DICTIONARY

A
OF
RELIGION
AND

ETHICS

THE

MACMILLAN

NKW

COMPANY

YORK

BOSTON

CHICAGO

DALLAS

"
"

ATLANTA

SAN

"

FRANCISCO

"

MACMILLAN

"

LONDON

CO.,

Limited

BOMBAY

CALCUTTA

"

"

MELBOURNE

THE

MACMILLAN

CO.

TORONTO

OF

CANADA,

Ltd.

DICTIONARY
OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

EDITED

Shailer

BY

D.D., LL.D.

Mathews,
!I

and Dean
Theology,
of Historicaland Comparative
Professor
School,University
of Chicago
ofthe Divinity

AND

Gerald

Smith, D.D.

Birney

Professor
of Christian

Theology,
University
of Chicago

NEW

THE

YORK

COMPANY

MACMILLAN
1923

31. 3/

Copyright, 1921
By

the

Set up and

PWNTEP

MACMILLAN

COMPANY

Published September,
electrotyped.
1921.

THE

UNITED

STATES

OF

AMERICA

CONTRIBUTORS

TO

THE

DICTIONARY

AND
fADENET, Walter
Late

Frederick,

Church

D.D.

Cook, Stanley

of New

History;
College, Manchester, England.
Hartley

Burr, Ph.D.
raska,
Professor
of Philosophy, University of NebLincoln, Neb.; Associate Editor Mid-

Alexander,

West

Quarterly,and

Midland.

Allen, Thomas

George, Ph.D.
in Egyptology, University of ChiInstructor
cago;
Secretary of Haskell Oriental Museum.
Ames, Edward
Scribner, Ph.D.
of Philosophy, University
Associate
Professor

Chicago.

of

Baker, Archibald
Assistant

Gillies.

Professor of Missions, University of

Chicago.
Barnes, Lemuel
Call, D.D.
of EvangeUsm,
Secretary of the Department
Mission
American
Baptist Home
Society.
Barton, George
Aaron, Ph.D., LL.D.
of

Biblical

Literature

and

Semitic

Languages, BrynMawr

Pa.
College,BrynMawr,
Barton, James Levi, D.D., LL.D.
of
Board
Foreign Secretary of the American
Commissioners
for Foreign Missions.

Charles

Read, Ph.D.
Professor
of English Literature, University of
Philology.
Chicago; Managing Editor Modern
Beckwith, Clarence
Augustine, D.D.
Christian
Professor
of
Theology, Chicago
Editor
The
Theological Seminary; Associate
New
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious
Knowledge.

Baskervill,

Ex-FeUow
Study of
Gk)nville

Louis
Fitzgerald, D.D.
Editor
of various
hymnals, and
standard
books on the history of

Arthur,

A.M., Litt.D.

and

Lecturer
in the
Rehgions and in Hebrew
and
Gaius
College,

Benson,

Author

of

hymnology.

Comparative
and Syriac,

Cambridge,

England.

Cope,

Henry
Frederick, D.D.
General
Secretary of the Religious Education
Association.
Editor Religious Education.

Coulter,

John

Merle,

Professor

and

Botany,

Ph.D.
of the
Department
of Chicago; Editor

Head

University

of
The

Gazette.

Botanical

Crawford, John
Professor of
Wis.

Forsyth, Ph.D.
Philosophy, Beloit College,Beloit,

Cross, George, Ph.D.,

Professor

Professor

RELIGION

ETHICS

Testament
Exegesis and
pendent
IndePrincipal of Lancaster

Professor

OF

D.D.

of

Systematic Theology, Rochester

Theological Seminary, Rochester, N.Y.

Gotthard, Ph.D., D.D.

Professor
of Jewish
History and Literature,
Hebrew
Union
College,Cincinnati, O.

Deutsch,

Dickerson, James
Spencer, Litt.D.
Formerly Editor The Standard, Chicago, 111.
Dickinson,

Litt.D.

Edward,

Professor

of

Criticism
History and
Music, Oberlin College, Oberhn, O.

DowD,

Quincy

the

of

L.

Author, Funeral
Easton, Burton

Management

and

Costs.

Scott, Ph.D.,

D.D.
New
Testament
History and
Interpretation, General Theological Seminary,
New
York.
Professor

Ellwood,

of

Charles

Professor

of

Abram,

Ph.D.

Sociology,Universityof Missouri.

Erb, Frank
Otis, Ph.D.
Boas, Franz, Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D.
Editor of Young
American
People's Publications,
of
versity,
UniProfessor
Anthropology, Columbia
Baptist Pubhcation
Society.
New York, Editor Journal of American
Folk-Lore.

Everett,

Burgess, Ernest

Professor

Associate

Ph.D.

Watson,
of

Sociology,Universityof

Walter
Ph.D.
Goodnow,
Professor of Philosophy and Natural
Brown
University, Providence, R.I.

Theology,

Chicago.
Burt, Frank
President

H., LL.D.
Y.M.CA.

College,Chicago, 111.

Burton, Margaret
Secretary Y.W.C.A.,

General

Case, Shirley
ament

New

York

City.

of

Albert, D.D.
History, Meadville
logicalSeminary, Meadville, Pa.
Professor

of Church

Gardiner,

Eugene,
Professor

of

Chicago.

LL.D.

Beals, D.D.,
the
(Universalist) Divinity
Ryder

Robert

H.

Secretary World's

A.
Missionary in Korea.
Walter
Assistant

Ph.D.

Sociology,University

Theo-

ClarKj Charles
Clark,

Fisher, Lewis
Dean
of

of

School,Chicago.

Christie, Francis
I

Faris, Ellsworth,
Professor

D.D.

Early Church History and NewTestInterpretation,University of Chicago.

Professor
',

Jackson, Ph.D.,

Fallows, Samuel, LL.D., D.D.

Bishop of the Reformed
Episcopal Church,
Chicago, 111.

Conference

on

Faith

and

Order.
Ph.D.
of Sanskrit

European Comparative
of Chicago.

and

Indo-

Philology, University

Gilbert, George
Holley, Ph.D., D.D.
Theologian and Author; Formerly Professor of
and Interpretation,
Literature
New
Testament
Chicago Theological Seminary.

t Deceased.

463

131

TO

CONTRIBUTORS
William
Editor The New

DICTIONARY

THE

clopedia
EncySchaff-Herzog

of Religious Knowledge;
Editor

The Homiletic

Associate

Patristic Greek,
of Biblical and
University of Chicago; Assistant Director of
Haskell Oriental Museum.
Professor

Reid, Litt.D.,D.D.

Gordon, Alexander
of

Professor

Old

AND

ETHICS

William, D.D.
Philosophy of ReUgion, Union
TheologicalSeminary,New York, N.Y.
Professor

of

Review.

Johnson, Ph.D.

Goodspeed, Edgar

RELIGION

Lyman, Eugene

GiLMORE, George
Associate

OF

Testament

Literature

and

Mathews, Shailer,D.D., LL.D.

Dean
of the DivinitySchool of the University
of Chicago; Professor
of Historical
and
Comparative Theology.
McGlothlin, William
Joseph, Ph.D., D.D.,
LL.D.

President,Furnam
University,Greenville,
S.C; formerlyProfessor of Church History,
Canada.
Southern
ville,
BaptistTheological
Seminary,LouisNathan, Ph.D.
Gould, Chester
Ky.
and
navian
ScandiAssistant Professor of German
McLaughlin, Andrew
Cunningham, LL.D.
Universityof Chicago.
Literature,
Professor of Historyand Head
of the Department
of History,
Gray, Lottis Herbert, Ph.D.
of Chicago.
University
of Nebraska;
Professor of Philosophy,
University
McNeill, John Thomas, Ph.D.
Editor Mythology ofAll Races; Assistant Editor
Instructor in European History,
lege,
Queen's ColHastings Encyclopediaof Religionand Ethics;
Kingston,Canada.
International
New
Editor
clopedia.
EncyDepartmental
Herbert
Mead, George
Professor of Philosophy,
of Chicago.
University
Elliot, D.D., L.H.D.
Gkiffis, William
Mead, Lucia True Ames
in
Lecturer; Author; and formerly Educator
National Secretaryof Woman's
Peace Party.
Japan.
Merrill, Elmer Truesdell, LL.D.
Professor
of Latin, Universityof Chicago;
Hall, Francis Joseph, D.D.
Editor Classical Philology.
Professor of Dogmatic Theology,and President,
York.
Michel, F. J.
General TheologicalSeminary, New
Field
Secretary of Laymen's Missionary
Harada, Tasuktt, LL.D., D.D.
Movement.
Doshisha University,
Former President,
Kyoto,
Mode, Peter George, Ph.D.
Japan.
Assistant Professor of Church
versity
History,UniHarvey, Albert Edward, Ph.D.
of Chicago.
Formerly Instructor in History,Universityof
Moore, Clifford Herschel, Ph.D., Litt.D.
Chicago.
Exegesis, Presbyterian College, Montreal,

Eustace, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of the History of
of Chicago.
University

Haydon, Albert

ReUgions,

HoBEN, Allan, Ph.D.

of
Professor
Sociology,Carleton
Minn.
Northfield,

College,

Clarence, Ph.D.
logical
History, Baptist TheoSeminary, Tokyo, Japan.
Friendly

Valentine
Williams, L.H.D.
Ph.D., LL.D.
Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages, Columbia
New
York, N.Y.
University,

Jackson, Abraham

Litt.D.
of Philosophy,Haverford
Haverford,Pa.

Jones,Rufus

Matthew,

Professor

bridge,
University,Cam-

David
Associate

of Church

HuRREY, Charles
General
on
Secretary, Committee
Relations among
Foreign Students.

Latin, Harvard

Saville,Ph.D.
Professor
of History, Columbia
Ethical Culture
University,Director of History,
School,NewYork, N.Y.

MuzzEY,

HoLTOM, Daniel
Professor

Professor of
Mass.

College,

S.

Myers, Harry

Secretary,
MissionaryEducation
the United

Newman,

States and

Albert

Movement

of

Canada.

Henry, LL.D., D.D.

History,Baylor

Formerly Professor of Church

University,Waco, Tex.
Odlin, W. S.
Assistant

Director

of

American Red
Publicity,

Cross,Washington, D.C.
Palmieri, a.

Cambridge,Mass.
Paton, Lewis

Bayles, Ph.D., D.D.

of Old
Testament
Exegesis and
Hartford
Criticism,
TheologicalSeminary,
Kantor, Jacob Robert,
Hartford, Conn.
of Indiana,
Professor of Psychology,
University
Thomas, A.M.
Paul, Charles
Bloomington,Ind.
President,Collegeof Missions,Indianapolis,
O.
Ph.D.
King, Irving,
Pound, Roscoe, Ph.D., LL.D.
of
Assistant Professor of Education,
University
Professor of General Jurisprudence,and Dean
Iowa, Iowa City,la.
of the Faculty of Law, Harvard
University,
Henry
Professor

Ph.D.

fKiNGMAN,

Formerly Missionaryin China; Late

Pastor,

Congregational
Church, Claremont,Calif.
Kuring, Adolph, A.m.
Pastor,Lutheran Church,Chicago.
Laing, Gordon
Professor of

Jennings, Ph.D.
of Chicago.
Latin,University

DaVID, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of the Semitic Languages
of Chicago.
and Literatures,
University

LUCKENBILL, DaNIEL

t Deceased.

Cambridge, Mass.

Bisset, Ph.D.
Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy,
Williams College,WiUiamstown, Mass.

Pratt, James

Price, Ira Maurice, Ph.D., LL.D.

Professor

of the Old

Testament

Language and

Universityof Chicago.
Literature,
fRAUSCHENBUSCH,
Late

Professor

WaLTER, D.D.
of Church

History,Rochester

TheologicalSeminary,Rochester,N.Y.

CONTRIBUTORS

of

Allegany,

N.Y.

OF

RELIGION

Smith,

College,

Bonaventure's

St.

Greek,

Professor

Ph.D.

S.T.D.,

Nicholas,

Joseph

Reagan,

DICTIONARY

THE

TO

John

AND

Merlin

Professor

Literature,

Harold

F.

Baton

Rouge,

Rabbi,

Church

of
of

Journal

Church

Church

in

the

and

Ph.D.

Professor

History,

Frank

Tufts,

Professor
of

Ethical

for

Society

Ecclesiastical

of

and

History

Ernest

James

Hayden,
and

New

Charles

New

Journal

York

New

of

City

of

University,

Brown

and

Religious
Christian

Men's

Studies,
tion,
Associa-

Theological

Arthur
of

Editor

Henry

Smith,

Professor
Chief
New

Old

Librarian,
N.Y.
York,

t Deceased.

D.D.
and
Literature,
Theological
Seminary,

Testament
Union

of

College,
YouTZ,

Christian
OberUn

N.J.

Ph.D.
and

Education,

O.

of

Psychology,

Madras,

India.

Alden,
of

Ethics,

College,

University

Neb.
Ph.D.

Stewart,

Angus

Herbert

Professor

Theology,

Princeton,

Anthropology,

Lincoln,

Nebraska,

Polemic

Marietta,

Social

of

of Religion.

Journal

Preserved,
of

University

LL.D.,

Ph.D.

Hutton,

Professor

Theology,

and

Philosophy

College,

WooDBURNE,

D.D.

Chicago

DD.,

Seminary,

Clinton,

Professor

Boston

Didactic

of

Princeton

Webster,

Theology,

Breckenridge,

Professor

Watson,

History,

S.T.D.

Professor

D.D.

Christian

Chicago;

versity
Uni-

Ph.D.

Ecclesiastical

Benjamin

Marietta

Birney,
of

Literature,

Seminary.

LiTT.D.,

of

Gerald

Testament

Hammersley,
of

Professor

Ph.D.

Systematic

Professor

Ph.D.

New

Henry

Walker,

University.
Smith,

logical
Theo-

Pa.

Chicago.

Baptist

Mich.

Clay,

Henry

Professor

Art,

BibUcal

Young

Detroit,

Editor

Crozer

History,

Chester,

Weber,
of

tWABFiELD,
of

Manford,

Metropohtan

Sheldon,

of

R.I.

College

Dean,

Clyde

Professor
of

Ph.D.

Charles

Chicago;

of Ethics.

Church

of

Theological

Professor

Providence,
Sharpe,

logical
Theo-

Society.
John,

of

Department

of

D.D.

Hatch,

Assistant

the

D.D.

Clay,

Henry

N.Y.

York,

of

International

VoTAW,
Union

Testament,

Secretary

Mission

Shapley,

D.D.

Findlay,

Executive

of

University

LL.D.

Ph.D.,
Head

University

Professor

Seminary,
Sears,

History,

Philosophy,

Vedder,

Pa.

of

Professor

Ph.D.

Westfall,
Medieval

Seminary,

Scott,

versity
Uni-

Archeology,

History
Seminary,

Theological

Western

Doctrine,

Pittsburgh,

Ph.D.

Classical

of

of

Professor

Culture.

D.D.

Schley,

David

BcHAFP,

Languages

Chicago.

Chicago.

Professor

D.B.

Mackintire,
The

Lecturer,

of

Chicago.

William

Salter,

Semitic

the

Bigelow,

James

Thompson,

Newton

Mass.

Center,

Chicago.

of

University

Professor
of

and

Institution,

Theological

of

Professor

Literatures,

fTARBELL,

N.Y.

Science

tical
Prac-

Ph.D.

Martin,

Ph.D.

Social

of

of

Department

University

cation,
Edu-

Religious

logical
Theo-

Union

History,
York,

New

Kalloch,

the

Review.

Church

of

Newton

and

D.D.

and

of

Theology,
Sprengling,

Late

RowE,

the

Languages

Ph.D.,

Homiletics
Head

and

Assistant

Seminary,
Henry

Editor

Associate

Pa.;

Walker,

William

Professor

of

Theological

History,

Lancaster,

Reformed

Rockwell,

and

Language

Chicago;

Semitic

of

Gerald,

Theodore

Professor

Reformed

the

States,

Editor

D.D.

Warren,

Professor

United

of

Literatures.

George

Seminary

Testament

La.

Scares,
Richards,

Old

University

American

Reinhart,

Ph.D.

Powis,

the

of

ETHICS

Madras

Christian

Ph.D.
of

Philosophy

School

Graduate

Oberlin,

O.

Religion
of

and

Theology,

PREFACE
The
of

of this

purpose

rehgion and

Dictionary

ethics,and

general plan thus involves

the

at

the

is to

same

generous

define

time
use

a singlevolume.
general plan of editing involves

all terms
discuss

to

of

cross

(not strictlybiblical) of importance in the field

with

references

fullness

some
as

of primary value.
bringing the treatment

terms

of

means

The
within

the limits of
The

1. The

definition

2. Particular

of ail terms

attention

rehgions.
3. Especial regard
4. Historical
5.
persons

are

employ

variants

to

the

than

Biographical articles

6. No
to

rather

to

the

and

:
a

clear

more

discussion

extended

of the

explanation of the important

more

terms

important topics.
in primitive and

used

psychology and history of religion.

of all topics.
apologeticor partisan treatment
limited
to persons
especiallysignificantin rehgion

and

morals.

No

ethnic

Uving

included.

attempt
the

to

system
in the

standardize
which

he

titles at the

the

transUteration

prefers. Where

of

each

foreign words,

different

spelUngs of

word

contributor
are

in

common

being

left free
use,

the

places.
omission
7. The
of technical
with
terms
which
would
not
loosely connected
religionand morals
naturally be sought in such a dictionary.
of consultation,compound
words
8. For ease
after the first compound
arranged in sequence
term.
9. Bibhographies in an appendix to the volume
thus easilybe kept up to date.
can
The
editors wish to express
their gratitude to Drs. A. S. Woodburne, A. Eustace
Haydon, and J. N.
assistance
in preparation of copy
and
E. Lewis
Reagan for valuable
for
reading proof, and to Dr. Frank
supervisingthe preparationof the bibliographies. While every article and definition has been independently
" Wagnalls for their kind
consent
to the use
of some
produced their thanks are due to Funk
especially
admirable
contained
in copyright material in the Standard
expressionsand arrangements
Dictionary and
New Schaff-HerzogEncyclopedia of ReligiousKnowledge.
appear

proper

vu

OF

DICTIONARY

ETHICS

AND

AB, NINTH
fifth month
of
approximately
Nebuchadnezzar

holy city
as

of

one

in 586

before

70

the
not

distinguish it with

orthodox

cathedral
other

The

of

all

the

abbey

and

monks
the

was

rules."

Abbots

were

ruled

paternally,
by canonical
originallylaymen, but from the

"father."

He

limited

only

began to be ordained, and in the Middle

The
corresponding
Ages performed episcopal duties.
7th. century
head
called

of

formerly

institution

female

abbess.

an

Certain

connected

still retain

the

name,

cathedrals,
institutions,

monastic

Abbey.

Westminster

as, e.g.,

is

nunnery

or

and

churches

with

Heloise.
and

his

through
In

Realism

the
he

romantic

connection

controversy

between

worked

out

which

promoted a more
theology he opposed a
authority, and

vital

mediating
kind

attempted

explanation of church

doctrines.

he

quotations

collected

debatable
this

Patristic

positions in

aroused

distrust

the

at

with

of

condemnation.

silent submission
ABHISEKA."

India

His
the

to

In

rationaUstic

siides of

both

on

While
was

used

ceremony

ceremonial

bathing

spent

were

years

later
for

high state functionaries

to
applied by the Buddhists
stages of perfection: used

Vedic

in

reUgion of
kings and

emperors,

give power;
to

in sacred

ABJURATION.
by the

"

Roman

the

last

the
of

the

among
waters.

See

"

the

Purification.

Bathing;

That

ABSOLUTE."

religious Ufe

In

in

as

desire

is the natural

their
Hindus

one's

church

of
of

heresy
those.

all

philosophical thinking,

to

personahty in the
philosophical way

finite

provides

participate in

IdeaUstic

attempted

has

monism

to

Platonism

in

men

of

which

may

is

Mysticism
inner

the

in

philosophy

self with
modern

an

the
times

doctrine
of dynamic
the
Absolute
concretely to finite

through

relate
See

existence.

Infinite.

ideas.

absolute

identification

emotional

the

God;

Monism;

matism.
Prag-

Idealism;

Smith

Birney

chism
According to the Larger Cateis
prescribed by Pope Pius X., "Absolution

ABSOLUTION."

which

sentence

the

Christ

of Jesus

name

to

Priest
remit

theologians appeal

Roman

to

Absolution

John

20:21-23.
(q.v.),confession

(q.v.),and

in the
pronounces
the penitent'ssins."

Matt.
16: 19; 18: 18;
contrition
presupposes
faction;
the promise of satis-

be imparted only
can
has
jurisdiction
duly ordained
priest who
the penitent. The
over
present form of absolution
is declarative
or
indicative,"I absolve thee."
and in other oriental communions
In the Holy Orthodox

by

in

and

valid absolution

the

form

form

of

prayer
use

common

For

ten

of

from

of finite

of the

name

free

is

which

from
the imperfections
escape
experience. The ultimate
reahty
the vicissitudes
is pictured as eternally perfect, above
and
of time
and
change.
Complete
space
be found
only in
spiritcan
security of the human
In the rehgion
alliance with this perfect Absolute.
of the
losophies
PhiVedanta
and
(see India, Religions
is to lose
aim
OP, Sec. 1) the ultimate
there

priest

13th.

are

The

of absolution
for

pardon.
Latin

in the

is precatory, in the
Precatory forms were

church

till the

middle

century.

certain
cannot

authorization

renunciation
Cathohc

of

limitations.

pope.

reqmred

renunciation

teaching

Abraham.

the

his Sic et Non

In

chiu-ch.

the

the

An apocryphal
OF."
ABRAHAM.TESTAMENT
of Jewish
origin describing the last days of

astical
ecclesi-

to

time, his method

last

formal

to

Gerald

in Catholic
subsequently adopted and elaborated
of his rationalistic
dogmatics. The chief opponent
Bernard
of Clairvaux, who
secured
tendency was
his

re-

in the 4th.

book

position
logic. In

of doctrine.

matters

make

opposed

Nominalism

submission

mere

church.

Absolute.

lastic
SchoPETER
ABELARD,
(1079-1142)." French
and
in
philosopher
theologian, known
Uterature

in

error

growth
out-

(q.v.)into
development of monasticism
began in the 4th. century
form, which
The
with
Pachomius,
Egyptian.
organization
an
Benedict
of
of monastic
orders, beginning with
the
Nursia
to
(q.v.) contributed
development.
called
The
monk
in charge was
the abbot, which

authority "being

Converts

doctrine

Roman

of the

his

of

forms

century a written statement, in the period of the

and
Inquisition a solemn
public pronouncement,
more
recently a private profession before priestly

ABLUTION.

coenobitic

means
philologically

various

F. Reinhart

for

cloisters

church,

appurtenances.

suspected

are

It has taken

do

An
ABBESS."
abbey was
institution, comprising

monastic

or

hgious belief.

specialobservance.

and

ABBOT

ABBEY,

so

regard

Jews

Harold

originally a

is still

day

the

already baptized, who

witnesses.

observed

Long

significance, but

historic

of solemn

fall of the

of the

Reform

Jews.

by

Jerusalem

a.d.

mourning,

by
day

as

and

b.c,

in

Titus

fasting and

kept

of

destruction

the

the

on

corresponding
year,
traditional
It is the

Jewish

August.

to

of

anniversary

holiday

Jewish

OF."
the

RELIGION

offences

serious

from

the

restrictions

relaxed,however,

Roman

without

absolution

grant

bishop
in

in the
Wm.

or

these
hour
WaLKEB

even

"reserved

Catholic

special
from

the

cases"

of death.

RoCKWEUi

Abyss

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

filled
boltoroless space (originally
or faith in Jesus.
Many types of theology
ABYSS.^The
it dependent on belief in right doctrine.
have made
believed to be under the
water) which was
earths
Bairyloniapthought tne abyss was
possibly
ACCEPTILATION.-^-Originally a form of
;, ; '.!ja
.

with

eousnes

the' primevalchaos from which our universe and all

God
Ufe sprang.
this original substance
From
The
created the imiverse,according to Genesis.
cosmology of the Bible represents the earth as
extending
resting on and surrounded by waters
the abyss.
imder the earth,thus constituting
Through usage which it is not possiblefullyto
trace,the abyss ceased to be thought of as filled
with water
and became
identifiedwith the abode
The
that is,Sheol or Hades.
of the departed spirits,
latter place is said by Job 38 : 16 to be at the bottom
of the sea.
It is from the conceptionof Hades that
the word came
also to denote the imdergroundplace
the time of Enoch
From
of punishment, or Hell.
it was
apparentlyregardedas filledwith fire rather

than water.
literature
of the apocalyptic
With
the appearance
the word is used in a more
generalsense to represent
the abyss of
the underworld in which
was
lived and where
fire in which
the demons
Satan,
accordingto the Apocalypse of John, is to be confined
Hades
for a thousand
years. The term included also
of the dead Uved, and in which
wherein the spirits
Fathers
Christ himself is said by the later church
his death and his
to have spent the days between
resurrection.
In the later cosmologiesdeveloped by gnosticism
of the
the abyss was
as the firstprinciple
personified
evolved and
infinite deity from which all aeons
were
created
so the universe
In modern
thought these earlier conceptions
is used
and the word
have
entirelydisappeared,
for a deep chasm.
simply as a synonym
Shailer
Mathews
RELIGION
OF." The
reUgion of
the peoplesof Abyssinia is a curious blend of primitivitywith the reUgious ideas of Judaism, early
and
Christianity. The
Arabia, Mohammedanism
forms is the nature-reUgionwhich
basis of allmodern
consists (1) of the tribal provisionfor the lifeneeds of the people when the chief performs reUgious
ceremonies for crops and food; (2)of the control of
through the agency of shamans who know the
spirits
is
influence of early Arabia
The
magical forms.
in the presence of the mother-goddess,AUat,
seen
entered in
and of the male Ashtar.
Christianity
the middle of the 5th. century probably from Syria
is now
and after long struggle
finallyestabUshed as
the official religionof the Abyssinian empire. It
is of the monophysite form generally; though so
elements are mingled in it as to give it almost
many
the character of a new
religion. Islam is making
rapid progress, has gained control of all the tribes
surrounding the Christians,and is penetratingtheir
and. influence of Judaism is
territory.The source
evidences
stillobscure,though there are undoubted
Jewish ideas and practices.
of distinctively
A. Eustace
Haydon

ABYSSINIA,

OF CAESAREA."
ACACIUS
Bishop of Caesarea
of the most
in the 4th. century and one
prominent
of the moderate
opponents of the Nicene Creed in
the Arian controversy.

ACCEPTANCE."

The

attitude

of satisfaction

regards those who have met the

for obtaining divine favor.
requirements necessary
some
more
primitiveand even
Among some
among
highly developed religionsthe deity is beheved
hence
to be naturallyhostile,and
offeringsand
with

which

God

sacrifices are
In the Hebrew

considerednecessary

to

edged
legalpracticein which a creditor acknowlof a debt though no payment
had
The term is looselyused in Christian
been made.
in
theology to characterize theories of atonement
which the efficacy
of Christ's work depends upon
its
intrinsic
acceptance by God rather than upon its own
worth, e.g., the theory of Duns Scotus (q.v.).
Roman

payment

ACCIDENT.
pectedly
(1) An event
occurring unexand
contrary to rational order. An
accident upsets plans, and hence demands
special
rehgiousor moral explanation. (2)Philosophically,
of
essential
not
the
existence
to
a property
absolutely
scholastic
an
object. The term is important in some
of the doctrine of transubstantiation.
explanations
"

ACCIDENTALISM."
A world view which
allows the possibility
of tincaused and unpredictable
and acts.
events
and
ACCLAMATION."
(1) The uncanvassed
election of a pope
by the collegeof
cardinals.
in anti(2) A congregationalresponse

spontaneous

phonal singing.

statement

so

as

to

meet

or

specific

such as the immaturity of the

taught.
In bibUcal
interpretationcertain apparently
crude
conceptionsfound in Scripture have been
explained on the ground that God accommodated
his revelation to the capacity of men
to receive it.

needs

person

or

conditions

to be

in the New
Misquotationsof the Old Testament
references of
have been similarlyexplained. The
considered by some
Jesus to demons
theologians
are
to be instances of accommodation.
In the 18th. century rationahstic theologians
carried the principle
to absurd
lengths,attempting
to find in the Bible their own
theology,and thus
explaining all features which are unacceptableto
modern
thinking as instances of accommodation.
Historical
interpretationtoday repudiates this
ings
attitude,and attempts to set forth the exact teachof the Bible as honest and straightforward
of a
rather than as accommodations
convictions,

system.
predeterminedtheological
In

the

church

Catholic

Roman

so-called

controversy" occurred in the

disapproved
the popes
17th. centuries,when
16th. and
sionaries
of the concessions made
by Jesuit mis-

"accommodation

ideas in India and China.

Smith
Birney
Gerald
edged
acknowlA religioussect which
authoritative head; as e.g., the
or

to current

ACEPHALI.

"

bishop
mediaeval Flagellants.
no

^An eastern order of ascetics of

ACOEMETAE.
the 5th. century, so designatedfrom their custom
of continuous prayer and praisenight and day.
"

of the highest of the

A member
ACOLYTE."
CathoUc
church, whose
minor orders in the Roman
duties are attendance on a priestperformingsome
the celebration of the mass.
rite especially
That
ACOSMISM."
that the universe
from the Absolute.
asserts

acceptance.

prophetic books and in the New

Testament, acceptance is dependent on moral right-

modification

The

ACCOMMODATION."

adjustment of

ACQUIRED
In

AND
the

type of pantheism which

has

no

real existence

CONGENITAL

study

of

apart

TERISTICS."
CHARAC-

heredity,

two

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

generalkinds of characters are recognized,namely,

those determined by the constitution of the "germ
plasm" and those acquired by the body during
its development. Germ
plasm is the essential
substance
and determines
of eggs and sperms,
the
fundamental
of the offspring. Acquired
structure
in response
tions
characters appear
to the varyingcondithat obtain during development. Formerly
it was
supposed that acquired characters might be
inherited and increased from generationto generation.
Weismann
the first to analyze the situation,
was
and to show that germ
and
plasm
body plasm
are
entirelydistinct. Germ
plasm gives rise to
body plasm, which in turn builds the body; but
from
plasm itself is continuous
generation
germ
to generation,
passing on what it has received from
previous generations. An acquired character is a
of the body plasm, and disappearswith
response
the body. It has no
influence upon
more
germ
the spring from
plasm than has a stream
upon
which
it has issued.
this point of view,
From
the body is simply a container of the germ
plasm,
and no
affects its constitution than does a
more
water
bag affect the constitution of the contained
It is beginning to be realized,however,
water.
that some
affect the
acquired characters
may
tion
organism so profoundlyas to influence the constituof the germ plasm. The body is a physiological
unity,so that while such an acquired character as
affect the germ
a
mutilation,for example, cannot
plasm, any character which profoundly affects the
include the germ
physiology of the body may
plasm in its effects. The conclusion is that while
in general acquired characters
not
are
inherited,
because
they involve only body structures, some
acquired characters may involve every regionof the
organism, includingthe germ plasm.
The problem concerns
ethics in so far as it is
desirable to ascertain what
be laid
stress should
the education
of the individual in view of the
on
factors in his inheritance.
John
M. Coulter

AND

ETHICS

Adamites

year'simprisonment for a second offense,and life

imprisonment for a third. Laymen
disturbing
worship or encouragingprieststo violate uniformity
liable
fines
to
and
were
imprisonment. A second
Act (1552) legalizedthe ecclesiastical censure
and
excommunication
of laymen, who
failed to attend
prayer on Sundays and holy days,and imposed upon
those attendingunauthorized
forms of worshippenalties
in the Act of 1549.
Elizabeth's Act of
the Edwardian
statute,
but to the penalty of ecclesiastical censure
added
fine levied by the church
wardens
for parish
a
With
the
restoration
of Charles
II
revenue.
(1662)the use of a revised prayer book in every place
of public worship was
made
bents
compulsory. Incumwere
required to make declaration of their
acceptance of the prayer book.
Universityteachers,
school masters
and
private tutors were
required
to accept the Liturgy and
the doctrine of nonresistance.
A bishop'slicense was
required of all
schoolmasters
and private tutors.
For refusingto
of clergymen lost their benefices
conform, hundreds
in the "Great
Eviction," and the Estabhshed
from
Church forced^
her fellowship much
of the
The
strongest religiousleadership of the age.
venticle
the Conas
statute, fortifiedby such legislation
and Corporation Acts (q.v.),
remained
in
force until the Toleration Act (q.v.)made
tial
substanmoderations.
Peter
G. Mode
much

as

Uniformity(1559) revived

ADAD.
An ancient storm-god of the Amorites,
known
in Palestine and Syria,who appears
as Hadad
later as an
important figure in the pantheon of
Babylonia as god of storms and rain. He is also
known
Rammon.
as
"

ADALBERT

OF

HAMBURG

BREMEN."

Archbishop from 1043 or 1045 to 1072; strove to

unify the church of Northern Europe with himself
as
patriarch,a plan frustrated by Rome.

ADALBERT,
SAINT, OF PRAGUE."
Bishop of
Prague, b. 950; forced to flee his see by papal
ACTA
MARTYRUM."
A collection of the biographies opposition; undertook a mission to the Prussians,by
of early Christian
latest
martyrs. The
whom
he was
murdered, 997; known as the "Apostle
is from
the
4th. century. Their
value
varies
and "Apostle of the Prussians."
of Bohemia"
according to the degree of legendary material
included.
ADAM.
Man, or Adam
a proper
name.
The word is used in Genesis,both as a generic
"

ACTA
collection of lives
SANCTORUM."
A
of the saints and information
concerning festivals,
etc., associated with them, made
subsequently
to the 4th. century.
The
literaryremains to be
included are so numerous
and the questionsinvolved
difficult that although the Bollandists
so
began
publicationin 1643 the collection is'notyet complete.
The lives are arranged according to the months
in
which a saint's feast is celebrated.

term

and

as

proper

name.

The

account

of

tion
crea-

deals with
according to the priestlydocument
the making
of man
from
who
clay by God
The account
breathed into him the breath of God.
then proceeds to treat the first created member
of
the human
race
as
possessing the name
Adam;
he was
how
from one
of his
given a mate made
ribs,how the two lived in a garden in innocence
until sin came
through temptation by the serpent
obeying
(q.v.)on the ground that the pair might by disGod
ACTION
moral
SERMON."
A sermon
immediately
get new
knowledge. This
precedingthe Lord's Supper in Scotch Presbyterian disobedience led to the exclusion of the pair from
because the Supper was
the garden and their being made
churches,so named
subjectto death.
nated
desigThere are many
"the Action."
Babylonian and other parallels
to the Hebrew
sets forth
story of Adam, but none
ACT
OF
GOD.
the problem of temptation and
such
An occurrence
considered insin with
evitably
because due to the operation of
beauty or psychologicalprecision.
necessary
tian
cosmic
forces from
which
the human
This Adam
of Genesis became
is
a figurein Chrisagency
both
from
entirelyabsent; used as an excuse
theology. As the actual progenitorof a race
for moral wrong
and (legally)
from civil
liability
begotten after the Fall he has been treated as the
of original
sin and his experienceand position
damages in courts of law.
source
been
have
determining factors in the orthodox
"

ACTS

OF

UNIFORMITY."

Enactments

to

uniformity of worship in the churches of

England.
mon
According to the first (1549) the Book of ComPrayer was to be used by all priestson penalty
of losinga year's revenue
from the benefice,and
six months'
imprisonment for a first offense,a
secure

of sin and

salvation.
Mathews
Shailer
ADAMITES.
obscure
An
sect originatingin
North
Africa in the 2nd. century, the members
of
of Adam
and
which
laid claim to the innocence
ordered their lives after their conception of Eden.
Neo-Adamites
in the Brethren
and Sisters of
arose
treatment

"

A DICTIONARY

Adapa

the Free Spiritof the 13th. century and the

of the 14th. century.

OF

AND

RELIGION

Beghards

associated with

been

physical and

ADAPA.
A figure of Babylonian mythology,
favorite of Ea, who
and
offered the bread
was
of life by the gods but through a misunderwater
standing
refused it and forfeited immortality.
"

ADELOPHAGI."
A 4th. century sect,who held
that Christians should eat in secret,supposedly in
imitation of the prophets.

ETHICS
it.

Recent

studies

of

the

changes of this period have

confirmed
the commonly
accepted view of its
less a well marked
or
being more
epoch in human
development.
Physical changes. These are
more
definitely
determined
than the mental, social and religious.
They consist in greatly accelerated bodily growth
in both
height and weight. The
reproductive
mental

"

organs

increase

in

size and

come

to

functional

the second
maturity; the skin becomes
coarser,
molars
lung capacity increases greatly,
appear,
ing
ADIAPHORA.
A word of Greek origindenotactions or rites which
neither positively especiallyin boys, the heart enlargesrapidly,the
are
voice changes.
commanded
nor
positivelyforbidden,hence liberty
Mental
changes. The
physical changes are
of opinion and action must
ever
be recognized. Wherassociated
with
a
definitely
rapid and striking
the attempt is made
to organize religionor
enlargement of the mental life. Children of normal
ethics in terms
of a complete legal system such
the whole
better
on
of perplexity pubertal development are
morally indifferent items are a source
successful in their
developed mentally and more
and give rise to controversy. See Adiaphokistic
"

"

school

Controversies.

work
than are
the immature
of the same
than
those whose
physical development
has been
unduly deferred. The sexual ripening
bringsan entirelynew outlook upon fife. The earning
instinct looms large in the boy and the homemaking instinct in the girl. "The type of play
age

ADIAPHORISTIC
ing
DurCONTROVERSIES."
the Protestant
Reformation
an
attempt was
made
Charles V., to reunite the
by the emperor,
Catholic
and
the Lutheran
bodies.
burg
(See AugsInterim; Leipzig
Interim.) Necessarily
cism
this involved countenancing certain rites of CatholiLuther
had repudiated (Latin Mass,
which
ship
candles,fasts,etc.) Those who, under the leaderfavored
of Melanchthon
granting libertyof
called
versy
contropractice were
Adiaphorists. The
continued
until the Formula
of Concord
(1577) decided in favor of the stricter view.
second
A
controversy called by this name
occurred in the 17th. century over
the question of
"doubtful
amusements," the Pietists contending
for the more
puritanicalpositionagainst the conventional
Lutherans.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
ADIBUDDHA.

A name
Buddha

used
from

to refer to the
whose
of
acts
meditation
by emanation, the five great
come,
Buddhas
and
through them the lower orders of
divine and earthly existence.
He seems
to have
at times the character of a personalGod, at others
to be the pantheistic
world-ground.
"

essential,eternal

ADITI.
A word
used
divine name
in
as
a
Vedic reUgion meaning "the Boundless,"important
as
indicatingthe early drift from polytheism to an
abstract unity in Indian theology.
"

ADITYAS.
A group
of shining
Vedic religion
often identified with the
"

gods of the
planets.

An
mand,
urgent entreaty or comre-enforced
by coupling with it an oath.
For its use
in Scripturesee Matt. 26:63 and Mark
Catholic
5:7.
In Roman
devils
usage,
may be
exorcized by adjuring them
in the name
of the
Lord Jesus Christ.
In the Roman
ritual there are
other forms of adjuration,
used especiallyin the
of baptism.
sacrament

ADJURATION.

"

ADMONITION."

discipline,
public or
reinstatement
or
of the culpable.
ADOLESCENCE."

Gentle reproof; a method

of
private,aiming at either the

the

eventual

That

excommunication

period

of

human

the
development extending from
beginning of
pubertyto complete adult maturity.
the nations
Among all primitivepeoples,among
of antiquity and in practicallyall religioussects
this period has received special attention as an
important transition stage between childhood and
adult life. Various
initiation ceremonies, special
educational regimens and religious
efforts have

or

changes, new
companions are sought, new
hkings,
and emotions
make
tendencies,enthusiasms
over
life." The
the whole
central tendency of these
changes appears to be near the fifteenthor sixteenth
Ambition
for the future,periods of elation
year.
and depression,
and great
great dreaminess in some
exuberance
of physical and
mental
activity in
others, tempestuous passions, and in the later
teens a marked
and
ethical,
developmentof social,
reUgious impulses appear to be quite common.
to occupy
a
Friendshipcomes
large place in the
to good or
to bad
youth's life,his susceptibility
social influences is especially marked.
In the
later adolescent years philosophic
speculationand
This may
lead
rehgious doubts appear in some.
either to a cynicalindifference to all higher values
idealism and an enor to a lifepermeated by a lofty
thusiasm
to serve
humanity in some
far-reaching
way.
of the adolescent often leads
The
exuberance
him into clashes with the conventional
restrictions
and school,resulting,
of home
in the case
of the
less "storm
intense natures, in more
and
more
or
stress."
Inductive studies of youth lead,however,
that proper
to the view
guidance and a not too
should
result in a
repressivesocial environment
steady growth rather than in one marked by sudden
and
transitions.
Unfavorable
and
tempestuous
ties
repressiveenvironments
produce various abnormaliin adolescent
such as are s"en characteristically
and insanity. In the former the impulse
criminality
and in the latter the
to action breaks all bounds
self-centered,subjective,loses all
youth becomes
of practical
expression and develops some
power
form of dementia precox.
Practical phases. The securing of normal
sex
tion
development is the most vital problem. Instrucin the hygiene of the sex life is coming to be
hfe tends in many
regarded as essential. Modern
the youth, and common
to overstimulate
mercialized
comways
flourish through their
amusements
astrous
exploitationof the normal sex interests with disresults.
On the side of generalhygiene,plenty of physical
exertion,
exercise,proper food and rest, avoidance of overopportunity for normal social reactions,
and emphasis upon
service and work rather than a
life of pleasure or
of morbid
introspectionare
mend
indispensablegeneralrules. All authorities recomthat children of the same
degrees of physical
development, irrespectiveof chronological age,
be
grouped together for secular and religious
instruction.
"

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

the youth
and religiousphases. While
Moral
iadifferent to such matters, there is
often seems
evidence in the latter half of the adolescent period
interest in the largerproblems of
of a deep-seated
hfe and of right living. Special attention should
education
therefore be given to moral and religious
be established.
in order that suitable ideals may
Religiousconversions are more
frequent in middle
and
than
other time.
at any
later adolescence
Many studies indicate that ideals and ambitions
acquired in these years tend to become the permanent
Irving
Kino
possessionsof the adult.
"

ETHICS

AND

Advocate

thought and being; that the one indefinable reality

miderlying all existence is Brahman.

ADVENT.
A term used to describe:
1. The
Incarnation
the coming of the Son
as
of God into the world through the Virgin birth.
Second
2. The
of Jesus
Advent, the return
Christ from heaven to carry on his Messianic work.
See Parousia.
3. A feast celebrated
the first season
of the
church year as a preparation for Christmas.
It
began originallyin different months
according to
the practicesof the different churches.
In the
ADONIS.
The youth beloved by Aphrodite in
church
the Advent
western
begins on the
season
the
Greek
form
of the
mystery-symbolism of
Sunday nearest to St. Andrew's Day, November
30,
and resurrection.
See Mother
Goddesses.
and
four Sundays devoted
contains
fertility
respectively
to the Second
and
Coming, the Bible,the Ministry,
ADOPTIANISM."
the Incarnation
(1)A theory current among
(inthe Anglican Church).
certain Christians of the second and third centuries
Shailer
Mathews
in nature a man
that Jesus Christ was
who became
ADVENTISTS."
The general name
for a number
the Son of God only by adoption. (2)A heresywhich
of religious
bodies who believe in the imminent
and
Frankish
in
the
8th.
in
of
Jesus
Christ
to the earth.
appeared
Spanish
bodily return
century
The
Adventists
founded
Miller
officially
were
suppressed in 799,
churches, and was
by Wm.
until 860.
This
in 1816,and were
(q.v.)
though traces of it continued
generallycalled "Millerites."
the
The
form
Adventists
of adoptianism distinguished between
of
are
grouped in a number
divine Christ and the human
Christ, the former
organizationsusuallycongregationalin goveriunent.
Of these the Life and Advent Union and the Church
being the real, and the latter the adopted, Son
of God.
each numbers
less than a thousand
ofGod (Adventist)
tive
members, and may be disregardedexcept as indicaof the tendency of the group
ADOPTION,"
to divide and
legal procedure by
(1) The
tion
which an adult person assumes
to a minor the relaorganize independent bodies on the basis of some
of parent to child.
detail.
eschatological
(2)Analogously, the act
ship
1. The
most
important of the bodies is the
whereby God receives the behever into the relationSeventh Day Adventist.
Unlike
of child,a figureoriginatingin the PauUne
other Adventists
literature.
they observe the Seventh Day in place of Sunday.
They are. premillenarian,hold to the sleep of the
ADORATION."
feet washing in connection
tion
dead, practicetithing,
(1) An attitude,act or emoand awe
of deep admiration
Their
leadingto special with the Lord's Supper, and immersion.
most
Mrs. Ellen G. White,
or
important teacher was
applicable to God and to persons
reverence,
such as
to whom
of
objects with specialrehgious significance
they attribute inspirationand powers
the Virgin Mary, saints,martyrs, the crucifix or
prophecy. Their
organization is unlike other
bodies in that it is presbyterianrather
the host.
Adventist
(2) The worshipful recognition of a
than congregational. They are particularly
careful
newly elected pope by the cardinals.
of health,especiallyas affected by food, and have
of six popes.
established a number
ADRIAN.
The name
of sanitaria.
Their ministry
is composed of evangelists.They have 7 colleges
Adrian
and
I.,Pope 772-795; a contemporary of
he had several struggles seminaries,
of papers, and maintain
Charlemagne with whom
publisha number
1 hey have 87,583 members.
foreignmissions.
regarding the extent of his temporal power.
2. Advent Christians separated from the EvanAdrian II.,Pope 867-872.
gelical
Adventists in 1855 because
Adrian III.,Pope 884-885.
of a difference
in belief as to immortality of the soul. The former,
Adrian IV. (NicholasBreakspeare),Pope 1154holding that immortality is a result of regeneration,
being
1159; the only English pope, his pontificate
marked
and that all unregenerate are
to be annihilated,
by a stormy conflict with Frederick BarAdvent
Christian
the
as
organized themselves
Adrian
V., Pope July 12 to August 18, 1276, Church.
They have 1 college,1 school of theology,
but died before his ordination.
and
publish several papers.
They have 30,597
members.
Adrian
VI., Pope 1522-1523, during the time
of Luther, who endeavored
to reunite Christendom
The
small
are
now
a
Evangelical Adventists
the common
by acknowledging the evils of papal rule and
body holding to what are essentially
time insisting positions
of premillenarianChristiani"^y.
promising reforms,while at the same
small
the elimination of Luther.
of God
in Christ are
3. The Churches
on
a
believe in the restitution
of Adventists
who
group
tween of all things by God, including the establishment
ADULTERY.
Legally, sexual intercourse beis married to a third
of a Jewish state in Jerusalem.
of whom
one
They have 3,457
persons
moral unfaithfulness to God,
members.
Figuratively,
person.
as
appliedby the prophets to the nation Israel.
In the world religions,
defends
two motives underlie the
who
ADVOCATE.
One
cause
or
a
a
aversion to adultery: (1) the desire to protect the
person before a judicialtribunal.
wife as the husband's
the penitentand believing
In Christian doctrine,
property; (2) the need of
guarding the status of the familyor caste.
Morally, sinner finds in Jesus Christ an advocate before the
cessory
and
adulteryinvolves a lack of sexual self-control,
judgment seat of God
(I John 2:1). The interis condemned
work
of Christ has been thus interpreted.
along with other forms of unrestrained
Advocate
sexual indulgence.
The Holy Spiritis also called an
(e.g.,
John
14:16), although the word paracletein the
ADVAITA.
A doctrine of the Vedanta
losophy4th. gospelis often translated "comforter."
phiof India which maintains
Catholic church, the ceremony
that there is no
In the Roman
dualism of spiritand matter, self and the world. of beatification or of canonization requiresa '"devil's
"

"

"

"

"

"

DICTIONARY

Advowson

OF

RELIGION

advocate"
{advocalusdiaboli) whose duty it is to
serious consideration of all possible
objections
against the proposed action. His arguments are
answered
by "God's advocate" (advocalusDei).
Smith
Gerald
Birney
The
ADVOWSON."
legalright of naming an
ecclesiastical
vacant
incumbent
to a church
or
a
benefice in England. See Benefice.
secure

The
RELIGION."
AEGEAN
reUgion of the
in
islands of the Mediterranean
lands and
coast
the prehistoric
age, often referred to as the period
Cretan excavaculture.
tions
of Mycenaean or Minoan
indicate that the central figuresof the rehgion
unmarried
an
were
goddess,symbol of fertihtyand
to life again.
and her son
who dies and comes
life,
divine names
The
were
probably Rhea and Zeus.
See Mother

Goddesses.

