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24
C.T. Sun
School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Purdue University
W. Lafayette, Indiana U.S.A.
June, 2007
1.1
Figure 1.16
T
2abt
Solution:
(1) The bending stress of beams is =
My
, where y is the distance from the neutral
I
1
wh 3 + Ad 2 ) in which A is the
12
cross-sectional area of the segment and d is the distance of the centroid of the
segment to the neutral axis. Note that the Parallel Axis Theorem is applied. The
result is I = 2
1 3
1
b
tb 2
tb + 2 [ at 3 + (at ) ( ) 2 ]
(3a + b) , assuming that t is
12
12
2
6
very small.
(2) The shear stress due to torsion for a closed thin-walled section shown above is
T
.
2abt
1.1.1
b
M
My
3M
2
=
= 2
(a) | b =
y=
I
tb(3a + b)
tb
2
(3a + b)
6
When given L = 2( a + b) as a constant, a can be expressed in terms of b
and L as a =
S=
L
b . Then we can minimize
2
S
t
3L
L
L
, so a = b =
= 0 (3L 8b) = 0 b =
b
6
8
2
8
b
=3
a
3M
3M
32M
=
=
tb(3a + b) t (3L / 8) (3 L / 8 + 3L / 8) 3tL2
(b) Check max with T = M and b/a = 3 and check whether max is within
the allowable shear stress allowable .
Thus, max =
max =
T
M
32M
=
=
= max = allowable
2abt 2 ( L / 8) (3L / 8) t 3tL2
> allowable =
allowable
2
The result above means that under this assumption, shear stress would
reach the allowable stress allowable before reaches allowable . Consequently,
the optimal ratio obtained is not valid and different assumption needs to be
made.
(ii) Assume now that failure is controlled by shear stress. We assume that
max = allowable is reached first and then find the corresponding bending stress
according to the loading condition M = T .
T
2abt
Again we minimize S = 2abt = ( L 2b)bt in order to maximize , i.e.,
(a) =
1.1.2
S
L
L
L
= 0 ( L 4b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b
4
2
4
b
=1
a
T
T
8T
=
= 2
2abt 2 ( L / 4) ( L / 4) t tL
(b) Then corresponding max under the optimum condition stated above can
and max =
max =
This means that when the structure fails in shear, the bending stress is
still within the allowable stress level. Thus the optimum ratio
b
= 1 is
a
valid.
(4) In conclusion,
b
= 1 achieves the most efficient section for the stated conditions.
a
--- ANS
1.1.3
1.2
Figure 1.16
Solution:
My
, where y is the distance from the neutral
I
axis. The moment of inertia I of the cross-section can be calculated by considering
the four segments of thin walls and using the formula for a rectangular section
1
with height h and width w. I = ( wh 3 + Ad 2 ) in which A is the
12
cross-sectional area of the segment and d is the distance of the centroid of the
segment to the neutral axis. Note that the Parallel Axis Theorem is applied. The
1
1
b
tb 2
result is I = 2 tb 3 + 2 [ at 3 + (at ) ( ) 2 ]
(3a + b) , assuming that t is
12
12
2
6
very small.
(2) The shear stress due to torsion for a closed thin-walled section shown above is
T
.
=
2abt
(3) Two approaches are employed to find the solution.
(i) Assume that the bending stress reaches the allowable allowable first and find
the corresponding bending maximum bending moment. Then apply the stated
loading condition of M = T to check whether the corresponding max has
exceeded the allowable shear stress allowable . If this condition is violated, then
the optimized b/a ratio is not valid.
b
M
My
3M
2
= 2
=
(a) | b =
y=
I
tb(3a + b)
tb
2
(3a + b)
6
When given L = 2( a + b) as a constant, a can be expressed in terms of b
1.2.1
and L as a =
S=
L
b . Then we can minimize
2
S
t
3L
L
L
, so a = b =
= 0 (3L 8b) = 0 b =
b
6
8
2
8
b
=3
a
3M
3M
32M
=
=
tb(3a + b) t (3L / 8) (3 L / 8 + 3L / 8) 3tL2
(b) Check max with M = T and b/a = 3 and check whether max is
within the allowable shear stress allowable .
32M
1
T
M /
=
=
= max
max =
2
allowable allowable
(a) max =
S
L
L
L
= 0 ( L 4b) = 0 b = , so a = b =
b
4
2
4
b
=1
a
T
T
8T
and max =
=
= 2
2abt 2 ( L / 4) ( L / 4) t tL
(b) Then corresponding max under the optimum condition stated above can
be obtained using M = T . We have
3M
3T
12T 3
max =
=
=
= max
tb(3a + b) t ( L / 4) (3 L / 4 + L / 4)
2
tL2
3
3
3
= allowable = ( allowable ) = allowable
2
2
2
4
3
Since max allowable allowable allowable
4
4
(since allowable > 0 is always satisfied)
3
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.3
The dimensions of a steel (300M) I-beam are b = 50 mm, t = 5 mm, and h = 200
mm (Fig. 1.17). Assume that t and h are to be fixed for an aluminum(7075-T6)
I-beam. Find the width b for the aluminum beam so that its bending stiffness EI
is equal to that of the steel beam. Compare the weights-per-unit length of these
two beams. Which is more efficient weightwise?
Figure 1.17
Solution:
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for an I-beam is:
I=
t
b
h
(h t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] 2 ,
12
12
2
(2) First obtaining the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b,
t, and h.
5
50
200 2
(200 5) 3 + [ 5 3 + (50 5)(
) ] 2 = 8090573mm 4
12
12
2
(3) For the given condition ( EI ) Alu min um = ( EI ) Steel
I Steel =
E St
200
I St =
8090573 = 22790000mm 4
E Al
71
we have I Al =
which allows to calculate the width b for the aluminum beam with the following
result:
5
b
200 2
( 200 5 )3 + [ 5 3 + ( b 5 )(
) ]2
12
12
2
= 3089531.3 + 100020.8b = 22790000
I Al =
and b = 197 mm
---- ANS
(4) Then we compare the weights-per-unit length of these two beams.
1.3.1
St = 7.8( g / cm 3 ) = 7.8 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
ASt = (200 5) 5 + 2 50 5 = 1475( mm 2 )
Al = 2.78( g / cm 3 ) = 2.78 10 3 ( g / mm 3 )
AAl = ( 200 5 ) 5 + 2 196.97 5 = 2945( mm 2 )
w Al = Al AAl = 2.78 10 3 2944.7 = 8.2( g / mm )
For a unit length of both materials, the aluminum beam is much lighter than the
steel beam. It means that the ALUMINUM BEAM IS MORE EFFICIENT!
--- ANS
1.3.2
1.4
Figure 1.17
Solution:
Proceed in the same manner as that of problem 1.3.
(1) The expression of area moment of inertia I for a I-beam is:
I=
t
b
h
(h t ) 3 + [ t 3 + (bt )( ) 2 ] 2
12
12
2
(2) First, obtain the area moment of inertia of the steel (300M) I-beam with given b, t,
and h. We have
I Steel =
5
50
200 2
(200 5) 3 + [ 5 3 + (50 5)(
) ] 2 = 8090573mm 4
12
12
2
E St
200
I St =
8090573 = 11558000mm 4
ECom
140
I Com =
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.5
Solution:
(1) Consider a very small section within the curved panel with thickness t and length
L . is the constant shear stress, so we have the shear force V = ( L t )
acting on the cross section.
(2) It is possible to take apart the shear force into x and y direction shown in the
figure, where
V x = V cos = L t cos = t (L cos )
= t x
similarly, V y = t y
(3) Now consider the length to be extremely small, therefore V x dV x as well as
V y dV y . The horizontal component and the vertical component of the shear
V x = dVx = t dx = t a
0
V y = dV y = t dy = t b
0
1.5.1
1.6
The sign convention (positive direction of resultants) used in the beam theory
depends on the coordinate system chosen. Consider the moment-curvature
relation
d 2w
M = EI 2
dx
in reference to the coordinate system shown in Fig. 1.18. If w is regarded as a
positive displacement (or deflection) in the positive y-direction, find the positive
direction of the bending moment. State the reason.
Figure 1.18
Solution:
d 2w
d 2w
gives
that
is always
dx 2
dx 2
opposite in sign to M. (It is quite obvious that both E and I are always positive.).
(2) We can assume a moment M applying to the beam as shown below, which makes
(1) The moment-curvature relation M = EI
the beam concave upwards. It is not difficult to observe that the slope
increases with increasing x and thus a positive
dw
dx
d 2w
.
dx 2
(3) By applying the statement (1), it is concluded that the deformation described in (2)
is produced by a negative moment while a positive moment makes the beam
concave downward as shown below..
1.6.1
1.7
Figure 1.19
Solution:
When using the bending rigidity ( EI ) as a criterion for comparison, Youngs modulus
E and the area moment of inertia I should be estimated.
(1) Youngs modulus E :
Assume the Youngs modulus of the beam having the left-hand-side
cross-section and the right-hand-side cross-section are
El
and
Er
respectively.
(2) Moment of inertia I :
(i) Left cross-section:
Il =
1 4 1
a = 4 4 = 21.33cm 4
12
12
b
bt 3
( a + 2b) 3
a
12
12
or { I r =
--- (a)
t 3
1
a b
a + [ b4 + b2 ( + )2 ] 2 }
12
12
2 2
1.7.1
2.7568
(4 + 2 2.7568 )3 (2.7568 0.2 ) 4 3 = 184 cm 4
12
12
or { I r =
0 .2 3
1
4 2.7568 2
4 + [ 2.7568 4 + 2.7568 2 ( +
) ] 2 = 184 cm 4 }
12
12
2
2
(3) Performance:
The ratio of the moments of inertia of the two cross-sections can be expressed as
( EI )l
EI
21.33 El
El
E
= l l =
=
= 0.12 l
( EI )r Er I r 184.18 Er 8.635 Er
Er
The cross-section to the right is much better if the same material is used for
both beams.
(i) If Er < 0.12 El
The left cross-section outperforms the right one.
(ii) If Er = 0.12 El
They are equivalent.
(iii) If Er > 0.12 El
The right cross-section outperforms the left one.
--- ANS
1.7.2
w=0
(a) Sketch the deformed shape for = 0.03 , = 0.01 .
(b) Calculate the six strain components.
(c) Find the volume change V [ V = V (the volume after deformation) V0
(the original volume) ] for this unit cube. Show that xx + yy + zz V .
Solution:
(a) Since w = 0 , there is no deformation in the z-direction and the deformation can
be represented in the x-y plane.
The new position of point B after deformation is given by
x ' = 1 + u | x =1, y = 0 = 1 + 0.03 1 = 1.03
y ' = 0 + v | x =1, y =0 = 0 + ( 0.01) 0 = 0
D, 1
D
0.99
A=(0,0) A=(0,0)
B=(1,0) B=(1.03,0)
C=(1,1) C=(1.03,0.99)
D=(0,1) D=(0,0.99)
x
A, A
B
1
B
1.03
--- ANS
2.1.1
xx =
u
= = 0.03
x
yy =
v
= = 0.01
y
zz =
w
=0
z
xz = zx =
u w
+
=0
z x
yz = zy =
v w
+
=0
z y
--- ANS
V = V V0 = ( 1 + xx ) 1 ( 1 + yy ) 1 ( 1 + zz ) 1 1 1 1
= V0 ( 1 + xx + yy + zz + xx yy + xx zz + yy zz + xx yy zz 1 )
= V0 ( xx + yy + zz + xx yy + xx zz + yy zz + xx yy zz )
Since the deformation is very small, we have << 1 => higher order terms can
be dropped. Therefore we have
V V0 ( xx + yy + zz ) = xx + yy + zz ,
since V0 = 1
2.1.2
2.2
v = x
w=0
Sketch the displaced configuration of a unit cube with the faces originally
perpendicular to the axes, respectively. This displacement field does not yield
any strains; it only produces a rigid body rotation. Show that the angle of
rotation is
1 v u
=
2 x y
Solution:
(a) Consider a unit cube, the coordinates before deformation corresponding to each
corner are:
A(0,0,0),
E(0,0,1),
B(1,0,0),
F(1,0,1),
C(1,1,0),
G(1,1,1),
D(0,1,0),
H(0,1,1)
G
A
z
After deformation, we have the coordinates for each point as follows:
For point A ( denotes the point after deformation) :
x' = x + u | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0 + 0 = 0
y ' = y + v | x =0, y = 0, z = 0 = 0 + ( 0) = 0
z ' = z + w | x =0 , y =0 , z =0 = 0 + 0 = 0 ,
Thus,
B(1,0,0),
B(1,- ,0),
D( ,1,0),
H( ,1,1)
C(1,1,0),
C(1+ ,1- ,0),
D(0,1,0)
D( ,1,0)
C
C
A,A
x
B
D(0,1,0),
D( ,1,0),
H(0,1,1),
H( ,1,1),
E(0,0,1)
E(0,0,1)
E E
A,A
D D
2.2.2
E(0,0,1),
E(0,0,1,)
B(1,0,0),
B(1,- ,0),
F(1,0,1)
F(1,- ,1)
B B
A,A
E E
--- ANS
(b) Then we verify the strains are zero under this circumstance:
v
u
w
yy =
=0,
xx =
= 0,
zz =
=0
x
y
z
xy =
u v
+
= = 0 ,
y x
yz =
v w
+
= 0,
z y
xz =
u w
+
=0
z x
--- ANS
(c) If we denote the counterclockwise rotation
to be positive, we have the angle of
rotation equals to avg =
1
( 1 2 ) .
2
avg =
=
1
(1 2 ) = 1 v u
2
2 x y
1
( ) =
2
--- ANS
2.2.3
2.3
Solution:
(a) Consider the point (0,0,0), after deformation :
x' = x + u | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0
y ' = y + v | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0
z ' = z + w | x =0, y =0, z =0 = 0
(c) The change of distance between these two points after deformation.
(1) before deformation:
distance between (0,0,0) and (5,0,0), Dbefore = 5
(2) after deformation:
distance between (0,0,0) and ( 5.1 , 0 , -0.05 ),
Dafter =
= 5.100245
xx =
u
= 0.02 ,
x
xy =
u v
+
= 0.02 + 0 = 0.02 ,
y x
yy =
v
= 0.01 ,
y
yz =
v w
+
= 0.02 + 0 = 0.02 ,
z y
zz =
w
= 0.01
z
xz =
u w
+
= 0.01 0.01 = 0.02
z x
u
= 0 ,02 . The change of distance
x
2.3.2
2.4
Consider the problem of simple shear in Example 2.1 and Fig. 2.5. From the
deformed shape, find the normal strain for material along the line CB by
comparing the deformed length C ' B' and undeformed length CB .
Set up new coordinates (x,y) so that the x-axis coincides with CB , and y is
perpendicular to the x-axis. The relation between (x,y) and (x,y) is given by
x' = x cos + y sin
y ' = x sin + y cos
where = 45 o is the angle between x and the x-axis.
Write the displacements u and v in the x and y directions, respectively, in
terms of the new coordinates x and y. The relation between (u,v) and (u,v) is
the same as between (x,y) and (x,y). Then calculate the strains using u and v,
i.e.,
' xx =
u '
x'
' yy =
v'
y '
' xy =
u ' v'
+
y ' x'
Solution:
(a) The result of example 2.1 gives the new positions of A, B, C, D, which are
A(0.01,0), B(1.01,1.015), C(0,0), D(1,0.015).
From which we obtain
CB =
C ' B' =
(1 0)2 + (1 0)2
= 2 = 1.414214
= 1.431896
2.4.1
x '
x
= [ ]
y '
y
--- (1)
cos sin
where the transformation matrix is [ ] =
, and = 45 o
sin cos
From this equation we can get the equivalent form:
x
1 x '
T x'
--- (2)
= [ ] = [ ]
y
y '
y '
cos sin
1
T
Here it is easy to prove that [ ] = [ ] =
sin cos
Since displacements transform like coordinates, we can write
u '
u
= [ ]
v'
v
From example 2.1 we have the displacement field : u = 0.01 y ,
where we can also write in matrix form,
0.01 x
u 0
=
v 0.015 0 y
--- (3)
v = 0.015x ,
--- (4)
So the displacements u and v can be derived, from equation (3) and (4), and by
applying (2), set = 45 o , as follows:
0.01 x
0.01 T x'
u '
u
0
0
= [ ] = [ ]
= [ ]
[ ] y '
v'
v
0.015 0 y
0.015 0
--- ANS
(c) Strains in the new transformed coordinate and displacements are:
' xx =
u '
= 0.0125
x '
' yy =
v'
= 0.0125
y '
' xy =
u ' v'
+
= 0.0025 + 0.0025 = 0
y ' x'
--- ANS
2.4.2
xx =
boundary conditions xz = 0 at z =
Hint: From the equilibrium equation
xx xz
+
=0
x
z
we have
xz
z M
= xx =
x
z
I x
Figure 2.17
Solution:
(a) Bending moment is M = V ( L x ) ,
so
M
=V
x
(b) From the equilibrium equation for a state of plane stress parallel to the x-z plane,
we have
xz
z M
V
= xx =
= z
z
x
I x
I
V
V
Therefore, xz = z dz = z 2 + C
2I
I
2.5.1
h
2
we have
V
2I
h
+C = 0
2
So xz =
=> xz =
=>
V 2
V 2
z +C =
h 4z 2
2I
8I
C=
Vh 2
8I
also I =
bh 3
12
V 2
3V
(
(h 2 4 z 2 )
h 4z 2 ) =
8I
2bh 3
--- ANS
2.5.2
2.6
xx = 4MPa ,
xy = 2MPa ,
xz = 0
yy = 3MPa ,
yz = 0 ,
zz = 0
Find the three components of the stress vector t on the surface ABCD as shown
in Fig. 2.18. Find the normal component n of the stress vector.
Hint: From the equilibrium equation
Figure 2.18
Shape of a wedge
Solution:
{ }
t x
{t i } = t y is the stress vector on surface ABCD,
t
z
[ ]
ij
xx
= yx
zx
xy xz
x-y-z,
n x
and {n j } = n y is the normal vector to the surface ABCD,
n
z
2.6.1
BC CD
1 1
=
,
,0
BC CD 2 2
[ ]{n }, we have
t x 4 2 0 1 / 2 6 / 2 4.24
t y = 2 3 0 1 / 2 = 5 / 2 = 3.54 MPa
t 0 0 0 0 0 0
z
--- ANS
(d) The normal component n = {t} {n},
T
6
n =
2
5
2
1 / 2
11
01 / 2 = = 5.5MPa
2
0
--- ANS
2.6.2
2.7
Find the principal stresses and corresponding principal directions for the stresses
given in Problem 2.6. Check the result with other methods such as Mohrs
circle.
Solution:
(a) The stress given in problem 2.6 is
4 2 0
[ ij ] = 2 3 0 ,
0 0 0
[ ]
4
2
2
3
0
0 =0
= 0 , or =
7 17
, (which are 1.43845 and 5.56155)
2
--- ANS
(i)
When 1 = 0
We have the equations
4 n x + 2 n y = 0
2
2
2
2n x + 3n y = 0 , and also we have (n x ) + (n y ) + (n z ) = 1
0n = 0
z
n x = 0
n y = 0 , and
n = 1
z
n x
n y
n
z
(1)
0
= 0 is the corresponding principal direction
1
--- ANS
(ii)
When 2 = 1.43845
We have the equations
2.56155n x + 2n y = 0
2
2
2
2n x + 1.56155n y = 0 , and also we have (n x ) + (n y ) + (n z ) = 1
1.43845n = 0
z
2.7.1
( 2)
0.61541
= 0.78821
--- ANS
(iii) When 3 = 5.56155
We have the equations
1.56155n x + 2n y = 0
2
2
2
2n x 2.56155n y = 0 , and also we have (n x ) + (n y ) + (n z ) = 1
5.56155n = 0
z
( 3)
0.78821
= 0.61541
0
--- ANS
(b) Comparing with Mohrs circle
Since the stresses associated with z are all zero, we know one principal stress is 0,
n x
and its corresponding principal direction is n y
n
z
(1)
0
= 0 . So here we can use the
1
(4,2)
max
min
(3,-2)
According to the Mohrs circle, we have the radius of the circle
2.7.2
r=
1
2
((4 3)
+ (2 + 2 )
) = 2.06155 ,
4+3 22
The central coordinate of the circle is ( xc , y c ) =
,
= (3.5,0 )
2
2
Therefore we have the maximum and minimum stresses, respectively,
max = xc + r = 3.5 + 2.06155 = 5.56155
min = xc r = 3.5 2.06155 = 1.43845
2.7.3
2.8
0
[ ij ] = 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Show that on any surface the force (or stress vector) is always perpendicular to
the surface and that the magnitude of the stress vector is equal to 0 .
Solution:
(a) Assume any arbitrary plane surface with its normal unit vector {n} = {n x , n y , n z }.
T
The stress vector acting on this surface, from equation (2.29) in the textbook,
t x
{t} = t y =
t
z
nx
{n} = 0 n y .
n
z
[ ]
Since 0 is a scalar, the stress vector on this arbitrary surface is always parallel
to the normal vector of this surface. This leads to the conclusion that the stress
vector is always perpendicular to the surface.
--- ANS
(b) The magnitude of this stress vector t is
{t} = (t x )2 + (t y )2 + (t z )2 = 0 {n} = 0 .
--- ANS
2.8.1
2.9 An isotropic solid with Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio is under a
state of hydrostatic stress as given in Problem 2.8. Find the corresponding strain
components.
0 0
Recall: [ ij ] = 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
Solution:
(a) Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx
yy
zz
= aij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where aij are elastic compliances.
66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
1
,
E
a 44 = a 55 = a 66 =
1
,
G
(c) For a state of hydrostatic stress, we can obtain strain components with matrix
multiplication:
1
E
xx
yy
zz
=
yz
xz
xy
E
1
E
symm
E
1
E
1
G
0
1
G
0
0
0 0 E
0
0
0 E
0
0 = 0
0 E
0
0 0
(1 2 )
(1 2 )
(1 2 )
0
--- ANS
2.9.1
2.10
is identified to be equal to
xx
yy
zz
= aij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where aij are elastic compliances.
66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
1
,
E
a 44 = a 55 = a 66 =
1
,
G
(c) For arbitrary stresses, we can obtain strain components with matrix multiplication:
0
E ( xx yy zz )
E
E
0 0 0 xx ( xx + yy zz )
E
E
yy E
1
1
0 0 0 ( xx yy + zz )
zz
E
E
=
yz
1
0 0 yz
G
G
xz
xz
1
0 xy
symm
G
G
1
xy
G
G
xx
yy
zz
=
yz
xz
xy
1
( xx + yy + zz ) = K V = K ( xx + YY + zz )
3
V
1
( xx + yy + zz ) = K xx (1 2 ) + yy (1 2 ) + zz (1 2 )
3
E
K (1 2 )
( xx + yy + zz )
=
E
Thus, K =
E
3(1 2 )
--- ANS
2.10.2
xx = 0
xx = 0
x
Figure 2.19
Solution:
Recall: Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx
yy
zz
, where c ij are elastic constants.
66
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
= cij
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
or
xx
yy
zz
= aij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where aij are elastic compliances.
66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
E
E
and G =
(1 + )(1 2 )
2(1 + )
2.11.1
1
,
E
1
, and the rest are zero.
G
zz = yz = xz = 0
In this problem, we also have the following constraint condition
yy = 0
[ ] { }
66
xx + 2G
0 0 0 xx
0 0 0 yy = 0
+ 2G
yy
zz
+ 2G 0 0 0 zz = 0
=
G 0 0 yz = 0
yz
xz
symm
G 0 xz = 0
G xy
xy
Expanding the matrix multiplication, we have
xx = ( + 2G ) xx
=
yy
xx
zz = xx
yz = 0
xz = 0
xy = G xy
Comparing to the problem statement, we have
(1 ) E
(1 0.3) 70
= 94.23 GPa
k = + 2G =
=
(1 + )(1 2 ) (1 + 0.3)(1 2 0.3)
--- ANS
(b) Plane stress problem:
In plane stress problems, we have
zz = yz = xz = 0
In this problem, we also have
yy = 0
2.11.2
[ ] { }
xx
= 0
yy
zz
=
yz
xz
xy
E
1
E
E
1
E
66
1
G
symm
1
G
0 xx
yy
0 = 0
zz
= 0
0 yz
=
0
xz
0 xy
xx = E ( xx yy )
1
yy = ( xx + yy ) = 0
E
= ( + )
zz
xx
yy
yz = 0
xz = 0
1
xy = xy
xx
1
1 2
= ( xx yy ) =
xx
E
E
Thus, k =
E
70
=
= 76.92GPa under plane stress condition.
