for the quantity of
strong acid added. Similarly, if astrong base is added to the mixture, the
hydrogen ion concentration decreases by less than the amount expected for
the quantity of base added. This is because the reaction shifts to the right to
accommodate for the loss of H+ in the reaction with the base.
Buffer solutions are necessary in a wide range of applications. In biology, they
are necessary for keeping the correct pH for proteins to work; if the pH moves
outside of a narrow range, the proteins stop working and can fall apart. A
buffer of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3) is needed in
blood plasma to maintain a pH between 7.35 and 7.45. Industrially, buffer
solutions are used in fermentation processes and in setting the correct
conditions for dyes used in coloring fabrics.

Preparing a Buffer Solution

There are a couple of ways to prepare a buffer solution of a specific pH. In the
first method, prepare a solution with an acid and its conjugate base by
dissolving the acid form of the buffer in about 60% of the volume of water
required to obtain the final solution volume. Then, measure the pH of the

solution using a pH probe. The pH can be adjusted up to the desired value

using a strong base like NaOH. If the buffer is made with a base and its
conjugate acid, the pH can be adjusted using a strong acid like HCl. Once the
pH is correct, dilute the solution to the final desired volume.

pH probe
The probe can be inserted into a solution to measure the pH (reading 8.61 in this example). Probes
need to be regularly calibrated with solutions of known pH to be accurate.

Alternatively, you can prepare solutions of both the acid form and base form of
the solution. Both solutions must contain the same buffer concentration as the
concentration of the buffer in the final solution. To get the final buffer, add
one solution to the other while monitoring the pH.
In a third method, you can determine the exact amount of acid and conjugate
base needed to make a buffer of a certain pH, using the HendersonHasselbach equation:
pH=pKa +log([A-]/ [HA])
where pH is the concentration of [H+], pKa is the acid dissociation constant,
and [A-] and [HA] are concentrations of the conjugate base and starting acid.

https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistrytextbook/acid-base-equilibria-16/buffer-solutions-117/preparing-a-buffer-solutionwith-a-specific-ph-474-7261/

Questions
1a

THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

This page describes the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis
theories of acids and bases, and explains the relationships
between them. It also explains the concept of a conjugate pair - an
acid and its conjugate base, or a base and its conjugate acid.
Note: Current UK A' level syllabuses concentrate on the BronstedLowry theory, but you should also be aware of Lewis acids and bases.
The Arrhenius theory is of historical interest only, and you are unlikely
to need it unless you are doing some work on the development of
ideas in chemistry.

The Arrhenius Theory of acids and bases

The theory

Acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions in

solution.

Bases are substances which produce hydroxide ions in

solution.

Neutralization happens because hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions

react to produce water.

Limitations of the theory

Hydrochloric acid is neutralised by both sodium hydroxide solution
and ammonia solution. In both cases, you get a colourless solution
which you can crystallise to get a white salt - either sodium chloride
or ammonium chloride.
These are clearly very similar reactions. The full equations are:

In the sodium hydroxide case, hydrogen ions from the acid are
reacting with hydroxide ions from the sodium hydroxide - in line with
the Arrhenius theory.
However, in the ammonia case, there don't appear to be any
hydroxide ions!
You can get around this by saying that the ammonia reacts with the
water it is dissolved in to produce ammonium ions and hydroxide
ions:

This is a reversible reaction, and in a typical dilute ammonia

solution, about 99% of the ammonia remains as ammonia
molecules. Nevertheless, there are hydroxide ions there, and we
can squeeze this into the Arrhenius theory.
However, this same reaction also happens between ammonia gas
and hydrogen chloride gas.

In this case, there aren't any hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions in

solution - because there isn't any solution. The Arrhenius theory

wouldn't count this as an acid-base reaction, despite the fact that it

is producing the same product as when the two substances were in
solution. That's silly!

The Bronsted-Lowry Theory of acids and bases

The theory

An acid is a proton (hydrogen ion) donor.

A base is a proton (hydrogen ion) acceptor.

The relationship between the Bronsted-Lowry theory and the

Arrhenius theory
The Bronsted-Lowry theory doesn't go against the Arrhenius theory
in any way - it just adds to it.
Hydroxide ions are still bases because they accept hydrogen ions
from acids and form water.
An acid produces hydrogen ions in solution because it reacts with
the water molecules by giving a proton to them.
When hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to produce
hydrochloric acid, the hydrogen chloride molecule gives a proton (a
hydrogen ion) to a water molecule. A co-ordinate (dative covalent)
bond is formed between one of the lone pairs on the oxygen and
the hydrogen from the HCl. Hydroxonium ions, H3O+, are produced.

Note: If you aren't sure about co-ordinate bonding you should follow
this link. Co-ordinate bonds will be mentioned several times over the
course of the rest of this page.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this page.

When an acid in solution reacts with a base, what is actually

functioning as the acid is the hydroxonium ion. For example, a
proton is transferred from a hydroxonium ion to a hydroxide ion to
make water.

Showing the electrons, but leaving out the inner ones:

It is important to realise that whenever you talk about hydrogen

ions in solution, H+(aq), what you are actually talking about are
hydroxonium ions.
The hydrogen chloride / ammonia problem
This is no longer a problem using the Bronsted-Lowry theory.
Whether you are talking about the reaction in solution or in the gas
state, ammonia is a base because it accepts a proton (a hydrogen
ion). The hydrogen becomes attached to the lone pair on the
nitrogen of the ammonia via a co-ordinate bond.

If it is in solution, the ammonia accepts a proton from a

hydroxonium ion:

If the reaction is happening in the gas state, the ammonia accepts

a proton directly from the hydrogen chloride:

Either way, the ammonia acts as a base by accepting a hydrogen

ion from an acid.

Conjugate pairs
When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, almost 100% of it
reacts with the water to produce hydroxonium ions and chloride
ions. Hydrogen chloride is a strong acid, and we tend to write this
as a one-way reaction:

Note: I am deliberately missing state symbols off this and the next
equation in order to concentrate on the bits that matter.
You will find more about strong and weak acids on another page in this
section.

In fact, the reaction between HCl and water is reversible, but only to
a very minor extent. In order to generalise, consider an acid HA,
and think of the reaction as being reversible.

Thinking about the forward reaction:

The HA is an acid because it is donating a proton (hydrogen

ion) to the water.

The water is a base because it is accepting a proton from

the HA.

But there is also a back reaction between the hydroxonium ion and
the A- ion:

The H3O+ is an acid because it is donating a proton

(hydrogen ion) to the A- ion.

The A- ion is a base because it is accepting a proton from

the H3O+.

The reversible reaction contains two acids and two bases. We think
of them in pairs, called conjugate pairs.

When the acid, HA, loses a proton it forms a base, A-. When the
base, A-, accepts a proton back again, it obviously refoms the acid,
HA. These two are a conjugate pair.
Members of a conjugate pair differ from each other by the presence
or absence of the transferable hydrogen ion.
If you are thinking about HA as the acid, then A - is its conjugate

base.
If you are thinking about A- as the base, then HA is its conjugate
acid.
The water and the hydroxonium ion are also a conjugate pair.
Thinking of the water as a base, the hydroxonium ion is its
conjugate acid because it has the extra hydrogen ion which it can
give away again.
Thinking about the hydroxonium ion as an acid, then water is its
conjugate base. The water can accept a hydrogen ion back again
to reform the hydroxonium ion.
A second example of conjugate pairs
This is the reaction between ammonia and water that we looked at
earlier:

Think first about the forward reaction. Ammonia is a base because

it is accepting hydrogen ions from the water. The ammonium ion is
its conjugate acid - it can release that hydrogen ion again to reform
the ammonia.
The water is acting as an acid, and its conjugate base is the
hydroxide ion. The hydroxide ion can accept a hydrogen ion to
reform the water.
Looking at it from the other side, the ammonium ion is an acid, and
ammonia is its conjugate base. The hydroxide ion is a base and
water is its conjugate acid.

Amphoteric substances
You may possibly have noticed (although probably not!) that in one
of the last two examples, water was acting as a base, whereas in
the other one it was acting as an acid.
A substance which can act as either an acid or a base is described
as being amphoteric.

Note: You might also come across the term amphiprotic in this
context. The two words are related and easily confused.
An amphiprotic substance is one which can both donate hydrogen ions
(protons) and also accept them. Water is a good example of such a
compound. The water acts as both an acid (donating hydrogen ions)
and as a base (by accepting them). The "protic" part of the word refers
to the hydrogen ions (protons) either being donated or accepted. Other
examples of amphiprotic compounds are amino acids, and ions like
HSO4- (which can lose a hydrogen ion to form sulphate ions or accept
one to form sulphuric acid).
But as well as being amphiprotic, these compounds are
alsoamphoteric. Amphoteric means that they have reactions as both
acids and bases. So what is the difference between the two terms?
All amphiprotic substances are also amphoteric - but the reverse isn't
true. There are amphoteric substances which don't either donate or
accept hydrogen ions when they act as acids or bases. There is a
whole new definition of acid-base behaviour that you are just about to
meet (the Lewis theory) which doesn't necessarily involve hydrogen
ions at all.
A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor; a Lewis base is an electron
pair donor (see below).
Some metal oxides (like aluminium oxide) are amphoteric - they react
both as acids and bases. For example, they react as bases because
the oxide ions accept hydrogen ions to make water. That's not a

problem as far as the definition of amphiprotic is concerned - but the

reaction as an acid is. The aluminium oxide doesn't contain any
hydrogen ions to donate! But aluminium oxide reacts with bases like
sodium hydroxide solution to form complex aluminate ions.
You can think of lone pairs on hydroxide ions as forming dative
covalent (coordinate) bonds with empty orbitals in the aluminium ions.
The aluminium ions are accepting lone pairs (acting as a Lewis acid).
So aluminium oxide can act as both an acid and a base - and so is
amphoteric. But it isn'tamphiprotic because both of the acid reaction
and the base reaction don't involve hydrogen ions.
I have gone through 40-odd years of teaching (in the lab, and via
books and the internet) without once using the term amphiprotic! I
simply don't see the point of it. The term amphoteric takes in all the
cases of substances functioning as both acids and bases without
exception. The term amphiprotic can only be used where both of these
functions involve transference of hydrogen ions - in other words, it can
only be used if you are limited to talking about the Bronsted-Lowry
theory. Personally, I would stick to the older, more useful, term
"amphoteric" unless your syllabus demands that you use the word
"amphiprotic".

The Lewis Theory of acids and bases

This theory extends well beyond the things you normally think of as
acids and bases.
The theory

An acid is an electron pair acceptor.

A base is an electron pair donor.

The relationship between the Lewis theory and the BronstedLowry theory

Lewis bases
It is easiest to see the relationship by looking at exactly what
Bronsted-Lowry bases do when they accept hydrogen ions. Three
Bronsted-Lowry bases we've looked at are hydroxide ions,
ammonia and water, and they are typical of all the rest.

The Bronsted-Lowry theory says that they are acting as bases

because they are combining with hydrogen ions. The reason they
are combining with hydrogen ions is that they have lone pairs of
electrons - which is what the Lewis theory says. The two are
entirely consistent.
So how does this extend the concept of a base? At the moment it
doesn't - it just looks at it from a different angle.

But what about other similar reactions of ammonia or water, for

example? On the Lewis theory, any reaction in which the ammonia
or water used their lone pairs of electrons to form a co-ordinate
bond would be counted as them acting as a base.
Here is a reaction which you will find talked about on the page
dealing with co-ordinate bonding. Ammonia reacts with BF 3 by
using its lone pair to form a co-ordinate bond with the empty orbital
on the boron.

As far as the ammonia is concerned, it is behaving exactly the

same as when it reacts with a hydrogen ion - it is using its lone pair
to form a co-ordinate bond. If you are going to describe it as a base
in one case, it makes sense to describe it as one in the other case
as well.
Note: If you haven't already read the page about co-ordinate
bonding you should do so now. You will find an important example of
water acting as a Lewis base as well as this example - although the
term Lewis base isn't used on that page.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this page.