EGIS."
In Greek
AEGIS
or
shield given by Zeus to Apollo and
influence.
or
any protectingpower

mythology, the
Athena; hence,

AEON.
(1) A term used to describe a group
from Absolute
of successive emanations
Being by
to the
which
the spiritualor divine is mediated
material world.
(SeeGnosticism.) (2)The Greek
word for an indefinite period of time constituting
0,
cosmic cycleor epoch. See Age.
"

of a group
of gods
AESIR
(ASA). The name
of the Teutonic
pantheon under the leadershipof
Odin, the All-Father.
"

'

AESTHETICISM
to

or

of moral

forms, implying the

values to beauty.

fined
deis commonly
Aesthetics
AESTHETICS."
In this case,
the science of the beautiful.
as
be taken in the broad sense
must
however, beautiful
as
including the sublime, comic, tragic,pathetic,
ugly, etc. Originallyused by Baumgarten in his
Aesthetica
(1750-58) to signify the science of

knowledge, supplementary and_parallel

the science of clear thinkingor the intellect.
logic,
As the excellence of clear thinking is truth,so the
held to be
perfectionof sensuous
knowledge was
beauty.
sensuous

to

Modern

aesthetics deals

on

the

one

ETHIC,"^

characteristicsall involved in varying degree in

heightened emotion and thrillwhich is contemplative

rather than practical,
and which regards
its object as quasi-personal.This latter aspect is
what
is called Einfuhlung or empathy. When
we
is strong,""the mountain
rises from
say "the tower
the plain,""the tree is graceful,"
etc.,we illustrate
this attitude.
The most
studies
recent
significant
state of

in the field of art are those which show hkewise its

social origins and
art seems
significance.Much
to serve
enhancement
of emotion
by re-echoing
the individual's own
feeling. James H. Tufts
AETHER
ancient Greek

ETHER."
(1) A term appearing ia
hterature descriptive
of cosmological
theory, being a fifth element in addition to earth,
air,fire and water, and the substance of which stars
are
composed. In Stoicism
(q.v.) aether was
described as creative fire and identified with God.
science ether is a hypothetical
(2) In modern
physicalmedium
pervading all space and servingto
transmit energy, as, e.g., lightwaves.
or

AETIOLOGY
ETIOLOGY."
The
science of
or
efficient or physicalcauses, in contrast with explanations
in terms
of purpose,
final causes;
the
or
ence
explanation of the phenomenal universe by referto a First Cause.
AFFIRMATION."
The solemn declaration made
before a magistrate or other official by persons
having conscientious objectionsto taking a judicial
oath, such as Quakers. It is accepted as a legal
equivalentof an oath.

tion
Devo-

ESTHETICISM."

beauty in its sensuous

subordination

AND

hand

with

problems of aesthetic appreciation,on the other

aesthetic
with those of artistic production. Under
appreciationfalls (1) the study of the psychology
of aesthetic feelingand imagination,
and
(2) an
analysisof the characteristicsor essential qualities
of the aesthetic as contrasted with the spheres of
"Study of
logic,ethics,economics, etc. Under
Art Production"
fall (1)study of originand development
of art,
of art, (2) the end of essential nature
and (3)the relation of art to other activities and to
the progress of civiUzation.
Plato's discussions of art were
chieflyfrom a
moral and educational
point of view, and beauty
played an important role in his metaphysical
Aristotle's Poetics laid the found.ation
system.
of
philosophical analysis of tragedy. Kant's
Critiqueof the Aesthetic Judgment was the beginning
of a treatment
of art problems largelymetaphysical
in interest and method
which
continued by
was
Schelling,Hegel, Vischer and others. The more
of psychological,
and
modern
treatment
makes
use
to a considerable
degree of experimental,studies.
Instead of settingup some
one
singlecharacteristic
such as (a) unity and variety,or
the essential,
as
(6) perfectionfor contemplation,or (c)shareableplexity
ness, the tendency is rather to recognizethe comof aesthetic feehng and to find its important

MISSIONS
TO."
its
AFRICA,
Apart from
edges and a limited penetrationof its southern
both a "dark"
portion Africa remained essentially
outer

and
"closed"
Continent
till 1875.
The
heroic
but fruitlessefforts of Raymond
Lull to win the
Moslems
of Tunis to Christianity
ended only with
his death in 1315.
The
15th. and 16th. centuries
witnessed the ineffective attempts of the great
Orders,working in conjunctionwith the Portuguese,
to win the Congo region for Rome.
Ecclesiastical
connivance
with the slave trafficserved as a serious
handicap to these efforts. The Dutch, who reached
South Africa in the 17th. century made
only a
The
the natives.
late
feint at missions
among
18th. century found the Moravians
in South- West
nent
Africa.
The actual opening of the African Contiwestern
to the impact of Christianityand
civiUzation was
first accompHshed by Livingstone
mented
(q.v.),whose epoch-making explorations,suppleby those of Stanley,penetrated the heart
mately
and ultiof Africa,blazing the trail for commerce
the suppressionof the slave traffic. They
sionary
also served as a powerful inspirationto the misfactor
a
impulse which was so significant
in Livingstone himself.
They led also to the
mobilization of forces and the creation of new
missionary agencies for the Christian conquest of
the
The
Africa.
past half century has witnessed
by well
penetrationand occupation of vast areas
steadily increasing missionary
organized and
organizations. For the sake of convenience,modern
be grouped in the following
missions in Africa may

geographicalareas.
In Egypt the
is that directed
of the ancient
toward
the revitahzation
Coptic
The
United
Church.
Presbyterianshave a chain
and Cairo
Alexandria
of stations extending from
and Colportage
Education
to the Nile Cataracts.
difficult
most
are
especiallyemphasized. The
problem in Egypt, the Soudan, and the French,
Africa is
and Spanish territories of North
ItaUan
I. Egypt

most

and

North

Africa.

missionary work
significant

"

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Africa, Religions of

United Free, and the Church

in the vast Moslem
of Scotland Missions
population. No
either by
has as yet been made
(1875-76),the Church
(1875),and London
(1877)
found
The
latter have
Catholics or Protestants.
Missionary Societies. The LivingstoniaInstitution
effective
instrument
is
of
most
missions
their
the
chief
one
medical
(1875),Nyasaland,
centers
for
industrial training. Of all the missions in Africa
in evangelization(Cairo,Khartum, Morocco),
the
is
romantic
entire coast
in inception,or phenomenal
none
Africa.
II. West
more
Including
in growth than that in Uganda.
and hinterland from the Senegal River to German
Beginning in 1875
This
Africa.
South-West
territory is occupied in response to Stanley's appeal, it has enrolled
of the greatest names
in the missionary
some
by France, Britain, Belgium, and Portugal. In
Catholic
Continent
and Portugese possessionsRoman
French
history of the Dark
(Hannington,
former
d. 1885; Mackay, d. 1890). Its missionary force
Missions
predominate. In British and
of ca.
German
100 foreign,and ca.
possessions (Togoland, the Cameroons)
3,000 native workers
work
is in the ascendancy. Among
conducts
Protestant
a
dispensary,and schools
press, hospital,
be
enrolhng over
early 19th. century missions in this region may
90,000.
UnUke
India
named
those of the Wesleyan, Church
Missionary,
or
China, with their ancient
Basel
of the
The
missions
and
Basel Societies.
civilizations,
philosophiesand religious,Africa
Board
(Angola) emphasize
Society and the American
presents the problem of a vast congeriesof tribes on
Christian missions in this region
the lowest plane of culture,and bound
education.
by the most
have faced peculiardifficulties: a deadly chmate,
future
of
success
degrading superstition.The
compelling the employment of native leadership missions in Africa appears to lie in education,
lem
the Mosfor this responsibility;
often ill-prepared
especiallyindustrial education, and the raisingup
of a trained Christian leadership. It is generally
today constitutingthe Equator as
menace,
of conflict between
the zone
Christianityand the
recognizedthat the key to the future of Christianity
from
the
Mohammedan
tide sweeping southward
in Africa lies in the conversion
of certain particularly
virile tribes (Hausas of Nigeria; Zulus of
Soudan; the liquortraffic;the intricate complex
of tribes (117 represented in Sierra Leone
alone) Natal, etc.),and the winning of the Continent
with
the
linguisticproblems herein involved.
through them.
Missionary statistics (approximate)
Of these the Moslem
follows : Societies at work, 119; total foreign
are
as
problem is by far the most
serious.
else in the world, Christianity staff, ca.
As nowhere
5,365; residence stations ca.
1,485;
here meet in a lifeand death
native staff ca. 29,700; organizedchurches ca. 6,770;
and Mohammedanism
To
communicants
ca.
baptized nonstruggle for the conquest of a Continent.
729,000;
sionariescommunicants
this oncoming tide there are some
400 mismeet
(including children) 503,000;
societies
others under
Protestant
Christian instruction 543,000; enrolled
representing 15
in Sunday
in the Congo region. A more
recent
Schools
problem has
338,000; enrolled in
schools of all grades 725,000; medical missions 121.
out of the Great War, followed as it was
by
grown
H. Walker
Henry
Germany's loss of her African Colonies,the enforced
the
of most
of her missionaries,and
retirement
OF."
The
native religions
AFRICA, RELIGIONS
of their work
of Africa are found chiefly
the Negroes
consequent redistribution
among
among
and
missionary societies.Catholic
Protestant, of the West Coast and the Bantus of Central and
the institutions
Africa.
of Britain and
France.
South
North
and
North-east
Africa
Among
under the
engaged in raisingup an adequate native leadership includingthe Sudan have largelycome
be mentioned
should
Fourah
and
Christianity
Bay College (Sierra influence of Mohammedanism
has a hold in the two
of the continent.
extremes
Leone). In Angola and elsewhere both Romanists
While
and Protestants
Mohammedanism
has approached at some
are
employing industrial missions
of propagandism.
as
a means
pointsto within a few hundred miles of the equator
III. South
The work of the German
and while Christian missions are representedin all
Africa.
missions in South- West
Africa has been seriously the pohtical divisions of the land, the vast bulk
curtailed in the territorial readjustments following of the Negroes and Bantus
but littleinfluenced
are
missions
the War.
In South Africa proper modern
though
as
yet by either of the two militant rehgions. Althe Negroes, the Bantus, the Hottentots,
began a century ago when the Anglicans took up
ship.
the work which has given them a positionof leaderand the Bushmen
of sepacomprise a vast number
rate
tribes differing
This has been
in language, cultural level,and
ably supplemented by the
American
and
London
the
politicaldevelopment,yet it is possibleto make
Missionary Society
man
out the outstanding characteristic features of the
Board
Wesleyan, Scottish,Ger(Congregational),
and
Scandinavian
Societies,over
thirty religionsof the primitiveraces of Africa as all of
organizations in all now
laboring in this field. these may be justlytermed.
The
best understood
The names
of Livingstoneand Moffat are indelibly
religiouspractices are
of South
Africa.
after a consideration of the main features of their
stamped on the missionary map
of Scotland
The United
has made
social and political
Free Church
and cannot
prehended
a
life,
reallybe comnotable contribution
units are
to the problem of industrial
apart from it. The political
education
Lovedale
at
for the most
(1824) and Blythswood
part small, the separate tribes are
with the
(1877). Lovedale, the largestChristian industrial
isolated,there is a total lack of literacy,
in South
center
result that the political
Africa, draws its students from
genius of the able leaders,
obstacles
and
contributes
its graduates to, every
which cannot
be denied, has insuperable
part of
South
Africa.
The
latter serve
as
ministers, to overcome.
Slavery is all but universal,and
But
catechists, teachers, tradesmen, farmers, etc.
polygamy prevailsas a natural consequence.
The
American
labors among
Board
the Zulus in
ruler is absolute,a sort of feudaUsm
prevaihng
no
Natal
to
where superficially
the despoticchief seems
(1834). Its extensive educational work, as
even
illustrated in Amanzimtote
dustrial
Inhave
absolute
Seminary and
Diplomatic skill is highly
power.
School is aided by substantial government
esteemed
and the art of oratory is cultivated and
grants.
greatly prized. While wandering hunting tribes
IV. East and
Central
Africa.
The exploranot
pastoraltribes
are
wholly wanting and some
tions
of Livingstone (Nyasaland) and
are
Stanley
found, yet for the most part they are settled
warlike and the slave
(Uganda) led to the opening of this territory
and agricultural.All are
to
missionary effort. The Universities' Mission, 1861
to be both indigenous.
raid and the slave trade seem
(Anglican),was
organized in direct response
to
They have a very high degree of control over their
Livmgstone'sappeal. This was followed by the
the forces of natm'e
children but their control over
that involved

significant
progress

"

"

"

Africa,Religions of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

is

slight. Their main

dependence is on
very
magic, and superstitiontakes the place of science.
The
rehgion of such a people impresses the
civihzed observer on first contact
mainly by its
sacred literature,
no
negations. There is of course
there are
no
temples or sacred meeting places,
of a formal sort, no worship as civilized
no
prayer
people define worship, no prieststrictlyspeaking,

be called
spiritof the departed. This also can
rehgious.
The question of the ordeal is not so easy.
It
is universallypracticed but usually as an integral
part of a formal judicialprocedure. Africans are
trials and among
them
very fond of court
judicial
procedure has developed farther than among
any
other primitive people. Almost
everywhere there
is an orderlyprocedure before constituted tribunals.
for the "witch-doctor"
is very
different from
a
Within this procedure the ordeal is often a merely
minister of religion,
and finally
there are no "idols."
technical device,analogous to the "third degree
Nevertheless, there is a religion. Or rather
the different peoples have each a group
of practices of the modern
police.
and observances
which
to be identified with
are
Totemism, which characterizes Australian and
North American
the reUgious life. If we
define rehgion as that
Indian life,
is difficult to Irace in
the African culture.
There are, indeed,some
facts
type of behavior in which the ideals and ultimate
which
defined and made
ends of the group
to indicate
seem
that they have
are
real,then
passed
it is in the ceremonials that are so frequent a phase
form of totemic organization,
through some
but,as
should look for the typical now
of African hfe that we
existing,the institution of totemism
plays no
manifestations
of
ceremonials
religion. These
importantpart either in the reUgious or social Ufe.
manifold.
Tabu
in the
birth,marriage,death,
They concern
are
Quite otherwise is it with tabu.
of being forbidden, unclean, harmful, is
sense
seedtime, harvest, rainpuberty and initiation,
encountered
hand.
There
is also the
fishing,hunting, war
on
making and rain prevention,
every
and peace, crime and punishment, and in fact all
conception of tabu as belonging to a specific
owner,
the crises of their life.
such as the chief,and the wizard.
Each
tribe has
social
certain
food
ceremonials
The
animals
that
the
and
within
are
are
characteristically
tabu,
and for the most
tribe there will be tabus for the men,
others for the
part public in nature and appear
Chief among
in many
forms.
these is the cerewhile special families will have
monial
family
women,
dance.
This may
be one
of three forms:
tabus of diet,and individuals have Ufe-longinjunctions
it has
case
a
preparatory ceremonial, in which
concerning food, the eating of which wiU be
or
magical influence such as a hunting dance which
perhaps fatal. There are also
very harmful
the game
more
actually makes
easily caught;
temporary tabus of food, tabud clothing,tabud
or
a
subsequent celebration in which the natural
places,articles,and seasons, as well as persons,
emotions
following a successful enterprise are
rulers,and relations. The social attitudes toward
the tabus vary greatlybut in some
instances the
given vent; or a third stage in which the dances
_

become
celebrations
entertainment.
and
mere
The religious
becomes
trations
the festival. Illusceremony
ance
of this tendency may be found in the observin America
of Hallowe'en
no
longer a serious
reUgiousfestival but in some
respects like a carnival.
It is not easy to make a clear distinction between
magic and religionand the questionis one on which
the experts in the field are at present not in agreement.
But if we
try to think of the preparatory
certain
effort
to
as
a
secure
practical
ceremony
and then of the subsequent ceremony
results,
(such
of victory)as a spontaneous expression,
as the dance
it is possibleto isolate a state of feelingand a type
of behavior in which the ideal interests of the tribe
will receive definition and emotional
emphasis in
the exalted moments
of such a social celebration.
Other types of ceremonial
besides the dances
in the initiation of adolescent
to be found
are
boys into the tribe and corresponding formaUties
of puberty in girls.
connected with the advent
It is too much
perhaps to identifythis with the
conversion experienceof some
Protestant churches
the confirmation
or
but the seriousness
ceremony,
with which
all parties to the transaction
regard
the whole procedure and the high emotional
tone
which
makes
it
characterizes the
community
necessary to include this also as religious. Of the
same
generalnature are the ceremonies surrounding
the inauguration of a chief with its precautions
"

tabu

is treated with the greatest reverence

and
It is not easy to make
out any moral quality
and there is no connection
between
the tabu and
the sacred or morally holy such as can be made
out
in the Greek and Hebrew
aries
reUgions. The missionusually find the word for tabu unsuitable for
reUgious ideas they wish to impart to their
any
awe.

converts.

of
the
left
deceased, slaves and
unburied, while chiefs and their relatives receive
the greatest care.
Doubtless
motive is that of
one
ostentation and pride; for a costlyfuneral testifies
not only to the affection for the deceased
but also
to the power and wealth of the survivors.
Mackay
records how
he made
coffin for the
an
enormous
mother
of Mutesa
into whose
there went
grave
trade cloth to the value of $75,000. But
there
is also the feehng of fear and the desire for caution

Another
universal phenomenon
is the fetish or
It appears
both as an amulet
to keep off
evil and as a taUsman
to bring desirable results.
fetishes
Here again the variation is great. Some
are
private,and untried with little to make
new,
them
prized, others are very old, very powerful,
feared or both.
In some
and greatly esteemed
or
parts of the continent the fetish is in the form of
a human
being but this is not essential and is thethis fact that led early writers
exception. It was
to speak of the fetishes as gods or idols and to speak
of fetishism as if it were
a
system or a reUgion.
of the many
It is better to regard the fetish as one
and varying
devices for controlUng the environment
from triviallymagical to profoundly
all the way
emotional and sociallyimportant devices.
Thus far nothing has been said of the beliefs of
There is the very greatest confusion
the Africans.
and the
in the writingsof the earlier investigators
has no
is now
reason
plain. T|ie primitive man
definite
religiousdoctrines which are in any sense
theologiesbecause
and systematic. There
no
are
there are no sects,no parties,no debates or arguments
about such conceptions. Their cosmologies
stillin the stage of folk-lore and folk-lore is stiU
are
feels free to embelUsh.
each narrator
art which
There is a universal belief in ghosts,and a sort of
one
primitive mysticism is imiversal. But when
for God
and the
attempts to get specificnames
devil,or definite doctrines about the fate of the good
realized
and the bad in the next world,it is soon
men
that the search is vain.
aries
One result of this situation is that the missionwhether
Mohanaof the developed religions,

and securitywhich

medan

and solemnity.
Funeral
attention

customs

depends

greatly. The amount

prominence of
strangers being often

vary

on

the

secures

the friendlinessof the

charm.

or

Christian,never

encounter

any

systematic

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

representcrude
opposition.Primitive religions

and

to

the

meet

"

Jerusalem
(Acts 2:42, 46), as an
It was
brotherliness.
expression of Christian
easilytransferred to the Gentile churches because

originatedat

similar meals
world.
Roman
If it is the

common

were

in

the

Greek

and

Agape which is mentioned in I Cor.

conclude
that each
should
11:20-34, we
person
on
brought food as he was able; but of the custom
have no certain
this point in subsequent times we
early writers
knowledge. It appsars from some
(e.g.,Tertullian and the Apostohc Constitutions)
in
remembered
that,at the Agape, tha needy were

practical
ways.
the
Gentile converts
less pronounced pagan
the church's
supreme

Among

Agape took

on

This
character.
fact and
regard for the
Eucharist
led,perhaps as early as Justin Martyr,
first,to the separation of the Agape from the
of the Lord's Supper, and then to its
sacrament
Synod of Laodicea
gradual suppression.The
(ca.363) forbade holding the Agape in churches,
and the Council of Carthage (419) declared that,
the people were
to be kept from
far as possible,
as
still
these feasts. But here and there the custom
See also Eucharist.
for centuries.
persisted
George
Gilbert
Holley
Monks
and nuns
and AGAPETAE."
AGAPETI
while professing
of the early Middle
Ages who
celibacydwelt together in holy love. The practise
was
suppressedby the Lateran Council, 1139.
more

or

AGAPETUS."

The

name

of two

popes.

Agapelus I., 535-536; chiefly noted for his

rigorous defence of orthodoxy;canonized by the
church, his festival occurringSeptember 20.
Agapelus II.,946-955.
AGATHA,
the Western
in the 3rd.

Virgin and martyr listed in

calendar, who lived in Sicily
saint of Catania,
century. Patron

ST."
church

Sicily.
AGATHO."
Monothelite

Pope, 678-681,
controversy.

Agnosticism

After
the Judgment
Day the final or
Age-status of sufferingfor the evil and happiness
for the good would
begin.
used in the plural,as the
The word is sometimes
of expressingendless
Ages of Ages, for the purpose

lished.

ills of life.
Their adherents are quick to accept a better way.
Faris
Ellsworth
The name
of a social reUgious meal
AGAPE.
widely and variouslycelebrated in the early church.
Its association with the Lord's Supper was probably
due to the fact that the First Supper had been
to have
connected with a feast. This meal seems

unsuccessful attempts

ETHICS

AND

active

in

duration

of time.

Shailer

Mathews

The age which has been

AGE, CANONICAL."
fixed by the canons
decisions of the church for
or
the ordinationof an officialor for the execution of
The
specificact.
(of
Synod of Neocaesarea
any
tion
314 or 325) firstfixed the canonical age for ordinaof a priest at 30, correspondingto Jesus'
entry upon his pubhc ministry. The final decisions
of the Roman
Catholic church
those of the
were
Council of Trent (1563) which fixed the canonical
at 23,
age for ordination of a priestat 24, a deacon
cal
The canoniat 22, and a bishop at 30.
a subdeacon
of discretion for children is 7 when
they
age
The
under
the disciplineof the church.
come
canonical age for marriage is 14 in boys and 12 in
girls,with certain exceptions. The age for the
observance
of fasts is 21-60.

CONSENT."
The
which
at
age
law.
If a
be contracted by common
be prosecuted
that age, a man
may
to intercourse.
for rape, even
though she consents
In Europe
The age varies in different countries.
The American
it ranges from 12 to 18 for females.
states formerly fixed the age at 12 years for girls,
but moral education
has stimulated
pubUc opinion
to demand
greater legalprotection,and the age of
to 16
has been raised in a majority of cases
consent
K. Rowe
or 18 years
(inWyoming, 21). Henry
AGE

OF

marriage may
girl is below

A Christian girlwho suffered

AGNES, SAINT."
martyrdom in the persecutionsof Diocletian,in 304;
venerated
21 and
14,21, and

as

saint by the Latin

church

on

ary
Janu-

28, and by the Greek church on January

July 5. Patron saint of young maidens.

The fire-godof Vedi'creUgion. He is

AGNI.
of the three most important gods of the priestly
reUgion because of his essential relation to the
magical ritual of sacrifice.
"

one

AGNOETAE."
(1) A 4th. century sect which
limited the omniscience
of God
to present time.
cience
(2) A 6th. century sect which denied the omnisof Jesus.

the
AGNOSTICISM."

philosophicalattitude

asserting the impossibiUtyof knowledge beyond

the limits of verifiable experience, and
usually
expressing disapproval of any attempts to make
afl"rmations as to reaUty beyond these limits.
the
In science or philosophy agnosticism means
or
refusal to discuss metaphysical substances
of
causes, thus limitinginvestigationto the realm
verifiable experience. Usually agnosticism here
involves the restriction of inquiry to the observable

One of the elemental divisions into which

divided by the Jews.
According to Jewish speculation,subsequently
carried over
into Christianity,
there were
two
Ages
or
Aeons, the Present and the Coming. Between
the two were
the Days of the Messiah.
The
Present
Age was
regarded as under the
control of its prince,Satan, and abounded
in evils
inflicted on the servants
world or
identified
of events, either in the physical
of God, who were
sequences
with the Jews.
of consciousness,without entering
in the processes
In the Coming
Age the sovereign authority into speculationconcerning the hidden causes lying
of God would be established;evil doers,particularly back of these processes.;'
agnosticism
Rehgiousty,
the oppressors
be
of the Jewish
declares that the supersensibleobjects of faith,
people, would
fife after death,
such as God, incorporealspirits,
or
punished and the people of God be given the
td^exist.
blessingsattendant upon righteousnessand loyalty cannot be known
to Yahweh.
nate
Huxley brought the word into currency to desigattitude of ignorance as morallypreferable
According to the eschatological
conception (see
an
ism
Eschatology) of the time, the Coming Age would
to either reUgiousdogmatism or aggressivematerialbe introduced
of transcendent
in questions as to the nature
miraculously. The dead (at least
the righteous)would be raised from Sheol and with
reality. Herbert Spencer'sdefinition of the ultimate
those who
alive at its coming share in the
were
Energy from which all
realityas the Unknowable
the great
at
judgments and blessings accorded
things proceed,involves a degree of agnosticism;
assize with which the Coming Age was
but Spencer contended that men
to be estaba
assume
may

AGE.
time was

"

Agnus Dei

DICTIONARY

OF

positivereligiousattitude toward this Unknowable

in the form of cosmic mysticism. The Ritschlian
theology, following Kant, is to a certain extent
agnostic,holding that the objectsof rehgiousbelief
not
are
scientifically
demonstrable, faith alone
of their reality.
givingpracticalassurance
of the veto
Because
placed on metaphysical
discussion,agnosticism tends to give the right
of way
to
unquestionable physical facts, and
easilypasses over into avowed skepticismso far as
religionis concerned.
Romanes, in his Thoughts
cism
on
Religion,contended that an impartial agnostibeliefs are preferable
would show that religious
alternatives.
Recent
to any
logical
psychonon-religious
indicate
and epistemologicalinvestigations
is so complex
relation to environment
that our
between
be drawn
that no sharp dividing Une can
and vaguer
knowledge in the strict sense
sensory
apprehensions of reality. A certain degree of
agnosticism therefore is not incompatiblewith a
positiveinterpretationof religiousexperience.
Gerald

Birney

Smith

of God," a
(1)Lat.,"the Lamb
name
applied to Jesus. (2) The figureof a lamb
symboUzing Jesus,usuallybearing a banner and a
Catholic church
a
wax
cross.
(3) In the Roman
cake or medallion
bearing the impression of the
and blessed by the pope.
emblem
(4)In the Greek
used to cover
with this figure,
church a cloth marked
the elements of the Eucharist.
(5) A section of the
and of the Gloria beginningwith these words.
mass,
AGNUS

DEI."

AGRAPHA.
Sayings attributed to Jesus Christ
which are not to be found in our canonical literature,
but
carried along by oral tradition until
were
in some
writing.
finallyembodied
of canonical
variations
If misquotations or
not counted, these sayings
of Jesus are
utterances
not numerous
are
and, with the exceptionof possibly
a dozen
importance. Possibly
cases, of no particular
the most
interestingare:
1. "On the sapie day, having seen
working
one
if indeed
the Sabbath, he said to him, 'O man,
on
thou doest, thou art blessed;
thou knovvest what
but if thou knowest
not, thou are accursed and a
trangressor of the law.'"
'Ask great things,
2. "Jesus said to his disciples,
and ask
and the small shall be added
unto
you;
heavenly things and the earthly shall be added
"

unto

"

you.'

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

10

At the time of sowing, the seed is stimulated by

phallicprocessions,by the use of obscene language
(India,Greece),by cursing(Greece),by incantation
formulae which command
the gods of food (Japan),
by mixing it with material of great potency such
as the seed of the last sheaf of the previousharvest,
human
of pigs devoured
or
blood, or remnants
by
snakes as in the Greek Thesmophoria (q.v.). The
growing crops are protectedby recitation of magical
rituals (Japan), processionsaround
the boundary
and sacrifices (Roman), by carryingthe image of the
deity around the fields (Germany, France, Peru).
There are many
magical arts for securing rain and
for making the stalks grow long. The great time of
the year is the harvest.
All over
the world the
first-fruits call for special ceremonies.
The
first
tion
grain is cut with great caution,often with lamentawho possesses specialpowers,
or
by someone
a
or
magician. The crop is made safe to eat
y offeringthe first fruits to the god, to the king,
chief or priests,
or
mon.
by a sacred meal shared in comThe last sheaf of the year embodies the cornspirit. It is called by such names
as
"cornmother,"
"the maiden," "the old woman," and becomes
the
of dancing and feasting. There is evidence
center
that at this time human
victims were
their
killed,
blood mingled with the first cakes baked from the
and eaten in a sacred meal (S.America).
new
corn
At this point the harvest festival merges
in the
great cult of vegetation at the autumnal
equinox
when
the waning life of the year is stimulated
by
special rites from which arise the great fertihty
and
the
goddesses (see Mother-Goddesses)

Eriest

Mysteries (q.v.).
The

elaborate development of the agricultural

most

rites is seen
in the state rehgion of China
where the whole splendor of the state ritual is concentrated
in spring,at seed-time,in times of drought,
and especiallyin the autumn
the one
object
upon
of securing prosperityby control of the powers
of
A. Eustace
Haydon
heaven, air,and earth.
AHIMSA.
A principlecommon
of the
to many
ascetic sects of India which forbids injury to any
form of sentient life;sometimes, as with the Jains,
carried to the extreme
of toleratingvermin.
"

AHIQAR,

THE

STORY

OF."

story of

the

versions of the Thousand

sage Ahiqar, found in some
ture,
and One Nights,derived from Syrian Christian litera-

and probably a part of the lost literature of

3. "Rightly, therefore, the Scripture in its
of the pre-Christianera.
desire to make
such dialecticians,
exhorts us:
the Aramaeans
Several
us
deities are mentioned
in it.
skilful money-changers,' rejecting some
Aramaean
'Be ye
things,but retainingwhat is good."
Mathews
The name
of a modern
Shailer
AHMADIYA.
reform
of India begun in
German
the Moslems
JOHANN."
theologian, movement
AGRICOLA,
among
claimed
Ahmad
who
to be the
1891 by Ghulam
1494-1566; noted chieflyas the originatorof the
the German
formers expected Madhi
Reof Islam, the returning Spiritof
antinomian
controversy among
of the Jews
and an
which
avatar
brought him into conflict with
Christ, the Messiah
and later with Luther.
is chieflya rehgious
Melanchthon
See Antiof Krishna.
The
movement
formalism.
There
are
nomianism.
protest against Moslem
at the present time.
70,000 members
RITES
OF."
In the narrow
AGRICULTURE,
The
rites deal with the technique of
AHRIMAN.
sense
principleof evil
agricultural
personified
the soil,
in the Zoroastrian
of sin,
religion; the source
sowing, protectingthe crop and
The principleunderlying the ceremonies
He
is a creative
arvest.
disease,disorder, and death.
coeval with the good God, Ormazd, but is
is that of the use of a magical power
controlled by
power
annihilation at the end of
doomed
to overcome
influences hostile to the
to defeat and
the group
the world.
Typical examples only may be given here.
crops.
The
ground is prepared by dabces around the
AHURA
MAZDA."
See Ormazd.
borders, by sprinkling with human
blood, by
victim whose ashes are sprinkled
burning a human
OF."
The survivors of this
to
the field (America),by the sacrifice of cows
AINUS, RELIGION
on
the
Earth
and to Ceres, by firebrands sent across
dwindlingrace five in Siberia,Saghalin and the
islands of Japan. Their religionis an
fields tied to the tails of foxes (Roman).
The
northern
in which primitive
first furrow is often turned
by the chief or king
example of the manner
interesting
with the environthe season
to open
auspiciously(Siam, China).
peoplebuild up social relationships
"

"

Ereparing

11

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

their life. Their customs

forces affecting
of control of the favorable and
consist of methods
dangerous things in nature
sun, fire,vegetation,

ing nature

"

mountains, swamps,
animals,
the unknown
potencies of the outer

storms, trees, sea,

diseases,and

central ceremonies
those
The
most
world.
are
which deal with food in the forms of vegetationand
of the eating of the bear.
protection
They secure
from evil forces such as diseases and the danger
of magic spells,
of the forsst and swamp
by means
charms, amulets and fetish-sticks. No clear ideas
of gods or of
have developed of the soul,of after-life,
spirits.The dead go underground; the religious
in the bear;
objectsare the potenciesin grain,in fire,
the nearest approach to spiritis the concept of the
in the disease-givingswamp.
dangerous presence
There is nothing correspondingto the organization,
temples or priesthoodof developed religion.
GODS.
This name
refers strictly
AIR
to that
pheric
class of supernatural beings belonging to atmosentiated
and
meteorologicalphenomena as differboth from the gods of the sky and from
and ghosts dwelUng in the air or
demons
spirits,
of the air which have shown
clouds.
The
powers
themselves sufficiently
important in the hfe of early
to attain divine rank
are
man
rain,winds, storm,
thunder
and lightning. To these should be added
the gods of the four quarters symbohzed in ancient
Ancient
America
by the cross.
Egypt alone has a
The
gift of rain is often a
god of the air,Shu.
function of the sky gods but where
agricultureis
important a specialrain god usuallydevelops as in
Vedic India (Parjana,Indra),and in China
(Master
of Rain). Wind
gods are very prominent in the
They are usuallyassociated
rehgions of America.
with the cardinal points of the sky and function as
In India the good
fertiUtyand creative powers.
wind gods are Vata and Vayu while the destructive
and troublesome
winds
are
represented in Rudra
and
the
Maruts.
Greece
and
Rome
picture
anthropomorphic gods of the wind, e.g., Boreas,
for the winds of
the north wind.
An earlier name
or
Harpies
Greece, however, is the "snatchers"
and
which comes
to refer largelyto the pestilential
winds.
China
has her Prince of the
maleficent
of the rain,wind, thunder
A combination
Wind.
in the various storm
and lightningis seen
gods
Indra, the slayer of the drought-demon, Vritra
(Semitic),Woden, leader
(India),Adad, Rammon
of the Wild
Hunt
of Souls and Thor
(Teutonic),
Suso-no-wo, who disputesthe region of the sky
with
his sister the sun-goddess (Japan). The
in
called simply the Thunderer
as
god is sometimes
China, or the lightningstands out as an individual
thing as in the Dragon-Sword of Shinto. The early
of Yahweh, as of the Babylonian Enhl,
descriptions
suggest a connection with storm, wind and clouds.
It should be said,in regard to these gods of the
air,that they rarely remain separated but either
and mingle their functions with
ascend to heaven
descend
those of the sky-gods or
to earth
and
take on
the characteristics of fertility
or
powers
A. Eustace
Haydon
war
gods.
"

"

AjrVlKAS.

"

An

ascetic

community

of

India

led at the close of the 6th. century b.c. by Gosala,a

and
contemporary of the founders of the Buddhist
Jain communities.
In cosmogony
and psychology
their behef was
practicallyidentical with that of
the Jains
(q.v). Their chief distinctive beUefs
were
(1) a thorough-going determinism; (2) the
impossibilityof free-will or responsibilitysince
man's
life is fixed by fate,by his own
inherited
nature, and by his environment; (3) the universal
salvation of all souls after the lapseof vast ages
of transmigration.

AND

AKBAR.
second
half

ETHICS

Albert

of

Brandenberg

Emperor of all North India in the

of the 16th. century a.d.
His real
greatness lay in his abilityas an administrator and
in his powers
of concihation.
He is best known
for
his easy
tolerance of all religiousfaiths and for
his attempt to estabhsh a religion
for his empire by
selection from several faiths,
especiallyfrom Islam
and
Parsism.
Representatives of all the great
welcomed
rehgions,free-thinkers and atheist? were
to present their views
at his coai't.
He
of
was
vision to see
that the good life
calm
sufficiently
for man
and the security of the empire did not
of the battle of creeds.
depend upon the outcome
not
He was
a
religiousenthusiast or a skeptic;
it may
fairlybe said that his faith centered in a
God
whose
for the
belief in one
agent he was
administration
of the empire.
"

Jewish
rabbi
and
AKIBA
BEN
JOSEPH."
practical
philosopher,50-132(-5). He was strongly
opposed to the Christian schism, to gnosticismand
tion
to mysticism. In the period followingthe destrucof Jerusalem, he helpedto modify Jewish
ture,
thought by his Uteralistic interpretationof Scripof Pharisaic
by his systematization^
he
One of the greatest of Jewish teachers,
(q.v.)
supportedthe Jewish Messiah Bar Kokhbar
before the revolt headed
and suffered martyrdom
by the latter was crushed by the Romans.
and
tradition.

MISSIONS
RELIGIONS
OF
AND
ALASKA,
TO."
American
1. Religions,see
Eskimos, North
Indians.
2. Missions.
pation
Immediately after Russian occuchurch
Orthodox
of Alaska, the Russian
in the
In 1915 there were
began its mission.
Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America
10,000 Indians, Aleutians, Creoles and Eskimos.
Moravian work was
begun in 1855 and sixtyyears
later this church
counted
1,400 baptized Indians.
of the Protestant
the most
Among
prosp)erous
missions is that of the Presbyterianchurch, begun
in 1915 had eight stations serving
in 1877, which
Christians.
The PresbyterianBoard
four thousand
at
the Congregationalwork
in 1920 took
over
Wales, which since 1890 had been under the supervision
of the American
Association.
Missionary^
The
Protestant
in 1915 had
Episcopal church
twenty churches with twelve clergymen and six
lay readers. The Methodists had but four churches
of adherents
in 1919, the number
being but 98.
This service was
almost entirely
to the white population.
Catholics have 16 churches with
The Roman
resident priests,20 mission
chapels and several
In addition to strictly
schools.
work, most
religious
of the denominations
carry on educational activities
industrial
which
include
training. Missionaries
from the
have found that there is better response
is
natives than from the white populationwhich
and
is interested chiefly in getting
temporary
ents
gold. Almost all of the natives (1920) are adheris often
of some
sect, although this adherence
Stock
Harry
Thomas
nominal.
"

ALB.
(1)A linen robe,reaching to the feet and
by Roman
having closely fittingsleeves,worn
Catholic priests
(2) A robe
when celebratingmass.
worn
by the newly baptized in the early church.
"

ALBERT

1528-1579,

Duke
of Bavaria,
BAVARIA."
vigorous and influential leader of the

V. OF
a

Counter-Reformation.
Elector
of
BRANDENBERG."
OF
CathoUc
cardinal of the Roman
church,
1490-1545; at first tolerant toward the Reformers,

ALBERT
and
Mainz

Albert of Prussia

but later

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

supporter of the Catholic reaction in

Germany.
First duke of Prussia,
PRUSSIA."
and Melanchthon
friend of Luther
in Germany;
and a supporter of the Reformation
foimder of the Prussian national church.
ALBERT

1490-1568;

ALBIGENSES."

Name

derived

from

ALEXANDER."
The name
of eight popes.
Alexander
I. -Bishop of Rome
in the first
quarter of the 2nd. century.
Alexander //."Pope, 1061-1073.
Alexander
III.
Pope, 1159-1181, one of the
successful in his pohtical
was
greatest popes;
contests
with Frederick
of Germany
Barbarossa
and Henry II. of England.
Alexander
IV." Pope, 1254-1261.
fered
Italy sufmuch
during his reignby the conflict between
the GhibelUnes
and the Guelphs, the pope
siding
with the latter.
Alexander
V.
His claim
Pope, 1409-1410.
was
disputedby Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII.,
the latter of whom
is frequentlyregarded as the
"

"

"

rightfulpope.
Alexander
VI.
of
Pope, 1492-1503, a man
unusual
acter,
chartalents,but charged with immoral
and
the ambition
his alleged
to elevate
children, particularlyCaesar and Lucretia Borgia,
to positionsof wealth and influence.
Alexander
VII.
Pope, 1655-1667, a friend of
the Jesuits and an ally of Spain on whom
he was
"

"

partlydependent.
Alexander
VIII.
Pope, 1689-1691, a supporter
learningand of civic improvements in Rome, and
for the
vigorous opponent of the movement
"

greater freedom
GaUicanism

and tolerant,the image of Jesus

syncretistic
being placedin his domestic chapel besides those
of Abraham, ApoUonius of Tyana and Orpheus.
was

of the church

in France

known

ALEXANDRIAN
SCHOOL."
A theological
school of great influence in the early Greek church.
literature and the Epistle to the
The
Johannine
influenced by Alexandrian
Hebrews
are
thought.
The
Gnostic schools of Basilides and Valentinus
The
originatedin Alexandria.
great catechetical
school of Alexandria
numbered
its heads
among
Pantaenus, Clement and Origen (q.v.),and served
and defender of orthodoxy. The
as the formulater
theology of the Cappadocians is an Alexandrian
doxy,"
product. Athanasius
(q.v.),"the father of orthowas
bishop of Alexandria.
Cyril (q.v.),
who was the leader of the Alexandrian
school in his
day in oppositionto the theologiansof the Antiochan
school (q.v.),
influential figurein the conwas
an
troversies
the person of Christ.
over

Albi

(S.France) ; called also New Manichaeans, Cathari.

the expressionof the
Among Christians they were
ences
influArian
oriental,Manichaean, Gnostic and
which poured over
Italy and France in the
earUer Christian centuries and held their ground
Manichaean
were
They
against Catholicism.
(q.v.)in theology; rejected the Old Testament
the work
of an
evil deity; substituted
the
as
of laying
consolamentum
(an elaborate ceremony
of hands
and
on
fasting)for baptism; forbade
marriage, ownership of property, and eating of
meat; taught transmigration of souls of the unto a state of
perfected,the saints going at once
eternal happiness. They were
scattered and almost
exterminated
by the Crusades and Inquisition.

12

OF

MAGNUS
ALBERTU"
(ca. 1193-1280)."
can
Schoolman
and
a leaderin the Dominiiieologian,
order in Germany, especiallyin Cologne; a
of wide learning in science,philosophyand
man
of the teachers
of Thomas
theology, and one
in the substitution
was
Aquinas. His significance
of Aristotelian for Platonic logicand metaphysics.
His assertion of a higher sphere of authority for
the
revelation beyond the limits of reason
was
beginning of the long conflict between naturalism
and supernaturalism,science and theology.

of

ETHICS

AND

ALEXANDRINUS,

See Codex

CODEX."

Al"bxandrinus.
ALEXIANS.
A
in
R.C. order which
arose
the Netherlands, at the time of the Black Death,
in the middle of the i4th. century.
Its purpose
to bury the dead and care
for the sick. They
was
chose St. Alexius
(5th. cent.) as patron. Other
for the order are
names
Celhtes, Cell-brethren,
Lollards and Nollards.
"

'ALIYAH."
(Hebrew, "going up".) In the
services of the Synagog, the act of going up to
the reading-desk to take part in the reading of
the Scroll of the Five Books of Moses.
ALLAH.
(Arab.) God, the
Mohammedans
Qu'ran and among
Being. See Mohammedanism.
"

used in the
for the Supreme

name

ALLEGORY.
An elaborated metaphor in which
conceptions of one class are expressed in forms of
another; as when abstract ideas are personifiedand
given relations involved in such personification.
"

The

also is used

word

to

express

the

reverse

by which personal narratives are explained

as
representingabstract ideas. Thus a character
be said to representa virtue or a vice,and his
may
actions may
be regarded as
symbohcal of the
effects of such virtue or vice in society.
As examples of the former meaning of the word,
the two best known
works in English are Spenser's
"Fairie Queene" and Bunyan's "Pilgrim'sProgress,"
the latter being a pictorial
expositionof the author's
method
of
finding allegorical
theology. The
teachingin the Bible was elaboratelydevelopedby
Philo of Alexandria with the purpose
of giving universal
validityto the O.T. narratives. This method
of expression was
with church
teachers
common
like Origen and is still in vogue
bibUcal
among
students who hold that Scripturehas other meanings
than those reached by historical and critical

process

methods.

Shailer

Mathews

as

ALL

(q.v.).

DAY."
named
from
FOOL'S
Aprilthe first,
practiseof perpetratingpracticaljokes on that
day at the expense of the victim's creduhty; originated
in the Celtic cult of Arianrhod, the counterpart
the

ALEXANDER

OF

HALES."

Englsh

scholastic

theologian of the 13th. century; called Doctor

He
entered
the Franciscan
order
Irrefragabilis.
in 1222, and his work, the Summa
Theologiae,is the
first important contribution from the Franciscans.
It is written in the form of question and answer,
and is typicallyscholastic in method
and content.
ALEXANDER

SEVERUS."

Roman

emperor,

of Venus.
ALLIANCE
CHURCHES.

OF
THE
REFORMED
A fraternal alhance of all churches,
throughout the world of presbyterial
polity,organized
The membership is comin London
in 1875.
posed
in
of churches
of Presbyterian principles,
"

222-235; of noble character;his religious

policy harmony with the Reformed

churches

who

hold

13

authorityof the Bible in

Alliance

The

morals.
but

RELIGION

of faith and
matters
holds its General Councils
every 3 or 4 years, its functions being advisory,
the
as
It is popularlyknown
not legislative.

to the

once

OF

DICTIONARY

ETHICS

AND

Saint

is regarded as a
the Christian Eucharist
Where
sacrificethe table at which it is celebrated is properly
H. P. Smith
called an altar.

ALTAR-BREAD.

"PresbyterianAUiance."

Ambrose,

"

bread

The

used

in

the

by both the Western and Eastern CathoUc

churches, usually in the form of an unleavened
the host (q.v.).
wafer; also designated
Eucharist

A
DAY."
church festival in
SAINTS'
ALL
and unknown,
honor of all saints and martyrs, known
observed Nov. 1st. by the R.C. church and
the first Sunday
of England, and on
the Church
after Pentecost by the Eastern church; also called
All-Hallows,Allhallowmas.

ALTAR-CARDS.

"

Three

Their

of the celebrant.
the 16th. century.
memory

observed
A R.C. festival,
SOULS'
DAY."
ALL
the souls of all the faithful dead
Nov. 2nd., when
in prayer.
are remembered
ALMARICIANS.

"

See Brothers

of

the

Free

Spirit.
ALMSGIVING.

"

"

(or ALUMBRADOS)."

ALOMBRADOS

tain
containingcer-

use

dates from

for
term
A Lutheran
ALTAR-FELLOWSHIP."
of the church in the Lord's
communion
the outward
altar-fellowship
being equivalent
Supper, unmixed
to
and mixed
altar-fellowship
to close communion
communion.
open

and Almsgiving.

See Charity

A heretical sect of the 2nd. and 3rd.

known
centuries
only through references in Irenaeus,
Hippolytus and Epiphanius, according to which
they rejectedthe applicationof the Logos doctrine
to Jesus,and the Johannine
authorship of the 4th.
Gospel and of the Apocalypse.
ALOGL

cards

portions of the liturgyof the Mass in R.C.

churches, and placed on the altar to assist the

sect

of ascetic mystics, arising in .Spain in the first

quarter of the 16th. century, and later suppressed

In Social Psychology
Lat. "other."
the "other" of the social environment,
conditioningthe experienceof the personal "ego."
See Altruism
for an earher use of the word.

and

ALTER."
Ethics

ALTRUISM.
(1) In
psychology, a term
correlative to egoism, meaning an attitude having
of benefitinga social other.
the specificpurpose
(2) In ethics an attitude of moral interest in others
to the
and activity on
their behalf, in contrast
seeking of selfish satisfaction.
"

by the Inquisition.
AMANA
ALTAR.

"

piece of furniture for

SOCIETY.

"

An

American

tic
communis-

in Germany in 1714,
religious
society. Founded
offerings as the Community of True Inspiration,in protest
of
against the formaUty and lack of spirituality

sanctuary,

consistingof a raised structure on which

burnt.
to the deity are
of
be a mound
In its simplestform the altar may
To
earth,a heap of stones or a singlelarge stone.
speak of a depressed altar,meaning an excavation
into which victims are thrown, is hardly accurate.
In the more
ornate templesthe stone might be carved,

Lutheranism.

members

The

banded

themselves

dren
together to live in brotherly relations as the chilof God
They refused to
seeking salvation.
to take the oath of allegiance
or to
serve
as soldiers,
schools.
send their children to Lutheran
Suffering
to
introduced.
and at the latest stage metal altars were
persecution in Germany
they finallymoved
Since food was
America, N.Y. state, in 1842 and to Iowa in 1855,
presentedon it the altar was thought
called the
where
They were
of as a table and is in fact sometimes
own
they now
26,000 acres.
table of the god (Ezek. 41:22, 44:16). The fire
incorporatedas the Amana
Society in 1859. The
to train
of the community is religious,
main purpose
the means
which
by
was
kept burning on it was
the soul in preparation for the future Ufe. Out of
sublimated
and carried to the
which the food was
has developed a remarkably
the religious
of a stage
however
traces
divinity. There
are
purpose
The
successful communism.
the
of rehgion at which
fire was
not used, and
Society is governed
blood of the victim was
by a central board of thirteen trustees elected
simply poured or smeared
the elders.
the altar.
Since the intention of the offerer
annually by all the people from among
on
and
the community is entirelymodern
to give this part of the sacrifice to the god it
was
Industrially
clear that he was
seems
provides for every need of its 1800 people. There
thought to reside in the
The
is no emphasis upon
altar then was
stone.
religiousdogma or ceremony
originallythe sacred
and piety. On this basis the
but upon
the
spirituality
stone, the Bethel (house of God) in which
or
Stories which
relate that
at home.
divinity was
people are graded in three ranks and advanced
fire broke out from the stone on which the offering reduced
according to the judgment of the Great
All work
at their chosen
Council
of Trustees.
the gift confirm
this
was
placed and consumed
share
in
central direction and
impression. The story of the sacrifice of Isaac
specialty under
that in one
form of the ritual the victim
bound
and laid on
the wood
of the altar and
its throat was
then cut so that the blood would
the altar.
This as well as the
flow directlyonto
Arab custom
of pouring the blood into an excavation
at the foot of the altar points in the same
direction.
The pouring of the blood upon
the altar
is preciselyparallelto the anointing of the sacred
stone at Bethel.
the altar and
Later
the sacred
stone
were
the former
differentiated,
becoming the table of
the divinity. As the ritual became
refined
more
shows

common.

was

unbloody offeringswere
.

incense

brought

"

fruit,grain, or

and
In
the altar became
smaller.
the
temple at Jerusalem there was a small golden altar
for incense as well as the largeone
of stone for
"

animal sacrifice.

AMATERASU.
The sun-goddess,chief of the
divine figuresof the native Japanese rehgion and
of the ruUng line of Mikados.
ancestress
"

AMBO.
An official reading desk in the early
church, later superseded by the pulpit and the
"

lectern.
SAINT
(ca. 340-397)." Bishop of
of the four Latin doctors of the
educated
church.
He was
as
a
lawyer and called
from a magisterial
post to be bishop of Milan in 374.
On accepting the office he divested himself of his
ness.
of episcopalfaithfula model
property, and became
His power and influence were
great,enabling

AMBROSE,
Milan, and one

Ambrosian

him

Chant

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

14

Latin Vulgate, for which it is the best authority;

written early in the 8th. century in the north of
England and sent in a.d. 716 as a present to the
Amiata
Pope; afterward given to Monte
(whence
in the Laurentian Library at
its name), but now
Florence.

for an
and prescribepenance
accepted the ascetic ideal of
and
his day, emphasizing the virtue of virginity,
promulgating a high standard of Christian ethics
even

emperor.

ETHICS

AND

rebuke
Ambrose

to

in both individual and social relations. He was

one
of the foremost
exegetes and hymn-writers of the
early church, as well as a great pulpit orator.

AMICE.

(1) A fur

fur-lined hood or cloak,

or
in cold weather by priests
and monks,
and stillused on the left arm
as
or
a badge by some
chant, growing out of a combination
song
clerics. (2) A vestment
French
of Greek
ditionally
music with the church psalter,and traconsistingof a
around
the
accredited to Ambrose
of Milan
(q.v.). rectangularpiece of white hnen worn
neck or shoulders by R.C. priestsin celebrating
of
the time
It dominated
church
music
from
close
mass.
Ambrose
till the Gregorian reaction at the
of the 6th. century.
See Music.
AMIDA.
See Amitabha.
AMBROSIAN

CHANT."

"

formerly worn

spiritedcongregational

"

of certain R.C.
(1) Name
congregationsoriginatingin or near Milan since the
of
from Ambrose
14th. century, taking their name
Milan.
(2) A 16th. century Anabaptist sect whose
diate
leader was
named
Ambrose, and who claimed immerevelation from God.
Doctrinally the Ambrosians belonged to the branch of the Anabaptists
(q.v.)called Pneumatics.
AMBROSIANS."

AMBROSIASTER."
The
used to designame
nate
the author of certain 4th. century Christian
of Milan,
writings wrongly ascribed to Ambrose
the most
a
commentary
important of which was
the epistles
of Paul.
on

AMITABHA."

One

of the five Buddhas

of contemplation,
removed
from
the eternal
Buddha
He
is the merciful
(see Adibuddha).
vowed
not
into complete
to
enter
figure who
until assured that all who
Buddhahood
trust his
would
find eternal salvation in the happy
grace
western
Paradise over
which he presides.

step

AMMON."

