Inductive reasoning -

Reasoning based on patterns observed

Example:

conjecture

conclusions using inductive reasoning

1
1+3
1+3+5
1+3 + 5 + 7 =1642

1+3+5+7+9+11+13+15+17+19+21+23+25+27+29

1+3+5+7+

Counter Example:

is used to prove a conjecture incorrect or untrue

The word geometry comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and
metria, meaning measure.
Along with arithmetic, geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern
mathematics.
Ancient Egyptians used geometry principles as far back as 3000 BC, using
equations to approximate the area of circles among other formulas.
Babylonians measured the circumference of a circle as approximately 3 times
the diameter, which is fairly close to todays measurement which uses the
value of Pi (around 3.14).
A Greek mathematician named Euclid who lived around the year 300 BC is
often referred to as the Father of Geometry for his amazing geometry works
that included the influential Elements, which remained the main textbook
for teaching mathematics until around the early 20th century.
Greeks constructed aesthetically pleasing buildings and artworks based on
the golden ratio of approximately 1.618.
Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras lived around the year 500
BC and is known for his Pythagorean theorem relating to the three sides of a
right angle triangle: a + b = c
Archimedes of Syracuse lived around the year 250 BC and played a large role
in the history of geometry including a method for determining the volume of
objects with irregular shapes.
The compass and straightedge were powerful tools in the advancement of
geometry, allowing the construction of various lengths, angles and geometric
shapes.
Modern day geometry has made developments in a number of areas,
including those that make use of the raw computing power of todays

computers.

Construction Errors
Even the best draftsman will make unconscious errors, like habitually
measuring angles slightly too large or too small, or drawing lines
systematically to the left or right of a point the line is supposed to pass
through. Also, geologic data have inaccuracies of measurement, and geologic
structures are rarely geometrically simple. So constructions will often have
slight errors in them even with the most careful work.
Nowadays, geologists are as likely to plot drawings on a computer as on
paper. Nevertheless, the same geometrical principles apply. The accuracy of
the construction is only as good as the computer input, and that in turn is
only as good as the field measurements. So errors still occur and have to be
dealt with.
Many constructions depend on finding the intersections of lines. A small error
in the location of one line will result in a large error in the position of the point
when the lines meet at a small angle. Try to plan constructions so that lines
meet at large angles.

The larger you make your diagram, the less serious drafting errors will be.
Drafting errors tend to be pretty much constant in size. An error of 0.5 mm in
a line 1 cm long is a 5% error; the same error of 0.5 mm in a line 10 cm long
is an 0.5% error.
Try to interpolate rather than extrapolate. Interpolation, or estimating values
between two or more known values, can be done with fairly high confidence.
The errors are usually no greater than the errors in the data. If you
extrapolate, or estimate values beyond the range of known data, any errors
in the data will cause increasingly large errors the further you extrapolate. In
addition, you have no way of knowing whether the pattern you are
extrapolating might change; for example, extrapolating the depth of a bed
from known data will not alert you to the presence of a fault.
Often three lines should ideally intersect at a point, but do not meet in
practice. Review the construction for errors. If the remaining residual error is
small, and the error triangle is more or less equilateral, the best estimate for
the location of the point will likely be the center of the error triangle.

If the error triangle is long and thin, the midpoint of the shortest side is
probably the best estimate.

DO NOT CONSIDER THESE HINTS AS A LICENSE TO BE CASUAL OR SLOPPY IN

YOUR WORK! Preventing errors is always better than correcting for them.
Necessary Data to Perform Constructions
Lines and Planes
Intersecting straight lines determine a point

Two points on a line determine a line

Three points on a plane determine a plane

Two intersecting lines on a plane determine a plane

A line and a point not on the line determine a plane

The intersection of a line and a plane is a point (unless the line and plane are
parallel or coincide)

The intersection of two planes is a line (unless the planes are parallel or
coincide)

The intersection of three planes is a point (unless some planes are parallel or
coincide)

Circles and Spheres

Intersecting circles may determine two, one, or zero points

The center of a circle and a point on its circumference determine a circle

The diameter of a circle determines the circle

Three points on the circumference of a circle determine a circle

The center of a sphere and a point on its circumference determine a sphere

Four points on the circumference of a sphere determine a sphere. The sphere

is found more easily by computation than construction

The intersection of a plane and a sphere is always a circle.

Ellipses and Ellipsoids

Five points determine any conic section (circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola)
but the constructions are very complex. You're better off determining the
curve mathematically.

The major and minor axes of an ellipse determine the ellipse. The major axis
is the longest diameter of the ellipse; the minor axis is the shortest. If the two
axes are equal, the ellipse is a circle. Circles are special cases of ellipses.