Lewis acids
Lewis acids are electron pair acceptors. In the above example, the

BF3 is acting as the Lewis acid by accepting the nitrogen's lone

pair. On the Bronsted-Lowry theory, the BF 3 has nothing remotely
acidic about it.
This is an extension of the term acid well beyond any common use.
What about more obviously acid-base reactions - like, for example,
the reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas?

What exactly is accepting the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen.

Textbooks often write this as if the ammonia is donating its lone
pair to a hydrogen ion - a simple proton with no electrons around it.
That is misleading! You don't usually get free hydrogen ions in
chemical systems. They are so reactive that they are always
attached to something else. There aren't any uncombined hydrogen
ions in HCl.
There isn't an empty orbital anywhere on the HCl which can accept
a pair of electrons. Why, then, is the HCl a Lewis acid?
Chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen, and that means
that the hydrogen chloride will be a polar molecule. The electrons in
the hydrogen-chlorine bond will be attracted towards the chlorine
end, leaving the hydrogen slightly positive and the chlorine slightly
negative.

Note: If you aren't sure about electronegativity and bond polarity it

might be useful to follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this page.

The lone pair on the nitrogen of an ammonia molecule is attracted

to the slightly positive hydrogen atom in the HCl. As it approaches
it, the electrons in the hydrogen-chlorine bond are repelled still
further towards the chlorine.
Eventually, a co-ordinate bond is formed between the nitrogen and
the hydrogen, and the chlorine breaks away as a chloride ion.
This is best shown using the "curly arrow" notation commonly used
in organic reaction mechanisms.

Note: If you aren't happy about the use of curly arrows to show
movements of electron pairs, you should follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this page.

The whole HCl molecule is acting as a Lewis acid. It is accepting a

pair of electrons from the ammonia, and in the process it breaks
up. Lewis acids don't necessarily have to have an existing empty
orbital.

A final comment on Lewis acids and bases

If you are a UK A' level student, you might occasionally come
across the terms Lewis acid and Lewis base in textbooks or other
sources. All you need to remember is:

A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor.

A Lewis base is an electron pair donor.

Note: Remember this by thinking of ammonia acting as a base. Most
people at this level are familiar with the reactive lone pair on the
nitrogen accepting hydrogen ions. Ammonia is basic because of its
lone pair. That means that bases must have lone pairs to donate.
Acids are the opposite.

For all general purposes, stick with the Bronsted-Lowry

theory.
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseeqia/theories.html

Brnsted Concept of Acids and

Bases
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Brnsted-Lowery Definition
Acids are Proton Donors and Bases are Proton Acceptors
Questions
Answers
Outside Links
Sources
Contributors
In 1923, chemists Johannes Brnsted and Martin Lowry independently developed definitions of acids and bases
based on compounds abilities to either donate or accept protons (H+ ions). Here, acids are defined as being able to
donate protons in the form of hydrogen ions; whereas bases are defined as being able to accept protons. This took
the Arrhenius definition one step further as water is no longer required to be present in the solution for acid and base
reactions to occur.

Brnsted-Lowery Definition
J.N. Brnsted and T.M. Lowry independently developed the theory of proton donors and proton acceptors in acidbase reactions, coincidentally in the same region and during the same year. The Arrhenius theory where acids and
bases are defined by whether the molecule contains hydrogen and hydroxide ion is too limiting. The main effect of the

Brnsted-Lowry definition is to identify the proton (H+) transfer occurring in the acid-base reaction. This is best
illustrated in the following equation:

HA+ZA+HZ+
Acid

Base

Donates hydrogen ions

Accepts hydrogen ions.

HCl+

HOH

H3O+ + Cl-

HOH+

NH3

NH4+ + OH-

The determination of a substance as a Brnsted-Lowery acid or base can only be done by observing the reaction. In
the case of the HOH it is a base in the first case and an acid in the second case.

To determine whether a substance is an acid or a base, count the hydrogens on each substance before and after the
reaction. If the number of hydrogens has decreased that substance is the acid (donates hydrogen ions). If the number
of hydrogens has increased that substance is the base (accepts hydrogen ions). These definitions are normally
applied to the reactants on the left. If the reaction is viewed in reverse a new acid and base can be identified. The
substances on the right side of the equation are called conjugate acid and conjugate base compared to those on the
left. Also note that the original acid turns in the conjugate base after the reaction is over.

Acids are Proton Donors and Bases are

Proton Acceptors

For a reaction to be in equilibrium a transfer of electrons needs to occur. The acid will give an electron away and the
base will receive the electron. Acids and Bases that work together in this fashion are called a conjugate pair made up
of conjugate acids and conjugate bases.

HA+ZA+HZ+
A stands for an Acidic compound and Z stands for a Basic compound

A Donates H to form HZ+.

Z Accepts H from A which forms HZ+
A- becomes conjugate base of HA and in the reverse reaction it accepts a H from HZ to recreate HA in order

to remain in equilibrium
HZ+ becomes a conjugate acid of Z and in the reverse reaction it donates a H to A - recreating Z in order to
remain in equilibrium

Questions
1.
2.

Why is HA an Acid?
Why is Z a Base?

3.
4.
5.

How can A- be a base when HA was and Acid?

How can HZ+ be an acid when Z used to be a Base?
Now that we understand the concept, let's look at an an example with actual compounds!

HCl+H2OH3O++Cl

HCL is the acid because it is donating a proton to H2O

H2O is the base because H2O is accepting a proton from HCL
H3O+ is the conjugate acid because it is donating an acid to CL turn into it's conjugate acid H2O
Cl is the conjugate base because it accepts an H from H3O to return to it's conjugate acid HCl

How can H2O be a base? I thought it was neutral?

Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It has a proton that can be transferred

It receives a proton from HA
A- is a conjugate base because it is in need of a H in order to remain in equilibrium and return to HA
HZ+ is a conjugate acid because it needs to donate or give away its proton in order to return to it's previous
state of Z
In the Brnsted-Lowry Theory what makes a compound an element or a base is whether or not it donates or
accepts protons. If the H2O was in a different problem and was instead donating an H rather than accepting an H it
would be an acid!

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Acids_and_Bases/Acid/Bronsted_Co
ncept_of_Acids_and_Bases

1b

Expressing Concentrations of Solutions

A complete description of a solution states what the solute is and how much solute is
dissolved in a given amount of solvent or solution. The quantitative relationship
between solute and solvent is the concentration of the solution. This concentration
may be expressed using several different methods, as discussed next.
A. Concentration by Mass
The concentration of a solution may be given as the mass of solute in a given amount
of solution, as in the following statements: The northern part of the Pacific Ocean
contains 35.9 g salt in each 1000 g seawater. The North Atlantic Ocean has a higher
salt concentration, 37.9 g salt/1000 g seawater.
B. Concentration by Percent
The concentration of a solution is often expressed as percent concentration by mass or
percent by volume of solute in solution. Percent by mass is calculated from the mass
of solute in a given mass of solution. A 5%-by-mass aqueous solution of sodium
chloride contains 5 g sodium chloride and 95 g water in each 100 g solution.

Percent by mass

mass of solute
mass of solution

Example:
How many grams of glucose and of water are in 500 g of a 5.3% bymass glucose solution

Solution

X 100%

We know that 5.3% of the solution is glucose:

The remainder of the 500 g is water:

If both solute and solvent are liquids, the concentration may be expressed as percent
by volume. Both ethyl alcohol and water are liquids; the concentration of alcoholwater solutions is often given as percent by volume. For example, a 95% solution of
ethyl alcohol contains 95 mL ethyl alcohol in each 100 mL solution.

Percent by volume

volume of solute
volume of solution

Example:
Rubbing alcohol is an aqueous solution containing 70% isopropyl
alcohol by volume. How would you prepare 250 mL rubbing alcohol
from pure isopropyl alcohol?

Solution
We know that 70% of the volume is isopropyl alcohol:

To prepare the solution, enough water is added to 175 mL isopropyl

X 100%

alcohol to form 250 mL solution.:

Because the density of liquids changes slightly as the temperature changes, a

concentration given in percent by mass is accurate over a wider range of temperatures
than is a concentration given in percent by volume. Sometimes a combination of mass
and volume is used to express the concentration--the mass of solute dissolved in each
100 mL solution. Using this method, a 5% (wt/vol) solution of sodium chloride
contains 5 g sodium chloride in each 100 mL solution.
C. Concentration in Parts per Million (ppm) and parts per Billion (ppb) The
terms (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) are encountered more and more frequently as
we become aware of the effects of substances present in trace amounts in water and
air, and as we develop instruments sensitive enough to detect substances present in
such low concentrations. In discussing mass, parts per million means concentration in
grams per 106 grams, or micrograms per gram. In discussing volume, parts per million
may mean milliliters per cubic meter, or the mixed designation of milligrams per
cubic meter. For parts per billion, the general trend is toward the use of micrograms
per liter when discussing water contaminants, micrograms per cubic meter for air, and
micrograms per kilogram for soil concentrations.
D. Concentration in Terms of Moles
The concentration of a solution may be stated as molarity (M), which is the number of
moles of solute per liter of solution or the number of millimoles (mmol) (1 millimole
= 10-3 mole) per milliliter of solution.

Molarity (M) =

moles solute
volume (liter) solution

millimoles solute
milliliter solution

A 6 M (say "six molar") solution of hydrochloric acid contains 6 mol hydrochloric

acid in 1 L solution.
The molarity of a solution gives a ratio between moles of solute and volume of
solution. It can be used as a conversion factor between these two units in calculations
involving solutions. As a conversion factor, it can be used two ways:

1. Moles/volume (L) states the number of moles in one liter of solution. This
conversion factor is used in calculating the number of moles of solute in a
given volume of solution.
2. Volume (L)/moles states that one liter contains some number of moles of
solution. This conversion factor is used to calculate the volume of a solution
that contains a given quantity of solute.

Example:
How many moles of hydrochloric acid are in 200 mL of 0.15 M HCl?

Solution
Wanted:
? mol HCl
Given
200 mL of 0.15 M HCl
Conversion Factors

Equation

Answer
0.30 mol HCl
Note that, each time the volume of a solution is stated, the
concentration of the solution is given. This form may look confusing,
but without this marking it is easy to forget which solution you are
referring to.

Example:
What mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is needed to prepare 100
ML of 0.125 M sodium hydroxide?

Solution
Wanted:
? g NaOH
Given
100 mL of 0.125 M NaOH
Conversion Factors
1 L of 0.125 M NaOH contains 0.125 mol NaOH- that is,

Equation

Answer
0.500 g NaOH

Example:
What volume of 3.25 M sulfuric acid is needed to prepare 0.500 L of
0.130 M H2SO4?

Solution
We are to prepare 0.500 L of 0.130 M H2SO4 by adding an amount
of water to an amount of 3.25 M H2SO4. The moles of sulfuric acid
in the final (more dilute) solution will be the same as the moles of
sulfuric acid in the portion of the more concentrated solution. We can
calculate the moles of sulfuric acid in the final dilute solution:

This answer gives the moles of acid needed. We can calculate the
volume of 3.25 M H2SO4that would contain 0.065 mol H2SO4.

This answer gives the volume of concentrated acid that conatins the
moles of acid needed for the dilute solution. This volume of 3.25 M
H2SO4 would be dissolved in 480 mL (500 mL - 20 mL) water to
prepare 0.500 L of 0.130 M H2SO4. This problem is diagramed in the
figure.

Example:
What volume of 6.39 M sodium chloride contains 51.2 mmol sodium
chloride?

Solution
Wanted
? mL of 6.39 M NaCl
Given
51.2 mmol NaCl
Conversion factors
1 L of 6.39 M NaCl contains 6.39 mol NaCl
1 mL of 6.39 M NaCl contains 6.39 mmol NaCl
Equation

Answer
8.01 mL of 6.39 M NaCl

Example:
How do we prepare 75.0 mL of 0.96 M sulfuric acid from 18 M acid?