See Amon,

God of the nome

of Thebes
in Egypt
the
importance when Thebes became
of the
later
politicalcenter
empire. He
was
the
coupled with the sun-god. Re, and assumed
character of a solar deity as Amon-Re.
AMON.

who

rose

"

to

AMEN.
A Hebrew
word, the meaning of which
is to confirm or strengthen. It has been used in
A M O R A
Muhammadan
and
liturgies.
(Aramaic, "interpreter,"plural:
Jewish, Christian
One of the Jewish masters
Sometime
its use is with reference to the words of anof Babylonia
other
Amoraim.)
and Palestine in the 3rd. to 6th. centuries,who
speaker,e.g.. Rev. 22:20, or the response of
the congregationto the prayer offered by the priestin
expounded the Mishna
(q.v.)and whose teachings
it is
contained in the Gemara
Sometimes
the R.C. and AngUcan churches.
are
(q.v.)
used by the speaker to strengthen his own
words,
AMORITES."
See Canaanites.
e.g., Jesus' usage as in John 16:23, or in the doxoloI Cor. 14 : 16
gies,or as the final word of a prayer.
in
is cited as the firstevidence of its liturgical
AMPHICTYONY."
A
union
of Greek
tribal
usage
with a common
Christianity.
rehgious interest meeting
groups
under a "truce of God"
at the temple of the deity.
The two chief amphictyonic unions were
AMERICAN
BOARD
OF COMMISSIONERS
those centered
and
FOR
of
at Delos
The legalname
Delphi (earlierprobably at
FpREIGN MISSIONS."
the foreignmissionarysocietyof the Congregational
Pylae).
Denomination, in America.
flask employed in the R.C.
AMPULLA."
A
AMERICAN
ON
church as a container for the consecrated oil,wine
LECTURES
HISTORY
OF
See
RELIGIONS.
Lectures
History
on
of
or
water, used in baptism, confirmation,extreme
and the consecration of kings.
Religions.
unction,mass
"

"

"

A name
used
AMULETS.
See Charms
Amulets.
AMERICANISM.
to indicate
and
the Uberal tendencies of a type of Catholic preaching
and teaching alleged to have been practiced
AMUSEMENTS."
All forms of pleasantoccupations,
in America
mental or physical,which are associated with
by Father Isaac Thomas
Hecker, the
of the Pauhsts.
relaxation from vocational activities or other serious
founder
The
controversy arose
several years after Hecker's death, and was
due to
pursuits.
of the term, all kinds of
French
In the broadest sense
advocacy of liberahsm based on a French
translation of a life of Hecker.
In 1899 Pope Leo
play and recreation,especiallyof older children
and adults are referred to.
XIII. condemned
the movement;
and American
In a narrower
sense,
be considered
in
amusements
Catholic officials gave evidence that they were
hghter or more
may
accord with the pope's declaration.
The same
frivolous than recreation,involving less expendieral
libture
ideals later found expressionin
of energy.
end
Modernism
They have, however, the same
(q.v.)
for the normal individual,viz.,the recuperation
SPENTAS."
AMESHA
A group
of six divine
of wearied bodily and mental capacities,
or
means
time when
cannot
in
of whiling away
one
figuresof the Zoroastrian reUgion acting as the
engage
attendants
immediate
and executives of Ormazd.
"useful" pursuits. The association of amusements
their relativelyslight
Their names
with idle enjoyment and
suggest that they are attributes of the
to
demand
on
personified as
high God
energetic action has led many
archangels "Good
sinful.
condemn
them as essentially
Thought," "Perfect Righteousness,""Desired Kingdom,"
Positive significance.Amusements, even
though
"Holy Harmony,"
"Saving Health," and
abused, have a positiveand valuable function in
"Immortality."
some
Ufe.
It is true that one's dailywork, if it is wholeCODEX."
A parchment manuand furnishes due opportunity for initiative,
AMIATINUS,
script
does afford much
containingthe Old and New Testaments in the
genuinesatisfaction. Neverth""

"

"

"

15

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

is in definite
absorbed worker
relaxation and lighterpleasure.
take the
amusements
Specificvalues. When
to health,
of active play, they contribute
form
of furnishingdiversions but also
not merely by way
by bringing into action those parts of the body
exercised by work.
They restore
not sufficiently
ments
mental poise and spontaneityby furnishingemploythe higher and
which are less exacting upon
wholesome
Most
unstable mental processes.
more
values upon
amusements
depend for their specific
for the free
the extent
to which
they are avenues
ties
expressionof various instincts. Instinctive activiare
generallysatisfyingand hence amusing by
with serious pursuits.
contrast
There
The appeal of low types of amusements.
has always been a distinct tendency for commercial
individual
the over-worked
interests to debauch
in his normal quest for amusement
by appealing to
or
exciting these impulses in their least desirable
forms, as in various kinds of staged fights,the
theatrical performance, the lewd dance,
immoral
and more
recentlyby the indecent motion picture.
and filthy
that the coarse
It is a mistake to assume
is naturally more
amusing than the clean and
It is often lack of opportunity for the
beautiful.
latter that leads many
people to turn to and acquire
a taste for the former.
The social and
religiousproblem,. Social and
workers cannot
afford to ignore the normal
religious
If religionis to
human
craving for amusements.
include pleasurable
include the whole life it must
serious
diversions as well as emphasize the more
of life. There is no more
important
responsibilities
service to be rendered to any community than the
careful planning and organizationof lighterforms
of diversions.
This service is increasingly
necessary
of the high tension under which
account
on
many
of the monotonous
live and on account
grind that
communities
fillsthe lives of many
others.
Most
will rise to higher levels in their tastes for amusements
if the latter are
intelligently
planned and
A standard
thus be set
can
properly carried out.
will gradually affect for the better the
up which
commercialized
social and
forms.
The
religious
be appreciated
importance of all such efforts may
ideals
of our
of life are
when
reflect that many
we
most
effectivelybuilt up in connection with the
occupations of leisure. Training in the rightuse of
of the necessary
leisure is regarded today as one
ends of education.
Irving
King

theless,the

need

of

most

periodsof

"

"

AND

ETHICS

Anabaptists

The
a
Anabaptist ideal was
church, a
pure
community of saints or believers within the social
order,in the world but not of the world,possessedof
for scripturala passion for personalrighteousness,
in fife and church
and for the
ness
institutions,
of

imitation

Christ.

To

reaUze

this

ideal

the

Anabaptists apphed Sci'ipturein the most literal

to all phases of their Uves; rejected infant
way
of
baptism as contrary to Scripture,and the source
all kinds of evil;exercised a very rigiddiscipline
as
of keeping the church pure ; asserted
the only means
of the soul under
the complete freedom
Christ,
the
persecution;demanded
repudiatingall religious
and
entire separation of church
state, leaving
each free to perform its appointed functions without
interference from the other; and they refused to
take an oath, hold civiloffice or bear arms.

much
difference of
this there was
Some
them.
professed to have a
direct and specialillumination of the Spiritwhich
refused to pay war
constituted a new
prophecy ;some
stillfurther
went
taxes or interest on money;
some
ing
and favored community of goods,actuallyestablishhouses; objectionto the death
great communal
were
urged to
penalty was common
; their members
in productiveemployments only, refraining
engage
from
keeping public houses or engaging in the
liquorbusiness. Radical millenarianism was widely
held and ultimatelywrecked
the movement.
Anabaptist views appeared in the circles around
Luther and Zwingli and spread from these centers
of Europe. The influence of the party
much
over
is seen
in the fact that every
important reformer
wrote
against them, every creed drawn up in that
and almost every
period condemns
government at
time or another persecuted them.
For a time
one
the movement
threatened
into its folds a
to sweep
goodly share of all the reformed peoples of Europe,
but the dihgent polemic of the theologiansand the
drastic persecutions inflicted by the church
and
and
the state speedilyreduced it to insignificance
teen
in some
placessuppressed it altogether. Within fifand then
years it passed the zenith of its power,
gradually died away almost to the vanishing point.
be treated in four groups
Anabaptists may
Dutch.
German, Swiss-Moravian, Italian and
Radical
views
first appeared at Wittenberg in
while
Luther
the Wartburg.
He
1522
at
was
returned to Wittenberg and in a few powerfulsermons
succeeded
in turning the tide against them.
versity
of the ablest professorsin the Unione
Carlstadt,
of Wittenberg, was
forced to leave and
henceforth Anabaptism was
outlawed
in Germany.
ANABAPTISTS."
(From the Greek through the
well organized and was
ruined in the
Latin, "those who baptizeagain," "rebaptizers.") It was never
of the 16th. and
Peasants' War in 1525. Feeble I'emnants
of radical reformers
A group
continued,
because they baptized but it was never
subsequent centuries,so named
again a force in Germany.
The Swiss group
their opponents charged) those
was
as
decidedly the ablest and
{rebaptized
of
moderate
of all,having a number
of men
most
who had been christened.
due to dissatisfaction culture and marked
The rise of the party was
ability. Conrad Grebel and
Felix Manz
with the compromising and opportunistpohcies of
were
universitymen, the latter a Hebrew
scholar
of distinction.
the leadingreformers.
These leaders acknowledged
Closely associated with
several men
of learning and abilityin
that the scripturalconception of a church was
them
were
a
southern Germany, the most notable of whom
were
community of believers or saints walking in the
Hiibfaith and fellowshipof the gospel; but regardingthe
and Balthaser
Ludwig Hatzer, John Denck
of this ideal as impossiblethey lowered
attainment
maier.
Hatzer
assisted in translating the Old
text
their standards
in practice to a point where substantially
from
the Hebrew
Testament
into German
Hiibthe whole of societycould live comfortably
some
years before Luther took up this task.
within the ample bosom
for some
of the church.
While they
maier was
was
a great preacher and
years
rejected the Catholic conception of a universal
a professorin the University of Ingolstadt. When
land
Switzerchurch they set up national churches in which conditions
persecution drove the Anabaptists from
he proof membership were
where
to Moravia
not materiallydifferent
he followed them
duced
from those of the Catholic
of tracts settingforth their peculiar
church.
Infant bapa number
tism
views very ably.
was
continued, church disciplineremained in
Socinian in their
church
and state
The Italian group
abeyance, the alliance between
were
largely
was
not dissolved and
moral conditions were
not
Christology.Driven out of the country by persecution
but never
in Poland
greatly improved,especiallyin the earlier years of
they reassembled
pered
prostlie reform.
again.

Beyond

opinion

among

"

"

AnacletuS

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

The
Dutch
strongly tinged
Anabaptists were
introduced among
with radical millenariauism
them
After his imprisonment
Hoffman.
by Melchior
this tendency burst into a fanatical flame in the
city of Miinster in Westphalia where a kingdom
of this kingdom,
The excesses
set up in 1534.
was
of religion,
fixed a lasting
committed
in the name
stigma on the Anabaptist cause, thoughthe party
taken as a whole had desired nothing but a quiet
of this catastrophe
inoffensive hfe. The remnants
Mennonwere
gathered up and organized as
ites (q.v.).
pendents
Early in the 17th. century some
Enghsh Indewho
were
refugees in Holland accepted
and
thus founded
certain Anabaptist views
the
as
Enghsh Anabaptists, later known
Baptists

(q.v.).
Anabaptists
and

were

never

entirely suppressed

existence
under
various
formed
names.
a
They never
complete church
unified movement.
even
or
a
denomination, nor
crude and dangerous while
Some of their views were
others were
centuries ahead
of that day, and are
the pricelesstreasures
modern
of our
now
among
hfe.
W. J. McGlothlin
still maintain

an

AND

"

The

name

of

one

pope

and

one

antipope.

16

coveringallfieldsof human activityand co-operating

in the satisfaction of social needs.
Anarchism hke
Sociahsm
(q.v.)opposes
privateownership of land,
but
capitahstic production, the wage-system,
unhke
Sociahsm it would ehminate
state control of
economic
factors.
Modern
anarchism
began in
France
with Pierre Joseph Proudhon
(1809-1865)
who
advocated
mutualism
or
an
exchange of
services,maintaining that "property is theft."
Individualistic anarchism
found
its ablest expression
in Germany, Max Stirner advocating the liberation
of the individual from all social bonds.
Michael
Backunin
the
(1814-1876), a Russian, advocated
annihilation of the existingorder,and in that way
has fathered revolutionary
anarchism.
AnarchistCommunism, as advocated by Prince Peter Kropotkin
vidual's
proposed a civic agreement by which the indineeds would all be guaranteed, education,
art and
recreation as well as food, clothing and
shelter. Count Leo Tolstoi representeda Christian
anarchism, seeking a basis for the anarchist theory
of state and property in the teachingsof Jesus.
ANASTASIUS."
one

The

name

of four

popes

and

antipope:
Anastasiusl.

ANACLETUS.

ETHICS

398^01, who condemned

"

Origen-

ism.
AnastasiusII.
496-498,opposed Traducianism
and sought to reunite the Eastern
church
with
Rome.
Anastasius III.
911-913, active in determining
the ecclesiastical divisions of Germany.
Anastasius
IV.
in
1153-1154, instrumental
the restoration of the Roman
pantheon.
Anastasius,antipope,855,
"

Anacletus
I. Roman
presbyter of the latter
part of the 1st. century, asserted to be the 2nd. pope
in succession to St. Peter.
Anacletus 11. Antipope, 1130-1138.
"

"

"

"

ANAHITA.
waters, of
Goddesses.

Persian
goddess of
See
fertilityand of war.
A

"

fertilizing
Mother

ANATHEMA.
A word
occurring in Gr. and
Lat., literally
meaning a thing set apart. (1) In
Gr, religionit signifieda gift of gratitude or of
a
propitiationto the deity,such as portions of the
similar.
The custom
to fasten such gifts
spoilsof war.
was
In cases
where direct observation
is impossible, to trees or pillars. From
that anathema
to
came
form
of reasoning from
some
designateGod's absolute property to be dealt with
analogy is almost
inevitable.
In the formation
of religiousideas
according to his justice. (2) In the Septuagint,
the New
Testament
and in later church historythe
analogy has played a largepart, the characteristics
of invisible reahties being determined
word
ferring
signifies"accursed," e.g., in I Cor. 16:22.
by transIn the R.C. discipline
the word is officially
used as
to the unseen
realm certain qualities
found
"

ANALOGY.
affirmations

A form

reasoning which makes

concerning an object on the basis of
other object more
less
or
comparison with some
"

of

of excommunication.
in the visible world.
Thus
the character of God
a formula
has been pictured after the analogy of an earthly
future
hfe
ANCESTOR
WORSHIP,"
is represented in
The rehgious placasovereign. The
tion of spirits
of deceased ancestors.
images drawn from present experience. The most
famous
instance in Protestant
The
belief in the survival of the immaterial
theology is Bishop
Butler's "Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed
almost universal at the earlier
seems
part of men
to the Constitution
and Course of Nature."
And
disembodied
since
stages of civiUzation.
The
have power
term
to work
logically spiritsmay
good or evil they
"analogy of faith" is used theoto indicate the principlethat all portions
feared and courted much
the divinities are.
are
as
of revealed truth ought to be consistent,and to
Various funeral ceremonies
be explained only
can
the ground that they are intended to prevent the
should
on
suggest that obscure
always be
passages
understood
in the light of fundamental
doctrines.
departed from infhctinginjury on those they have
In Roman
CathoUc
To conciliate the spirita littlehouse
theologythe unanimous
teaching left behind.
of the fathers of the church constitutes the standard
erected for him at the place where
sometimes
was
from which inferences may
he was
be derived by analogy,
was
buried, and the tombstone
originally
while Protestants
insist on
the unquestioned doctrines identical with the sacred stone in which a divinity
of Scriptureas the norm.
dwelt.
Offeringsof food and drink at the grave
The danger attending use of analogy is evident.
would nourish the spiritand secure
his favor,just
It should always be employed with caution, and
the sacrifices at the sanctuary secured the favor
as
of the divinity. No clear line can
be drawn
fore
theremust
always be estimated by or made to give way
to the results of direct observation.
the attitude of men
towards the spirits
between
and their attitude towards the gods.
Gerald
Smith
Birney
ANAPHORA."
that of the father
In
the
Greek
Among the spiritshowever
hturgies, the
most
hallowed
receive
special attention
part of the Eucharistic
service, of the family would
because he had been honored
includingthe kiss of peace, prayers and gifts.
during his lifetime.
also that his interest in
It was
natural to suppose
ANARCHISM."
The
would continue in the other world.
if
his descendants
theory that
men,
unfettered
Moreover
since the fine between
by external control, will obtain the
gods and men
it was
not sharply marked
was
largest development of their faculties and that
customary to assert
in fact divine.
In such
of voluntary groups
that the clan-ancestor was
society would be a network

17

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

a human
it,is impossibleto discover whether
descent
deified or
whether
been
has
ancestor
from an already existingdivinityhas been claimed
father is one
The worship of the common
by men.
the clan a unit.
Traces
of the bonds which make
of ancestor
worship are therefore found in almost
societies. Among the nations which
all patriarchal
it a prominent part of their rehgion we
have made
the Romans, the Egyptians and the
mention
may
In China
and Japan in fact it may
be
Chinese.
observed
Since the worship
at the present day.
be performed by a male
descendant
the
must
is emphasized in all
importance of having sons
societies where ancestor
worship is in vogue.
H. P. Smith
ANCHOR.
On accoimt
of its use in navigation,
See
6:19.
a
symbol for security, as in Heb.
Symbols.

cases

AND

ETHICS

Anglo-Catholic

faiths made

no
sharp distinction between
spiritsof varying gradations,but where
monotheistic
tendencies
became
operative the
deitywas differentiated from his associates,
supreme
who
to
the
subordinate
were
assigned
position of
this classification of superangels. Sometimes
natural
also apphed to the world of
was
powers
demons
(q.v.),thus giving rise to belief in both evil
and good angels.
In
Zoroastriunism
the supreme
god, Ahura
Mazda, surrounded himself with seven
good angehc
to assist in his benevolent
powers
designs,while
the prince of evil powers,
Ahriman, filledthe world

theisti

"

gods and

with his malevolent

agents.
In the earlier stages of Hebrew
religionangels
did not figureprominently, but during and subsequent

exile speculation regarding superhuman

subordinate
to Yahweh
underwent
a very pronounced development as
a result of contact
ANCHORET
ANCHORITE."
with
or
(From a Or.
Babylonia and Persia. Ezekiel's portrait
word
of the cherubim
meaning to withdraw). The
designation
(1:5-14; 10:1-8) is typical
of a class of early ascetics who withdrew
of this tendency within
from the
Judaism.
Later
Jewish
world holding that through isolation from its allurements
imagery,particularlyas it appears in the apocalyptic
the flesh and
the devil;
they overcame
writings,is rich in its display of angelic
with
hermit
The
and
Certain
hierarchies.
of
these
held
(q.v.).
caves
beings
synonymous
positions
tombs
of the deserts of Egypt and Syria afforded
of pre-eminence and received the name
of archangels.
seclusion for numbers
of anchorets.
Others
See Asceticism.
who were
supposed to have fallen from their
the demons,
high estate were assigneda placeamong
where
they were
punished with especialseverity.
ANDOVER
CONTROVERSY."
But those whom
A
term
dicating
inthis fate had overtaken
tively
relawere
the legal action brought 1888 ff.to secure
few in number.
The faithful stillconstituted
the dismissal of five professorson
the ground that
innumerable
an
heavenly host whose duties were
to assist God, particularly
in his deahngs with men.
they were
bodied
violatingthe theologicalprinciplesemin the charter of Andover
viduals,
They served as guardians of both nations and indiSeminary. The
without
formal
case
was
ultimately dismissed
they conveyed revelations and visions to
favored
decision. It is also used to indicate a controversy
sometimes
they were
persons,
agents of
about
the same
time
concerning the possibility punishment, and they interceded with God
on
of a
"second
behalf of the righteousor against the wicked.
probation" after death for those
who
had
had
The
in this hfetime
never
into
an
angelology of Judaism
passed over
tunity
opporthe gospel. The
to hear
officials of the
the Son of
to attend
Christianity.
Angels were
American
Board
of Commissioners
Man
at his appearing (Mark
for Foreign
8:38), they were
Missions (Congregational)objected to this doctrine
guardians of mortals (Matt. 18:10), they rejoiced
of the "larger hope," and sought to prevent the
the repentance of the wicked
over
(Luke 15:10),
missionaryappointment of anyone
they revealed the law to Moses
holding it.
(Gal. 3:19), and
Andover
constant
attendants upon the seer of the
seminary championed the Uberal view.
they were
Book of Revelation.
In later Christianity
tinued
they conANDREW
AND
to occupy
PHILIP, BROTHERHOOD
a positionof even
greater prominence
OF.
for which Judaism
An interdenominational
association of men,
furnished the precedent.
The
elaborate angelology of Mohammedanism
organized in 1888 in Reading, Pa., U.S.A., the sole
is also largelyJewish in character.
S. J. Case
object, according to the constitution,being the
of the kingdom of Christ among
It
men.
spreaa
ANGELUS."
emphasizes personal work, the two rules of membership
(1) A R.C. devotion in honor of
and service.
Each
the Annunciation
to the Virgin Mary, recited thrice
being prayer
chapter
is connected with a local church which the members
daily,at 6 a.m., 12 m., and 6 p.m.
(2) The ringing
in various
serve
rehgious and social capacities. of the bell in R.C. churches for the recitation of the
The order has extended
to many
countries.
devotion
of the same
of a
name.
(3) The name
famous
painting by J. F. Millet.
ANDREW
OF
CRETE."
Archbishop of Crete
in the 8th. century; famous
ANGER
OF GOD.
as
a
tion
Anger is a primitive emopreacher and
of hymns.
He is honored
associated with the instinct of
saint in
of resentment
as
a
composer
the Greek
church.
self-preservation.In the historyof rehgions,anger
is frequentlyattributed to God.
Primitive peoples
ANDREW
THE
APOSTLE."
One of the twelve
think of their gods as subject to anger and revenge
in naive
O.T.
apostlesof Jesus,and brother of Peter.
anthropomorphic fashion. The
writers freely referred to the anger
of Yahweh,
ANGEL
DANCERS."
A rehgioussect of Methodist
opposed his will. The N.T.
against those who
origin,founded in 1890 in New Jersey,so called
writers spoke of the wrath of God coming on those
from a dance of religious
Christian theology has regularly
who rejectChrist.
come
frenzypracticedto overthe devil.
against sin,
experiences anger
taught that God
but that His anger is not inconsistent with His love.
FRA."
Florentine
ANGELICO,
monk
and
See
painter, 1387-1455; renowned
in the history of
ANGLICAN
C H U R C H.
Enqi^nd,
Christian art.
Church
op.
to

the

powers

"

"

"

ANGELS."
is

known

to

The
term
ANGLO-CATHOLIC"
senger")
angel (Greek, "mesappUed to a class of superhuman beings to the established church
differentmonotheistic
rehgions. Polycatholicity.

Belonging to or relating
England which claims

of

Anglo-Israelism

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

ANGLO-ISRAELISM."
The
theory that the
Anglo-Saxon peoples,as found in the British empire
and
in the U.S.A., are
the descendants
of the
"lost ten tribes,"which
comprised the kingdom
of Israel. The modern
founded
movement
was
by
Richard

Brothers
about
the close of the 18th.
claims to have two milhon adherents
in the
The
nations.
two
hypothesis, though
to be impossible from
ingenious,has been shown
the standpoint of O.T. exegesisand anthropology.

century, and

AND

ETHICS

and itis probable that

from this idea.

one

18

form of sacrificedeveloped
II. P. Smith

ANIMATISM.
A modified form of animism
in
which plants,animals and other objects of nature
are
personifiedbut are not believed to possess
individual souls. Such beliefs are
panied
usually accomby magical practices,which
later
may
into a cult as the objectsare deified.
grow
"

ANIMISM.
(Latin anima, "soul") Behef in
spiritual
beings. This was the definition formulated
by Tylor, the anthropologist. He found the beUef
in different stages from the lowest tribes to high
modern
culture.
"Animism in its full development,
"

OF THE."
CONVERSION
ANGLO-SAXONS,
The Anglo-Saxons who
to England from the
came
continent were
devotees of Woden.
They ejected
the Celts who were
Christians,but did not accept
of Christianity
their reUgion. The
introduction
came
through the marriage of King Ethelbert
(560-616) to Bertha, a Frankish Christian princess.
in
The first serious effort for their conversion
was
596 when
Gregory the Great, who had become
interested in some
boys on the slave market, sent
Augustine of Canterbury at the head of a mission.
anity,
By Augustine's death Kent had accepted Christimade
in Essex.
Northand a beginning was
umbria
was
brought under Christian influence by
the marriage (625) of King Edwin
to a Christian
princess who took with her a missionary bishop.
Wessex
Christianized by missionaries of the
was
Northumbria
old Celtic church.
introduced the
new
rehgion to Mercia and Essex, and Kent took
Sussex was
it into East Angha.
won
through the
labors of Wilfrid of York between
681 and 686.
ANGRA

See Ahbiman.

MAINYU."

ANICETUS."
Pope, 154-165; bishop of Rome
when
Polycarp was
put to death; also said to
have been a martyr.
ANICONISM."
to the use

The
of

attitude effective in opposition

images in religiouscult.

ANIMAL
MAGNETISM."
ence,
SciIn
Christian^
"Animal
untary
magnetism is the voluntary or involaction of error
i;x all its forms; it is the
human
antipode of divine Science."
(Mary Baker
Eddy in Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures,
p.

484.)

WORSHIP
OF."
In what
call
we
ANIMALS,
the lower stages of civilization men
draw
a
very
faint hne of demarkation
between
gods, animals,
human
and
beings. Since the animals in many
manifest
cases
superior intelligence,
strength, or
are.
cunning,they are reverenced much as the spirits
of the clan in what is called
They become members
Totemisra
(q.v.) and the myths relate that an
animal
is ancestor
of the
Individual
group.
animals are provided with temples, are approached
with prayer
and offerings,
have priestsappointed
to wait upon
them, and are treated with funeral
honors when
dead.
celebrated of these
The most
divine animals
the bull Apis in Egypt, but
was
and various
Egypt also had sacred rams, crocodiles,
kinds of birds.
The
deification of serpents has
left traces in many
mythologies and is still a part
of African
advanced
religion. At a more
stage
of thought the gods receive human
form
but
reveal their originalanimal
incarnation
by having
animal associates
riding animals or pets, like the
eagle of Zeus or the owl of Athene.
Mythological
for this association by relating
theory accounted
that the divinitytook the animal form for purposes
of his own, like Zeus who became
a bull in order to
off Europa.
This
of course
the
reverses
carry
actual historical process.
Eating the flesh of the divine animal would be
of partaking of the divine power or grace,
one
way
"

includes

the

belief in souls and in a future state,

subordinate
spirits."
Two
of biological
groups
problems it is thought
influenced men
of low levels of culture to this belief.
One was
the difference between
a livingbody and
a
dead
and
the phenomena
one
of waking, sleep,
death.
The
other group
trance, disease,
sprang
from
questions concerning those human
shapes
in dreams
which appear
and visions. To every
thus
man
was
probably attributed a life and a
Both were
phantom.
regarded as separable from
the body, the life at death and the phantom
as
appearing to people at a distance. The ghostsoul was
the combination
of the life and
the
phantom and constituted the soul or spiritamong
primitivepeople. This spirit
Tylor defines as a ' 'thin,
unsubstantial human
image, in its nature a sort of
film or
shadow."
It was
the cause
of
vapour,
hfe in the individual,was
capable of leaving the
body and flashingswiftlyfrom place to place,continued
to exist after death, stillbearing the likeness
of the body and was
able to enter and act in the
bodies of other men
and animals.
Herbert Spencer held a similar view and regarded
animism
the core
of a variety of behefs and
as
customs, such as ancestor
worship, transmigration
of souls,witchcraft and other superstitions.
of
The
later students
tendency among
some
primitive rehgion is to limit the phenomena of
animism
but not to regard it as the
to early man
earliest stage. Thus
holds
Marett
to
a
very
tinction
disno
"pre-animistic"level,in which there was
between
the object and the spiritin it.
In this pre-animism awe
is felt for unusual
nomena
phesimply because
they are
unusual, not
because they are signs of ghosts or spirits.Thus,
ever
the Malagasy
"Whatever
is great, whatamong
exceeds the capacity of their understandings,
they designateby the one convenient and comprehensive
is
Whatever
appelation, andriamanitra.
and
and
is
useful
called
god."
new
extraordinary
Similarlythe bull-roarer excites awe for the natives
It posof AustraUa
by its noise and weirdness.
sesses
be called an
intrinsic source
of
what
may
the rightto be regarded with
awe, while in animism
is derivatory. That
is,in the latter case, it
awe
of a spirit. The phenomena
is due to the presence
that have to do with dream and trance, disease and
of animism, according
death, are the proper source
to Marett.
Other scholars,like Durkheim, regard animism
of historic interest
doctrine
which
is now
as
a
and
significanceonly and is identified especially
lated
with the work and period of Tylor who firstformuit. See Primitive
of.
Peoples, Religions
been used
animism
has sometimes
In philosophy
synonymously with the ancient doctrine of hylozoism and with the modern
conception of vitalism.
the term tends to become
But
exclusivelyemployed
possession
to designatethe primitivenotion of spirit
directed to
of sacred objects and the ceremonies
S. Ames
of such spirits. Edward
the placation

ia controUing deities and

"

19

ANNATES

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

first fruits or
The
ANNATS."
of a benefice,
paid to the pope,
Ages claimed by bishops also.

or

first year'srevenue
and in the Middle

AND

ETHICS

Anthropopathism

A February festival of the

ANTHESTERIA."
mony
originallya social cerereligionof Greece; it was
for the regulationof the underground souls
but later was
obscured
a primitiveAll-Souls' ritual
by absorption in the cult of Dionysius.
"

"

The
doctrine of the
wicked
or
impenitent
It arose
as a protest againstthe teaching
at death.
of the eternal punishment of the unregenerate.
in England vigorously defended
White
Edward
the doctrine in the last half of the 19th. century.

ANNIHILATIONISM."

complete extinction

of the

The oldest
OF."
SAINT, ORDERS
of St.
orders adopted the name
CathoUc
monasticism.
of
They
Anthony, the fomider
founded
at the time of the firstcrusade (1095were
1099) as the Hospitalers of St. Anthony. The
order was
for a time subject to the Benedictines.
From
1284-1774
independent. In 1774
they were
united with the Knights of Malta.
they were

ANTHONY,

Life.

See Future

SAINT."
The firstChristian monk
ANTHONY,
and father of monasticism; b. in Egypt about 250;
said to have lived 105 years.

of the
used
to
term
ANNUNCIATION."
(1) The
of the birth of Jesus
designate the announcement
(2) The
by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary.
festival celebrating this, occurring on
church
25th.

March

for

OF

ORDERS

ANNUNCIATION,

orders,three for

of five R.C.

name

women

The
THE."
and two

The appUcation of an unguent

ANOINTING.
for personal,social,medicinal, or
religioususe.
The use of oil or fat for anointing is universal and
of immemorial
antiquity; it was believed to be
for nullifying
efficacious both
personal evils of
of demons
sickness and the power
various kinds
virtue
and for conferringmysterious sacramental
the subjects of it. It has been employed in
on
consecratingsacred objectsas stones and temples,
and kings,as preparaas
prophets,priests,
tion
persons
for death
extreme
unction,and in completing
oil acquires its
the efficacy of baptism. The
ous
potency by originfrom animals possessingmysteriwith sacred objects,by
by contact
powers,
magical formulas,by blessingor later by prayer.
C. A. Beckwith
The strict Arian party in the
ANOMOIANS.
adhered
to the essential
Arian controversy, which
and
the
the Son
between
difference in essence
"

"

"

"

"

Father.

scription
THEOLOGICAL."
A deand characteristics of man.
In systematic theology anthropology is the
section containing the doctrines of man's
original
and its
the fall of man
creation and constitution,
between
the soul
and the relationship
consequences,
Traditional
and the body.
theology taught that
thus
created in the image of God and was
was
man
endowed
with
original righteousness. By the
rebelled against God,
exercise of his free will,man
thereby losing his originalrighteousness,and in
addition incurringphysical and moral disabiUties.
that
nature
made human
so
The sin of Adam
sinful,
born in a state of original
all his descendants
sin,
are
and
under divine condemnation
which placesthem
brings death as its penalty. Only through the
logians
Theobe saved.
exercise of divine grace can
man
have held divergent views as to just what
is included in the original"image of God," and
of Adam's
fall.
to the precise consequences
as
The originof the soul and its relation to the body

ANTHROPOLOGY,

of the nature

men.

See Arianism.

SAINT
(ca. 1033-1109)." Mediaeval
ANSELM,
archbishop of Canterbury. At
theologian and

twenty-seven,

he

entered

the

of

monastery

Bee

Normandy, three years later succeedingLanfranc

abbot and under
made
as
prior. In 1078 he was
seat of learning
the foremost
liisrule Bee became
consecrated archbishop
in Europe. In 1093 he was
of office being marked
of Canterbury, his tenure
Rufus over
property
by strugglewith King Wilham
investiture.
and privilegesand with Henry I. over
in

Anselm
the
canonized
in 1494.
was
of mediaeval
scholasticism,his attenapt
with
behef
Christian
consonant
being to make
He stated the ontological
argument (q.v.)
reason.
which affirms that the reaUty of God is involved in
In his greatest
the necessityof the concept of God.
Homo, he attempted a rational
work, Cur Deus
(q.v.)in terms of the
explanationof the atonement
prevalent feudalistic social structure, the death of
Christ,the God-man, being a satisfaction to the
for this uncomIn return
injuredhonor of God.
pelledsatisfaction God granted Christ the reward
of releasingthe believer from the penalty of sin.
He
was
founder

The
designation applied
livingbeings, human, lower animal or plant,
which existed priorto the flood ascribed to the time
ANTEDILUVIANS."

to

of Noah.

before civilization had conSee Fall

of
Man; Sin.
Gerald
Smith
Birney
The
ANTHROPOMORPHISM."
tendency to
to
functions
characteristics and
ascribe human
inevitable
As
an
forces of nature.
deities or
thinking,
of the limitations of human
consequence
his own
from
ence
experiuses
analogies drawn
man
natural forces. In
to describe the gods or

essential nature

ventionahzed

of

man

humanity.

development of reUgions,anthropomorphism
as a phase of nature-worship. In Christian
historythe Audians of the 4th. century furnished a
type of excessive anthropomorphism (q.v.) In
soften
modern
theology the attempt is made_to
the

appears

of anthropomorphism_bythe
cruder
forms
of abstract
philosophicterms, often_at the
and intimacy.
of rehgious warmth
expense

the

FATHERS."
ANTE-NICENE
Designation of
antedated
the Council of
the Church
Fathers who
Nicaea, a.d. 325. See Fathers, Church.
ANTERUS."
Bishop of Rome, from
to Jan. 236, honored
by the R.C. church

been
variously interpreted,pre-existence,
creationism,and traducianism (qq.v.) being the
tion
important theories. Recently the doctrine of evoluhas been influential in modifying the conception
of man's originand development, and the traditional
sin are disappearand of original
doctrines of Adam
ing
historical
critical theology. Inductive
from
and of his
of man,
nature
study of the psychological
religiousaptitudes is increasinglysupplying the
material for theology. The term "anthropology" is
cal
now
more
generallyappliedto that branch of historiwhich by a study of the remains of
investigation
such as bones, tools,habitations,
pre-historic
men,
of the habits of
etc., and by careful observation
extant
tribes,attempts to
primitive and savage
throw
lighton the originsof the race and on the
have

Nov.
as

235

Pope.

use

ANTHROPOPATHISM."
human
feelingsto
considered
by some

attribution of

The

the non-human
writers to be

environment;
a

factor in the

Anti-Christ

DICTIONARY

demons
development of ideas of spirits,
gods.

and

OF

RELIGION

nature-

ANTINOMIANISM."
A word coined by Luther
in his controversy with Agricola,designating the
doctrine that the gospel or faith does entirelyaway
with the old law, so that the Christian is in no
sense
subject to it. It originated as a protest
againstthe elevation of an external regulationof hf e

superior to inwardly inspired spiritualUving.

There are evidences of an antinomian

interpretation
of Paulinism in N.T. times (II Pet. 3 : 16). Certain
Gnostic sects interpretedtheir doctrine of the evil
ing
Durcharacter of matter
in an antinomian
way.
in England antinomian
the Civil War
teaching
The Antinomian
developed in such sects as the Ranters.
was
a
controversey of the Reformation
Johann
Agricola opposed
controversy in which
and Luther, the former claiming that
Melanchthon
the gospel and not the law is what
inspiresmen
of the more
obscure sects
to repentance.
In some
Antinomianism
has led to charges of immorality
and
sensuous
indulgence, e.g., Adamites, New

Manichaeans, Beghards,

etc.

of

opponent

ETHICS

20

Arianism,ApoUinarianism

physitism (qq.v.) an
Augustinianism, and

ANTI-CHRIST."
In Jewish and Christian religious
thought the chief opponent of the Christ and,
in consequence,
of the Kingdom
The
of God.
in the Jewish Apocalypses and
figurefirst appears
was
appropriated by early Christianity. He was
the same
not
as
a
Satan, but, though sometimes
historical character
often an
supernatural being, was
like some
Roman
Emperor who persecutedthe
church.
His downfall
of the first
to be one
was
results of the
Messianic
triumph. Until thus
possessedof
supernaturally defeated he seemed
and capable of withstanding
unconquerable power
temporarily the Christ.

as

AND

and Monoof freewill against

champion of historical

advocate
a

criticism.
ANTIPHON.
A song or chant, sung
responvoice or chorus alternating
with the other
the chorus answering the precentor.
"

one
sively,
or

ANTIPHONARY."

antiphons for
ANTIPOPE.
who
was

A
book
in the Roman

use

or

of

collection

liturgy.

A claimant
of the papal chair
elected canonically,and whose
claim
not officially
ties
recognized. The Catholic authori"

not

was

twenty-nine antipopes.

enumerate

ANTISEMITISM."
Antipathy to and persecution
of Jewish peoples by Aryans, whether
socially
called since the appearance
of a
or economically,so
pubhcation in Germany in 1880. Opposition to
Jews dates from pre-Christiantimes,the beginning
being the persecutionsunder Antiochus Epiphanes.
When
the Roman
Christian
an
empire became
attitude of opposition toward
Jews was
istic
characterof many
of the rulers and ecclesiastics,
and
of various
accused
crimes.
In many
they were
civihzed
countries
deprived of civil
they were
in France
rights,such disabilities being removed
in 1791, in Great Britain in 1830 and in Germany
in 1869.
The
modern
the
tendency to oppose
Jews has taken the form of massacres
in Russia
and of social and civic ostracism in Austria and
The
has been
marked
movement
Germany.
by
unjust accusations on the part of Anti-Semites and
sometimes
unreasonable
the
apologies on
part of
Jewish writers.

(qq.v.)

ANTINOMY.
clusions,
Mutually
contradictory conbe rationallyproved;
both of which
may
but which cannot
both be true.
introduced
Kant
the term into philosophy,showing how the attempt
to apply the categoriesof experience to transcendental
reality involves antinomis, and thus precludes
absolute demonstration.
"

ANTIOCH.
Cityin Asia Minor on the Orontes,
founded
by Seleucus Nicator about 300 B.C., which
became
the third largestcity in the Roman
empire.
first evangehzed, according to the N.T. by
It was
Jerusalem
later led by
and
was
fugitives from
Paul and Barnabas.
first
Here the behevers
were
called Christians (Acts 11 : 26). Christianityspread
rapidly,and Chrysostom estimated the Christian
population in his day at 100,000. It later was
so-caUed
Antiochian
the seat of the
school of

ANTITRINITARIANISM."
Opposition to, or
denial of,the doctrine of the trinity.
The doctrine of three persons
in the godhead has
irrational.
frequentlybeen so interpretedas to seem
the assumption that
on
Against such irrationality,
it inheres inevitablyin the doctrine of the trinity,
and
have
various men
protested. Most
groups
the Socinians, the
these are
important among
Deists,and the Unitarians.

"

theology (q.v.).
SYNOD
OF."
A
ANTIOCH,
synod
convened
in 341, and set forth an orthodox
but
of the
Most
deposed Athanasius.
dealt with ecclesiastical matters.
ANTIOCHIAN
or

SCHOOL."

which

creed,
canons

theologicalschool
tendency, represented by prominent teachers,
A

the center of whose influence was

The
at Antioch.
first noted scholar was
Lucian
(see Ltjcian the
historical treatment
an
Martyr) who advocated
of scripture as
opposed to Origen's allegorical
method.
Lucian's
Arius
followers were
Among
defenders
and
Eusebius
of Nicomedia, the
of
Arianism
(q.v.). Other
representatives of the
school, Eustathius, Diodorus, Chrysostom and
Theodore
of Mopsuestia were
opponents of the
doctrine.
Arian
Theodore
became
the
great
representative of Antiochan
theology, being an

ANTONINUS

PIUS."

Roman

138-

emperor,

161; under his pohcy of toleration the Christians

enjoyed a considerable respite from persecution;
during his reign the Gnostic controversy became
The Apology of Justin Martyr (q.v.)was
acute.
addressed
to him; possibly also that of Aristides.
heaven
ANU.
The
god of ancient
triad with
associated
in the supreme
Ea (qq.v.).
"

APATHY.
or

Stoicism

"

Indifference

or

passionate feeUng;
(q.v.).

Babylonia

insensibiUtyto
a

and

EnUl

tion
emo-

characteristic

of

APHRAATES."
A "Persian sage" who flourished
throughout the 4th. century; the first strong writer
attributed ten
of the Syrian church to whom
are
homihes.
of
LITERATURE."
A
APOCALYPTIC
group
endeavor
Christian
Jewish
and
writings which
of symbols and revelations
to set forth by the use
of his people from the oppression
God's dehverance
of their enemies, the certain triumph and joy of the
righteous,and the general conditions of life after
death.
of this literature were
Elements
probably derived
of early Semitic religious
from the general stream

21

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

however, to have developed

seems,
It does
the influence of Hellenistic culture.
in the Old Testament
not appear
except in such
as
Zech.,chapters 9 to 14, and the book
passages
This latter is commonly
of Daniel.
regarded as
the parent of the Uterature and sets forth God's
certain deliverance
of the Jews
from
the Syrian
thought. It

under

oppression.
Apocalypticism differs from prophetism in that
it purports to be written by men
long since dead,
and
it therefore
(pesudonymously) represents
in symbols. It does not
coming events indistinctly
attempt explicitmoral and rehgiousinterpretation
of current
history,and is therefore of an esoteric
character.
Its claim to acceptance hes in its symbolical
expositionof historyas seen in visions by its
authors.
It served
to express
the enmity and
hopes of persecuted groups without exposing them
to charges of disloyaltyto the government.
In a
it portrayed revolution
in the disguiseof
sense
for Christian
favorite medium
a
religion.It was
writers in the second
Christian
century. The
embodied
material
from
apocalypses doubtless
Jewish sources.
Unlike those however, they do not
look to political
revolution.
There
is no standardization
of symbol beyond
the conventional
separation of animals into those
that do harm, like wolves, and
those that are
like sheep. The
former, together
serviceable,
with birds of prey, are symbols of the oppressors,
and the latter are symbols of the saints. The visions
are
usuallyattributed to angelsor to the "unveiling"
of the divine plans to the author who
represents
himself as having been caught up into heaven, there
to be given superhuman
knowledge of the future.
The
imagination of the writers was
strained
quiteunreand the literature as a whole is confused
and, with the exceptionof certain writingshke the
Apocalypse of Baruch and the canonical Apocalypse
of John, is without hterarydistinction.
See EschaBook
Enoch.
op
tology;
The
have
chief Apocalyptic writings which
been preserved to us outside the Bible are:
The
Shepherd of Hernias (about 125 a.d.);the Book of
Enoch
(100 B.C.-64 B.C.); the Slavonic Secrets of
Enoch
of Jubilees (about
(4 B.C.-70 a.d.); Book
100 B.C.); the Assumption of Moses (about 100 b.c.);
the Testament
of the Twelve
Patriarchs
(before
200 A.D.); the Ascension of Isaiah (about 200 a.d.);
the Apocalypse of Ezra
(about 70 a.d.); the
(50-100 a.d.); the Sibylline
Apocalypse of Baruch
Oracles (infinal form about 150 a.d.).
Shailer
Mathews
APOCRYPHA.
A term
apphed to a group of
religious
writingsof the Hebrews
which, while not
regarded by the Jews as being fullyinspired,were
yet held in high esteem.
These works are ascribed in many
to well
cases
known characters in Hebrew
history. They were
literature written
in the
part of a considerable
centuries immediately before or after Christ, and
served to supplement the history and teaching of
the Old Testament.
They were
incorporatedin the
Septuagint and later in the Old Latin and the
Vulgate editions of the Scripture. The Council
of Trent (1546) recognizedas canonical the following:
I and
II Maccabees; Additions
to Esther;
History of Suzanna; Song of the Three
Holy
Children; Bel and the Dragon; Tobit; Judith;
of Jesus,
Apocalypse of Baruch; the Wisdom
the son
of Sirach, or
dom
Ecclesiasticus;the Wisof Solomon; but omitted
1st and 2nd
Ezras
(3rd and 4th in the Vulgate) and the Prayer of
^

"

Manasses.
These
used
by

eleven are
included
in the Bible
now
the Roman
CathoUc
church.
In
the
Protestant editions of the Bible all fourteen are

AND

ETHICS

ApoUinaris of Laodicea

sometimes
included as a separate group between the
Old Testament
and
the New
Testament.
They

however^not

regarded as possessed of the

the
canonical
books.
authority as
See
Canon.
The Anghcan church uses
the ApocrjTjha
are,
same

in its lessons for edification but does not treat them

as
possessedof the same
authorityas the canonical
books.
the
Of
Apocrypha the most
important are
Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom
of Solomon
among
the religious
the
writings; 1st Maccabees
among
historical. The
other material
is mostly of the
character
of haggadoth or
stories organized for
homiletic purposes.
In the New
Testament
church there grew
up a
the
very extensive literature which dealt with much
same
subjectsas those treated by the books which
Testament
gradually were
shaped into the New
See Canon.
These books, however, never
canon.
have gained anything like the respect accorded
to
the Apocrypha of the Old Testament.
The term
"
"
is sometimes
Apocrypha of the New Testament
applied to them, but such use of the term is hardly
and may
to give a false impression
justifiable
serve
that there was
of the New
a sort of second
canon
Testament, correspondingto the Apocrypha of the
Old.
This apocryphal material of the New
Tes("Bment
followed the same
general classes as the New
Testament.
Thus we have (1) the various Gospels
(ofPilate,of the Hebrews, Egyptians,Peter,James,
Thomas, Arabic Gospel of the Childhood, of Joseph
the Carpenter, of Jesus, Philip, of the Twelve
others known
Apostles,togetherwith fifteen or more
to us
only in fragments and mostly written to
estabhsh
heretical doctrine);(2) the Acts
some
(ofPaul and Thekla); (3) the Epistles(of Paul to
the Laodiceans
and the Corinthians); (4) Apocalypses
(the most important being the Apocalypse
of Peter); (5) Teachings (of Peter and of Paul).
A vast hterature of the same
general nature as the
books of the New
Testament
canon
appearedduring
the first four Christian centuries.
Shailer
Mathews
the
APOCTASTASIS."
A term
derived
from
Gr. of Acts 3:21, meaning the final "restitution
of all things." The
is used as a basis for
verse
belief in the ultimate
universalityof salvation.
Sin is explained as ignorance or delinquency, and
has
correction.
The
doctrine
punishment as
found its chief exponents in Clement
of Alexandria,
Origen, Gregory of Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa,
of
Confessor
Maximus
and Scotus
Erigena, some
the mystics of the Middle
Ages, certain sections of
the Anabaptists,18th. century German
rationalists,
denomination.
and
in the modern
Universalist
and orthodox
It has been opposed by the R.C. Church
Protestantism.
trine
docThe Christological
taught by ApoUinaris the Younger, bishop of

APOLLINARIANISM."

said
He
Laodicea.
hved
about
He
310-390.
ideal humanity
that it is impossible to combine
and perfect deity in one
personahty, and hence
denied
the complete humanity of Christ, saying
that the Logos took the placeof the rational human
soul in the historic Jesus.
ApoUinarianismwas
condemned
by several local councils,and finally
council
of Constantinople,
by the ecumenical381 a.d.
of
The name
APOLLINARIS
OF LAODICEA."
father and son, both of whom
taught
men,
rhetoric in Laodicea.
ApoUinaris the Younger
who hved about 310-390 was
a friend of Athanasius
of
and a great theologian and writer, but most
his peculiar
lost. For
been
his writings have
views see Apollinarianism.
Christological
two

Apollonius of Tyana

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

APOLLONIUS

A Neo-PythagoOF
TYANA."
philosopher and rehgious reformer of Tyana
in Cappadocia, whose
hfe approximately spanned
rean

the first Christian

ascetic and
was

century.

In

manner

of life he

vegetarian, wandering through

lands, teaching and

being taught. He
many
studied medicine
and his biographer,Philostratus,
credits him
with miraculous
heahngs. Probably
He
he possessed psychotherapeutic power.
shipped
worin
moral
reform
and advocated
the sun
social customs.
His miracles and teaching have
been compared by Hierocles (305 a.d.)and Voltaire
with those of Christ with whom
he was
neous.
contemporadivine
been accorded
He
to have
seems
honors during the first three Christian centuries.

of

an

sense.