2
1
1 0 .3 2
--- ANS
2.11.3
2.12
Solution:
Recall: Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx
yy
zz
= cij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where c ij are elastic constants.
66
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
= aij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where aij are elastic compliances.
66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
[ ]
E
E
and G =
(1 + )(1 2 )
2(1 + )
1
,
E
1
, and the rest are zero.
G
(a) Aluminum alloys are usually considered isotropic, so the above three-dimensional
stress-strain relations can be utilized. Also, we have the mechanical properties for
aluminum 2024 T3: E = 72GPa , = 0.33 .
(b) If the lateral surface of the bar is not allowed to contract during loading, we have
the conditions: zz = yy = 0 . Also, we need to produce a 1 percent longitudinal
2.12.1
[ ] { }
66
to obtain stresses.
xx + 2G
0 0 0 xx = 0.01
+ 2G
0 0 0 yy = 0
yy
zz
+ 2G 0 0 0 zz = 0
=
G 0 0 yz = 0
yz
xz
symm
G 0 xz = 0
G xy = 0
xy
72
E
=
= 27.1 GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.33)
we have
--- ANS
(c) Compare with the corresponding load for the bar under simple tension.
Under simple tension, we have zz = yy = 0 and the axial stress is
2.12.2
2.13
Compare the axial stiffnesses of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 under plane strain
and plane stress conditions, respectively.
Solution:
Recall: Three dimensional stress-strain relations can be expressed as:
xx
yy
zz
= cij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where c ij are elastic constants.
66
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
= aij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where aij are elastic compliances.
66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
[ ]
E
E
and G =
(1 + )(1 2 )
2(1 + )
a11 = a 22 = a33 =
a 44 = a 55 = a 66 =
1
,
E
1
, and the rest are zero.
G
zz = yz = xz = 0
For axial loading alone, we have
xy = 0 and yy = 0
2.13.1
Expanding
xx + 2G
0 0 0 xx
+ 2G
0 0 0 yy
yy
zz
+ 2G 0 0 0 zz = 0
=
G 0 0 yz = 0
yz
xz
symm
G 0 xz = 0
G xy = 0
xy
we have
xx = ( + 2G ) xx + yy
= + ( + 2G )
xx
yy
yy
zz = ( xx + yy )
yz = 0
xz = 0
xy = 0
Applying yy = 0 , we have
xx
4G ( + G )
=
xx
( + 2G )
( + 2G )
4(27.0677)(52.5431 + 27.0677)
=
xx = 80.8 xx GPa
(52.5431 + 2 27.0677)
xx = ( + 2G ) xx +
zz = yz = xz = 0
For this problem we also have
xy = 0 and yy = 0
[ ] { }
66
2.13.2
1
E
xx
yy
zz
=
yz
xz
xy
E
1
E
E
1
E
1
G
symm
1
G
0 xx
yy = 0
0 = 0
zz
= 0
0 yz
=
0
xz
0 xy = 0
1
G
xx = E xx
yy = xx
E
zz = xx
E
yz = 0
=0
xz
xy = 0
Thus, xx = E xx = 72 xx GPa
(d) The above analysis indicates that the axial stiffness of an aluminum bar under the
plane strain condition is (80.8-72)/72 = 12% greater than that under the plane
stress condition.
--- ANS
2.13.3
2.14
Show that the state of stress of a solid body of any shape placed in a pressured
chamber is a state of hydrostatic stress. Neglect the effect of the gravitational
force.
Solution:
Assume a solid body (without internal voids) with an arbitrary shape is placed in a
pressured chamber with a pressure 0 as shown the figure below.
We will show that the hydrostatic stress listed below is the solution.
0
[ ij ] = 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
--- (1)
First the constant stress field given by (1) satisfies the 3D equilibrium equations
(2.21 2.23). Second, this stress field satisfies the boundary condition, i.e., the
traction at any point on the surface of the body is given by
0
{t} = [ ij ]{n} = 0
0
0
0
0
0 n x
0 n y = 0 {n}
0 n z
---(2)
n x
where {n} = n y is the unit normal vector to the surface at the point of interest.
n
z
Last, the constant stress field given by (1) implies that the corresponding strain field is
also constant and the compatibility equations are also satisfied. Thus, the hydrostatic
stress field given by (1) is the solution.
2.14.1
2.15
Solution:
From equation (2.95), we have the strain energy density:
1
1
W = { }T [c ]{ } = { }T [ a ]{ }
2
2
(2.15.1)
xx
yy
zz
, where c ij are elastic constants.
66
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
= cij
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
c11 = c 22 = c33 = + 2G ,
c12 = c13 = c 23 = c 21 = c 31 = c 32 = ,
c 44 = c55 = c66 = G ,
and the rest are zero.
where =
E
E
and G =
(1 + )(1 2 )
2(1 + )
xx
yy
zz
= aij
yz
xz
xy
xx
yy
zz
, where aij are elastic compliances.
66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
a11 = a 22 = a33 =
1
,
E
a 44 = a 55 = a 66 =
1
,
G
The strain energy density in terms of stress components can be derived from equation
(2.15.1) as
2.15.1
W =
1
{ xx
2
yy zz yz xz
xx
yy
zz
xy } aij 66
yz
xz
xy
[ ]
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
{ xx + yy + zz 2 ( xx yy + xx zz + yy zz ) + 2(1 + )( xy + xz + yz )}
2E
1
2
2
2
{ 1 + 2 + 3 2 ( 1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3 )}
2E
(2.15.2)
Note that the strain energy of an isotropic material compounds of two parts,
dilatational and distortional effect, i.e.,
W = Wv + W d
(2.15.3)
where Wv is the strain energy density associated with the volume dilatation and
Wd is the strain energy density associated with the shape distortion.
We know that the dilatation is given by
0 = K 0
1
V
where 0 = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) is the average stress, 0 = 1 + 2 + 3 =
is
3
V
E
is the bulk modulus.
3(1 2 )
1
1
Hence, Wv = 0 0 =
02 .
2
2K
1
J2
2G
where
1
J 2 = [( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 ]
6
2.15.2
Thus,
W =
1
1
02 +
J2
2K
2G
(2.15.4)
It is evident that W is always positive and vanishes only when all stresses components
vanish. To ensure that W be always positive, it is clear that K and G must be positive.
Noting the relations
E
E
K=
> 0 and G =
>0
3( 1 2 )
2( 1 + )
We conclude that
1 < < 0.5
--- ANS
2.15.3
2.16
2 ( xx + yy ) = 0
Solution:
(a) For simplicity, we will use the following notations for differentiations with respect
2 xy
2 xx
2 xx
=
, xx , yy =
, and xy , xy =
and so on. The
xy
x 2
y 2
to x and y: xx , xx
xx , yy + yy , xx = xy , xy
(c) The stress-strain relations for isotropic solids are
E
E
xx
xx
1
0 yy
yy =
E
E
1 xy
xy 0
0
G
Substituting the strain components into the compatibility equation, we have
1
1
1
[ ( xx yy )], yy + [ ( xx + yy )], xx = ( xy ), xy
E
E
G
=>
1
1
1
2(1 + )
xy , xy
( xx , yy yy , yy ) + ( xx , xx + yy , xx ) = xy , xy =
E
E
G
E
--- (1)
xx, x + xy , y = 0
xy , x + yy , y = 0
Differentiating the first equation by x and the second one by y, we have
xx, xx + xy , xy = 0
xy , xy + yy , yy = 0
--- (2)
xy , xy = ( xx , xx + yy , yy )
--- (3)
2.16.1
1
( xx , yy yy , yy ) + ( xx , xx + yy , xx ) = 2(1 + )[ ( xx , xx + yy , yy )]
2
=> xx , yy + yy , xx = ( xx , xx + yy , yy )
=> xx , yy + yy , xx + xx , xx + yy , yy = 0
=> 2 ( xx + yy ) = 0
where 2 =
2
2
+
x 2 y 2
--- ANS
2.16.2
2.17
Consider a thin rectangular panel loaded as shown in Fig. 2.20. Show that the
Airy stress function
= c1 x 2 + c 2 xy + c3 y 2
solves the problem. Find the constants c1, c2, c3.
y
a
Figure 2.20
Solution:
(a) Since = c1 x 2 + c 2 xy + c3 y 2 is a second order equation in x and y it
automatically satisfies the compatibility equation, 2 2 = 0 . So the given Airy
stress function can be used to solve the problem if we can find c1, c2, c3 that
satisfies the boundary conditions.
(b) Stress matrix:
xx =
2
,
y 2
=> xx = 2c3 ,
2
, => yy = 2c1 ,
x 2
2
=
=> xy = c 2
xy
yy =
xy
So we have,
2c
[ ] = 3
c 2
c2
2c1
a
, => n x = 1 , n y = 0 , t x = 0 , t y = 0
2
we have [ ]{n} = {t}
at x =
2.17.1
2c3
=>
c 2
(ii)
c 2 1 0
c3 = 0
= =>
2
2c1 0 0
c 2 = 0
b
, => n x = 0 , n y = 1 , t x = 0 , t y = 0
2
we have [ ]{n} = {t}
at y =
2c3
=>
c 2
c 2 0 0
c 2 = 0
= =>
2c1 1 0
c1 = 0
(d) The given Airy stress function is the solution to the problem and the values of the
constants are c1 = 0 , c2 = 0 and c3 =
o
2
.
--- ANS
2.17.2
Consider the a b rectangular panel shown in Fig. 2.20. Find the problem
that the Airys stress function = xy 3 solves. That is, find the tractions at the
2.18
a
Figure 2.20
Solution:
(a) It is easy to verify that the stress function = xy 3 satisfies the compatibility
equation, 2 2 = 0 .
(b) The stresses are obtained from the stress function as
xx =
2
,
y 2
=> xx = 6 xy ,
2
yy = 2 , => yy = 0 ,
x
2
xy =
=> xy = 3y 2
xy
So we have,
6xy
[ ] =
2
3 y
3y 2
a
, => n x = 1 , n y = 0 ,
2
t x 6 xy
=> =
2
t y 3 y
3 y 2 1 6 xy 3ay
=
=
2
2
0 0 3 y 3 y
--- ANS
2.18.1
(ii)
a
On the vertical face at x = , => n x = 1 , n y = 0 ,
2
we have {t} = [ ]{n}
t x 6 xy
=> =
2
t y 3 y
3 y 2 1 6 xy 3ay
= 2 = 2
0 0 3 y 3 y
--- ANS
b
, => n x = 0 , n y = 1 ,
2
3 y 2 0 3 y 2 3 b 2
= 4
=
0 1 0 0
--- ANS
b
(iv) On the bottom face at y = , => n x = 0 , n y = 1 ,
2
we have {t} = [ ]{n}
t x 6 xy
=> =
2
t y 3 y
3 y 2 0 3 y 2 3 b 2
= 4
=
0 1 0 0
--- ANS
Note: The tractions on the edges can also be found directly from the stress
components at the same locations.
2.18.2
3.1
Solution:
(a) Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy
v = zx
(3.1.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is some function of x and y, called warping function, and is
the angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
(b) From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
So from the stress-strain relationship, we have
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to
xz yz
+
=0
x
y
This equation is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress
function ( x, y ) , so that
xz =
,
y
yz =
(3.1.2)
(c) From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain
xz =
w u w
+
=
y
x z x
(3.1.3)
yz =
w v w
+
=
+ x
y z y
(3.1.4)
yz
x
xz
= 2 ,
y
2 2
+
= 2G
x 2 y 2
(3.1.5)
this constant can be chosen to be zero. Then we have the boundary condition
= 0 on the lateral surface of the bar.
(e) For a bar with circular cross-section, assume the Prandtl stress function as
3.1.1
x2 y2
+
1) which satisfies the boundary conditions stated above.
a2 a2
1
Substitute into (3.1.5), we obtain C = a 2 G
2
= C(
Then =
G 2
(x + y 2 a 2 )
2
and yz =
1
= x
G x
xz =
w
w
y = y =>
= 0 . Thus, w = f ( y )
x
x
yz =
w
w
+ x = x =>
= 0 , Thus, w = g (x )
y
y
Hence we conclude w = const . This means that the cross-section remains plane
after torsion. In other words, there is no warping.
Therefore w( x, y ) = 0 can be verified, and it successfully expresses the
statement.
--- ANS
3.1.2
3.2
Show that the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular solid sections is also
valid for bars of hollow circular sections as shown in Fig. 3.34. Find the torsion
constant J in terms of the inner radius ai and outer radius a 0 , and compare
with the torsion constant obtained using (3.59) for thin-walled sections. What is
the condition on the wall thickness for the approximate J to be within 1
percent of the exact J ?
a0
ai
Figure 3.34
Solution:
Recall:
(a) Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy
v = zx
(3.2.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is a function of x and y, called warping function, and is the
angle of twist per unit length of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
(b) From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
So from the stress-strain relationship, we have
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to
xz yz
+
=0
x
y
This equation is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress
function ( x, y ) , so that
3.2.1
xz =
,
y
yz =
(3.2.2)
(c) From the displacement field and stress-strain relationship, we can obtain
xz =
w u w
+
=
y
x z x
(3.2.3)
yz =
w v w
+
=
+ x
y z y
(3.2.4)
yz
x
xz
= 2 ,
y
2
+
= 2G
x 2 y 2
2
(3.2.5)
--1.
To show that the Prandtl stress function for bars of circular solid sections is also
valid for bars of hollow circular sections, we have to show that the Prandtl stress
function for hollow circular sections satifies equilibrium equations, compatibility
equations as well as traction boundary conditions.
(1) Equilibrium equations
Prandtl stress functions by their definition must satify equilibrium
equations..
(2) Compatibility equations
Use the Prandtl stress function as it stated for bars of circular solid sections
= C(
x2
a0
y2
a0
x2
ai
y2
ai
1)
Ga 0 x 2
y2
=
( 2 + 2 1) .
2
a0
a0
2
(3.2.6)
d
= 0 on the
ds
(r = ai ) =
Ga0 ai
( 2 1) = const.
2
a0
2
that is
d
| r = ai = 0
ds
that is
d
| r = a0 = 0
ds
Ga 0 a0
(r = a0 ) =
( 2 1) = 0.
2
a0
2
T = ( x
y )dA
x
y
A
(3.2.7)
4
4
T = G ( x 2 + y 2 ) dA =G (r 2 )rdrd =G ( 2 )( r 4 ) | aai0 = G [ (a 0 ai )]
4
2
A
A
Comparing with T = GJ , we have the torsion constant J =
(a 0 ai )
4
(2) Using (3.59) in the textbook for thin-walled sections, we have the
approximate torsion constant J app =
4A
ds / t
3.
4A
ds / t
2
= 4
(a0 + ai ) 4
(a 0 + ai )
(a 0 + ai ) 3 (a 0 ai )
a 0 ai
J app J
J
0.01
3.2.3
J app J
J
= 4
((a 0 + ai ) 3 (a 0 ai )
(a 0 ai )
4
(a 0 ai )
4
(a 0 ai ) 2
2(a 0 + ai )
2
0.01
0.01
=>
ai 2
a
) 2.040816( i ) + 1 0
a0
a0
ai
0.8174
a0
1
ai ai = 0.2235a i )
0.8174
--- ANS
3.2.4
3.3
zx =
a 3 b 3
a2 + b2
2Ty
,
ab 3
zy =
2Tx
a 3b
T (b 2 a 2 )
xy
a 3b 3G
Solution:
Recall:
1. Saint-Venant assumed that as the shaft twists the plane cross-sections are warped
but the projections on the x-y plane rotate as a rigid body, then,
u = zy
v = zx
(3.3.1)
w = ( x, y )
where ( x, y ) is warping function, and is the angle of twist per unit length
of the shaft and is assumed to be very small.
2. From the displacement field above, it is easy to obtain that
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
From the stress-strain relationship, we have
xx = yy = zz = xy = 0
Therefore the equilibrium equations reduce to
xz yz
+
=0
x
y
which is identically satisfied if the stresses are derived from a stress function
( x, y ) , so that
xz =
3.
,
y
yz =
(3.3.2)
xz =
w u w
+
=
y
x z x
(3.3.3)
yz =
w v w
+
=
+ x
y z y
(3.3.4)
yz
x
xz
= 2 ,
y
2 2
+
= 2G
x 2 y 2
(3.3.5)
--x2 y2
+
1) . In order to show this
a2 b2
stress function provides the solution for torsion of the bar, we have to show that
this stress function satisfies the equilibrium equations, compatibility equations and
traction boundary conditions.
(1) Equilibrium equations
2y
2x
xz =
= C( 2 ) ,
yz =
= C( 2 )
y
x
a
b
d
= 0 on the
ds
3.3.2
x2 y2
+
1 = 0 ,
a2 b2
x2 y2
+
1) = 0 on the free surface and therefore
a2 b2
d
it satisfies the required condition
=0
ds
it is easy to see that = C (
T = ( x
y )dA
x
y
A
(3.3.7)
x2 y2
+
1) into (3.3.7), then we have,
a2 b2
2x
2y
x2 y2
T = ( x(C 2 ) y (C 2 ))dA = C ( 2 + 2 )dA
a
b
b
A
A a
Substituting = C (
Note that the integral part of the above equation is the area of the elliptical
cross-section. It can be easily obtained that
(
A
x2 y2
+ )dA = ab
a2 b2
J=
Cab
=
G
(G
a 2b 2
)ab
a 3b 3
a2 + b2
= 2
G
a + b2
(3.3.8)
--- ANS
(2) xz =
2y
T
2y
2Ty
= C( 2 ) =
( 2)=
,
y
ab b
b
ab 3
(3.3.9)
2x
2Tx
= C ( 2 ) = 3
x
a
a b
(3.3.10)
and yz =
--- ANS
(c) The warping displacement can be derived from (3.3.3), (3.3.4), (3.3.9), (3.3.10)
From (3.3.9) and (3.3.10), we have xz =
2Ty
2Tx
and yz =
.
3
Gab
Ga 3 b
T
T (a 2 + b 2 )
Also we need to know =
=
GJ
Ga 3b 3
So from (3.3.3) and (3.3.4), we can rewrite in
3.3.3
w
2Ty
T (a 2 + b 2 ) y T (b 2 a 2 ) y
= xz + y =
+
=
x
Gab 3
Ga 3b 3
Ga 3 b 3
(3.3.11)
w
2Tx
T (a 2 + b 2 ) x T (b 2 a 2 ) x
= yz x =
=
y
Ga 3 b
Ga 3 b 3
Ga 3b 3
(3.3.12)
(3.3.13)
w( x, y ) T (b 2 a 2 )
x + f ( y ) .
=
y
Ga 3b 3
Comparing this equation with (3.3.12) we have f ( y ) = 0 , that is f ( y ) = const .
For a symmetric cross-section w(0,0) = 0 , that is, f ( y ) = 0.
Thus, the warping displacement is
w( x, y ) =
T (b 2 a 2 )
xy.
Ga 3 b 3
--- ANS
a + b2
T (a + b )
Ga 3 b 3
3.3.4
3.4 A thin aluminum sheet is to be used to form a closed thin-walled section. If the
total length of the wall contour is 100 cm, what is the shape that would achieve
the highest torsional rigidity? Consider elliptical (including circular), rectangular,
and equilateral triangular shapes.
Solution:
(a) We denote GJ as torsional rigidity, for the same material in comparison, only
the torsion constant J needs to be taken into consideration.
For the closed thin-walled section, the torsion constant J is
J=
4A
(3.4.1)
ds / t
ds / t
(3.4.2)
L = 4a
/2
1 k 2 sin 2 d ,
a2 b2
= eccentricity
a
For the purpose to just comparing the area enclosed by the centerline of the
wall section, We approximate the perimeter with
where k =
a2 + b2
2
By changing the form of (3.4.3) se have
L = 2
(3.4.3)
3.4.1
L 2
L
) a 2 = C 2 a 2 , where C = 2( ) 2
2
2
Substituting (3.4.4) into (3.4.2) we have,
b = 2(
(3.4.4)
A ellp = a C 2 a 2
We can find the optimum solution by
A
= 0 , by some operations leads to
a
A
C 2 2a 2
= 0 , therefore we have a =
=
a
C 2 a2
C2
for a, b > 0
2
C2
=a
(3.4.5)
2
That means the optimum cross-section for elliptical shapes is a circle.
Substitute it back to (3.4.4), we have b =
C2
2 L 2
L
=
( ) =
2
2 2
2
Finally, for a circle, the area enclosed by the centerline is
Then from (3.4.5) we have a = b =
Acir = a 2 = (
L 2
) = 0.0796 L2
2
--- ANS
(2) Rectangular section
For rectangular section, the perimeter is
L = 2( p + q ) ,
(3.4.6)
(3.4.7)
We use
A
= 0 to find the optimal solution,
p
A L
L
= 2 p = 0 , we have p = , and from (3.4.6), it is clear that
p 2
4
p=q=
L
, i.e., the optimal cross-section for rectangular shapes is a square.
4
Finally, for a square thin-walled section, the area enclosed by the centerline
is Asqu = pq = (
L 2
) = 0.0625 L2
4
3.4.2
--- ANS
(3) Equilateral triangular section.
For a equilateral triangle, the length of the lateral side is l =
L
.
3
3 2
3 L 2
l =
( ) = 0.048 L2
4
4 3
--- ANS
(c) Comparison
From the results above we can easily tell
A cir > A squ > A tri
Consequently we can conclude that the shape achieving the highest torsional
rigidity is a CIRCLE.
--- ANS
q
b
and
from 0~1.
a
p
1
1
a2 + b2
ab
L
)(2( ) 2 ) =
(
) L2
( 2
2
2
2
2
2 b a
a +b
a +b
+
a b
q
( p + q)
pq
L
1
p
= pq = pq
=
( )2 =
L2
2
2
q
4
( p + q)
( p + q) 2
(1 + ) 2
p
2
3 2
L
36
q
A
b
in terms of
and
, and have the plot of torsional rigidity
2
p
a
L
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.5
t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.35 Two-cell thin-walled section
Figure 3.36
Single-cell section
Solution:
We denote GJ as torsional rigidity. For the same material in comparison, only the
torsion constant J needs to be considered.
(a) Single-cell thin-walled section
The torsion constant J is
J=
4A
(3.5.1)
ds / t
J 1cell =
4A
ds / t
4[( L1 + L2 ) L3 ] 2
4(200) 2
=
= 800cm 4
2( L1 + L2 + L3 ) / t 2(20 + 10) 0.3
(3.5.2)
where A1 = L1 L3 , A 2 = L2 L3
The twist angle of the section is obtained from eirher cell. For left cell we
have
1
qds
1
(3.5.3)
1 =
=
(q1 ( 2 L1 + L3 ) + (q1 q 2 ) L3 )
cell 1 t
2GL1 L3 t
2G A1
and for the right cell
1
qds
1
2 =
=
(q 2 ( 2 L2 + L3 ) ( q1 q 2 ) L3 )
2GL2 L3 t
2G A 2 cell 2 t
(3.5.4)
Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 =
(3.5.5)
From (3.5.3) to (3.5.5), we derive the relation between q1 and q 2 ,
L3 L3
+ )
L1 L2
q2 =
q
L3 L3 1
(2 + 2 + )
L2 L1
(2 + 2
(3.5.6)
(2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2 )
J=
G
1
(q1 (2 L1 + L3 ) + (q1 q 2 ) L3 )
2GL1 L3 t
T
and (3.5.3), we have
G
4 L1 L3 ( L1 L3 q1 + L2 L3 q 2 )t
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
(3.5.7)
--- ANS
(3) Case 2: L1 = 5cm , L2 = 15cm and L3 = 10cm
10 10
+ )
5
15 q = 1.25q
From (3.5.6), q 2 =
1
10 10 1
(2 + 2 + )
15 5
(2 + 2
Adding a vertical web does not significantly improve the torsional rigidity.
--- ANS
3.5.3
3.6
Find the torsional rigidity if the side wall of one of the two cells in Fig. 3.35
(with L1 = L2 = 10cm ) is cut open. What is the reduction of torsional rigidity
compared with the original intact structure?
t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.35 Two-cell thin-walled section
Solution:
We denote torsional rigidity by GJ as.
(a) Closed sidewall
From the solution of Problem 3.5, we have the torsion constant J 2 cell 1 of the
case with L1 = L2 = 10cm
4 L L ( L L q + L2 L3 q 2 )t
= 800cm 4
J 2 cell 1 = 1 3 1 3 1
(2q1 L1 + 2q1 L3 q 2 L3 )
So we have the original torsional rigidity GJ 2 cell 1 = 800G
(3.6.1)
(1)
(3.6.2)
(2)
Where
3.6.1
4( A not cut ) 2
ds / t
(3.6.3)
and
1 3
J cell cut = bi t i
i 3
(3.6.4)
1
=> J cell cut = (10 + 10 + 10) 0.33 = 0.27cm 4
3
---ANS
(c) The reduction of torsional rigidity is obtained as
GJ 2 cell 1 GJ cut open 800 300.27
R=
=
= 0.625 = 62.5%
GJ 2 cell 1
800
--- ANS
3.6.2
3.7
Find the torque capability of the thin-walled bar with the section shown in Fig.