Solution
We are to prepare 75.0 mL of 0.96 M sulfuric aicd by diluting 18 M
sulfuric acid with water. We can calculate the millimoles of sulfuric
acid in the final solution:

We can calculate the volume of 18 M ? mmol H2SO4 that will contain

72 mmol H2SO4:

The solution would be prepared by adding 4.0 mL of 18 M H2SO4 to

about 50 mL of water and then dilutint that solution to exactly 75.0
mL.

Table 11.3 lists several of the commonly used ways of expressing concentrations.
TABLE 11.3 Common units of concentration
Solute

Solvent

Percent by weight

?g

+?g

Percent by volume

? mL + ? mL

Solution

Comments

100 g

accurate, independent of temperature

100 mL

used when solute is liquid;

concentration varies slightly with

tenperature

Percent,
weight/volume
Molarity (M)
Millimole/liter

?g

moles
10-3 mol
e

10-3 mol
Millimole/milliliter
e
Parts per million
(ppm)
Parts per billion
(ppb)

used when solute is liquid;

concentration varies slightly with
tenperature

+ 100 mL

1 liter
1 liter
10-3 liter

mg

kg

kg

used in chemical calculations

used in environmental studies

https://www.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/sstutorial/Text11/Tx113/tx113.html

Expressing Concentration
The concentration of a solution
is a macroscopic property,
represents the amount of solute dissolved in a unit amount of solvent or of
solution, and
can be expressed in a variety of ways (qualitatively and quantitatively).
Qualitative Expressions of Concentration
A solution can be qualitatively described as
dilute: a solution that contains a small proportion of solute relative to solvent,
or

 concentrated: a solution that contains a large proportion of solute relative to

solvent.

Microscopic view of a dilute

Microscopic view of a
solution of liquid Br2 dissolved concentrated solution of liquid
in liquid water.
Br2 dissolved in liquid water.

Semi-Quantitative Expressions of Concentration

A solution can be semi-quantitatively described as
unsaturated: a solution in which more solute will dissolve, or
saturated: a solution in which no more solute will dissolve.
The solubility of a solute is the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount
of solvent to produce a saturated solution. For example, at 0 oC, we can dissolve a
maximum of 35.7 g of solid NaCl in 100 mL of water (a saturated solution). Any
additional solid NaCl that we add to the saturated solution simply falls to the bottom
of the container and does not dissolve.
Quantitative Expressions of Concentration
There are a number of ways to express the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a
solution. Which one we choose to use often depends on convenience. For example, it
is sometimes easier to measure the volume of a solution rather than the mass of the
solution.
Note that some expressions for concentration are temperature-dependent (i.e., the
concentration of the solution changes as the temperature changes), whereas others are
not. This is an important consideration for experiments in which the temperature does
not remain constant.
Temperature Dependence of Several Concentration Expressions
concentration expression

measurements required

temperature dependent?

percent composition
(by mass)

mass of solute
mass of solution

no
(mass does not change with
temperature)

molarity

moles of solute
volume of solution

yes
(volume changes with
temperature)

molality

moles of solute
mass of solvent

no
(neither mass nor moles
changes with temperature)

mole fraction

moles of solute
moles of solvent

no
(moles does not change
with temperature)

Percent Composition (by mass)

We can consider percent by mass (or weight percent, as it is sometimes called) in two
ways:
The parts of solute per 100 parts of solution.
The fraction of a solute in a solution multiplied by 100.
We need two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a
solution:
The mass of the solute in the solution.
The mass of the solution.
Use the following equation to calculate percent by mass:

Molarity
Molarity tells us the number of moles of solute in exactly one liter of a solution. (Note
that molarity is spelled with an "r" and is represented by a capital M.)
We need two pieces of information to calculate the molarity of a solute in a solution:

 The moles of solute present in the solution.

The volume of solution (in liters) containing the solute.
To calculate molarity we use the equation:

Molality
Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram
of solvent. (Note that molality is spelled with two "l"'s and represented by a lower
case m.)
We need two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:
The moles of solute present in the solution.
The mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution.
To calculate molality we use the equation:

Mole Fraction
The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles
of that component to the total number of moles of all components in the solution.
To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:
The number of moles of each component present in the solution.
The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ... is calculated using
the equation:

To calculate the mole fraction of B, XB, use:

http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/solutions/character.html

Different ways of expressing the concentration of solutions

Mass Percentage
The mass percentage of a component in a given solution is the mass of the component
per 100g of the solution. For e.g., if WA is the mass of the component A, WB is the mass
of the component B in a solution. Then,

Example: A 10% solution of sodium chloride in water (by mass) means that 10g of
sodium chloride are present in 100g of the solution.
Volume percentage
This unit is used in case of a liquid dissolved in another liquid. The volume percentage is
defined as the volume of the solute per 100 parts by volume of solution.
For e.g., If VA is the volume of component A present is Vsol volume of the solution.

Then,

For e.g., a 10% solution of ethanol C2H5OH, in water (by volume) means that 10cm3 of
ethanol is present in 100cm3 of the solution.
Strength of a solution is defined as the amount of the solute in gms, present in one litre
of the solution. It is expressed as gL-1.

Mathematically,

Molarity
Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of
solution.
Mathematically,

For e.g., If 'a' is the weight of the solute (in gms) present in V CC volume of the solution.

Then,

Molarity is expressed by the symbol M. It can also be expressed as,

Normality
Normality of a solution is defined as the number of gram equivalents (gm.e) of a solute
dissolved per litre of the given solution.
Mathematically it is,

For e.g., If a is the weight of the solute (in gms) present in V CC volume of the solution. Then,

Normality is expressed by the symbol N. It can also be expressed as,

Relationship between molarity and normality

The molarity and normality of a solution is related to each other as follows:

Molality
Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1000g of a
solvent. Mathematically, it is expressed as

Molality is expressed by the symbol m.

Molality does not change with temperature.

Formality
In case of ionic compounds like KCl, CaCO3 etc. Formality is used in place of molarity.
It is the number of gram formula masses of solute dissolved per liter of the solution. It is
denoted by the symbol F. Mathematically it is given as,

Mole Fraction
It is the ratio of number of moles of one component (solute or solvent) to the total
number of moles of all the components (solute and solvent) present in the solution. It is
denoted by the symbol X. Let us suppose that a solution contains two components A and
B and suppose that nA moles of A and nBmoles of B are present in the solution then,

Adding eq (i) and (ii) we get

xA + xB = 1
Parts per million (ppm)
When a solute is present in very small amounts, its concentration is expressed in parts
per million. It is defined as the amount of the solute present in one million parts of the
solution.

It may be noted that the concentration units like molarity, mole fraction etc. are
preferred as they involve the weight of the solute and solvent, which is independent of
temperature. But units like, molarity, Normality etc., involve volume of the solution,
hence changes with temperature.

http://chem-guide.blogspot.com/2010/04/different-ways-of-expressing.html
1c

Definition of pH, pOH, "p", sample calculations

General
The acid potential of aqueous solutions is measured in terms of the pH scale. The symbol
"p" means take the negative logarithm of whatever follows in the formula. for pH, pOH,
p[anything] . The pH scale is intended to be a convenience. Tremendous swings in
hydrogen ion (hydronium ion) concentration occur in water when acids or bases are
mixed with water. These changes can be as big as 1 x 10 14, This means concentrations
can change by multiples as big as one hundred trillion, 100,000,000,000,000.
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale. Every multiple of ten in H 1+ concentration equals one
unit on the logarithm scale. Physically the pH is intended to tell what the acid "potential" is
for a solution.
In a sense the system is INVERTED so a low pH value indicates a great acid potential
while a high pH indicates a low acid potential. ( Sad but true this is upside down and
counter intuitive.) The pH values range from negative values to number above 14.
Commonly the scale is often misrepresented as ranging from 0 to 14. We will see that
negative values are possible.

Definition of pH, pOH, pKw, pKa, pKb

The p" factor" is defined as the log of the whatever quantity that follows the symbol. The
"p" is an operator. It communicates the instruction to calculate the negative log of any
quantity that follows the symbol. The definition of pH in equation form is

pH = -log[H1+] where [H1+] means the molar concentration of hydronium ions, M = moles /
liter
This allows the definition of the following series of quantities.

pOH =
-log[OH-]

the negative log of the hydroxide ion molarity

pKw = -log
Kw

the negative log of the water ion product , Kw

pKa = -log Ka

the negative log of the acid dissociation

constant, Ka

pKb = -log Kb

the negative log of the base dissociation

constant, Kb

The relationship pH + pOH = 14

In a water solution the ion product for water is:
[H+] [OH-] = Kw = 1 X 10-14
Take the -log of both sides of the equation
- log [H+] +(- log [OH- ]) = - log [1 X 10-14 ]
pH + pOH = 14
Calculations of pH
For strong acids like HCl the molar concentrations are essentially the hydronium ion
concentration. These strong acids can produce solutions where the pH can be equal to or
less than 1, the pH value would have a value from 0-14.
Example: Determination of pH from [H3O+]

What is the pH of a solution whose [H3O+] = 1 X 10-4 M

pH = -log[H3O+]

pH = - log[1 X 10-4]

pH = - [ log 1 + log 10-4 ]

Note: When you multiply numbers you always ADD their log forms
log 1 is always zero
log 10x = x

so log 10-4 = -4

pH = - [ log 1 + log 10-4 ] = - [ 0 + (-4) ] = - [-4 ] = +4

Example: Determination of pH from [H3O+] when coefficient is other than "1"

What is the pH of a solution whose [H3O+] = 2.5 X 10 -5 M

pH = -log[H3O+]

pH = - log[2.5 X 10 -5]

pH = - [ log 2.5 + log 10-5 ]

Note: When you multiply numbers you always ADD their log forms

log 10x = x

so log 10-5 = -5

log 2.5 can be determined using a calculator having the

log function key:

Enter the number in this case 2.5

depress the log key

Read the display which should be .3979 for this

problem

pH = - [.3979 - 5] = 4.6021 or +4.602

Alternately if you can enter a number in scientific notation into your calculator
key in 2.5 X 10 -5

depress the log key

Read the display which should be -4.602 for this problem

Multiply by -1 to get + 4.602

Example: Determination of pH from [OH1- ] using defintion pOH and equation pH +

pOH = 14

Calculate the pH of a solution that has a [OH1-] = 1 X 10-5 M

Determine pOH = -log[OH1- ] = -log [1 X 10-5 ] = 5

Use the relationship pH + pOH = 14

pH + 5 = 14

pH = 14 -5 = 9

http://www.800mainstreet.com/acid_base/definitions-ph.html

Calculations involving acids and bases

18.1.1 State the expression for the ionic product constant of water (Kw).

Water equilibrium
Water is in equilibrium with its dissociated ions (hydrogen and hydroxide).
The equilibrium:
H2O

H+ + OH-

Can be expressed according to the equilibrium law:

[H+][OH-]
Kc =
[H2O]

However, as the concentration of the water effectively remains constant on both sides of the
equilibrium then the [H 2O] term can be removed to a very close approximation and the
equilibrium constant denoted as Kw (sometimes called the ionic product of water).
This gives:
Kw = [H+][OH-]
The constant Kw remains unchanged at constant temperature (as all good constants should!).
At 25C the value of Kw = 1 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6
As the concentration of the hydrogen ions equals the concentration of the hydroxide ions (see
note 1) then the concentration of hydrogen ions in pure water at 25C = the square root of
the ionic product of water:
= 1 x 10-7 mol dm-3
All equilibrium constants are temperature dependent (and this one is no exception):
The dissociation of water molecules into ions is bond breaking and is therefore an endothermic
process (energy must be absorbed to break the bonds). Endothermic processes are favoured
by an increase in temperature and so as the temperature rises the equilibrium moves further
to the right hand side and Kw gets larger.
As Kw gets larger so do the values of the hydrogen ion concentration and the hydroxide ion
concentration.
As pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration (pH = -log[H +]) then as the
temperature increases the pH gets lower - i.e. the water becomes more acidic.
This is calculated in the following section.