AND

ETHICS

22

appeal to supernaturalrevelation in a distinct

is thus adapted to a monistic
Christianity

world- view.
Stress is laid on
reasonableness
of
rather than
content
miraculousness
of origin.
on
Conservative
often feel that this may
theologians
involve a betrayal of essential Christianity
rather
than its defense.
4. The vindication of Christianity
in the lightof
historical criticism. Modern
critical examination
of
the sources
and
the history of Christianityhas
shown
that biblical behefs are
conditioned,
historically
and that Christianity
is constantly in the
of development. The
idea of a static
process
for all
religion authoritativelyorganized once
to the conception of a growing and
gives way
"

changing rehgion.
To meet
this situation,two
distinct types of
A
systematic defense of
modern
apologeticexist. The one seeks to conserve
Christianity
against all important objections.
the authenticityand supernaturalauthority of the
Apologeticsdefends the content of faith rather
Bible in the face of criticism,
than expounds the full rehgiousimport of doctrines.
sometimes, however,
luteness distinctly
An ideallyperfectdefense would estabhsh the absomodifying traditional conceptions. The
and conclusions,
of Christianity;but an apologistusually other type accepts critical methods
is seeking to give to Christian behefs a positive and exhibits the vital function of Christianity
in
the historyof which it is a part, so as to show its
ing
place in the culture dominating the age.
By relatChristian doctrines to accepted philosophical
or
indispensable contribution to the welfare and
scientific theories,
of humanity.
The first type makes
more
apologeticsprepares the way for
progress
the positiveuse of such theories in the construction
sweeping claims,but frequentlyfails to apprehend
the full import of historical criticism.
of theology. The
trine
The second
development of Christian docdominated
tions.
is largely
by apologeticconsideratype is calculated to win the approval of critical
what
Apologetics thus not only defends existing minds, but the conclusions reached have a somein
tentative character not conducive
to dogmatic
behefs,but also aids a developingChristianity
its task of leaveningand interpretingculture.
assurance.
1. The
Great
Christian
Apologetics
II. The Problems
Modern
Apologetics.
of
in
1. The
History.
defense of early Christianity Any defense of Christianitymust
give primary
The
consideration to the doctrines
which
occasion
stantly
against Judaism.
earlyChristians were conrepresentation.
compelled to argue against skepticalmisImportant examples of such doctrines
difficulty.
The
of Evil,the
the Existence of God, the Problem
written
as
a
are
Gospels were
historical argument
for the divine power
and prerogativeSupernatural,the Divinity of Christ,and the Life
of Jesus.
The
christology of the early after Death.
church Was
In deahng with the difficulties which
arise in
shaped under the pressure of apologetic
ing
is a strikconnection
with
these doctrines,modern
necessity. The Epistle to the Hebrews
getics
apolomust
example of earlyapologetics.
giveespecialattention to certain aspects
2. The vindication of Christianity
of modern
in the Grecothinking in order to satisfyinquiring
Roman
minds.
three of these may
be mentioned.
Two
or
Empire. Persecution of Christians by the
Roman
and popular prejudiceagainst
1. Justice
be done
science.
must
to modern
government
them
called forth defensive
Justin
On the one
statements.
hand, the assured results of scientific
be frankly recognized, even
Martyr and other Apologists (q.v.)of the 2nd.
investigationmust
if such recognitioninvolves a revision of doctrine.
tians,
century vindicated the purity of the hves of Chrisand
in addition
commend
of science must
undertook
On the other hand, the hmitations
to
anti-rehgious dogmatism
Christianityas the absolutely true philosophy. be understood, and
Origen (q.v.) in the 3rd. century elaborated a
masquerading under scientific garb must be exposed.
Christian
In general,it may
be said that science is a foe to
philosophy consciously
superior to any
non-Christian
unwarranted
system.
Augustine (q.v.)produced
pretensions of theology rather than
the most
elaborate apologetic
ful
fruitwork conditioned
to the verifiablefacts of Christianity. The
by
Greco-Roman
culture in his City of God, which
investigationsof recent years in the fields of
nish
of history so as to
interpretedthe entire course
psychology of rehgion and history of religionfurshow the culmination
in the
material for a scientifically
of the divine purpose
much
satisfactory
over
triumph of Cathohc
paganism.
Christianity
apologetic.
3. The
rational vindication
2. A new
interpretationof the supernatural is
of Christianity.
After
western
of the tension between
civilization became
some
theology and
nominally
relieving
the main task of apologeticswas
critical science.
to
Christianized,
Rehgious experience is psychologically
establish harmonious
behefs are historicaUy
Christian
relations between
natural,and religious
doctrines
and
rational
to be natural
was
thinking.
seen
products of human
philosophy. This
undertaken
in the natural as
is found
of God
The
elaborate scale by the represenan
on
tatives
presence
of Scholasticism
positivelyas in the supernatural. Rehgiously an
(q.v.). Revealed doctrine
rather
shown
for its spiritualcontent
to be a necessary
is valuable
was
event
supplement to natural
is a
This type of apologetichas been continued
than
for its metaphysical origin. There
reason.
in both Cathohcism
and Protestantism
to this day.
general tendency to regard miracles as unusual
such
violation of
It seeks to retain unimpaired the appeal to an
events
exphcable without
any
scientific protest.
authoritative revelation.
natural
would
tant
ProtesThe best known
laws as
arouse
rather than on
treatise of this kind is Bishop Butler's famous
Stress is laid on
spiritualcontent
theories of origin. The Bible is vindicated by the
Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed to the
rather than
Constitution and Course of Nature
(1736).
God-reveahng quahty of its message
In the
19th. century, Schleiermacher
composition. The
(q.v.) by a theory of miraculous
of his
the power
and Hegel (q.v.),followed by numerous
of Jesus is based
on
scholars, supremacy
tian
of Chrislife to compel worshipful adoration rather than on
a completely rational interpretation
gave
thus virtually
origin. There is a growing
a doctrine of physical
doctrines,
ehminatingthe need
APOLOGETICS."

"

"

"

"

"

23

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

ApostolicCanons

theology recognizes only the apostasy of faith.

regarded apostasy
early Christian emperors
criminal act, involving civil disabilities. In
a
as
unity.
3. The
primary emphasis in apologetics is
post-Roman times apostates have been dealt with
moral
being the
being laid on
questions. Is Christianity by ecclesiastical law, excommunication
demands
of modern
usual punishment.
adequate to the enormous
social
and
industrial
full
development? The
An
official of the early church
of Christianityin this respect has not
APOSTLE."
significance
Christian apologistsare bringing
yet been reahzed.
appointed and "sent forth" by Christ to be an
with power
to work
of Christian ideaUsm, showing
to lightthe resources
eyewitness to his resurrection,
that Christianity
is superior not
only to other
miracles,make converts, and organize churches.
ethical programs,
but also to the currentlyaccepted
The word
was
applied originallyto the Twelve
standards
of nominally Christian
chosen
Paul,
by Jesus to be his messengers.
people. The
basis as
here is not so much
to vindicate the ideals
difficulty
however, claimed apostleshipon the same
of Jesus as to prove
that modern
it was
claimed by the Twelve, although his position
Christianityhas
the will and the power
to embody
in life.
rested in appointment by the risen Christ and
them
In conclusion,it should be said that while the
been universallyacknowledged
not to have
seems
This more
in the non-PauUne
churches.
apologeticof our day with its critical understanding
general
in the
of current
social
of the term seems
to have been extended
use
scientific,
philosophical, and
ideals is inevitably somewhat
New
Testament
disturbing to those
period to such persons as Matthias,
who wish a complacent faith,this very disturbance
the
Barnabas, and others who
apparently met
of conventional
attitudes is stimulating a more
ship
requirements of the title. Paul holds that apostleserious study of Christianityand is contributing
the offices of the church
was
primary among
to the vitaUzing of its doctrines and its ethics.
and was
the result of a charism.
Gerald
Smith
The preciserelationshipof the apostlesto the
Birney
churches
APOLOGIST."
which
be best seen
can
(1) One who writes in defense
they founded
of Christianity. (2) A designation of certain of
at
through the letters of Paul to the churches
the Fathers of the church in the 2nd. century, chief
Corinth
and Phihppi. Their duties seem
to have
whom
Justin Martyr, Aristides,
were
Melito, been largelythose of oversightand generaldirection,
among
and the author of the Epistle to Diognetus. See
rather than that of authoritative
interference in
reluctance to draw a sharp line between
the natural
and the supernatural. The world is regarded as a

Apologists.

APOLOGISTS."
This word is usuallyemployed
in a special sense
to designate certain
Christian
leaders of the 2nd. century who
wrote
various
treatises in defense of their religion. The
earUest
of the group
addressed
was
an
Quadratus, who
Hadrian
about
at Athens
apology to the emperor
the year
Another
defensive
125
treatise
a.d.
from the pen of Aristides,
Christian philosopher
a
of Athens, seems
been
written
to have
shortly
before 150 a.d.
At Rome
Christianityfound a
vigorous champion in Justin, frequently called
Justin Martyr, whose
be
literaryactivity may
to
150
165 a.d.
roughly assigned to the years
His so-called First Apology made
behalf
of
on
to the Roman
and his Dialogue
Christianity
emperor
with Trypho defending the new
religionagainst
Jewish critics are
His
especiallyworthy of note.
the
to
pupil, Tatian, also addressed an Oration
Greeks
allegingthe superior truth and antiquity
of Christianity
all Greek
culture.
Athenaover
perhaps was
an
Athenian, directed an
goras, who
Marcus
Aurelius and Comappeal to the emperors
rnodus
probably in the year 177 a.d.
During the
ninth
decade
of the 2nd. century Theophilus of
Antioch
behalf
composed a vigorous apolgy on
of Christians in three books addressed to a heathen
called Autolychus. Minucius
temporary
conFelix,a Roman
of Theophilus, set forth the superior
merits of Christianity
in a work modeled
after the
quent
Subsedialogueform of Cicero's De natura deorum.
writers
such
Irenaeus
and
Tertullian
as
are
but they
apologeticin their interests,
similarly
not usuallyclassed in this group.
are
See Apologetics.
S. J. Case

The

church
to
affairs. At the same
time Paul seems
have beUeved
that he had power
to act in questions
of discipline
wherever
faith itself was
not involved.
sador
The fact that the apostleas a witnessingambaswas

or

the renunciation of faith under pressure

of persecution.
The R.C. church recognizestwo specialsorts
of apostasy:
of the monastic
(a) abandonment
life without
of
permission; and (6) abandonment
clerical orders
in the
Protestant
same
way.

to

APOSTOLIC
AGE."
The
designation of that
period of the history of the Christian religion
beginning with the death of Christ and ending with
of
the close of the 1st. century.
The
sources
information
Testament
for the period are the New
writings(exceptingII Peter and Jude), and certain
extant
non-canonical
writings written about the
close of the period but reflecting
its conditions,as
of Barnabas, Clement
e.g., the Didache, the epistles
of Rome, and Ignatius. For the functions of the
officers of

the period see

Apostle;
Bishop; Presbyter; Pastor; Deacon.

APOSTASY."
defection
(1) In Greek literature,
from a miUtary officer. (2) Hence
used in Christian
of the faith,
terminology for the abandonment
disobedience to the recognizedauthority. Sometimes
it took the form of heresy (q.v.); sometimes

constantlytravelingapparently seems

have resulted in the 2nd. centuryin the apphcation

of the name
apostleto a group of itinerant preachers,
the preciseduties of whom
not clearlyknown,
are
but whose status is sketched in The Teachingsof the
Twelve Apostles.
The Cathohc
churches teach that there has been
of bishops to whom
and through whom
a succession
transmitted
were
by the laying on of hands the
and authority of the early apostles which
power
of the
give sole vahdity to the administration
sacraments.
See Apostolic
Succession.
Shailer
Mathews
APOSTLES'
CREED."
shortest and the
The
best known
of the creeds, dating in its official
form from about 500 a.d., but traceable in variant
phrasing back to the so-called Roman
Symbol
in the 2nd. century. The
tradition of apostolic
be traced back of the 4th. century.
origincannot
See Crhbds
and Articles
op Faith.

APOSTOLIC

BRETHREN."

An

Prophet;

ics
order of ascet-

They
arising in northern Italy about 1260.
purported to five in apostolicpurity, emphasized
held
to
apocalyptic ideas. They
poverty and
into conflict with the church and were
forcibly
came
suppressed.

of

APOSTOLIC
the 4th.

CANONS."

century of unknown

Christian

writing
authorship. It

Apostolic Church

OF

DICTIONARY

reproduces the catechetical teaching preservedin

the Didache
(q.v.)and also reproducesthe ApostoUc
Constitutions (q.v.). It contains also decrees of
various
synods and
councils, notably that of
Antioch
The
341.
number
85.
They
canons
include a list of O.T. and N.T. books, but omit
Revelation

and

add

I and

II

Clement

and

the

ApostoUc Constitutions.
A
APOSTOLIC
DIRECTORY."
CHURCH
work
purporting to be of apostolic origin, but
coming from Egypt and dating from about the
3rd. century.
It contains
legal precepts, both
ethical and ecclesiastical.
APOSTOLIC
A collection
CONSTITUTIONS."
of church
teachings and decrees dating from the
3rd. century but attributed to Clement
of Rome.
They are arranged in eight books and are 85 in
number.
Although not widely accepted they have
historical
had a considerable
influence and
have
value because preservinga pictureof the Christian
life in the 3rd. century.
They draw largely on
the Didache
(q.v.),and
(q.v.),the Didascalia
Hippolytus of Rome.
APOSTOLIC
DELEGATE."
the Roman
curia,delegatedas

of
A representative
presidentof a national
in
or provincial
council,or having papal jurisdiction
ecclesiastical. Called also papal delegate.
matters
See Legate.
APOSTOLIC
church who were

Writers of the early

with the apostles
term
of Rome, Barnabas,
a
applied to Clement
Hermas, Ignatius,Polycarp and Papias.

FATHERS."

contemporaneous

"

APOSTOLIC
SEE."
A church
founded by an
apostle and thus claiming apostoUc authority;
used to designatethe Church
of Rome, and formerly
used of the churches at Antioch,Ephesus, Alexandria
and

Jerusalem.

APOSTOLIC
SUCCESSION."
The
doctrine
the uninterrupted line of succession
in the
episcopacy from the apostlesto the present. The
doctrine is maintained
by the Roman, Greek and
Anglican churches, the former two and the High
Anglican church
counting it essential to the
vahdity of the ministry. See Order, Holy.
of

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

24

of appetite.
exaggerated protest against the power
Antinomianism
(q.v.)is an exaggerated neglect of
their influence.

See Ethics.

APSE.
semicircular
or
(1) Architecturally,
a
semioctagonal enclosure,with a domed
covering,
which
the aisles or
choir of
usually terminated
ancient basilicas,
and which
contained
the altar
and
the bishop's seat.
the
(2) Ecclesiastically,
end of the church containing the altar,no
eastern
"

matter

what

the architectural

form

may

be.

ST. THOMAS
(1227-74)." Count of
of Monte
by the Benedictines
Dominican
in Naples (1243),
a
studied
with
Albertus
in Cologne and
Magnus
Paris and
himself
became
teacher
dominant
a
(Cologne 1248, Paris 1252, Italy 1261, Paris 1269,
Naples 1271). Blending church dogma with the
AristoteUan
science newly brought from
Spain,
Aquinas was
opposed as a "modernist," but his
cans
profound theology became
obhgatory for Dominiand Jesuits and in 1879 was
for
made normative
the Church.
Prolific with commentaries
ture
Scripon
and Aristotle,
he furnished encyclopedic constructions
of aU knowledge in harmony with dogma
in his Summa
Catholicae fideicontra Gentiles (after
1261) and the Summa
Theologiae (after 1265).
mental
fundaNatural
he argues,
demonstrates
reason,
man's
like God's
and
truths
existence
ethical duty, but requires to complete and
fect
pertruth the revelation of Trinity, Incarnation,
these
Sacraments, Eschatology. Dealing with
cannot
higher truths, reason
give demonstration
but can
be persuasive by showing the absence of
contradiction.
Aquinas broke with Augustinian
intellectualism
tradition and
restored the Greek
which gave primacy to the intellect. By his social
ethics he retains a modern
interest. He views the
which is due to a social instinct
state
sary
as a necescompletion in
stage of Hfe leading to its own
the church, the realm of grace.
F. A. Christie

AQUINAS,

Aquino, educated
Cassino, became

"

ARABIA,

"

RELIGIONS

OF."

in extent, too

Arabia

variegatedin character
unit.
lastingreligious

to

is too

vast

produce
informed.

well
not
For ancient times we
are
Our earliest sources
South Arabic inscriptions.
are
is published,
Of these a fair number
more
many
of those
stiU unpubUshed.
The interpretation
are
serious differenceshas given rise to many
at hand
APOTHEOSIS."
Deification:
the practise of
of opinion. They exhibit in general a fairlyhigh
state of culture and
to the rank
exaltingrulers,heroes, or conquerors
religion. Most of them are
number
of gods
of gods, and offeringto them
divine honors, e.g..
a
rehgious in character and name
but do not present a system
in various capacities,
Emperor-worship (q.v.).
of reUgion. The features exhibited are not unlike
APOTROPAISM."
A technique of riddance for
those of other Semitic religions
(q.v.)in a similarly
deities are
of civihzation.
The
state
averting or overcoming evil. Among
primitive advanced
peoples apotropaic ceremonies are those m which
( Ishtar, the planet
largely astral. 'Athtar
under various
unites to exorcize demons
the group
by such pracVenus) is masculine, as is the moon
tises
as
or
beating, carting away,
Shams, the sun, is a goddess. El occurs
boating away,
names;
Incense and
shedding the blood of a victim, as in the case of
frequently,mostly in proper names.
Azazel (cf.Lev. 16th chapter).
its use in the cult has its home, probably its origin,
in South Arabia.
tus
APPETITE.
The native sense
of need in the
For North Arabic peoples we have from Herodoscattered
and
physical organism, expressed in a craving for
(111:8) down
fragmentary
Nowhere
does their religionappear
the satisfaction of corporeal wants
ing
information.
and stimulatbest
effort to procure
satisfaction.
primitive. At
only fragmentary
Appetites are
whoUy
directed either toward
remnants
of rudimentary totemistic,animistic,
as
self-preservation
hunger,
discernible,but no
etc., concepts are
thirst,etc., or toward propagation of the species fetishistic,
other ism.
sexual desire.
clear-cut system or phase of totemism
or
as
Appetites are in themselves nonCrude
rites are
found, worship of stones, trees;
moral, but their connection with pleasureand pain
givesthem ethical significance.Where the behavior
repugnant forms of sacrifice (human; animal by
of a person
is dominated
by appetites the person
drinking the blood and consuming, raw and fresh,
unsocial and
hence
becomes
immoral.
possibleshred). Progress is observable,e.g.,
Morality
every
in rites of affiliation or treaty: contractingparties
involves control of appetitesin subordination
to a
actually lick each other's blood; mingle it on
approved end. Asceticism (q.v.)is an
rationally
=

"

25

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Aram

and in the
set up as symbols, crude altars,
thinking in the Mohammedan
or mementos;
mediaeval
world generally.The mediaeval
world
substitute animal
blood; dip fingerstogether,in
all such rites disappear. The
scented water; finally
was
a
theologicalworld, very different from the
morning star is,as in the south,first a male deity, antique world of Aristotle. The problems of its
thinkers are not the main problems of Aristotle and
later under foreigninfluence a goddess, al-'Uzzah.
the Greeks.
They are theologicalproblems, the
By 600 A.D. the cult of a number of gods is stillahve.
especiallyin festivals connected with fairs and a
problem of creation,the problem of the attributes
of God, the problem of free will. These
"truce of God," shrewdly developed by the miUionwere
formulated
aires of Mecca.
The
are
by the Mu'tazilites late
gods themselves
given
scientifically
little thought or reverence;
there is no
theology in the 8th. and early in the 9th. century. These
Mu'tazilites
introduced
into
favored
the use
of reason
worth
for the more
the najne.
Even
thinking,instead of the mere
ance
acceptgoddesses, AUat
("the goddess," fem. of Allah) Mohammedan
and
of revelational
traditional
and Manat, old worshipersfear after their
formulae;
al-'Uzzah,
death desuetude.
they are the rationaUsts (but not freethinkers)of
shadowy, has
Allah, somewhat
minds
no
a
cult,but enjoys in many
curious,ill- Islam; with them begins the history of Arabic or
defined supremacy.
Mohammedan
problems thus
philosophy. The
formulated
the
the polytheistic
the problems that
This
that
are
means
stage for
engross
well
above
Arabia
is passing. Judaism
and Christianityare
as
"philosophers"par excellence named
the theologians; it is for the solution of these,
as
penetrating the peninsulafrom the north and from
the South.
Arabia creates
Then
with Mohammed
not for mere
historic or abstract scientific interest,
that the Arabs
handle
of monotheism
suitable for itself and
him,
a form
more
go to Aristotle and
for a large part of Asia and Africa (see Mohammedanism)
reverentlyindeed,but with sovereignmastery; the
scheme
of the writingsof these phiand thrusts out the older forms.
losophers
or framework
is constructed wholly upon these problems.
PresentlyArabia is again divided againstitself.
From
this largerpoint of view Arabic philosophy
Karmatian
Kharigiterebels seize and hold Oman.
is not a mere
schismatics overspread Bahrein, the Yemen, and
chapter in the historyof Aristotelianfor a space hold Mecca.
ism, but a large section,perhaps the foremost
ing
Now, to the joyof expandsection in that chapter of human
the
thought, wherein
straightlaced Wahhabite
Christianity,
orthodoxyof the Nejd, the Shi^te-colored South, it wrestles with the problems of monotheism, with
the conception and understanding of a world given
and the Hidjaz and Mecca, Sunnite with cosmopolitan
for it by that monotheistic
to it, constructed
nondescriptadmixtures,are fightingeach other.
revealed religionwhich
is the chief characteristic
M. Sprenglinq
ARABIC
PHILOSOPHY."
The
thought throughout Europe and
philosophical of mediaeval
Western
endeavor of the mediaeval
Asia.
Near East,Mohanunedan
Beginning with the Mu'tazihtes,it
of the "phiin its world- view and Arabic in its language. In its
losophers"
develops in the divergent currents
and the kaldm theology of the Ash'arites,
selves,
narrowest
sense, as used by writers in Arabic themand finds its apex in the genialGhazalt (1058-1111),
the name
philosopheris appliedto those men
only who expounded Greek philosophy,especially only to settle back to the broad level of orthodox
it
all its limitations
Ash'arite
Aristotle with a neoplatonicvarnish.
theology. With
of the
in the formulation
half dozen names
An even
of outstanding "philosophers"
goes beyond the Greeks
of this type are stressed,
and
in manuals
hauer)
problemof causation (where it foreshadows Schopenand in Ghazalis keen critiqueof the function
articles under
the heading Arabic
Arabian
or
brain (which
of sense
of
Three
perceptionand of the human
Philosophy or Philosophy of Islam.
and
is nearer
to Hume
Kant
than
these are of the Eastern half of the Moslem
world:
anything in
themselves). Nor would
Europe before these men
al-Kindt,the only pure Arab of the lot (ca.850),at
of Arabic
statement
or
near
philosophy be complete
Bagdad; al-Farabt,died at Aleppo 950;
any
without
mention
of Ibn Khaldun
and Ibn Stna, 980-1037.
The other trio is of the
(1332-1406) and
his philosophy of history,which prefiguresmodern
West, Spain and North Africa: Ibn Bajja, died
hammedan
1138 at Fez in Morocco; Ibn Tufail, a sort of
evolutionary thought.--Sufism, (q.v.) i.e.,MoJean Jacques Rousseau
of mediaeval
mysticism demands
separate treatment.
Islam, died
M. Sphbnglikg
1185 at Morocco; and finallyIbn Rushd, born
of
dismal
under-world
abode
ARALU.
The
Five of
1126 in Cordova, died 1198 at Morocco.
stones

sophica

"

the dead in ancient Babylonia.

well known
in Europe in late mediaeval
times; the latinized forms of their names
(Alkindius
GUAGE.
LANARAMAIC
Alfarabius,Avicenna, Avempace, Averroes),better
ARAMAEANS,
ARAM,
known
Occidentals even
Aram
is the name
of a people,not of a
to most
today than their
hint of the profound influenceplace. Where
originalforms, give some
applied to a localityit is usually
of the
they exerted on the thought of the Schoolmen
joinedto a place name, Aram of Damascus
Had Arabic philosophydone nothing more
etc.
than to
two rivers,
documents
in written
Their language appears
and a few others to mediaeval
give through these men
from the 8th. century b.c. on.
It is their language,
more
Europe a much
complete Aristotle than
it had, it would
still deserve to be held by us in
which marks them as one of the great groups
chiefly,
The
drawbacks
of a threefold
of Semitic peoples which, as far as history reaches,
gratefulmemory.
Greek
to Syriac to Arabic
to Latin,
are
translation,
pressing outward from desert Arabia toward
through which it had to pass before reachingEurope, the surroundingfertile lands. Of the great layers
offset by the fact that the selection of material
are
or
they are the third,being preceded by
groups
and the manner
of presentationwere
better adapted
the Assyro-Babylonians and the Amorites
(Canaanto mediaeval
ites). The fourth great layer are the Arabs, who
understanding in the Mediterranean
world than the originalwould
have been.
hold the field to the present.
This latter consideration
in the nomad
should give pause
to
The home of the Aramaeans
stage,
those who would make
all Arabic philosophy but a
just before they appear in historical notices,is the
passing phase in the history of AristoteUanism.
haps
Syrian desert. Thenoe, as early as 2000 B.C., perThis view, for long and until recentlyvery generally
and farmers
earher, they trouble merchants
held, is too narrow
and
unfair to retain a
the lower Euphrates. Pushed
too
by difficulties
on
world's thought.
within and behind their land they drift and press
permanent
place in the modern
It does not take into account
With
Abraham
the close relationship into the fertile lands roundabout.
between the developmentof theological
and philo- and Jacob they appear in Palestine (Deut. 26:5).
these

were

"

"

Aranyakas

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

By the 13th. century they are thoroughly at home

Mesopotamia.
Adaptabilityto new
surroundings and great
and traders are
abilityas merchants
outstanding
characteristics.
the
units
in
Small, detached
of the great push are absorbed by the earlier
van
settlers and adopt their language and
as
letters,
in

Abraham-

Jacob-Israel did in Canaan.

In the 8th.
find kings in northern Syria,some
with
non-Semitic
to
changing from Canaanite
names,
Aramaic
in their inscriptions.
Presently,in Assyrian
and Achaemenid-Persian
becomes
times, Aramaic
the linguafranca of the Levant, and so remains
in
some
measure, until Arabic Islam thrusts it into the

century

we

background.

Religiously
they do

creative; it is
gods,beliefs,
practices. They fallin with and foster the tendency
toward
syncretism. Then
they cling,sometimes
with strange tenacity,to their syncreticformations.
At Harran
of paganism survived to
a curious form
Moslem
In
days, well into the 8th. century a.d.
difficultto

name

Christian times

not

appear

Aramaean
specifically

Aramaean

came

though Jesus spoke Aramaic, and

to

mean

pagan,

early records of
him
written in that tongue.
were
Despite this,
Aramaic
(or Syriac, its chief literary dialect)
became
for centuries the chief spoken tongue and
vehicle of eastern Judaism
and Christianity.
literary
Nestorianism,thrust out of the Graeco-Roman
world,
became
the dominant
form
of Christianity in
Sassanian
Persia and carried its religionand the
Syriac tongue as far East as the heart of China.
Monophysitism gained one of its chief strongholds
in the Syriac-speaking churches.
Arabic
Islam
presently reduced the sphere of Christian Syriac
materially. But
though severely circumscribed
buffeted a millennium and
and
more
by adverse
with
fortune,these people have clung to their own

AND

ETHICS

26

In the Neolithic age archaeologyshows that men

held a polydaemonistic system of beliefs similar
to the rehgions of existing savages.
Megalithic

throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa,

consisting of standing stones
(menhirs), stone

monuments

tables (dolmens) and

circles (cromlechs),
stone
mark the sanctuaries of this period.
In the period subsequent to the invention
of
writingarchaeologyfurnishes additional material
in the knowledge derived from
inscriptionsand
from documents.
In the Age of Bronze, as early
5000 B.C., hieroglyphicwriting was
as
invented
in
Babyloniaand in Egypt, and from that time onward
down
to the beginning of the Christian era
copious
records were
written in both scripts. The discovery
of these documents
and of numerous
sacred objects
excavators
has made
by modern
struction
possiblethe reconof the Babylonian and of the Egyptian
religions.See Assyria and Babylonia, Religion
of.
of; Egypt, Religion
The religion
of Canaan
quest
conpriorto the Hebrew
has recently become
known
through the
excavation
of a number
of the mounds
of Palestine.
It is seen
to have been a primitive form
of polydaemonism
combined
with
the
beginnings of
polytheism. See Baal; Canaanites, Religion
of.
Archaeologythrows much lighton the popular
religionof ancient Israel. It shows that the early
histories of the Old Testament
correct in accusare
ing
the Hebrews
of adopting the high places of the
Canaanites, serving their gods, and sacrificing
children.
It also confirms modern
criticism of the
Old Testament
by showing that there was
a
gressive
prodevelopment of religiousideas during the
centuries that followed the conquest.
In the classical civilizations and in the Christian
civilizations of Europe archaeology is an important
aid in the study of the history of religionby
ideas
discoveringthe artistic expressionof religious
in architecture,sculpture, painting, and
minor
sacred objects.
Lewis
B. Paton

the tenacity
of old Harran.
Aramaic
And
now
Christians
the borders
m
of Mesopotamia, Asia
tunate
Minor, and Persia,callingthemselves by the unforof Assyrians,are clamoring for recogname
nition
with a voice, which
ARCHBISHOP."
In the Roman
Catholic church
only adverse political
constellations
and
the Armenian
and
massacres
an
archbishop is a bishop who has oversight of
inaudible
Christian
Western
several other bishopricsas well as charge of his
to
appeals make
His duties include the callingand
M. Speengling
own.
powers.
ing
presidover
provincialcouncils,the oversight,with
ARANYAKAS."
The
class
the
of a
of
the assent of the council,of his suffragans,
name
and the
sacred books
of India later than the Vedas
and
In the
hearing of appeals from episcopalcourts.
used
Eastern
church
the archbishop has not always
Brahmanas,
by hermits who have given up the
fife of householder
and retired to the forest for
metropolitan rank, and the title is more
common.
meditation
and study. See Sacred
Literatures.
In the
Lutheran
church
the
metropoUtans of
Sweden
and Finland bear the title. In the Anglican
ARCANI
DISCIPLINA."
The secret instruction
church there are the archbishopricsof Canterbury
and of York, and the jurisdiction
regardingbaptism and the Lord's Supper which in
is similar to that
the early centuries of Christianity
of the R.C. dignitaries.See Bishop.
was
given only
to those who
were
baptized. The practicedated
from the later 2nd. century.
ARCHARCHDEACON,
ARCHPRESBYTER,
PRIEST.
Officials in the early and
mediaeval
ARCHAEOLOGY."
The
science
which
from
church, so called because of their superiorpositions
the remains
of human
the groups
to which
industry and art seeks to
they belonged. In the
among
the life and
reconstruct
Middle
of
to exercise concame
siderable
thought of the men
Ages archdeacons
former times.
For the ages prior to the invention
but since the 16th. century the
power,
of writing it is the only source
of information
in
officehas declined in importance,givingway usually
times an
to the office of vicar-general.In modern
regard to the religionof mankind.
the EoUthic
From
and
from
archdeacon
in
the earlier
the
Protestant
Anglican and
age
Paleolithic age (500,000b.c?) no evidences of religious
Episcopal churches is an official charged with part
ideas have yet been discovered.
Ceremonial
of the bishop's administration
of a diocese.
See
burials are
first found
in the Acheulian
epoch.
Deacon; Presbyter; Priest.
These
existence of
suggest belief in the continued
and
the dead
ARCHDIOCESE."
The
the
possibly worship of their spirits.
territory under
Where
existed the animistic theory
of an archbishop.
a belief in spirits
jurisdiction
of the universe held by modern
savages probably
also existed. In the Magdalenian epoch (ca.25,000
head
of
several
ARCHIMANDRITE."
The
models
and
of men
of animals and drawings
monasteries
of the same
times
B.C.)
congregation, or someThese may
of one
have served
stone and ivory appear.
on
largecommunity in the Greek church.
The office dates from the 5th. century.
uses.
magical or other religious
,

"

27

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ECCLESIASTICAL."
A
tory
deposiof historical value
of records and documents
church
relative to any
or
religiouscommunity;
also apphed to the documents
themselves,e.g., the
Vatican archives.

ARCHIVES,

ARCOSOLIUM.
form of the tombs
early Christians.

An arched recess,
in the Roman
catacombs
"

being
used

one

by

The
ARHAT
of
(ARAHAT)."
highest rank
sainthood in early Buddhism,ascribed to one
who
has gained enlightenment and become
perfect in
the eight-fold
path.
A heresy,chieflyassociated with
ARIANISM.
Christology,so designated from its chief exponent,
Arius (q.v.),
The origin
a presbyterof Alexandria.
of the teaching reverts to the tendency, appearing
in Justin Martyr and Origen, to call the Logos "a
second God," subordinate
to the divine Father, in
"

the

interests

of monotheism.

At

the

council

of

one.

AND

Thus

ETHICS

Arius

there are
two
ultimate
principlesin
material substratum
and the differentiating

the
substances,

essence
or
form-giving idea, matter
and idea the dynamic, while
being the potentiality
the combination
is actuaUty. Substances
of
are
three kinds, nature, man,
and God.
In man
the
is soul and the body is the
differentiating
essence
material
element.
The
Supreme
Being is an
exceptionto the rule,and is supernaturalsubstance,
He is the
consistingof pure form without matter.
prime Mover, himself unmovable, the necessary
result of the principleof causahty. He
is pure
thought, and is Himself the subject of his contemplation.
The specialsciences deal with groups
of specific
facts,deduced from primary principles.
or firstscience,
Philosophyis a science of universals,
the subject-matter of which
is God, and
thus
embraces
all other principlesand first cause.
Aristotle's psychology was
a theoretical duahsm
of body (matter) and soul (essence),the former
tion
being capacity or potentiaUty,and the latter funcor
actuality. His epistemology represented
the human
mind as a recipientbut not a creator of
ideas.
It is a blank page, possessing the faculty
for shaping ideas.
ceptual.
Knowledge is therefore con-

Nicaea, 325, the orthodox party defended the consubstantiability{homoousios)of the Son with the
Father in oppositionto the Arian positionthat the
created by and essentially
Son was
different from
human
The
soul stands
between
the
the
Father
animal
and
(heteroousios or
anomoios)
though
God, partaking in the sensibility,
the
orthodox
umphed,perception and memory
of the animal, and in the
pre-existent.Though
party trithe strugglewas
still more
bitter in the
of God.
Hence
reason
morality is a characteristic
the councils of Nicaea
and Constantinople.
of humanity, and virtue consists in an equiUbrium
period between
In the post-Nicene period the watchbetween
word
and the animal
reason
elements, a mean
of the Arian
between two
totle
In poHtical theory Arisextremes.
party was
homoios, meaning
tends
"similar," Christ being given a representative
argued that monarchical
government
of both genuine
toward
the maximum
of virtue and happiness.
function, and deprived at once
In the Patristic period, Aristotle was
attacked
deity and humanity. A mediating party also
appeared, called Semi-Arians
(q.v.),whose watch
by some, as Irenaeus and TertulUan, while others
word was
But the Alexandrians,especially
homoiousios,meaning of "similar essence."
ignoredhis works.
During this period about eighteen councils were
Clement, hailed him as a forerunner of Christ to
the Hellenic world.
convened, the various partiesanathematizing one
Boethius, through his Latin
another
their metaphysicaldifferences,
but
version of a part of the Organon, introduced Aristotle
over
the western
church.
The
Arabians
to
orthodoxy eventually triumphed at the council of
notably
appearedAvicenna
and
revived
Aristotle in the
Averroes
Constantinople,381, and Arianism
gradually disfrom
the East.
It was
that form
of
11th. and 12th. centuries.
Through their influence
the Teutonic
barbarians
Latin translations of and commentaries
totle's
ArisChristianity to which
on
and it persistedamong
converted
them
until
works were
tian
were
introduced
to Jewish and Christhe 7th. century.
See Christology.
thinkers.
Moses
Maimonides, the Jewish
first the
the movement.
At
writer, continued
ARISTOTLE
AND
ARISTOTELIANISM."
church
condemned
Aristotle's physics (1209) and
his metaphysics (1215),but his system was
too well
Aristotle,Greek philosopher,384-322
B.C., born
in
fitted to Catholicism
at Stagira,hence called "the Stagirite." He was
for that attitude to persist.
Athens 367-347
the pupil of Plato, in Mitylene
declared "precursor of Christ in
as
By 1300 he was
tutor to Alexander
343-335
in the latter part of
as
things natural as John the Baptist was in matters
the reign of Phihp, and again in Athens for 12 years
of grace."
The
most
whom
Albertus Magnus (q.v.)
followed Avicenna
teaching in the Lyceum.
significant
facts were
his relationship
with Plato,which made
he regarded as the best interpreterof Aristotle.
Albertus was
the teacher of Thomas
possiblehis philosophicallabor,and with Alexander
Aquinas (q.v.),
which
enabled
him
for his
to collect materials
the greatest of the Catholic theologians. In him
have
Aristotehanism
ecclesiasticized. The
we
libraryand data for his scientific work.
the standpoint of literary
form Aristotle's
From
dualism of Aristotle was
carried over
as
a dualism
works may
be classified as dialogues,didactic,and
between
rationalism, the
supernaturalism and
rhetorical works; from that of subject-matter as
church
and
the world.
The
hierarchical system
ology, of his concepts from
universals
logic,natural science,primary philosophy or thethrough classHis erudiand miscellaneous.
tion
ethics,
history,
concepts to particulars provided Aquinas with
and literary
the tools for vindicatingthe divine authorityof the
production were encyclopaedic.
is a philosophy of individual
Aristotelianism
Church's knowledge. The deductive method of his
substances
as
opposed to the Platonic philosophy
logicis the method of Catholicism in its theological
of universal forms, the former
and ecclesiastical pronouncements.
emphasizing the
natural and substantial as against the tendency of
A. S. WoODBtrRNB
the latter to the supernaturaland abstract.
These
ARIUS
(256-336)."Presbyter of Alexandria
of his
substances
heretic because
concrete
condemned
comprise reahty, possessing who was
as
a
attributes distributable into categories. Universals
views concerning the substance of the Son.
ness.
As a man
he was
of good character and earnestare
reallypredicatesof the particulars. The generative
ordination
four: a material
of real being are
After having preached and taught the subcauses
which is passive,a formal cause
which is ideational,
of the Son to the Father and maintaining
cause
which
stance
subefficient cause
is active, and a
that he was
of similar rather than the same
an
andria
is purposive. These
condemned
final cause
which
four are
he was
by the Synod of Alexreduced to two by combining the last three into
at
(320-321),and subsequentlycondemned

Ark

DICTIONARY

the
the Council
and banished.
None
of Nicaea
less his view found
followers and at times
many
gained control of the imperial court.
(See ArianISM.) In the latter part of his lifeArius was recalled
banishment
from
and would
have
been received
back with honor into the church had he not died the
day preceding that set for the service.
the
ARK.
literature,
(1) According to Hebrew
of
largefloatingvessel built by Noah by command
Yahweh, as a refuge from the deluge (Gen. 6:5
9:17). Comparative mythology furnishes parallel
traditions in Indian Hterature where
Manu
plays
the role assigned to Noah
(Catapatha Brahmana,
in
and
and
Mahabharata
Bhagavata Purana),
is
Babylonian hterature where the part of Noah
assigned to Xisuthrus
{Gilgamesh).(2) The
"

"

hidden
basket in the bulrushes in which Moses
was
until found
(Exod.
by the daughter of Pharaoh
(Deut. 10:8),
3:12). (3) The ark of the covenant
ark of the testimony (Exod. 25:16), or ark of the
of acacia wood,
revelation; a sacred chest made
with
overlaid and lined with gold,and surmounted
cherubim.
took the ark with
two
The
Hebrews
them
in their travels,since it symboUzed for them
in the presence
of Yahweh.
(4) The ark of the law
is a chest used in Jewish synagogues
as
a repository
for the scrolls of the Torah.
(5) In the Ethiopian
church, a chest which has been dedicated to serve
altar.
as
an
(6) Metaphorically used for the
institution of
church
the divinely authorized
as

salvation.
OF."
A Synod caUed at Aries,
ARLES, SYNOD
in S.E. France
Constantino
in 314 by Emperor
and
to settle the dispute between
the Catholics
Donatists.
It was
thoroughly representativeof the
Western
provinces,33 bishops being present. The
prohibition of the rebaptisra of apostates with
the Trinitarian formula
was
a decision against the
Donatists.
Three bishops must
be present for an
The
episcopal ordination.
majority of the 22
concerned
the discipUne
of clergy and laity,
canons
and were
called forth by the necessityfelt by the
church
define its position since its imperial
to
recognition. See Donatism.
CHURCH
OF."
A church
kindred
church
in form, but independent in
organization,and differingfrom the "orthodoxy"
of the main
bodies of the Eastern
and
Western
churches
in rejectingthe decrees of the Council
of Chalcedon.
Tradition traces back the introduction of Christianity
into Armenia
to a legendary mission of the
to King Abgar, together with
Apostle Thaddaeus
supposed visits of Bartholomew, Simon, and
Jude.
There
is no
historical authority for this.
The
real origin of the Armenian
church
is to be
attributed to the mission of Gregory the Illuminator
in the 4th. century, which has been decorated
ea,rly
with
much
later legendary matter.
Under
his
influence Christianity
to be formally
even
came
adopted as the national religionof Armenia.
The breach with the Greek church was brought
about by the opposition of the Armenians
to the
decision of Chalcedon
(a.d.451), which they held
to favour Nestorianism.
In the year 535 the separation
made
final by the Council
of Tiben,
was
anathematised
which
the Orthodox
church
and
added
"who
crucified
a monosophysite clause"
was
for us"
to the Trisagion, i.e.,to the doxology
Frota the times of the
"Holy, Holy, Holy," etc.
earUest Turkish
invasions the Armenian
Christians
have suffered cruel persecution,culminating in the
of recent times. See also Monophysites.
massacres
F. Adeney
Walter

ARMENIA,

to

the

Greek

"

AND

RELIGION

OF

ETHICS

28

ARMINIANISM
AND
ARMINIUS."
The type
of doctrine
Arminius
who
taught by James
studied at Geneva, Basle, and Leyden, and finally
called to the chair of theology in the
in 1603 was
after his day
University of Leyden
soon
very
Arminianism.
began to be termed
Frequently,
has been
made
to connote,
however, the term
besides the formally expressed tenets of Arminius,
doctrinal
from
conceptions logically deducible
His departures from the Reformed
them.
teaching
,inwhich he had been reared scarcely went beyond
the rejectionof unconditional
election and irresistible
In place of these features of the reigning
grace.
Calvinism
he affirmed
conditional
election and
man's
freedom
to accept or to reject divine overtures.
"

"

The

immediate

followers of Arminius
in the
whom
Uytenbogaert, Grotius,
Limborch
Episcopius, and
were
prominent
of Remonstrants
from the titleof
acquired the name
the document
which
they put forth in 1610, the
after the death
of Arminius.
In the five
year
articles of this manifesto, while giving not a little
emphasis to man's
spiritual dependence, they
rule out unconditional
limited atonement,
predestination,
and
irresistible grace,
and
speak of the
doctrine of certain perseverance
to inquiry.
as
open
Later the positiveaffirmation of the possibility
of
strant
falUng from grace became characteristic of Remonor Arminian
tion
teaching,as did also the repudiaof the notion of imputed or hereditaryguilt.
So
far as
Netherlands
the
are
concerned,
Arminianism
after the
to its best very
came
soon
death of the founder.
indeed granted toleraIt was
tion
after the brief period of proscriptionwhich
followed its condemnation
by the Synod of Dort
(1618-19 q.v.); but it was to find its most fruitful
fields in other regions. Anglican high churchism
it patronage in the time of Laud
and
again
gave
dist
after the Stuart restoration.
Through the Methoit made
alliance with
wherein
movement,
warm
a
evangehcal faith, it acquired specially
effective means
of dissemination.
dered
Support is renit, furthermore, by a consideration of the
acterized
extent
its essential points of view charto which
and
the teaching of the early church
later found lodgment in Lutheranism.
C. Sheldon
Henry
ARNOLD
OF BRESCIA."
Ascetic and reformer,
b. at Brescia
in Italy, date unknown.
He
was
educated
for the priesthood, and became
a
pupil
of Abelard.
He was
of worldly
a vigorous opponent
of
corruption in the clergy and of temporal power
the Curia.
His maxims
"Clerks who
have
were:
who possess
monks
estates, bishops who hold fiefs,
into conflict
be saved."
He came
property, cannot
with Pope Eugenius III, Emperor Frederick
BarAs a result of the
barossa, and Pope Adrian IV.
and
combined
opposition of Frederick
Adrian,
Arnold was
in 1155.
put to death at Rome

Netherlands

"

among

"

MATTHEW
ARNOLD,
(1822-1888)." English
educator, literary critic,poet and author; his
works
of a critical,
liberal and
on
religionwere
ethical character, and
exercised
considerable
a
Literature and Dogma, and God and the
influence.
books of his deaUng with
Bible are two well-known
religion.
ORGANIC"
A law regulating
ARTICLES, THE
pubhc worship in France, introduced by Napoleon,
comprising 44 articles relatingto Protestantism and
77 relative to Catholicism.
the separationof church and

The
state

FORTY-TWO."
ARTICLES,
adopted by the AngUcan

faith

law stood
in 1905.

until

of
A
confession
Church
in 1552,

29

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Aryan Religion

THIRTY-SEVEN."
A form of the
ARTICLES,
Belgic Confession (q.v.)arranged ia 37 articles in

gathered under the general title of*

sky-father,are the only gods and they
not
are
anthropomorphic but vaguely conceived
forces. The
nature
Aryans could stillbe called
atheists in historic times by visitors who
had
a
pantheon of personalgods with human characteristics.
There
been
to have
two
seem
great public
ceremonies:
of securingrain in summer
one, a means
mimetic
when
by
a
magic
processionwith vessels

1531.

of mead

subsequentlyrevised
Nine

Articles

into

the

so-called

Thirty-

(q.v.).

THIRTY-NINE."
The officialconfession
of faith of the Anglican Church, adopted in
England.
See Church
of

ARTICLES,
1571.

These
the

powers,

sky

or

water

or

moved

around

great fire with

spoken spellsand finallyextinguished the fire by

emptying their vessels into it,the other, common
to many
peoples,an attempt to assist the powers
of lightand warmth
in their strugglewith cold and

THOMAS
bishop
(1353-1414)." ArchARUNDEL,
of Canterbury; also filled the offices of
bered
archbishop of York and lord chancellor; rememtime.
the fives of
for his severe
Then
persecution of the Lollards, darkness at the autumn
of the translation of the Bible into
cattle and, stillmore
and prohibition
were
potent,the lives of men
given to revivifyana
strengthen the sky powers.
EngUsh.
That
of cosmic
a
dawning sense
order, of a fate
BROTHERS."
An
ancient
Roman
to twelve members
charged with
and blessing
certain ceremonies for the protection
revival under
In the religious
of fields and crops.
Augustus, the emperor secured election to the college
and the functions of the Fratrea Arvales were
larged
enceremonies
to include sacrificial
on
important
household.
occasions connected with the Imperial
While performing important rehgious duties in the
hood
gave the prieststate, the presence of the emperors
the nature of a select social club.

inevitable than
the powers
of
element
of their early world-view
has been suggestedby Schrader and seems
plausible
in view of the development of several Aryan groups.
There are no temples,and no organized priesthood,
who know magic spells
and incantations
though men
form the beginning of the later families of priests.
About
the hearth grow
up affections and customs
which raise it into divine status in almost all the
To feed it,to keep it burning when
Aryan groups.
fire is difficult to make, to guard it from pollution
becomes
a
reUgious duty. The early loyaltiesare
An Indian religiousreformation
Blood
ARYA
to kin and
is essential.
to chief.
SAMAJ.
revenge
established by Dayanand Sarasvati
where,
movement
Hospitalitywas freelygiven, though, here as elsethe stranger and
the beggar were
in 1875.
It is an
more
attempt to establish a purely
feared than welcomed.
dead were
The
buried in
monotheistic cult founded on the Vedas, which are
of the revelation of God
the source
at the
or
rough-hewn coffins at a "crossroads"
as
interpreted
border of the common
land.
ethical teaching is of a
The
With
the dead man
and of all science.
favorite possessions,
were
placedhis tools,weapons,
high type. The Samaj is distinctlyIndian and
meat, drink and in earliest times his wives and
bitterly opposed to Christianity. It has been
victims to the
successful,but less significant slaves. The practiceof givinghuman
numerically more
dead was
than the Brahma
Samaj (q.v.).
earlygiven up, but the burial ceremonies
of the historic Aryans show clearlythat it was
once
The word Aryan is here
RELIGION."
the rule. After the burial came
ARYAN
purificationrites
which
in water
and a solemn
feast. The dead were
used to refer to the Indo-European race
posed
supin
the parent stock of the peoples known
to dwell in the earth but at stated times, at
formed
the home, at the grave, on the anniversaryof death,
later historyas Teuton, Scandinavian, Slav, Greek,
and
Indian.
the birthdayand in the family ceremonies,food
on
Emerging
Celt, Iranian
Roman,
offered to them
the Baltic as a
under the name
of "fathers"
from the stone age in territorynear
was
or
"grand-fathers." Such family rites were
type
fairlyhomogeneous people of cattle-raising
very
ing
important not only to prevent the ghost from becomthey spread to form the cultural groups we know in
it from a
a danger to the family but to save
history. To write the story of their religiouslife
in that prehistoric
period when they dwelt together wretched existence. There is sufficient evidence to
held at
and
was
suggest that a great public ceremony
neighbors on a far-flungtract of woods
as
from
the earth,were
a precarioustask.
Using which all the dead came
pasture land is necessarily
the knowledge of the elements
to all the
common
placated,fed and dismissed by public rites. Such
and the Greek
forms as the Celtic Samhain
eve
branches of the old family,with specialattention
become
and developwhich
have
stabilized
Anthesteria
be its continuation
ment.
to those
may
groups
of origin and
There is no indication of a heavenly abode
nearest
to the pointy
remembering
of the dead.
of securing
that everywhere religionis man's way
They belong to the underworld;
the
and
in relation to the
life-values and
life-security
crossroads, the place of burial,was
natural environment
we
dangerous. The representationof the
especially
attempt to picturethis
may
underworld powers in the form of a snake and the
primitivereligion.
prehistoric
in the form of
ancestor
idea of the return
of an
shows
The early history of the various groups
which
coils by the hearth fire is
fearless people,
the "house-snake"
them as a vigorous, life-loving,
feasting,drinking and games
so
common
Aryan peoples that it probably
deUghting in fighting,
among
Their religiouscult centers about the
of chance.
belongsto the primitiveperiod.
that
of the Aryans was
On the whole the religion
heavenly nature powers, the home fire and the
of a confident,happy and successful people. The
family. There is littleevidence of a cult of motherearth common
to agriculturalpeoples. The sky
gods are generous, placable powers of light and
for morality.
fife. There
is no
divine sanction
of sun, its rain,its lightare the
with its warmth
There
hands.
how
The Aryan took that into his own
important things. It is easy to understand
is no abject fear of dread powers and no quest for a
eagerlythe herders of cattle in a land where known
heaven to compensate for a frustrated life on earth.
and unknown
enemies
prowled in darkness would
a lifeof vigorand
The
Well-knit family and clan loyalties,
rain
welcome
the dawning hght of heaven.
ARVAL

limited
priesthood

which

was

nature,

more

was

an

"

life to cattle and to men.

The boisterous
thunder-storm
cleaving the oak with its lightning
bolt is another power before which they must stand
in awe, and the oak, perhaps,was the sacred tree.
meant

plentv under a Sky-God giving light,warmth,

to land and herds developedthe race
and fertility
which

was

to

historyof human

factor in the
the dominant
become
Haydon
A. Eustace
culture.