3.36. Assume that the shear modulus G = 27GPa and the allowable shear
stress of allow = 187 MPa .
t = 0.3cm
Figure 3.36 Single thin-walled section
Solution:
Since the thickness of all walls are equal to t = 0.3cm , we can obtain the allowable
shear flow from allowable shear stress, that is
N/m
3.7.1
3.8
Figure 3.37
Two-cell section
Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the twist angle . For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) We denote the shear flow on the left cell q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell
q 2 . The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , are the positive directions
as shown in the figure above.
Also, we have the torque for two-cell sections
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2
where A1 = A2 =
d 2
( 0.5 )2
= 0.098 m 2 ,
8
8
The twist angle of the left cell is
s
s
1
1
qds
1 =
=
( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))
t12
2G A1 cell1 t
2G A1 t1
where s1 =
d
2
(3.8.1)
(3.8.2)
= 0.785 m is the length of the left side wall, and s12 = 0.5m is
t12
2G A 2 cell 2 t
2G A 2 t 2
(3.8.3)
3.8.1
Again, we have s2 =
d
2
Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 = = 3o / m = 0.0524 rad / m
(3.8.4)
From (3.8.2) to (3.8.4) and noting that A1 = A 2 , we derive the relation between
q1 and q 2 by substituting all the known quantities,
0.785398
0 .5
0.785398
0 .5
q1 +
q12 =
q2
q12
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.002
Substituting q12 = q1 q 2 , in the equation above, we obtain
q2 = 1.687 q1
(3.8.5)
3.8.2
3.9
For the bar of Fig. 3.37, find the maximum torque if the allowable shear stress is
allow = 187 MPa . What is the corresponding maximum twist angle ?
Figure 3.37
Two-cell section
Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the twist angle . For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) We denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 and that on the right cell as q 2 .
The shear flow in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 . The positive directions for the
shear flows are shown in the figure above.
The torque for two-cell section is
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2
where A1 = A2 =
d 2
( 0.5 )2
(3.9.1)
= 0.098 m 2 ,
8
8
The twist angle of the left cell is
s
s
1
1
qds
1 =
=
( 1 q1 + 12 (q1 q 2 ))
cell1 t
t12
2G A1
2G A1 t1
where s1 =
d
2
= 0.785 m is the length of the left side wall, and s12 = 0.5m is
cell 2 t
t
2G A 2
2G A 2 t 2
where s2 =
d
2
(3.9.2)
(3.9.3)
(c) Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
3.9.1
1 = 2 =
(3.9.4)
From (3.9.2) to (3.9.4) and note that A1 = A 2 , we derive the relation between q1
and q 2 by substituting all the known quantities,
0.785398
0 .5
0.785398
0 .5
q1 +
q12 =
q2
q12
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.002
In view of the relation q12 = q1 q 2 we obtain
q2 = 1.687 q1
(3.9.5)
q1 = 8662000
Subsequently,
q2 = 1.687 q1 = 14 ,600 ,000
q12 = q1 q2 = 5 ,953,000
Note the units are
(3.9.6)
(3.9.7)
(3.9.8)
each wall by =
(3.9.9)
2 =
q2 14615612
=
= 4.87 10 9
t2
0.003
(3.9.10)
12 =
q12 5953584
=
= 2.98 10 9
t12
0.002
(3.9.11)
(e) From the above stresses (3.9.9) to (3.9.11), because the negative value just denote
the negative direction, the maximum absolute magnitude of shear stress is
1 = 8.66 10 9 allow = 187 106
Therefore the maximum twist angle is
max = 0.0216 rad / m = 1.24o / m
--- ANS
(f) The maximum torque can be solved by using (3.9.1), (3.9.6), (3.9.7) and the
maximum twist angle, that is
T = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2 = 2( 0.098 )( 8662000 + 14600000 )( 0.0216 )
= 98700 N m
--- ANS
3.9.2
3.10
Find the shear flow and twist angle in the two-cell three-stringer thin-walled
bar with the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.38. The material is Al2024-T3. The
applied torque is 2 10 5 N m .
Figure 3.38
Solution:
(a) Assume the material is linearly elastic under the applied torque. For aluminum
alloy 2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.33)
(b) Denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell as
q 2 ; both are considered positive if counterclockwise. The shear flow in the
vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , which is positive if it is in the same direction as q1 .
We have the torque for the two-cell section as
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2
where A1 =
and A 2 =
d 2
8
(1.2) 2
8
(3.10.1)
= 0.565 m 2 ,
bh 2(1.2)
=
= 1 .2 m 2
2
2
t1
2G A1 cell1 t
2G A1 t1
where s1 =
d
2
(3.10.2)
3.10.1
s
s
s
1
1
qds
=
( 2 q 2 + 3 q 2 12 (q1 q 2 ))
cell 2 t
t1
t3
2G A 2
2G A 2 t 2
Again, we have s2 = 2 m , the length of the lower wall,
2 =
(3.10.3)
=> q1 =
T
2 105
=
= 51966 N / m
2 A1 + 2.265 A2 (2)(0.565) + (2.265)(1.2)
--- ANS
From (3.10.5),
q2 = 1.132q1 = 58844 N / m
--- ANS
(d) For the twist angle, we can utilize the shear flows and equations (3.10.2) and
(3.10.4) to get,
1.885
1.2
(
+
(1 1.132)) 51966
1
s1
s12
0
.
005
0
.
005
= 1 =
( q1 + (q1 q2 )) =
--- ANS
t1
2(27 109 )(0.565)
2G A1 t1
= 5.86 10 4 rad / m = 0.0336o / m
3.10.2
3.11
What is the maximum torque for the structure of Fig. 3.38 if the allowable twist
angle is 2 o / m ?
Figure 3.38
Solution:
(a) Assume the material used is still Aluminum alloy 2024-T3. For aluminum alloy
2024-T3, we have the shear modulus
E
72
G=
=
= 27 GPa
2( 1 + ) 2( 1 + 0.33 )
(b) Denote the shear flow on the left cell as q1 , and the shear flow on the right cell as
q 2 . Both are assumed positive in the counterclockwise direction. The shear flow
in the vertical web is q12 = q1 q 2 , from bottom to top.
The torque for two-cell section is
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A 2 q 2
where A1 =
and A 2 =
d 2
8
( 1.2 )2
8
(3.11.1)
= 0.56 m 2 ,
bh 2(1.2)
=
= 1 .2 m 2
2
2
cell1 t
t1
2G A1
2G A1 t1
where s1 =
d
2
(3.11.2)
cell 2 t
t1
t3
2G A 2
2G A 2 t 2
(3.11.3)
3.11.1
where s2 = 2 m is the length of the lower straight wall of thickness t2, and
s3 = 2 2 + 1.2 2 = 2.33 m is the length of the inclined wall of thickness t3.
Since the entire thin-wall section must rotate as a rigid body in the plane, we
require the compatibility condition
1 = 2 =
(3.11.4)
From (3.10.2) to (3.10.4), we can derive the relation between q1 and q 2 by
substituting all the known quantities,
1
1.88
1 .2
1
2
2.33
1 .2
(
q1 +
q12 ) =
(
q2 +
q2
q12 )
0.566 0.005
0.005
1.2 0.007
0.007
0.005
(3.11.5)
3.11.2
3.12
(a)
Figure 3.39
(b)
Cross-sections of two shafts
Solution:
(a) Fig. 3.39a is a cross-section of an open thin-wall, its torsional rigidity is GJ a
1
1
GJ a = G biti 3 = 3( )( 200 )( 3 )3 G = 5400G mm4
3
i 3
--- ANS
(b) Fig. 3.39b is a cross-section of a closed thin-wall, its torsional rigidity is GJ b
2
4A
,
GJ b = G
ds
t
where A =
3b 2
,
4
4A
3b 4 t b 3 t
GJ b = G
=G
=
G = 6 10 6 Gmm 4
ds
4(3b)
4
t
--- ANS
(c) The ratio of the torsional rigidities is
GJ b 6 106 G
=
= 1111
GJ a
5400G
--- ANS
3.12.1
3.13
(b)
Figure 3.39
Solution:
(a) Observation.
Because of the symmetry, the center of twist coincides with the centroid of the
section, and warp at the midpoint of each flat sheet section is zero.
So from the figure above we set w = 0 at the midpoint of each flat sheet. First
we assume the warp at point A is positive of z-direction. While going from A to B,
we pass the midpoint and then the warp goes from positive into negative part, then
end at point B with the maximum negative warping. Using the same concept on
sheet BC will result in a maximum positive warping at point C. Now we consider
the sheet CA by using the same conclusion, we will surprisingly find the warping
at A is negative of z-direction. Hence it contradicts our assumption of A being
3.13.1
w u s w
+
=
+ ,
(3.13.1)
s z
s
where is the distance from the center of twist to the tangent line of point P of
sz =
sz =
where q s
sz
qs
(3.13.2)
G Gt
is the shear flow along s-direction, t is the thickness of the wall and G
=
T
2A
Combining (3.13.1) to (3.13.3) results in
w
T
T
w
=
+ =
,
or
s 2 AGt
s
2 AGt
have q s =
s
s
T
T
ds ds =
ds 2 As
0
0
0
2 AGt
2 AGt
Also the twist angle can be derived from
1
ds
=
2G A t
=> w( s) w(0) =
(3.13.3)
(3.13.4)
(3.13.5)
(c) Assume the applied torque is uniformly applied to the cross-section. Also, the
material is isotropic so that the shear modulus is constant.
For the equilateral triangular section, we have
3b 2
(3.13.6)
4
And since the section is symmetric, we can just take the sheet CA into
A=
consideration and applied to all other sheets. Assume the origin of s is on the
midpoint of sheet CA, so w(0) = 0 , then we have
3bs
12
From (3.13.4) to (3.13.7), we obtain
As =
w( s ) =
T
Ts
ds 2 As =
2 AGt
2G At
(3.13.7)
2(
3bs
)(3b)T
Ts
2
( 3 / 8)b 2
12
=
(
)
Gt 3b 2 (3 / 16)b 4
4G ( A) 2 t
3.13.2
=> w( s ) = 0
This approves our observation in part (a).
--- ANS
3.13.3
3.14
Figure 3.40
Solution:
(a) For the open thin-walled section, we have
w u s w
+
=
+ = 0 ,
(3.14.1)
s
z
s
where is the distance from the center of twist to the tangent line of point P of
sz =
=> w( s ) w(0) = ds = 2 As
0
(3.14.2)
T
GJ
(3.14.3)
(3.14.4)
for thin rectangular sections of thickness t and length b (see equation (3.38) in the
textbook).
(b) For the channel section in Fig. 3.40, assume the shear modulus is G. We can first
derive some needed properties.
The moment of inertia with respect to x axis is
3.14.1
Ix =
1
t
1
t
(b + )(2h + t ) 3 (b )(2h t ) 3 = 1729080 mm 4
12
2
12
2
( Since the thickness of walls is relatively small, there are some approximated
solutions such as I x =
Ix =
t
b
(2h) 3 + 2 [ t 3 + bth 2 ] = 1728270 mm 4 , or
12
12
t
(2h) 3 + 2(bth 2 ) = 1728000 mm 4 are all the acceptable approximations)
12
tb 2 h 2
3( 60 )4
=
= 22.49 mm
Ix
1729080
(3.14.5)
1 3
60 33 120 33
J = bi t i = 2(
)+
= 2160mm 4
3
3
3
i
and the twist angle per unit length can be obtained from
T
T
=
GJ 2160G
(3.14.6)
(c) Break up the contour s into two straight parts s1 and s2 , as shown below
1
(3.14.8)
A s 2 = hs 2
2
(d) On the contour s1 , the warping displacement w is calculated from equation
(3.14.2):
T
T
= 0.0104 s1
2160G
G
In which the condition w( 0 ) = 0 has been used. This is obvious since the warping
s
w ( s1 ) = 0 ds = 2 As 1 = es1
at the middle point of the vertical web is zero because of anti-symmetry. Also note
that
3.14.2
w ( s1 = h ) = w ( h = 60 mm ) = 0.62
T
G
--- ANS
(e) On the contour s2 , the warping can be obtained from equation (3.14.2) by
integrating from s1=0 to any point s2. Thus,
w( s2 ) = w( s1 = h ) 2 As 2
=> w( s2 ) = 0.62
T
T
+ 0.028s2
G
G
---
ANS
T
G
T
G
--- ANS
(f) Similar calculations show that the warping displacement is anti-symmetric with
respect to the x-axis. From the above calculations, the maximum warp (absolute
value) is
wmax = w2 ( s2 = b) = 1.04
T
G
w1 ( s1 ) = 0.0104 s1
T
G
w2 ( s 2 ) = 0.0278 s 2
T
T
0.62
G
G
3.14.3
3.15
Consider the shaft of the channel section shown in Fig. 3.40. If one end of the
shaft is built in and the other end is free, find the effective torsional rigidity as a
function of the distance from the built-in end. Assume that the length L of the
shaft is sufficiently large so that near the free end the Saint-Venant torsion
assumptions are valid. Compare the total twist angle with that for a free-free
shaft for L = 2m .
Figure 3.40
Solution:
(a) The government equation for the twist angle under an applied torque T end
constraints is
d 2
T
=
,
2
GJ
dz
E
where k 2 =
,
GJ
k2
(3.15.1)
s1
1 3
2
= 4 A s tds and J = bi t i
s0
i 3
(3.15.2)
= h + p =
T
(1 + C1e z / k + C 2 e z / k )
GJ
(3.15.3)
C 2 = 1 .
From (1) and (2), we have the solution becoming
T
T
=
(1 e z / k ) =
GJ
GJ eff
Then the effective torsion constant is
J eff =
J
1 ez / k
(3.15.4)
(c) In Fig. 3.40, the channel cross-section has the properties from (3.15.2).
1 3
60 33 120 33
J = bi t i = 2(
)+
= 2160mm 4 = 2.16 10 9 m 4
3
3
3
i
s1
= 4 A s tds
2
s0
tb 2 h 2
3(60) 4
=
= 22.49mm = 0.02249m
Ix
1729080
Therefore,
h
h +b
1
1
1
2
4 A s tds = 2 { 4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 + 4[ ecot h h( s1 h)] 2 tds1 }
0
s0
h
2
2
2
s1
~~~~~~A~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~
Part A:
1
1 2
2 1
3
4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 = ecot t ( ) s1 |0h = ecot th 3 = 1.09 10 10 m 6
2
3
3
Part B:
3.15.2
h+b
1
1
4[ ecot h h( s1 h)]2 tds1
2
2
bb 2
1
2
(ecot h hs2 ) 2 tds2 = t (ecot h 2b ecot h 2b 2 + h 2b3 ) = 2.31 1010 m6
3
s1
s0
E
= 0.904
GJ
Thus, the effective torsional rigidity is obtained as
k=
GJ eff =
GJ
27 109 2.16 109
58.32
=
=
z / k
z / 0.904
1 e
1 e
1 e z / 0.904
--- ANS
fixed = dz =
0
2
T
T
(1 e z / 0.904 )dz =
( z + 0.904e z / 0.904 ) |02
58.32 0
58.32
T
(2 0.805) = 0.0205T
58.32
free = L =
TL
2T
=
= 0.0343T
GJ 58.32
fixed
= 0.6
free
--- ANS
It is clear that the end constraints reduce the twist angle. In other words, end
constraints increase the torsional stiffness.
3.15.3
3.16
Figure 3.40
Solution:
(a) The solution for problem 3.15 is
T
T
(1 e z / k ) =
(1 e z / 0.904 )
GJ
58.32
(3.16.1)
zz ( z , s ) = E zz ( z , s ) = E
d
w( z , s )
= Ews ( s )
z
dz
(3.16.2)
where ws ( s ) = 2 A s
Substituting (3.16.1) into (3.16.2) we have
T
e z / 0.904
zz ( z, s ) = (70)(2 As )(
)(
) = 2.656T As e z / 0.904
58.32 0.904
We can find the value from the solution of problem 3.15,
On the vertical web s : 0 ~ s1 => A s =
1
ecot s1
2
1
1
ecot h hs 2
2
2
(3.16.3)
(3.16.4)
(3.16.5)
tb 2 h 2
= 0.0225m
Ix
On the vertical web, we can calculate the normal stress with (3.16.3) and
(3.16.4)
3.16.1
1
2
On the horizontal sheet, we can derive the normal stress with (3.16.3) and
(3.16.5)
1
2
3
= (1.79 10 + 0.0797 s2 )T
1
2
--- ANS
At s 2 = 0 , zz = 1.79 10 T
At s 2 = b = 0.06m ,
3
--- ANS
(d) The distribution of shear flow at the built-in end ( z = 0 ).
From the equation (3.85) in the textbook, the shear flow at any location s at the
built-in end ( z = 0 ) is
q ( s) | z =0 = E
d 2
| z =0
dz 2
s0
ws tds
(3.16.6)
where ws ( s ) = 2 A s
3.16.2
s
T
1 2 z / 0.904
)((
) e
) |z = 0 (2 0.003) As ds
s0
58.32
0.904
(3.16.7)
= 8.82 10 T As ds
3
s0
Here it is important to emphasize that the s-direction is measured from the point
where shear flow vanishes. Hence s begins from the free end of the horizontal
sheet as shown in the figure below. Also, due to the symmetry w.r.t. x axis, we
only need to consider the part above x-axis. This allows us to modify equation of
1
hs1
2
s1 : 0 b
(3.16.8)
s2 : 0 h
(3.16.9)
On the horizontal sheet, we can derive the shear flow from (3.16.8) and
(3.16.7)
q1 ( s ) |z = 0 = 8.82 10 3 T
s1
= 2.646 10 4 T (
1
hxdx
2
x 2 s1
2
) |0 = 1.323 10 4 s1 T
2
--- ANS
At s1 = 0 , q (0) = 0
At s1 = b = 0.06m ,
q1 (0.06) = 1.323 104 (0.06) 2 T = 4.762 107 T
N /m
On the vertical web, we can derive the shear flow with (3.16.9) and (3.16.7).
Since the shear flow is continuous, we have
s2
1
q2 ( s2 ) | z = 0 q1 ( s1 = b) |z = 0 = 8.818341 10 3 T ( ecot x)dx
0
2
2
x s2
2
= 9.914 10 5 T
|0 = 4.957 10 5 s2 T
2
3.16.3
--- ANS
7
At s 2 = 0 , q2 (0) = 4.762 10 T
At s 2 = h = 0.06m ,
q2 ( s2 = 0.06) = (4.957 10 5 (0.06) 2 4.762 107 )T
= 2.977 10 7 T
The distribution of the shear flow at the fixed end is sketched in the figure below.
--- ANS
3.16.4
3.17
Assume that the shaft of the channel section of Fig. 3.40 is built in at both ends.
Find the torque that is necessary to produce a relative twist angle = 5 o
between two ends. Assume that L = 1m , Youngs modulus E = 70GPa , and
shear modulus G = 27GPa . Compare this with the free-free case.
Figure 3.40
Solution:
(a) Since both end of the channel are built-in, it allows us to set z = 0 at the middle
of the channel as shown above.
(b) The governing equation for the twist angle under an applied torque T end
constraints is
d 2
T
=
,
2
GJ
dz
E
where k 2 =
,
GJ
k2
(3.17.1)
(3.17.2)
s1
1 3
2
= 4 A s tds and J = bi t i for open thin-walled section.
s0
i 3
(3.17.3)
3.17.1
= h + p =
T
z
z
(1 + C1 cosh + C 2 sinh )
k
k
GJ
(3.17.4)
s1
1 3
2
(c) Compute J = bi ti and = 4 A s tds .
s
0
i 3
1 3
60 33 120 33
J = biti = 2(
)+
= 2160mm4 = 2.16 109 m 4
3
3
3
i
s1
= 4 A s tds
2
s0
ecot =
Therefore,
s1
s0
h
h +b
1
1
1
2
4 A s tds = 2 { 4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 + 4[ ecot h h( s1 h)] 2 tds1 }
0
h
2
2
2
~~~~~~A~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~
Part A:
1
1 2
2 1
3
4( ecot s1 ) 2 tds1 = ecot t ( ) s1 |0h = ecot th 3 = 1.092 10 10 m 6
2
3
3
Part B:
h+b
bb 2
s1
1
1
4[ ecot h h( s1 h)]2 tds1
2
2
1
2
(ecot h hs2 ) 2 tds2 = t (ecot h 2b ecot h 2b 2 + h 2b3 ) = 2.31 1010 m6
3
s0
3.17.2
E
= 0.904
GJ
(d) Applying boundary conditions
(1) First, because of symmetry of with respect to z , the odd function
sinh( z / k ) should be dropped. This is accomplished by setting C 2 = 0 .
k=
Then C1 =
cosh
L
2k
1
1
cosh(
)
2 (0.904)
= 0.864
T
z
T
z
(1 0.864 cosh ) =
(1 0.864 cosh
)
GJ
k
58.32
0.904
The twist angle related to distance z from the middle of the channel then is
T
u
(1 0.864 cosh
)du
0
0 58.32
0.904
T
z
=
( z 0.78 sinh
)
58.32
0.904
z
= dz =
(3.17.5)
This is the twist angle measured from the middle of the channel bar to the built-in
end.
(e) If we produce a relative twist angle = 5 o , then the twist angle from the middle
of the channel to the built-in end ( z = L / 2 = 0.5m ) is
5o
= = 2.5o = 0.0436 rad .
2
From equation (3.17.5) we can determine the required torque to produce such an
angle.
0.0436 =
T
0 .5
(0.5 0.78 sinh
) = 7.795 10 4 T
58.32
0.904
Then T = 55.97 N m
--- ANS
(f) For the free-free end case
3.17.3
T free end = GJ = GJ
= 58.32
0.0436
= 5.089 N m .
0 .5
3.17.4
4.1
Figure 4.19
Solution:
(a) For finding the location of the centroid, we select the corner of the thin-walled
section as the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system with the horizontal and
vertical distances between the centroid and the origin denoted by y c and z c ,
respectively.
yc =
h t ( h / 2) h
=
2ht
4
zc =
h t ( h / 2) h
=
2ht
4
--- ANS
(b) Set up a Cartesian coordinate system (y, z) in the pane of the section with the
origin at the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to this coordinate
system are (assume t << h)
Iy =
th 3
ht 3
5 3
+ th( h zc )2 +
+ thzc2 =
th in which parallel axis theorem for
12
12
24
ht 3
has been neglected.
12
th 3
ht 3
5 3
+ th( h yc )2 +
+ thyc2 =
th
12
12
24
1
= yzdA = yzdA + yzdA = th 3
8
A1
A2
Iz =
I yz
where,
yzdA =
A1
h zc
zc
y c ztdz = y c t (
z 2 h zc 1 3
) | zc = th
2
16
4.1.1
yzdA =
h yc
z c ytdy = z c t (
yc
A2
y 2 h yc 1 3
) | yc = th
2
16
xx =
I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz
I z M y I yz M z
y+
I y I z I yz
xx =
My
3
h
h and y = y c =
4
4
(15 z 9 y ) =
27 M y
2th 3
4th 2
Maximum negative stress:
At z = z c =
xx =
My
2th
h
3
and y = h y c = h
4
4
(15 z 9 y ) =
21M y
4th 2
xx =
27 M y
4th 2
=0
My
(15 z 9 y ) = 0 => 15 z 9 y = 0
2th 3
So the neutral plane is located at 15 z 9 y = 0 in the y-z coordinate system (the
centroid is the origin of this coordinate system).
--- ANS
4.1.2
4.2 Rotate the angle section of Fig. 4.19 counterclockwise for 45 o . Find the neutral
axis and the maximum bending stress. Compare the load capacity with that of
the original section given by Fig. 4.19.
Figure 4.19
Solution:
Remove the primes
in the coordinates
Set up a temporary Cartesian coordinate system with the origin at the corner of the
thin-walled section to find the centroid. The horizontal and vertical distances from the
centroid to the origin are denoted by yc and zc , respectively.