18.1.2: Deduce [H+(aq)] and [OH-(aq)] for water at different temperatures given Kw values.

Variation of Kw with temperature

The equilibrium
H2O

H+ + OH-

involves the breaking of bonds and is therefore endothermic - energy must be applied to
break one of the the H-O-H bonds to give the ions. Consequently, according to Le Chatelier, an
increase in temperature favours the forward reaction - i.e. the position of equilibrium shifts
towards the right hand side and Kw becomes larger.
However, as the ratio of hydrogen ions to hydroxide ions in pure water must remain 1:1, then
if we know the value of Kw, it is a simple matter to calculate the value of either H + or/and
OH- to obtain the concentrations and hence the values of pH and pOH.
Example: Calculate the pH when Kw = 6,5 x 10 -14 mol2 dm-6
As...
Kw = [H+][OH-]
and...
[H+] =[OH-]
Then...
Kw = [H+]2
Therefore...
[H+] = Kw
[H+] = 6.5 x 10-14
[H+] =2.55 x 10-7
pH = 6.59
The pOH value will also be the same as [H+] =[OH-]

18.1.3: Solve problems involving [H+(aq)], [OH-(aq)], pH and pOH

Definition of pH
pH is defined as the negative of the logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration

For example at 25C the hydrogen ion concentration of pure water is 1 x 10 -7 mol dm-3
The logarithm of 1 x 10-7mol dm-3 = -7
The negative of -7 = +7
Therefore the pH of pure water at 25C is 7
Definition of pOH
This is basically (no pun intended) the same as pH but from the point of view of the OH- ions
Thus the negative logarithm of the OH- ions gives the pOH
Note that at 25C ... pH + pOH = 14 it is therefore a simple matter to obtain one from the
other.
Definition of pKw
As you can probably guess from the previous two definitons, pKw is the negative logarithm of
Kw
And as... Kw = [H+][OH-]
Then... pKw = pH + pOH = 14 (at 25C)

18.1.4: State the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence
deduce the expressions Ka and Kb. Only examples involving the transfer of one proton will be
assessed

Calculation of [H+(aq)]
If we are dealing with a strong acid then this is straightforward. It is simply a matter of
treating the hydrogen ion concentration as the molar concentration of the acid for monobasic
acids (such as nitric acid) and double the acid concentration for dibasic acids (such as
sulphuric acid).
Example: Calculate the [H+(aq)] of 0.25 M sulphuric acid

As sulphuric acid dissociates 100% according to the equation

H2SO4

2H+ + SO42-

Then 0.2 M sulphuric acid gives 0.25 x 2 M hydrogen ions solution =

0.5M
The pH of this solution is:
pH = - log 0.5 = 0.3

If we are dealing with a weak acid (or base) then the Ka (or pKa) of the acid must be known
Example: Calculate the [H+(aq)] of 0.2 M ethanoic acid (Ka = 1.78 x
10-5)
As ethanoic acid is a weak acid it only partially dissociates according to
the equation:
CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

Applying the equilibrium law:

Ka =

[H+][CH3COO-]
[CH3COOH]

We can assume that as the acid only slightly dissociates then the
concentration of the acid at equilibrium is the same (to a close
approximation) as the concentration of the original acid (in this case =
0,2 M)
Therefore:
1.78 x 10-5 =

[H+][CH3COO-]
[0.2]

And as the hydrogen ion concentration equals the ethanoate ion

concentration then:
0.2 x 1.78 x 10-5 = [H+]2

[H+] = 3.56 x 10-6

[H+] =1.89 x 10-3
The pH of this solution is:
pH = -log 1.89 x 10-3 = 2.7

18.1.5: Solve problems involving solutions of weak acids and bases using the expressions: Ka x
Kb = Kw, pKa + pKb =pKw, pH + pOH = pKw. Students should state when approximations are
used in equilibrium calculations. The use of quadratic equations will not be assessed

Acid dissociation equations

It is important to identify the acidic hydrogen(s) in order to be able to write the equation
representing dissociation. In most acids the hydrogen that is released causing acidity is fairly
obvious:
H2SO4
HNO3
HCl
However, in organic acids this is not always the case:
CH3COOH
(COOH)2
HCOOH
Once the acidic hydrogens are identified, it is a case of writing the equation showing the ion
resulting from removal of the H+ ion(s)
H2SO4
HNO3
HCl

2H+ + SO42H+ + NO3H+ + Cl-

CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

(COOH)2

(COO)2- + 2H+

Base equations
In these cases the base removes an ion of hydrogen from the water molecule. The base is
hydrolysing (breaking apart) the water to produce hydroxide ions. As the base gains a
hydrogen ion, it itself will produce a species with a positive charge (positive ion)
NH3 + H2O

NH4+ + OH-

The acid (base) equilibrium expression

Once the equation is written down the equilibrium law states that the acid (base) equilibrium
constant is equal to the concentrations of the products raised to their stoichiometries divided
by the concentration of the reactant(s) raised to the stoichiometry
Example: For the equilibrium: CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

The equilibrium law gives:

Ka =

[H+][CH3COO-]
[CH3COOH]

18.1.6: Identify the relative strenghs of acids and bases using values of Ka, Kb, pKa, and pKb.

Derivation of Ka x Kb = Kw
For the equation: CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

CH3COOH is the acid and CH3COO- is its conjugate base.

[H+][CH3COO-]
Ka =
[CH3COOH]
And for the conjugate base reaction: CH3COO- + H2O
Kb =

CH3COOH + OH-

[OH-][CH3COOH]

[CH3COO-][H2O]
As water is in vast excess on both sides of the equilibrium it can be safely eliminated to give
[OH-][CH3COOH]
Kb =
[CH3COO-]
Combining Ka and Kb gives:

[H+][CH3COO-]

[OH-][CH3COOH]

Ka x Kb =

x
[CH3COOH]

[CH3COO-]

Cancelling out terms from top and bottom gives:

[H+]
Ka x Kb =

[OH-]
x

And as: Kw = [H+][OH-]

Then:
Ka x Kb = Kw

Ka is the acid equilibrium constant - i.e. the equilibrium constant of the products of acid
dissociation divided by the acid concentration at equilibrium (however the approximation that
the acid concentration at equilibrium is the same as the original acid concentation is usually
used for convenience).
Ka is usually a very small number (for example 1.78 x 10 -5 for ethanoic acid). It is more
convenient to use the logarithm of this Ka value to give number that are handled more easily.
However taking logs of very small number produces a negative value. To avoid this the
negative of the logarithm is used and called the pKa value.
Hence:
-log Ka = pKa

If we are dealing with bases then Kb again is very small and so pKb is used to define base
strength where:
-log Kb = pKb
As shown in section 18.3.6 above:
[H+]

[OH-]

Ka x Kb =

Consequently at 25C
Ka x Kb = 1 x 10-14
And:
pKa + pKb =14

Ka values
Using the typical weak acid (HA) equation, this is represented by the equilibrium
HA

H+ + A -

From which, by the equilibrium law:

It may be seen that an increase in the components of the right hand side of the equilibrium
will give rise to a greater value for Ka.
Hence the stronger the acid the larger the value of Ka

pKa values
The relationship between pKa and Ka is one of an inverse log and so the larger the value of Ka
the smaller the value of pKa.
Hence the stronger the acid the smaller the value of pKa
This may be illustrated by some Ka and pKa values

Acid or base

Ka

pKa

Trichloroethanoic acid

5.10 x 10-2

1.29

Chloroethanoic acid

1.38 x 10-3

2.86

Methanoic acid

1.77 x 10-4

3.75

Ethanoic acid

1.78 x 10-5

4.75

Propanoic acid

1.26 x 10-5

4.90

Carbonic acid

3.98 x 10-7

6.40

Water

1.00 x 10-7

7.00

Ammonia

5.26 x 10-10

9.25

Methylamine

2.24 x 10-11

10.65

acid strength

decreasing

Remember that Ka + Kb = Kw
And so, pKb = 14 - pKa for the bases

Example:: Calculate the pH of 0,25M ethanoic acid (pKa = 4.75)

For the equilibrium: CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

The equilibrium law gives:

Ka =

[H+][CH3COO-]

[CH3COOH]
pKa = 4.75 therefore Ka = 1.78 x 10-5

acid strength

and [H+] = [CH3COO-]

Therefore:
1.78 x 10-5 x [CH3COOH] = [H+]2
1.78 x 10-5 x 0.25 = [H+]2
Therefore: [H+] = 1.78 x 10-5 x 0.25
Therefore: [H+] = 2.11 x 10-3
pH = -log [H+]
Therefore pH = 2.68

http://ibchem.com/IB/ibnotes/18.1.htm

2
Buffer Solutions
Titration of weak acid by a strong base
Skills to develop

Calculate the pH and plot the

titration curve when a weak acid
is titrated by a strong base.

Adding an acid or a base to a buffer

solution is the same as carrying out a
titration. We discuss the pH changes in a
buffer solutions using titration of weak
acid by a strong base.

Solve buffer problems.

Solve hydration (hydrolyis> problems.
Prepare a buffer of desirable pH.
Buffer Solutions

Buffer solutions contain a weak acid and its salt or a weak base
and its salt. The pH values of these solutions do not change much
when a little bit of acid or base is added.

The blood is a natural buffer, and so are other body fluids and plant fluids due to
mixtures of weak acids and bases present in them.
On this page, we explore the reasons why the pH of buffer solutions resists to change.
Buffer solutions are required for many chemical experiments. They are also useful to
standardize pH meters. Thus, there are many suppliers of buffer solutions.
Tedia Buffer Solutions.
HF Scientific, Inc pH Buffers.
Sensorex Color coded buffers.

There are also computer programs available to help design and make buffer solutions on the
internet. For example:
Buffer Maker using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
SIS Scientific Software buffer maker.

Titration of a Weak Acid by a Strong Base

You have investigated how the pH varies in a strong-acid and strong-base Titration.

We illustrate the titration of a weak acid by a strong base using the following examples.
During the titration process and before the equivalent point is reached, some acid has been
neutralized by the strong base, and the solution contains a weak acid and its salt. The solution
acts as a buffer.
Example 1.
What is the pH of a Ca M acid solution whose acid dissociation
constant is Ka?
(What is the pH of a Ca M weak acid before starting the titration?)

Solution
Let HA represent the weak acid, and assume x M of it is ionized. Then, the ionization and
equilibrium concentration is
HA = H+ + ACa-x
x
x
x2
Ka = -----Ca-x

x2 + Kax - CaKa = 0
-Ka + (Ka2 + 4 CaKa)1/2
x = --------------------2
pH = -log(x)

Discussion
The method has been fully discussed in Weak acids and bases equilibrium. Symbols are
used here, but approximations may be applied to numerical problems.
Example 2.
Let us make a buffer solution by mixing Va mL of acid HA and Vs mL
of its salt NaA. For simplicity, let us assume both the acid and the
salt solutions have the same concentration C M. What is the pH of
the so prepared buffer solution? The acid dissociation constant is Ka.

Solution
After mixing, the concentrations Ca and Cs of the acid HA and its salt NaA respectively
are
Ca = C Va / (Va+Vs)
Cs = C Vs / (Va+Vs)
Assume x M of the acid is ionized. Then, the ionization and equilibrium of the
acid is shown below, but the salt is completely dissociated.
HA = H+ + ACa-x x
x
NaA = Na+ + ACs
Cs
Common ion [A-] = x+Cs
x(x+Cs)
Ka = -------Ca-x
x2 + (Ka+Cs)x - Ca Ka = 0
-(Ka+Cs) + ((Ka+Cs)2 + 4 Ca Ka)1/2
x = ----------------------------2
pH = -log(x)

Discussion
The formulas for x and the pH derived above can be used to estimate the pH of any buffer
solution, regardless how little salt or acid is used compared to their counter part.
When the ratio Ca / Cs is between 0.1 and 10, the Henderson-Hasselbalch equition is a
convenient formula to use.
[H+] [A-]
Ka = ---------[HA]
[A-]
pKa = pH - log (----)
[HA]

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is

Base
added

[H+]

pH

See

0.0 mL

0.00316

2.500

A.