The easiest way to construct an ellipse is the trammel method. Let the major
axis be a and the minor axis be b. Construct the major and minor axes at the
desired location. Next, mark points O, A, and B on the edge of a piece of
paper. Let OA = a and OB = b. Slide the paper so that A moves along the
minor axis and B on the major axis. Point O then traces out the ellipse.

The principal axes of an ellipsoid determine the ellipsoid. These are the
longest and shortest diameters of the ellipsoid and the diameter at right
angles to the long and short axes.

The principal sections of an ellipsoid determine the ellipsoid. These are the
planes containing each pair of principal axes.

Although the construction is complex, any three sections of an ellipsoid

determine the ellipsoid. This fact is important in determining strain from
deformed structures. It's better to use a computer to find the ellipsoid
mathematically.

The intersection of a plane and an ellipsoid is always an ellipse (the ellipse

can be a circle.)

Triangles
The three sides of a triangle determine the triangle

One side of a triangle and the two adjacent angles determine a triangle. This
fact is the basis for triangulation.

Two sides of a triangle and the included angle determine a triangle

Two sides of a triangle and a non-included angle allow two possible triangles

Known: AC, BC, angle A. B and B' are possible locations for vertex B

The altitudes of a triangle meet at a common point. If the triangle is obtuse,

the point can lie outside the triangle.

The medians of a triangle (lines from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite
side) meet at a common point (the centroid)

AO = 2/3 AX

If three lines that should intersect don't, but enclose a triangle instead, its
centroid is the best estimate of the true intersection.

The angle bisectors of a triangle meet at a common point. A circle tangent to

all three sides has its center at this point. The circle is the incircle and the
point is the incenter

The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet at a common

point. The circle that passes through all three vertices (the circumcircle) has
its center at this point (the circumcenter) The circumcenter need not lie
within the triangle. We can use this fact to find the center of an unknown
circle given three points on its circumference.

Parallel Lines
Vertical angles:
-- Angle A = D
-- Angle B = C
-- Angle A + C = 180
-- Angle B + D = 180

Parallel lines

-- All angles A are equal

-- All angles B are equal

-- A + B = 180

Equally-spaced parallel lines divide any intersecting line into equal segments

AB = BC = CD

We can use the previous fact to subdivide any line segment into equal
segments. To subdivide AB, construct an arbitrary line AC and lay off the
desired number of equal divisions on it. Construct CB and the parallel lines as
shown.

Angles
To bisect an angle, set your compass at the vertex of the angle and draw an
arc A. Then set the compass where A cuts the angle (B and C) and draw two
more arcs (E and F) These meet at G. A line through G and V bisects the
angle.

To construct the perpendicular bisector of a line segment, set the radius of

your compass greater than half the length of the line. Set the compass at
each end of the line and draw two arcs A and B, which intersect at C and D.
Line CD is the perpendicular bisector.

The radius of a circle is always perpendicular to the tangent at the point

where the radius meets the circle

The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle also bisects the arc enclosed
by the chord and passes through the center of the circle.

The preceding fact suggests how to find the center of a circle given three
points on the circumference A, B, and C: Construct chords AB, AC, and BC
Construct the perpendicular bisectors to AB, AC and BC. They intersect at the
center. (Actually you only need two, but the third serves as a check).

An inscribed angle in a circle is equal to half the central angle. This is true no
matter where the vertex of the inscribed angle is. This fact is one of the leastknown and most useful geometric facts. As a consequence of the above, any
angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

Congruent and Similar Figures

Congruent Figures
Figures that are identical in all their measurements are congruent. If you can
prove that two figures are congruent, you can use measurements from one to
determine dimensions of the other. The following are congruent figures:
All circles of equal radius or diameter
Ellipses with the same major and minor axes
Triangles with one side and two adjacent angles equal
Triangles with two sides and the included angle equal
Triangles with all three sides equal
Regular polygons with equal numbers of sides and any side equal
Similar Figures
Figures that have corresponding angles equal and all dimensions in a given
ratio are similar. If you can show that two figures are similar, and can find the
proportion between them, you can use any dimension from one figure to find
the corresponding dimension on the other. The following are similar:
All circles are similar
All parabolas are similar
All regular polygons with equal numbers of sides are similar.
Triangles with two equal angles are similar
Right triangles with one other equal angle are similar
Isoceles triangles with equal apical or base angles are similar
These two special cases are very common:

The angles of a triangle sum to 180 degrees

The angles of an N-sided polygon sum to (N-2)180 degrees. If n=3, the sum is
180 degrees
An Important Triangle Construction
This construction will crop up a number of times in a variety of applications,
so it is useful to learn it. Lines AB and OX are perpendicular. It is easy to see
that triangles AOB, BCO, and ACO are similar; that is, all their angles are
equal. Therefore all their sides have constant ratios.
Call:
a = OB
b = OA
c = BC
d= AC
e = OC
f = AB = c+d

We can see that

b/f = e/a =====> e = ab/f
a/b = c/e =====> c = ae/b = a(ab/f)/b2 = a/f
d/b = e/a =====> d = eb/a = (ab/f)b/a2 = b /f
From the Pythagorean Theorem, note that f2 = a2 + b2 or f = (a2 + b2 )
and
c = a2/(a2 + b2 ), d = b2/(a2 + b2 ), e = ab/(a2 + b2 )
Construction Errors
Even the best draftsman will make unconscious errors, like habitually

measuring angles slightly too large or too small, or drawing lines

systematically to the left or right of a point the line is supposed to pass
through. Also, geologic data have inaccuracies of measurement, and geologic
structures are rarely geometrically simple. So constructions will often have
slight errors in them even with the most careful work.
Nowadays, geologists are as likely to plot drawings on a computer as on
paper. Nevertheless, the same geometrical principles apply. The accuracy of
the construction is only as good as the computer input, and that in turn is
only as good as the field measurements. So errors still occur and have to be
dealt with.
Many constructions depend on finding the intersections of lines. A small error
in the location of one line will result in a large error in the position of the point
when the lines meet at a small angle. Try to plan constructions so that lines
meet at large angles.

The larger you make your diagram, the less serious drafting errors will be.
Drafting errors tend to be pretty much constant in size. An error of 0.5 mm in
a line 1 cm long is a 5% error; the same error of 0.5 mm in a line 10 cm long
is an 0.5% error.
Try to interpolate rather than extrapolate. Interpolation, or estimating values
between two or more known values, can be done with fairly high confidence.
The errors are usually no greater than the errors in the data. If you
extrapolate, or estimate values beyond the range of known data, any errors
in the data will cause increasingly large errors the further you extrapolate. In
addition, you have no way of knowing whether the pattern you are
extrapolating might change; for example, extrapolating the depth of a bed
from known data will not alert you to the presence of a fault.
Often three lines should ideally intersect at a point, but do not meet in
practice. Review the construction for errors. If the remaining residual error is
small, and the error triangle is more or less equilateral, the best estimate for
the location of the point will likely be the center of the error triangle.

If the error triangle is long and thin, the midpoint of the shortest side is
probably the best estimate.

DO NOT CONSIDER THESE HINTS AS A LICENSE TO BE CASUAL OR SLOPPY IN

YOUR WORK! Preventing errors is always better than correcting for them.

Necessary Data to Perform Constructions

Lines and Planes
Intersecting straight lines determine a point

Two points on a line determine a line

Three points on a plane determine a plane

Two intersecting lines on a plane determine a plane

A line and a point not on the line determine a plane

The intersection of a line and a plane is a point (unless the line and plane are
parallel or coincide)

The intersection of two planes is a line (unless the planes are parallel or
coincide)

The intersection of three planes is a point (unless some planes are parallel or
coincide)

Circles and Spheres

Intersecting circles may determine two, one, or zero points

The center of a circle and a point on its circumference determine a circle

The diameter of a circle determines the circle

Three points on the circumference of a circle determine a circle

The center of a sphere and a point on its circumference determine a sphere

Four points on the circumference of a sphere determine a sphere. The sphere

is found more easily by computation than construction

The intersection of a plane and a sphere is always a circle.

Ellipses and Ellipsoids

Five points determine any conic section (circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola)
but the constructions are very complex. You're better off determining the
curve mathematically.

The major and minor axes of an ellipse determine the ellipse. The major axis
is the longest diameter of the ellipse; the minor axis is the shortest. If the two
axes are equal, the ellipse is a circle. Circles are special cases of ellipses.

The easiest way to construct an ellipse is the trammel method. Let the major
axis be a and the minor axis be b. Construct the major and minor axes at the
desired location. Next, mark points O, A, and B on the edge of a piece of
paper. Let OA = a and OB = b. Slide the paper so that A moves along the
minor axis and B on the major axis. Point O then traces out the ellipse.

The principal axes of an ellipsoid determine the ellipsoid. These are the
longest and shortest diameters of the ellipsoid and the diameter at right
angles to the long and short axes.

The principal sections of an ellipsoid determine the ellipsoid. These are the
planes containing each pair of principal axes.

Although the construction is complex, any three sections of an ellipsoid

determine the ellipsoid. This fact is important in determining strain from
deformed structures. It's better to use a computer to find the ellipsoid
mathematically.