Because of the symmetry, yc = 0 . Assuming t << h , we obtain
zc =
2h t ( h / 2 2 )
h
=
2ht
2 2
--- ANS
(b) Set up a new coordinate system (y, z). Using equation (4.25) in the textbook,
4.2.1
xx =
I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz
y '+
I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz
z'
and substituting the values of moments of inertia in the equation above, we obtain
xx =
My
Iy
z = 12
My
th 3
--- ANS
Maximum positive stress is at
z=
h
2 2
, => xx =
3 2M y
th 2
z=
h
2 2
, => xx =
3 2M y
th 2
3 2M y
th 2
(c) The neutral axis (plane) is located along xx = 0 ,
xx = 12
My
z = 0 => z = 0
th 3
So the neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
Note that this section in this particular position is symmetric with respect to the
y-z coordinate system. For symmetric sections the neutral axis always coincides
with the location of the centroid.
--- ANS
(d) The load capacity with the original section
For the same maximum bending stress in both beams,
xx =
=>
3 2 M y ,rotate
th 2
M y ,rotate
M y ,origin
27 M y ,origin
4th 2
27
= 1.59
12 2
The load capacity of the rotated section is 1.59 times that of the original section.
--- ANS
4.2.2
4.3
The stringer-web sections shown in Figs. 4.20, 4.21, and 4.22 are subjected to
the shear force Vz 0 , while V y = 0 . Find the bending stresses in the stringers
for the same bending moment M y . Which section is most effective in bending?
Figure 4.20
Stringer-web section
Figure 4.21
Stringer-web section
Figure 4.22
Stringer-web section
Solution:
The contribution of the thin sheets to bending is assumed to be negligible. Thus the
neutral axis is only depends on the cross-sectional area of the stringers. Also, assume
4.3.1
y and z are the horizontal axis and vertical axis, respectively. The origin of the system
is located at the centroid.
(a) Figure 4.20.
(1) Because of symmetry, the centroid is located at the middle of the vertical
web.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 2( 2 A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
I z = Ai y i = 2( 2 A 0 2 ) = 0
2
I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i
xx =
Iy
z=
My
4 Ah 2
At z = h , xx =
At z = h , xx =
My
4 Ah
My
4 Ah
My
z=
4 Ah
z=
My
4 Ah
--- ANS
h
2
I z = Ai y i = 4( A ( ) 2 ) = Ah 2
2
i
I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i
xx =
I yz M y
I y I z I yz
y+
IzM y
I y I z I yz
z=
My
Iy
My
At z = h , xx =
At z = h , xx =
4 Ah 2
My
z=
My
4 Ah 2
4 Ah
z=
My
4 Ah
--- ANS
I z = Ai y i = 2( A h 2 ) = 2 Ah 2
2
I yz = Ai y i z i = 2( A h ( h)) = 2 Ah 2
i
xx =
=
I yz M y
I y I z I yz
My
2 Ah 2
y+
My
2 Ah 2
y+
IzM y
I y I z I yz
z=
2M y
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2
y+
2M y
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2
xx =
.
y+
My
2 Ah
z=
My
2 Ah 2
( h + h) = 0
My
2 Ah 2
y+
My
2 Ah 2
z=
My
2 Ah 2
(0 + h ) =
My
2 Ah
At z = h , y = 0 ,
xx =
.
2 Ah
At z = h , y = 0 ,
xx =
.
My
My
2 Ah 2
y+
My
2 Ah 2
z=
My
2 Ah 2
(0 h) =
My
2 Ah
At z = h , y = h ,
xx =
My
2 Ah
y+
My
2 Ah
z=
My
2 Ah 2
( h h) = 0
--- ANS
4.3.3
(d) Comparing the above results, sections in Figure 4.20 and Figure 4.21 are both
more effective than the section in Figure 4.22 for this particular loading.
--- ANS
4.3.4
4.4
Compare the bending capabilities of the two sections of Figs. 4.21 and 4.22 if
M y = 0, Mz 0.
Figure 4.21
Stringer-web section
Figure 4.22
Stringer-web section
Solution:
The thin sheets are assumed to be negligible in bending. Thus, the location of the
centroid of the cross-section only depends on stringers. The coordinates (y, z) are set
up with the origin at the centroid with y and z designating the horizontal axis and
vertical axis, respectively.
(a) Figure 4.21.
(1) The centroid is located at the center of of the space defined by the four
stringers.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
4.4.1
h
2
I z = Ai y i = 4( A ( ) 2 ) = Ah 2
2
i
I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i
IyM z
xx =
I y I z I yz
y+
I yz M z
I y I z I yz
z=
Mz
y
Iz
h
M
, xx = z2 y
2
Ah
M
h
At y = , xx = z2 y
2
Ah
--- ANS
(b) Figure 4.22.
(1) The centroid is located at the middle of the vertical web.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2
I z = Ai y i = 2( A h 2 ) = 2 Ah 2
2
I yz = Ai y i z i = 2( A h ( h)) = 2 Ah 2
i
xx =
=
I yM z
I y I z I yz
y+
I yz M z
I y I z I yz
z=
4M z
2M z
y+
z
2
2
[4 2 (2) ] Ah
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2
Mz
Mz
y+
z
2
Ah
2 Ah 2
4.4.2
xx =
Mz
Mz
Mz
M
y+
z=
(2h + h) = z
2
2
2
2 Ah
2 Ah
2 Ah
Ah
Stringer 2:
At z = h , y = 0 , xx =
Mz
Mz
Mz
Mz
y
z
+
=
(0 + h) =
2
2
2
2 Ah
Ah
2 Ah
2 Ah
Stringer 3:
At z = h , y = 0 , xx =
Mz
Mz
Mz
Mz
y
z
h
+
=
(
0
)
2 Ah
Ah 2
2 Ah 2
2 Ah 2
Stringer 4:
At z = h , y = h , xx =
Mz
Mz
Mz
Mz
y+
z=
( 2 h h) =
2
2
2
2 Ah
Ah
2 Ah
2 Ah
--- ANS
(c) Comparing the above results, we see that sections in Figure 4.21 and Figure 4.22
have the same bending efficiency; they both reach the same maximum bending
stress under the same moment.
--- ANS
4.4.3
4.5
Figure 4.23 shows the cross-section of a four-stringer box beam. Assume that
the thin walls are ineffective in bending and the applied bending moments are
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
Find the bending stresses in all stringers.
Figure 4.23
Thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) Set up a temporary coordinate system with stringer 1 as the origin. The location of
the centroid is
yc =
Ai yi
i
Ai
( 2 200 + 1 200 )
= 54.5cm
(4 + 2 +1+ 4 )
( 1 50 + 4 100 )
= 40.9 cm
(4 + 2 +1+ 4 )
zc =
Ai zi
i
zi
i
= 240901cm 4
Similarly,
I z = Ai yi 2 = 87273cm4
i
4.5.1
I yz = Ai yi zi = 14545 cm 4
i
yi
(cm )
zi
(cm )
Ai y i z i
(cm 4 )
(cm 4 )
(cm 4 )
Ai z i
Ai yi
-54.5
-40.9
6694
11901
89256
145.5
-40.9
3347
42314
-11901
145.5
9.1
82.6
21157
1322
-54.5
59.1
13967
11901
-12893
24091
87273
-14545
I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz
y+
I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz
z , and
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
I y = 24090.909cm 4
I z = 87272.727cm 4
I yz = 14545.455cm 4
We obtain xx = 1.298 y 21.54 z
Therefore the bending stresses in the stringers are:
xx
No.
yi
(cm )
zi
(cm )
( N / cm 2 )
-54.54
-40.91
951.92
145.45
-40.91
692.31
145.45
9.09
-384.62
-54.54
59.09
-1201.92
Stringer
--- ANS
4.5.2
4.6
Find the neutral axis in the tin-walled section of Fig. 4.23 for the loading given
in Problem 4.5.
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
Find the bending stresses in all stringers.
Figure 4.23
Thin-walled section
Solution:
(a) From Problem 4.5 we get the centroid position as follows.
yc = 54.5 cm , zc = 40.9 cm
These are the horizontal and vertical distances, respectively, from stringer 1.
(b) Set up the coordinate system (y,z) with the origin located at the centroid. Neutral
plane is located at the position that centroid is the origin. From the bending stress
formulas we find the neutral plane by setting the bending stress to zero, i.e.,
xx = 1.298 y 21.538 z = 0
On the cross-section, this equation represents the line passing through the centroid
with y = 16.59 z and an angle
z
y
= tan 1( ) = tan 1(
1
) = 3.45o
16.59
--- ANS
4.6.1
4.7
Find the bending stresses in the stringers at the fixed end of the box beam loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.24. Assume that the thin sheets are negligible in bending.
Find the neutral axis.
Figure 4.24
Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and left to right as stringer 1, stringer 2,
and stringer 3, respectively. Relative to string 2 the centroid position is given by
yc =
Ai yi
i
Ai
4 80
= 26.67 cm
34
4 40
= 13.33cm
3 4
zc =
Ai zi
i
Ai
i
(b) The bending moments at the fixed end of the box beam produced by the loads are
M y = 2 PL = 2( 200)(500) = 200000 N cm ( M y is positive in positive y)
4.7.1
I yz = Ai yc zc = 4266 cm 4
i
Ai
Stringer
No.
(cm 2 )
yi
(cm )
zi
(cm )
Ai y i z i
(cm 4 )
(cm 4 )
(cm 4 )
Ai z i
Ai yi
-26.67
26.67
2844
2844
-2844
-26.67
-13.33
711
2844
1422
53.33
-13.33
711
11377
-2844
4266
17067
-4267
I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz
y+
I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz
z,
xx
No.
yi
(cm )
zi
(cm )
( N / cm 2 )
-26.67
26.67
-1250
-26.67
-13.33
1875
53.33
-13.33
-625
Stringer
--- ANS
(e) Neutral plane by angle .
Neutral plane is located at the position where bending stresses vanish under this
particular loading. We have
xx = 31.25 y 78.125 z = 0
It is the line passing through the centroid with y = 2.5 z
z
y
= tan 1( ) = tan 1(
1
) = 21.8 o
2.5
--- ANS
4.7.2
4.8
Find the deflection of the box beam of Fig. 4.24 using the simple beam theory.
Figure 4.24
Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and then left to right as stringer 1, stringer
2, and stringer 3, respectively. From the solution of problem 4.7, we have the
following moments of inertia:
I y = 4266 cm 4
I z = 17066 cm 4
I yz = 4266 cm 4
Let the origin ( x = 0 ) of the coordinate system be located at the fixed end.
The bending moments produced by the forces applied at the free end are
M y = 400 (500 x ) N cm
M z = 400 (500 x) N cm
(b) The governing equations (see p. 122 in the book) for the bidirectional bending are
I y M z I yz M y
d 2v
E 2 =
= 0.063(500 x) ( N / cm 3 ) ,
2
dx
I y I z I yz
E
I z M y I yz M z
d 2w
=
= 0.156(500 x) ( N / cm 3 )
2
2
dx
I y I z I yz
4.8.1
x3
Ev = 0.063(250 x ) + C1 x + C 2
6
2
x3
Ew = 0.156(250 x ) + C 3 x + C 4
6
2
dv
( x = 0) = 0 => C1 = C 2 = 0
dx
w( x = 0) = 0 ,
dw
( x = 0) = 0 => C 3 = C 4 = 0
dx
Then the lateral (in y-direction) and vertical (in z-direction) deflections are,
respectively,
v( x) =
0.063
x3
(250 x 2 )
E
6
w( x) =
0.156
x3
(250 x 2 )
E
6
In the expressions above, distance x is measured in cm, and the units of Youngs
modulus and deflection are N / cm 2 and cm , respectively.
--- ANS
As an example, consider Aluminum 2024-T3, E = 72GPa = 72 10 5 ( N / cm 2 ) .
The deflections in y and z directions at the free end are:
0.063
5003
2
v( x = 500) =
(250 500
) = 0.36cm
72 105
6
0.156
5003
2
w( x = 500) =
(250 500
) = 0.90cm
72 105
6
4.8.2
4.9
Find the bending stresses in the stringers of the box beam in Fig. 4.24 for the
bending moments given in Problem 4.5.
M y = 500,000 N cm
M z = 200,000N cm .
Figure 4.24
Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and then left to right as stringer 1, stringer
2, and stringer 3, respectively. The centroid position is given by
yc =
Ai yi
i
Ai
4 80
= 26.67 cm
34
4 40
= 13.33cm
3 4
zc =
Ai zi
i
Ai
i
relative stringer 2.
(b) Moment of inertia (see the table below for details)
I yz = Ai yc zc = 4267 cm 4
i
4.9.1
Ai
Stringer
No.
(cm 2 )
yi
(cm )
zi
(cm )
Ai y i z i
(cm )
(cm )
(cm 4 )
Ai z i
Ai yi
4
-26.67
26.67
2844
2844
-2844
-26.67
-13.33
711
2844
1422
53.33
-13.33
711
11378
-2844
4267
17067
-4267
xx =
I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz
y+
I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz
z,
xx
No.
yi
(cm )
zi
(cm )
( N / cm 2 )
-26.67
26.67
-3125
-26.67
-13.33
2500
53.33
-13.33
625
Stringer
--- ANS
4.9.2
4.10
5
.
6
P
x
L
Figure 4.25
Solution:
(a) Simple beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for the simple beam theory is:
EI y
d 4 w0
dx 4
= pz
(4.10.1)
1 3
th , p z = 0 . Thus,
12
d 4 w0
=0
dx 4
(4.10.2)
d 3 w0
= C 0 = P (shear force)
dx 3
d 2 w0
= Px + C1 .
dx 2
At x = L , M = EI y
(4.10.3)
d 2 w0
( x = L) = 0 = PL + C1
dx 2
=> C1 = PL
From (4.10.3),
4.10.1
EI y
dw0
1
= Px 2 + PLx + C 2
2
dx
dw0
= 0 => C 2 = 0
dx
At x = 0 ,
1
1
Finally, EI y w0 ( x) = Px 3 + PLx 2 + C 3 , and C 3 = 0 because w0 = 0
6
2
at x = 0 .
w0 ( x) =
1
1
1
P
x
L x
( Px 3 + PLx 2 ) = [2( ) 3 + 6 ( ) 2 ]
2
EI y 6
Et
h
h h
--- ANS
P
L
L L
4P L 3
[ 2( ) 3 + 6 ( ) 2 ] =
( )
Et
h
h h
Et h
--- ANS
(b) Timoshenko beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for Timoshenko beam theory are:
EI y
d 2 y
dx
kGA(
dw0
+ y ) = 0
dx
(4.10.4)
d 2 w0 d y
kGA( 2 +
) + pz = 0
dx
dx
(4.10.5)
EI y d 2 p z
d 4 w0
=
p
z
GA dx 2
dx 4
(4.10.6)
1 3
th , and p z = 0 . Hence we have
12
d 4 w0
= 0 as the governing equation.
dx 4
The concentrated loading at the free end produces a constant shear force along the
beam, so we have
kGA(
dw0
+ y ) = shear force = P
dx
(4.10.7)
4.10.2
EI y
d 2 y
dx 2
=P
(4.10.8)
1 2
Px + B0 x + B1
2
(4.10.9)
( Px + B0 x + B1 )
dx
kGA
kGA EI y 2
Integrating the equation above,
w0 ( x) =
1 1 3 1
P
x
( Px + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2
kGA
EI y 6
2
(4.10.10)
The following boundary conditions are used to determine the arbitrary constants in
(4.10.10):
M ( x = L) = EI y
d y
dx
( x = L) = 0
=> B0 = PL
=> B1 = 0
w0 ( x = 0) = 0
=> B2 = 0
w0 ( x) =
With k =
1 1 3 1
P
x
( Px PLx 2 )
kGA
EI y 6
2
E
5
1
, A = th , I y = th 3 , and G =
, we obtain
2(1 + )
6
12
w0 ( x) =
P
x
L x
12(1 + ) P x
( ) [ 2( ) 3 6 ( ) 2 ]
h
Et
h
h h
5 Et
--- ANS
The maximum deflection occurs at x = L :
wmax,T =
12(1 + ) P L 4 P L 3
( )+
( )
h
Et h
5 Et
--- ANS
(c) The ratio of the maximum deflections of the two solutions versus L/h
Assume the material to be Aluminum 2024-T3 with E = 72GPa , = 0.33 . For
convenience, we let
L
=.
h
wmax, S =
P
4P
( ) 3 = 0.055556 3
t
72t
12(1 + 0.33) P
4P
P
P
( ) +
( ) 3 = 0.044333 + 0.055556 3
5(72)t
72t
t
t
Maximum deflections vs. L/h
14
12
(w = P/t)
10
8
Simple
Timoshenko
6
4
2
0
0
L/h
wmax,T wmax, S
wmax,T
100%
Error (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
L/h
4.10.4
4.11 A thin-walled beam of length 2 m long with one end built into a rigid wall and
the other end is subjected to a shear force Vz = 5000 N . The cross-section is
given by Fig. 4.21 with h = 0.2m and the wall thickness = 0.002m . The
material is aluminum 2024-T3 with E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa , and the
cross-sectional area of each stringer is 25cm 2 . Assume that thin walls carry
only shear stresses. Find the deflections at the free end using the simple beam
theory and the Timoshenko beam theory, respectively. Compare the transverse
shear stress in the vertical web obtained from the two theories.
Figure 4.21
Stringer-web section
Solution:
(a) Simple beam theory
(1) The displacement equilibrium equation for the simple beam theory is:
EI y
d 4 w0
=0
dx 4
(4.11.1)
Integrate the equation (4.11.1) and apply shear force boundary condition to yield,
EI y
d 3 w0
= C 0 = V z (shear force)
dx 3
d 2 w0
= V z x + C1 ,
dx 2
d 2 w0
( x = L) = 0 = V z L + C1
dx 2
=> C1 = V z L
4.11.1
EI y
dw0
1
= V z x 2 + V z Lx + C 2 .
2
dx
y =
dw0
= 0 => C 2 = 0
dx
w0 ( x) =
1
1
1
( V z x 3 + V z Lx 2 )
EI y 6
2
(4.11.2)
E = 70GPa
L = 2m
Vz = 5000 N
(3) Deflections
Compute deflection curve (4.11.2):
w0 ( x) =
1
1
1
( (5000) x 3 + (5000)(2) x 2 )
4
2
(70 10 )(4 10 ) 6
9
= 2.9762 10 5 x 3 + 1.7857 10 4 x 2
( m)
--- ANS
(b) Timoshenko beam theory
(1) The displacement equilibrium equations for the Timoshenko beam theory
are:
4.11.2
EI y
GA(
d 2 y
dx
GA(
dw0
+ y ) = 0
dx
(4.11.3)
d 2 w0 d y
+
) + pz = 0
dx 2
dx
(4.11.4)
EI y d 2 p z
d 4 w0
=
p
z
GA dx 2
dx 4
(4.11.5)
In the equations above, the area A in the GA term is the effective area of the
thin-walled section that carries shear stress and should not be confused with the
stringer cross-sectional area.
Since p z = 0 we have
d 4 w0
EI y
= 0 as the governing equation.
dx 4
The concentrated shear loading at the free end produces a constant shear force
along the beam; so we have
GA(
dw0
+ y ) = Vz
dx
(4.11.6)
EI y
d 2 y
dx 2
= Vz
(4.11.7)
(4.11.8)
dw0 Vz
V
1 1
=
y = z
( Vz x 2 + B0 x + B1 )
dx GA
GA EI y 2
Integrating the above equation with the result,
w0 ( x) =
Vz
1 1
1
x
( Vz x3 + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2
GA
EI y 6
2
(4.11.9)
y ( x = 0) = 0
d y
dx
( x = L) = 0 => B0 = V z L
=> B1 = 0
4.11.3
=> B2 = 0
w0 ( x = 0) = 0
Then equation (4.11.9) becomes
Vz
V 1
1
x z ( x3 Lx 2 )
GA
EI y 6
2
w0 ( x) =
(4.11.10)
I y = Ai z i = 4 Ah 2 = 4( 25 10 4 )(0.2) 2 = 4 10 4 m 4
2
E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa
L = 2m
Vz = 5000 N
(3) Deflection
Compute the deflection curve (4.11.10) using the above properties:
w0 ( x) =
5000
x (2.9762 10 5 x 3 1.7857 10 4 x 2 )
(27 10 9 )(8 10 4 )
( m)
--- ANS
w0 ,Tim w0 ,Sim
9.391 4.762
=
100% = 49.3%
w0 ,Tim
9.391
xz =
Vz
5000
=
= 6.25 106 N / m 2 = 6.25MPa
4
Ashear 8 10
xz = G xz =
Vz
= 6.25MPa
Ashear
--- ANS
4.11.5
4.12
theory. In which loading case is the simple beam theory more accurate in
predicting the deflection? Explain.
Figure 4.26
Solution:
(a) First, we need to know the centroid of this section.
Take stringer 2 as the origin of a coordinate system. Then the centroid is located at
A y
=
A
i
yc
20 60
= 20 cm
3 20
20 (40 + 20)
= 20 cm
3 20
Az
=
A
i
zc
The moments of inertia with respect to the coordinate system with the origin at the
centroid are
I y = Ai z c = 20( 20 2 + ( 20) 2 ) = 16000 cm 4
2
4.12.1
for V z loading
(4.12.1)
d 4 v0
EI z
= 0,
dx 4
for V y loading
(4.12.2)
d 3 w0
= V z
dx 3
(4.12.3)
EI z
d 3 v0
= V y
dx 3
(4.12.4)
Thus,
d 3 w0 V z
5000
=
=
= 4.3403 10 8
3
EI y 72 10 5 16000
dx
(1 / cm 2 )
d 3 v0 V y
5000
=
=
= 1.4468 10 8
3
EI z
dx
72 10 5 48000
(1 / cm 2 )
1
v0 ( x) = 2.411 10 9 x 3 + C 4 x 2 + C 5 x + C 6
2
For w0 ( x)
w0 ( x = 0) = 0 ,
=> C 3 = 0
dw0
( x = 0) = 0
dx
=> C 2 = 0
4.12.2
d 2 w0
EI y
( x = L) = M ( x = L) = 0
dx 2
d 2 w0
=> EI y
( x = 200cm) = 5000(200) + (72 10 5 16000)C1 = 0
2
dx
=> C1 = 8.681 10 6
So, w0 ( x ) = 7.234 10 9 x 3 + 4.340 10 6 x 2
(4.12.5)
For v 0 ( x )
v0 ( x = 0) = 0 ,
=> C 6 = 0
dv0
( x = 0) = 0
dx
=> C 5 = 0
d 2 v0
EI z
( x = L) = M ( x = L) = 0
dx 2
d 2 v0
=> EI z
( x = 200cm) = 5000(200) + (72 10 5 48000)C 4 = 0
2
dx
=> C 4 = 2.894 10 6
So, v 0 ( x ) = 2.411 10 9 x 3 + 1.447 10 6 x 2
(4.12.6)
--Therefore deflections at the free end can be obtained from (4.12.5) and (4.12.6) by
setting x = 200cm :
w0 ( x = 200cm) = 7.234 10 9 (200) 3 + 4.340 10 6 (200) 2
= 0.116 cm
v 0 ( x = 200cm) = 2.411 10 9 (200) 3 + 1.447 10 6 (200) 2
= 0.039 cm
--- ANS
(c) Timoshenko beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for Timoshenko beam theory for V z
loading are:
EI y
d 2 y
dx
GAz (
dw0
+ y ) = 0
dx
(4.12.7)
d 2 w0 d y
GAz ( 2 +
) + pz = 0
dx
dx
(4.12.8)
4.12.3
EI y d 2 p z
d 4 w0
=
p
z
GAz dx 2
dx 4
(4.12.9)
Note that Az is the projection of the cross-sectional area of the thin sheets onto
z-axis. In this case, Az = 2 40 0.3 = 24cm 2 .
In this particular problem, we have p z = 0 . Hence
EI y
d 4 w0
=0
dx 4
GAz (
dw0
+ y ) = Vz
dx
(4.12.10)
EI y
d 2 y
dx 2
= Vz
(4.12.11)
(4.12.12)
Vz
1 1
1
x
( V z x 3 + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2
GAz
EI y 6
2
(4.12.13)
d y
dx
( x = L) = 0
=> B0 = V z L
y ( x = 0) = 0
=> B1 = 0
w0 ( x = 0) = 0
=> B2 = 0
Vz
V 1
1
x z ( x 3 Lx 2 )
GAz
EI y 6
2
(4.12.14)
4.12.4
Vy
GAy
Vy
1
1
( x 3 Lx 2 )
EI z 6
2
(4.12.15)
where Ay is the projection of the cross-sectional area of the thin sheets onto y-axis.