0.1

9.07e-4

3.042

B.

1.0

9.07e-5

4.042

C.

5.0

1.0e-5

5.000

D.

10.0

10-11.349

11.349

E.

[A-]
pH = pKa + log (----)
[HA]
[Cs] + x
= pKa + log (----)
[Ca] - x

Because when x is insignificant in comparision to Cs, [A-] = Cs and [HA] = Ca

Example 3
Plot the titration curve when a 10.00 mL sample of 1.00 M weak acid HA
(Ka = 1.0e-5) is titrated with 1.00 M NaOH.

Solution

A. Because the concentration is high, we use the approximation

[H+] = (CaKa)1/2
= 0.00316
pH = 2.500

Note the sharp increase in pH when 0.1 mL (3 drops) of basic solution is added to
the solution.
B. When 0.1 mL NaOH is added, the concentration of salt (Cs), and
concentration of acid Ca are:
Cs = 0.1*1.0 M / 10.1 = 0.0099 M
Ca = 9.9*1.0 M / 10.1 = 0.98
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
O.
P.
Q.
R.

HA = H+ + ACa-x x
x
[A-] = x

+ 0.0099 (= Cs)

x (x + 0.0099)
Ka = -------------- = 1e-5
0.98 - x
x2 + 0.0099 x = 9.8e-6 - 1e5 x
x2 + (0.0099 + 1e5) x - 9.8e-6 = 0
x

= (-0.0099 + (0.00992 + 4*0.98*1e-5)1/2) / 2

= 0.000907

pH = 3.042

Note that using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation will not yield the correct
solution. Do you know why?
S. When 1.0 mL NaOH is added, concentration of salt,
Cs = 1.0*1.0 M / 11.0 = 0.0901 M
Ca = 9.0*1.0 M / 11.0 = 0.818
T.
HA = H+ + AU. Ca-x
x
x+0.0901
V.
W.
x (x + 0.0901)
X. Ka = -------------- = 1e-5
Y.
0.818 - x
Z.
AA.
x = (-0.0901 + (0.09012 + 4*0.818*1e-5)1/2) / 2
AB.
= 0.0000907
(any approximation to be made?)
AC.
AD.
pH = 4.042

Using the Henderson Hasselbalch equation yield

0.0901(=[A-])
pH = pKa + log (------) = 5 - 0.958 = 4.042 (same result)

0.818(=[HA])

AE.

AF.
AG.
AH.
AI.
AJ.
AK.
AL.
AM.
AN.
AO.
AP.
AQ.
AR.

When 5.0 mL NaOH is added, concentration of salt,

Cs = 5.0*1.0 M / 15.0 = 0.333 M
Ca = 5.0*1.0 M / 15.0 = 0.333 M
HA = H+ + ACa-x x
x+0.3333
x (x + 0.333)
Ka = -------------- = 1.0e-5
0.333 - x
x

= (-0.333 + (0.3332 + 4*3.33e-6)1/2) / 2

= 0.0000010

+ (0.333-1e-5)x

- 0.333*1e-5 = 0

pH = 5.000

Note: Using the Henderson Hasselbalch equation yield the same result
0.333(=[A-]
pH = pKa + log (----) = 5 + 0.000 = 5.000
0.333(=[HA])

AS.

When 10.0 mL NaOH is added, concentration of salt,

Cs = 10.0*1.0 M / 20.0 = 0.500 M
Ca = 0.0*1.0 M / 20.0 = 0.000
At the equivalent point, the solution contains 0.500 M of the salt NaA,
and the following equilibrium must be considered:
A- + H2O = HA
Cs-x
x
[HA] [OH-]
Kb = ---------[A-]

AT.
AU.
AV.
AW.
AX.
AY.
AZ.
BA.
BB.
BC.
BD.
BE.
BF.

+ OHx Equilibrium concentrations

[H+]
---[H+]

Kw
1e-14
x 2
= --- = ----- = 1e-9 = -----Ka
1e-5
Cs-x
x

= (0.500*1.0e-9)1/2 = 2.26e-5

pOH = -log x

= 2.651; pH = 14 - 2.651 = 11.349

Note: The calculation here illustrate the hydration or hydrolysis of the basic salt
NaA.
Discussion..
Sketch the titration curve based on the estimates given in this example, and notice the
points made along the way.

Confidence Building Question

Plot the titration curve when a 10.00 mL sample of 0.100 M weak

acid HA (Ka = 10e-6) is titrated by 0.100 M NaOH solution.

Hint..
Learn it by doing! Perform all the calculations outlined in Example 3, and then you will
be an expert for solving buffer and hydration problems.

The compound HF is a weak acid, Ka = 6.7e-4. Calculate Kb and

pKb for the fluoride ion F- in an aqueous solution?

Hint..
The following relationship is handy to use, but make sure you know why
Kb = Kw / Ka = ?
What is the pH at the equivalence point when a 0.10 M HF solution is titrated by a 0.10
M NaOH solution?

During the titration of 10.0 mL 0.10 M HF solution with a 0.10 M

NaOH solution, 1.0 mL of NaOH has been added. What is the
concentrations of sodium ion [Na+] and fluoride ion [F-]?

Hint..
A simple consideration leads to the formulation:
[Na+] = [F-] = 1.0 mL * 0.10 M / 11.0 mL

During the titration of 10.0 mL 0.10 M HF solution with a 0.10 M

NaOH solution, 5.0 mL of NaOH has been added. What is the
concentrations of sodium ion [Na+] and fluoride ion [F-]?

Answer[F-]=0.0333 M

During the titration of 10.0 mL 0.10 M HF (Ka = 6.7e-4) solution with

a 0.10 M NaOH solution, 5.0 mL of NaOH has been added. What is
the pH at this point?

Answer pH = pKa = 3.17

When equal volumes of 0.10 M HF and 0.10 M NaOH are mixed, what
is the pH of such a solution?

Hint..
What is the pH of the equivalence point during the titration of 0.10 M HF using 0.10 M
NaOH solution? (Another way of asking the same question.)

 cchieh@uwaterloo.ca

http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/buffer.html
Hydrolysis of salts

Return to the Acid Base menu

A Brief Introduction to Hydrolysis Calculations
Hydrolysis happens when a substance chemically reacts with water. Hydrolysis should
be distinguished from solvation, which is the process of water molecules associating
themselves with individual solute molecules or ions.
I. Salts of Weak Acids
In general, all salts of weak acids behave the same, therefore we can use a generic salt
to represent all salts of weak acids. Let NaA be a generic salt of a weak acid and A
its anion. Here are two specific examples of salts of weak acids:
Substance

Formula

sodium acetate

NaC2H3O2

sodium benzoate

C6H5COONa

The anion portion (A)

C2H3O2
C6H5COO

By the way, the potassium ion, K+, (and several others) could also be used above
without affecting any discussions of this topic. As a practical matter, only Na + and
K+ tend to get used in examples.
The generic chemical reaction (in net ionic form) for hydrolysis may be written
thusly:
A + H2O --> HA + OH
This reaction is of a salt of a weak acid (NOT the acid) undergoing hydrolysis, the
name for a chemical reaction with water. The salt is NaAc and it is reacting with the
water. Keep in mind that the acid (HAc) does not undergo hydrolysis, the salt does.
It is very important that you notice several things:

1) The Na+ (notice only OH is written) IS NOT involved. Its source is the salt (NaA)
that is dissolving in the water and it DOES NOT affect the pH. Its presence in both
writing the chemical reactions and doing the calculations is deleted. However, keep in
mind that Na+ is present in the solution. Some teacher might want to ask a "sneaky"
question on a test.
2) HA is the UNDISSOCIATED acid. Keep in mind that it is not the acid that makes
the acidic pH of a solution, it is the amount of hydrogen ion (or hydronium ion, H 3O+,
if you wish). In order to produce the hydrogen ion, the acid must dissociate.
3) There is free hydroxide ion (OH) in the solution!! This is the thing that makes the
pH greater than 7.
Now, I can see a question forming in your mind. If there is acid (HA) and base (OH),
why don't they just react and give back the reactants on the left side? Now, that really
is a good question.
The answer? This reaction is an equilibrium. Now, if you are taking chemistry for the
first time, you probably just got done with equilibrium a few weeks ago and it might
have been hard to understand. That's understandable, but please realize that
equilibrium is one of more important concepts in chemistry. Keep up the work!!
When a chemical reaction comes to equilibrium, there is a mixture of all involved
substances in the reaction vessel. This mixture is characterized by a constant
composition. (Keep in mind that constant composition DOES NOT imply equal
composition.) The key point that makes a reaction come to equilibrium is that it is
reversible. This means that both the forward reaction and the reverse reaction can
happen, althought NOT initially with equal probability. The reaction comes to
equilibrium when the rates of the two reactions (forward and reverse) become equal.
So, while it is true that the HA and OH will react in the reverse direction, so can the
A and the H2O in the forward direction. The key point is that the reaction happens in
such a way that a small amount (as opposed to zero) of HA and OH are present at
equilibrium.
When calculations are done, the important points will be (1) how much OH is
formed and (2) what is the pH of the solution?

Quick answers: (1) the amount of OH formed will be greater than the 10 7 M value
present in pure water and (2) the pH will be greater than 7, so the solution of the salt
of a weak acid will be basic.

II. Salts of Weak Bases

In general, all salts of weak bases behave the same, therefore we can use a generic salt
to represent all salts of weak bases. Let B be a generic base and HB + its salt.
(Compare how this is worded compared to the "salt of weak acid" discussion.) HB + is
a cation, but that word is not used as much in discussions as is "anion" is above. Here
are two specific examples of salts of weak bases:
Substance

Formula

ammonium chloride

NH4Cl

methyl ammonium nitrate

CH3NH3NO3

The cation portion (HB+)

NH4+
CH3NH3+

The notation HB+ might be a bit confusing. Think of NH4+ this way:
HNH3+
NH3 is the base (symbolized by B) and an H + has been attached to it in a chemical
reaction. the NH3 has been protonated and the result (NH4+) is now an acid. Why?
Because it now has a proton to donate.
By the way, the chloride ion, Cl, and the nitrate ion, NO 3 tend to be used in
examples. Other anions of strong acids could be used, but their use is fairly
uncommon.
The generic chemical reaction (in net ionic form) for hydrolysis reaction may be
written thusly:
HB+ + H2O --> B + H3O+
This reaction is of a salt of a weak base (NOT the base) undergoing hydrolysis, the
reaction with water. The salt in this case is HB +Cl and it is reacting with the water.
Remember, the most common specific example would be ammonium chloride

(NH4+Cl). Keep in mind that the base (generic example = B, specific example =
ammonia or NH3) does not undergo hydrolysis, the salt does.
It is very important that you notice several things:
1) There is an anion involved, but it is usually not written. For example Cl could be
the anion, but it IS NOT involved. Its source is the salt (HB +Cl) that is dissolving in
the water and it DOES NOT affect the pH. Its presence in writing the appropriate
chemical reactions and doing the calculations is deleted. However, keep in mind that
Cl is present in the solution. Some teacher might want to ask a "sneaky" question on
a test.
2) B is the UNPROTONATED base. Keep in mind that it is not the base that makes
the basic pH of a solution, it is the amount of hydroxide ion (OH). In order to
produce it, the base must protonated by the water.
3) There is free hydronium ion (H3O+) in the solution!! This is the thing that makes the
pH less than 7.
Now, I can see a question forming in your mind. If there is base (B) and acid (H 3O+),
why don't they just react and give back the reactants on the left side? Now, that really
is a good question.
The answer, of course, is given in above in the discussion of salts of weak acids. It
would be the same explanation here, so I won't repeat it. What you might want to do,
however, is look at the different phrasing in part I as compared to part II.
Of course, when calculations are done, the important points will be (1) how much
H3O+ is formed and (2) what is the pH of the solution?
Quick answers: (1) the amount of H3O+ formed will be greater than the 107 M value
present in pure water and (2) the pH will be less than 7, so the solution of the salt of a
weak base will be acidic.
http://www.chemteam.info/AcidBase/Hydrolysis.html
3

What is pH and Why is It

Important?
The pH of normal human blood and tissues
is about 7.4. If this pH is changed by 0.2 or
more, either up or down, it is a lifethreatening situation. Find out why here.
Donald Reinhardt
10 months ago

pH - The Hydrogen Ion concentration in common situation from alkaline to neutral to acid

Often pH is measured for soil, water, blood, urine and

related clinical specimens, and many chemical reactions; pH
is an important chemical condition and pH values are
significant and have chemical consequences. Even spas and
swimming pools require pH checks, otherwise disinfectants
may not be active.