The intersection of a plane and an ellipsoid is always an ellipse (the ellipse

can be a circle.)

Triangles
The three sides of a triangle determine the triangle

One side of a triangle and the two adjacent angles determine a triangle. This
fact is the basis for triangulation.

Two sides of a triangle and the included angle determine a triangle

Two sides of a triangle and a non-included angle allow two possible triangles

Known: AC, BC, angle A. B and B' are possible locations for vertex B

The altitudes of a triangle meet at a common point. If the triangle is obtuse,

the point can lie outside the triangle.

The medians of a triangle (lines from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite
side) meet at a common point (the centroid)

AO = 2/3 AX

If three lines that should intersect don't, but enclose a triangle instead, its
centroid is the best estimate of the true intersection.

The angle bisectors of a triangle meet at a common point. A circle tangent to

all three sides has its center at this point. The circle is the incircle and the
point is the incenter

The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet at a common

point. The circle that passes through all three vertices (the circumcircle) has
its center at this point (the circumcenter) The circumcenter need not lie
within the triangle. We can use this fact to find the center of an unknown
circle given three points on its circumference.

Parallel Lines
Vertical angles:
-- Angle A = D
-- Angle B = C
-- Angle A + C = 180
-- Angle B + D = 180

Parallel lines

-- All angles A are equal

-- All angles B are equal
-- A + B = 180

Equally-spaced parallel lines divide any intersecting line into equal segments

AB = BC = CD

We can use the previous fact to subdivide any line segment into equal
segments. To subdivide AB, construct an arbitrary line AC and lay off the
desired number of equal divisions on it. Construct CB and the parallel lines as
shown.

Angles
To bisect an angle, set your compass at the vertex of the angle and draw an
arc A. Then set the compass where A cuts the angle (B and C) and draw two
more arcs (E and F) These meet at G. A line through G and V bisects the
angle.

To construct the perpendicular bisector of a line segment, set the radius of

your compass greater than half the length of the line. Set the compass at
each end of the line and draw two arcs A and B, which intersect at C and D.
Line CD is the perpendicular bisector.

The radius of a circle is always perpendicular to the tangent at the point

where the radius meets the circle

The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle also bisects the arc enclosed
by the chord and passes through the center of the circle.

The preceding fact suggests how to find the center of a circle given three
points on the circumference A, B, and C: Construct chords AB, AC, and BC
Construct the perpendicular bisectors to AB, AC and BC. They intersect at the
center. (Actually you only need two, but the third serves as a check).

An inscribed angle in a circle is equal to half the central angle. This is true no
matter where the vertex of the inscribed angle is. This fact is one of the leastknown and most useful geometric facts. As a consequence of the above, any
angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

Congruent and Similar Figures

Congruent Figures
Figures that are identical in all their measurements are congruent. If you can
prove that two figures are congruent, you can use measurements from one to
determine dimensions of the other. The following are congruent figures:
All circles of equal radius or diameter
Ellipses with the same major and minor axes
Triangles with one side and two adjacent angles equal
Triangles with two sides and the included angle equal
Triangles with all three sides equal
Regular polygons with equal numbers of sides and any side equal
Similar Figures
Figures that have corresponding angles equal and all dimensions in a given
ratio are similar. If you can show that two figures are similar, and can find the
proportion between them, you can use any dimension from one figure to find
the corresponding dimension on the other. The following are similar:
All circles are similar
All parabolas are similar
All regular polygons with equal numbers of sides are similar.
Triangles with two equal angles are similar
Right triangles with one other equal angle are similar
Isoceles triangles with equal apical or base angles are similar
These two special cases are very common:

The angles of a triangle sum to 180 degrees

The angles of an N-sided polygon sum to (N-2)180 degrees. If n=3, the sum is
180 degrees

An Important Triangle Construction

This construction will crop up a number of times in a variety of applications,
so it is useful to learn it. Lines AB and OX are perpendicular. It is easy to see
that triangles AOB, BCO, and ACO are similar; that is, all their angles are
equal. Therefore all their sides have constant ratios.
Call:
a = OB
b = OA
c = BC
d= AC
e = OC
f = AB = c+d

We can see that

b/f = e/a =====> e = ab/f
a/b = c/e =====> c = ae/b = a(ab/f)/b2 = a/f
d/b = e/a =====> d = eb/a = (ab/f)b/a2 = b /f
From the Pythagorean Theorem, note that f2 = a2 + b2 or f = (a2 + b2 )
and
c = a2/(a2 + b2 ), d = b2/(a2 + b2 ), e = ab/(a2 + b2 )