We have Ay = 2 60 0.3 = 36cm 2 .
w0 ( x) =
5000
5000
1
1
x
( x 3 (200) x 2 )
5
5
2
(27.068 10 )(36)
(72 10 )(48000) 6
--- ANS
(d) Summary
(1) Deflections at the free end
Simple Beam
Theory
Timoshenko
Beam Theory
Error (%)
Vz = 5000 N
0.116 cm
0.131 cm
11.5
(2) V y = 5000 N
0.039 cm
0.049 cm
20.4
(1)
Error (%) =
d Timoshenko d Simple
d Timoshenko
where d = w0 or v0
4.12.5
4.12.6
4.13
Consider the structure with a cutout as shown in Fig. 4.17. Find the axial force
distribution in stringers 3-4 and 5-6. Assume that both stringers and webs have
the same material properties of E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa . Also assume
that b = 200mm , the thickness of the web t = 2mm , and the cross-sectional
area of the stringer A = 64mm 2 . Hint: The zero-stress condition in the web at
the cutout cannot be enforced because of the simplified assumption that shear
stress and strain are uniform across the width of the web. Use the known
condition that the force in the side stringers is 1.5P at the cutout.
P
L1
Figure 4.17
L2
Solution:
(a) First, we consider the part left hand side of the cutout.
1.5P
F1
F2
1.5P
F1
L1
x
2 F1 + F2 = 3P
(4.13.1)
1 dF1
t dx
(4.13.2)
F F
d
G
=
( 1 2)
dx E (b / 2) A1 A2
(4.13.3)
d 2 F1 6Gt
=
( F1 P) ,
EAb
dx 2
=>
d 2 F1
2 F1 = 2 P
dx 2
let 2 =
6Gt
EAb
(4.13.4)
F1 ( x) = C1 cosh x + C 2 sinh x + P
(where cosh x =
e x + e x
e x e x
and sinh x =
)
2
2
At x = 0 (fixed end)
=>
dF1
( x = 0) = C 2 = 0
dx
At x = L1
dF1
( x = 0) = 0
dx
=> C 2 = 0
=> F1 ( x = L1 ) = 1.5P
P
2 cosh L1
cosh x
+ 1)
2 cosh L1
(4.13.5)
--The axial force distribution in stringers 3-4 can be obtained from (4.13.1) and (4.13.5),
that is
F2 ( x) = 3P 2 F1 ( x ) = P(1
with =
6Gt
=
EAb
cosh x
)
cosh L1
6(27 10 9 )(2 10 3 )
= 19.016
(70 10 9 )(64 10 6 )(0.2)
(1 )
m
4.13.2
--- ANS
1.5P
5
F2
1.5P
F1
x
2 F1 + F2 = 3P
(4.13.6)
1 dF1
t dx
(4.13.7)
F F
d
G
( 1 2)
=
dx E (b / 2) A1 A2
(4.13.8)
d 2 F1 6Gt
=
( F1 P) ,
EAb
dx 2
let 2 =
6Gt
EAb
d 2 F1
=>
2 F1 = 2 P
2
dx
(4.13.9)
F1 ( x) = C1 cosh x + C 2 sinh x + P
Applying the boundary conditions,
at x = 0
=> F1 ( x = 0) = 1.5P
=> F1 ( x = 0) = C1 + P = 1.5P
at x = L2
=> C1 = 0.5P
=> F1 ( x = L2 ) = P
4.13.3
=> C 2 =
P
2 tanh L2
P
sinh x
(cosh x
+ 2)
2
tanh L2
(4.13.10)
--The axial force distribution in stringer 5-6 can be obtained from (4.13.6) and (4.13.10),
that is
F2 ( x) = 3P 2 F1 ( x) = P (1 cosh x +
where =
6Gt
=
EAb
sinh x
)
tanh L2
6(27 10 9 )(2 10 3 )
= 19.016 ( 1 )
m
(70 10 9 )(64 10 6 )(0.2)
--- ANS
4.13.4
5.1
Find the flexural shear flow produced by the transverse shear force Vz = 1000N
in the beam with the thin-walled section given by Fig. 5.30.
Figure 5.30
Solution:
(a) Assume that the transverse shear force acts through the shear center, and, thus, no
torsional effect exists. Assume that the loss of material at the cut is negligible.
Hence the centroid of the cross-sectional area is obviously at the center as shown
in Fig. 5.30.
The shear flow is obtained by
VQ
qs = z
(5.1.1)
Iy
where Q = zdA = As z c is the first moment of area As (the area measured
As
along the wall from an free edge to the current position of interest), and z c is the
vertical distance from the centroid of As to the y-axis. We have
Iy =
1
[(0.1 + 0.002)(0.2 + 0.002) 3 (0.1 0.002)(0.2 0.002) 3 ] = 6.6676 10 6 m 4
12
(b) Setup the shear flow contour as shown in the figure below.
5.1.1
(1) On s1 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s
2
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( 1 ) = 0.001s1
2
As
VQ
1000 0.001s1
2
qs = z =
= 1.5 10 5 s1
6
Iy
6.6676 10
2
At s1 = 0 , q s = 1.5 10 5 0 2 = 0
At s1 = 0.1 , qs = 1.5 105 0.12 = 1500 N / m
means that the actual direction of this shear flow is opposite to contour
direction of s1 .
--- ANS
(2) On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.1m
The first moment Q for this segment must include the entire first moment of the
segment covered by contour s1. Thus,
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 2 (0.1) = 10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2
qs =
Vz Q
1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2 )
=
= 1500 3 10 4 s 2
6
Iy
6.6676 10
Note that the distribution of the shear flow is linear along the contour.
At s2 = 0 , qs = 1500 N / m
At s 2 = 0.1m , qs = 1500 3 10 4 0.1 = 4500 N / m
--- ANS
5.1.2
(3) On s 3 : 0 ~ 0.1m
In a similar manner, the first moments for the previous two segments must be
added to that for the additional area along contour s3. We have
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 3 (0.1 0.5s3 )
= 3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )
2
1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )]
Vz Q
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
2
qs =
(4) On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.1m
For convenience, we start another contour s4 from the other free edge at the cut.
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s 4 t )(
As
s4
2
) = 0.001s 4
2
V Q 1000 0.001s 4
2
qs = z =
= 1.5 10 5 s 4
6
Iy
6.6676 10
2
At s4 = 0 , q s = 1.5 10 5 0 2 = 0
At s 4 = 0.1m , q s = 1.5 10 5 0.12 = 1500 N / m
--- ANS
(5) On s 5 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002 s 5 (0.1) = 10 5 2 10 4 s 5
qs =
V z Q 1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s5 )
= 1500 + 3 10 4 s 5
=
6
Iy
6.6676 10
5.1.3
s 5 = 0m , q s = 1500 N / m
s5 = 0.1m , q s = 15003 10 4 0.1 = 4500 N / m
--- ANS
(6) On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002(0.1) 2 0.002 s 6 (0.1 0.5s 6 )
= 3 10 5 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )
2
V z Q 1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )]
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
2
qs =
5.1.4
5.2
Find the shear flow of the wide-flange beam (Fig. 5.31) subjected to
Vz = 1000N .
Figure 5.31
Section of an I-beam
Solution:
(a) Assume that the transverse shear force acts through the shear center and produces
no torsion. From symmetry, it is obvious that the centroid of the section is located
at the mid point of the vertical web.
The shear flow is obtained by
VQ
qs = z
(5.2.1)
Iy
where Q = zdA = As z c is the first moment of area As , and z c is the vertical
As
1
[(0.1)(0.1 + 0.003) 3 (0.1 0.003)(0.1 0.003) 3 ] = 1.7286 10 6 m 4
12
5.2.1
(1) On s1 : 0 ~ 0.05m
h
0.1
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( ) = (0.003s1 )( ) = 1.5 10 4 s1
2
2
As
qs =
Vz Q
1000 1.5 10 4 s1
=
= 8.678 10 4 s1
6
Iy
1.7286 10
At s1 = 0 , q s = 8.678 10 4 0 = 0
At s1 = 0.05m , q s = 8.678 10 4 0.05 = 4339 N / m
--- ANS
(2) On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.05m
This is similar to s1
q s = 8.678 10 4 s 2
At s2 = 0 , q s = 0
At s 2 = 0.2m , q s = 8.678 10 4 0.05 = 4339 N / m
--- ANS
(3) On s3 : 0 ~ 0.05m
5.2.3
5.3
Find the shear center y sc for the sections of Figs. 5.30 and 5.32. For the
four-stringer section (Fig. 5.32), assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in
bending.
Figure 5.30
Figure 5.32
Solution:
(a) Figure 5.30
(1) Since this cross-section is symmetric with respect to y axis, shear center is
located on the y axis. So it is only necessary to determine the y position of the
shear center.
(2) Also, the centroid is at the center of the section as shown in Fig.5.30.
Assume that the transverse shear force V z ( and V y = 0 ) acts through the
shear center, at the distance y sc to the right-top corner. The shear flow can be
obtained by
VQ
qs = z
Iy
(5.3.1)
1
[(0.1 + 0.002)(0.2 + 0.002) 3 (0.1 0.002)(0.2 0.002) 3 ]
12
= 6.6676 10 6 m 4
Iy =
y sc
i.
Vz
On s1 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s
2
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( 1 ) = 0.001s1
2
As
VQ
V 0.001s1
2
qs = z = z
= 150V z s1
6
Iy
6.6676 10
2
ii.
On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 2 (0.1) = 10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2
qs =
iii.
Vz Q
V (10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2 )
= z
= 1.5V z 30V z s 2
Iy
6.6676 10 6
On s 3 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 3 (0.1 0.5s3 )
= 3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )
2
V z [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s3 5s3 )]
Vz Q
qs =
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
2
On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s 4 t )(
As
s4
2
) = 0.001s 4
2
5.3.2
V Q V 0.001s 4
2
qs = z = z
= 150V z s 4
6
Iy
6.6676 10
2
v.
On s 5 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002 s 5 (0.1) = 10 5 2 10 4 s 5
qs =
vi.
V z Q V z (10 5 + 2 10 4 s5 )
= 1.5V z + 30V z s5
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002(0.1) 2 0.002 s 6 (0.1 0.5s 6 )
= 3 10 5 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )
2
V z Q V z [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )]
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
2
qs =
0.1
iii.
(counterclockwise)
moment produced by q s 5
0.1
0.1
= (0.3V z s5 + 3V z s3 ) | = 0.06V z
2
iv.
0.1
0
(clockwise)
moment produced by q s 6
0.1
0.1
(clockwise)
5.3.3
A y
=
A
i
yc
2(2 A0 )(2h)
= 1.3333h
2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
(3 A0 )(h)
= 0.5h
2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
A y
=
A
i
yc
(5.3.2)
5.3.4
i.
On s1
Q1 = (2 A0 )(0.5h) = A0 h
q1 =
ii.
On s2
Q2 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) = 1.5 A0 h
q2 =
iii.
V A0 h
V z Q1
0.6667V z
= z
=
2
Iy
h
1.5 A0 h
V 1.5 A0 h
V z Q2
V
= z
= z
2
Iy
h
1.5 A0 h
On s 3
Q3 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) ( A0 )(0.5h) = 1A0 h
q3 =
V z Q3
V A0 h
0.6667V z
= z
=
2
Iy
h
1.5 A0 h
moment produced by q1
M q1 = (q1 )(2h)(0.5h) = (
0.6667V z
)(2h)(0.5h) = 0.6667V z h
h
iii.
(counterclockwise)
moment produced by q 2
iv.
V
1
M q 2 = 2 A(q 2 ) = 2( h 2 )( z ) = 0.7854V z h
8
h
(counterclockwise)
moment produced by q 3
M q 3 = (q3 )(2h)(0.5h) = (
0.6667V z
)(2h)(0.5h) = 0.6667V z h
h
(counterclockwise)
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.4 Find the flexural shear flow in the section of Fig. 5.32 for Vz = 5000 N .
Figure 5.32
Solution:
(a) Assume that the transverse shear force acts through the shear center and produces
no torsion to the cross-section. Also assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in
bending. Let the left-bottom stringer be the origin of a coordinate system with
respect to which we now determine the centroid of this four-stringer section. We
obtain
Ay
=
A
i
yc
2(2 A0 )(2h)
= 1.33h
2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
(3 A0 )(h)
= 0 .5 h
2( A0 ) + 2(2 A0 )
Az
=
A
i
zc
Now we set up the (y, z) coordinate system with the origin located at the centroid.
The moments of inertia with respect to y-axis and z-axis are obtained as
I y = Ai z i = 2(3 A0 )(0.5h) 2 = 1.5 A0 h 2
2
(5.4.1)
Q1 = (2 A0 )(0.5h) = A0 h
q1 =
5000 A0 h
V z Q1
3333.33
=
=
2
Iy
h
1.5 A0 h
--- ANS
(2) On s2
Q2 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) = 1.5 A0 h
q2 =
5000 1.5 A0 h
V z Q2
5000
=
=
2
Iy
h
1.5 A0 h
--- ANS
(3) On s 3
Q3 = (3 A0 )(0.5h) ( A0 )(0.5h) = 1A0 h
q3 =
V z Q3
5000 A0 h
3333.33
=
=
2
Iy
h
1.5 A0 h
--- ANS
The negative signs indicates that the actual shear flow direction is opposite to the
assumed direction of the contour.
5.4.2
5.5
Find the shear flow for the three-stringer section shown in Fig. 5.33 for
Figure 5.33
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Let stringer 2 be the
reference point for the location of the centroid of this four-stringer section. We
have the horizontal and vertical distances of the centroid from stringer 2 as
A y
=
A
i
yc
(10)(80)
= 26.6667cm = 0.2667 m
3(10)
(10)(20) + (10)(10)
= 10cm = 0.1m
3(10)
Az
=
A
i
zc
Now we set up the y and z axes with the origin at the centroid. The moments of inertia
are
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.1) 2 = 2 10 5 m 4
2
= 4.2667 10 4 m 4
make a fictitious cut between stringers 1 and 3 and consider the shear flow as the
superposition of two shear flow systems as shown in the figure below.
(1) First, calculate the shear flows by assuming a cut in the wall between stringers
1 and 3. Then q '31 = 0 , and the shear on the cut section is calculated by using
q'i =
V z Qi
Iy
(5.5.1)
V z Q1
5000(10 10 4 0.1)
=
= 25000 N / m
Iy
2 10 5
q ' 23 =
V z Q2
5000(10 10 4 0.1 10 10 4 0.1)
=
=0
Iy
2 10 5
(2) Adding the shear flow q0 from the second part, we have the total shear flow as
q12 = q '12 + q 0 = 25000 + q 0
q 23 = q ' 23 + q0 = q 0
q31 = q '31 + q 0 = q 0
The resulting moment of the total shear flow must be equal to the moment
produced by V z . Taking moment about stringer 1, we have
V z 0 = 2 A12 q12 + 2 A123 q 23
= 2( (0.2) 2 )(25000 + q 0 ) + 2
8
= 785.4 + 0.1914q 0 = 0
(0.8)(0.2)
q0
2
=> q0 = 4103N / m
Note: A12 is the area enclosed by the curved sheet and the line connecting
stringers 1 and 2; A123 is the area enclosed by the lines connecting stringers 1,
2, and 3. Also note that the shear flow passes stringer 1 and, thus, does not
produce any moment.
5.5.2
1
q
ds
2G A t
We can obtain the twist angle per unit length as
(5.5.2)
0.2
) + 2 4103 (0.806)
1
q
51.54
2
=
ds =
=
6
2G A t
2(27 109 )( 0.22 + 0.2 0.8 / 2)(0.001) 5.17 10
8
6
4
= 9.97 10 rad / m = 5.7 10 deg/ m
20896 (
--- ANS
(d) Shear center
To determine the horizontal location of the shear center, we assume that the shear
force V z acts through the shear center which is assumed to be located at a horizontal
distance e to the right of stringer 1. We now rewrite the moment equation as
(V z )(e) = 2 A12 q12 + 2 A123 q 23
= 2( (0.2) 2 )(25000 + q 0 ) + 2
8
= 785.40 + 0.19q 0 = 5000e
(0.8)(0.2)
q0
2
1
q
ds = 0
2G A t
q
q
1 q12
=>
(
s12 + 23 s 23 + 31 s31 ) = 0
t
t
2G A t
zero, i.e. =
5.5.3
=>
1
0.2
[(26123.30e 20896.56)(
) + 2 (26123.30e + 4103.44)(0.806)] = 0
2
2G At
=> 50328.09e + 51.54 = 0
=> e = 1 10 3 m
The negative sign means that the shear center is to the left of stringer 1.
--- ANS
5.5.4
5.6
Figure 5.33
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. The centroid of this
four-stringer section is
A y
=
A
i
yc
(10)(80)
= 26.6667cm = 0.2667 m
3(10)
(10)(20) + (10)(10)
= 10cm = 0.1m
3(10)
Az
=
A
i
zc
= 4.2667 10 4 m 4
5.6.1
From the condition that the resultants of the shear flows must be equal to the
applied shear forces, we have
(5.6.1)
(5.6.2)
0.22
(5.6.3)
--- ANS
(c) Twist angle per unit length
The equation for twist angle per unit length is
1
q
ds
2G A t
15672 (
(5.6.4)
0.2
) + (15577 + 3077) (0.806)
2
5.6.3
5.7
Find the shear flow on the four-stringer section (Fig. 5.34) subjected to
Vz = 5000 N . Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending.
Figure 5.34
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this four-stringer section is located at
A y
=
A
i
yc
2(10)(80)
= 32cm
2(15) + 2(10)
(15)(40) + (10)(20)
= 16cm
2(15) + 2(10)
Az
=
A
i
zc
from stringer 2.
Now set up the (y,z) coordinate system with the origin at the centroid..
The moments of inertia are obtained as
I y = Ai z i = (15)(24 2 + 16 2 ) + (10)(4 2 + 16 2 )
2
= 15200cm 4
I z = Ai y i = 2(15)(32) 2 + 2(10)(80 32) 2
2
= 76800cm 4
I yz = Ai y i z i = (15)[(32)(24) + (32)(16)]
i
q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z ( k zV z k yzV y )Q y
where k y =
Iy
I y I z I yz
, kz =
Iz
I y I z I yz
(5.7.1)
, k yz =
I yz
I y I z I yz
As
kz =
k yz =
Iy
I y I z I yz
Iz
I y I z I yz
I yz
I y I z I yz
15200
= 1.413 10 5
2
( 15200 )( 76800 ) ( 9600 )
76800
= 7.143 10 5
2
( 15200 )( 76800 ) ( 9600 )
9600
= 0.893 10 5
2
( 15200 )( 76800 ) ( 9600 )
(5.7.2)
5.7.2
--- ANS
(3) For shear flow q 3
Q z = 2(15)(32) + (10)(48) = 480cm 3
5.7.3
5.8
Find the shear center ( y sc , z sc ) for the open section in Fig. 5.34.
Figure 5.34
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. The centroid of this
four-stringer section is located at
A y
=
A
i
yc
2(10)(80)
= 32cm = 0.32m
2(15) + 2(10)
(15)(40) + (10)(20)
= 16cm = 0.16m
2(15) + 2(10)
Az
=
A
i
zc
from stringer 2.
Now set up the (y , z) coordinate system with the origin at the centroid as shown
in Fig. 5.34.
The moments of inertia are
I y = Ai z i = (15 10 4 )(0.24 2 + 0.16 2 ) + (10 10 4 )(0.04 2 + 0.16 2 )
2
= 1.52 10 4 m 4
I z = Ai y i = 2(15 10 4 )(0.32) 2 + 2(10 10 4 )(0.8 0.32) 2
2
= 7.68 10 4 m 4
I yz = Ai y i z i = (15 10 4 )[(0.32)(0.24) + ( 0.32)(0.16)]
i
equation
q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z ( k zV z k yzV y )Q y
where k y =
Iy
I y I z I yz
, kz =
Iz
I y I z I yz
(5.8.1)
, k yz =
I yz
I y I z I yz
As
ky =
kz =
k yz =
Iy
I y I z I yz
1.52
10 4 = 1.4137 10 3
2
(1.52)(7.68) (0.96)
7.68
10 4 = 7.1429 10 3
2
(1.52)(7.68) ( 0.96)
0.96
10 4 = 0.8929 10 3
2
(1.52)(7.68) (0.96)
Iz
I y I z I yz
I yz
I y I z I yz
(5.8.2)
5.8.2
Fz
= q 2 s 2 = (1.25V y )(0.8) = V y
= q1 s 1 + q 3 s 3
Satisfied!
M = (q s ) s
3 3
= V z y sc
5.8.3
=> y sc =
M = (q s ) s
3 3
= V y z sc
=> z sc =
= 0.114 m
5.8.4
5.9 Find the shear center of the z section given by Fig. 4.8.
Figure 4.8
Thin-walled Z-section
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this Z-section is obviously located at the midpoint of the vertical
web. The moments of inertia are
2
2bt 3 th 3 tbh 2 t 3 b th 3
h
+
=
+
+
I y = 2bt +
12
12
2
6
12
2
2
2tb 3 ht 3 2tb 3 t 3 h
b
+
=
+
I z = 2bt +
12
12
3
12
2
I yz = bt
2
bh
b h tb h
+ bt =
22
2
2 2
where k y =
Iy
I y I z I yz
, kz =
Iz
I y I z I yz
(5.9.1)
, k yz =
I yz
I y I z I yz
(5.9.2)
(5.9.3)
Q z = ydA = (b
1
1
s1 )ts1 = ( s1 b)ts1
2
2
h
1
Q y = zdA = ( )ts1 = ths1
2
2
From equation (5.9.1) we have
q1 ( s1 ) = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z (k zV z k yzV y )Q y
1 2
1
= (k yV y k yzV z )( ts1 tbs1 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( ths1 )
2
2
Then the resultant force of shear flow q1 is
b
b
1 2
1
V1 = q1 ds1 = [(k yV y k yzV z )( ts1 tbs1 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( ths1 )]ds1
0
0
2
2
1 3 1
1
2
2
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( ts1 tbs1 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( ths1 )] |b0
6
2
4
1
1
= tb 3 (k yV y k yzV z ) + tb 2 h(k zV z k yzV y )
3
4
1
1
1
1 2
= (k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh ths 2 + ts 2 )
2
2
2
2
Then the resultant force of shear flow q 2 is
h
V2 = q 2 ds 2
0
h
1
1
1
1 2
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh ths 2 + ts 2 )]ds 2
0
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1 3
2
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 s 2 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbhs 2 ths 2 + ts 2 )] |0h
2
2
4
6
1
1
1
= tb 2 h(k yV y k yzV z ) + ( tbh 2 + th 3 )(k zV z k yzV y )
2
2
12
(3) For shear flow q 3
1
1 2
Q z = ydA = tb 2 + ts3
2
2
1
1
Q y = zdA = tbh + ths3
2
2
From equation (5.9.1) we have
5.9.2
V3 = q 3 ds3
0
1
1 2
1
1
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 + ts 3 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbh + ths3 )]ds3
0
2
2
2
2
1
1 3
1
1
2
= [(k yV y k yzV z )( tb 2 s 3 + ts 3 ) (k zV z k yzV y )( tbhs3 + ths 3 )] |b0
2
6
2
4
1
1
= tb 3 (k yV y k yzV z ) + tb 2 h(k zV z k yzV y )
3
4
We find that V3 = V1
(c) Shear center ( y sc , z sc )
b
M = V 2 V 2 = V
1
y sc
Since V3 = V1 , we conclude y sc = 0
(2) To determine zsc , we consider the case V y 0 and Vz = 0
Thus,
h
M = V 2 V 2 = V
1
z sc
=> z sc = 0
The shear center is at the centroid of the Z-section.
--- ANS
5.9.3
5.10
Find the shear flow in the two-cell section loaded as shown in Fig. 5.35 for
Vz = 5000 N . Given G = 27GPa , find the twist angle .
Figure 5.35
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Because of symmetry, the
centroid of this two-cell section is obviously located at the mid point of the
vertical web. Set up the (y, z) coordinate system with the origin at the centroid.
The moment of inertia with respect to y axis is
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.2 2 ) = 8 10 5 m 4
2
Cuts are made on the curved webs as shown in the above figure. Note that the cut
section is basically reduced to a single vertical web and, thus, the shear flows are
simply:
r =0
q'12l = q12
q'12 v =
Vz 5000
= 12 ,500 N / m
h
0 .4
q12 r = q 2
where q1 and q2 are the constant shear flows in the left and the right cells,
respectively. Note that q1 and q2 are both assumed to be positive if
counterclockwise.
(1) Moment equation
Take the moment about the centroid of this cross-section, we have
Vz 0 = 2 A1q1 + 2 A2 q2
1
where A1 = A2 = h 2 = 0.0628 m 2
8
=> q1 + q 2 = 0
(5.10.2)
1
q
ds
2G A t
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1
1
h
h
[(q12l )( ) + (q12v )(h)] =
[(q12v )(h) + (q12 r )( )]
2
2
2G A1t
2G A2 t
(5.10.3)
N/m
q12 r = q2 = 3500 N / m
Negative sign means the actual direction is opposite to the assumed.