Basic Concepts of pH are Related to

Water Ionization
The pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. A
sample of absolutely pure water has a pH value of 7.0. The
pH scale ranges from 0 (acid) to 14 (basic). A pH of 7.0 is
considered neutral pH.
Pure water ionizes to a limited degree to form H + (protons)
and (OH) - hydroxyl ions: HOH (water molecule) > H+
and (OH)-. Notice that one molecule of water can ionize into
one hydrogen ion and one hydroxyl ion. For pure water
exactly equal amounts of protons and hydroxyl ions are
produced. The ionization of pure water molecules is rare
only 1 in every 10 million water molecules (1/10,000,000)
dissociates.

pH Defined and Ways to Measure pH

Scientists determined a simple, convenient, numeric way to
express pH as the logarithm (to the base 10) of the
reciprocal (inverted number) of the hydrogen ion

concentration. Thus, 1 in 10 million reciprocated is 10

million, and the log 10 value of that is 7.0.
Whenever pH is measured, hydrogen ion concentration is
determined. Thus, pH values of 5.0, 3.0 and 1.0 express,
respectively, that 1 in 100,000, 1 in 1,000 and 1 in 10
concentrations of hydrogen ions (protons) are present.
These acidities occur in weaker, organic acids (citric, acetic
and lactic acids) and strong, inorganic acids (HCl,
hydrochloric acid; HNO3,nitric acid; H2SO4, sulfuric acid).
When strong bases are measured, as in NaOH (sodium
hydroxide) and KOH (potassium hydroxide), the pH values
approach 13 and 14 with decreased and rare H+, and much
increased (OH)-. Inorganic acids and bases are joined by
ionic bonds and ionize readily.
Measurement of pH can be done simply with:

select color indicators (incorporated into pH paper, or

solutions) such as methyl violet, congo red, methyl red,
phenol red, litmus and phenolphthalein can detect defined
pH ranges.
pH meters that detect hydrogen ion concentrations.

pH Litmus Paper to measure pH from 1 to 14 photo credit: Amazon.com

pH Meter - Small, Compact and Accurate pH MeterPhoto credit: ibchem.com

Hydrogen ion concentration and correlation to pH values in common chemical

environments.Photo Credit:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute

Importance of pH in Living Systems,

Chemistry and Biochemistry
The pH figures here reveal several typical pH values. The
photo immediately above this section clearly indicates the
hydrogen ion concentration and pH relationship. Note that
battery acid, acidic fruits and vegetables have low pH values;
pure water is neutral pH 7.0, and bleach and drain cleaners
are at the high end of pH with few H+ (protons) and many
OH- (hydroxyl ions).
Why is pH significant? pH influences the structure and the
function of many enzymes (protein catalysts) in living
systems. Some enzymes have narrow ranges of pH activity.
Pepsin, a stomach enzyme works best at pH 2. In the
duodenum, trypsin functions optimally around pH 7.58.0.
Overall, most human cell enzymes work best in a slightly
alkaline environment of about 7.4.
Cellular pH is so important that death may ensue within
hours if a person becomes acidotic. One such example
is unregulated diabetes high blood sugar occurs and acids
form that rapidly destroy enzymes and cells. Regular blood
sugar monitoring always is important for diabetics.
In other cases, alkalosis may occur with pH values of 7.6
7.8 or greater, with equally damaging consequences.
Typically, natural buffers in the body such as NaHCO3 and
proteins regularly compensate for some smaller, acidic and
alkaline pH shifts.

In summary, pH which is a measure of hydrogen ion

concentration, is critical to life and biochemistry and many
important chemical reactions.
Resources
Alters, S and B. Alters. 2006, Biology. John Wiley & Sons
Inc., Hoboken, N.J. 755 pp
https://suite.io/donald-reinhardt/266b24v
What is Biological importance of pH?

EDIT

Answer by Rolland Arriza

CONFIDENCE VOTES61
Cells work best at very specific pH's, too low or high and they will
not function properly.
All living things are water-based systems, which means that they
depend heavily on aqueous equilibria, especially acid-base
equilibria. Therefore, all the acid-base and pH concepts we have
discussed so far are extremely important to biochemistry, which is
the study of the chemistry of biological systems.
Just as in other acid-base systems, biological macromolecules act as
acids and bases by donating and accepting protons. However, due
to the size of these molecules, they often contain several different
groups that accept or donate protons instead of just one such group.
Thus, we talk about macromolecules as having acidic and basic
groups rather than as being acids and bases. These acidic and basic
groups act as weak acids and bases, with Ka values which determine
the extent of dissociation of the group depending on the pH of the
system. Therefore, changes in the pH around the macromolecule will
determine which groups are protonated and which are not, which in

turn determines properties of the molecule. This is especially

important for enzymes, which are proteins that act as catalysts for
important biological reactions. Most enzymes only work within a
certain pH range.
http://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_Biological_importance_of_pH
4

Buffer Solutions
A buffer solution is one in which the pH of the solution is "resistant" to small
additions of either a strong acid or strong base. Buffers usually consist of a weak acid
and its conjugate base, in relatively equal and "large" quantities. Calculations are
based on the equation for the ionization of the weak acid in water forming the
hydronium ion and the conjugate base of the acid. "HA" represents any weak acid
and "A-" represents the conjugate base.
HA(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
Ka = [H3O+][A-]
[HA]
A buffer system can be made by mixing a soluble compound that contains the
conjugate base with a solution of the acid such as sodium acetate with acetic acid or
ammonia with ammonium chloride. The above equation for Ka can be rearranged to
solve for the hydronium ion concentration. By knowing the Ka of the acid, the amount
of acid, and the amount of conjugate base, the pH of the buffer system can be
calculated.
[H3O+] = Ka[HA]
[A-]
pH = -log[H3O+]

Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution

Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution after Addition of a Small Amount of
Strong Acid

 Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution after Addition of a Small Amount of

Strong Base
Calculation of the Buffer Capacity
Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution
In order to calculate the pH of the buffer solution you need to know the amount of
acid and the amount of the conjugate base combined to make the solution. These
amounts should be either in moles or in molarities. The Ka of the acid also needs to be
known.
Example: A buffer solution was made by dissolving 10.0 grams of sodium acetate in
200.0 mL of 1.00 M acetic acid. Assuming the change in volume when the sodium
acetate is not significant, estimate the pH of the acetic acid/sodium acetate buffer
solution. The Ka for acetic acid is 1.7 x 10-5.
First, write the equation for the ionization of acetic acid and the K a expression.
Rearrange the expression to solve for the hydronium ion concentration.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
[H3O+] = Ka[CH3COOH]
[CH3COO-]
Second, determine the number of moles of acid and of the conjugate base.
(1.00 M CH3COOH)(200.0 mL)(1 L/1000 mL) = 0.200 mol CH3COOH
(10.0 g NaCH3COO)(1 mol/82.03 g) = 0.122 mol NaCH3COO
Substitute these values, along with the Ka value, into the above equation and
solve for the hydronium ion concentration. Convert the hydronium ion
concentration into pH.
[H3O+] = (1.7 x 10-5)(0.200/0.122) = 2.79 x 10-5
pH = 4.56
Example: Calculate the ratio of ammonium chloride to ammonia that is required to
make a buffer solution with a pH of 9.00. The Ka for ammonium ion is 5.6 x 10-10.

 First, write the equation for the ionization of the ammonium ion in water and
the corresponding Ka expression. Rearrange the equation to solve for the
hydronium ion concentration.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)
Ka = [H3O+][NH3]
[NH4+]
[H3O+] = Ka[NH4+]
[NH3]
Second, convert the pH back into the hydronium ion concentration and then
substitute it into the above equation along with the K a. Solve for the ratio of
ammonium ion to ammonia.
[H3O+] = 1 x 10-9 M
1 x 10-9 = 5.6 x 10-10(NH4+/NH3)
(NH4+/NH3) = 1.786/1
A ratio of 1.768 moles of ammonium ion for every 1 mole of ammonia or 1.768 M
ammonium ion to 1 M ammonia.
Top
Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution after Addition of a Small Amount of
Acid
When a strong acid (H3O+) is added to a buffer solution the conjugate base present in
the buffer consumes the hydronium ion converting it into water and the weak acid of
the conjugate base.
A-(aq) + H3O+(aq) --> H2O(l) + HA(aq)
This results in a decrease in the amount of conjugate base present and an increase in
the amount of the weak acid. The pH of the buffer solution decreases by a very small
amount because of this ( a lot less than if the buffer system was not present). An
"ICE" chart is useful in determining the pH of the system after a strong acid has been
added.

Example: 50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl was added to a buffer consisting of 0.025 moles
of sodium acetate and 0.030 moles of acetic acid. What is the pH of the buffer after
the addition of the acid? Ka of acetic acid is 1.7 x 10-5.
First, write the equation for the ionization of acetic acid in water and the related
Ka expression rearranged to solve for the hydronium ion concentration.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
[H3O+] = Ka[CH3COOH]
[CH3COO-]
Second, make an "ICE" chart. Let "x" represent the hydronium ion
concentration once equilibrium has been re-established. We will assume that
all of the added acid is consumed.
Initial Amount
Change in Amount
Equilibrium Amount

CH3COOH(aq)
0.030 moles
+ 0.005 moles
0.035 moles

H3O+(aq)
(0.0500 L)(0.100 M) = 0.0050 moles
-0.005 moles
x

CH3COO-(aq)
0.025 moles
- 0.005 moles
0.020 moles

Substitute into the Ka expression and solve for the hydronium ion
concentration. Convert the answer into pH.
[H3O+] = (1.7 x 10-5)(0.035/0.020) = 2.975 x 10-5
pH = 4.53
Top
Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution after Addition of a Small Amount of
Strong Base
When a strong base (OH-) is added to a buffer solution, the hydroxide ions are
consumed by the weak acid forming water and the weaker conjugate base of the acid.
The amount of the weak acid decreases while the amount of the conjugate base
increases. This prevents the pH of the solution from significantly rising, which it
would if the buffer system was not present.
OH-(aq) + HA(aq) --> H2O(l) + A-(aq)

The process for finding the pH of the mixture after a strong base has been added is
similar to the addition of a strong acid shown in the previous section.
Example: Calculate the pH of a buffer solution that initially consists of 0.0400 moles
of ammonia and 0.0250 moles of ammonium ion, after 20.0 mL of 0.75 M NaOH has
been added to the buffer. Ka for ammonium ion is 5.6 x 10-10.
First, write the equation for the ionization of the ammonium ion and the related
Ka expression solved for the hydronium ion concentration.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)
[H3O+] = Ka[NH4+]
[NH3]
Second, make an "ICE" chart. Let "x" be the concentration of the hydronium
ion at equilibrium. The change in the amount of the ammonium ion will be
equal to the amount of strong base added (075 M x 0.0200 L = 0.0015 mol).
Initial Amount
Change in Amount
Equilibrium Amont

NH4+(aq)
0.0250 moles
- 0.0015 moles
0.0235 moles

H3O+(aq)
* not needed
* not needed
x

NH3(aq)
0.0400 moles
+ 0.0015 moles
0.0415 moles

Third, substitute into the Ka expression and solve for the hydronium ion
concentration. Convert the answer into pH.
[H3O+] = (5.6 x 10-10)(0.0235/0.0415) = 3.17 x 10-10
pH = 9.50
Top
Calculation of the Buffer Capacity
The buffer capactity refers to the maximum amount of either strong acid or strong
base that can be added before a significant change in the pH will occur. This is simply
a matter of stoichiometry. The maximum amount of strong acid that can be added is
equal to the amount of conjugate base present in the buffer. The maximum amount of
base that can be added is equal to the amount of weak acid present in the buffer.