Ascension

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

30

As an astral deity Ishtar appeared as

ASCENSION."
of the body of the
The passage
as 'Ashtart.
risen Christ into heaven.
a
war-goddess, being identified with the planet
This ascension
differs from
assumption (q.v.) Venus, the leader of the stars,in Semitic and Greek
cults. She was
rather
also the goddess of fruitfulness and
in that it was
of the body of the resurrection,
her cult meant
than a body untouched
a deificationof sensuousness,
by that experience. This
although
this was
spiritualizedas the mainspring of the
experience is referred to only in Acts 1:9, other
tender human
emotions.
In the O.T. she appears
references being to his resurrection.
Mathews
the feminine
as
Shailer
counterpart of the Canaanitic
baals in which
the sexual aspect predominated.
ASCETICISM."
treatment
(1) A methodical
Goddesses.
of the body as evil and opposed to spiritual
welfare, See Mother
involvingthe practiceof fasting,flogging,ceUbacy
ASHUR.
The
and other more
means.
(2)Less
or less disciplinary
god of the Assyrian
supreme
of self- pantheon representedby a solar disc with wings.
for the purpose
specifically,
self-discipline
of
and
control
the cultivation of spiritual
quahties
ASHVAGHOSHA."
A Buddhist
the personality.
writer of the
1st. century a.d., the author of a life of Buddha,
Asceticism
is found in developed rather than
the Buddha-chanla.
less
or
primitive
religions.It pre-supposes a more
recognizing a
organized philosophical dualism
ASH
WEDNESDAY."
The
first day of the
strugglebetween body and spirit. It is therefore
Lenten
to be distinguished
from the painful
practiceswhich
period,forty days before Easter, so called
from the ritual use of ashes as a symbol of repentinitiation and ritual methods
adopted
ance.
accompany
The
ashes
So far as
secured
are
by primitivepeoples to secure success.
by burning the
from
be traced,
asceticism seems
to have come
palms used the previous year on Palm
can
Sunday.
The day is observed
Catholic
It
in the Roman
and
those of India.
oriental religions,
particularly
Anglican churches.
passed westward, assimilatinglocal practices in
Persia,Greece, and above all Egypt. Alone among
ASINARII.
An
the great reKgionsof the ancient world,the Hebrew
epithet applied first to the
became
Jews, and afterwards to the Christians,as e.g., by
system never
ascetic,unless exception be
continued
Tacitus because they were
said to worship an ass.
made
Uke the Nazarites who
of groups
in more
Ad
Nationes
to
maintain
customs
(See Tertullian:
simpler nomadic
1, 14; Apologia
ing
the
In 1856 a discovery was
made
on
XVI).
highlydeveloped civih'zations. The most outstandin
t
he
Palatine
of
sketch
scratched
stone representing
ascetic religion
is probably Hinduism
a
(q.v.),
devotees of which have from earHest days_
the victim having a man's body and an
a crucifixion,
sought
ass's head, probably a 3rd. century travesty of the
existences
release from
the cycle of successive
of the
crucifixion of Jesus,although it may
be of Mithraic
of the body by means
through the purification
origin.
voluntary infliction of pain, or the practiceof some
form of self-discipline.
The methods
ASOKA."
of asceticism include the limitation
Emperor of India (273-231 b.c.)."
of food,poverty, celibacyand austerities of various
He is chieflyknown
because of his use of the royal
for the spread of Buddhism
it is hoped to reduce the
sorts.
resources
By such means
by missionary
body to subservience to the spiritand to acquire teaching to Ceylon, China, Thibet, Syria and the
devoted to human
not
West.
merit in heaven.
Such
methods
service,
are
always
Merciful,tolerant,
his own
as
empire on the ethical basis
they often tend to the suppression he estabhshed
successful,
rather than to the discipline
of natural impulses. of kindlyrespect for the sanctityof all Uving things
In consequence,
the rightof the meanest
the ascetic of the extreme
thing to a full life. For
type is
liable to
he is perhaps
the spread of Buddhism
abnormal
as
a religion
psychical conditions,which
sometimes
in hysteria,visions, the most
themselves
important figurein history.
express
other neurasthenic
or
experiences.
ASPERGES.
The rite of sprinklingthe congreA
development of the ascetic practicesin
gation
with holy water
before the celebration of the
to pagan
while
due in large measure
Christianity,
influences and survivals,
in
R.C.
called
the
honor
Mass
the
from
furthered by the
was
High
church, so
given by the church to ceHbacy on the part of its first word of the verse, Ps. 51:7.
priestsand nuns, as well as to its introduction of
ardent
fasts for all members
The monasASPIRATION."
An
of the church.
tery
longing for the
influential
realization of a kind of life much
of Cluny (q.v.),was
particularly
purer and higher
in spreading ascetic practices,
while the Irish penitential than one's ordinary attainments.
desire to
Rehgious aspiration is the earnest
system, when introduced upon the Continent,
or
favor, or to possess
experience God's presence
impulse.
gave it a new
realities of the divine world.
The discipline
of one's self throughthe subjection inwardly the spiritual
of physicalimpulses to moral control is the permaIt expresses itself in worship, prayer, consecration,
nent
value of ascetic practices.As such self-control, and often in specificreligiousdiscipUne, such as
Moral
aspirationconsists in the desire
however, does not involve the premises of asceticism, asceticism.
is the motive
it cannot
See Hinduism,
to realize ethical ideals,and
properly be so termed.
power
Mathews
to
Shailek
religiouslyand
living. Both
Buddhism, Monasticism.
genuine moral
is an intenselypersonalvaluation
morally aspiration
ested
disinterASGARD.
of spiritual
The dwelling-place
of the gods in
ideals,as contrasted with more
Teutonic rehgion.
of contemplating the good.
ways
"

"

"

"

"

ASHKENAZIM."

(From the Hebrew

name

in

Gen. 10:3.) A term used by the Jews to designate

the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe and their
descendants.
They differ in ritual and
from the Sephardim. (qv.).

in customs

Hebrew
of goddess of
name
origin, appearing in Babylonian as
Ishtar, in Greek as Astarte, and in Phoenician

ASHTORETH."

Sumerian

A mediaeval dramatic
OF THE."
ASS, FEAST
presentationto impress events of BibUcal history,
such as the story of Balaam's
ass, the flightof the
holy family into Egypt. Generally of a burlesque
character.
of the province of Eastern
Part
Assam
in British India since 1895;
N.E. of Bengal.
1826-1895
a separateprovince,

ASSAM.

Bengal and
from

"

31

OF

DICTIONARY

About
Sh millions are Hindus, 1^ millions Muslims
of
The Hindus
and 1 million inhabitants animists.
know
such by conversion
though we
Assam
are
which they were
brought
very littleof the process by
and Sakti have been the
cult of Vishnu
in. The
Hinduisrn.
of
Assamese
predominant elements
can
Missionary work has been carried on by the Ameriand
since 1891.

Baptists since 1841

Pioneer

Mission

the

Assam

Frontier

of a sect of secret
A
member
ASSASSIN.
which
murderers
originated in Persia at the close
of the Shi'ites.
of the 11th. century as a branch
The
sect was
operative in Persia and Syria for
felt
was
nearly two hundred
years, and its power
In principle their beliefs
during the Crusades.
is
corresponded with the Isma'ilites. The name
from the
derived from hashish,an intoxicant made
juiceof hemp leaves which was given to the Assassins
about to be sent on their mission
when
they were
known
of death.
The leader was
as Sheikh-al-Jabal,
Old Man
of the Mountains.
or
"

CLERGY."
OF THE
ASSEMBLIES
FRENCH
The quinquennial gatherings of the French
clergy
for the
from the 16th. century to the Revolution
appointment of the taxes exacted by the kings of
France from the church, and for the transaction of
other ecclesiastical business.

ASSEMBLY,

GENERAL."

See

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

Assyria,Religion of

certaintyas to God's favor.

by God, the Christian could

Sure of acceptance

state of

cease

to concern

about
himself
petty
ecclesiastical penance.

details of merit
about
or
doctrine
of personal
The
assurance
was
emphasized in oppositionto rehgious
formahsm
by the leaders of Pietism (q.v.)and by
John
has
Wesley (q.v.). The basis of assurance
been variously defined,emphasis being laid sometimes
of God
the promise of the Word
on
(Luther),
sometimes
the direct inner testimony of the
on
the divine
on
Holy Spirit(Wesley), and sometimes
election (Calvin). At times the emotional
ence
experiof assurance
has been
so
overemphasized
The real
to lead to the danger of fanaticism.
as
of the doctrine is in its affirmation of a
significance
with
genuine personal experience of communion
God
in contrast
formal
to a mere
profession of
Gerald
Smith
Birney
religion.
ASSYRIA

AND

BABYLONIA,

RELIGION

OF.

the religionof Babylonia

Strictlyspeaking,this was
and Assyria from
the earliest times to the
fall of the neo-Babylonian empire in 538 B.C.,
though in Babylonia it survived until the beginning

"

of the Christian
Such
writers as Herodotus
era.
and Berosus tell us a httle about it,but the principal
form
of information
sources
concerning it are the cuneiinscriptionswhich have been found in such
in Mesopotamia.
Babylonia, the
large numbers
mother
the land of rehgious origins;
country, was
sembly.
AsAssyria, developing later,borrowed
largelyfrom

General

Babylonia.
ASSEMBLY,

See

WESTMINSTER."

minster
West-

Assembly.
ASSIZE

OF

CLARENDON."

council

vened
con-

Clarendon, England in 1164 by Henry II,

and
who
the English bishops
compelled Thomas
called the Constitutions
to subscribe to 16 articles,
of Clarendon
designed to transfer the control
(q.v.),
of ecclesiastical affairs from
Rome
to England.
The
clergy refused to conform, and Henry had to
at

people and their gods. In Babylonia

mingled, the Semites from Arabia, called
called
affinities,
Akkadians, and a race of unknown
Akkadians
hair and
Sumerians.
The
wore
long
shaved
both head and face.
beards; the Sumerians
1. The

two

"

races

lished
Akkadians
first in the land and estabwere
The
their Semitic gods at various centers.
beardless Sumerians
coming later worshiped these
bearded
gods, mingling, of course, in their worship
Sumerian
elements.
some
a land
Babylonia was
tory
of city-states.From
long before the dawn of histhe articles in 1172.
renounce
to the rise of Babylon, about 2100 B.C., one
citytion
another.
ASSUMPTION."
The
of the cortransference
state often succeeded
During the dominaporeal
of each, its deitysecured a degree of worship
individual into heaven.
body of some
death
Such
translations are
both without
(as from subject cities. To the Babylonians the world
to
must
full of spiritswith which men
was
come
according to Jewish Apocalyptic literature was true
kind
of Abraham,
a
Fundamentally their rehgion was
Isaiah, Moses)' instead of death (as terms.
of Enoch
of polydemonism,but through the power
of the cityin the case
and Elijah); or after death.
the
In Christianity
states the gods of a few places emerged from
the only assumption that has
of spirits
and became
into doctrine is that of Mary who after her
the chief deities of
great mass
grown
death was
These
Enlil of Nippur
taken up into heaven bodily,according to
the country.
gods were
both the Roman
trine
and Greek
This doc(calledin Akkadian
Bel), Anu of Erech, Enki of
churches.^
Eridu (inAkkadian
into dogma
Ea), Nannar of Ur (inAkkadian
although never
formally made
is universallypreached.
(in
sun-god, Shamash
Sin), and the Akkadian
Sumerian
Utu). In all the cities a mother goddess
she was
AUGUSTINIANS
OF THE."
also worshiped. By the Sumerians
was
ASSUMPTION,
called
the Akkadians generally
A R.C. congregation,originatingin France in 1845,
given many
names;
and
members
in
1000
her Ishtar.
having at present about
During the pre-Babylonian periodthe
various countries.
worship of a weather god, Adad, and of a corn god,
also introduced, apparently from the
Dagan, were
FEAST
OF
THE."
A festival
The
West.
ASSUMPTION,
worship of these along with that of
fixed that it persisted
became
celebratingthe bodily ascension to heaven of the
so
Nergal of Kutha
of Babylonian history.
It is
Virgin Mary
subsequent to her death.
through the whole course
observed
in the Roman
Church
Some
other deities,
such as Ningirsuof Lagash and
on
Aug. 15th, and
in the Greek church from Aug. 15th to 23rd inclusive.
of Kish
Zamama
were
widely worshiped tiU the
smaller town
rise of Babylon.
Each
(and there
ASSURANCE.
The inner conviction that one
in Babylonia) had its deity. The larger
were
many
deities. These
subordinate
had also many
towns
enjoys God's favor and has been forgivenand saved
the principal
often made
through faith in Christ.
were
by differentiating
In emancipating men
from dependence on the
varied
from
of epithets. They
gods by means
Catholic church, Luther
insisted strongly on
the
period to period. A very popular vegetationdeity
doctrine of inner assurance
of salvation,whereby a
known
^Ashnan,Ningishzida,
was
by various names
last of these names
believingChristian might know himself to be saved
Dumuzi.
The
persisted and
without
Tammuz
needing to consult a priest. Justification was Hebraized
as
(Ezek. 8:14). During
by faith,he contended,included the creation of a
the dynasty of Agade (2800-2600 b.c.) certain
The

"

"

Assyria,Religion of

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

32

another myth represents the mother goddess,Nintu,

has learned
of this. The custom
the secrets of
jealous because man
vowing that he shall not five forever.
however, sporadically continued
agriculture,
by later
was,
3. Temples and priesthoods.
With such deities,
dynasties. Most of the kings of the dynasty of Ur
rate
deified in their hfetime and elabofriendly yet capricious, the Babylonians and
(2458-2341) were
addressed to them.
into relations.
Several of the
From
Assyrians sought to come
hymns were
before the dawn
of
of historytemples of brick were
kings of Nisin and Larsa were
deified;the name
erected
to
the great Hammurapi
of Babylon is sometimes
artificial brick
them, usually upon
ceded
preEach
terraces.
temple, in addition to the shrine
by the determinative for deity,and the same
of the deity for whom
it was
is true of a few kings of the Kassite dynasty (1750contained minor
built,
sanctuaries for other deities. To each temple was
While all these spirits
1175 B.C.;.
worshiped
were
attached a ziggurat,
or
Anu, now
as
gods, three were
especiallyhonored:
stagedtower, to represent a
mountain
built a
peak, and at Lagash Gudea
regarded as god of heaven, Enlil (Bel),regarded as
brazen sea, to represent the ocean.
The temple was
god of the land, and Enki (Ea), regarded as god of
formed
thus a kind of epitome of the world.
into
the deep. About
2500 b.c, they were
In the temples
the gods were
served by elaborate priesthoods,the
triad representing air,earth, and water, which
a
of
which
increased in complexity as
continued
to be reverenced as long as the religion organization
time advanced,
Schools
for the trainingof the
lasted.
Enki
(Ea) had also been regardedas the
the
When
from time immemorial.
priests existed in many
god of wisdom
temples. Here the art
of writing was
about 2100 B.C.,
and hymns
taught,and the Uturgies
city of Babylon became supreme,
the
its god, Marduk, began to be worshiped over
employed in the services copied. The temples
less
owned
whole
of Babylonia, and, with his somewhat
large estates, and their archives have in
of account-tablets
some
cases
yielded thousands
prominent consort, Zarpanit, an offshoot of the
which reveal many
of the features of the economic
to be
old mother
goddess Ishtar, he continued
lifeof Babylonia.
worshiped throughout the history. In time he
4. Liturgies and
absorbed
hymns. The
qualitiesof both Bel (EnMl) and Ea, and
Uturgies and
hymns are of great interest since they reveal the
myths in which they had been prominent were
in their places. thoughts and conceptions of the worshipers. In
reshaped in order to put Marduk
the
these compositions the gods are depicted in all their
later became
Nabu, god of Borsippa, who
into
Their might and greatness are
patron of learning and eloquence, also came
power.
especially
praised. The worshipers believed that the gods
prominence after the rise of Babylon. During
the Kassite period a second triad consistingof Sin,
and were
enjoyed being thus flattered,
accordingly
the moon,
lenient to men.
The hymns
Shamash, and Ishtar,representing
disposedto be more
sun,
formed.
to Enhl
and Venus, was
In later times Adad, the
him
with
the
(Bel) connect
especially
and the violent storms
thunderbolt
weather god, was
sometimes
of Babylonia.
put in place of Ishtar.
One of them speaks of the thunder as his word, just
Assyria emerged as a dependent state about
the Hebrews
2100 B.C. and became
as
regarded thunder as the voice of
independent about 1600 b.c.
Yahweh.
the head of
In the hymns Nannar
Its principaldeity was
Ashur
who was
to
(Sin) appears
the Assyrian pantheon throughout the history. be very popular, and the appearance
and movements
of the moon
He
embodied
dwelt upon
the characteristics of the Assyrian
in describing
are
him.
The
so-called penitentialpsalms were
ployed
emwarlike, ruthless, and cruel.
nation,which was
in times of trouble,national or personal.
Ishtar of Nineveh
was, at least in the later periods,
find the Babylonian conception of sin
his consort.
In them
and Adad
also reverenced,
Anu
we
were
been in the main
to have
Bel and Ea, the other members
of the first
as
were
simply misfortune
or
triad.
In later periods of the historyBabylonian
the worshiper is wretched, he
misery. Because
have
offended
some
gods were
introduced,especiallyNabu and Nergal. infers that he must
deity.
He
2. Relation of gods to men.
The myths concernbe made
assumes
to
ing
that, if the deity can
wretched
these gods reveal something of their worshipers' appreciate how
he is, the divine heart
ideas of them
will relent,and the anger
and their relation to the world and
that has caused his misfortune
will pass away.
No deep sense
to men.
of sin or
According to one
cycle of myths, both
and irrigating
water
It is
men
conception of its inwardness is revealed.
begotten by natural
were
that sufferingatones
for sin. The belief
generation from gods and goddesses. The Babylonians assumed
fond of cosmogonicmyths, or
in the efficacyof intercession prevailed,and one
were
especially
From
myths that explained the originsof the world and
god is often asked to intercede with another.
its institutions.
time immemorial
sacrifices were
In addition to those just alluded
offered. About
and of agri2500 B.C. they consisted of oxen, sheep,goats, lambs,
to, which explain the origin of man
culture,
myths of the creation and the flood were
fish,eagles,cranes, and the viands eaten by men.
also in circulation
time
before 2000
As
b.c.
They appear to have been regarded as food for the
advanced
elaborated
of creation
a
was
myth
gods rather than as having atoningefficacyfor sin.
into an epic of seven
Tammuz.
The
for the
universal characteristic
cantos.
It accounted
5. Ishtar and
of Semitic religion
the worship of the
and for the earth
was
origin of the gods themselves
and heavens
mother
by the conquest of a watery chaos by
goddess Ishtar. The Semitic background
of Babylonian religionenabled
her influence to
Marduk, god of Babylon. The kinship of gods and
indicated
in the myth of the begetting of
with
Sumerian
it, although, blended
permeate
men,
men
by a god and goddess, and emphasized by
goddesses,she was often called by Sumerian names.
the deification of certain kings,as already noted,is
Connected
with her cult were
primitivesexual rites,
further
which were
perpetuated until the time of Herodotus
emphasized in the Gilgamesh Epic, in
which
Gilgamesh and Engidu are defied,and in
designed to secure
(cf.Bk. I. 199). Such rites were
which the goddess Ishtar offers herself in marriage
abundant
with
the
an
offspring. Connected
male and female ministers of
to Gilgamesh.
temples there were
While the line between gods and men
not
the goddess whose function appears
to have been to
was
could not
of sterility.
while the deities
in the cure
one
men
represent the divine powers
cross, and
sometimes
consorted
with men,
nevertheless
they
They are recognized in the Code of Hammurapi,
called by various
The
should become
where
wise and
were
as
names.
jealous lest men
they are
immortal
have had a deleterious
themselves.
service of this goddess must
In the Adapa myth
as
as
Ea is said to have hed to Adapa lest he should eat
influence
Babylonian social fife. Closely
upon
the food that would
make
him
connected wiljh the worship of the mother goddess
immortal, and
deified
kings were
Sin is the best known

during their lifetime. Naraminstance

"

"

"

"

33

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Astrology

was

and of social justice.

problems of social organization

muz),

This

that of her son (later

husband) Dumuzi
(Tama
god of vegetation. As vegetation dies
beheved
die.
The
to
down each year, Tammuz
was
mother goddess was
thought to be in great sorrow
An ancient myth
of the loss of her son.
account
on
recounted how on one such occasion she had forsaken
world,
the underthe upper world and gone down to Arallu,
to bring him up to hfe again. At that time
the earth had ceased.
all procreativeaction on
the whole
During the time of the death of Tammuz
land was filledwith wailing,
by the women.
especially
Elaborate rituals for a worship of wailing in the
It contains
temples has been preserved to us.
such doleful repetitions
as the following:

was

in part due

to

their conviction

that the

the part of men.

gods demanded
on
righteousness
In the myths the gods might lie to men
and to one
another, but nevertheless they punished human
liars. It thus happens that in the Code of Hammurapi
has taken
provisionis made that,if a man
oath in the presence
of a god, his unsupported
an
word shall be regarded as truth.
In generalethics
the Babylonians were
fullyabreast of other nations
of the period. The less civilized Assyrians were
more
backward, though in privateethics they may
not have fallen behind the Babylonians.
George
A. Barton
ASTERISK.
A utensil consisting
of two crossed
arches,either silver or golden,used in the Greek
church to protect the eucharistic bread from the
coveringveil.
"

The
The

....

lord of
lord of

vegetationno longerlives;
vegetationno longerhves;
[repeatedsix times]
husband no longerlives;
my

ASTROLOGY.
A science which pretended to
foretellevents in the affairsof earth by a knowledge
of the nature
and
of the heavenly
movements
bodies.
It was based upon the idea of an inevitable
between the movements
of the stars and
relationship
the hfe of man.
Two main phases are to be distinguished,
the Babylonianand the Roman.
The supposed science had its originin Babylon
about 2400 B.C.
The
observed
places of the
heavenly bodies in relation to the observed happenings
earth were
on
organizedinto a system of prognostication
of the good or evil chances in any
projectedundertaking. On the other hand, unusual
happenings or arrangements in the heavens were
to mean
certain favorable or unfavorable
interpreted
events for the governments of the various divisions
of the known
world.
The chief gods, Anu, EnUl,
and Ea, were
assigneddivisions of the heavens ; the
"

The lord Tammuz

no
longerlives;
The lord of the dweUing no longerlives;
The spouse of the lady of heaven no longerlives;
The lord of Eturra no longerlives;
The brother of the mother of the vine no longer
lives.
With
such iteration the whole land was
plunged
into mourning. When
itwas beUeved that Tammuz
had risen again,in accordance with psychological
law, the ecstatic joy was
correspondinglygreat.
The
celebrated in festivals to these
event
was
deities of fertilityfestivals that were
not always
"

chaste,
believed
6. Life afterdeath. ^Althoughit was
that the god Tammuz
rose
annually from the
dead, the Babylonians had no faith that men
could share his fortunate fate. Their conceptionof
the under-world is graphically
set forth in the poem
Ishtar's descent
the underworld.
The
on
to
goddess is said to have determined to go
"

Unto
Unto

the house of darkness,the dwellingof Irkalla

the house whose enterer never
out
comes
Along the way whose going has no return,
Unto the house whose enterer is deprivedof light.
Where
dust is their food,their sustenance
clay.
Light they do not see, in darkness they dwell;
They are 'lothed like birds with a coveringof wings.
Over the door and bolt the dust is spread.
Into

this cheerless world the dead departed with

a
happy resurrection. The tweKth
tablet of the Gilgamesh Epic tells how wistfully
the Babylonians longed for a more
cheerful hereafter
and for reunion with loved ones, but that
such hope was
The
no
granted them.
epic in
lines sums
two
their attitude as they contemplated
up
this prospect :

hope of

no

I will sit all day and

I will sit all day and
The
many

hostile

weep!
weep!

Babylonians believed in the existence of

spiritsbeside the gods spiritsthat were
"

to

men.

These

demons

haunted

every

they brought diseases;they were

ever
believed that
It was
men.
ready to leap upon
they could be controlled by certain formulae,especially
cranny;

if these were
uttered in connection with certain
ceremonies.
fulfil these functions long
To
incantation texts were
compiled,and, no doubt
often employed. It thus happens that Babylonian
ceremonies merge off insensibly
into magic.
religious
7. Ethics. In spiteof the limitations of their
for such an
religious
conceptionsthe Babylonians,
earlyfolk,developed a comparativelyhigh ethical
standard.
code of Hammurapi,
The
well as
as
fragmentsof earliercodes,shows that they had solved
with a fair degree of success
of the initial
many

rulinggods.Sin,Shamash, Marduk, Isthar,Ninib,

identified with the moon,
Nergal,and Nebo, were
and planets. Their changes in relationship
sun
taken to be the result of a divine planand the
were
inference followed that one
who could understand
the will of these divine rulers whose action produced
good or illon earth would be able to foretelland to
The religion
of Persia and
prepare for the event.
the science of Greece revealed to Babylonia and Assyria
the futility
of this childish science and destroyed
astrologyin its home land.
It was
destined,however, to have a new lifein
the Roman
with all the
Empire to which it came
But it was
glamor of an oriental wisdom.
radically
idea was
added that the unichanged. The new
verse
is a vast organism in which every particle
is
involved with every other in a constant
interplay
of influences under
fixed law.
read this
To
a
cosmic mechanism
the characteristics of the old
gods and of mythicalpersonages were assignedto the
stars and constellations bearing their names,
the
divisions of the zodiac allotted to various sections of
the earth and intricate interpretations
made of the
arrangements of the heavenly bodies accordingto
time.
The significance
of the system was
that in
it seemed
such a universe of ordered movement
vidual.
possibleto forecast the fate and future of any indithe science of casting a
Astrology was
consulted for
horoscope and the astrologerwas
infalUble guidance regardingany future event or
ambition.
By the attractiveness of its rehgious
of Fatalism,by its emphasis on order
philosophy
and destiny,the pseudo-science
quered
completely conworld and maintained its sway
the Roman
side by side with the real science of astronomy into
the Middle Ages.
Probably its greatestservice was to prepare the
of the stars,
way, by knowledge of the movements
for the genuine physicaland astronomical sciences.
A. Eustace
Haydon

Astruc, Jean

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

ASTRUC,
JEAN." French R.C. scholar,1684dis1766; an eminent physician whose studies in eases
of the
of the skin led him to an examination
Levitical legislation
regarding the clean and the
unclean.
This study led him to a critical investigation
which resulted in an analysisof the Pentateuch
into two documents
the basis of the two divine
on
and Elohim.
Yahweh
names,
for god used
An early Aryan name
originallyby the Indian and Iranian branches of
this race.
In Iran it retained its meaning, forming
Mazda
part of the title of the great God, Ahura
to mean
(Ormazd) while in India the word came
demon in the later rehgion.
ASURA.

"

divine figuresin early Vedic

ASVINS.
Two
religioncalled "lords of the horses" and identified
with the morning and evening stars.
"

ASYLUM.
persons

^An

"

inviolable

fleeing from

place of refuge

pursuit, such

as

for

run-away

defeated soldiers. Among

or
slaves, criminals
primitive peoples totem
centers, specificplaces
whole villages
and sometimes
(O.T. cities of refuge,
lands tombs
serve
as
asylums. In Muhammadan
of saints and
are
so
regarded. Among
mosques
such as the Slavonic and
some
primitivereligions,
such developed reUgions
Teutonic,as well as among
and
those of the Greeks, Hebrews, Hindus
as
Romans, the sanctuary or temple was regardedas
of these
an
asylum. On the conversion of some
the right of asylum continued
people to Christianity,
in connection
with the church.
It thus
continued
in England and
France
till the 16th.
century and in Spain until the 19th. century. As
to the genesis of the idea, Westermarck
suggests
the hypothesis that the deity like the man
was
under obhgation to shelter the one
who had taken
from being
refuge in his home to avert the curse
transferred to him.
The fire god of early Iranian religion:
ATAR.
in developed Zoroassymbol of the purityof Ormazd
"

ATHARVAVEDA."
One
of the four divisions
of the Vedic scriptures,
consistinglargelyof charm,
incantation
and
Sacred
See
magic formulae.
Scriptures.
ATHEISM.

A disbelief in the existence of a

in control of the universe.
The word is often looselyemployed as a term of
who
opprobrium to designate any one
adversely
criticizes current
rates
theologicaldoctrines. Thus Socmodern
was
charged with atheism; and some
thinkers who
have
repudiated the conceptions of
theologicalanthropomorphism have been called
atheists. Since atheism denotes a negativeattitude,
it may
be associated with agnosticism (q.v.);or it
find expressionin some
antitheistic philosophy,
may
such as materialism
or
pancosmism.
Atheism
arises out of an
adverse
criticism of
crude or anthropomorphic ideas in theology, and
hence is a secondary rather than a primary religious
attitude.
The most
important organized development
of atheism
occurred
in India, where
in the
Sankya system in Buddhism, and in Jainism
(qq.v.)religionwas
interpretedin terms of selfrather than of dependence on
salvation
discipline
from the gods. In modern
times the development
of modern
science has led to attempts to explain
the entire universe without reference to any divine
in harmony with
Being. But Agnosticism is more
the spirit
of science than is a developed atheism.
Gerald
Smith
Birney
ATHENAGORAS."
of
the
Christian writer
last quarter of the 2nd. century; wrote
Greek
two
and
of an
the
treatises,one
apologetic nature
other on the resurrection.

ATARGATIS."
A Syrian
Goddesses.
Mother

ATAVISM.
Lat.
meaning
ancestor, used

goddess of fertihty.

biological
term, derived from the
or
great-great-great-grandfather,
to signify reversion
to traits or
characteristics of a grandparent or more
remote
ancestor

which

"

have

not

appeared in

the parent.

ATHANASIAN
of the three
CREED."
One
eccumenical
creeds
emphasizing details of the
doctrine of the trinity,
used in the Roman,
officially
Greek and Anglican churches.
It is of Latin origin,
probably in the 6th. century, although it bears
of Athanasius.
See Creeds
(wrongly) the name
Faith.
Articles
op
AND
SAINT
ATHANASIUS,
(293-373)."Bishop of
Alexandria
and theologian; took orders when
very
archdeacon
He
under
Alexander
of
was
young.
Alexandria, and in 326 succeeded him as bishop.
His tenure of office was
of storm and stress owing
one
succeeded
to the Arian
controversy. Athanasius
Alexander as the defender of orthodoxy against
and SabeUianism,
Arianism
declaringthat Arianism
would lead to polytheism and that SabeUianism
made
impossible the unity of the Father and his
Son.
His interest in the reahty of salvation
own
led him to insist on the divinityof Christ.
Thus
the use
of homoousios
he defended
(q.v.)against
homoios
homoiousios
or
(qq.v.). Owing to the

"

personalGod

Peninsula
and
mountain
the
on
of the Chalcidian
peninsula on the
by
Aegean Sea; designated "the Holy Mount"
orthodox
Greeks; a great center of Greek monasticism.
The
hbraries
contain
of its monasteries
valuable manuscripts.
many
eastern

See

34

influence of Eusebius
of Nicomedia
and
other
Arians,Athanasius was exposed to the vascillations
of the emperors' opinions, and
five times
was
expelledfrom his office,
though always permitted to
His zeal and persuasiveexpositionof the
return.
Nicene Christologyled to his being honored
the
as
"father of orthodoxy."

ATHOS.

trianism.

ETHICS

AND

"

side

A term occurring frequently in the

ATMAN.
hterature
of the religionsof India, derived from
the Skt.,an, found in the Rig Veda as tmdn, meaning
"breath."
The word
acquired the meaning of
of
soul."
One
of the elements
"the individual
trine
docthe teaching of the Upanishads is the Advaita
that atman
brahman
vidual
(q.v.),i.e.,the indisoul is identified with the world soul.
"

of establishing
ATONEMENT."
The
act or
means
God
and man.
In
reconciliation between
Christian
theology it has reference chieflyto the
work of Christ as accomplishingthis reconciUation.
1. In
'pre-Christian religionthe reconciliation
conditioned
between
was
largely
gods and man
of the estrangement
estimate of the cause
an
upon
to the
and the habilityof man
between
the two
effects of divine displeasure. In the more
primitive
types of religionthis estrangement is due to some
neglect or insult which has been offered by some
of the tribe to its deity. This might be a
member
ritual
breaking of the taboo, the neglect of some
tive,
performance, disobedience of the god's representamethod
of
the usual
In such
cases
etc.
fice.
would
be a giftto the god as sacrireconciUation
intended
to
all sacrifices were
While
not

35

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Atonement

held
in bondage
in Sheol. This
of those of this
involved an
elaborate expositionof the descent of Christ into
and varied from the
the abode
of the departed spirits,
well as the
as
offeringof material for a feast in which the god
of both the Father and the Son in the
to the sacrifice of a human
being. participation
might participate,
the Divinity of Christ.
lifein the different communities
deceptionof Satan regarding
As the religious
The theory,however, was
ingly
easilyunderstood because
varied,the requirementsof the gods became increasof the practiceof the time.
The aspersionwhich
standardized with a subsequent Uabilityto
increase in violations of the ritual. In the penito
tential it cast upon the morality of God does not seem
have occurred even
to such outstanding leaders as
of Babylon particularweight is
prayers
Origen, Augustine, Gregory, and Epiphanius, by
given to neglectsof this character.
the theory was
whom
held.
The gods were
regarded as reconciled by presenting
The first attempt at systematizing the signifiwhich the priestaccepted in behalf of the
a gift
cance
of the death of Christ with other Christian
mark
deity. The acceptance of this gift would
made
the
the completion of the reconciliation between
doctrines,was
(1033-1099) in
by Anselm
These
of different his famous
treatise Cur Deus Homo.
In this work
giftswere
worehiper and the God.
utilized the practicesof a feudal state as
extent
Anselm
were
adapted to
sorts, and to some
well as the concepts of the growing penitential
the economic
capacity of the worshiper, as well
system.
caused the break in
The death of Christ he held made satisfaction
of that which
as to the nature
the worshiper and
to the divine honor
the friendlyrelation between
for the debt which
humanity
otherwise could never
his god.
have paid. Anselm
educes
In the Hebrew
of
the
sacrifices no scripturalauthority for this satisfaction,
but
religionmany
partook of the nature of confession of ritual sin both
simply refers to what were
evidently current ideas
individual
national.
elaborate codes of
in his social order.
and
The
The reconciliation accomplished
sacrificewhich developed in the Hebrew
by the death of Christ is within the divine nature
rehgionwere
concerned
itself as a prequisiteof reconciliation between
God
in the removal
of hindrances to the
to his people. In most
and man.
in Jesus was
reconciliation of Yahweh
Humanity as represented
enabled
these infractions of divine law were
ritual
cases
by the incarnate Son to pay not only
and ceremonial,and the sacrificeswere
the debt which
ingly
correspondhumanity owed God, but since
of ritual character.
Jesus himself was
sin and so was
In the great Day of the
not guiltyof any
established
not under
obUgation to die, to make satisfaction
Atonement, however, the sacrifices were
of
In return
for this uncalled
to the divine honor.
in expiationof the national sin for the purpose
entitled
for service on
the part of Christ he was
re-establishing
friendlyrelations between Yahweh
from
and the nation.
the Father
the right to exThe sins of the nation were
tend
posedly to ask a boon
supbeUeved
who
forgivenessto certain persons
placed on a scapegoat, which instead of
him.
being killed was driven into the wilderness.
upon
The Aijselmic theorywas
in Christian religion. The world
not universally
2. Atonement
adopted
in which
by the Schoolmen,although it graduallyfound favor.
Christianitytook its rise was everywhere
A more
marked
by the practiceof sacrifice as a part of the
pressingquestion was whether the death of
Christ was
in itself possessed of such worth as to
between
of establishing reconciliation
process
it the only conceivable grounds for God's forGod
and
make
giveness
It was
man.
natural, therefore,that
of men,
form of sacrificialvalue should be given to the
whether
some
or
(Duns Scotus) God
several conceivable alternadeath of Christ,since aU Christians believed that
chose to regard it among
tives
See Acceptireconciliation had been accomplishedby faith in
as
possessed of such worth.
him.
absence of sacrifice in the new
The
religion lATION.
after its separation from
The
the temple worship at
extra-scriptural
conception of satisfaction
fitted in so admirably with the contemporary
Jerusalem
led to the rise of sacrificialterms
as
tices
pracThus
he
of the European civilization that it continued
of evaluating the death of Jesus.
means
hold
to
is representedby Paul as the sacrificial gift(Rom.
increasingsway for a very long period. In
the case
of the Reformers
the death of Christ came
3:21), presented,
by God himself,and not by man.
to be regarded as a satisfaction to the justiceof
This analogy of sacrifice became
frequently used
God
well as to his dignity. A substitutionary
in the Bible, and
the reconciliation which
as
was
had
of experience because
men
penal value was also discovered by which Christ
already a matter
cried "Abba, Father," was
declared to have been
the punishment due
to
beUeved to endure
was
made
this point of view
From
possiblebecause of the death of Jesus Christ, i believers individually.
would
Jesus actually bore the punishment which
Strictlyspeaking, the death of Jesus does not
he
the requirements of actual sacrifice,
otherwise have been borne by the elect and thus
meet
as
The
for God
to forgive them.
not offered on the altar and there was
was
no
priest opened the way
to receive the gift,
there an offeringof his
also increasingly
developed
nor
was
conception of debt was
and Jesus was
the
life by any
regarded as having actually paid
worshiper since his death was
outgrowth of enmity rather than faith. The Epistle the debt which otherwise humanity must have paid.
these difficulties
An
undertakes
to the Hebrews
to meet
interestingvariant from this generalfine
in the theory of
of development is to be seen
a
by showing that Jesus offered himself,and was
to the effect that the death of Christ did
high priestsuperiorin importance to those of the
GxQl-ius,
to
Aaronic order.
not change the attitude of God, but served
The
writers do not elaborate
indicate that law could not be violated without some
New
Testament
the sacrificial analogy in their exposition of the
form of suffering. By this view the death of Christ
and majesty of divine
testified to the supremacy
effect of the death
of Christ on
God, and this
fact has given rise to a very considerable Kterature
law without emphasizing the thought of satisfaction
This
in which effort is made to find a unifyingconception. to either the honor or the justiceof God.
As a matter of fact,the church of the firstmillennium
theory was
subsequentlydeveloped in the New

expiate the
character

were

fault, the
very

number

numerous

"

"

made
httle systematic use
of the death of Christ,
and
its doctrine of forgiveness and
salvation
included no effort to expand the thought of the New
Testament
beyond the simple analogy of sacrifice.
The
that Christ's life was
prevailingtheory was
a ransom
given to Satan in return for the souls of
the patriarchsand other religious
he
persons whom

England theology.
has
Although the doctrine of the Atonement
been
never
organized into a dogma comparable
of Christ,
with that of the Trinity and the person
yet within orthodoxy the satisfaction theory in one
from or another and the imputation of Christ's righteousness
have remained dominant.

At the

same

time

Atonement, Day of
there have

been other

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

theories for the purpose

of

showing how the roconcihation or the at-one-ment

has been accomphshed.
It is necessary
to speak
of the moral influence theory, which first
especially
gained position by its formulation
by Abelard.
The various views of this type have in common
the
belief that the reconcihation between
and God
man
does not involve any propitiation
of God or expiation
of sin on the part of Christ. His hfe and death
are
examples calculated to stimulate and guide the
beUever to the love of God and he died vicariously
but not as a substitute.
According to McLeod
Campbell and other
Scotch theologians,
Christ sympathetically
gathered
an
erringrace to his heart and died because of the
for that race
repentance which he made
on^e
Bushnell
cross.
taught that the death of Christ
and'
vicarious but not substitutionary
was
was
a
revelation of the divine love calculated to deepen
faith and repentance.
It is to be noticed that all these theories of the
Atonement
are, so to speak, ex 'post facto. Their
tion
champions have always started with the convicof the reconciliation as a matter
of experience.
The doctrine of the Atonement
has been organized
for the purpose
of making it appear
that such
reconciliation is consonant
with what
to a
seems
given period fundamental
justiceboth in theory and
of these
practice. The consequent crudities in some
explanations are not their essential quaUty: viz.,
the unconquerable conviction that the God of law
is also the God of love,and that in the act of forgiveness
he does not violate the moral order which he
Shailer
has established.
Mathews
OF." A Jewish hohday,
DAY
the tenth day of the month
of Tishri

ATONEMENT,
observed

on

manded
(corresponding approximately to October) comin the Bible (Lev. 23:26-32). Marking
the conclusion of "the ten penitentialdays" of
it is the most
solenan day
earnest
self-examination,
of the Jewish
calendar, calUng for fasting and
Its Uturgy is a
sunset
to sunset."
prayer "from
soul-stirringconfession before God,
deep and
pleading for forgiveness and
repentance, and
Divine aid in strivingfor better things.
.

Harold
F. Reinhart
before the entrance
to
were
penitents who
early churches, where
denied admission
gathered to invoke the prayers
of the faithful.
ATRIUM.

An

"

open

court

AND

ETHICS

36

submitted to the Pope, such as the

juridicalcases
Auditor Papae, Auditor Carrier
ae, and the Auditor
of the Rota.

AUFKLAERUNG,

THE."

See Enlightenmbnt.

AUGSBURG
of
CONFESSION."
A statement
behef drawn up by Melanchthon, and presented to
the Imperial diet at Augsburg in 1530 by a number
of Protestant
references
the
to
princes. The
Lord's
Supper were
subsequently modified by
Melanchthon
ism.
to be less opposed to Calvinso
as
The two forms have been a source
of division
Lutherans,
See Creeds
Confessions
and
among
Faith.
OF
RELIGIOUS
The
PEACE
OF."
AUGSBURG,
of a council held in Augsburg, 1555 to
outcome
settle a religiouscontroversy in Germany.
The
council decreed that all who adhered to the Augsburg
whatever
be the edition,were
to
Confession,
be included as Protestants.
It left to secular rulers
the matter
of control over
rehgion in their own

territory.
AUGSBURG,
AUGURY."

INTERIM

OF."

See

Interim.

See Divination.

AUGUSTINE
(354-430)." Aurelius Augustinus,
of the most
influential men
in Christian history
born in Tagaste, Numidia, a student in the higher
schools of Carthage, early found
in himself the
conflict between
his philosophic ideals and
the
For nine years he
passion of his sensual nature.
adhered to the Manichaean
sect, attracted by their
intellectual freedom
and
the simphcity of their
explanationof evil from a warfare of two principles.
He was
at last by their capriciousspeculations
repelled
and reduced
baffled
to a skepticism which
his mind
divided
Made
his wiU.
as
a
sensuaUty
teacher of literature in Milan in 384, his wavering
felt the spell of the authoritative
nature
church
administered
At this
as
by the great Ambrose.
lations
time, too, Neo-platonism known through the transof Victorinus
aided
the solution of his
from
the
spiritualproblem, emancipating him
materiaUstic
Neotheology of the Manichaeans.
platonism and Christian truth were for him blended
in one.
Subdued
also by the new
ideal of monasticism he resolved to end his irregular
marital ties and
hve a cehbate life,
resolution which later in his
a
Confessionswas idealized as a conversion.
Baptized
(387) in Milan he returned to Africa,was ordained
presbyter (390) and from 395 to his death was
Bishop of Hippo, he and his clergylivinga common
life of voluntary poverty after the monastic
ideal.
In this period under the influence of Paul's Epistles
rehgionbecame for him the problem of reconciliation
of the sinful heart and a merciful God.
Augustine
is in fact the first theologian to develop Paul's
conception of ethical redemption as the work of
irresistible grace
an
transforming the will. The
controversy with Pelagius (412 ff.)sharpened his
formulation of this and the conflict with schismatic
tative
Donatists intensified his conception of the authorichurch.
F. A. Christie
Augustine's theology. The influence of Neoplatonism in Augustine's religiousdevelopment
into his Christian
was
strong, and was carried over
experience as a profound mysticism. God is the
only Being with independent existence. AU other
beings derive whatever reahty they have from God.
of existence is
To be deprived of this divine source
evil. Evil is thus defined as privationof good.
Translated
into Christian doctrine,this mysti-^
cism emphasized the inherent inabilityof sinful
one

ATROPHY.

biology, the cessation

development and wasting away of an organ
analogously,spiritual
stagnation.
"

In

of the
or

parts

^A male Asiatic deityand counterpart

ATTIS.
of Cybele, the great mother.
The
Cybele-Atti:
cult belongsto the group of Mystery Rehgions (q.v.).
"

In R.C.

ATTRITION."

trition
imperfectcontheology,
springing from imperfect
The highest motive
is the love of God,
motives.
and repentance springing therefrom
is contrition.
See Penance, Contrition.
or

repentance

AUBURN
DECLARATION."
A declaration of
at Auburn, N.Y.
faith made
by representativesof
School party in the controversy between
the New
Schools
New
of the Presbyterian
the Old and
declaration
included
mentals
fundaThe
the
church.
and received the endorseof Calvinism
ment
General
of the
Assembly in 1868. See
Presbyterianism.
The name
AUDITOR.
of the Vatican court
"

to certain dignitaries
hear and investigate

appUed
who

"

37

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Australia,Religions of

told some
good. Goodness must be created in
6,000 aborigineshave thus far been won
Catholic
be maintained
and
by combined
Protestant effort.
by God, and must
by God's
in man.
These
This
creative divine
sustaining power
aboriginalpeoples are rapidly disappearing
is prevenient (i.e.,
it acts
as
A century
a result of the impact of civihzation.
activityis grrace,which
desire for salvation)and coin man
there were
some
a
to create
operating ago
200,000 aboriginesin Queensland
it strengthens the good purposes
alone.
Henry
H. Walker
(i.e.,
created by prevenient grace). Since the work
of
RELIGIONS
be initiated by God, divine election is
OF."
Of
all the
AUSTRALIA,
grace must
the real ground of individual salvation.
primitive peoples the hunting tribes of Australia
lated
Augustine vigorouslyopposed all conceptions form the most considerable illustrationof an isoof salvation by human
merit (see Pelagianism),
homogeneous group.
They were formerlyhela
to be the most
and
thus
in
But
primitiveof peoples and to have a
inspirationto Luther,
gave
mental
capacity intermediate between the highest
ments
identifyingtlie channels of grace with the sacraand ministrations
of the Cathohc
but a closer acquaintance
Church,
apes and civihzed man,
with them
has led to a revision of this opinion.
he gave
a
to
jjowerful rehgious reinforcement
Catholicism.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
Living in a dry country, dependent on game, needing
their problems far
to hold together,they have met
AUGUSTINE
OF CANTERBURY."
than was
at first supposed.
more
skillfully
Missionary
Writers
the mythology of the Australians
to the Anglo-Saxons, sent by Gregory the Great in
on
the firstarchbishopof Canterbury
He became
acter
596.
are
constantlyreferringto the unsystematic charof their legends. They have no fixed genealogy
where
he died, 604 or 605.
His work, organized
the co-operationof a large number
of the heavens, no
to secure
so
as
recognized history,no cycle of
divine legends. But all this is as we
of missionarymonks, was very successful in making
should now
formed
transconverts, and many
expect from the condition under which they have
temples were
pagan
into Christian churches.
From
him dates
developed. They could not produce a theologyany
of Roman
CathoUcism
the estabhshment
in England
than the Africans. The earlier attempts to
more
and the supplanting of the old British church.
what the people believed about the future
set down
the creation of the world
and
life,gods, spirits,
AUGUSTINIAN."
out of the
(1) Pertaining to the life resulted,indeed, in teasing statements
the
natives but the statements
for the most
or
were
theology of Augustine (q.v.). (2) An
part
it is to
misleading. As in all primitivereligions,
exponent of the doctrines of Augustine. (3) Any
ceremonies
of the monastic orders and congregationsliving customs
and
and
not to intellectual
one
formulations that we must turn for an explanationof
according to the so-called Augustinian rule. The
their rehgious life. Each
behef
of
has his own
man
principleAugustinian order is the "hermits
about any
St. Augustine" or "Austin friars,"
founded
in 1256,
specific
problem that is presented,but
of our
to which Luther belonged. The barefooted
to their
problems have not come
Augusmany
attention and hence they lack our doctrinal systems.
tinians are
reformed
a
congregation of the same
order.
It has been said that they do not beheve in immortality,
for the reason
that they do not have any
AURICULAR
CONFESSION."
A
private idea of mortality. In a world where every object
to respond with a definite attitude
acknowledgement of sin into the ear of a priest, in nature seems
toward
the people in it,there is no rrieaning
to a
prescribedby the R.C. church, on pain of the loss
belief in immortality for there is nofdeath.
of the privileges
of membership in the church and
times
Someman

to do any

man

Christian

burial.

Auricular

confession

Austrahan
mother
is said to carry the
her back tillit decomposes and then
on
to carry the bones in her sleepingbag.
Catholic
III. in 1215 decreed that every
Most of the features which characterize primitive
Innocent
confess at least once
the
rehgions in general are to be found among
annually. The canonical age
of confession is seven
Australians,but the most remarkable
ing
distinguishyears.
characteristics
of their culture are
in the
AUSTERITIES."
Acts of rigorousself-disciplineinitiation ceremonies
which, indeed, occur
ever}'in the interests of rehgiousor moral purity such as
where but are developed more
where.
highly here than elseThe key to the ceremonies
is to be found
to involve serious hardships. See Asceticism.
in the fact that the control of the life of the tribe
MISSIONS
TO."
The
is in the hands of the old men.
Into the company
AUSTRALIA,
tion
populaconsists of from 50,000 to 74,000 aborigines, of the old men
the boys are
brought with great
and mystery, and
ceremonies
ca.
lastingfor
5,000,000whites,and ca. 32,500 orientals. The
secrecy
London
weeks
or
are
Missionary Society'sefforts near
Sydney
carefully
months, and even
years,
with the extinction of the tribes served,
ended
through with, the net result of which is to
gone
1861.
ca.
AngUcans, Moravians, Presbyterians perpetuate the exact system then prevailing. Into
and Lutherans
initiated and
have work
in Queensland; Anglithis ceremony
is ever
no
woman
cans,
accidental
in Northern
North-West
death
is or
the penalty for an
was
Territorj^ and
It was
into the company.
entrance
Australia;Presbyteriansin Victoria;two German
by a woman
Societies in South Australia, the New
South Wales
even
puni-shableby death to look upon the sacred
made
to
wooden
a
Aboriginal Mission (interdenominational)in New
bull-roarer,
paddle which was
South
sound by being swung
at the end of a string. The
Wales; the Anglicans in the Torres Straits
tribes
ceremonies
the different Austrahan
a populationmade
(Moalsland Mission,1907) among
among
not uniform but in all of them the initiate is given
the latter
are
up of aboriginesand South Sea Islanders,
ous
lessons and is treated to very strenutransplanted thither from Austraha.
Anghcans,
very solemn
times
rites. Sometimes
out, somea tooth is knocked
Presbyteriansand Wesleyans carry on work among
other ceremonial
the Chinese
Cathohcs
there is circumcision
or
immigrants. The Roman
have missions in West
and North-West
Austraha.
surgicaloperations.
Austrahan
Missions
combine
The result of such a system is not difficultto see.
evangelism with
industrial training. The
With the power entirelyin the hands of one
has aided
group
government
of public
in the support of schools and the estabhshment
of
and with an elaborate and effective method
reservations.
Natives are encouraged to own
it is possibleto have a society that is
education
their
be entirely
ever
static. No
All
almost
own
society can
land, and are instructed as to its use.
was

first

proposed in lieu of public confession by Leo I.