--- ANS
And the twist angle is
q
1
[(3500.67)(0.6283) + (5498.66)(0.4)]
= 1 =
ds =
2(27 10 9 )(0.06283)(0.001)
2G A1 t
= 0(rad / m)
= 0o / m
As expected, there is no twist angle produced since the vertical load is applied
5.10.2
5.11
Find the shear flow of the structure with the cross-section given in Fig. 5.35 if
the vertical force V z is applied at 20cm to the right of the stringers. Also
find the corresponding angle of twist .
Figure 5.35
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. Because of the symmetry to
both y and z axis, the centroid of this two-cell section is obviously located at the
center of the vertical web. So we can shift the y and z axis to match the centroid as
a new origin of the new coordinate system.
The moment of inertia with respect to y axis is
I y = Ai z i = 2(10 10 4 )(0.2 2 ) = 8 10 5 m 4
2
Assume both a cut on the circular webs, as shown in the above figure. So the shear
flow in the vertical web can be obtained by
VQ
q'i = z i
(5.11.1)
Iy
i
q '12 v =
V z Q1
5000(10 10 4 0.2)
=
= 12500 N / m
Iy
8 10 5
q12 r = q 2
where q12l and q12 r are shear flows, respectively, in the left and right curved
walls. q1 and q 2 are constant shear flows, in the left and right cells,
respectively. Both are assumed to be counterclockwise.
(1) Moment equation
Take moment about the centroid of this cross-section, we have
1
V z (0.2) = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A2 q 2 , where A1 = A2 = h 2 = 0.063m 2
8
=> q1 + q2 = 7957.98( N / m )
(5.11.2)
1
q
ds
2G A t
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1
1
h
h
[(q12l )( ) + (q12v )(h)] =
[(q12v )(h) + (q12 r )( )]
2
2
2G A1t
2G A2 t
(5.11.3)
q12 r = q 2 = 7479.65( N / m)
Negative sign means the actual direction is opposite to the assumed.
--- ANS
The twist angle is
1
q
[( 478.33 )( 0.6283 ) + ( 5498.66 )( 0.4 )]
ds =
= 1 =
2G A1 t
2( 27 10 9 )( 0.06283 )( 0.001 )
= 7.37 10 4 rad / m = 0.042 o / m
--- ANS
5.11.2
T
2A
(5.11.4)
2
h
in which A = = 0.1257 m2, and T = 0.2Vz = 1000 Nm
2
Thus,
q = 3978
N /m
(counterclockwise)
and the complete shear flows are, after adding q to the shear flow solution
for Problem 4.10.
q12 v = 5498 + 0 = 5498 N / m
q12l = 3500 + q = 3500 + 3978 = 478 N / m
5.11.3
5.12
Solve Example 5.9 by assuming cuts on the webs between stringers 1 and 2
and stringers 6 and 3.
Figure 5.27
Solution:
(a) Because the section is symmetric with respect to y axis, the centroid is located on
y axis. The moment of inertia with respect to y axis is
I y = Ai z i = 2(1 + 2 + 3)(20 2 ) = 4800cm 4
2
The shear flows in the cut section as shown in the left figure above are calculated
first. We have
VQ
4800(1)(20)
q' 23 = z 1 =
= 20 N / cm
Iy
4800
q '34 =
4800(1 + 2)(20)
= 60 N / cm
4800
q ' 45 =
4800(1 + 2 + 3)(20)
= 120 N / cm
4800
q '56 =
5.12.1
q ' 61 =
(5.12.2)
1
q
ds
2G A t
We have = 1 = 2 ,
(5.12.3)
The negative sign means the actual shear flow is opposite to the assumed
direction.
--- ANS
5.12.3
5.13
A thin-walled box beam is obtained by welding the cut of the section shown in
Fig. 5.30. Find the shear flow produced by a vertical shear force Vz = 1000N
applied at 100mm to the right of the vertical wall that contains the original
cut.
Figure 5.30
Solution:
The shear flow in the welded section loaded by the off center shear force Vz is of
interest.
To solve the problem, we first make a fictitious cut at the original gap of the wall as
shown in Fig. 5.30. The centroid is at the center of the section for both welded and the
cut sections The moment of inertia about y axis is
1
[(0.1 + 0.002)(0.2 + 0.002) 3 (0.1 0.002)(0.2 0.002) 3 ]
12
= 6.6676 10 6 m 4
Iy =
(a) Consider the shear flow in the cut section first. Setup the shear flow contours in
the thin wall segments as shown in the figure below. Since this is an open section,
the shear flow can be calculated using the formula
VQ
q'i = z i
Iy
(1) On s1 : 0 ~ 0.1m
s
2
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s1t )( 1 ) = 0.001s1
2
As
VQ
1000 0.001s1
2
q1 = z =
= 1.5 10 5 s1
6
Iy
6.6676 10
2
(2) On s 2 : 0 ~ 0.1m
5.13.1
Vz Q
1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s 2 )
=
= 1500 3 10 4 s 2
6
Iy
6.6676 10
(3) On s 3 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 + 0.002(0.1) 2 + 0.002 s 3 (0.1 0.5s3 )
= 3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s3 )
2
1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 3 5s 3 )]
Vz Q
q3 =
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
2
(4) On s 4 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = zdA = As z c = ( s 4 t )(
As
s4
2
) = 0.001s 4
2
V Q 1000 0.001s 4
2
q4 = z =
= 1.5 10 5 s 4
6
Iy
6.6676 10
2
(5) On s 5 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002 s 5 (0.1) = 10 5 2 10 4 s 5
q5 =
V z Q 1000 (10 5 + 2 10 4 s5 )
= 1500 + 3 10 4 s 5
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
(6) On s 6 : 0 ~ 0.1m
Q = 0.001(0.1) 2 0.002(0.1) 2 0.002 s 6 (0.1 0.5s 6 )
= 3 10 5 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )
2
V z Q 1000 [3 10 5 + 2 10 4 ( s 6 5s 6 )]
=
Iy
6.6676 10 6
2
q6 =
(b) The shear flow in the welded section is that in the cut section plus a constant shear
flow q 0 along the contour of the wall. This unknown constant shear flow is
needed to produce the same moment as produced by the vertical shear force
Vz = 1000N applied at 100mm to the right of the vertical wall that contains the
original cut.
5.13.2
Take moment about the out-of-plane axis that passes through the upper right
corner of the thin-walled section. The moment produced by the shear flow must be
equal to the moment produced by the applied shear force about the same axis, i.e.,
M =V y
z
0.1
0.1
q 2 = 5250 3 10 4 s 2
q 5 = 5250 + 3 10 4 s 5
--- ANS
5.13.3
5.14
Show that the shear center for the section of Fig. 5.36 is at a distance
a ( a + b )
e=
(a + b)(1 + )
to the left of stringer 1.
Figure 5.36
Solution:
(a) Assume that the thin sheets are ineffective in bending. The centroid of this
four-stringer section is located at
A y
=
A
i
yc
2(A)(a )
a
=
2( A + A) 1 +
( A + A)(b) b
=
2( A + A)
2
Az
=
A
i
zc
relative to stringer 3. We set up the (y,z) coordinate system with the origin placed
at the centroid as shown in Fig. 5.36.
The moments of inertia are
b
1+ 2
2
I y = Ai z i = 2( A + A)( ) 2 =
b A
2
2
i
a 2
a 2 2a 2 A
2
) + 2(A)(a
) =
I z = Ai y i = 2( A)(
1+
1+
1+
i
(b) Shear flows
Since this cross-section is symmetric with respect to y axis, the shear center is
located on the y axis. Hence it is only necessary to determine the y position of the
shear center. We can consider a fictitious cut section with shear flow q ' plus the
existing constant shear flow q 0 .
(1) First, calculate the shear flows by assuming a cut in the wall between stringers
1 and 4. Then
5.14.1
q' 41 = 0
b
V z (A)( )
VQ
2 = V z
q'12 = z 1 =
1+ 2
Iy
(1 + )b
b A
2
b
V z (1 + ) A( )
VQ
2 = Vz
q' 23 = z 2 =
1+ 2
Iy
b
b A
2
b
b
V z [(1 + ) A( ) + A( )]
VQ
2
2 = V z
q '34 = z 3 =
1+ 2
Iy
(1 + )b
b A
2
(2) The total shear flow and their resultant forces are,
aV z
+ q0 a
(1 + )b
q 23 = q ' 23 + q0 => V2 = q 23 b = V z + q 0 b
q12 = q '12 + q 0 => V1 = q12 a =
aV z
+ q0 a
(1 + )b
q 41 = q' 41 + q 0 = q 0 => V4 = q 41b = q 0 b
Assume that the force V z is acting through the shear center and, thus, twist
angle is produced. Consequently, we require
1
q
=
ds = 0
2G A t
aV z
aV z
=> (
+ q 0 a ) + ( V z + q 0 b) + (
+ q 0 a ) + ( q 0 b) = 0
(1 + )b
(1 + )b
2a + (1 + )b
=> q 0 =
Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)b
q34 = q '34 + q0 => V3 = q 34 a =
5.14.2
aV z
(1 ) a
+ q0 a =
Vz
(1 + )b
2(1 + )(a + b)
2 a b b
V2 = q 23 b = V z + q 0 b =
Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)
V1 = q12 a =
aV z
(1 ) a
+ q0 a =
Vz
(1 + )b
2(1 + )(a + b)
2a + (1 + )b
V4 = q 41b = q 0 b ==
Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)
V3 = q34 a =
2a 2 ab ab + ab ab
Vz
2(1 + )(a + b)
a ( a + b )
Vz
(1 + )(a + b)
=> y sc =
a ( a + b )
(1 + )(a + b)
The negative sign indicates that the shear center is to the left of stringer 1.It is
noted that if = 1 , then the shear center is at the center of the square section as
expected.
--- ANS
5.14.3
5.15
Find the shear flow in the two-cell thin-walled section for Vz = 5000 N
shown in Fig. 5.37. Also determine the shear center. Assume thin sheets to be
ineffective in bending.
Figure 5.37
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this four-stringer section is
A y
=
A
i
yc
2 A(40)
= 26.67cm
3A
A(20)
= 6.67cm
3A
Az
=
A
i
zc
relative to stringer 1. Set up the (y,z) coordinate system with the origin place at the
centroid.
The moments of inertia are
20
40
2
I y = Ai z i = 2(10)( ) 2 + (10)( ) 2 = 2666.67cm 4
3
3
i
I z = Ai y i = 2(10)(
2
40 2
80
) + (10)( ) 2 = 10666.67cm 4
3
3
I yz = Ai y i z i = 2666.67cm 4
i
(5.15.1)
5.15.1
where k y =
Iy
I y I z I yz
, kz =
Iz
I y I z I yz
, k yz =
I yz
I y I z I yz
(5.15.2)
(5.15.3)
As
ky =
k yz =
Iy
I y I z I yz
I yz
I y I z I yz
Iz
= 1.25 10 4 cm 4 ,
kz =
= 1.25 10 4 cm 4 ,
Vz = 5000 N ,
I y I z I yz
= 5 10 4 cm 4
Vy = 0
q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z (k zV z k yzV y )Q y
= 0.625Q z 2.5Q y
(5.15.4)
80
) = 266.67cm 3
3
Q y = (10)(
20
) = 66.67cm 3
3
Q y = 133.33cm 3
From equation (5.15.4) we have
q ' 23c = 0.625(133.33) 2.5(133.33) = 250( N / cm)
The total shear flow is obtained by adding the constant counterclockwise shear
flows q1 and q 2 in the left and right cells, respectively. Thus,
q12 = q'12 + q1 = q1
q 23v = q1 q 2 (vertical sheet)
q 23c = q ' 23c + q 2 = 250 + q 2
q31 = q1
5.15.2
(5.15.5)
1
q
ds
2G A t
We have = 1 = 2 ,
1
1
[40q12 + 20q 23v + 44.7214q31 ] =
[20(q 23v ) + 10q 23c ]
2G A1t
2G A2 t
(5.15.6)
= 40(210.78) + 40(210.78) = 0
(OK)
(OK)
5.15.3
(5.15.7)
1
q
ds
2G A t
We have = 1 = 2 = 0 when the force acts through the shear center, then
1
[40q12 + 20q 23v + 44.7214q31 ] = 0
2G A1t
=> q 2 = 5.236q1
1
[20(q 23v ) + 10q 23c ] = 0
and
2G A2 t
(5.15.8)
(5.15.9)
--- ANS
5.15.4
5.16
Find the shear flow in the five-stringer thin-walled section produced by the
loads shown in Fig. 5.38.
Figure 5.38
Solution:
(a) The centroid of this four-stringer section is at
A y
=
A
i
yc
2 A( h) + A(2h)
= 0.8h = 32cm
5A
2 A(h)
= 16cm
5A
Az
=
A
i i
zc
relative to stringer 1.
The origin of the coordinate system (y, z) is at the centroid.
The moments of inertia are
I y = Ai z i = 3(10)( 16) 2 + 2(10)( 24) 2 = 19200cm 4
2
= 9600cm 4
(b) Shear flows
First we make three fictitious cuts as shown in Fig.5.38. The shear flow in the
unsymmetrical thin-walled section is calculated with the formulas:
q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z ( k zV z k yzV y )Q y
(5.16.1)
5.16.1
where k y =
Iy
I y I z I yz
, kz =
Iz
I y I z I yz
, k yz =
I yz
I y I z I yz
As
ky =
k yz =
Iy
I y I z I yz
I yz
I y I z I yz
= 2.5 10 5 cm 4 , k z =
Iz
I y I z I yz
= 5.8333 10 5 cm 4
q s = (k yV y k yzV z )Q z (k zV z k yzV y )Q y
= 0.1Q z 0.4667Q y
(5.16.2)
Q y = (10)(16) = 160cm 3
From equation (5.16.2) we have
q'12 = 0.1(320) 0.4667(160) = 106.67( N / cm)
(2) For shear flow q ' 23
Q z = (10)(32 + 8) = 240cm 3
1
q
ds
2G A t
We require 1 = 2 ,
1
1
[20q51c + 40q15v ] =
[40q12 + 40q 24 + 40q 45 40q15v ]
2G A1t
2G A2 t
=> 7.5465q1 6.546q 2 + q3 = 186.67
(5.16.6)
and 2 = 3 ,
1
1
[40q12 + 40q 24 + 40q 45 40q15v ] =
[40q 23 + 40 2q34 40q 24 ]
2G A2 t
2G A3t
=> q1 6q 2 + 7.828q3 = 725.69
(5.16.7)
q3 = 166.068 N / cm
Then the complete shear flows are
q12 = 106.67 + q 2 = 3.869( N / cm)
q 23 = 173.33 + q3 = 7.262( N / cm)
q34 = 200 + q3 = 33.932( N / cm)
q 45 = 80 + q 2 = 22.801( N / cm)
q 51c = q1 = 42.437( N / cm) (curved sheet)
q15v = q1 q 2 = 60.364( N / cm) (vertical sheet)
q 24 = q 2 q3 = 63.267( N / cm)
The negative sign means that the actual shear flow direction is opposite to the
assumed direction. The assumed directions are shown in Fig.5.38 .
--- ANS
5.16.4
6.1
Solution:
The stress-strain relation can be expressed as
0 = K 0
(6.1.1)
1
where 0 = ( xx + yy + zz ) is the average stress, 0 = xx + yy + zz is the
3
E
is the bulk modulus.
3(1 2 )
and 0 = xx + yy + zz = (1 )( xx + yy )
The strain energy density associated with the volume dilatation is given by,
1
1
1
Wv = 0 0 =
02 =
( xx + yy ) 2
2
2K
18 K
(6.1.2)
1
( xx xx + yy yy + xy xy )
2
(6.1.3)
1
1
2
2
=
xy 2
( xx + yy 2 xx yy ) +
2E
2G
where xx =
1
1
1
( xx yy ) , yy = ( xx + yy ) , and xy = xy
E
E
G
E
we have
2(1 + )
1
1
1
2
2
( xx + yy 2 xx yy ) +
xy 2
( xx + yy ) 2
2E
2G
18 K
1
1 + 2 1 2
2
2
2
2
( xx + yy 2 xx yy ) +
xy
( xx + yy + 2 xx yy )
2E
6E
E
6.1.1
1
1+ 2
2
2
2
2
xy
[3 xx + 3 yy 6 xx yy (1 2 )( xx + yy + 2 xx yy )] +
E
6E
1
1+ 2
2
2
xy
[( 2 + 2 ) xx + (2 + 2 ) yy (2 + 2 ) xx yy ] +
E
6E
1+
2
2
2
[ xx + yy xx yy + 3 xy ]
3E
1
2
2
2
[( xx yy ) 2 + xx + yy + 6 xy ]
12G
1
J2
2G
1
2
2
2
where J 2 = [( xx yy ) 2 + xx + yy + 6 xy ]
6
6.1.2
6.2
Solution:
The stresses caused by the internal pressure p 0 is
xx = yy
1
p 0 ( D 2 )
p D
2 p0
4
=
= 0 =
= 100 p 0 , xy = 0 , zz = 0
(D)t
4t
4(0.005)
where x and y are orthogonal axes in the directions tangential to the surface at the
point of interest, and z is perpendicular to the surface at the same point. There are
only normal stresses presnt. Thus,
1 = xx = 100 p 0 , 2 = yy = 100 p 0 , 3 = 0
(1) Tresca yield criterion
Yielding occurs when
1 2 Y
(6.2.1a)
2 3 Y
(6.2.1b)
3 1 Y
(6.2.1c)
After substituting the stress values, all three inequalities become one:
100 p0 Y = 250 MPa . Thus, the maximum internal pressure p 0 that does not
cause yielding is p 0 = 2.5MPa
--- ANS
(2) von Mises yield criterion
von Mises yiled criterion is
1
1
[( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 ] = Y 2
6
3
or in plane stress form ( 3 = 0 )
J2 =
J2 =
1
1
1
[( 1 2 )2 + 12 + 2 2 ] = ( 12 1 2 + 2 2 ) = Y 2
6
3
3
(6.2.2)
(6.2.2a)
6.2.1
so the maximum internal pressure p 0 that does not cause yielding is p 0 = 2.5MPa
--- ANS
Both criteria give the same maximum pressure of p 0 = 2.5MPa .
6.2.2
6.3
Consider the problem of Example 6.2. Find the maximum p 0 without causing
yielding if N = 5 10 6 N (compression).
Solution:
From example 6.2, we have yield stress Y = 280 MPa , the radius of the thin-walled
hollow cylinder is a = 1m , and its thickness is t = 5 10 3 m .
N
5
Axial stress: xx =
=
= 159.16 MPa
(2a )t ( 2 )(1)(5 10 3 )
Shear stress: xy = 0
p 0 ( 2a ) L p 0 a
p0
=
=
= 200 p0
2tL
t
0.005
By von Mises yielded criterion for plane stress,
Hoop stress: yy =
1
1 2
2
2
2
J 2 = [( xx yy ) 2 + xx + yy + 6 xy ] = y
6
3
(6.3.1)
=> p 0 = 0.82Mpa ,
p 0 = 1.62 Mpa
Since inner pressure p 0 should be positive, the negative solution is neglected.
Thus, the maximum p 0 without causing yielding is p 0 = 0.82Mpa .
--- ANS
6.3.1
6.4
2
Figure 6.24
Solution:
From Table 6.1, we have the yield stress Y = 415MPa for aluminum 2024-T651.
By von Mises yield criterion for plane stress,
1
1
( 1 2 1 2 + 2 2 ) = Y 2
3
3
Substituting 1 = 300MPa and Y = 415MPa , we have
(6.4.1)
6.5
Find the total strain energy release rate for the split beam loaded as shown in
Figs. 6.25 and 6.26.
Figure 6.25
Figure 6.26
Solution:
(1) Figure 6.25
The strain energy stored in the beam due to a bending moment M is
M2
dx
0 2 EI
For segment 1, the strain energy is
U =
U1 =
( Px) 2
P 2a3 2P 2a3
dx =
=
,
2 EI1
6 EI1
Eth 3
(6.5.1)
where I 1 =
th 3
12
For segment 2,
U2 = 0
For segment 3,
U3 =
( Px) 2
P 2 ( L3 a 3 ) P 2 ( L3 a 3 )
t (2h) 3 2th 3
dx =
=
,
where
I
=
=
3
2 EI 3
6 EI 3
12
3
4 Eth 3
1 dU 1 6 P 2 a 2 3P 2 a 2
21 P 2 a 2
= (
)
=
t da t Eth 3
4 Et 2 h 3
4 Eth 3
G=
--- ANS
(2) Figure 6.26
Assume the axial load acting on segment 1 is located at the distance of
h
from the
2
center of the entire split beam. The strain energy stored in the beam due to an axial
force P is
P2L
2 EA
For segment 1, the strain energy is
U=
P2a
P2a
=
,
2 EA1 2 Eth
U1 =
(6.5.2)
where A1 = th
For segment 2,
U2 =
(M 0 ) 2
M a 6M 0 a
th 3
,
where
I
=
dx = 0 =
2
12
2 EI 2
2 EI 2
Eth 3
For segment 3, the load consists of an axial force of P and bending moment of
M0 + P
h
. Strain energy stored in segment 3 is
2
U3 =
=
P ( L a)
+
a
2 EA3
2
h
(M 0 + P ) 2
2 dx
2 EI 3
P ( L a ) 3M 0 ( L a) 3M 0 Ph( L a ) 3P h ( L a )
+
+
+
4 Eth
4 Eth 3
4 Eth 3
16 Eth 3
2
t (2h) 3 2th 3
where A3 = 2th , and I 3 =
=
12
3
The total strain energy stored in the entire split beam is
U = U1 + U 2 + U 3
P 2 a 6 M 0 a P ( L a ) 3M 0 ( L a ) 3M 0 Ph( L a ) 3P 2 h 2 ( L a )
=
+
+
+
+
+
2 Eth
4 Eth
Eth 3
4 Eth 3
4 Eth 3
16 Eth 3
The strain energy release rate is
2
6M 0
3M 0
3M 0 Ph 3P 2
1 dU 1 P 2
P2
)
= (
+
2 3
2
16 Et h 4 Et h
4 Et 2 h 2
G=
--- ANS
6.5.2
6.6
Consider the split beam with loading shown in Fig. 6.27. Loadings in both
Fig.6.11 and 6.27 are antisymmetric, and both are mode II fracture problems.
For the same value of P, which loading is more efficient in cracking the beam?
Assume that the beam dimensions and the elastic properties are
E = 70GPa ,
= 0.3
a = 10 10 2 m ,
t = 2 10 2 m
L = 15 10 2 m ,
h = 1 10 2 m
Figure 6.27
Figure 6.11
Solution:
(1) Figure 6.11
The strain energy stored in the beam due to an axial load P is
P2L
2 EA
The strain energy stored in the beam due to a bending moment M is
U=
M2
U =
dx
0 2 EI
For segments 1 and 2, the strain energy is
L
U1 = U 2 =
P2a
P2a
=
,
2 EA1 2 Eth
(6.6.1)
(6.6.2)
where A1 = th
6.6.1
For segment 3, the two axial forces are assumed to be completely cancelled out by
themselves and only the unbalanced couple Ph is taken up by this segment of beam.
U3 =
( Ph) 2
P 2 h 2 ( L a ) 3P 2 ( L a )
dx =
=
,
2 EI 3
2 EI 3
4 Eth
where I 3 =
t (2h) 3 2th 3
=
12
3
)=
t da t Eth 4 Eth
4 Et 2 h
(2) Figure 6.27
For segment 1 and 2, the strain energy is
G6.11 =
U1 = U 2 =
( Px) 2
P 2 a 3 2P 2 a 3
dx =
=
,
2 EI 1
6 EI 1
Eth 3
where I 1 =
th 3
= I2
12
For segment 3,
U3 =
2 2
L 2P x
(2 Px) 2
P2
dx =
dx =
( L3 a 3 ) ,
3
3
a
2 EI 3
Eth
2th
E(
)
3
t (2h) 3 2th 3
=
12
3
The total strain energy stored in the entire split beam is
where I 3 =
2P 2 a 3
P2
U = U 1 + U 2 + U 3 = 2(
)+
( L3 a 3 )
3
3
Eth
Eth
The strain energy release rate is
1 dU 1 12 P 2 a 2
P2
9P 2 a 2
2
= [
+
(
3
a
)]
=
t da t Eth 3
Eth 3
Et 2 h 3
(3) Comparison
G6.27 =
G6.27
G6.11
9P 2 a 2
2 3
a2
10
= Et 2h = 36 2 = 36( ) 2 = 3600
1
h
P
2
4 Et h
It is obvious to see that the loading in Fig. 6.27 produces more energy release and is
much more efficient in cracking the beam.