Example: What is the maximum amount of acid that can be added to a buffer made
by the mixing of 0.35 moles of sodium hydrogen carbonate with 0.50 moles of sodium
carbonate? How much base can be added before the pH will begin to show a
significant change?
First, write the equation for the ionization of the weak acid, in this case of
hydrogen carbonate. Although this step is not truly necessary to solve the
problem, it is helpful in identifying the weak acid and its conjugate base.
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
Second, added strong acid will react with the conjugate base, CO 32-. Therefore,
the maximum amount of acid that can be added will be equal to the amount of
CO32-, 0.50 moles.
Third, added strong base will react with the weak acid, HCO 3-. Therefore, the
maximum amount of base that can be added will be equal to the amount of
HCO3-, 0.35 moles.
http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/howtosolveit/Equilibrium/Buffers.ht

You prepare 1.0 L of a 0.25 M acetic acid solution with a final pH of 6.0. What are the molar
concentrations of all relevant acetic acid species ( [HA] and [A]) given that the Ka for acetic
acid is 1.74105 M?
I am getting confused with this problem.
Since the pH is given, I know what the [H+] is. So now when I try to do the ICE table

InitialChangeEndHA0.25x0.25xH+0+x+xA0+x+x
And from here I begin to assume [H+]=[A], which I am not sure about. Then I
set x=106.0=1106 so I get [A]=1106 M and [HA]=0.24999 M which I think is
incorrect, and to even further ensure my that it's incorrect, when I attempt to check
the Ka value with this, it does not match.
My second approach: [HA]=0.25 M
In this I determine the pKa from the Ka which turns out to be 4.759, which indicates that
there should be more [A] than [HA].
I now use the HendersonHasselbalch equation:

6.017.4017.40[A]=4.759+log([A][HA])=[A][HA]=[A]0.25 M=4.35 M
I feel more confident about my second answer.
Can someone please help me out with this particular problem and perhaps tell me
procedure I should use as well as what the correct answer should come out to be and why?
http://chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/24240/how-to-calculate-theconcentration-of-all-relevant-species-in-a-buffer-of-a-give
5
What is discrepancy between the calculated pH and the experimental pH of the
buffer solution?

EDIT

Answer by 3u8rbba98edy2
CONFIDENCE VOTES30.9K
Air. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere enters the aqueous
solution and forms carbonic acid, which increases the concentration
of hydronium, thus lowering the pH.
http://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_discrepancy_between_the_calculated_pH_and_t
he_experimental_pH_of_the_buffer_solution

Determine pH with pH indicator strips /

universal indicator solution

Our Objective
To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper / universal indicator.
1. Dilute hydrochloric acid.
2. Dilute NaOH solution.
3. Dilute ethanoic acid solution.
4. Lemon juice.
5. Water.
6. Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution.

The Theory
Can you define pH?
pH is defined as the negative logarithm(base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration in
moles per litre. pH is written as:

Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water molecules.
Thus, H+must always be shown as H+(aq) or hydronium ion(H3O+):

How do we represent the pH of a neutral solution?

Neutral solution has pH value 7. pH of acid solution is always less than 7, whereas that
of alkaline solution is always more than 7. pH of pure water is 7 or [H+]=10 -7 mol/L .

What is a pH indicator?
pH indicator is a chemical that turns different colors in different media. For example,
blue litmus turns red in acidic medium; the red litmus turns blue in alkaline medium.

What is a litmus solution?

Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from a Thallophyte known as Lichen.
Litmus solution when in neutral medium (i.e., neither acidic nor basic) is greenish in
colour.

What are the commonly used indicators to determine pH of a

solution?
Litmus solution and litmus paper are commonly used as an indicator. pH paper is a
piece or a strip of paper which is coated with pH-indicator.

Know what a pH scale is?

A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration is known as pH scale. In the term pH,
p stands for 'potenz' in German meaning power.

Learning Outcomes
1. Students understand the terms pH, acidic, basic and

neutral through the

experiments.
2. Students acquire the following skills after performing the experiment.
o

How to measure the pH of a given solution using pH paper or universal

indicator solution.

How to classify the sample as acidic, basic or neutral based on the pH

value.

How to correlate the values obtained from the experiment with the pH
scale

Q2

Can the colorimetric method be used to determine the pH

of water? milk? blood? Why?
Follow

2 answers
Report Abuse

Answers

Best Answer: No, pH is dependant on the concentration of hydrogen ions. Colorimetry requires a
change in absorbance of a particular wavelength of light at different concentrations of the species to be
determined. Hydrogen ions are not coloured and hence cannot be used in colorimetry.

https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070624043332AAn4TP8

pH
pH Related Material
CURE DISEASE ~ BACTERIA ~ MENU

INTRODUCTION TO "pH" (revised May 9th 2004, still needs

more work)
Your "pH" is very important to your health, and is a Major
concern.
LOW "pH": If your "pH" is too low (consumption of too much
ACIDITY, which is very common), it wears your body down;

the ACIDS attack your glands, its a struggle to live, and you can
easily catch many diseases. Acidity also cause OBESITY and
OVER WEIGHT problems.
HIGH "pH": If you maintain a high pH you will experience less
disease, better health, less weight gain, better temperament, and
not only will you be nicer to everyone around you, but everyone
will be nicer to you (with only the occasional intentional use of
Low pH to kill off bacteria & viruses, which live at the same pH
of 7.4, which is the same pH which live at).
CONCLUSIONS: pH is one of the most important things in
both Mental Health and Physical Health, and I urge you to read
this entire page. I am convinced (after reading and studying
many aspects of health and nutrition) that "Low pH" alone, is
the Root Cause for at least 50% of diseases leading to
hospitalization, cancer on down the line, etc, etc, including
psychological disturbances, and that people who DRINK
WATER are generally HEALTHY PEOPLE (you need a half
gallon to 1.5 gallons max per day as per The Merck Manual,
standard medical reference). Those people who drink Water
don't have the same problems that everyone else does. They
don't have to join A.A., they don't have to be hospitalized for
Psychological disturbances (unless depressed, in which case 100
mg of B Vitamins daily will fix that quick, B1 Thiamine, B2
Riboflavin, B6 Pyridoxine, and B12 Cobalium, in the form of a
B Complex or B Stress or B 1000 or B 100 sold at most
groceries).
ANY BEVERAGE provides you with necessary FLUIDS for
survival, but ONLY WATER will help you maintain a proper
"pH".

SODA, JUICES, COFFEE & TEA are NOT a Substitute for

WATER:
as Soda (and other beverages) have a dangerously low pH. I
shake hands with people, and 30 to 60 seconds later my hand is
burning due to their low pH, I can imagine how much they are
suffering (but they are used to it, but if they only knew, and I do
try to help them when I can). I have a health food expert friend
who works in the medical industry, and she tells me of patients
who come in with major problems, and their blood test results
show a very low level of pH (near death). No wonder. They
don't drink water. They think other beverages will do.
"pH factor", is a NUMBER, which represents the range or
scale of ACIDITY (which eat away at things) to ALKALINE or
BASE (which builds up).
http://www.archure.net/salus/ph.html

Acidic and Alkaline Food List

What You Need To Know About Being Healthy & Alkaline
The benefits of being alkaline is an opportunity not just to talk about, but
to experience an extraordinary, healthy lifestyle.
People vary, but for most the ideal diet is 80% alkalizing and 20% acidifying foods by
volume.
Being alkaline attempts to answer the question of how can we prevent our health from
deteriorating, or better yet, how can we regain our youth. Being alkaline is your chance
to learn how to create a level of consistent health and energy. When applied seriously,
you will see the vitality first hand by the results it will produce.
A major part that plays an importance in being alkaline is to hydrate your body properly.
Since the water we drink provides for all cellular and bodily functions (like digestion,
respiration, perspiration, elimination, etc.), the decrease in our daily water intake affects

the efficiency of all cellular activity. Water is also quite possibly the single most
important catalyst in losing weight and keeping it off.
Another major part of being alkaline is simply the foods you eat. Do you ever wonder
why children have so much energy? They are constantly running, playing and
expending energy that seems to come from a never ending supply. We all used to be
like that. Ever wonder why we've changed?
Although this change in energy takes place over a number of years, you could get a
glimpse of what causes it by observing your daily activities. Take a moment to recall the
last time you had pasta, steak, eggs, or a hamburger. How did you feel 20 minutes
afterwards? Did you feel an almost immediate drop in energy? This is where being
alkaline changes things.
These 2 important factors combined will help your body regain that lost energy and help
with the causes of illnesses and diseases.

...ACIDIC FOODS...
ACIDIFYING SWEETENERS
Carob
Corn Syrup
Sugar
ACIDIFYING ALCOHOL
Beer
Hard Liquor
Spirits
Wine
ACIDIFYING OTHER FOODS
Catsup
Cocoa
Coffee
Mustard
Pepper
Soft Drinks
Vinegar
ACIDIFYING DRUGS & CHEMICALS
Aspirin
Chemicals

...ALKALINE FOODS...
ALKALIZING PROTEIN
Almonds
Chestnuts
Millet
Tempeh (fermented)
Tofu (fermented)
Whey Protein Powder
ALKALIZING SWEETENERS
Stevia
ALKALIZING SPICES & SEASONINGS
Chili Pepper
Cinnamon
Curry
Ginger
Herbs (all)
Miso
Mustard
Sea Salt
Tamari
ALKALIZING OTHER
Alkaline Antioxidant Water

Drugs, Medicinal
Drugs, Psychedelic
Herbicides
Pesticides
Tobacco

Apple Cider Vinegar

Bee Pollen
Fresh Fruit Juice
Green Juices
Lecithin Granules
Mineral Water
Molasses, blackstrap
Probiotic Cultures
Soured Dairy Products
Veggie Juices

ACIDIFYING JUNK FOOD

Beer: pH 2.5
Coca-Cola: pH 2
Coffee: pH 4

** These foods leave an alkaline ash but

have an acidifying effect on the body.

ALKALIZING MINERALS
Calcium: pH 12
Cesium: pH 14
Magnesium: pH 9
Potassium: pH 14
Sodium: pH 14
Although it might seem that citrus fruits
would have an acidifying effect on the
body, the citric acid they contain actually
has an alkalinizing effect in the system.
Note that a food's acid or alkaline
forming tendency in the body has
nothing to do with the actual pH of the
food itself. For example, lemons are very
acidic, however the end products they
produce after digestion and assimilation
are very alkaline so, lemons are alkaline
forming in the body. Likewise, meat will
test alkaline before digestion, but it
leaves very acidic residue in the body
so, like nearly all animal products, meat
is very acid forming.