Lateran
Council
Fourth
under
(440-461). The

an

dead

baby

DICTIONARY

Authority

stable,but the Australian

approached

OF

very

RELIGION

closely

to it.

feature of the lifehas been pointed

interesting
A hunting people lives by means
by Dewey.

not
and
and
of stimulations
excitements
has
of drudgery. Thus
learned to endure the monotony
it arises that the people who have best succeeded
in stabiUzingtheir social structure are most tolerant
of new
inventions in the form of the ritual of control.
Novelty in the initiation is at a premium and
nmch ingenuity is expended in the embellishment
of the ceremonies.
there is another
Besides the initiation ceremony,
feature of Australian
religionthat is noteworthy,
ties
Some authorinamely the development of totemism.
of
consider that Austraha
is the originalhome
this be true or not, the
totemism, but whether
ceremonies which are engaged in for the multiplication
of the totem
elaborate than elsewhere.
more
are
These
ceremonies
include dances
and, unhke the
in by the women.
initiations,
they are participated
Where
the totem
is an animal the magical increase
in the supply of the animals is obtained by moulding
a
heap of sand into the form of the animal and
various parts are thrown into the air by the participants.
is more
celebration of the fish totem
The
other parts of the
and
compUcated. The arms
of the clan are pierced
body of one of the members
with bone daggers after which he descends into the
water, his blood mingling with the fish and causing
abundant
an
supply. Grass seeds scattered into
the same
the air serve
for the grass totem.
purpose
Besides the usual dances which are common
to
primitivepeople in general,the Australians have an
institutional dance
called Corroboree, which may
be a very solemn and serious ceremony,
connected
with
for commemorative
propitiatory rites or
At times the women
joinin these dances
purposes.
and occasionallythey are characterized by license.
Ellsworth
Faris
AUTHORITY."
The
right to declare what is
obUgatory in beUef and practice and to enforce
obedience to such declarations.
In a looser sense,
the abihty of a person
to give expert judgment:
the authority of a historian or a scientist in a
as
field where he has specialknowledge.
In the realm of rehgion,God, as creator of the
has authority to declare what is
world and of men
rightand to enforce obedience to his decrees. Any
law or utterance
which can be proved to come
from
God
is therefore authoritative.
Different theories
of authorityarise from different conceptionsof the
agenciesthrough which God speaks.
1. The authorityof inspiredscriptures. Oracles
and words
of inspiredprophets are
regarded as
of divine origin. In the more
utterances
highly
collected in
are
organizedrehgionssuch utterances
the form of sacred scriptureswhich
the final
are
of appeal. This is pre-eminently true of
court
and Mohammedanism,
where
Judaism, Christianity,
the authorityof scriptureis based on a doctrine of
"

specific
inspiration.
The

Roman

Catholic

church

tative
adds to the authori-

ETHICS

38

Holy Spiritto interpretscripturearight. As

of fact the creeds and confessions of the

branches of Protestantism guide the interpretation
of scripture to a large extent, and
in
of church discipHnethese are authoritative.
cases
Historical critical study of the biblical writings
introduces radical modifications in the traditional
theories of inspirationand inevitably affects the
notion of authority. See Biblical Criticism.
2. The authority
of a priorirational principles.
There are certain fundamental principles
axioms
or
to which all thinkingmust
conform.
Mathematical
relations and logical
not to be evaded.
are
principles
The authority of such fundamental ideas has been
supported by appeal to a doctrine of innate ideas,
mind.
Kant's
divinelyimplanted in the human
critical philosophy made
certain a prioriprinciples
regulative,and he attempted to expound ethics
and religion
in terms of conformity to the dictates
of these a prioricategories.
A rehgious philosophy may
be organized on
the basis of such rational principles.Confucius
ance
emphasized the necessityof livingin accord(q.v.)
with the rational order of "heaven."
cism
Stoi(q.v.)urged a life of rational unity with the
divine order in the cosmos.
Deism
(q.v.)
attempted
to reduce
rehgion to certain universal rational
doctrines which
all men
must
accept just because
they are rational.
A criticalexamination of the processes of reasoning
reveals the weakness
of too extensive an appeal
to a prioriprinciples.Our convictions are
formed
of experienceto so great an
by the circumstances
extent, that it has been found necessary to test
ideas by critical examination
rather than by reference
to an
underived
a
prioriauthority. Modern
and more
thinkingis thus more
appealingto experimental
testing rather than to "authoritative"
a

An
out

the

AND

matter

various

"

dogmas.
3. Authority in
sponding
politicalgovernment. Corredoctrine of authoritycomto the religious
ing
from divine pronouncements
is the theory of
the "divine right" of kings. Hammurabi
(q.v.)
is pictured as receivinghis code of laws directly
from the hands of the god Shamash.
The emperor
of Japan is the "Son
of Heaven."
Mediaeval
that
rulers
politicaltheory generally assumed
Protests
were
divinely commissioned.
against
poUticalarbitrariness appealed to certain divinely
"

willed functions which

the ruler was
to fulfil. If
he failed to fulfilthem, he forfeited the authoritj^
which belonged to these functions.
The
tion
Declaraof Independence vindicates the revolt of the
American
colonies against England by an
appeal
and of Nature's God"
to "the laws of Nature
(see
Law
In modern
of
Nature).
democracy poUtical
authority is regarded as power
delegated by the
people to elected agents to be exercised for the
common
good; but the constant
appeal to principles
of justiceindicates that real authorityis conceived
stable than
as
consistingin something more
the will of an accidental majority. See Law
cal;
PolitiGerald
Birney
Justice.
Smith

scripturesthe dogma of the authoritative

church.
AUTOCEPHALI."
Of
According to this doctrine Christ officially
a
name
self-headship;
organized his church, estabhshing the apostlesas
apphed to bishops in early Christian times who
authoritative
interpreters of Christian truth.
recognizedno ecclesiastical superior.
The bishops,as successors
of the apostles,
continue
their authority,and according to the decision of
AUTO
DA
FE." Portuguese for "Act
of the
the Vatican
Council
Faith."
The
of the ceremony
in which
cessor
name
(1870) the pope as the sucof Peter has authority to speak ex cathedra
of the Inquisitionin Spain against
the sentences
the mouthpiece of the church.
as
Cathohcism
heretics were
pubhcly announced, and the condemned
insists that
authoritative
executed by secular authority.
an
were
scripture requires
persons
authoritative interpreter
in order to avoid error,
an
the
church
and
AUTOMATISM."
provides this. Protestantism
(1) In ethics, the theory
that man
and
acts involuntarily,
that therefore
rejectedthe authority of the church, assertingthe
his behavior
is non-moral.
abihty of every individual under the guidance of
(2) In psychology,

39

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

action that is mentally determined where the subject

is not conscious of the mental process.
AUTONOMY.

"

Freedom

of action from external

AND

ETHICS

Aztecs,Religion of

is endowed
with personal immortaUty; that a few
choice souls enjoy fellowshipwith the Universal
the giftof prophecy; and that
and, in consequence,
the world of ideas,souls,physicalforce,and corporeal
emanations
matter
from God.
are

control;a term employed by earlywriters for political

but from the 17th. century appliedalso
liberty,
and reUgion. Kant
AVIGNON."
used the word
to morals
to
City in the department of Vauthe facultyof the will to determine
its own
cluse,France, the residence of seven
1309mean
popes,
moral
by the objects willed.
laws, uninfluenced
1377, and of two anti-popes,1378-1408; remained
is commonly employed in opposition to
The term
as
papal property until the French
Revolution,
1791.
heteronomy or subjectionto external authority.
AUXILIARY
is appointed as
than
where more

BISHOP."
A
R.C. bishop who
auxiliaryto the diocesan in cases
one
bishop is required.

AVALOKITESVARA."

An
important divine
the merciful savior of the
present age he is closelyassociated with Amitabha
he is generallygiven
(q.v.). Among bodhisattvas
in
supreme rank as the active presence of the Buddha
is the ruler of the western
this world while Amitabha
Paradise.

figureof Buddhism.

As

AXIOM.
(1) In logic and mathematics, a
the
propositionaccepted as self-evident without
necessity of demonstration, and hence available
for further deductions.
(2) In epistemology, a
sary
propositionor principlethat is regarded as necesThe
truth, immediately known.
going
thoroughempiricist in epistemology is opposed to
"

regardingany

truth

as

axiomatic.

THE
GREAT."
An
American
AWAKENING,
developing in the third and fourth decades
18th.
century, promoted by Jonathan
Immoderate
AVARICE.
passionfor the tion
acquisi- Edwards, the Tennent
brothers,Whitefield,and
and
See Virtues
and
hoarding of wealth.
others, in which thousands
professed conversion,
much
emotionalism
Vices.
was
manifested, the national
consciousness
stimulated, the moral tone of the
A Hindu
word
for divine incarnaAVATAR.
tion:
nation uplifted,and theologicalcontroversy provoked.
usually used to describe the coming of the
revival
of the

"

"

supreme

God

of the world

in animal or human
form in each
and for the world's salvation.

age

AWE.

"

of
feeling

reverence

involvingactual

potential dread induced

by some
object or
Awe
is an
event
suggesting sublime
mystery.
ness
aspect of religious
experiencedue to the consciousor

Lat. Hail Mary; (1) A salutaMARIA."

tion
the Virgin Mary founded
Luke
on
1:28,
authorized
expanded into a formal prayer officially
by Pius v., 1568. (2) The appointed time for the
when
the Ave bell is rung,
of the Ave Maria
use
the Aves
(3) The rosary beads used to enumerate
recited.
as
AVE

to

of contact

with the divine.

RELIGION
OF."
At the time of
AZTECS,
the Spanish conquest of Mexico
the rulingpeopleof
the country were
Tenochthe Aztec, whose capital,
titlan,was on the site of the present Mexico City.
The
AVERROES."
The Aztec were
last of the great Arabic
an
imperialpeople,holding under
learned
their sway
matics,
the greater portion of the population of
in mathephilosophers,1126-1198, was
They had occupied this position
law, medicine, philosophy and theology. central Mexico.
brief time, having emerged from
and
but a relatively
eminent as an advocate of Greek science,
He was
advanced
Aristotle.
commentator
on
Through Moses
as
a
savagery, under the tutelageof the more
exerted on Christian
than two
his influence was
Maimonides
peoples whom
they superseded,not more
of the Spaniards.
or three centuries before the advent
thought and he may be said to h ave introduced the
of the Middle
It is this fact of a relatively
schoolmen
recent acculturation
Christian
Ages to the
which alone can
which so characterized the theology
for the paradoxicalAztec
account
AristoteUanism
in its combination
of savagery
and refinement.
Philosophy.
of the period. See Arabic
religion,
of the most
hideous
Externally it is one
collection of texts
AVESTA.
A
containing religiousdevelopments of mankind, having been
attended
sacrifice upon
the preservedsacred Uterature of the Zoroastrians.
a scale probably
by human
elsewhere
of the language and religion never
It is the oldest memorial
equalled and in forms horribly
cruel by ceremonial
branch
of the Indo-Europeans.
of the Iranian
cannibalism,and by a monstrousness
of imagery perhaps surpassingall others.
Only a fragment has been preserved. The rest
and
Internally,in its prayers and rituals as preserved
perished during the Greek, Mohammedan,
is
to us, in not a few of its ceremonies,which included
Mongol invasions of Persia. Zoroastrianism
the Parsis of India.
best preservedtoday among
baptism,confession and penance, and a conception
The
most
(with of the devotional
life,Aztec religion compares
important texts are the Yasna
of paganism
texts grouped
forms
other
its appendix the Vispered),liturgical
favorably with most
of
and far surpasses
The only explanation
around
the Gathas "hymns" (the oldest and most
many.
ceremonial
this situation is that the more
refined phases of
sacred texts)
; the Vendidad, a priestly
the religionwere
derived from peoples of a finer
code like Leviticus; the Yashts, hymns of praise
and more
astrianism.
mature
to the good spirits
(in a later dialect). See Zoroculture,and such peoples,already
and
in Yucatan
neighboring
decadent, dwelt
regionsat the time of the discovery.
The Aztec pantheon was
AVICENNA
motley,
a polytheistic
(980-1037)."An Arabian physician
the author of
and philosopher,versed in sciences,
organized,however, accordingto a trulyremarkable
resembles the
which were
calendric scheme which in many
a Canon
ways
works, foremost among
many
ployed
medical science,two commentaries
on
Aristotle, astrology of the Old World and Uke this was emon
Aztec deities
of divination.
and a couple of encyclopedias. In his physical
for purposes
oriented
and grouped with
and
of them
most
are
psychologicalideas, there are evidences of
lieved reference to this cosmico-temporalcycleof stations:
beAristotehan
He
and
Neoplatonic influence.
of the active and
the maize-god,or lord of food and life,
presidingover
that through the contact
the noon
hour, the death god over the midnight,
passive inteUect the mind acquiredideas; that it
"

Ba

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

and the hours of dawn

under Xiuhtecutli,
and eve
lord of fire,symbolizing the hearth of the world.
Various other deities hold the intermediate positions,
the exact number
of which
is uncertain, although
there appear
to have been in the dominant
system
twelve lords of the day and of the upper
world,
and nine of the night and of the lower world.
The great gods of Aztec cult include a triad of
high deities along with a secondary group of only
Huitziloless importance. The
tribal deity was
state,
pochtli,probably brought from the savage
and known
primarily as a war-god. It was to this
sacrifices
human
deity that the most
numerous
ing
of war-captiveswere
made.
Tezcatlipoca,"SmokMirror"
(probably the sky),was the supreme
he is identified with
deity in a cosmic sense:
with the night-winds,and
phases of sun and moon,
the quarter^ of heaven.
The
greater portionof

ETHICS

40

the finer Aztec

addressed
to this god,
are
prayers
Lord very good, very
"invisible,
impalpable
compassionate, very
noble, very
precious."
Quetzalcoatl is the third great deity, certainlya
and
also cosmical in character.
pre-Aztec divinity,
It is this deity who was
the center of the remarkable
....

tales of a bearded
white man
to teach
come
law
of life,persecuted, departing over
the
waters, but promising to return with a new
reign
of peace
and
purity. Tlaloc the rain-god and
Chalchiuhtlicue
the goddess of flowing waters
are
also of great cult importance; Xipe Totec, god of
vegetation was
worshiped with frightfulrites,his
victims beingflayedalive; but the most
horrible
figureof all was
Mictlantecutli,the skeleton god
of death, whose
grim visage seems
everywhere to
have haunted
the imaginations of the Aztec race.
See Mexico, Religions
H. B. Alexander
of.
the

B
head and
^The bird-like figurewith human
which
symbolized for ancient Egypt the
revivified soul or intelligence
of the dead person.
BA.

"

Different spellingsof a
BEL.
all of the Semitic dialects and
of "possessor" or
the general meaning
of the word as epithetor title
The usage

BAAL,
word

BEEL,

having

"

to

common

in the temperaments
of certain
reactions following experiences of
and temptation.
distress,

people
doubt,

planati

arms

"lord."
of the deity was
general.
very
able
been innumerIn Canaan
there seem
to have
Baalim
whose
worship,
(pi.),
gods of fertiUty,
like that of their female counterparts, the Ashtacharacterized
roth (Ishtars),was
by the grossest
sensualityand licentiousness. The Hebrew
ets
prophwere
unsparing in their denunciation of these
flourished on
cults which
the "high places" and
"under every green tree."
Such practices,
common
the world over, were
to primitivereligion
meant
to
abundant
increase of field and
garden as
secure
well as of flock and herd.
of the local
How
many
baals attained to the dignityof personal names
we
tribal or
after they became
cannot
tell,but even
city gods they continued to be addressed as Baal.
So Melkart
of Tyre remained
the Tyrian Baal; the
to us
goddess of Byblos is known
only as the
baalat (fem.)Gubla and the Old Testament
ets
prophfound it exceedinglydifficult to keep the Israelites
from applying this epithetto Yahweh.
Both the Hittites and the Phoenicians worshiped
baals of the skies. In Babylonia and
a baal or
addressed as bel,but
AssjTia all of the gods were
the bel par
very early Enlil of Nippur became
excellence.
Later
Marduk
of Babylon attained
the "elder
known
to this dignity and Enlil was
as
bel."
D. D. Luckenbill

and

the

BAETYLS.

"

BAHAISM."

Sacred

stones

or

pillars.

See Behaism.

BAHYA
BEN
A Jewish philosopher
JOSEPH."
who flourished in Spain the firsthalf of the eleventh
Halebabot"
century. He was the author of "Hobot
(Duties of the Heart) a system of Jewish ethics,in
he
moral
which
emphasized the spiritual and
the legaland formal.
cerity,
Sinaspects of religionover
humility; and repentance are presented as
essential virtues; and the love of God
the most
as
F. Reinhart
the highest aim in life.
Harold
BAIUS
(1513-1589).
(OR DE BAY), MICHAEL
versity
Belgian R.C. theologian; chancellor of the Uniof Louvain, and leader of the anti-scholastic
Baius is regarded as
reaction of the 16th. century.
condemned
of Jansen, and
was
by
a
precursor
Pius V. and Gregory XIII. for his ultra-Augustinian
"

tendencies.
OR BALDAQUIN."
(1) A stone,
the high
elevated over
metal canopy,
altar in largerR.C. churches,and usuallysupported
but sometimes
supported by chains. The
by pillars,
is from the Itahan
baldacchino, the ItaUan
name
for Bagdad where the cloth of the canopy
was
name
of
See Ciborium.
made.
(2) Also the canopy
preciouscloth carried in processionover the euchaBALDACHIN

wooden,

rist or

or

dignitary.

A god of lightand moral purity in

BALDER.
Norse mythology. His death through the trickery
of Loki IS at once
a symbol of the fading sumrner
of the approaching
beauty and lightand an omen
of the world and the gods.
doom
"

BAALZEBUB."

-See Beelzebub.

BAB, BABI, BABISM."

"

BABYLONIAN
See Assyrian
BACKSLIDING."

and

See

Behaism.

AND
ASSYRIAN
RELIGION.
Babylonian
Religion.
The

reversion

to

wrong

or

sinful habits and

or

version,
practisesafter reformation, conprofessionof reUgion. See Apostasy.

Calvinistic-Arminian
cerned
concontroversy was
with the possibihtyof a permanent apostasy
after conversion, the Calvinists on
the ground of
predestinationsupporting the negative view, while
the Arminians
declared that the freedom
of the
human
will was
sliding
impaired by such a denial. Backhas led
return
to evil ways
as
a temporary
Protestants to preach the need of renewal and
many
Modern
sanctitication.
psychologistsfind an exThe

HOSEA
(1771-1852)." One of the
BALLOU,
founders of UniversaUsm
(q.v.)in America, and the
several
of its tenets; founded
lucid advocate
most
UniversaMst
extensively in
magazines, and wrote
defense of its doctrines; opposed Calvinistic and

views.
legalistic
of
Councils
OF."
COUNCILS
BALTIMORE,
the R.C. church in the U.S.A.,which have dealt with
of doctrine, education, property, law,
matters
and
journals, discipline,and
sacraments, books
convened
societies. Plenary councils have
secret
There have also been ten
in 1852, 1866, and 1884.
councils
provincial

from

1829-1869.

41

DICTIONARY

OF

male infant.) An artistic

(Italian,
the infant Jesus; especially
figurerepresenting
the doll-like image used in certain R.C. churches in
connection
of the
with the liturgyand symboUsm
Christmas
to
feast,and exposed from Christmas
BAMBINO.

"

is
in a crib or manger.
The best known
the Santissimo
of the church of Santa
Bambino
Maria
in Ara Coeli, Rome, to which
miraculous
powers are ascribed.

Epiphany

BAN.
(1) A
have superhuman
"

or

curse

denunciation

AND

RELIGION

supposedto

See Blessing
to harm.
power
Cursing.
official edict imposing
AND
(2) An
certain duties,such as militaryservice,on
gion.
rea
official declaration
(3) An
by the R.C.
church excludingoffenders from the privileges
of
the sacrament.
_

KRISHNA
MOHUN
BANNERJEA,
(1813ISSS). Indian Christian leader and scholar,born
tianity,
a Hindu, a Brahmin
by caste; converted to Chris1832; ordained as an AngHcan clergyman,
in Sanskrit and
1839; became a recognizedauthority
Hindu philosophy; presidentof the faculty
of Arts,
of Calcutta,1867-9.
University

"

ETHICS

Baptism, Ethnic

in the word of institution,

water but from the Spirit
in the adult conditioned
by faith. In infants the
Holy Spirit,by a mysterious working, excites faith
that they truly beheve.
All infants within the
so
church are saved, even
if unbaptized; concerning
those outside of the church
is permitted to
one

cherish hope.
6.

Reformed doctrine.

Baptism, conditioned

"

on

is a sign and seal of the covenant

of grace,
faith,
that is,of regeneration,
forgiveness,and newness
of fife. The
mode, whether
immersion,affusion,
ever,
or
sprinkhng,is indifferent. Baptism is not, howto salvation;for the non-elect it has
necessary
recent view disregards
significance,
yet the more
the questionof election. Infant children of parents,
the
one
or both of which
are
on
professingChristians,
of grace and of
covenant
ground of the Abrahamic
the family as a rehgiousunit,have a right to baptism.
It is an initiatory
rite to church membership.
Consecration
of infants by baptism receives special
No
emphasis in relation to religiouseducation.
that an inner change is produced
claim is advanced
in any case
it is not to be
by this ceremony;
no

repeated.

7. Anglican doctrine. ^Through baptism the

sin removed,
soul is regenerated,the guiltof original
of eternal
BANNS
OR
and the Holy Spiritbestowed.
A germ
A publication
tion
BANS."
of intenwhen made ecclesiastically.fife is implanted in infants which
to marry,
they may later
especially
such an announceThe R.C. church stilldemands
ment
by their free will either developor neglect.
This embraces
and it is customary in the evangelicalchurches
8. Doctrine of Baptistchurches.
three points: (1) personalChristian experience as
of Great Britain and Germany, but is not a requirement
of baptism; (2)immersion;
essential prerequisite
for a legalmarriage in Great Britain.
an
(3)rejectionof infant baptism on the ground that it
lacks a sure
BANTU.
See Africa, Religions
tive
apostolicsanction, that the rite is
of; PrimiReligions.
meaningless except as a sign of personalfaith,that
to baptize in hope of later faith issues in frequent
CHRISTIAN."
A sacramental appliBAPTISM,
cation disappointment, and that it introduces into the
church
of water to a person, whether by immersion,
an
incongruous, unregenerate element.
of Christ,
Others who hold this positionare Disciples
affusion,or sprinkhng.
sion,
a
1. In primitiveChristianity.Baptism,by immer(qq.v.). This was
Dunkards, and Mennonites
characteristic position
of the Anabaptists.
in the name
in accordof Christ,was
ance
at first,
9. Doctrine of the Societyof Friends {Quakers).
with earUer Jewish rites and the baptism of
Baptism of which that of John, appointed only for a
John, a symbol of purification.
Later, for Paul
wherein by a
and others it took on
sacramental
or
a
mystical time, was a figure,is wholly spiritual,
sin and rises
vital union with Christ one puts away
character,so that whereas it had been simply a
to newness
of life. Infant baptism is in no
it was
sense
now
symbol of changed inward disposition,
binding,since it is to be referred to neither precept
regarded as expressing the believer's union with
but only to human
nor
Christ in his burial and resurrection.
practiceof the scriptures
tradition.
C. A. Beckwith
2. Patristic theory. TertuUian
attributed to
the water
of baptism a magical virtue derived from
ETHNIC"
There are two phasesof
the presence
of the Holy Spirit.Except for martyrs,
BAPTISM,
condition of salvation; the rite baptism in infancy and the baptisni of
an
baptism became
indispensable
adults which admitted
if its benefits were
to full social and religious
lost,it could not be
the usual fluid is water;
privileges.In both cases
repeated,hence arose a tendency to postpone the
The rite of infant baptism,which had
though blood, wine, oil,and honey are sometimes
ceremony.
form
varies. Sprinkling,washing,
used.
The
been advocated
by Irenaeus but contested by Terthrice immersion
referred by Origen to apostoHcusage.
or
(Thibet)
pouring, immersion
tulUan, was
all be found.
is usuallypublic
The ceremony
Augustine prescribedinfant baptism on the ground
may
of kin
and is performed by the father or one
near
that it removed
sin,the condition without
original
the Teutons
which infants could not be saved, and this theory
as
commonly, by a
among
or, more
determined
the practiseof the church.
priest(India,Iran, America, China, Japan, Celts,
of infant baptism the
3. Scholastic and later teaching. Thomas
Thibet, etc.). In the case
Aquinas
In its earliest
is usually given at this time.
iaught that baptism removes
from adults original name
the
the rite was
and actual sin,from infants only originalsin,that
use
probably intended to remove
contagion of the strange potenciesconnected with
is,guiltbut not concupiscence. The Council of
birth and to guard the child from dangers of the
Trent, relying upon
Augustine and
Aquinas,
threatened
its life. It came
world which
demon
affirmed that the effects of baptism are (1) release
to
frorn actual and originalsin together with temporal
also,by the addition of the naming ceremony,
include the recognitionof the legitimacyof the child,
punishment due to sin; (2)impressing an indeUble
its receptioninto the clan,its relation to the ancestral
ship
mark; (3) adoption as sons of God and memberto the protection of the
line and admission
in the church.
of the
member
child became
life. The
a
4. The Eastern church. This church, requiring
group
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

threefold immersion, holds that hy baptism all

sin is removed; without
baptism children are not
saved.
5. Lutheran
doctrine. The efficacyof baptism,
which confers forgivenessand grace, is not from the
a

"

kinship group.
adult ceremonies
are
twofold,either forms
of societyor,
into the responsibilities
to peculiar
of specialreligious
in the case
societies,
rehgiousstatus or privileges.To the first class
The

of admission

OF

A DICTIONARY

Baptism for the Dead

belong the worldwide ceremonies of initiation at

adolescence when
by social rites the youth is said
to be "born
anew," "reborn,"or "twice-born,"as
To the second
in Australia,Mexico, India, Iran.
ceremonies known
class belong the group of religious
Orphic, Great Mother,
as the Mysteries
(Eleusinian,
Mithraic) where the idea of release from moral
involved and the candidate secured a new
as gave
such union with the Savior God
the usual
of immortal life. Water
was
assurance
medium, though the cult of the Great Mother,
of blood in the taurobohum
use
Cybele, made
(q.v.). In both the initiatoryrites and in these

evil was
life and

ceremonies
higherreligious

it was

customary

to

AND

RELIGION

give

ETHICS

42

(1640-41) that immersion

alone is baptism. They

the civil war
and CromwelHan
time
(1641-59). A strong connectional
zation
organiestablished with associations,
was
general
general superintendency.After
assembly, and
the persecutionsunder Charles II. their churches
wrecked by controversy and excessive disciphne
were
and
of the survivors
most
became
Unitarian.
Under
the influence of the evangeUcal revival a
the
remnant, reinforced by new
converts, formed
Connection
New
of General Baptists(1770) which
engaged successfullyin all kinds of evangelical
work until the amalgamation with Particular Baptists

multiphed during

(1891).
From

the candidate a new

name.
Common
elements run
(1) the removal

opment,
through the whole develof a dangerous contagion
(tabu, uncleanness, evil); (2) the admission to
social status; (3) the acquiring of new
powers.
themselves side by
maintain
Magical elements
side with the evolvingsocial values.

a Puritan congregationthat returned from

Zeland (1616)several groups of convinced anti-pedobaptists

peaceably withdrew
(1633 onward) until
Calvinistic Baptistchurches had been
formed
in London.
These Particular Baptists also
prosperedduring the revolutionary
period (1641of educated
60). A considerable number
ministers
Hatdon
adopted their views and many
held high
members
A. Eustace
Like the General Baptists
positionsin the army.
tian
An early ChrisDEAD."
THE
FOR
BAPTISM
of baptizinganother as the tive
representa- they suffered severely under Charles I. Reacting
custom
and Socianism
against Arminianism
of them
many
of a candidate for baptism who had died before
became hyper-Calvinistic
and averse
to evangeUsm.
the
orthodox
Among
receiving the ordinance.
Though they did not co-operate in the evangehcal
it was
early discontinued,but heretical Christians
revival of the eighteenthcentury, men
like Ryland,
tained
mainand Montanists
such
the Marcionites
as
became
imbued
Fuller, Carey and HaU
with its
it.
and
able to liftthe denomination
were
spirit
to a
high plane of missionaryendeavor.
After years of
VOW."
A promise made
BAPTISMAL
by a
partialco-operation Particular and General Baptists
candidate about to receive baptism. The practise
united in 1891.
have a
Enghsh Baptists now
2d. century, reference being
dates back
to the
membership of about 500,000 and well equipped
It is
found
in TertuUian, De Corona, chap. Ill;
with
ministers
and
institutions are
contending
stilla part of the R.C. ritual. The form is a renvmcinobly for civil and religious
hberty and world wide
ation of Satan, his works and his pomps.
evangelization.
The firstBaptist church in America
founded
was
of
BAPTISTERY."
A
a
building or portion
by Roger Wilhams, an educated Enghsh Separatist,
the
church, or a reservoir in the church set apart for
in Massachusetts
who, after a stormy career
(1631administration
of baptism. In the early church
banished.
ment
36), was
Having established a settlethe
immersion
and
baptistery
was
customary
on
NarragansettBay on the basis of liberty
included the basin and a room
for the neophytes.
of conscience he introduced
behevers'
baptism
usually independently (1638) and organized a church.
Baptisteries,as separate buildings, are
tions
of circular or polygonalform, containingthe addiHe
became
convinced that the ordinances
soon
of dressingrooms
and a catechumen's
room,
had been lost in the great apostasy and could be
is pracimmersion
and sometimes
Where
a choir.
tised
restored only by special
divine intervention.
withstanding
Notis a reservoir within the
to-day the baptistery
the defection
of their leader
the
church; where baptism is by sprinklingthe place church persistedin a feeble way, but divided on the
of the baptistery
is taken by the baptismalfont.
question of the layingon of hands, those insisting
it holdingalso to general redemption. Another
upon
BAPTISTS.
characterized by
A denomination
founded
church was
at Newport
(1641"44)
insistence on behevers' baptism, democracy, liberty under
John
Clarke, an educated Enghshman, as
of conscience,rejectionof infant baptism and all
muiister.
Calvinistic Baptistchurches were
formed
sacramentaUsm, and an effort to reproduce apostoUc in Massachusetts,
Maine, Pennsylvania and South
Carolina
Christianity.
(1662-83) with much
oppositionfrom
medieval
In their main features they have ancient,
the authorities;but by 1741 most
of these had
and
John
become
^teenth
divided and feeble. The churches of the
century antecedents.
the
Smyth, Cambridge Fellow, gathered a Separatist Philadelphia Association (1707 onward) were
congregationat Gainsborough (1606). Persecution
exception. Drawing recruits from New
England
drove them
to Amsterdam
and Wales its churches increased,
and by missionary
(1608). In 1609, after
effort exerted an influence in the middle and southern
controversy with the ministers of the older English
church
colonies.
Rhode
founded
Island College was
there,Smyth and his associates disowned
and fostered by this body. The General Baptists
their previous church estate, baptism and ordination,
and
behevers introduced
as
baptism anew
prosperedin Rhode Island and Connecticut.
and
reorganized with Smyth as pastor. Smyth
Baptists held aloof from the Great Awakening,
afterward repudiated the transaction and was
of converted
but thousands
soon
Congregationahsts
excommimicated
turned Baptist and these Separate Baptistswon
with
the majority by Helwys,
the
and
adhered
to
South.
In Virginia,
Murton
Those
who
others.
Regular and Separate Baptists,
Helwys returned to England (1612) and founded
having co-operated in a successful struggle for
in
entry.
churches in London, Tiverton,Sahsbury and Cov1785.
Widespread
rehgious liberty, united
Smyth and his associates sought fellowship revivals after the Revolution brought multitudes
with the Mennonites.
into their ranks.
Both
Rehgious enthusiasm and dearth
parties had become
by 1644

seven

"

Arminian

and

some

of the

former,

became

ministers caused hundreds

of illiterates
tarian. of educated
Unito enter the ministryand a widespread aversion to
form of organeducated ministers and to every
ized
work
resulted. A few mindenominational

the first EngUsh advocates

They were
of liberty of conscience.
Along with the Calvinistic anti-pedobaptiststhey became
convinced

43

DICTIONARY

OF

churches
in northern
isters and
southern
and
cities had supported Carey's work
in India and
when
they learned that Judson and Rice on their
had
to India as Congregational missionaries
way
become
Baptists (1812) were
willingto undertake
Rice returned
their support.
successful
and was
in organizinga number
of local missionary societies
and at last in securinga national Baptistconvention
decided
to
meet
(1814) which
trienniaUy and
State
Board.
Conventions
were
appointed a
formed
by friends of missions and education.
institutions were
founded
Educational
in the
various
Home
Mission
and
Publication
states.
Societies grew
of the Triennial Convention.
out
estabhshed
in different
Theological Seminaries were
felt.
parts of the country as the need became
MissionarjrBaptists have rapidly increased in
numbers, intelhgence,and equipment. They are
harmonious
themselves
and
becoming more
among
less polemical in relation to other
evangelical
Christians. There are now
about 6,000,000 Baptists
in America
and about 7,000,000 in the world
manifest
their fellowship
who
by co-operating in
the Baptist World Alliance.
In the United States,all but about 350,000 of
than 7,500,000Baptists are in the organithe more
zations
known
the Northern
as
Baptist Convention
(1,285,416), the Southern
Baptist Convention
and
the Colored
(3,113,355),
Baptist organizations
distinct bodies with
(2,735,007). Other
statistics
of 1919 are: the Free Baptists(ca.65,000,
vention
Arminian, united with the Northern
Baptist Conin the 2d. decade
of the 20th. century);
Free-Will
Baptists (54,833, Arminian, practicing
and anointing of the sick with oil);
feet-washing
General Baptists(33,466 Arminian); Old Two-SeedPredesiinarian
in-the-SpiritBaptists (387,holding
to the specificelection of the seed of God
to
salvation and the seed of Satan to reprobation);
Primitive (or "Hardshell") Baptists(80,311Hyper-

calvinistic)
{21,521)]
SeparateBap; RegularBaptists
tists
(4,254)an organizationformed as a result of
the Whitefield revival)
; Seventh Day Baptists(8,475,
observingSaturday as the Sabbath) ; Six Principle
Baptists(ca.400),holding as fundamentals
ance,
repentfaith,
baptism,layingon of hands, resurrection
of the body, eternal
United Baptists
life),and
(22,097,a union in the South of "Old Lights" and
"New
A. H. Newman
Lights").

ETHICS

AND

RELIGION

Banutbite

regularsessions

of the Sunday school have been its

The
"Philathea"
movement
(for
women) was
organized 1895 in the same
church.
"Philathea"
is a Greek
word, meaning "lovers of
truth."
Its general aim
and
methods
the
are
those
of
the
Baraca
same
as
classes. Classes
found in all
organized on these principlesare now
Christianized
countries,and are knit together in
enthusiastic world wide Baraca-Philathea
an
Union
of nearly one
million members.
Ira M. Price
chief features.

BARAITA
"

(aramaic: outside; plural:Baraitot).

porated
teachingof the Tannaim
(seeTanna) not incorin the collection of the Mishna
(q.v.).

BARAKA."

See Mana.

BARD.
A class of poet-minstrelin the early
Celtic world who
combined
the offices of singer,
custodian
of legal
genealogist,historian, and
have been closelyallied to
knowledge. They may
the druids.
Their satires were
greatlyfeared since
accredited with the power
of killingby
they were
of such chanted spells.
means
"

BARDESANES
(154-222)." Gnostic
preacher
and writer;Persian by birth ; Edessa was
the center
of his labors.
He taught a mixture
of Chaldean
and other elements.
mythology, docetic Christology
He has the credit of winning Edessa to Christianity.

"

BARLAAM
Greek

and

jo ASAPH

reUgious

(OR JOSAPHAT).
of

romance

the

seventh

or

An
eighth century, based on the story of Buddah.
Indian
prince named
Joasaph is brought up in
ignorance of all human
at length
suffering. When
he perceivesit,he despairs,but is converted by an
old

monk

named

Barlaam.

court

debate

on

Christianity
follows,in which the representative
of Christianitytriumphs, appropriating for his
the substance
of the second-century
argument
Apology of Aristides. This romance
was
very
popular in the Middle Ages, and was translated into
allthe languages of the west.
Edgar
BARNABAS.
gave

who
Paul

The surname
to Joses,the Levite from

occupied a

J. Goodspeed

which

the apostles
Cyprus (Acts 4:23)
prominent place as a co-worker with
"

in the New
Testament
He was
referred
era.
the prophet, teacher (Acts 13:1) and apostle
(Acts 14:14). He is traditionally
reported to have
founded
the churches in Cyprus and in Milan.
His
of Hebrews
and the Epistle
authorship
(Tertullian)
of Barnabas is no longer accepted. He is said to
have suffered martyrdom in Cyprus.
to

BAR-COCHBA
given to Simon

The
name
(BAR-KOKHBA)."
bar Coleba who
Messiah
as
a
acknowledged by many
Jews, including Akiba ben
Joseph, led the Jewish revolt against the Romans
in 132 A.D. and for three years defied the power
of
Rome.
His defeat was
the occasion for the final
and ruthless destruction of Jerusalem.

as

BARNABAS,

EPISTLE
OF."
An
epistle in
chapters, written in the first quarter of the
2nd. century by an Alexandrian.
In Alexandria it
was
accepted as from the famous Barnabas, but
it is at present thought to be anonymous.
Its
Sinaiticus shows
that it was
place in the Codex
received as a sacred book by the ancient church in
the East, but it was
never
so
regarded in the West.
It is counted among
the ApostolicFathers.
21

BAR

MITZVAH."

(Hebrew, "son

of the commandment,"
the commandment
to whom
one
i.e.,
the
Jewish
the
term
applies)
apphed to
boy of
thirteen years
of age, designating him as having
reached
the age of moral responsibility.
On
the
first Sabbath
after the thirteenth birthday,the
bar mitzvah is called up to the Law, by which act,
he formallyaccepts responsibility
for his own
acts.
This occasion is observed as one
of festivity
by the
family and the community.
Harold
F. Reinhart
"

BARACA-PHILATHEA

BIBLE
CLASSES."
modification of the word "Beracah,"
It was
meaning "blessing" in II Chron. 20:26,
firstgiven as a name
Oct. 20,
to a Bible class of men,
Efficient class organiza1890, in Syracuse, N.Y.
tion,
adaptation of business principles to the
Christian life and the study of the Bible at the
"Baraca"

is

'

GOSPEL
OF." An
apocryphal
ten
of the Middle Ages (13th.-16th.
century),writin Itahan from a Mohammedan
point of view,
quite lacking in historic sense.

BARNABAS,

work

BARNABITE."
A R.C. minor
rehgious order
called Clerks
founded
in Milan in 1530 originally
Regular of the Congregation of St. Paul, but named
of St. Barnabas
Barbarites
from
the monastery
given to them in 1538.

Barnes, Albert

DICTIONARY

OF

ALBERT
BARNES,
(1798-1870)." American
Presbyterian minister and author, especiallynoted
for his commentaries
which were
of a popular type
and

had

an

extensive

sale.

CAESAR
BARONIUS,
(1538-1607)." Italian
cardinal,noted for the ecclesiastical history which
sincere
he produced in 12 volumes
which
a
was
the
from
attempt to write history scientifically
R.C. point of view.
GEORGE
BARROW,
(1803-1881)." English
traveller and author.
He served the British and
Foreign Bible Society in Russia and in Spain, and
noted for his facilityin acquiring languages
was
and his knowledge of the gypsies.
HENRY
(1847-1902)."
BARROWS,
JOHN
ment
American
Congregationalist;organized the Parliaof Religions in Chicago, 1893; presidentof
Oberlin
College, 1899-1902; first lecturer in the
Orient in the Barrows
Lectureshipof the University
of Chicago.
of rods used in
The small bundle
of the Parsee
sacred ceremonies
rods may
reUgion.
represent the twigs of
the sacred plant which
were
spread as an altar
for the sacrificial offeringsin ancient times.
BARSOM.
connection

"

with
These

BARTHOLOMEW."

One

of the twelve

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

44

had already elected.

The
ultimate effect of the
strugglewas favorable to the papacy.
Shailer
Mathews
BASIL
THE
GREAT
(ca.330-379)."Bishop of
Caesarea
and one
of "the Three
Cappadocians,"
elder brother of Gregory of Nyssa. He collaborated
with Gregory of Nazianzus
in preparing a compilation
of Origen's works, the Philocalia.
Basil was
defender of orthodoxy against Arianism.
a zealous
He advocated
the ascetic ideal,
and attained renown
author.
as
a
Cappadocian
See
preacher and
Theology.
BASILIANS.
Monks
or
nuns
observing the
rule of Basil the Great.
exclusive
His rule became
in the East so "Basilian" is virtually
equivalentto a
Greek
Catholic
monk, though a community was
organized in France in the 19th. century and has a
branch
in Toronto, Canada.
"

BASILICA.
(1)In Athens a porticoin which the
archon basileus (whence the name) presided. (2) A
Roman
hall of justiceof rectangularform divided
into aisles and nave, and later adopted as
by pillars
of early church architecture.
a form
(3) A church
in the form of the old basilica,
to
or cathedral
or one
which
the Pope has given the name.
(4) A legal
code,
code, beinga Greek adaptation of the Roman
issued by Basil the Macedonean
in 878, and in
revision in 885.
"

apostles

Jesus, according to the Synoptic Usts. It is

commonly supposed that he is to be identifiedwith
Bartholomew
Nathaniel, the name
being a patronymic,
that his name
would
be Nathaniel, son
so

of

.of Tholomew.
BARTHOLOMEW'S
OF ST.
DAY, MASSACRE
On Aug. 24, 1572, St. Bartholomew's
Day, was
of Huguenots in France
begun the great massacre
de Medici, queen
at the instigationof Catherine
Mother
of Charles IX.
First Coligny (q.v.)
was
slain at his home, and then the massacre
spread,
the estimated number
of the slain being from 10,000

BASILIDES.
A
Gnostic
teacher and
writer,
who
lived in the reign of Hadrian
(117-138) at
Alexandria.
is mentioned
He
in the writings of
of Alexandria
and Hippolytus.
Irenaeus, Clement
couched in
His statement
of the problem of evil was
the concepts of Persian duaUsm.
The solution is
Gnosticism
(q.v.).
"

"

to

100,000.

BASIN.
A vessel,ordinarilywith
of metal, used in the Jewish
made
early churches for ablutions.
"

and

flaringsides,
and in
ritual,

Immersion
in or cleansing
BATH, BATHING.
with water.
The Levitical legislation
emphasized
the rehgious value of the cleanhness of the body,
to be of ceremonial importance.
so that bathing came
See Lev. 16:4.
such as Hinduism
Other religions
fication.
have given the bath a place in the cult. See Puri"

BARUCH.
Hebrew
meaning
(1) A
name,
of an
associate of Jeremiah.
"blessed," the name
of an apocrjrphal
(2) The name
book, found in the
LXX, Vulgate, and Douai versions,the canonicity
of which
is not accepted by Protestants.
It is
torian
hisBRUNO
BAUER,
(1809-1882)." German
variouslydated from the 3rd. to the 1st. centuries,
and theologian. He
It is composed of poorly integratedparts and
B.C.
taught in Berlin and
dox
evidence
shows
of plurality of authorship. See
Bonn, 1834-1842, beginning his work as an orthoApoceypha.
Hegelian. But his critical work, begun about
destructive that in 1842 the governso
ment
1840, was
cancelled his hcense and he retired,
COUNCIL
OF
spending
BASEL,
(1431-1449)." The
of history and
Council held in Basel which
his remaining years writing works
attempted to reform
the Church
in accordance
with the decision of the
theology. The merit of his critical work lay in its
the
Testament
Council of Constance
as
(q.v.), to hold general attempt to interpretthe New
and controversies.
councils regularlyat the expirationof certain definite
outgrowth of vital religiousmovements
periods.
"

The Council was

called in Basel in order to meet
the problem of the Hussites,but hostility
between
it and the Pope immediately developed. It compelled
Eugenius IV. to admit its authority,made
compromises with the Hussite leaders,abolished the
and other papal taxes.
annates
The Council spUt
over
helpingthe Greek Empire againstthe Turks, and
the anti-papalsection remaining in Basel suspended
the Pope. In turn the Pope excommunicated
the
Council and summoned
another
at Ferrara
(later
removed
to
Council at Basel
Florence). The
elected an
anti-Pope (Felix V.) who, however,
and
not recognized by the European powers,
was
Basel
Council
at
subsequently resigned. The
the cardinals
thereupon elected Nicholas V. whom

MICHAEL

BAUMGARTEN,
German

(1812-1889)."

ology
theologian; professor of theRostock, 1850-1858, which chair he lost

Protestant
at

because
founders

of his liberalism.
He
was
one
of the Deutscher Proieslantenverein

of the
in 1865.

CHRISTIAN
FERDINAND
(1792BAUR,
biblical criticand church historian,
1860). German
In most of
head of the so-called Tubingen school.
his work he was
losophy
strongly influenced by the phihe applied to history.
of Hegel, which
pretation
the Tendenz (tendency or bias)interThe result was
of the New
Testament
books, to which
"

Baur

found the

key in

the

oppositionbetween the

45

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Begging, Significanceof

THOMAS
A (ca.1 1 18-1 170)." EngUsh
and
archbishop of Canterbury. As
chancellor,Becket was
capable and efficient,
ing
earnthe friendshipof Henry II. When
he became
in
he
refused
to
be a tool of the
archbishop
1162,
King, and within a year trouble began. The
conflict culminated
in the Constitutions of Clarendon,
1164 (q.v.),to which
Becket
was
compelled
When
he repudiated his promise,
to subscribe.
he fled to France, where with the assistance of the
Alexander
the struggle.
III., he continued
pope,
In July 1170 a formal reconciUation
effected
was
and Becket returned to England,but in December,
he was
murdered
by royahsts. In 1172 the R.C.
church
canonized
Becket
and for a long time his
shrine in Canterbury was
the object of pious pilgrimages.
chancellor

persistentlypersecuted,especially
George Jeffreys. Baxter
voluminous
best
the
known
of
his
was
a
author,
works
being The Saints' Everlasting Rest. His
theology was modified Calvinism, making a distinct

placefor

ETHICS

BECKET,

Petrinethe
Pauline-Gentile
Christianity and
work
While
Baur's
Jewish
wing of the church.
greatly stimulated the critical historical study of
the New
Testament, it was
impaired by his too
rigorousappHcation of his hypothesis.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
RICHARD
(1615-1691)." English
BAXTER,
he was
1641-1660
puritan and theologian. From
minister at Kidderminster, the place being transformed
under his influence.
He dechned the bishopric
of Hereford in 1660,and in 1662 left the Anglican
continued
church.
He
to preach, but during his

remaining years
by Chief

AND

was

Justice

free grace.

VENERABLE."
The first English
BEDE, THE
scholar of renown,
PIERRE
(1647-1706)." French
losopher
phipriestand author,672 or 673-735.
and man
of letters ; professorof philosophy
in Latin the Ecclesiastical History of the
He wrote
at the Protestant
University of Sedan until supEnglish Nation (Hisloriaecclesiastica gentis Anglopressed
in 1682, and afterwards in Rotterdam.
He
ences.
rum) which contains a few autobiographicalreferHe also wrote some
treatises on science and
was
greater as a critic than as a constructive
historical and
thinker. His greatest work was
number
of commentaries
and homia
a considerable
lies.
critical dictionary.
He
translated the 4th. Gospel into AngloSaxon.
BEADLE.
An officer in the church of England,
whose
duties are
the maintenance
BEDLAM."
of order
in
A
contraction
for "Bethlehem"
churches and churchyards during service,
attendance
hospital,first opened in London
as
a priory for the
the clergyin the vestry, as well as oversightover
monks
and nuns
of the Star of Bethlehem
in 1247.
on
certain matters
of parish administration.
In 1330 it was
being used as a hospital,and by
1403 there were
lunatics housed
there.
In
some
1547 Henry VIII. gave
it to the corporation of
BEADS, USE OF." See Rosary.
London as a hospitalfor the insane,so that it was
fact that the beard
is a distinguishing
BEARD.
The
the firstsuch hospitalin England and the second in
feature of manhood
is perhaps the reason
is used figuratively
for
Europe. The word Bedlam
for certain customs
and beliefs which have arisen.
confusion.
primitive and some
sophisticatedpeople
Many
HENRY
WARD
regard it as a Divine gift and therefore sacred.
BEECHER,
(1813-1897)."
To pull it or to mutilate it was
insult (II Sam.
American
an
preacher, author and reformer; pastor
of Plymouth
10:4). Its voluntary removal
was
a
symbol of
Congregational Church, Brooklyn,
of the greatestpulpit
mourning (Ezra 9:3). The savage
thought that
N.Y., 1847-1887; was
one
the possession of part of another's
beard
orators of America, preaching the love of God as the
gave
him magical power
him.
This idea hes behind
of the Gospel. He
leader of the
over
essence
was
a
the scrupulous care
of the beard on the part of
the slavery question; and
mediating party on
Muslims.
In certain sects of Christians
it has
in promoting a better understanding
accomplished much
been considered sinful to cut the beard.
between
England and the U.S.A. in those
critical days. Though not a technical scholar in
BEAST.
from
the 2nd.
In Jewish
of wide culture
literature,
a
man
specificsphere he was
any
and of great influence in transforming theological
century B.C., in early Christian literature and in
Islamic literature,
a
mythical monster, of dragonlike
sympathies during his later years.
which is the incarnation of opposition
appearance,
and
His people. Such
to God
BEELZEBUB."
and
symbolism
(Also written Baalzebub
is probably derived from
Babylonian mythology.
Beelzebul.) A god, lord of flies,worshiped by
the PhiUstines and consulted by idolatrous Hebrews.
BEATIFICATION,"
In the R.C. church a papal
In New
Testament
times the name
was
applied to
declaration
that the deceased
under
sideration the princeof the devils.
conperson
is worthy of limited homage, including
the title of "Blessed."
It is frequently a step
RELIGIOUS
SIGNIFICANCE
OF.
BEGGING,
toward
canonization
(q.v.). Beatification is of
Poverty and asceticism have often been regarded
kinds:
two
ideal conditions of the cultivation of spiritual
(i)equipollent (or equivalent) which
as
life. To own
springs from popular sympathy which the church
property was to divert the attention
of the
from divine to earthly things. To indulge in the
(ii)formal which is the outcome
approves;
decision to venerate
church's
the
a
on
good things of life was to act contrary to the spirit
person
double ground of holiness of Ufe and miracles.
of him who called for self-denial from his followers.
It follows from this principle
that the most religious
BEATIFIC
immediate
VISION."
An
vision of
persons practisedthe severest asceticism in an age
God
which
is a portion of the future bliss of the
that interpretedreligionin those terms, and they
saved.
The
belief is founded
such passages
had
of those who
to live by the contributions
on
I Cor. 13:12, I John 3:2, Rev. 22:4.
as
respected them as saints. It was but a step from
penniless saintship to saintly mendicancy. St.
BEATITUDE."
of supreme
Francis of Assisi,accepting literally
the command
(1) A condition
divested himself of his
of Jesus to sellall possessions,
happiness or blessedness.
(2) The name
applied to
of the declarations of blessedness which Jesus
any
property and founded an order of brothers who, as
made
in the "Sermon
the Mount"
in Matt.
mendicant
on
wanderers, sanctified begging as divinely
0:3-11 and Luke 6:20-22.
ordained. In similar fashion the Brahman
ascetic

BAYLE,

"

"

"

"

Beghards

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

expects to obtain provision for his bodily needs,

and even
maintains
the theory
a reforming Jainism
of pubUc support for the devout.
The
beggar is
of grace
to the giver,for he provides a
means
a
channel for almsgiving,and almsgiving accumulates
merit against the day of reckoning that is to come.
See Charity
and Almsgiving.
Henry
K. Rowb
BEGHARDS.
Communities
of lay brothers,
mainly artisans,
correspondingto the Beguines.(q.v.)
The earliest records are of communities
in Belgium
in the first half of the 13th. century.
As these
associations dissolved,the name
associated
became
with wandering mendicants
through the similarity
of the name
with "beggar." The Beghards were
vive
persecuted by the secular clergy,and did not surthe 14th. century.