--- ANS
6.6.2
6.7
To further split the beam of Fig. 6.27, a rigid pin of diameter d = 0.5cm is
inserted as shown in Fig. 6.28. How far does one have to drive the cylinder in
order to split the beam? Assume a plane strain fracture condition with
K Ic = 50MPa m .
Figure 6.28
Solution:
Use the beam dimensions and the material properties in Problem 6.6.
E = 70GPa ,
L = 15 10 2 m ,
= 0.3
a = 10 10 2 m ,
t = 2 10 2 m
h = 1 10 2 m
The vertical displacement of each split beam at the position of the cylinder is
d
= 0.25cm . This is an approximate value because the exact contact points may
2
not be diametric.
Consider the upper leg as a cantilever beam subjected to a vertical load P at a distance
a - c from the crack tip. The load-deflection relation can be found in any mechanics of
solid book:
3EI 1
3(70 10 9 )(1.6667 10 9 )
0.875
P=
=
0.0025 =
(6.7.1)
3
3
(a c)
(0.1 c)
(0.1 c) 3
th 3 (2 10 2 )(1 10 2 ) 3
=
= 1.6667 10 9 m 4
12
12
Let x measures the distance from the load to a location to the right. The total strain
energy stored in the upper and lower beams due to a bending is
where I =
U = 2
a c
( Px) 2
P 2 (a c) 3
dx =
2 EI 1
3EI 1
1 dU P 2 (a c) 2
=
t da
tEI 1
6.7.1
=(
0.875 2
( 0.1 c )2
0.3281
)
=
3
9
9
( 0.1 c )
( 0.02 )( 70 10 )( 1.6667 10 ) ( 0.1 c )4
6.7.2
6.8
Solution:
(1) Under the internal pressure p 0 .
The only nonvanishing stress is the hoop stress which is given by
p 0 ( 2r ) L p 0 r
p0
=
=
= 200 p 0
2tL
t
0.005
For a large cylinder with a small crack that is perpendicular to the uniform hoop stress
it can be approximated as a flat plate subjected to a remotely applied uniform tension
as shown in the figure below. Then the stress intensity factor can be approximately
taken as
yy =
K I = yy a = 200 p0
0.05
(
) = 56.05 p0
2
yy
yy
The mode I fracture toughness of the material is K Ic = 5 MPa m .
Therefore, the maximum internal pressure that the cracked cylinder can withstand is
estimated as
K I = K Ic => 56.05 p0 = 5
Thus, p0 = 0.0892 MPa = 89.2 KPa
--- ANS
(2) Under a torque T (without internal pressure p 0 )
6.8.1
xx = yy = 0 ,
q
T
T
=
=
= 31.83 T
2
t 2 At 2 ( 1 ) ( 0.005 )
N / m2
where is the shesr stress associated with the shear flow q along the wall
produced by the torque T. If there is a small longitudinal crack on the cylinder of a
larger diameter, then in region of the crack may be approximated by a flat plat
subjected to antisymmetric shear loading as shown in the figure below.
So this is a mode II fracture problem and the large plate solution for stress intensity
factor may be used. We have
K II = 0 a = 31.83T (
0.05
) = 8.92T
2
MN m = 560
KN m
--- ANS
6.8.2
6.9
Consider the thin-walled box beam in Fig. 6.17. The top wall contains a crack
parallel to the x-axis. The crack length is 0.02 m (i.e., a = 0.01m ). Assume that
the material is brittle and that modes I and II have the same toughness value of
5MPa m . If the box beam has already been subjected to a torque
T = 100kN m , estimate the maximum additional axial force N by using the
mixed mode fracture criterion.
Figure 6.17
Solution:
(1) Under the torque T
Without the crack, a constant shear flow in the thin wall is produced by the torque and
in the top panel the state of uniform stress would be
T
100
xx = zz = 0 , xz =
=
= 20000kPa = 20 MPa ,
2 At 2(0.5)(0.005)
Since the crack is small as compared with the panel, the top panel with the crack can
be approximated as a large panel subjected to a remote shear stress condition as
depicted in the figure below.
6.9.1
This is a mode II fracture problem and the stress intensity factor can be approximated
by the expression for a crack in an infinite plate:
zz =
N
N
=
= 66.67 N
A 2(1 + 0.5)(0.005)
Pa
This is a mode I fracture problem. Again, using the large panel (relative to the crack
size) argument, we approximate the mode I stress intensity factor as
K Ic
K II
+
K IIc
= 1
6
11.82 N max 3.545 10
= 1
=>
+
6
6
5 10 5 10
2
6.9.2
6.10
Derive the strain energy (bending and shear together) per unit length of a
Timoshenko beam with a solid rectangular cross-section. The counterpart of
the simple beam theory is given by (6.26). Use this expression to derive the
mode I strain energy release rate for the split beam of Fig. 6.10. Compare the
Timoshenko beam solution with the simple beam solution. How long (in terms
of a / h ) does the crack length have to be for the simple beam solution to be
within 5 percent of the Timoshenko beam solution.
Figure 6.10
Solution:
The strain energy in a Timoshenko beam consists of two parts; one part is associated
with bending deformation and the other part is transverse shear deformation.
(1) Strain energy associated with bending deformation
M2
UM =
dx
(6.10.1)
0 2 EI
For this particular problem, M = Px in beams 1 and 2, and M = 0 in beam 3, and
L
I1 = I 2 =
th 3
12
U M1 = U M 2 =
( Px) 2
2P 2 a 3
dx
=
, UM3 = 0
th 3
Eth 3
2E( )
12
Thus, U M = U Mi =
i
4P 2 a 3
Eth 3
6.10.1
Timoshenko beam theory, the transverse shear strain produced by the shear force V is
dw0
V
+ y =
dx
kGA
where k =
5
for the rectangular solid cross-section.
6
Then the total stain energy associated with the transverse shear deformation in a
Timoshenko beam is
U V = WdV =
L
G V 2
V2
dA
dx
=
(
)
A 2 kGA
0 2k 2 GA dx
(6.10.2)
( P) 2
18 P 2 a
dx
=
, UV 3 = 0
25Gth
2k 2 G (th)
Thus the total strain energy associated with the transverse shear deformation is
36 P 2 a
UV = UV 1 + UV 2 =
25Gth
(3) Total strain energy
Assume Poissons ratio = 0.3 , G =
E
= 0.385E
2(1 + )
U Tim =
(6.10.3)
a
P2 a
P2 a
4P2 a 3
36 P 2
( ) +
( ) = 4 ( )3 + 3.74 ( )
Et h
Et h
Et h
25(0.385E )t h
(6.10.4)
--- ANS
a
within 5% error
h
a
= q , from (6.10.3) and (6.10.4), we have
h
Err =
U Tim U Sim
0.05 ,
U Tim
=>
3.744q
0.05
4q + 3.744q
3
6.10.2
a
a
= q is positive, we have
= q 4.22
h
h
--- ANS
6.10.3
6.11
Compare the plastic zone sizes for plane strain mode I fracture at failure in Al
2024-T651 and Al 7075-T651.
Solution:
The plastic zone size under plane strain is
rp = (1 2 )
KI
2 Y
(6.11.1)
K Ic
(24) 2
2
=
(
1
0
.
33
)
= 6.153 10 5 m = 0.062 mm
2
2
2
(
415
)
2 Y
--- ANS
(2) For Al 7075-T651 ( = 0.33 )
The plane strain toughness is K Ic = 29MPa m ,
and the yield stress is Y = 505MPa .
The plastic zone is
2
K Ic
( 29) 2
2
rp = (1 2 )
= (1 2 0.33)
= 6.067 10 5 m = 0.061 mm
2
2
2 (505)
2 Y
2
--- ANS
The plastic zone sizes for plane strain mode I fracture at failure in Al 2024-T651 and
Al 7075-T651 are almost identical.
6.11.1
6.12
Solution:
By using Irwins plastic zone adjustment method, the fracture toughness can be
characterized by KI evaluated at a eff which is
aeff = a0 + rp
where a0 = 27.5 mm. Since rp depends on K I , which in turn depends on a eff , the
determination of a eff requires a few iterations. We start with
K I = 0 a 0 = 136 (0.0275) = 39.97 MPa m
The plastic zone under plane stress is
rp1 =
KI
2 Y
(136) 2 0.0275
= 1.477 10 3 m
2
2 (415)
Then we can compute the new stress intensity factor by using the new effective crack
length, that is
K I ( eff )1 = 0 a eff 1 = 136 (0.02898) = 41.04 MPa m
K I ( eff )1
2 y
(39.123866) 2
= 1.556 10 3 m
2 (415) 2
6.12.1
method.
r p = 0.001560466 m = 0.00156 m
Since
rp 0.00156
=
= 0.057 < 0.1 , this crack is valid for Irwins method.
a0
0.0275
--- ANS
6.12.2
6.13
The split beam of Fig. 6.10 is subjected to a pair of cyclic opening forces P
with
Pmin = 0
Pmax = 2000 N ,
The initial crack length a 0 is 40 mm. The material is 2024-T651 Al, and
t = 2 10 2 m , h = 1 10 2 m . The crack growth rate is given by
da
= 1.6 10 11 (K I ) 3.59 m / cycle
dN
Figure 6.10
Solution:
Assume a plane strain fracture condition so that
GI =
1 2
2
KI
E
(6.13.1)
Since the strain energy release rate for the split beam is
GI =
P2a2
tEI
(6.13.2)
P2a2
(1 2 )tI
(6.13.3)
6.13.1
th 3
= 1.6667 10 9 m 4
t = 2 10 m , h = 1 10 m => I =
12
2
When K I = K Ic = 24MPa m , the crack becomes unstable under the load Pmax .
Thus, using all the numerical values in (6.13.3) and setting K I = K Ic , we obtain the
crack length ac at which fracture occurs. We have
a c = (1 2 )tI
K Ic
24 10 6
= (1 0.33 2 )(0.02)(1.6667 10 9 )
Pmax
2000
= 0.0654m = 65.4mm
Pmax a
(1 )tI
2
2000 a
(1 0.33 )(0.02)(1.6667 10 9 )
2
= 366.964a MPa m
=>
da
= 0.0257702 dN
a 3.59
6.13.2
6.14
Tmin = 0
Tmax = 0.1 MN m ,
da
= 5 10 11 ( K I ) 3 m/cycle.
dN
Find the number of cycles for the crack of initial length a 0 = 0.01m to grow
to a length a = 0.02m .
Solution:
The maximum crack opening stress is 1(max) .
Tmax
0 .1
= 20 MPa
2 (0.5 1) 0.005
2 At
min = 0 MPa
Therefore, 1 = 20 0 = 20 MPa
da
= 5 10 11 (K I ) 3 m/cycle.
dN
=>
da
= 5 10 11 (K I ) 3 = 5 10 11 ( 1 a ) 3
dN
=>
da
= 5 10 11 ( 20 ) 3 dN
3/ 2
a
(6.14.1)
The number of cycles (N) required for a crack to grow from ao to a is then obtained
from integrating (6.14.1),
a
da
3
11
a a 3 / 2 = 0 5 10 (20 ) dN
0
=> N =
a 01 / 2 a 1 / 2
1
5 10 11 (20 ) 3
2
= 897936 (a01 / 2 a 1 / 2 )
For a crack grown from ao = 0.01m to a = 0.02m, the number of cycle required is
6.14.1
N = 897936 (a 01 / 2 a 1 / 2 ) = 2630000
= 2.63 10 6
cycles
--- ANS
6.14.2
7.1
The truss structure consists of two bars connected by a pin-joint (which allows
free rotation of the bars). The other ends of the bars are hinged as shown in Fig.
7.26. A weight W is hung at the joint. Find the maximum weight the truss can
sustain before buckling occurs.
Figure 7.26
Two-bar truss
Solution:
From equilibrium, axial forces of the bars can be easily determined as
W
(Tension)
sin
N 12 =
N 13 = N 12 cos =
W cos
(Compression)
sin
Only the compressed bar 13 may suffer buckling when the weight W increases. Since
bar 13 is connected with pin at both ends, its buckling load is
Pcr =
2 EI
L2
When the axial force N 13 reaches the critical load Pcr , buckling occurs. That is
N13,max
Wmax cos 2 EI
=
= 2 = Pcr
sin
L
=> Wmax =
2 EI
L2
tan
--- ANS
7.1.1
7.2
A bar is built-in at the left end and supported at the tight end by a linear spring
with spring constant . Find the equation for buckling loads. Hint: The
boundary conditions are w = 0 and dw / dx = 0 at the left end; and M = 0
and V = w at the right end.
Figure 7.27
Solution:
The equilibrium equation in terms of deflection is
2
d 4w
2 d w
+k
=0
dx 4
dx 2
(7.2.1)
P
EI
The general solution is
w = C1 sin kx + C 2 cos kx + C 3 x + C 4
where k =
d 2w
= C1 k 2 sin kx C 2 k 2 cos kx
2
dx
d 3w
= C1 k 3 cos kx + C 2 k 3 sin kx
3
dx
Boundary conditions:
At the left end, x = 0 ,
w=0
=> C 2 + C 4 = 0
dw / dx = 0
=> C1 k + C 3 = 0
(7.2.2a)
(7.2.2b)
d 2w
=0
dx 2
=>
d 3w
dw
P
= w =>
3
dx
dx
(7.2.2c)
d 3w
dw w
+ k2
=
3
dx EI
dx
7.2.1
EI
=> C 3 k 2 =
EI
From (7.2.2c),
From (7.2.2b),
C 2 = C1 tan kL
C 3 = C1 k
From (7.2.2a),
C 4 = C 2 = C1 tan kL
(7.2.2d)
EI
=> C1 [ k 3 +
EI
( kL + tan kL)] = 0
Since C1 = 0 leads to trivial solution, the value inside the bracket must vanish, that
is,
k3 +
EI
( kL + tan kL) = 0
tan kL kL + k 3
EI
= 0,
=>
tan + 3
EI
=0
L3
--- ANS
7.2.2
7.3
Two steel bars ( E = 210GPa ) are connected by a hinge as shown in Fig. 7.28.
The square cross-section of the bar is 5cm 5cm . Find the buckling load for the
bar with a built-in end. Hint: Treat the simply support beam as an elastic spring
and find the effective elastic constant first.
Figure 7.28
Two-bar structure
Solution:
In this problem, we have
Lab = 3m , Lcd = 2m , I ab = I cd =
0.05 4
= 5.21 10 7 m 4 , E ab = E cd = 210GPa
12
By treating the simply support beam as an elastic spring, the effective elastic constant
can be found by the following procedure,
The deflection at the midpoint of the simply support beam caused by a vertical
concentrated force F at the mid span of the beam can be found from books on
mechanics of solids as
3
FLcd
m =
48 E cd I cd
The above relation can be expressed in the form F = m with the effective elastic
constant given by
48Ecd I cd
=
3
Lcd
(7.3.1)
And this structure can be reconsidered equivalent to the structure loaded as shown in
the figure below. This is exactly the problem 7.2. The solution procedure is given as
7.3.1
follows.
where k =
(7.3.2)
P
E ab I ab
d 2w
= C1 k 2 sin kx C 2 k 2 cos kx
2
dx
d 3w
= C1 k 3 cos kx + C 2 k 3 sin kx
3
dx
Boundary conditions:
At the left end, x = 0 ,
w=0
=> C 2 + C 4 = 0
dw / dx = 0
=> C1 k + C 3 = 0
(7.3.3a)
(7.3.3b)
=>
d 3w
dw
V = EI 3 P
= w =>
dx
dx
(7.3.3c)
d 3w
dw w
+ k2
=
3
dx EI
dx
EI
=> C 3 k 2 =
EI
(7.3.3d)
7.3.2
From (7.3.3c),
From (7.3.3b),
C 2 = C1 tan kL
C 3 = C1 k
From (7.3.3a),
C 4 = C 2 = C1 tan kL
EI
=> C1 [ k 3 +
EI
( kL + tan kL)] = 0
Since C1 = 0 will lead to trivial solution, the value inside the bracket must vanish,
that is
k3 +
=>
EI
( kL + tan kL) = 0
tan kL kL + k 3
EI
=0
(7.3.4)
EI ab
Lab 3
Lcd
E ab I ab
1 2 3
1
( ) =
=
=
3
48Ecd I cd Lab
48 3
162
=> tan +
1 3
=0
162
(7.3.5)
The buckling equation (7.3.5) can be solved by numerical methods. The easiest way
to find the numerical solution for is to plot the value of the quantity on the left
hand side of (7.3.5) vs incremental value of . The lowest value of that makes
the left hand side quantity in (7.3.5) equal to zero is the solution. We have
Pcr
Eab I ab
7.4
Find the buckling load equation for the bar with the left end built-in and the
right end simply supported but constrained by a rotational spring (see Fig. 7.29).
The spring constant relates the bending moment M and the rotation
= dw / dx by M = .
Figure 7.29
Solution:
The equilibrium equation in terms of deflection is
2
d 4w
2 d w
+k
=0
dx 4
dx 2
(7.4.1)
P
EI
The general solution is
w = C1 sin kx + C 2 cos kx + C 3 x + C 4
where k =
d 2w
= C1 k 2 sin kx C 2 k 2 cos kx
2
dx
d 3w
= C1 k 3 cos kx + C 2 k 3 sin kx
3
dx
Boundary conditions:
At the left end, x = 0 ,
w=0
=> C 2 + C 4 = 0
dw / dx = 0
=> C1 k + C 3 = 0
(7.4.2a)
(7.4.2b)
(7.4.2c)
M = EI
d w
dw
=
=>
2
dx
dx
(7.4.2d)
7.4.1
C 4 = C 2
C 3 = C1 k
From (7.4.2a),
From (7.4.2b),
EI
C1 (sin kL kL) + C 2 (cos kL 1) = 0
, we have
(7.4.3a)
(7.4.3b)
Pcr
and =
EI
EI
--- ANS
7.4.2
7.5
Two steel bars of a 4-cm circular cross-section are rigidly connected into a
T-shaped structure. The diameter of the bars is 4 cm. Three ends are built-in as
shown in Fig. 7.30. At the joint, a roller support is provided to prevent vertical
deflection of the joint. Compression is applied as shown in the figure. Find the
lowest buckling load.
Figure 7.30
Solution:
In this problem, we have
Lab = 3m , Lcd = 2m ,
Cross-sectional area: Aab = Acd =
Moment of inertia: I ab = I cd =
(0.04) 4
Torsional constant: J ab = J cd =
Young's modulus: E ab = E cd
(0.04) 2
64
(0.04) 4
32
= 210GPa ,
= 1.256637 10 3 m 2
= 1.256637 10 7 m 4
= 2.513274 10 7 m 4
Poissons ratio: = 0.32
210
= 79.5455GPa
2(1.32)
deflection at the middle of bar CD, named cd ,m , is equal to the axial displacement of
bar AB, ab . That is,
cd ,m
( P Pab ) Lcd
=
192 E cd I cd
ab =
Pab Lab
E ab Aab
(7.5.1)
2Gcd J cd
T = GJ = Gcd J cd
=
Lcd / 2
Lcd
where is the rotation angle at the mid span of rod CD. Thus the effective rotational
spring constant provided by rod CD is given by
4G J
= cd cd
Lcd
(7.5.2)
Now the loading condition and boundary conditions on rod AB are depicted by the
figure below.
In this problem, =
4Gcd J cd
= 39984 N m
Lcd
where k =
(7.5.3)
P
EI
7.5.2
d 2w
= C1 k 2 sin kx C 2 k 2 cos kx
2
dx
d 3w
= C1 k 3 cos kx + C 2 k 3 sin kx
3
dx
Boundary conditions:
At the left end, x = 0 ,
w=0
=> C 2 + C 4 = 0
dw / dx = 0
=> C1 k + C 3 = 0
(7.5.4a)
(7.5.4b)
(7.5.4c)
M = EI
d 2w
dw
=
=>
2
dx
dx
(7.5.4d)
C 4 = C 2
C 3 = C1 k
From (7.5.4a),
From (7.5.4b),
EI
, we obtain
(7.5.5a)
(7.5.5b)
For a non-trivial solution for equations (7.5.5a) and (7.5.5b), the determinant of the
coefficient matrix must vanish, i.e.,
sin kL kL
cos kL 1
=0
k sin kL cos kL + k cos kL + sin kL
Expanding the above equation leads to the buckling load equation:
(2 + k 2 L) cos kL + (kL k ) sin kL 2 = 0
where k =
Pab ,cr
E ab I ab
, =
E ab I ab
and L = Lab
7.5.3
Substituting all the known numerical values into the buckling load equation, we have
E ab I ab
(7.5.6)
Pab ,cr
E ab I ab
Pab ,cr
0.992852
= 85847 N
--- ANS
7.5.4
7.6
For the structure of Problem 7.5, find the buckling load if the roller support at
the joint is removed.
Figure 7.30
Solution:
In this problem, we have
Lab = 3m , Lcd = 2m ,
Cross-sectional area: Aab = Acd =
Moment of inertia: I ab = I cd =
(0.04) 4
Torsional constant: J ab = J cd =
Young's modulus: E ab = E cd
(0.04) 2
64
(0.04) 4
32
= 210GPa ,
= 1.256637 10 3 m 2
= 1.256637 10 7 m 4
= 2.513274 10 7 m 4
Poissons ratio: = 0.32
210
= 79.5455GPa
2(1.32)
The force applied to bar AB is denoted Pab . By compatibility of the displacement, the
deflection at the middle of bar CD, named cd ,m , is equal to the axial displacement of
7.6.1
cd ,m
( P Pab ) Lcd
=
192 E cd I cd
ab =
Pab Lab
E ab Aab
(7.6.1)
4Gcd J cd
= 39983.93 N m
Lcd
In addition, the rod CD also provides vertical support to rod AB. This support to rod
AB can be viewed as an effective elastic spring with an elastic constant . This
elastic spring constant can be obtained by considering a vertical force applied at the
mid span of rod CD and the resulting vertical deflection. The result gives
192 E cd I cd
=
(7.6.3)
3
Lcd
In this problem, =
192 Ecd I cd
= 633345 N / m
3
Lcd
(7.6.4)
7.6.2
P
EI
Its general solution is
w = C1 sin kx + C 2 cos kx + C 3 x + C 4
where k =
d 2w
= C1 k 2 sin kx C 2 k 2 cos kx
2
dx
d 3w
= C1 k 3 cos kx + C 2 k 3 sin kx
3
dx
Boundary conditions:
At the left end, x = 0 ,
w=0
=> C 2 + C 4 = 0
dw / dx = 0
=> C1 k + C 3 = 0
(7.6.5a)
(7.6.5b)
d 3w
dw w
+ k2
=
3
dx EI
dx
EI
=> C 3 k 2 =
M = EI
EI
(7.6.5c)
d 2w
dw
=
=>
2
dx
dx
(7.6.5d)
C 4 = C 2
C 3 = C1 k
From (7.6.5a),
From (7.6.5b),
Eliminating C3 and C4
from
obtain
C1 ( sin kL kL + k 3 ) + C 2 ( cos kL ) = 0
C1 (k sin kL cos kL + ) + C 2 (k cos kL + sin kL) = 0
EI
EI
, we
(7.6.6a)
(7.6.6b)
For a non-trivial solution for equations (7.6.6a) and (7.6.6b), the determinant of the
7.6.3
sin kL kL + k 3
k sin kL cos kL +
cos kL
=0
k cos kL + sin kL
where k =
E ab I ab
, =
E ab I ab
, =
E ab I ab
and L = Lab
E ab I ab
= 24 , =
E ab I ab
(7.6.7)
Solve (7.6.7) by any numerical method to find the minimum value for k.
k = 1.796869538 1.7969 =
Pab ,cr
E ab I ab
Pab ,cr
0.992852
= 85818 N
--- ANS
7.6.4
7.7
Figure 7.31
Solution:
In this problem, the (y, z) coordinate system is set up with the origin at the centroid
(the mid pont of the vertical web). We have (assume b, h >> t )
Cross-sectional area:
A = 2bt + ht
Moment of inertia:
Iy =
th 3 tbh 2
+
12
2
I0 = I y + I z =
Iz =
tb 3
6
th 3 tbh 2 tb 3
+
+
12
2
6
(2b + h)t 3
3
Torsional constant:
J=
Warping constant:
Cw =
Young's modulus:
Shear modulus:
G=
th 2 b 3
24
Poissons ratio:
E
2(1 + )
Pcr , y =
2 EI z
L2
2 EI y
L2
2 Etb 3
6L2
2 Eth 2 (h + 6b)
12 L2
It should be noticed that for typical I-cross-sectional bar, I y > I z , hence Pcr , y > Pcr , z
7.7.1
A
2
12(2b + h)
(2b + h)t 3 2th 2b3
(GJ + 2 ECw ) = 3
[
+
]E
I0
L
(h + 6bh 2 + 2b3 ) 6(1 + )
24 L2
If the flexural buckling load is to equal the torsional buckling load, the length of the
bar can be calculated from the condition Pcr , z = PcrT . We have
2 Etb 3
6 L2
=> L2 =
=> L =
12(2b + h)
(2b + h)t 3 2 th 2 b 3
[
+
]E
(h 3 + 6bh 2 + 2b 3 ) 6(1 + )
24 L2
2 (1 + )b 4 ( 2h 2 + b 2 )
6t 2 (2b + h) 2
b 2
(1 + )(2h 2 + b 2 )
6
t (2b + h)
--- ANS
7.7.2
7.8
z
y
Figure 7.32
Solution:
In this problem, the cross-sectional area is
A = 2(0.02)(0.002) + (0.04)(0.002) = 1.6 10 4 m 4
It is easy to verify that the centroid is located at mid point of the vertical web, and that
the shear center coincides with the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to
the centroid and the coordinate system shown in the figure are
(0.002)(0.04) 3
(0.02)(0.002) 3
+ 2 [
+ (0.02)(0.002)(0.02) 2 ]
12
12
8
4
= 4.269 10 m
Iy =
Iz =
(0.04)(0.002) 3 (0.002)(0.04) 3
+
= 1.069 10 8 m 4
12
12
I yz = 2(0.02)(0.002)(0.01)(0.02) = 1.6 10 8 m 4
To determine the buckling load, the principal centroidal axes are used and its
corresponding moments of inertia are utilized in the equilibrium equations. The
moments of inertia about these principal axes can be found by solving the eigenvalue
problem, that is,
Iy
I yz
I yz
4.269
1.6
=
=0
Iz
1.6
1.069
=> = 4.932
or
= 0.407
I 2 = 0.407 10 8 m 4
Because the shear center coincides with the centroid, the polar moment of inertia is
I 0 = I 1 + I 2 = 5.339 10 8 m 4
b3h 2
[2t f (b 2 + bh + h 2 ) + 3t w bh] = 2.6697 10 12 m 6
2
12(2b + h)
For the material of aluminum, Young's modulus is E = 70GPa and the shear
modulus is G = 27GPa .