More info: www.FreshAlkalineWater.com

MILDLY ALKALINE
Almond Milk

MODERATELY ALKALINE
Fresh Coconut Water

HIGHLY ALKALINE
pH 9.5 Water

Distilled Water
Artichokes
Asparagus
Brussels Sprouts
Cauliflower
Comfrey
Kohlrabi
Lamb's Lettuce
Leeks
New Baby Potatoes
Peas
Pumpkin
Onion
Rutabaga
Swede
Squash (Butternut, Summer,
etc.)
Watercress
White Cabbage
Coconut
Grapefruit
Pomegranate
Almonds
Fennel Seeds
Lentils
Tofu
Sesame Seeds

Green Drinks
Arugula
Beets
Basil
Capsicum/Pepper
Cabbage Lettuce
Carrot
Chives
Collard/Spring Greens
Coriander
Endive
Ginger
Green Beans
Leeks
Lettuce
Mustard Greens
Okra
Radish
Red Cabbage
Red Onion
Turnip
Zucchini
Lemon
Lime
Rhubarb
Butter Beans
Lima Beans
Soy Beans (fresh)
White (Navy) Beans

Herbs & Spices

Avocado Oil
Olive Oil
Coconut Oil
Flax Oil
Grapeseed Oil
Hemp Oil
pH Miracle Omega 3-6-9 Oil

Chia/Salba Seeds
Hemp Seeds
Quinoa

Himalayan Salt
Real Salt
Avocado
Broccoli
Cabbage
Celery
Cucumber
Endive
Garlic
Grasses (alfalfa, kamut, straw,
shave, wheatgrass, etc.)
Kale
Parsley
Sprouts (alfalfa, bean, pea, soy, etc.)
Spinach
Tomato
Soy Nuts. . .
(soaked soybeans, then air-dried)
Soy lecithin, pure

HIGHLY ACIDIC
Alcohol
Coffee & Black Tea
Fruit Juice (sweetened)

Cocoa
Honey
Jam
Jelly
Mustard
Miso
Rice Syrup
Vinegar
Yeast
Dried Fruit
Beef
Chicken
Eggs
Farmed Fish
Pork
Shellfish
White Rice
Cheese
Dairy
Artificial Sweeteners
Syrup
Mushroom

MODERATELY ACIDIC

MILDLY ACIDIC

Fresh, Natural Juice

Rice, Soy, & Coconut Milk

Ketchup
Mayonnaise
Butter

Cantaloupe
Fresh Dates
Nectarine
Plum
Sweet Cherry
Watermelon

Apple
Apricot
Banana
Blackberry
Blueberry
Cranberry
Grapes
Guava
Mango
Mangosteen
Orange
Peach
Papaya
Pineapple
Strawberry
Goat's Cheese
Vegan Cheese

Black Beans
Garbanzo Beans
Kidney Beans
Seitan
Amaranth
Buckwheat Groats
Buckwheat Pasta
Millet
Oats/Oatmeal
Soybeans
Spelt
Cous Cous
Rice/Soy/Hemp Protein

Brown Rice
Rye Bread
Wheat
Whole meal Bread
Wild Rice
Whole meal Pasta
Walnuts
Ocean Fish

Freshwater Wild Fish

Brazil Nuts
Flax Seeds
Hazelnuts
Macadamia Nuts
Pecans
Pumpkin Seeds

Sunflower Seeds
Sunflower Oil

ALKALINE FOODS
VEGETABLES
Artichokes
Arugula
Asparagus
Avocado
Basil
Beets
Broccoli
Brussels Srpouts
Cabbage
Cabbage Lettuce
Capsicum/Pepper
Carrot
Cauliflower
Celery
Chives
Collard/Spring Greens
Comfrey
Coriander
Cucumber
Endive
Endive
Garlic
Ginger
Grasses
Green Beans
Kale
Kohlrabi

FRUITS
Avocado
Coconut
Grapefruit
Lemon
Lime
Pomegranate
Rhubarb
Tomato

DRINKS
Almond Milk
Fresh Vegetable Juice

ACID FOODS
MEATS
Pork
Lamb
Beef
Chicken
Turkey
Custaceans
Other Seafood (apart
from occasional oily fish
such as salmon)

OTHERS
Vinegar
White Pasta

DAIRY PRODUCTS
Milk
Eggs
Cheese
Cream
Yogurt
Ice Cream

DRINKS
Fizzy Drinks
Coffee

Green Drinks
Herbal Tea
Lemon Water (pure
water + fresh lemon or
lime)
Non-sweetened Soy Milk
Pure Water (distilled,
reverse osmosis,
ionized)
Vegetable Broth

SEEDS, NUTS & GRAINS

Lamb's Lettuce
Leeks
Leeks
Lettuce
Mustard Greens
New Baby Potatoes
Okra
Onion
Parsley
Peas
Pumpkin
Radish
Red Cabbage
Red Onion
FATS & OILS

Flax
Hemp
Avocado
Olive
Evening Primrose
Borage
Oil Blends
General Guidance:

Almonds
Any Sprouted Seed
Buckwheat Groats
Caraway Seeds
Cumin Seeds
Fennel Seeds
Hemp Seeds
Lentils
Sesame Seeds
Spelt

OTHERS

White Bread
Wholemeal Bread
Biscuits
Soy Sauce
Tamari
Condiments (Tomato
Sauce, Mayonnaise etc.)
Artificial Sweeteners
Honey

CONVENIENCE FOODS
Sweets
Chocolate
Microwave Meals
Tinned Foods
Powdered Soups
Instant Meals
Fast Food

FRUITS

Sprouts (soy, alfalfa,

All fruits, aside from
mung bean, wheat, little those listed in the
radish, chickpea,
alkaline column.
broccoli, etc.)
Hummus
Tahini

General Guidance:

Tea
Beers
Spirits
Fruit Juice
Dairy Smoothies
Milk
Traditional Tea

FATS & OILS

Saturated Fats
Hydrogenated Oils
Margarine (worse than
butter)
Corn Oil
Vegetable Oil
Sunflower Oil

SEEDS & NUTS

Peanuts
Cashew Nuts
Pistachio Nuts

Stick to salads, fresh vegetables and healthy

nuts and oils. Try to consume plenty of raw
foods and at least 2-3 liters of clean, pure water
daily.

Steer clear of fatty meats, dairy, cheese, sweets,

chocolates, alcohol and tobacco. Packaged foods
are often full of hidden offenders and micro waved
meals are full of sugars and salts. Over cooking
also removes all of the nutrition from a meal.

More info: www.FreshAlkalineWater.com

Did You Know?

Acid and Alkaline Understanding pH Balance

Balance is an important concept. When it comes to the body, balance is what helps our
bodies function properly. For example, we know that when the body works hard it must
also get sufficient rest. When the body inhales, it must also exhale. When the body
consumes calories, it needs to burn them as well. And we know that since the body is
able to produce toxins, it must also be capable of eliminating them.
The body is an amazing creation. An assortment of vitamins, minerals, sugars, amino
acids, fatty acids and various trace elements are responsible for helping it grow and
function properly. The reason for this is simple: Each of these components was
designed with a special purpose. Working alone or in conjunction with other
components, the body is able to wake up and do all the daily activities we take for
granted.
What does all this have to do with understanding pH balance? Well, even though the
body is made up of an assortment of components, every single one can be categorized
as either a basic substance (also known as alkaline) or an acid substance. Having equal
amounts of acids and alkaline will define what is meant by the term, pH balance.
Acids and alkaline substances are interesting in that their characteristics oppose each
other and complement each other, often at the same time. A healthy body must have a
balance of acids and alkaline. Getting the proper balance isnt that difficult for those who
eat a nutritionally-balanced diet. Unfortunately, most people dont do this. When pH
levels inside the body are not in balance, a number of health issues can result.

What is Acidic or Acid?

Whether or not a substance is classified as an acid has to do with what happens when
the substance dissolves in water. If the substance releases hydrogen ions, it is
considered acid. The number of hydrogen ions that are released is what determines
whether a substance is more acid or less.
Another way to identify an acid is by tasting it. Most of us automatically classify lemons,
rhubarbs and vinegar as acidic solely because of the way they taste. We dont realize
that strawberries and tomatoes and plenty of other foods are acids too. The only reason
foods that are classified as acids dont taste acidic is because they do not release as
many hydrogen ions as do other noticeably acidic foods.
Besides taste, acids have another noticeable characteristic. By nature, acids are harsh
and can even be corrosive. Water, which dilutes a substance, is what helps acids
assume this corrosive power. When we eat, water appears in the form of saliva.
Many cleaning products on the market today get their power from acids. We have come
to believe that these amazing products contain some type of miracle ingredient, but that
simply isnt true. Next time you notice a build-up of calcium deposits on your pots and
pans or inside your sink, rub on a bit of vinegar and watch them disappear. Do you
know about the cola experiment? If you drop a coin into the soda, after two days, the
surface develops scars and pits. Whats more interesting is that a piece of meat will be
completely dissolved after this time!
Never rely on taste to determine whether a food is acidic. If youve ever eaten meat, you
know it does not have an acid taste yet it is an extremely acid food. Taste will fool you.
Acids are easily neutralized which will lessen the acid taste, as will eating a combination
of foods.
The most reliable way to determine acidity is by measuring a substances pH level.
There is another way, but that would entail an analysis of a substances mineral content.
As mentioned in the beginning, minerals are classified as either acid or an alkaline.
Silicon, chlorine, fluoride, iodine, sulfur and phosphorus are the acidic minerals.
Calcium, potassium, manganese, magnesium, copper, and iron are alkaline.
Mineral water, which contains minerals, can be either acid or alkaline depending on
which minerals are predominant. When calcium and magnesium are present the mineral

water is alkaline. Mineral water is acidic when carbon dioxide, sulfur, and chlorine are
present. The same logic applies to foods. A hazelnut, which has a high phosphorus
content, is more acid than an almond which does not have as much.

What is Alkaline?

When a substance does not give up its hydrogen ions after being placed in a solution of
water, it is considered less acidic. In other words, the substance is alkaline. Alkaline
substances differ from acids in that they are not corrosive; they are much gentler.
Calcium is the most prominent mineral inside the body. Most of the calcium, about two
pounds worth, is found in the skeletal bones.
An alkaline is good for alleviating acidity inside the body. That is why milk is often
prescribed in cases of accidental ingestion of poisons that are acidic and also why
potato juice can soothe an acid stomach. Foods that are alkaline would never pass the
acid taste test because they have no acid taste at all.
As with acids, taste should not be relied upon to determine alkalinity. Youd never think
of white sugar or bread as acids but in fact neither is considered an alkaline. It is not
until the body begins to digest and utilize these foods that their acids are released.
Interesting Water Facts

You Need to Know

1. Roughly 75 percent of an adults body is made up of water.
2. At birth, water accounts for approximately 80 percent of an infants body
weight.
3. A healthy person can drink about three gallons (48 cups) of water per
day.
4. Drinking too much water too quickly can lead to water intoxication.
Water intoxication occurs when water dilutes the sodium level in the
bloodstream and causes an imbalance of water in the brain.
5. Water intoxication is most likely to occur during periods of intense
athletic performance.

6. While the daily recommended amount of water is eight cups per day, not
all of this water must be consumed in the liquid form. Nearly every food
or drink item provides some water to the body.
7. Soft drinks, coffee, and tea, while made up almost entirely of water, also
contain caffeine. Caffeine can act as a mild diuretic, preventing water
from traveling to necessary locations in the body.
8. Pure water (solely hydrogen and oxygen atoms) has a neutral pH of 7,
which is neither acidic nor basic.
9. Water dissolves more substances than any other liquid. Wherever it
travels, water carries chemicals, minerals, and nutrients with it.
10.
Somewhere between 70 and 75 percent of the earths surface is
covered with water.
More Useful Water Facts

You Need to Know

1. Much more fresh water is stored under the ground in aquifers than on
the earths surface.
2. The earth is a closed system, similar to a terrarium, meaning that it
rarely loses or gains extra matter. The same water that existed on the
earth millions of years ago is still present today.
3. The total amount of water on the earth is about 326 million cubic miles
of water.
4. Of all the water on the earth, humans can used only about three tenths
of a percent of this water. Such usable water is found in groundwater
aquifers, rivers, and freshwater lakes.
5. The United States uses about 346,000 million gallons of fresh water
every day.
6. The United States uses nearly 80 percent of its water for irrigation and
thermoelectric power.

7. The average person in the United States uses anywhere from 80-100
gallons of water per day. Flushing the toilet actually takes up the largest
amount of this water.
8. Approximately 85 percent of U.S. residents receive their water from
public water facilities. The remaining 15 percent supply their own water
from private wells or other sources.
9. By the time a person feels thirsty, his or her body has lost over 1 percent
of its total water amount.
10.
The weight a person loses directly after intense physical activity is
weight from water, not fat.
http://www.astinternational.com/alkalineacidicfoods.html