AND

ETHICS

46

Babists joinedBeha'uUah
and accepted
Bible, Kilab-i-aqdas(the most holy book),
which, influenced by Christian ideas of love and
marks an advance
Babism.
justice,
on
In 1892 Beha'uUah
died,having forestalled with
curses
any claimant,who might supplant him, as he
had supplanted the Bab.
His sons
quarreledabout
leadershipand interpretation.The minority party
began propaganda in America
at the Columbian
Exposition in Chicago in 1893. American
converts
to the majorityparty.
were
soon
won
over
They
issue literature in English from Chicago, where the
of
building a great Bahai temple is planned.
Americans
scarcely understand
fully certain
Asiatic aspects of the new
religion. Beha'uUah
Most

tine.

"

hoods
BEGUINES.
'The name
of certain lay sisterin Germany
and the Netherlands, of which
called
communities
the correspondingmale
are
of these
communities
founder
Beghards. The
Lambert
de Begue (ca. 1187),a priestof Liege.
was
differed from
These
communities
regular orders
taken were
in that the vows
not irrevocable.
At
the Reformation
the orders were
suppressed in
countries.
The existingbeguinages in
Protestant
in the
Germany are almshouses for poor spinsters;
like the originalcomNetherlands
munities.
they are more
"

his

new

had

two

wives

and

concubine.

E. G.

Browne's

notes. The

versity
Episode of the Bab (Cambridge Uniauthor's
Press,1891),356-73, and the same
Materials for the Study of the Babi Religion(1918),
154-64

and

193 should

not

be overlooked.
M. Sprengling
BEHAVIORISM."
These

BEHAVIOR
AND
indicate respectivelya recently developed
method
of studying the psychology of animals and
and
the doctrines of consciousness
and the
men,
organism which it involves.
The method
is to observe the responses
of the
be either
organism to stimuli. The stimulus may
experimentally set up or such as operates in the
of ordinary experience. The significance
of
course
the stimulus and the nature of the organism'sreaction
determined
are
by the inherited instincts of the
organism and its previousexperience. In principle
the method
recognizes no difference between the
behavior of the lower animals and man
except that
the latter may
become
much
more
complex and
refined. No
is taken of the findings of
account
introspectionand the concept of consciousness is
The ideal of the behaviorist
completely discarded.
is to make
psychology as completely objectiveas is
chemistry or physics. "Thinking" is identified by
of the larynx,
one
investigatorwith movements
pleasure and pain with the various contractions
and relaxations.
Behavior
is indeed highlyindividuaUzed
in man
but
intimate
acquamtance
with
man's
afford
a
past and his environment
for
and
for
means
even
understanding
predicting
his conduct.
The whole organism thus becomes
the
subjectof inquiry. An action is not viewed as the
function of any one
less of a conscious
part, much
agent, soul or mind, but of the entire system of
and
muscles
nerves
as
organized by inheritance
and
experience. The results achieved have the
attraction
of definiteness and co-ordination
with
other more
developed sciences but the formulations
admitted by its advocates to be very incomplete.
are
In so far as the term
behaviorism
represents a
metaphysical theory it is on the side of materialism
and
mechanistic
theory, but these implications
have
not
been worked
out
beyond the negative
attitude taken toward consciousness and any power
of introspection. Such
tendencies
extreme
ought
not, however, to obscure the value of the method in
the
and
determining
capacities
accomplishments of
individuals and bringing many
duct
phenomena of conout of the realm of mystery and mere
theory.
Edward
S. Ames
BEHAVIORISM."
See Behavior
Behavand
terms

Asiatic religionin origin

BEHAISM.
A new
connected
with Shi'ite Muhammadanism
(q.v.).
immediate
Its two
and
antecedents, Babism
Sheikhism, are clearlycloselyrelated to that party
of Shi'ites,
whose
hopes center in the succession
of twelve
Imams
Imams.
(sometimes ImamMahdis), in common
parlance leaders in the ritual,
to these people certain descendants
of Mohammed
are
in whom
the Godhead
manifests
itself to
humanity. Of the twelve Imams
recognized by
this party the last took office in the year 260 of the
Mohammedan
Era
873-74
He disappeared
a.d.
and
date of his
mysteriously, and the manner
death are not known.
Many think him stillalive.
To him Messianic,in part chiliastic,
hopes attached
themselves.
the
Mohammedan
Accordingly as
1260 (1844 a.d.)approached, some
men
began
year
to look for a new
with his return.
era
The new
movement
was
inaugurated by Sheikh
al-Ahsai
(rehgious Elder) Ahmed
(d. 1826) and
his successor
Kazim
of Resht.
They claimed to
be in communication
with the absent Imam
and
announced
his
return.
Their
followers, the
Sheikhis, called them
Babs, "gates" between
humanity and the Imam.
In 1260 AH
(1844 a.d.) a young
discipleof
of Shiraz proclaimed himself
Kazim, Ali Mohammed
such a Bab.
This is the originof what is now
called Babism.
His claims
did not
stop there.
Influenced by followers of various ranks he became
the
Imam
Mahdi.
His
unfinished
book, the
revelation inaugurating a new
a
new
Beyan, was
religion. Political claims led to his imprisonment.
Armed
risingsof his followers brought about his
execution in 1850, and severe
persecutionsof his
adherents in Persia from that time forth.
Mirza
Yahya, entitled Subh-i-Ezel
(Dawn of
the Bab's successor.
He fled with
Eternity) was
other leaders to Turkey.
of propaganda
Because
in Persia they were
of the
removed
in 1863 from Bagdad
BEHISTUN."
The
name
locaUty in
to
found the great rock inscriptions
Persia where
are
Adrianople. There
Yahya's elder and abler
brother Husain
Ali, entitled Behd'ullah (Splendor of Darius, important because of the fight they
of God), in 1866-67 announced
himself Messiah
of
throw upon
the rehgious ideas of the Achaemenian
rulers. See Zoroastrianism,
new
a
dispensation,to which the Bab was
a mere
forerunner.
The
was
following year Subh-i-Ezel
to Acre in PalesSee Baal.
banished to Cyprus, Beha'uUah
BEL."
"

47

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

THE
DRAGON."
An
apocryphal
the Book
of Daniel which identifies
Daniel with Cyrus, and explainshis being cast into
the lion's den because he destroyeda dragon which
was
an
object of worship.

Benedict

AND

BEL

supplement

to

Calvinistic confession
has become
in Belgium
and Holland,and of the Dutch
Reformed
church
See Confessions
Faith.
in America.
op
BELGIC
of

CONFESSION."

faith,dating from 1561 which

the symbol of the Reformed
churches

AND

the

reunion

ETHICS

Z77."
1334-1342, negotiated toward
of the Greek
and
Latin churches;

began the buildingof

a splendidpalace at Avignon
where he lived.
Benedict
XIII.
title assumed
(1) The
by
Pedro de Luna, antipope, 1328-1422
1423.
or
From
1394 when
he was
elected by the cardinals
until his death he persistedin keeping up the schism.
(2) Pope, 1724-1730, made unsuccessful attempts
to reform clerical morals, and was
trator.
adminisa weak
"

Benedict

BELIAR."
Two
In the O.T. the word

forms
of the same
word.
is used as a common
usually signifying a worthless or wicked
noun,
1 : 15 this wicked power
or thing. In Neh.
person
is personified,
and this use is the basis for the identification
of Belial with Antichrist or Satan
which
in the apocryphal literature and N.T., as
occurs
II Cor. 6: 15.

BELIAL,

See Faith.

BELIEF."

Benevolence

XIV.
eminent
an
1740-1758, was
author, was
friendlyin his relations
with the European sovereigns,and unsympathetic
"

scholar and

toward the Jesuits.

Benedict ZF."
1915-.
BENEDICT
OF
NURSIA
(ca.480- ca. 544)."
The founder of western
monastieism
and framer of
the Benedictine
rule. Educated
in Rome, he fled
as
a youth to a cave,
a life of asceticism,
following
and meditation
for three years.
Disciples
prayer,
attracted to him, and he founded
the famous
were
Monte
at
in
His
Cassino
rule was
monastery
Italy.
"conspicuous for its discretion,"making scholarly
reading and labor in the fields compulsory as well as
the specific
rehgious disciphne.

ROBERT
FRANCESCO
BELLARMINE,
Catholic
ROMOLO
(1542-1620)." Italian Roman
ecclesiastic and
theologian,a vigorous champion
of ultramontanism
and the greatest exponent of
Catholicism
He
in the modem
world.
one
was
of the council in Galileo's first trial,
his attitude
BENEDICTINES."
The
monks
who
live in
being judicial,
claiming,however, that Copernican- accordan(!e with the rule of St. Benedict of Nursia
ism should be presented as an hypothesis until scientifically
(q.v.);also called Black Monks, owing to the color
attested.
He was
a cardinal,
theological of their habit. In 596
Augustine of Canterbury
professorin Louvain and Rome, and archbishop of
introduced
the order into England. In 1846 it
Capua.
introduced
into America.
The
Benedictines
was
in the conversion
of the Teutonic
accomplished much
See Gongs
BELLS.
Bells.
and
the civilization of N.W.
Europe, and in
tribes,
and learning. The order
BELTANE.
A Celtic midsummer
festival for
the spread of education
and lay brothers as well as monks.
the production of fertility.It required a freshly includes nuns
kindled fire in which
burned
sacred tree
were
a
BENEDICTION."
(1) In Evangelical churches
(probablythe oak), an animal representativeof the
human
victims.
and formal intercession with God for his
a solemn
vegetation spiritand one or more
such as is used at the conclusion of public
The cuttingof mistletoe before the victims could be
blessing,
slain was
rule of the ritual. Since the fire and
for
a
worship. (2) A blessinginvoked by one person
of a rather on
the fertility
the
another as the benediction
symbols (tree,animal, man) were
a
son.
the community
of magical power
element in the sacraments
source
brought
(3)In R.C. usage, a liturgical
these into contact with fields,
or
whereby the person
object is purified,
houses, and people
consecrated
to holy service by virtue
or
in various ways
by jumping through the fire, sanctified,
ing
of the divine authority vested in the church.
decoratingthe houses with branches,carryingburnthe fields,
and
brands or scatteringashes over
BENEFICE.
In canon
law, the right to enjoy
eating the flesh of the victims.
certain ecclesiastical revenues
by virtue of being
BENEDICT.
The name
of fourteen popes, and
the occupant of a church
office which
has been
endowed
of rendering certain specific
account
or
on
one
antipope.
of souls is
services. In the Roman
church the cure
Benedict 7.-574-578.
not
condition
of a benefice; in the
Benedict 77 ."683-685.
a
necessary
The law
Benedict III.
855-858, was chosen by the clergy Anglican church this restriction is made.
and people but for a time was
not recognized by
regulatesthe conditions for canonical appointment,
the circumstances
the Emperor, Louis II.,who appointed Anastasius
by which the officeis vacated,and
the rightsand obhgations of the benefice.
as antipope.
Benedict 77.- 900-903.
BENEFIT
OF
THE
A
V.
His pontificatelasted less
CLERGY."
Benedict
964.
privilege
accorded
Middle
when
than two
months
he was
to the clergy of the
deposed by the
Ages in
could
to all who
England, and later extended
Emperor Otto I.
elected by Otto
VI.
Benedict
read, of being tried for offences before the bishop's
972-974, was
In some
rather
than
the secular court.
court
the Great, but, on the emperor's death, was
dered
murit resulted in the miscarriageof justice. It
cases
by the people.
elected by those
abolished in the U.S.A. in 1790 and in England
VII.
Benedict
was
974"983, was
in 1827.
who had driven out Benedict VI.
7777." 1012-1024.
Benedict
ing
BENEVOLENCE.
Benedict IX.
Literally"willingor wish1033-1048, a nephew of Benedict
to promote
well" to others; an ethical purpose
VIII.
X.
the well-beingof others.
Benedict
deposed by
1058-1059, was
sions
Catholic
The term
into prominence in the discuscame
Hildebrand, and is reckoned by some
of the British Moralists
authorities as an antipope.
(q.v.),who were
Benedict XI.
1303-1304, a scholar and author
endeavoring to establish the foundations of moral
of several commentaries.
He obtained
with
conduct
in native human
impulses rather than
peace
declared
of the papacy.
France which had b"2ii an enemy
in external authority.Benevolence was
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Bentham, Jeremy

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of the human
ing
a natural capacity
mind, leadto altruistic behavior.
In Christian ethics,
the ideal of charityor love is employed to denote
such conduct, and Christian love is regarded as a
divinelycreated attitude rather than as a natural
impulse. By certain American
theologians(e.g.,
Jonathan
the
is made
Edwards) benevolence
all morality flows.
virtue, from which
supreme
Edv/ards defined it as "that habit or frame of mind
wherein
consists a dispositionto love being in
general." This is readilyidentified with Christian
love.
In popular speech benevolence
means
giftsof
social enterprises.
to support religious
or
money
Birney
Smith
Gerald
to be

BENTHAM,

(1748-1832)." Noted

JEREMY

Enghsh

writer on
legal and moral subjects. He
what
is perhaps the most
thorough-going
gave
which
must
analysisin existence of the principles
guide individual conduct and legislation
designed to
See
the maximum
secure
happiness for mankind.

Utilitarianism.
BERENGAR
Scholar and ecclesiastic,
OF TOURS."
born
and
1000
probably between
1010,
d. 1088.
He is noted for the prolongedcontroversy
which he had with the church over
the Eucharist,
Berengar being discipUned because he refused
to accept the doctrine of transubstantiation.
GEORGE
BERKELEY,
(1685-1753) "Irish
educated
at Trinity
bishop and philosopher; was
Dubhn, and in 1713 took orders. In 1728 he went
to America, intending to found
a college in the
Bermudas
to train missionaries to the Indians,but
not supported. After his return he was
made
was
bishop of Cloyne, 1734. His writings include the
New
Theory of Vision,the Principles
of Human
Knowledge, and Dialogues. He is noted for his
theory of subjectiveidealism which asserts that the
edge
only certain knowledge which we possess is knowlof our
ideas.
Berkeley himself denied the
existence of a material world,holding that our ideas
stimulated by direct divine activityare
BERNARD

OF

CLAIRVAUX

(1090-1153)."

Mediaeval
He
entered
preacher and monk.
a
Cistercian monastery and was
appointedabbot of
the Clairvaux monastery in 1115.
To his intense
zeal and
added unusual
irigorousdevotion were

giftsas

preacher,so that he

became
famous.
He was
drawn into ecclesiastical affairs where his
powerfulinfluence resulted in the termination of
the long papal schism by the abdication
of the
antipope in 1138, and in the election of a Cistercian
in 1145.
He was
as
than
pope
greater spiritually
intellectually.
Although no match for Abelard's
ence
logicin the controversywith him, his personalinfluenabled him to triumph in the name
of religion.
His power lay in his zeal,faith,
ity,
sincerityand humiltogether with his administrative and oratorical
which made
him the embodiment
of the ideal
powers
of mediaeval
monachism.
He
wrote
extensively
various phases of Christian
on
life,
many of his
hymns occupying a cherished place in Christian
a

BERNARD

OF

CLUNY."
of the tweKth
Monk
noted for his long poem
of nearly
century,especially
thousand
three
Unes
De
contemptu mundi, in
which is set forth the writer's conceptionof monastic
hfe. The
contains
number
of hues
of
a
poem
famous
section was
spiritualbeauty. The most
translated by Neale as the hymn
"Jerusalem
the
Golden."
BERNARDINES."
resuscitated

of monks

The

Cistercian (q.v.)order
of Clairvaux.

by Bernard

ETHICS

48

BEROSUS."

A Babylonian priest of the 4th.

who
wrote
a
History of Babylonia
fragments of which have been preserved.

century

only

BES.

b.c.

"

demon-dispellinggod

of

ancient

Egypt who

guarded the articles of the toilet and

the friend of children.
His task of warding off
was
evil spiritsprobably accounts
for his grotesque
shape, dwarf body, short legsand gorgon-likehead.
Behavior
BESTIALITY."
appropriate to beasts
and therefore degrading in character when
found
in human
beings. The more
primitivethe society,
the more
the dispositionfor men
to manifest these
in
qualities.Bestiality appears
a
gluttonous
abuse of the appetitefor food, wanton
sexual practices
includingintercourse with beasts,and inhuman
of enemies.
treatment
BESTIARIES.
Mediaeval
treatises on animals
in which
human
and
moral
characteristics are
ascribed to them, whereby they are used as reUgious
the devil,
symbols for Christ,the soul,immortality,
virtues and vices. See Symbolism.
"

BET

HAMIDRASH."

(Hebrew:

study.) School,in connection

which

adults

study the

Jewish

with

house
the synagog,

of
in

Law.

BET
AND
HILLEL
BET
SHAMMAL"
(Bet
Hebrew:
house
two
of.) The
great Rabbinic
schools that flourished in Palestine
during the
founded
1st. century. They were
respectivelyby
Hillel and Shammai
and
in their many
tions
disputathey follow their masters, the School of Hillel
being characterized by its moderation and that of
Shammai
by its severity.
=

BETHLEHEMITES."
Three
Christian orders
have carried the name:
a 13th. century association
in England of Dominican
type; the Knights and
who
Hospitalersof the Blessed Mary of Bethlehem
for a few brief months
fought the Turks in the
15th. century; and a Central American
order of
Brothers founded at the close of the 17th.
Bethlehem
century and placed in charge of the hospital of
in Guatemala.
Mary of Bethlehem
BETROTHAL."

The

accompanied

soon

hymnody.

AND

ceremonial.

of pledgmg
certain folks by

act

among

to
a

riage,
mar-

religious

See Marriage.

BETTING.

^The act

of wagering some
specific
againstanother with reference
issue.
The
uncertain
is
to an
practice
generally
considered morally objectionable. See Gambling.

thing or

amount

"

over

WILLIBALD
man
(1823-1900)." GerProtestant
preacher and theologian; court
ruhe,
preacher and theologian; court preacher at Karls1856-1860; professor of practicaltheology
in Halle, 1860-1900; theologian of the mediatingof the church
school, championed the freedom
His chief works
state
control.
Das
from
were
Leben Jesu, and Neutestamentliche
Theologie.

BEYSCHLAG,

THEODORE
(1519-1605)." French
BEZA,
theologian,educated in law and in Greek; practised
law in Paris 1539-1548; united with Calvinistic
church, Geneva, in 1548; occupied the chairs in
Geneva
and
at
Greek
at
Lausanne, 1549-1558
1558-1564, and in theology and Greek, 1564-1597.
his sucthe death of Calvin in 1564 he became
cessor
He
in office which positionhe held till1600.
author of considerable activity,writing a
was
an
defence of Calvin
in the burning of Servetus, a
biographyof Calvin and several theologicalworks.
On

49

He also
in Greek

DICTIONARY

publishededitions of
and

Latin.

the New

OF

RELIGION

Testament

AND

ETHICS

Bible

Christians

or

Bryanites

of the church's history. It is notegeneral course

worthy,
however, that the discussions concerning
the canonicityof certain books do not affect those

GITA."
erally which
most
essential to the historyof the
The name
of a poem, litare
"The Lord's Song," which forms a part of the
Hebrew
and the Christian rehgions. See InspibaNew
6th. book of the Mahabharata
and consists of
Testament.
(q.v.),
tion;
between
Krishna
and Arjuna. The
a conversation
Many of the writingswhich the Hebrew people
did not beheve
200 B.C. and 200 a.d.
date is between
The Gita
to "contain divine doctrines" were
is the most
widely used section of Hindu sacred
gradually grouped into a third collection. To
literature by the philosophically
Hindus
this belong some
of the most valuable writingswhich
minded
of the present. Its fundamental religious
down
to us from the ancient past. So
position have come
is that any action which is performed in disregardof
irnportantare they, that they are grouped in the
the fruit of action is good. Duty done unselfishly Bible used by the Roman
CathoKcs as a sort of intermediate
will result in overcoming
Karma
known
the Apocrypha
canon
as
(q.v.). The
(q.v.).
l
ife
of this material
active than
Much
added
religious enjoinedin the Gita is more
to the Greek
was
that of Buddhism
Brahmanism.
translation (LXX) of the Hebrew
or
At the same
canon
by the Jews
time the Gita contains diverse elements, and its
of Alexandria. Certain Roman
Catholic scholars have
undertaken
to distinguishthe authority which
teaching is not a unity. See Hinduism.
longs
beto the Apocrypha from that which
belongs to
BHAKTI-MARGA."
A
Hindu
for the
the other volumes of the canon,
but such distinction
name
Bhakti
was
stopped by the action of the Council of Trent,
way of salvation by faith in a personalGod.
has the sense
of trustingdevotion to one
who
can
April8, 1546, which directs the use of the Apocrypha
of the Old Testament
save.
Fully half of the people of India are counted
as
ations
Scripture. (For variof
this
theistic
of
followers
in the Eastern Bibles see Canon.)
as
religion. See
type
Hinduism.
2. The Bible as finally
the
recognized serves
as
basis for the theologyof the church.
It is regarded
The collection of sacred writingswhich
BIBLE.
by all branches of Christians as inspired that is to
the basis of the Christian Religion.
serves
as
otherwise would
say, as revealingthe truth which
1. The Bible consists of two main portions,the
not have been gained by man.
In the controversy
Old
Testament
and
the New
between
Testament.
The
the Protestants
and the Roman
Catholics
former
written
almost
in the 16th. and 17th. centuries,
was
the Bible became
entirelyin Hebrew,
although there are a few pages, chieflyin Daniel, a basis of authority with the Protestants,comparable
written
in Aramaic.
The
Old
Testament
with the authority of the Pope among
was
the
selected from the mass
literature because
of Hebrew
Catholics.* The necessityof such an ultiRoman
mate
its various writingswere
court of appeal led the Protestant
regarded as being inspired
scholastics
These
to attribute to the Bible Uteral infallibility.
by God.
writings are
organized in the
It was,
Bible in three parts
Hebrew
the Law, the Prophtreated in theology without regard to the
ets,
therefore,
and the Writings. It is probable that each one
historical origin of the books, or
the historical
of these three groups marks a periodin the selection
understandingof its meaning. As the Bible was
of the sacred writings,for the distinction between
Protestants this element of
very widely read among
the collection of the Prophets and that of the Writings
its authority became
essential to Protestant
ology,
theis hard to draw, as there are historical books
which was
built up by a combination
of passages
in the former and propheticbooks in the latter. (In
of Scripturechosen with littleor no regard to
the Greek translation of the O.T. the Writings are
their historical meaning. The
Bible became
the
called Hagiographa or Sacred Writings.)
of all religiousknowledge, and under
source
the
The exact date at which the canon
of the Old
influence of this new
conception of its inspiration
Testament
closed is hard to state.
The opinion
it was
was
appealed to by a great varietyof theologies.
is now
almost
scholars that the
universal among
The Bible became, as its were, a set of divine oracles
Book
of Daniel
and
of the
to be used as a source
and support of theologies.
very probably some
The rise of the historical method
Psalms, if not other material of the Sacred Writings,
of the study of
Hterature in the first half of the 19th. century had
belong in the last two centuries before Christ.
It
would
be natural,therefore,that there should be
a
profound influence in modifyingthis conception
difference of opinion as to the acceptance
of the Bible.
some
It began to be studied from the point
of some
of these books.
A point in illustration
of the originnot only of itsvarious books,but,also,
of
of this is to be seen
in the controversy among
the
the various possibleportions of the books.
This
rabbis as to Esther.
See Canon; Old Testament.
historical inquiryresulted in a new
of the
appreciation
The New
Testament
is composed of a group
of
Bible as a product and record of religious
experience
if not authorship.
writingssupposedly of apostolicorigin,
singularlyunified and
progressing along selfconsistent hues.
In this sense
These, hke those writings which composed
it may
be used in
the Old Testament, were
selected from a considerable
theologyas the record of a revelation of God in
hterature.
of the Old
human
Also, as in the case
this
experience. In the Old Testament
some
Testament, there was
uncertainty as to the
experience is interpreted largely through the
of
certain
books
admitted
to
be
the
New
to
medium
of the history of the rise and fall of the
right
Testament
Jewish
By the middle of the 3rd. century,
Testament
from
state; and in the New
group.
limited
the point of view of the experienceof Jesus and those
to
however, these questions were
Such a view gives
James, Hebrews, II Peter,II,III John and Revelation
accepting him as the Messiah.
the canonical
those
full recognition to the historical origin of the
books; and among
among
admitted
that were
the Apocato the canon,
never
the historical development of the experilypse
Scripture,
ence
of Peter,the teaching of the Twelve
and the historical valuation
of the various
Apostles,
the Epistlesof Barnabas
and Clement, the Acts of
concepts in which the experienceof God is set forth.
The trustworthiness
of the record is not confused
Paul, and the Shepherd of Hermas.
By the middle
of the 5th. century the limits of the canon
with questionsof literal infallibility
and leads to a
were
closed in the West, but discussions as to certain
better understanding of the Christian movement.
Shailer
Mathews
books, notably Revelation,continued in the East for
BIBLE
CHRISTIANS
OR
BRYANITES."
a
A
century longer. The influence which led to the
and so the final constitution
closingof the canon
sect which
offshoot of Methodism, founded
was
an
of the Bible as a closed hterature,belongs to the
by William O'Brien in Devonshire, England, in

BHAGAVAD,.

"

"

"

Bible

Societies

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

50

the discovery
of the correct text.
Another
of information upon
the text is found in the
old translations of the Scripture,
the date of some
of which hes further back than that of our oldest
MSS.
These
often
reflect a
different original
from that found in any
MS.
Still another source
for the text is at hand
in the quotations
of the
Old and New
Testaments
found m the writings of
the early Church
Fathers.
The search for the answer
of the parent church
in the United
Methodist
to the second question
church.
yields Literary Criticism, commonly known
as
in distinction from the lower^or
Higher Criticism,
textual criticism. Here the critic aims to discover
BIBLE
SOCIETIES."
Organizations for the
translation and distributionof the Bible,in whole or
everything that will throw lightupon the author's
words.
Is the writing under
in parts. Among
the
the earUest societies were
review
poetry or
Corporationfor the Promoting^and Propagating of prose? This is by no means
always an easy or an
the Gospel of Jesus Christ in New
is it a
England (1649), unimportant problem. If prose,
mere
matter-of-fact
the Society for Promoting Christian
annalistic record, or is it didactic,
Knowledge
founded
and
in 1698, and the Canstein Institute, homiletic
When
(q.v.),
imaginative in character?
founded
it written
and
in Halle, 1710.
under
The largestsocietyis the
what
was
circumstances?
don,
Was it all written at the same
in LonBritish and Foreign Bible Society,founded
time and by the same
1804,whose circulations have reached 1 1,000,000 hand, or is the writing a composite production?
What
sort of person
the author, to what social,
was
copies of the Scripturesin a year, and whose total
distributions exceed 300,000,000copies in over
500
pohtical or ecclesiastical group did he belong?
What
did he seek to accomplish by his
ous
languages and dialects. There have been numerpurpose
and what means
utterance
did he employ to attain
most
societies. The
European
important
association is the American
American
Bible Society, it? How
much
did he owe
and
to his predecessors,
what was
his influence upon
of 31 kindred societies
organized by representatives
posterity?
Most
of the data with which the literarycritic
in 1816, whose annual circulation exceeds 2 million
work are
must
in the literature itself
to be found
copies.
which he is working. Evidence
as to date wiU
upon
in allusions to contemporary events or
BIBLICAL
COMMISSION."
A commission
tablished often appear
esto past history. Characteristics
in 1902 by decree of Pope Leo XIII., comof vocabulary,
posed
of a committee
of cardinals
assisted by
stylewill tell for or againstthe
syntax, and literary
theologicalconsultors,the duties of which include
unityof the writing. Consideration of the religious
standards and aims will helpin dating a book and in
the defence of Catholic exegesis,the decision of
of Biblical criticism in dispute among
matters
determining questions of authorship and unity.
Catholic scholars,and the occasional publication But there is also the necessityof pursuing a process
of comparativecriticism. This will have to do first
of studies on
the Bible.
with similar writings within the Hebrew
Hterature
BIBLICAL
CRITICISM."
does one
Psalm compare
The art of accurately itself. How
with another,
one
code with
determining the origin,purpose, and meaning of the
or
prophecy with another, or one
Biblical Uterature.
another?
We must
however, and
go further afield,
The function of criticism. ^The term
cism"
"critiinstitute comparisons between
Hebrew
Uterature
and
the idea of
brings before the average
Babylonian on the one
man
hand, and between
and
the other.
captiousfault-finding.The aim of a justcriticism, Hebrew
Egyptian Uterature on
How
do the legends in Genesis compare
with the
however, is to see a pieceof Uterature exactlyas it is
and to estimate it without
prejudice of any kind, corresponding myths and legends of Babylonia?
favorable or unfavorable.
How
do the former owe
The result of the process
much
to the latter?
What
of criticism may
be increased appreciation rather
is the difference between
the psalms of Israel and
than depreciation,and the greater the hterature
those of Babylon?
Does
the Messianic
prophecy
under study the more
of Israel owe
certain is it that criticism
its inspirationto the Messianism
of
will but enhance
its value.
BibUcal literature has
Egypt? Only by such investigationsdo we come
littleto fear and much
to gain through a thoroughly to a fuU appreciationof the value of the Bible.
scientificcriticism.
J. M. Powis
Smith
Kinds
BIBLICAL
INTRODUCTION."
This
term
is
of criticism. The criticism of literature
itself with two questions: (1) Is the text
concerns
now
applied to the literaryhistory of the Old and
of the document
New
Testaments.
preserved in its originalform?
Since almost all theological
science has to do with
mean?
The search for
(2)What does the document
the proper
the answer
to the first questionyields
cism,
Textual Critiunderstanding of the Scripturesthe term
sometimes
called "Lower
Criticism."
Introduction
Both
wide field.
might be made to cover
a
the Old and the New
At the present time, however, we
Testament
offer a wide field
mean
by BibUcal
for the pursuit of this science.
Both
that science which endeavors
cover
to disoriginated Introduction
centuries ago and the originalmanuscripts
the date and composition of the various BibUcal
many
have
books.
It then arranges
the component
long since disappeared. The oldest MS. of
parts
the Old Testament
in their true historical sequence.
tury
Many of the books
goes back only to the 9th. cenand
of
the
New
discovered
be
Testament
to
the
4th.
to
and
are
A.D.,
composite,
they must of
These
oldest MSS.
be carefullyanalyzed into their elements.
century a.d.
were
certainly course
from
which
these were
This process,
which
is caUed
the higher (better,
preceded by other MSS.
of knowing how many
criticism is simply the appUcacopied,and there is no means
Uterary or historical)
times the process of copying had taken place. But
tion to bibUcal literature of the methods
which are
used in the study of other ancient books.
There
copying is always attended by error.
are
in existence thousands
of MSS.
of the Biblical
A question which
now
naturaUy suggests itself is
whether
Biblical Introduction
variations.
should be extended
texts, representingalmost innumerable
critic must
The
examine
these minutely, determine
include
called Apocrypha.
the
books
to
The
their relative ages and habitats,group them
Catholic scholar will naturally
Roman
include them
in his discussion,and from the pomt
of view of
accordingly,and estimate aright their contribution
1815.

Mr.

O'Brien's

DICTIONARY

dictatorialness caused

sension,toward
dis-

in 1829.
But
resultingin his withdrawal
continued
its identity,growing and
the church
expanding until in 1882, it numbered 300 ministers
and
scattered
34,000 members
throughout the
United
States and the British Empire.
In 1884
branch
the Canadian
joined in the union of all
Methodist
bodies,which was followed by a similar
union in Austraha, and in 1907 by the absorption

"

"

source

51.

DICTIONARY

OF

be no doubt that
can
In practice,however, Protestant
this is correct.
scholars reaUzing the special importance of the
canonical books
usually confine their discussion
H. P. Smith
to them.

purelyliteraryhistory there

BIBLICAL

THEOLOGY."

Bible,considered

apart from

AND

RELIGION

The theology of the

the later theologyof

Old

ETHICS

Testament.

Biblical
form

understood, must

ever

doctrine.

Biogenesis

Theology,when

thus

the basis of Christian

E. F. Scott

BIBLIOLATRY."
Literally,book-worship;
travagant
exand uncritical devotion
to the Bible as
possessingdivine authority apart from a properly
scientific estimate of its contents.

the church.
BIDDING-PRAYER."
made
In the Anglican church.
distinction was
times no
Until modern
the prayer
called because^
and the orthodox
between
the teachingof Scripture
so
preceding the sermon,
It was
taken for granted that
originallythe preacher bade the people pray foi'
system of doctrine.
the church, the king, royal family, etc.
ous
In thf
the Bible was
whole, constitutinga harmonia single
Lutheran
tion
church, a prayer for specific
objects,so
bodyof divine revelation;and that this revelacalled because the deacons bid the people pray for
formulated
had been accurately
in the various
these things.
in the fight of
creeds,and had to be understood
it was
them.
At the Reformation
perceived that
the then prevaifing
BIDDLE,
JOHN
(1615-1662)."Teacher,
theologywas often at variance
known
with Scripture,and an attempt was
the founder of
made to revise
author, and theologian;
as
several times imprisBut
the
it in conformity with Bible standards.
English Unitarianism ; was
oned
for his heretical views.
idea still persistedthat the teaching of the Bible
and traditional dogma were
the same.
essentially
Towards
the end of the 18th. century this view began
ALOIS
EMANUEL
BIEDERMANN,
(1819studied
The Bible was
to undergo a modification.
versity
1885). Swiss theologian, professor at the Uniwith a new
a
nd
to
was
seen
of Zurich,who elaborated a profound system
feeling,
belong
literary
to a different age and a different world of thought
of theology on the basis of Hegelian monism.
His
from
the
later creeds.
The
creeds
themselves
chief work was
Christliche Dogmatik.
examined
and
aUowance
were
was
historically,
made
for the manifold influences which had helped
BIGAMY.
(1) In criminal law, the marriage of
stillassumed
to mould them.
But it was
that the
while the firstis living. (2) In canon
a second
spouse
Bible contained
coherent
a
system of revealed
law, the marriage of a second wife after the death
truth,in which the Old and New Testaments
mented
suppleaction which in the R.C. Church is
of the first,
an
each other.
Efforts were
made
to bring
an
impediment to holy orders.
all the inspired
writers into harmony, and thus to
build up a scheme
should correof doctrine which
spond
BIGOTRY.
A stubborn
adherence
to a given
with the teaching of Scripture.
faithfully
creed or party or ideal accompanied by an intolerant
For a variety of reasons
this conception of a
attitude
toward
differingbeliefs,including
biblical theologyhas now
broken down.
It is recognized
unreasonableness
the part of the adherent
self,
himon
(1) that the Old and New Testaments, though
and a disposition
to coerce
others to agreement.
that
between
them
related,
are
quite distinct;(2)
The word
meant
religioushypocrisy in 16th. century
fies a periodof several centuries,
in which reUgious
usage.
ideas were
that
both
largelytransformed; (3)
Testaments
comprise a number of different types of
BIKSHU
lower
of the two
(BIKKU)." The
teaching; (4) that in both of them we must reckon
in early Buddhism
grades of disciples
applied to one
with influences from without, as well as with an
who had entered upon
the way
that leads to the
inner
development. Biblical Theology is now
higher state of the Arhat.
treated,therefore,under the two separate heads of
O.T.
and
N.T.
theology. The theology of the
BILO CATION."
The
hypothesis that a being
Old Testament
is viewed in its relation to the
of body may
have more
than one
location at the
national life of Israel. The
is traced out
process
time
without
same
multiplicationof substance.
whereby a primitiveform of religionwas developed
It is involved in the R.C. defense of the doctrine
and purifiedby the ethical teaching of the great
of the real presence
of the body of Christ in the
hardened into a legal
prophets, and was
latterly
Eucharist.
New
Testament
system.
theology is likewise
studied historically.
The Gospel evidence is sifted,
The celebration of the Mass twice
BINATION."
in order to discover the originalmessage
of Jesus;
the same
ministrant.
The
on
day by the same
then it is shown
how this message
understood
in
was
R.C.
permits binafion
specifically
only under
the primitive church; how
it was
interpretedby
Paul; how it was re-stated by the Fourth evangelist exceptionalcircumstances.
and the author of Hebrews
in terms of Alexandrian
BINDING
AND
See Keys,
LOOSING."
thought. The old conception of a singlebody of
Power
op
the.
truth,revealed in the Bible and formulated in the
creeds
has
thus
disappeared. Modern
enquiry
seeks rather to do justiceto the different phases
BIOGENESIS.
A term no longerin use among
of thought represented in each of the Testaments,
used to express the view that Hving forms
biologists
and to the changes of outlook which found
arise only from hving forms.
The term arose
can
sion
expresin the later history
when
of doctrine.
"spontaneous generation" had its behevers.
There is a sense, however, in which the theology Certain early experiments seemed
to indicate that
of the Bible
still be regarded as a whole.
in a completely lifelessand sealed solution organisms
may
When we apply the historical method
would
This was
to the various
called spontaneous
appear.
books
of Scripture we
become
of certain'' generation,or "abiogenesis,"as distinct from lifeaware
ideas (e.g.,
the Kingdom
of God, the moral
ment
generation,or "biogenesis." With the improvelaw, eternal life,forgivenessof sin) which were
in connection
of technique,however, especially
graduallydeveloped in the religionof Israel and
with bacteriology,
it was
discovered that the "hfecame
to their fruition in
and that the "sealed"
less" solution was
not lifeless,
Christianity.In order
to apprehend
these ideas in their Christian form it
solution was
not
always sealed against certain
IS
necessary to trace them back to their roots in the
has disappeared
organisms. Abiogenesis,therefore,
"

"

"

"

peat

Biretta

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

as a doctrine based
upon
any observation,and with
it this use of the term biogenesis.
The term is also used as a synonym
for evolution
as
appUed to the plant and animal kingdoms. See
Evolution.
John
M. Coulter

ETHICS

divinelyguaranteed vehicle of the inherited

culties
TertulMan),and 3rd. centurydiffi(Irenaeus,
arising from

About birth,as about

universally associated religiousrites
and behefs.
The desire for children,the desire to
and to insure the health and
protect the mother
future of the child,give rise to efforts to drive
possible evils and bewitchments, to secure
away
dehvery, to bring to the child the protection
easy
for it the proper
of good powers,
finallyto secure
These various motives
recognitionof fellow men.
have given occasion not only for important religious
ceremonies, such as purificationafter child-birth,
circumcision,baptism, but also to a great number
of superstitions
which are stillpresent in European
such as faith in charms, dread of changefolklore,
lings,
stories of good fairies. In virtuallyall pagan
there are goddesses whose
especialcharge
religions
is birth, and
under
whose
protection expectant
mothers are placed. The belief in defilement as an
accompaniment of childbirth (cf Leviticus,chap.
rites,is
purificatory
13), hence callingfor especial
form is rather
frequent,although its more
primitive
the dread of witchcraft at this dangerous period.
Among certain peoples mothers dying in childbirth
were
regarded as thereby made heroic,and special
Belief in re-birth of
honors
were
given them.
quent,
infants still-born or early dying is also not infrethere is held to
and in some
religions
pagan
be a speciallimbo for the souls of such, awaiting
rebirth.
is the rightto inheritance or to social
Birthright
station as a consequence
of birth condition.
Its
most
important forms are the rightsfollowingfrom

BIRTH,
death, are

BIRTHRIGHT."

legitimacy or
illegitimacy; primogeniture, or
seniorityof birth; the rightsof sex, male children
commonly being given priorrecognition;the rights
the social station of the parof rank, due
to
ents.
peoples,including the ancient
Among many
classical peoples and
modern
some
Orientals,
birthrightdepended upon recognitionof the child
by the father,who had, if he chose, the right to
of an
unborn
the child. Devotion
or
first-born child to sacrifice or to religious
service is
another
parental right frequently recognized in
H. B. Alexander
religions.
pagan
expose

beUeve
BIRTHDAY."
Those
who
in astrology
and some
others regard certain days as lucky and
African
tribes practise
others unlucky. Certain
infanticide of children born on unluckydays. With
the horoscope and
the elaborate
astrology came
arrangement of lucky and unlucky days based on
the astrological
signs evident on the day of birth;
others.
Hindus, Chinese and many
as, e.g., among
Among many
peoples birthdays are celebrated as
days
embodying the idea of the renewal of life. Birthand gods are made occasions
of martyrs, saints,
mas
of special celebration,e.g., the Christian Christobservance
of Rama's
(q.v.)and the Hindu

birthday.
BISHOP."
The
earliest officers of Christian
churches
called both presbyter (elder)and
were
bishop. In Acts 20:28 Paul addresses elders as
bishops. Officers appointed by the apostles are
called presbyters
in Acts 15 :23,bishopsin / Clement

52

42.
church
Apparently each
had
community
several bishops,both in the East {Didache 15) and
in Rome
(/ Clement 44, Hermas, Vision III. 5).
Probably the name
bishopwas apphed to an elder
presiding over
worship and
distributing alms.
in
the
2nd.
Early
century a monarchic
bishop is
found at the head of a body of presbytersin Syria
and Anatoha
{Epistles
of Ignatius)and by 150 a.d.
in Rome.
The bishop was
soon
acknowledged

BIRETTA.
^A square
cap with three ridges on
its upper
surface worn
the official cap of R.C.
as
ecclesiastics. The
biretta for cardinals
is red,
for priests as a
for bishops is purple or black, and
faith
black.
"

AND

persecution resulted

acceptance of the bishop'smonarchic

the

in disauthority

cipUneand

his priesthoodby divine rightover

souls.
This meant
a citybishopwith power
over
a single
at synods the bishop
community, but by presiding
of the provincialcapital became
(3rd. century) a
metropoUtan or archbishopwith growing jurisdiction
over
others, while synods of larger areas
(Syria,
Egypt,Italy)developed the higherrank of Patriarch
for Alexandria,
tension
Antioch,Rome, Byzantium. Exof a
to a
diocese
bishop'sjurisdiction
when
Teutonic
invaders
beyond the city came
settled on the estates of a gau or county subordinated
themselves
to the bishop of the old Roman
city
which was
the county seat, or (England and Germany)
from
the fact that the first bishops were
missionaries serving a large area.
All bishops at
first were
equal but by an historical process (presiding
at synods, appeals,
receptionof decisions) a
which
with
the
primacy of great centers
arose
11th. century became
for the Roman
bishop in
archic
theory and increasinglyin fact an absolute monall western
bishops. The episcopal
power over
constitution of the Cathohc church was
renewed
(1415),
by the action of the Council of Constance
but after the Council of Trent bishops tended to be
of the Pope. This subordination
to the
deputies^
is increased by the modern
separationsof
papacy
church and state.
Originallyboth the laityand the
clergyjoined in electinga bishop. The assumption
by Teutonic kings of the right to confirm or even
to appoint led to the Investiture
dispute which
ended (1122) with the provisionof election by the
then
chapter, excluding the laity. The
pope
installed in spiritualfunctions
and the king in
pohticaland property rights. However, in Cathohc
countries the state has usuallyhad the right of
and in Protestant
German
the
states
nomination
chapter elects one whose acceptibihtyto the government
States was
is assured.
When
the United
a
mission country nominations
sent both by the
were
diocesan priestsand the bishops of the province to
the Congregationfor the Propagation of the Faith.
In 1908 the United States ceased to be a mission
and the Apostolic Constitution of Pius X. placed
in the control of the
the choice of bishops virtually
of State.
Cardinal Secretary
and
in Deimaark
The
Lutheran reform, save
superintendents. Calvin's
Sweden, substituted
ecclesiastic above
church recognized no
a
pastor.
churches of America
In the Methodist
bishops are
san
diocechosen by the General Conference, have no
and are properly Superintendents. In
power,
Great Britain the title is not used by Wesleyans.
Certain other Protestant bodies employ the term but
shoot
only in the Church of England and its American offis there an
episcopaloffice resembhng that
of Cathohc
F. A. Christie
history.
'

An Arabic formula meaning "in

BISMILLAH.
in the Koran
the name
of Allah" which appears
as
the opening phrase of each section and is used by
of each act of
Moslems
at the commencement
of
ceremonial.
It is also used as a potent word
ences
in itselfto ward off evil influhaving efficacy
power
and to assure
a safe beginning of every action.
"

53

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

ETHICS

AND

filood

BLACK
or any
ART."
The
term
"black art," or
saints,
holythingswas included in blasphemy
which was
"black magic," is a traditional perversionof the
punished rigorously.In Muhammedantinctionism, blasphemy includes contemptuous
classical "necromancy"
necromantia
(meaning disspeaking
of Mohamet,
with the dead) being
a
guilty Muslim
being considered
by communication
corruptedinto negromantia (asif from negro-, black), an apostate,his punishment being death.
doubtless due to association with the conception of
HELENA
PETROVNA
black art comprises all
the devil as black.
The
BLAVATSKY,
(1831forms of magic supposed to be due to collusion with
1891). Russian authoress who traveled extensively,
and with Col. H. S. Alcott founded the Theosophical
evil spirits,
as well as
proper; the term
necromancy
has even
been applied to astrology. "Black magic"
Societyin New York in 1875. Her most important
is contrasted
with "white
work, Isis Unveiled,is an attempt at a systematic
magic" which includes
of theosophy. See Thkosophy.
innocent forms of wonder-working, such as legerdepresentation
main
and various forms of divination not deemed
A condition of happinessor
BLESSEDNESS."
to be due to intercourse with spirits.
which
in Christian and
theistic
H. B. Alexander
other
felicity
is associated with the divine favor upon
BLACK
A
DEATH."
religions
or
pestilence of Oriental
experience,whereas in ethical
originresembhng in many
jjresence in human
particularsthe bubonic
and non-theistic thought such as Buddhism
it is
plague,appearing in Italy (1348),from which, over
related to the attainment
of a right state of mind.
trade routes, it rapidly spread into large areas
of
See Matt. 6:3-11; Dhamma'pada, ch. 15.
of its mortality
western
Europe. In consequence
estimated as high as fortyper cent of the
variously
AND
CURSING"
BLESSING
The power
of
population and heaviest in Italy, France, and
the spoken word seems
to men
at a certain stage of
England great structural changes took place in
should
or
as
we
society. With the scarcityof labor,wages rapidty thought to be something uncanny
and
the older aristocracy
rose
injuriousword is a curse,
largely supwas
planted say supernatural. The
the helpful one
Class interests
a
blessing. As thought became
by one risingfrom the masses.
clear the theory was
formed that the curse
became
more
or
pronounced, discontent acute, and
rife. Not
and
the efficiency
irreligion
only were
blessingwas of force because the speaker was in
moral tone of the clergyimpaired by the admission
communion
or
or
specialrelations with a demon
into the priesthoodof the immature, untrained,and
divinity. The demon
might by the efTective form
worldlyminded, but non-residence and pluralism, of words be bound to a physicalobject (Aladdin's
secured the footing lamp) and obhged to do the bidding of its owner.
seeminglynecessary in this crisis,
from which in later centuries it was
But a curse, even
if pronounced by a common
difficult to
so
G. Mode
inherent force.
Peter
dislodgethem.
might work harm by its own
man,
and
death had
men
near
Magicians, priests,
BLACK
FAST."
The
most
of cursing and
rigorous form of
blessing. Thus,
especialpower
fastingin R.C. history,the austerity
relatingboth
the blessingof Isaac once
given to Jacob, though
to the food and time.
Latterlythe rigorous requireintended
for Esau, could not be reversed.
ments
When
have been relaxed.
is active in making the curse
the divinity
or blessing
effective the form
is usually that of a prayer.
BLACK
The
for
FATHERS."
popular name
Examples are not rare, however, in which the
the congregationof the Fathers of the Holy Ghost
the divinity
rather than entreats
speaker commands
and the Immaculate
Heart of Mary.
him.
The
vokes
judicialoath in which the witness inon
himself,in case he lies,is a
vengeance
BLACK
The
attached
to
FRIARS."
name
natural development from the curse.
One
of the
Dominican
monks
in England because of the color
earhest examples is the Hebrew
formula: "God do
of their garments.
and more
too if I do not do thus and so."
to me
so
H. P. Smith
BLACK
of God
and
Church
JEWS." The
PRIESTLY.BLESSING,
(Jewish.) In the
Saints of Christ,composed chieflyof negroes who
Jewish ritual,
the PriestlyBlessing
(Num. 6:22-27)
claim to be the descendants
of the true Jews.
is pronounced in the Synagog, according to the
orthodox, on certain holy-daysby the descendants
BLACK
for
MONKS."
The populardesignation
of the old priests; or, according to the reform
monks
of the Benedictine
order.
Jews, by the Rabbi dismissingthe congregation
at
services.
the close of some
BLACK
RUBRIC"
The declaration which commands
kneeling at the end of the order for the
OF THE."
See Future
BLEST, ABODE
Life,
celebration of the Holy Communion
in the Anglican
Conceptions
of
the.
church
the
black
prayer-book, so called from
lettersin which it was
formerly printed.
BLISS.
ness.
See Blessed"

"

"

"

Supreme

"

nuns

BLACK
SISTERS."
The name
because of their black habit.
BLACK

SUNDAY."

See

happiness.

given to Alexian

Passion

See Alexians.

Sunday.