Flexural and torsional buckling loads:
For simply supported bar, the general solutions are given by (7.119) through (7.121)
in the text book. They are reproduced here:
( P Pcr ,1 )C1 + Pz 0 C 3 = 0
(7.8.1)
( P Pcr , 2 )C 2 + Py 0 C 3 = 0
(7.8.2)
I0
( P P )C3 = 0
(7.8.3)
A
where ( y0 , z0 ) is the position of the shear center relative to the centroid. Since the
shear center coincides with the centroid, thus, y 0 = z 0 = 0 and Equations (7.8.1)
Pz 0 C1 Py 0 C 2 +
(7.8.3) reduce to
( P Pcr ,1 )C 1 = 0
( P Pcr , 2 )C 2 = 0
I0
( P P )C 3 = 0
A
A nontrivial solution for C1 , C2 , and C 3 exists only if the determinant of the
coefficient matrix vanishes, i.e.,
( P Pcr ,1 )( P Pcr , 2 )
I0
( P P ) = 0
A
7.8.2
2 EI 1
L2
2 (70 10 9 )(4.9329 10 8 )
2 EI 2
L2
22
2 (70 10 9 )(0.407 10 8 )
22
= 8518.6 N
= 702.3 N ,
A
1.6 10 4
2
P = (GJ + EC w 2 ) =
[(27 10 9 )(2.133 10 10 )
8
I0
L
5.339 10
+ (70 10 )(2.667 10
9
12
2
22
] = 18643.1 N
7.8.3
7.9
Find the buckling load of a 1 m long and simply supported bar having a
thin-walled circular cross-section 50 mm in diameter and 2 mm wall thickness.
If the closed section is made into an open one by cutting a longitudinal slit over
the entire length of the bar, what is the buckling load? Assume that E = 70GPa
and G = 27GPa .
Solution:
The cross-sectional area can be obtained by assuming small thickness,
A 2at = 3.142 10 4 m 4
The centroid is located at center of the circular section, and that the shear center
coincides with the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to the centroid are
I y = I z a 3t = 9.817 10 8 m 4
I 0 = I y + I z = 19.635 10 8 m 4
The warping constant for closed circular section is zero, C w = 0
For simply supported bar,
( P Pcr , y )C1 = 0
(7.9.1)
( P Pcr , z )C 2 = 0
(7.9.2)
I0
( P P )C 3 = 0
(7.9.3)
A
Since the above three equations are not coupled, they can be solved individually. Thus
the possible buckling loads are
P = Pcr , y = Pcr , z =
P = P =
2 EI y
L2
= 67826 N
or
A
(GI 0 ) = 8482301 N
I0
Therefore the global buckling load is the flexural buckling load given by
Pcr = 67826.2 N .
--- ANS
7.9.1
z
y
C
The position of the shear center can be found in Table 7.2 in the textbook for the case
of = . We have
e = 2a
sin cos
sin cos
= 2(0.025)
= 0.05 m
sin cos
sin cos
z0 = 0
= 1.583 10 10 m 6
Cw =
(7.9.4)
( P Pcr , z )C 2 Py 0 C 3 = 0
(7.9.5)
7.9.2
Pz 0 C1 Py 0 C 2 +
I0
( P P )C3 = 0
A
(7.9.6)
where
Pcr , y = Pcr , z =
P =
2 EI y
L2
= 67826.2 N
or
A
2
(GJ + EC w 2 ) = 193065.6 N
I0
L
(7.9.7)
(7.9.8)
(7.9.9)
Since (7.9.7) is not coupled with the other two equations, it can be solved individually
and the solution for nontrivial coefficients is
P = 67826 N
This is the buckling load for buckling about the y axis in which the cut lies in the
neutral plane of bending.
In order to have a nontrivial solution for (7.9.8) and (7.9.9), we require that
P 67826.2
0.05 P
=0
0.05P
0.000625( P 193065.6)
=> 0.001875 P 2 + 163.051375 P 8184316 = 0
=> P = 35611 N
or
P = 122572 N
The possible lowest buckling load is Pcr = 35611 N . This buckling mode involves
coupled torsion and bending. Apparently, the thin-walled tube with a longitudinal cut
is weaker in buckling strength than the tube with a closed section.
--- ANS
7.9.3
8.1
E1 = 140GPa ,
E 2 = 10GPa ,
G12 = 7GPa ,
12 = 0.3
Solution:
The strain-stress relation can be written as,
xx
xx
yy = S yy
xy
xy
[]
(8.1.1)
where
(8.1.2)
1
1
=
= 7.143 10 12 m 2 / N
E1 140 109
S 21 =
S12 =
12
E1
21
E2
0 .3
= 2.143 10 12 m 2 / N
140 109
= S 21 = 2.143 10 12 m 2 / N
S 22 =
1
1
=
= 100 10 12 m 2 / N
E 2 10 10 9
S 66 =
1
1
=
= 142.857 10 12 m 2 / N
G12 7 109
S16 = S 61 = S 26 = S 62 = 0
8.1.1
From (8.1.1),
xy = S 61 xx + S 62 yy + S 66 xy = S 61 0
and from (8.1.2)
S 61 = (2 S11 2 S12 S66 ) sin cos3 + (2 S12 2 S 22 + S66 ) sin 3 cos
= [132.857 sin cos3 52.857 sin 3 cos ] 10 12
So
(Unit: 10 12 0 )
60
40
20
0
0
45
90
135
180
-20
Gamma(xy)
-40
-60
--- ANS
8.1.2
8.2
Solution:
The composite properties are
E1 = 140GPa ,
E 2 = 10GPa ,
G12 = 7GPa ,
12 = 0.3
[]
(8.2.1)
where
(8.2.2)
1
1
=
= 7.142857 10 12 m 2 / N
9
E1 140 10
S 21 =
S12 =
12
E1
21
E2
0.3
= 2.142857 10 12 m 2 / N
9
140 10
= S 21 = 2.142857 10 12 m 2 / N
S 22 =
1
1
=
= 100 10 12 m 2 / N
9
E 2 10 10
S 66 =
1
1
=
= 142.857142 10 12 m 2 / N
9
G12 7 10
8.2.1
S16 = S 61 = S 26 = S 62 = 0
To keep the deformed shape rectangular implies xy = 0 in this problem.
From (8.2.1),
xy = S 61 xx + S 62 yy + S 66 xy = 0
and from (8.1.2)
S 61 = (2 S11 2 S12 S 66 ) sin cos3 + (2 S12 2 S 22 + S66 ) sin 3 cos
= [124.285714(
2
2
2
2
)( )3 61.428571( )3 ( )] 10 12
2
2
2
2
= 46.429 10 12 m 2 / N
S 66 = 2(2 S11 + 2S 22 4S12 S66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + S66 (sin 4 + cos 4 )
= [160(
2 2 2 2
2
2
) ( ) + 142.857142(( ) 4 + ( ) 4 )] 1012
2
2
2
2
= 111.286 1012 m 2 / N
Thus,
xy = S 61 xx + S 62 yy + S 66 xy
= (46.429 10 12 )(10 106 ) + (111.286 10 12 ) = 0
=> = 4.172 MPa
--- ANS
Alternative solution:
From the strain-stress relation, we have
xy =
x , xy
Ex
xx +
y , xy
Ey
yy +
1
xy
G xy
x , xy
Ex
10 +
G xy
=>
10 x , xy
Ex
G xy ( MPa)
(8.2.3)
x ,xy
Ex
2 2
2 2 12
1
1 3
sin cos 3
sin cos
= + 12
+
E1
G12
E1
G12
E2
E1
8.2.2
and
1
1
1
1 2 12
1 2
sin cos 2
=
+ 4 +
+
G xy G12
E1 G12
E1 E 2
Let = 45 0 , then the relation becomes
x , xy
Ex
and
1 1
1 E 2 E1
=
2 E1 E 2 2 E1 E 2
(8.2.4)
1
1
1 2 12 E1 + E 2 (1 + 2 12 )
=
+
+
=
G xy E1 E 2
E1
E1 E 2
(8.2.5)
Combining (8.2.4) and (8.2.5) into (8.2.3) and plugging in the numbers, we have
5(E1 E 2 )
= 4.167 MPa
=
E1 + E 2 (1 + 2 12 )
--- ANS
8.2.3
8.3
Solution:
The composite properties are
E1 = 140GPa ,
E 2 = 10GPa ,
12 = 0.3
G12 = 7GPa ,
The strain-stress relation in an arbitrary coordinate system (x,y) can be written as,
E
xx x
xy
yy =
E x
xy x , xy
E x
yx
Ey
1
Ey
y , xy
Ey
xy , x
G xy
xy , y xx
yy
G xy
1 xy
G xy
(8.3.1)
where
1
2
1
1
12 ) sin 2 cos 2 +
sin 4
E x = cos 4 + (
G12
E1
E2
E1
1
1 212
1
xy = E x 12 ( +
+
) sin 2 cos 2
E1
E1
E2
E1
G12
2
1
1
12 ) sin 2 cos 2 +
cos 4
E y = sin 4 + (
G12
E1
E2
E1
G xy
1
1 212
1
=
+ 4( +
+
) sin 2 cos 2
E1 E 2
E1
G12
G12
(8.3.2)
2 212
1
2 2
1
+
) sin cos 3 ( + 12
) sin 3 cos
E1
G12
E2
E1
G12
E1
x , xy = E x (
2 212
1
2 2
1
+
) sin 3 cos ( + 12
) sin cos 3
E1
G12
E2
E1
G12
E1
y , xy = E y (
8.3.1
2
1
1
12 ) sin 2 cos 2 +
sin 4
E x = cos 4 + (
G12
E1
E2
E1
1012
2 212
1
2 212
1
+
) sin cos 3 (
+
) sin 3 cos
E1
G12
E2
E1
G12
E1
x , xy = E x (
x,xy
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
45
90
135
180
-0.5
-1
x,xy
-1.5
-2
-2.5
From the plot above, the maximum values of x, xy are obtained as follows.
8.3.2
G xy
Ex
x , xy
1
1 212
1
+ 4( +
+
G xy =
) sin 2 cos 2
E1 E 2
E1
G12
G12
where
1012
so
2 212
1
2 212
1
+
) sin cos 3 (
+
) sin 3 cos
E1
G12
E2
E1
G12
E1
xy , x = G xy (
xy,x
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
45
90
135
180
-0.1
xy,x
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
(8.4.1)
where
cos 2
[T ] = sin 2
sin cos
sin 2
cos
sin cos
2
2 sin cos
2 sin cos
cos 2 sin 2
(8.4.2)
11 = 2 sin cos xy
(8.4.3)
11
=0
=>
= 45 o
--- ANS
(b) The strain-stress relation in an arbitrary coordinate system (x,y) can be written as,
E
xx x
xy
yy =
E x
xy x , xy
E x
yx
Ey
1
Ey
y , xy
Ey
xy , x
G xy
xy , y xx
yy
G xy
1 xy
G xy
(8.4.4)
where
8.4.1
2
1
1
12 ) sin 2 cos 2 +
sin 4
E x = cos 4 + (
G12
E1
E2
E1
1
1 212
1
xy = E x 12 ( +
+
) sin 2 cos 2
E1
E1
E2
E1
G12
2
1
1
12 ) sin 2 cos 2 +
cos 4
E y = sin 4 + (
G12
E1
E2
E1
G xy
1
1 212
1
=
+ 4( +
+
) sin 2 cos 2
E1 E 2
E1
G12
G12
(8.4.5)
2 212
1
2 2
1
+
) sin cos 3 ( + 12
) sin 3 cos
E1
G12
E2
E1
G12
E1
x , xy = E x (
2 212
1
2 2
1
+
) sin 3 cos ( + 12
) sin cos 3
E1
G12
E2
E1
G12
E1
y , xy = E y (
xy =
xy
(8.4.6)
Gxy
1
1 212
1
+ 4( +
+
) sin 2 cos 2
G xy =
E1 E 2
E1
G12
G12
1012
xy =
xy
Gxy
(8.4.7)
=0
=>
= = 45 o
4
--- ANS
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.5
Q11 E1
4
4
Q 4Q66 E1 4G12
11
G xy
xy
Compare these approximate values with the exact values for AS4/3501-6
carbon/epoxy composite.
Solution:
For the [ 45]s laminate, the effective moduli can be expressed explicitly as
A A A12
E x = 11 22
hA22
(8.5.1)
A66
h
A
= 12
A22
G xy =
(8.5.2)
xy
(8.5.3)
Aij = 2t (Q ij
( 45 )
+ Q ij
(8.5.4)
(8.5.5)
Q16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
Q 26 = Q 62 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos 3
8.5.1
1
1
Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )
2
4
Q 22 =
1
1
1
Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
4
2
4
Q 66 =
1
1
1
(Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) + Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 )
4
2
4
( 45 )
( 45 )
( 45 )
( 45 )
( 45 )
( 45 )
( 45 )
A11 = 2t (Q 11 + Q 11
A12 = 2t (Q 12 + Q 12
Ex =
Q11 =
Q22 =
E1
1 12 21
E2
1 12 21
Q12 = Q21 =
Q66 = G12
12 E 2
1 12 21
Expand the above equation and use the highly anisotropic assumption in the statement,
i.e.,
Q
Q12
Q22
0,
0,
and 66 0
Q11
Q11
Q11
8.5.2
Also Q11 =
E1
1 12 21
E1 because 21 =
E2
12 0
E1
Ex
(2) G xy
G xy =
h
4t
4
4
(3) xy
xy =
--- ANS
The material properties for AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite are
E1 = 140 GPa
E 2 = 10 GPa
G12 = 7 GPa
12 = 0.3
E
10
(0.3) = 0.021
=> 21 = 2 12 =
E1
140
therefore,
Q11 =
140
= 140.89 GPa
1 (0.3)(0.021)
Q12 = Q21 =
E2
12 E 2
(0.3)(10)
=
= 3.02 GPa
1 12 21 1 (0.3)(0.021)
10
= 10.06 GPa
1 12 21 1 (0.3)(0.021)
Q66 = G12 = 7 GPa
Q22 =
G xy =
xy
Q11 E1 140
=
= 35 GPa
4
4
4
E 4G12 140 4 7
=
= 0.67 GPa
1
E1 + 4G12 140 + 4 7
G xy
xy
8.5.4
8.6
Solution:
The effective engineering moduli in the x-direction for the laminate is
1
Ex =
hA11 '
(8.6.1)
where
[A'] = [A]1
(8.6.2)
Aij = 2t (Q ij
( 30 )
+ Q ij
( 0)
+ Q ij )
(8.6.3)
(8.6.4)
Q16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
Q 26 = Q 62 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos 3
Q 66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) sin 2 cos 2 + Q66 (sin 4 + cos 4 )
For = 30 o
Q 11 =
9
3
1
Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
16
8
16
5
3
Q 12 = Q 21 = Q12 + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )
8
16
Q 22 =
1
3
9
Q11 + (Q12 + 2Q66 ) + Q22
16
8
16
8.6.1
Q 16 = Q 61 =
3 3
3
(Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) +
(Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 )
16
16
3
3 3
(Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) +
(Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 )
16
16
3
5
3
1
= (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) + Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 ) Q66
16
16
16
16
Q 26 = Q 62 =
Q 66
Q22
Q16
Q26
Q66
3
4
Q11
9
16
3
8
1
16
Q 12
3
16
5
8
3
16
Q 22
1
16
3
8
9
16
Q 16
3 3
16
3
8
3
16
Q 26
3
16
3
8
3 3
16
Q 66
3
16
3
8
3
16
Q11
Q12
Q22
Q16
Q26
Q66
Q11
9
16
3
8
1
16
3
4
Q 12
3
16
5
8
3
16
Q 22
1
16
3
8
9
16
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
1
16
For = 30 o
3
4
Q 16
3 3
16
3
8
3
16
Q 26
3
16
3
8
3 3
16
3
4
3
8
3
16
1
16
Q 66
3
16
8.6.2
For = 0 o
Q11
Q12
Q22
Q16
Q26
Q66
Q11
Q 12
Q 22
Q 16
Q 26
Q 66
Q22 =
E2
= 10.0647 GPa ,
1 12 21
Q16 = Q61 = Q26 = Q62 = 0
9
3
1
3
2 + 1)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 626.5958t
A11 = 2t[(
3
5
3
3
A12 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2 + 1)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 106.1153t
8.6.3
1
3
9
3
2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2 + 1)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 103.2306t
A22 = 2t[(
A16 = 0
A26 = 0
3
3
3
1
2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2 + 1)(6.9)]
16
8
16
16
= 120.7739t
A66 = 2t[(
That is
0
626.596 106.115
(10 9 N / m)
Hence,
[A]
0
1.921 1.975
1
= 1.975 11.717
0
t
0
0
8.280
(10 12 m / N )
From (8.6.1) and (8.6.2), the effective engineering moduli in the x-direction for the
laminate is
Ex =
1
=
hA11 '
1
= 86.8 GPa
1.921 10 12
(6t )(
)
t
(*)
9
3
1
3
2 + 1)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 626.5958t
A11 = 2t[(
3
5
3
3
A12 = 2t[( 2)(140.906) + ( 2 + 1)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 106.1153t
8.6.4
1
3
9
3
2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2 + 1)(10.0647) + ( 2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 103.2306t
A22 = 2t[(
3 3
3
3
3
2)(140.906) + (
2)(3.0194) + (
2)(10.0647) + (
2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 169.3478t
A16 = 2t[(
3
3
3 3
3
2)(140.906) + (
2)(3.0194) + (
2)(10.0647) + (
2)(6.9)]
16
8
16
4
= 62.5057t
A22 = 2t[(
3
3
3
1
2)(140.906) + ( 2)(3.0194) + ( 2)(10.0647) + ( 2 + 1)(6.9)]
16
8
16
16
= 120.7739t
A66 = 2t[(
Thus,
(10 9 N / m)
Hence,
[A]
(10 12 m / N )
From (8.6.1) and (8.6.2), the effective engineering moduli in the x-direction for the
laminate is
Ex =
1
=
hA11 '
1
= 64.1 GPa
2.602 10 12
(6t )(
)
t
(**)
8.6.5
8.7
Solution:
The effective engineering moduli for the symmetric laminate are
A A A12
E x = 11 22
hA22
(8.7.1)
A66
h
A
= 12
A22
G xy =
(8.7.2)
xy
(8.7.3)
( )
Aij = 2t (Q ij + Q ij )
(8.7.4)
( )
( )
( )
( )
Q 16 = Q 61 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
Q 26 = Q 62 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos 3
( )
( )
Q 11
Q 12
( )
( )
Q 16
( )
( )
= (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos 3 (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos
( )
= (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin 3 cos (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos 3
= Q 61
Q 26 = Q 62
( )
Q 66
Q22 =
E2
= 10.0647 GPa ,
1 12 21
Q16 = Q61 = Q26 = Q62 = 0
A16 = 0
A26 = 0
A66 = 2t[2((140.906 + 10.0647 2 3.0194 2 6.9) sin 2 cos 2 + 2(6.9)(sin 4 + cos 4 )]
= t[524.5276 sin 2 cos 2 + 27.6(sin 4 + cos 4 )]
8.7.2
Ex =
G xy =
A66
,
h
xy =
A12
A22
Where h = 4t
After plugging in the values of extensional stiffness, the effective engineering moduli
can be plotted as follows.
Ex :
Ex
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Ex
20
0
0
45
90
135
180
G xy :
Gxy
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
Gxy
5
0
0
45
90
135
180
8.7.3
xy :
xy
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
xy
0.2
0
0
45
90
135
180
--- ANS
8.7.4
8.8
Solution:
For AS4/3501-6 carbon/epoxy composite material, the elastic moduli are
E1 = 140GPa ,
E 2 = 10GPa ,
G12 = 7GPa ,
12 = 0.3
=> 21 =
E2
10
12 =
0.3 = 0.02143
140
E1
Q22 =
Q12 = Q21 =
E2
= 10.06 GPa ,
1 12 21
Q16 = Q61 = Q26 = Q62 = 0
12 E 2
= 3.02 GPa
1 12 21
[Q]
0
140.9 3.02
= 3.02 10.06 0 10 9 Pa
0
0
7.0
[Q]
0
10.6 3.02
= 3.02 140.9 0 10 9 Pa
0
0
7.0
0o
90o
[Q]
45o
32.25 32.71
46.25
46.25 32.71 10 9 Pa
= 32.25
32.71 32.71 36.23
[A]
0
82.842 57.765
0 10 9 m / N
= 57.765 82.842
0
0
54.333
1
0
yy = [A] 0 =
N 54.333 10 6
xy
xy
--- ANS
Note:
Since only the load N xy = 1000 N / m exists, and in addition, A16 = A26 = 0 , we can
just consider the 66-component, which is xy =
1
N xy . Therefore the resulting shear
A66
xx
0 1777.23
xy 45o
xy
[]
and
xx cos 2
11
2
22 = [T ] yy = sin
sin cos
12
xy
sin 2
cos
sin cos
2
2 sin cos xx
2 sin cos yy
cos 2 sin 2 xy
Therefore
0.5 1 xx 3745.71
11
0.5
= 0.5
0.5 m 1 yy = m 191.25 KPa
22
0
12 45o m 0.5 0.5 0 xy
--- ANS
8.8.2
0
38.481 1.534
[A]
0
23.323 1.038
0 10 9 m / N
= 1.038 23.323
0
0
281.215
1
0
yy = [A] 0 =
N 281.215 10 6
xy
xy
--- ANS
The laminar stresses are
xx
11
0
3
yy = 22 = Q 0 o { } = 0 10 Pa
1968.48
xy 0 o 12
[]
xx
22
0
3
yy = 22 Q 90 o { } = 0 10 Pa
1968.48
xy 90 o 12
[]
--- ANS
If the maximum shear strength 12 = 100MPa of the composite is the only failure
condition, then the maximum shear load Nxy can be obtained as follows.
For [ 45]s laminate, 12 = 0 , then theoretically the laminate can carry unbounded
shear loads. In reality, of course, other failure mechanisms would take over, and result
in a finite maximum shear load.
8.8.3
For [0 / 90]s laminate, 1.96848x 100 , => x 50.8 . The maximum shear load
is N xy , max = 50.8 kN / m
--- ANS
8.8.4