BLOOD.
of

"

significant
as
Religiously

a
relationship,

means

of

basis

the

or
conciliation,

tainer
con-

of power.
the Greek, to injureby
From
BLASPHEMY."
The
basic idea concerning blood is
common
blood is the life."
speech; literally,
defamatory speech;specifically,given in Deut. 12:23, "The
less
The
spoken or written words insultingto God.
or
Consequently blood is everywhere more
Levitical legislation
prescribed the death penalty sacred,and its use sacramental.
for blasphemy (Lev. 24:16),as did also the Roman
Blood
is universallyregarded as the bond of
law.
In England and
the United
States, it is
(through
Relationship is natural
relationship.
punishable by fine, imprisonment, or corporal birth) or artificial (through ceremony). In the
punishment, but the law is seldom put into effect. latter case common
to flow in the
blood is made
Formerly,blasphemy was defined so as to include
veins of men
by contact of fresh wounds, by two
denial of certain orthodox
Christian behefs, such
men's drinking each other's blood, or by drinking
the Trinityand the authority of the Scriptures. blood drawn
as
from a third source, making a bond as
In France speaking against the Virgin Mary, the
close as if it came
through birth. Among primitives

Blood-Brotherhood

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

rA

this bond extends over

the clan or tribe: one common
BLUMHARDT,
CHRISTOFF
JOHANN
(1805blood flows in the veins of every
clan-member.
1880). Swiss pastor of unusual religious
power,
When
tribesman
is
believed
blood
who
in
Arabs
"Our
the
a
slain,
possibihtyof divine healing
say:
Its social value Ues in the protechas been shed."
through prayer, and who established and superintion
tended
of life imder conditions of nearly perpetual
institute for religious
an
healingat Bad Boll.
strife.
He was
of sincere and devout life,
a man
and exercised
wide influence.
The blood-feud is a consequence
tionship.
of blood relaWhen
clansman
is slain,a relative
a
him.
to
FRIEDRICH
VON
(familyor clansman) is bound
BODELSCHWINGH,
avenge
This may
involve
counter
(1831-1910). Influential Lutheran pastor, noted
reprisals,and feuds
for his vigorouspromotion of the work of the Inner
arise which last generations.
affect gods
As a means
of conciliation blood may
school at Bethel in
Mission, and for his theological
to counteract
(see Sacrifice); an exami)lein the human
the rationalistic
Prussia, founded
sphere
tendencies of the theologicalfaculties in the uniis that Australians
drink each other's blood at a
versities.
feast to settle difficulties.
As sacred,blood may
be (a) forbidden as food;
before
A name
BODHISATTVA."
or
to consecrate
a
(b) eaten
appliedin Buddhism
ceremony
to those who are destined for future Buddhahood.
(India),
or to
givingtestimony, to provide an omen
They are the great cosmic saviors who pass through
sanctifyor make powerful a fetish (Africa).
the ten stages leading to complete knowledge and
A concomitant
notion is that blood has potency,
after successive existences accept at last the peace
working beneficently or harmfully according to
of essential Boddhahood.
It
See AvalgkiteSvara.
circumstances.
Its beneficent
powers
vary.
imparts strength to the old (Australia);gives a
BODY.
The physicalpart of an organism, disvictor the life or courage of a slain enemy
tinguished
(Africa)
;
from its bionomic
its spiritual
bestows
on
or
ghosts (Odyssey,
being.
temporary power
XI. 34 "f.);sustains the dead; and on
several
as organized from
a
priest The conception of a man
modes
of being is well-nighuniversal,the physical
confers
of prophecy. It prevents
and
power
mode
and averts
or material
(thebody of the living,the corpse
cures
disease,makes marriage fruitful,
evil influences (India). Bathing with it (actually of the dead) being conceived as the bond, envelope,
of the life,spirit,soul, mind, or other
home
from sin or defilement
or
or
metaphorically)purifies
contrasted
modes
with it. In primitive thought
(Mithraism, Dyaks, East
Indians; cf. many
Christian
and in early religiouspracticesthe distinction of
hymns).
material
and
of or restrictions
immaterial
does not
Its perilsappear in prohibitions
clearly exist;
its use.
Some
kinds are especially
dangerous. the body is rarelyconceived as fixed in form, while
upon
of
various
elements
The
blood
childbirth and of menstruation
the
added
thereto to constitute
ara
themselves regarded as more
are
or less
supremely perilous. Usually, when blood is shed, a livingman
it must be buried to protect the passer-by. Parents
It is first with
by the physicalsenses.
perceptible
look upon
not
it for a certain period after
Plato that the distinction between
the material
may
the birth of twins (Africa). The husband's
soul is sharply drawn.
blood, flesh and the immaterial
drunk at marriage, remains in the wife's veins and
Nevertheless,the conceptionof a body from which
reveals and punishesinfidelity
sublimated
life or soul can
be disengaged,
a more
(India).
George
W. Gilmore
temporarily as well as permanently, exists from the
BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD."
lowest savagery
A fraternal bond
culture.
upward through human
formed
of the mingling of blood.
idea of body and
The influence of the disjunctive
by the ceremony
The conceptiongrew out of the primitiveconception
soul has been one
of the most profound both upon
of kinship as necessarily
ritual and speculation.The body as the house of
See
blood-relationship.
Brotherhood.
nally;
the soul requirespurification,
internallyand exterwith appetites,
it calls for temperas endowed
ate
ascetic control, for castigation,etc.; as
or
BLOOD-COVENANT."
A
solemn
agreement
of life,
subject to profound changes in the seasons
into which
two
parties Have
entered, sealed by
it calls for ritual safeguards,often among
savages
each drinking,being infused with,or smearing themselves
it demands
burial
for mutilations; as a corpse,
with the blood of the other.
See Covenant.
and rites of allayingthe dead.
Speculativelyit is
difficultfor man
totallyto separate the conception
BLOOD-FEUD.
^A form
of primitive justice
of life from that of embodied
life;hence arises the
which
the
maltreated
in
or
family of a murdered
ideas of a partiallife attendingthe corpse, as among
individual assumed
the responsibility
of vengeance
of incarnation
the Egyptians; of bodilyresurrection;
in kind upon
the offender or his kin.
It is found
and reincarnation; of a transfiguredor sublimated
in especialvigor among
the Semitic
and
Aryan
spiritualbody; of astral,ghostly, or phantasmal
peoplesthough the Indo-Aryans seem
early to have
tion;
bodies, etc. See Asceticism; Burial; Incarnathe blood-revenge stage. The
outgrown
growth
Resurrection; Soul; Spirit.
of more
closelyknit societies caused the adoption
H. B. Alexander
of the principleof wergeld (ransom) to a large
(1575-1624)." German
JAKOB
BOEHME,
tic.
mysextent.
When
the state was
established
the
firmly
maker.
His parents were
a shoepeasants and he was
right and responsibihty of blood-revengepassed
and
Bible
study,
reading of
By prayer,
into the hands of the king who, in the name
of the
he acquiredthe spiritof a mystical
books,
mystical
the culprit.
community, exacted
on
vengeance
opposition in his
visionary. He met with much
Even
the blood-feud had its strict rules and was
a
day, but his works subsequentlybecame a source
form of crude,though wasteful,justice.
Friedrich
of inspirationto such
as
great minds
did not
Schlegel,Hegel and ScheUing. Boehme
guinity.
ConsanBLOOD-RELATIONSHIP."
See
orthodox
though
doctrines,aldepart from the current
methods
and mystical
he used the allegorical
"

"

"

"

"

of
BLOOD-REVENGE."
in tribal
The
custom
societywhereby the next of kin of a murdered man
is bound
the murder
to avenge
by the death of the
murderer
of the murderer's tribe.
or of one

interpretation.

BOETHUSIANS.
the time of the
in thought.
to them
at

"

Jewish

Saducees, and

flourishing
related
closel}'

sect

55

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Bornholmers

A Christian community originatBoniface V. Pope, 619-625, influential in

BOGOMILS.
ing
in Bulgaria,owing its name
Bogumil
Christianizing
to a priest,
England, creating Canterbury as a
Metropohtan see.
a
(927-968). The beliefs of the Bogomils were
dualism
Marcion's
of Manicha"an
and
fusion
Boniface VI. Pope for 15 days in 896.
Boniface VII." Pope, 984-985.
gnosticism.Miracles,sacraments, and ceremonies
He
and
broiled
emasceticism was
Boniface VIII." Fope, 1294-1303.
were
interpreted spiritually
the papacy
in a number
of conflicts with
Eastern
movement
spread over
required. The
and
condemned
in
European nations by his arrogance
Europe. The order was
officially
pomp.
He was
the author of the bull,Unum
Sanctam
In 1650 the Bogomils,having accommodated
1111.
(q.v.).
their doctrines to orthodoxy, were
absorbed into
Boniface IX.
Pope, 1389-1404, was
pohtically
active and succeeded
in restoringRoman
order in
the R.C. Church.
the papal states.
His pontificatefell during the
A 15th. century
time of the papal schism, and rival popes, Clement
BOHEMIAN
BRETHREN."
radical reform than was
VII. and Benedict
sect committed
to a more
XIII., held office at Avignon.
the national
from
(Calixtine)church of Bohemia
which it sprang.
SAINT
BONIFACE,
(680-754)."Missionary
From
He
the 9th. century the church in Bohemia
to Germany, and proconsul of the Papacy.
was
intensely nationalistic (language, liturgy). was a Saxon by birth,a great scholar and preacher,
The Hussite wars, 1419-1432,followingHuss' (q.v.) going as a missionary to Frisia in 716.
His influence
and Prankish
with the
was
death, voiced these national aspirations,
large on both the German
desire for religious
Two
reform.
Martel
The
partiesresulted, churches.
protection of Charles
moderates
contributed
From
732-754
he
to his success.
(Calixtines,Utraquists), and radicals
(Taborites). By accepting the Compacts (q.v.), was archbishop. In 754 he was murdered
by the
1433,the former secured concessions (freepreaching, Frisian pagans.
for laity)and leadership. The
Taborites
cluded
incup
and
irreconcilables(destroyed
by Romanists
BONIFATIUS-VEREIN."
A
society for the
interests
Utraquists,1434), and others whose
tions
protectionof R.C. interests in the Protestant secThe
latter attached
were
supremely religious.
of Germany.
themselves
the Chelcic
Brethren.
to
Rejecting
force, and living strictlyby the Gospel, they
BOOK
The
OF
COMMON
DISCIPLINE."
retired,1457, to Kunwald, Lititz,where
they
church
to the book
name
on
given
organization
assumed
Unitas
Fratrum
Brethren.
the name
or
in 1560.
drawn
by the Scotch Presbyterians
up
In 1467 they became
an
independent sect (Matthias
A revised edition appeared in 1578.
ordained
1494 the
bishop by Waldenses). From
and
lost its idiosyncracies
movement
became
BOOK
book
COMMON
PRAYER."
The
OF
sympathetictoward the intellectualand spiritual
tendencies of the age (Universities,
Reformation). containing the forms and modes of public service
appointed by the Act of Uniformity, 1549, for use
Bohemian
Protestantism
all but annihilated
was
in the established
used
church
of England, and
and
Commenius
during the Thirty Years War.
with
certain modifications
by other Protestant
Jablonsky preservedthe history and traditions of
bodies.
tillthe brotherhood
the Brethren
reconstituted
"

"

"

"

was

and
broadened
by
Moravian
Brethren

Zinzendorf
(q.v.). Henry

(q.v.),and
H.

the

Walker

BOLLANDISTS."
The
Belgian Jesuits, who
the publishersof the Acta Sanctorum
(q.v.),
named
from
John
Bolland
so
(1596-1665), the
Jesuit father who was
of the principal
organizers
one
of the work.
The
Belgian edition of the Acta
Sanctorum
has reached
63 volumes.
They also
publish a quarterlyperiodical,the Analecta Bollandiana.

One
BOOK
DEAD."
OF
THE
of the sacred
books of the religion
of ancient Egypt, the contents
of which are largelymagical formulae and charms.

are

BOOK
of Revelation,
OF LIFE."
In the Book
destinies are
human
heavenly book in which
The
portrayed as being recorded.
imagery is
Oriental peoples who
have picto many
common
tured
a

the

existence

of celestial books

or

tablets

containingthe wisdom of the gods and mythologies

inhabitants.
concerning the earth and its human
HORATIUS
BONAR,
(1808-1889)."Scotch
Such
ideas may
be paralleledfrom
the religious
hymn writer,and Presbyterianminister. He wfote
literatureof Babylonia,Egypt, Persia,India,China,
several religious
books, and edited several journals.
Islam,and Judaism.
prominent
They are especially
Many of his hymns are in common
usage.
in apocalypticliterature such as Enoch, Daniel,and
Revelation.
ST.
BONAVENTURA,
(1221-1274)." R.C.
theologian. In 1243 he entered the Franciscan
of
WILLIAM
BOOTH,
(1829-1911)." Founder
order,and by 1255 rose to the office of generalof the
for
the Salvation Army
educated
(q.v.). He was
order.
He
of Roger Bacon
was
a
contemporary
the Methodist
Connexion
New
ministry, and in
and Thomas
Aquinas, and stood in opposition to
1865 founded
the Christian Mission for social rehef
both.
was
prevented from
By his orders Bacon
in East
London
which
subsequently developed
His philosophy was
Neolecturingat Oxford.
(1876),into the Salvation Army of which Booth
suffused
with
Platonism, and his theology was
commander-in-chief
until his death.
was
Platonic influence.
He was
canonized by Sixtus IV.
in 1482.

BOOTHS,
BONIFACE."

of nine Popes.
Boniface I. Bishop of Rome, 418-422.
Boniface//."Pope, 530-532.
Boniface III. Pope, Feb.-Nov., 606, obtained
from Emperor Phocas
recognitionof the primacy
of Rome.
Boniface IV.
Pope, 608-615, received from
Phocas the Roman
pantheon which was converted
into a church.
The

FEAST

OF."

See

Feast

of

nacles.
Taber-

name

"

"

"

Danish
BORNHOLMERS."
A
sect,
pietistic
island of Bornholm
in
named
from the Danish
of the
the center
the Baltic Sea, which
became
movement.
It was
the development of an evangelistic
in Sweden
movement
(from 1846) which spread
to Denmark
where
the leader, 1863-1877, was
P. C. Trandberg.
so

BosBuet, Jacques

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

BOSSUET,
(1627-1704).
JACQUES BENIGNE
French R.C. diyine,
renowned
as
a pulpitorator
and controversialist. His dominant
was
purpose
to reunite Catholicism and Protestantism, but he
to
make
too pedantic
was
a
popular appeal. In
the quarrelbetween
Louis XIV. and the pope, he
tried to support the papacy
while opposing the
"

Jesuits.
BOUNDARY."

In all parts of the world early

careful to mark
the limits of their
lands. Where
there were
natural
no
markings,
established as
trees, stones, or waste
places were
artificial marks.
Such
boundaries
were
sacredly
preserved and the boundary mark carried its own
the transto inflict penalty upon
gressor.
magical power
When
gods arise such figures as Min,
Hermes
and Terminus
have as their chief function
the protecting of the boundaries
In
and roads.
the
places an annual ritual of re-establishing
many
markings was performed. Unknown
dangers lurked
at the boundaries
Jack o' Lanterns, restless souls,
witches
especially,as at the cross-roads,where

peoples

were

"

"

boundaries

met.

The
BOURIGNIANISM."
doctrinal system of
Mme.
Antoinette
Bourignon, a French visionary
and
mystic (1616-1680); a type of quietism in
which spiritualecstasy rather than cult or dogma
is made
paramount.

BRAHMA.
As
differentiated from
Brahman
is the personal creator
god, known
by many
names,
e.g., Hiranyagarbha, Prajapati,Narayana.
"

he
He

forms
In

one

of the Hindu

triad with

Vishnu

and

literature he has an
early Buddhist
the
important place as the supreme
figureamong
gods; he holds his position in the epics but in
the later religiousdevelopment recedes before the
But see
growing popularityof Vishnu and Shiva.

Piva.

also Brahman.
BRAHMAN.
rence
(1) A word of frequent occurin Indian reUgiousliterature. The etymology
is uncertain,but most
writers trace it to the root
used in the neuter it refers
brh, "to speak." When
to power
and when in the masculine to the
or force,
who
one
meaning of
possesses the force. The
the word
has
developed historically,
(i) The
spoken hymn, or prayer or magic formula. Then
Then
as
(u) the power in that prayer or formula.
the sacrifice retired the hymn in the cult,it meant
in the sacrifice. When
the ritual
(in) the power
developed, the sacrifice was
regarded as the most
came
potent force in the world hence "brahman"
to mean
(iv)the cosmic force,or the world-soul.
See Atman.
(2) The designationof the highest
of the four Indian castes.
See India, Religions
Philosophies
and
of.
"

commentaries
The
prose
sacred Vedic texts of India.
They
are
exegetical and speculative, giving detailed
explanation of the sacrifices.
BRAHMANAS.
added
to the

"

BRAHMANASPATI
The
(BRIAHASPATI)
Lord of prayer; either the heavenly priestof the gods
the personification
and deification of the magical
or
of the brahmanical
priesthood.
power
"

BRAHMANISM."
The
religionelaborated by
the Brahman
the period of
priesthood between
Vedic
Religion (q.v.) and the development of
Hinduism
(q.v.).
Brahmanism
and
Hinduism
terms
The
are
often appliedindiscriminately
to the whole religious
development of India after the Rig-Vedic period.

AND

ETHICS

56

It is convenient
to restrict the former to the earlier
sacerdotal phases, the latter to the period when
fers
difpopular elements preponderated. Brahmanism
from Vedic Religionbecause
of the extreme
comphcation of its ritual,which relegatedthe gods
to a subordinate
end in
position and became
an
because
of its lack of a
itself;from Hinduism
fervent devotion to a personal god, and because of
its emphasis on knowledge and ritualistic works as
the chief means
of salvation.
1. Historical settingand date. The Punjab was
no
longer the center of civilization. Culture was
centralized in the valleysof the Ganges and
now
Jumna.
The period may
be dated roughly between
1000 and 200 B.C.; but Brahmanism
lingered on
long after that, and the beginnings of Hinduism
confuse the outlines.
soon
2. Social background. ^In the
fertile plains
and enervatingclimate of the Ganges valley life
became
easier and more
settled. The development
of greater political
solidation
unity was accompanied by a conof the priesthood and its exaltation to a
Caste (qv.) and the
positionof social supremacy.
doctrines of karma
(q.v.)and transmigration(q.v.)
made their appearance;
and with them a pessimistic
attitude toward
life and a negative ethical ideal.
Asceticism
became
a
prominent factor. As the
spoken language changed, the hymns of the RigVeda
became
archaic and obscure.
Interpretation
became
This, togetherwith the hymns,
necessary.
handed
attention was
down
was
orally. Minute
One
accent
paid to accent and grammar.
wrong
this
might vitiate a whole sacrifice. To master
complicated science an education became necessary.
Scholars gathered around
famous
teachers.
There
ensued a period of formalism and polemic; a recasting
of received
doctrines and
elaboration
of
an
minutae
men
parallelto that of the period of the schoolin Europe.
A priestlytheoryof the ideal life
developed (the four Agramas), perhaps largely
but stillof great influence on all later
theoretical,
(ReligiousStudent)
thought. (1)The Brahmacarin
spent years (accordingto one theory, twelve years
for each Veda) in the house of a teacher,Hving a
and memorizing the sacred
chaste,abstemious
life,
texts.
(2) He returned home, married, and became
Grhastha
a
(Householder); performed all the
religiousand social duties prescribed by priestly
tradition.
his hair turned grey, and he
(3) When
had a grown
who might succeed him as head of
son
the family, he went, alone or with his wife, to a
hermitagein the forest. There Hfe involved fewer
religiousand social duties,and left him freer for
meditation
the meaning of the ritual and of reUon
abandoned
then
gion in general. (4) He
any
fixed abode and lived as a Sannyasi (one who completely
Bhiksu
the world) or
(Beggar),
renounces
subsisting
a
wandering as
solitarymendicant
This is the ideal picture from
entirelyon alms.
A man
the Brahman
might pass
point of view.
from the first to the third or fourth stage, or remain
permanently in the second. The theory applied
only to the three higher castes, for the Qudras were
always rigorouslyexcluded from a knowledge of
The K?atriyas and Vaigyas were
the sacred texts.
with a short term of studentship.
contented,doubtless,
texts
All the Vedic
except the
3. The texts.
hymns of the Rig-Veda belong to Brahmanism.
consists of hymns, mostly from the
The Sama-Veda
The
YajurRig-Veda, set to elaborate music.
consists of sacrificial formulae, mostly in
Veda
is made up, for the most
The Atharva-Veda
prose.
Around
the texts of all
part, of magic charms.
there grew
body of explanation
four Vedas
a
up
and
interpretation(interspersedwith myths and
legends),long,rambUng texts in prose called Brahradical
certain
In
speculativecircles
manas.
"

"

"

57

DICTIONARY

OF

from
the ritual itself to
thought tended
away
allegoricaland symbolical interpretationof
the
to speculation
the inner meaning of the ritual,
on
and act (hymn and ritual). The
of word
power

ETHICS

AND

RELIGION

Brahmanism.

considered the greatest power

in
Brahman
(the hymn and
was
employed to denote
the immanent
cosmic
cosmological
energy,
the
universe.
in
Prajapati became
a
power
of
the neuter
Brahman.
personal manifestation
what
The Upanishads tried to define more
closely
There
this Brahman
was.
is, however, no one
system of philosophy,only vague, inconsistent gropings based on associative thinking rather than on
thinkingrigorouslycontrolled by the objectsof the
that
The final_
external world.
answer
given was
is the same
Brahman
as
Atman, the force within
the soul. The
of its vital energies,
the body, the sum
of the
the
essential doctrines
Upanishads are
following:(1) The individual soul is identical with
soul.
the world
(2) The individual existence of
the soul is for it a state of suffering. Coupled with
and transmigration,
this are the theories of karma
view of life. (3) The individual
and a pessimistic
soul may
be freed from its misery by union with
the
the world soul. This union is realized when
conscious of its identitywith
individual soul becomes
Brahman.
Salvation is not, as in the Rig-Veda,
material joys, but the
a personallife of enhanced
into the unified,
merging of the individuality
theistic
panwhere
Brahman
individuahty is lost.
admits of two interpretations:
The first statement
in
(1) A complete identityof the two, a monism
which the external world fades away
to nothingness,
becomes
bears the
illusion. (2) The
Atman
an
relation to Brahman
that the spark bears to
same
fire. The
a
predominant note is the second:
pantheism which does not deny the world,
vague
the
to it; Brahman,
but
Uttle attention
pays
ground.
soul,and the salvation of the soul are in the foreis no
for beUeving
There
good reason
formulated
that the doctrine of illusion was
definitely
it
in the Upanishads. But if not formulated
hovered
the union
the edge of consciousness
as
on
and more
with Brahman
became
more
a
mystical
For
mok"a (release)chief emphasis is
process.
laid on knowledge,not the accurate
knowledge of
the ritual or of the sacred texts, or a controlled
of
observation
intellectual knowledge based
on
the material world, but a knowledge of the irmer,
esoteric meaning of the sacred,revealed texts; and
ate
this passed over
into an intuitive,
mystical,immediThis trait is characteristic
knowledge of Brahman.
of all later Hindu
thought. Some emphasis
is laid on reUgiousworks, but only as a preparation,
is true of asceticism,
katharsis.
The
same
as
a
worked
into the theory of the
which
was
over
not all of priestly
fourth A^rama.
Asceticism was
of it developed independently and
origin. Much
then amalgamated with priestly
theory. Whenever
and
asceticism
mysticism begin, conservative
creed and
dogma and social barriers begin to
break down.
the theory of transmigration
From
and from the animistic conception of the unity of
all life developed the idea of ahihsa (thesanctityof
all life)which
largelymodified the old ritual by
symbolic substitution of other thingsfor the animals
came

to

be

rifice

an

the
its
the

universe,the word
magical potency)

this period
From
sacrifice became
a cosmic
power.
izing
This rationalthe Aranyakas (ForestBooks)
come
in the
Upanishads,
tendency culminated
and divorced from the
which became
philosophical
Brahmanas
diffuse and unritual. The
were
so
wieldy
of
felt for short summaries
that need was
the ritual. Further, in their interpretationthey
followed the order of the hymns in each Veda, not
the hymns were
used in the
the order in which
ritual. This summary
given in the Sutras,
was
texts of almost
algebraicbrevity. Of the authors
for
of certain Sutras it is said that they cared more
the saving of a singleshort vowel than for the birth
These texts fallinto three classes: (1)The
of a son.
Crauta Sutras deal with the elaborate,aristocratic
sacrifices. (2) The Grihya Sutras deal with
Soma
the simplerhousehold ceremonies.
(3)The Dharma
to the gods and
Sutras deal with the duties of men
another.
tain
to one
They are largelysocial and conof the later law-books^. Each
of
the germs
the four Vedas has its own
Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
Upanishads, and Sutras. Further, as Brahman
northern
culture spread over
India, divergence of
of rituahstic details gave
practicein the matter
The schools
rise to different schools for each Veda.
differed littlein their fundamental
texts,but in the
and later texts the divergenciesbecame
Brahmanas
four classes of priests,
were
very great. There
Veda
The Sutras of any one
with each its Veda.
giveonly the duties of one class of priests.
This
4. Ritualistic Brahmanism.
was
tially
essenpriestlyand aristocratic. It centered around
ritual of extreme
complexity demanding three
a
priests,and a large expenditure. The
fires,
many
the same
that of the
as
pantheon remained much
The chief difference is in the supreme
Rig-Veda.
and the growing importance
positionof Prajapati,
much
and
of Vishnu
Qiva (Rudra). There was
more
cosmological speculation. The
significant
the
thing is the difference in attitude toward
gods. The gods fall into the background. The
of the priests,
ritual and the power
as
controlling
in
the forces engendered by the
are
sacrifice,
the foreground. The
gods are Hke figuresin a
puppet show managed by the priests. The whole
sacrifice becomes
a
magical operation; the force
verse;
set in motion
by it is the greatest in the uniit depends the welfare of the universe;
on
The gods
the gods are obhgatory intermediators.
but they
have powers
greater than those of men,
must
themselves
perform sacrifices in order to gain
would
rise if the
"The
not
their desires.
sun
priest did not sacrifice." "Verily there are two
kinds of gods; for,indeed, the gods are the gods;
studied and teach
and
the Brahmans
who
have
sacred lore are the human
gods. The sacrifice of
these is divided into two kinds : oblations constitute
the sacrifice to the gods; and giftsto the priests
that to the human
who
have
gods, the Brahmans
studied and teach sacred lore."
The reHgiousgoal
slaughteredin the sacrifice.
the dutiful performance of ceremonial
The
works.
Brahmanism.
6. Popular
Grihya and
was
The
ritual itself was
Dharma
were
chiefly
entirelya personal matter.
Sutras, the rites of which
himself (with one
There was
state rehgion; there were
no
no
temples
performed by the householder
idols. The benefit of the sacrifice accrued only
for ceremonies
directions
or
fire),give elaborate
and
of pregnancy
to the man
(and his family)who had it performed. beginning in the third month
5. Philosophical Brahmanism.
Toward
the
reaching up to the time of burial: birth,namefices
end of the Rig-Vedic periodan effort had been made
marriage, burial,sacrigiving,tonsure, initiation,
at the
to find some
the gods, and
sort of unity behind
for the departedancestors, ceremonies
behind
the many
forces of nature.
This philosophicalbuildingof houses,about cattle and ploughing,about
istic
the first fruits,morning, evening, and
midday
tendency developed chieflyout of ritualconsiderations.
and guests, etc.
A mysterious power
emanated
worship, duties to Brahmans
from
matters
with
the cult, espeeverything connected
Marriage and the begettingof a son were
cially
from the hymn or prayer.
male
Since the sacno
of extreme
importance. If there were
.

"

"

"

Brahma

Samaj

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

descendants
for the dead, the
to perform ceremonies
souls of the ancestors
were
jeopardized. Hence the
necessityfor earlymarriage. Further,for a girlto
at puberty was
be unmarried
considered
lent
equivato the destruction of a Ufe.
The details of the
ceremonies
invented
not
were
by the Brahmans
and imposed upon
the people for their own
dizement
aggranthan were
the Qaruta ceremonies.
more
any
All were
based
on
widespread popular
beliefs and customs, but were
elaborated by priestly
ingenuity to a degree of complexity found nowhere
else in the world.
The
priests,of course, did
of
utilize the
tacit
popular acknowledgment
social
their own
priestly sanctity to estabUsh
primacy. Popular Brahmanism, however, marks
already what is so characteristic of Hinduism, the
conservative
of amalgamation
between
process
priestlytheory and popular beUefs and customs.
W. E. Clark
BRAHMA
An
eclectic theistic sysSAMAJ.
tem
founded
in India in 1830.
The founder was
influenced by a comRam
Mohan
parative
Roy, who was
study of religionsto organize a society
which should conserve
the best in Hindu
thought,
and
be loyal to India and adopt the monotheism
ethics of Christianity.
second
The
great leader
Debendra
the society
Nath Tagore under whom
was
based
tended
toward
Indian
theism
a
distinctly
on
Ramanuja's philosophy. The third leader was
Keshub
Chandra
Sen, who attempted to establish
universal theism with stillmore
a more
pronounced
Christian
the
elements.
Since
emphasis on
Keshub's
death
in 1884 the Samaj has lacked
in leadershipand vitaUty. The system is rationalistic
and stresses the ethical and social sides of
religion. It has exercised an influence altogether
out of proportionto its numerical
strength,because
of the personnelof its membership.
Unfortunately
it has been hampered by divisions into sects.
"

ETHICS

AND

58

the peoples of the East, especiallythe

of breathing
Hindus, that the ritualisticsignificance
has received most
conscious attention,a part of
in hohness of the Hindu
the discipline
seeker consisting
in regulated breathing,thought to
be
symbolic of the processes which sustain the life of
the world, which is itself viewed
the periodical
as
inbreathing and outbreathing of the spirit of
among

Brahm.

There

are

philosophy of
atmosphere and

traces

some

in ancient

Greek

similar

conception of a worldat least

a breathing universe; and
like idea is suggested in Ps. 33:6,
a
figuratively
where the breath of the Lord is spoken of as creative,
and Job 4 : 9, where it is spoken of as destructive.
Undoubtedly the idea of the sanctity of
breathingis associated also with the idea of speech,
the instrument
of prayer
and supplicationand of
while some
sacred songs;
notion of supernatural
breath is associated with the propheticinbreathing
of vapors
(asof the Pythia at Delphi) and with the
notion of prophesying to the winds
(Ezek. 36:9),
or of winds
as being the vehicles of gods and
spirits.
See Inspiration; Soul; Spirit;Wind; Word.
a

H. B. Alexander
BRETHREN."

See

BRETHREN,

BOHEMIAN."

Dunkards

(Progressive).
See

Bohemian

Brethren.
BRETHREN
See Brothers

OF
of

BRETHREN
Adamites.

BRETHREN,

the

COMMON
THE
Common
Life.

OF

THE

FREE

LIFE."

SPIRIT."

See

MORAVIAN."

See

Moravian

PLYMOUTH."

See

Plymouth

Brethren.

BRETHREN,
Brethren.

DAVID
BRAINERD,
(1718-1747)." Missipnary of the Scottish Society for the Propagation
of Christian
Knowledge of the Indians of New
York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. He endured
much
hardship,and died after four years of heroic
service from tuberculosis.

RIVER."

BRETHREN,

UNITED."

BRETHREN,

LITURGICAL

USE

OF."

See

Holy

Meals.
STRIKING
THE."
BREAST,
(1) An
act,
symbolic of penitence,performed in certain parts
R.C.
of the
liturgy. (2) A symbol of mourning
certain rehgious groups,
among
e.g., the Hindus.

See

Brethren.

United

ren.
Breth-

Greek
and
Roman
contains the daily
services and prayers for the canonical hours.
Its
of the higher
daily use is binding on all members
communities.
orders of clergyand of certain religious
BREVIARY."

BREAD,

See River

In

the

book which
churches,a liturgical

In criminal law, the act of pledging,

presenting,receivingor extortingan advantage
giftby a person in the dischargeof pubhc duty
BRIBERY.

or

"

BREATH.
The
breath as an
certain type of behavior.
Because
to induce
a
image of life is
natural and universal.
Gen. 2:7, is only one
of a
of its anti-social character it is morally condemned.
multitude of illustrations to be drawn
from the lore
of
BRIDE.
See
Marriage.
inevitably man
many peoples showing how
tion.
typifieslivingby the breathing which is its condiwords
for soul, including classical
See Marriage.
BRIDEGROOM."
Many
and
Hebrew
examples (Hebrew ruah, nephesh,
Latin
The building of a passage
BRIDGE.
a
across
anima, spiritus,Greek
psyche, pneuma),
hark back to "breath"
"wind"
their original river was
or
as
a
dangerous work for early peoples and
life to
was
meaning; while certain rites,such as the wellthought to requirethe sacrifice of human
known
Roman
custom
of the inhaling of the
the river powers
to give securityto the structure.
last breath of a dying person
(Vergil, A river,as a boundary to be crossed by a bridge,
by a kinsman
Aeneid
iv. 684, and
the idea of a bridge-passage
religions
others) point to a literal gave to many
identification of the soul with the departing lifeThis is especially
into the other world.
noteworthy
breath.
In ritual the breath is often symbolized and
in the eschatology of Persia and Islam.
Bridges
sacred.
built
direction
of
This
is
of
under
the
as
the
t
rue
regarded
were
particularly
religiousofficials
American
times
evident
in
and
breath
which
is
the
whom
in
Roman
the
Indians,among
as
early
from
the sacred pipe is
Christian
title of Pontifex
mingles with the smoke
applied to the chief
viewed
as
a
commingling of the life-breath of the
priest.
smoker
with the life-breath of nature, while frequently
SAINT."
breathing upon the sick is thought to be
BRIDGET,
(1) (452-523),one of the
It is, however,
efficacious in restoring health.
patron saints of Ireland,(2) (1302-1373), a cele"

"

"

59

DICTIONARY

brated saint of Sweden, founder

of the

OF

RELIGION

Brigittines

AND

ETHICS

Bruno, Giordano

STOPFORD
AUGUSTUS
BROOKE,
(1832of letters,a
1916). Enghsh minister and man
clergyman of the Anghcan church, 1857-1880,
"

TREATISES."

BRIDGEWATER

series

of

when

he became

Unitarian.

He

was

noted

as

Uterary critic.
ness
eight treatises "On the power, wisdom, and goodin Creation"
pubhshed
of God, as manifested
BROTHERHOOD."
A
from the 8th earl
in 12 vols.,
relationship of close
so named
in 1833-1836
mutual
will a proregard and service arising from either
of Bridgewater (died 1829), by whose
vision
made
for the writing and pubof 8,000 was
lishingnatural kinshipor membership in a common
society
order.
Unselfish social relations are normally developed
in family hfe and these are widely used as analogies
written statement
BRIEF.
(1) Legal, a condensed
by which to describe and organize various social
of the argument and the authorities to which
A brotherhood
is a group
in which all the
clesiastical,
groups.
appeal is made in a case brought to trial. (2) Ecmembers
have
of the Pope, less formal than
equal standing and share equally
a rescript
in the rights and duties of the group.
hoods
BrotherBriefs.
See Bulls
and
a bull.
be organized for various religious
and
may
AUGUSTUS
(1841-1914). moral ends,ranging from mutual benefit associations
BRIGGS, CHARLES
to organizationsfor serving social need.
Monastilogical
American
theologian,professorin Union Theocism (q.v.)is one
of the most
wide spreadforms of
Seminary, New York, occupying the chairs
In Christian history there
religiousbrotherhood.
of Hebrew, 1874-1891, Bibhcal
theology, 1891have
been
which
and symboUcs,
have
repudiated
encyclopaedia
many
groups
1904, and theological
sacerdotahsm
and have estabUshed
munities
com1904-1914.
religious
Briggs was a Presbyterian,and was
with
the
General Assembly for heresy
cited before
equal authority for all members.
Such
communities
have
because of views concerning the Bible growing out
frequentlypreferred the
Brothers
Brethren (q.v.) to the name
name
or
of his advocacy of Higher Criticism.
Charged
Church.
modern
In
life there
in 1893 suspended
numerous
are
with heresy in 1892, he was
fraternities with more
less elaborate initiation
or
from the Presbyterianministry. In 1899 he entered
ceremonies where men
of the Protestant Episcopal church.
the priesthood
pledgethemselves to promote
certain mutual
interests. The
mediaeval guilds
works.
the author of many
He was
theological
often regarded as brotherhoods, and some
were
modern
trades unions take the title,
as, e.g., the
^A culture
BRIGIT.
goddess of the Irish
Brotherhood
of Locomotive
Engineers.
the patron
in various places appears
as
Celts who
is
A
wide
variety of ritualistic ceremonies
medicine, metal-work
deity of learning,fertility,
hood.
found in connection with initiation into a brotherfire. Under
Christianityshe
and of the domestic
another's
blood,
Drinking or sucking one
Saint Brigit.
became
blood ritual,parconsecration
common
by some
taking
of a common
ceremonial meal, and a mystic
R.C.
monastic
A
BRIGITTINES."
order, introduction to the secrets and duties of the brotherhood
about 1350 by St. Bridget of Sweden, and
founded
exercises are common
means.
by disciplinary
which spread over
Europe. There are nine existing
Sisterhoods represent similar relationships
among
Holland
Bavaria
in
(1),
(1),
England
communities,
women,
e.g., the Sisters of Charity.
of
all
women.
and
composed
Spain (5),
(2),
Gerald
Smith
Birney
A
BROTHERS
THE
COMMON
LIFE."
OF
The
MORALISTS."
BRITISH
name
given
founded
men
by Gerard
community of devout
of philosophersin England during the
to a number
Groot
his disciple Florentius
(1340-1384) and
18th. century, who
sought to find an independent
It was
an
Radewyn.
attempt to revive piety.
in their
foundation for morahty.
The members
of the community continued
lived in a period when
British morahsts
The
Thomas
a
vocations,and practised communism.
of ethics was
foundation
the theological
being
of the community. By the
Kempis was a member
Rationalism.
See
discredited.
They
middle of the 17th. century it had ceased to exist.
Deism;
sought to estabUsh morahty in unquestionable
of
all
is
that
it
independent
fashion by proving
ROBERT
(1550-1633)." A leader
BROWNE,
of self-evident
external authority, growing out
active first as a school
Enghsh Separatists,
among
grounded
considerations. Morahty was sometimes
teacher,and later as a clergyman of the established
in
in the ultimate nature of things,and sometimes
church.
He protestedagainstepiscopalauthority,
Hutcheson
of
intuition
men.
immediate
the
and formulated
that theory of church government
elaborated
the doctrine of a distinct moral sense.
subsequently developed into
(Brownism) which
Others laid stress on an innate feeUng of sympathy,
Independency (q.v.)and CongregationaUsm (q.v.).
Others,
or
originalimpulse to benevolence.
an
BROWNIE."
In Scottish mythology, a spirit
again, emphasize the evident utilityor happinesschief names
of benevolent
producing effect of morahty. The
temperament
imaginedto enter the
are
Shaftsbury,Hutcheson, Cudworth, Mandeville, farm houses and do the work while the inhabitants
cussionsare asleep.
Their disSmith, and Bentham.
Butler, Adam
of great value in stimulatinga scientific
were
Smith
Birney
Gerald
See Congregationalism.
BROWNISM."
study of ethics.
of the

or

same.

"

"

"

ItaHan
GIORDANO."
philosopher,
A party within the AngliCHURCH.
BRUNO,
can
order
He entered the Dominican
that,influenced by the historical spirit ca. 1548-1600.
of his views was
account
persecuted
at 15, but on
the Established Church
on
of Germany, defends
and fled from Rome
in 1576, going to Geneva, Paris,
suited
it flexible,
Erastian grounds, seeks to make
senters.London, Wittenberg, Prague, and in 1591 returning
disbroad to embrace
to the age, and sufficiently
imprisoned
of thought
to Venice where the agents of the Inquisition
It insists on absolute freedom
burned
After a long confinement, he was
him.
and speech, and opposes
compulsory subscription
It has had the distinguished
leadership at the stake in 1600. He rejectedAristotelianism,
to creeds.
of Copernicus.
of Arnold, Whateley, Maurice, Stanley, Kingsley, and accepted the heliocentric hypothesis
He said the unity in the varyingphenomena
Farrar,Henson, and others.
BROAD
church

"

Bryanites
of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

the

universe is God, who

is not creator
nor
but soul of the world.
This philosophy
threatened
Catholic
to undermine
doctrine, and
therefore incurred the church's displeasure.

prime

mover

AND

ETHICS

60

and effect. Within

of cause
the cognizable world
and effect is supreme,
the law of cause
everything is
Buddha's
subjectto change,nothing is permanent.
him
analysisof the individual showed
only five

skandhas, "aggregates" (matter, feelings,senseBRYANITES.

Methodism.

See

"

Christians;

Bible

and
consciousness)
perceptions,pre-cQspositions,
allof which are subject
to change, are impermanent;

in them
is nothing changeless and eternal.
From
this came
the doctrine of anatta "no-soul."
Does
this denote an
absolute and categoricaldenial of
soul (any being in itself)or does Buddha
any
merely argue against the current animistic ideas of
soul?
The denial seems
to denote only the denial
of a permanent soul anywhere in the five aggregates;
in them is to be found only that which is conditioned,
produced, and therefore perishable. If there is
be outside of them,
BUDDHA."
See Gautama.
anything permanent it must
not subjectto change and to the operation of cause
istic
and effect. Buddha
BUDDHAGHOSA."
writer of the
A Buddhist
repudiatesboth the materialattitude involvingan eternityfor an individual
fifth century a.d.
work
is the
whose
best known
Visuddhi
soul, and the nihilistic attitude which sees only
Magga ("Path of Purity") in which he
of the
complete annihilation;both conceptionsare heresy.
gives a concise statement of the significance
"There is,O monks, a non-born, a non-becoming, a
Buddhism
of his period.
If there were
not, there
non-created,a non-caused.
would be no refugefor that which is born, becomes,
BUDDHISM."
The rehgion of a sect founded
is created,is caused."
This permanent something
"The
by Siddhattha Gotama
(latercalled Buddha
deal
cannot be reached by speculation,which can
EnUghtened.")
only with the five aggregatesof the world of cause
Beginning as the reUgion of a small group of
and effect;it is to be attained only by the saint in
all of
monks
in Magadha
it graduallyspread over
his state of mystic insight.
India; thence to Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Cambodia,
3. The indeterminates.
Constantlyrecurringin
Tibet, China, Mongolia, Corea, and Japan. In
the sermons
references to the indeterminates
India it failed to maintain
and merged into
are
itself,
Hinduism.
(whether the world is eternal or not, whether the
about
world is infinite or not, whether the soul is the same
1. The Founder.
born
^Buddha was
man
the body or different from it,whether
560 B.C. at Kapilavastu, northeast of Benares, in
a
as
Such
exists in any
the
foothills of the
or
not, after death)
Himalayas. According to
way,
as
tradition he was the son of the chief of the Qakya
resolutelyrefused to answer
questions Buddha
not tending to edification,
not having to do with
as
clan; was reared in luxury,but at the age of twenty"Just as
the fundamentals
of the religioushfe.
nine abandoned
home-life
(leaving his wife and
the great ocean
has one
taste only,the taste of salt,
India at the time
child)and became a Wanderer.
fullof earnest, deeply religioussouls seeking just so this doctrine and this (uscipUne have one
was
To Buddha
taste only,the taste of dehverance."
and
wandered
salvation; each
preached and
the impermathe most obvious thing about Mfe was
of many.
but one
Buddha
gathered disciples.
was
of objects,their constant flux and flow.
Of the other contemporary sects only Jainism has
By
nence
endured.
For
six years
he sought help from
cUnging to them, as a result of the forces set in
motion
Brahman
in
teachers and others with whom
he came
by good and bad acts, results rebirth in a
never
enaing circle. There must be, he felt,some
contact, practiced the severest
asceticism, but
hism
found no comfort.
Then
under the Bo-tree, "the
permanent. Early Buddescape, something more
austere
not an
tree of enUghtenment," the truth flashed into his
was
philosophy but a religion
emotional
filled with
mind.
For forty-five
about the
mysticism, the personal
years he wandered
in
the same
expressionof which is psychologically
country on his ministry,preaching salvation.
what the creed and theology.
all reUgions,no matter
II. Essential Doctrines
hism.
BuddPrimitive
op
^
The
4. Nirvana.
1. The Four Noble Truths.
The essentials
permanent something, the
of Buddha's
summum
bonum, the rehgious ideal is called
teachings are best representedby the
It is a mysticalexperiencewhich canNirvana.
not
first sermon
at Benares.
First comes
a statement
word
The
be defined or described.
of the Middle Path which avoids the two extremes
means
of habitual devotion to the pleasures of sensual
hterallythe going out of the fireof anger, of wrath,
of greed, of desire. It is a state of passionlessness
both of which are
things and to self-mortification,
in the present hfe.
be attained even
which
"low and vulgar,ignoble,unprofitable,
and fit only
may
of
became
of the saint after death was
one
for the worldly minded ' '
tion
What
Then follows the enunciaBuddha
refused
which
about
of the Four Noble Truths: (1) All individual
the indeterminates
course
to speculate. Buddha, like Socrates,suited his disexistence is misery. (2) The cause
of this misery
he talked,was
an
to those with whom
adept
is tanha
to objects'of
"thirst,"the attachment
his doctrine as a medicine,
at dialectic. He looked upon
(3) The possibiUtyof release,of becoming
sense.
the
who could cure
unattached
and passionless. (4) The Noble Eightfold
upon himself as a physician
If a man
herent
adPath consistingof Right Views, Right Aspiradisease of individual existence.
an
was
tions,
of one
point of view about the world and the
Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Mode of
out
himself with pointing
contented
soul Buddha
Livelihood,Right Effort,Right Mindfulness, and
with showing the plausibihtyof the
the objections,
Right Contemplation.
cussion.
2. God, the soul,and the world.
In this sermon
oppositepointof view, the futihtyof any such disto his own
he came
hism
Then
there is no mention of God or of Soul.
point of view,
Early Buddwhich through
which discarded allsuch speculations,
did not know
a personal God, a Creator and
certain ethical principles
Buddha
did not deny the gods; but the
lessness
passionRuler.
brought to a man
he
of mind
whatever
and
contentment
gods are merely higher and more
powerful than
Be reborn as a
might believe about God, the world, and the soul.
a
by good deeds,may
men;
man,
and must
The teaching is a pragmaticethics,intenselypracthe gods pass away
tical
god, but at last even
and metaphysical
and human, not theological
be reborn. Buddha
emphasized the inevitability
BUCER
(orBUTZER), MARTIN
(1491-1551)."
German
reformer and theologian,a contemporary
and
In 1548 he decUned
supporter of Luther.
to sign the ti-uce between
tants
the Catholics and Protesto flee to
at Augsburg, whereupon he had
England. He was
given a chair in divinity at
Cambridge, where he died ten years later.

"

"

"

"

"

"

61

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

its general appeal and

Hence
like Brahmanism.
Brahmanism
ism
outside of India.
and Hindusuccess
with the Indian
too
were
closelybound
up
much
social structure
outside of
to have
success
India.
found
5. Ethics and mental discipline.Buddha
certain ethical principleswhich to his mind, and,
as
history has shown, to millions of other minds,
would work, would lead to the cessation of hatred
and desire,craving and discontent. For the practice
of these principlesmental
control was
sary.
necesBuddha, however, distrusted deeply the
mobilityof the mind, and doubted the possibility
of entirely
detachingoneself so long as one remained
in contact with worldly
things. He insisted on life
monk
essential to salvation.
The
as
a
an
as
thoughts are wayward and hard to control. On
the least slackening of attention they jump from
one
object to another as monkeys leapfrom branch
to branch.
monkhood.
Buddhist
monkhood
6. The
was
discarded.
not based on asceticism,which Buddha
It gave
and
congenialseclusion for meditation
in India
mystic contemplation. There were
many
who abandoned
homelife,became Wanderers, and
of ascetics,
formed groups
but the Buddhists
order
was
closelyorganized,with elaborate rules and a
and therefore maintained
bi-monthly confessional,
itselfand grew at the expense
of the looser ascetic
"

"

groups.
III. Mahayana
Philosophical
tions.
Speculaand
Later Buddhist
thought, in characteristic
Indian
rational basis of
a
fashion, demanded
belief. Within
three centuries after Buddha's
two
or
in the order which gave rise
death came
a split
yana,
to the two
great schools of Hinayana and Mahathe Little and the Great Vehicles.
On the one
hand a body of conservatives clung to the thought
that Buddha
who had lived and struggled
was
a man
and preached and entered permanently into Nirvana;
that he lived on only in his teachings. The
Radicals extended his lifeinto the past and future,
worked
out a theory of pre-existences
and mythological
existences,and found at last in the continuity
going through these lives a unity identical
with the law or order of the whole cosmos.
The
Transcendentalists
carrying this thought farther,
analyzing every
concept by a dialectic process,
showing the contradiction involved in any finite
concept (any concept involving a limitation which
has an
developing ideas of absolute
antithesis),
Being as distinguishedfrom relative Being, could
in the
find no placefor this universal Buddhahood
and placed it in the reahn of absolute
visible cosmos
literally
emptiness,
Being,in ^unyata. This means
but does not, as has often been
stated, mean
vacuity and complete annihilation. Qunyata is
neither Being nor
from
Non-being, as understood
the point of view of common-sense
realism, but
transcends
both.
From
the point of view of this
synthesisthe phenomenal world has no meaning.
in Ceylon,
In Hinayana
now
Buddhism, found
Burma, and Siam, which keeps close to the old
naive realism of primitiveBuddhism, the ideal was
"saint" who
attained Nirvana himself
the Arhat
and entered into it permanently to come
no
more
into the world.
To the Mahayana
this is a selfish
ideal. The
their ideal. He
Bodhisattva became
attains sainthood, but instead of entering into
Nirvana
continues
to transmigrate in order
to
imitate the lifeof the Buddha, to become
a Buddha
in some
future life,
all men.
The conto help save
cept
of karma
was
enlarged. Good karma, instead
of helpingonly the one
it was
by whom
acquired,
could be transferred to others and help them.
The
was
as
a
opened for the conception of Buddha
way
God manifestinghimself to men
to
by incarnations,
"

saints in

AND

ETHICS

Bulls and

Briefs

mythologicalheavenly existences,for

conceptionof Nirvana

as

the

heaven, for the invention

of hells.
IV. Tantric
Buddhism.
By the 7th. century
had
approximated to Tantric
A.p. Buddhism
Hinduism.
Magic played a largepart. Animistic
soul concepts crept in. Asceticism and the acquisition
of miraculous
(coupled with mystical,
powers
magicalformulae and diagrams) were important for
the attainment
of Nirvana.
Female
deities,as
counterpartsof the male deity,and sexual elements
became
prominent.
V. Decline
Buddhism
of
in India.
Buddhism
has been extinct in India since about
1200 a.d.
For the cause
to look not so much
to external
we
are
Buddhism
persecution as to internal conditions.
needed
who
would
earnest, zealous monks
preach
morahty to the laymen, and by personal example
the
The monks
keep
precepts before their minds.
became
lax in their moralityor plunged into metaphysical
scholastic
speculation and
wrangling,
thereby losingtheir hold on the people.
VI. The Texts.
hism
In the 3rd. century b.c. Buddwas
adopted as the state religionby AQoka,
the Constantine of Buddhism, and a canon
formed
at a council held under
taken to
his auspices was
Ceylon in a language not far removed from the
original Magadhi. This
canon
(with perhaps
later additions) has been
preserved intact. In
India the language of the texts changed as the
spoken language changed, and when Sanskrit was
freelyused as the common
literarylanguage, the
texts were
In the 1st. century
put into Sanskrit.
A.D. , at a council held by the greatScythian emperor
As
formed
in Sanskrit.
was
Kanishka, a canon
Buddhism
and
vanished
from
India this canon
the later texts based on it were
have
lost. Some
been preserved in Nepal; most are stillpreservedin
Tibetan and Chinese translations.
It is doubtful whether the Pali canon
as a whole
before
represents the unified tradition of Buddhism
the splitinto sects.
Already in it scholastic and
See India,
mythological tendencies are evident.
Religions
ligions
of, for statistics. See also China, Religions
of; Japan, Religions
of; Thibet, Reof:
of.
Korea, Religions
W. E. Clark
"

"

"

BUGENHAGEN,

JOHANN

(1485-1558)."

German
Luther

Protestant
reformer, a close friend of
and
Melanchthon.
the
Wittenberg was
of his activity. He
is remembered
for his
scene
skill as an organizer,
and for his assistance to Luther
in translating
the Bible.

BULLINGER, HEINRICH
(1504-1575)." Swiss
Reformer, a friend of Zwingli and Calvin, and
after the death of Zwingli his successor
at Zurich.
He was
of the framers of the First and Second
one
Helvetic Confessions (q.v.)
which reflecthis views on
the Lord's Supper and predestination.
BULL-ROARER."
A flat pieceof wood
which,
when
rapidly on a string,makes a roaring
swung
sound
like thunder.
in many
It is found in use
parts of the world in the initiation ceremonies of
primitivepeoples. Its nature is kept secret from
the uninitiated to whom
it represents the dread
of its
of the unknown
spiritforces. Evidence
and
from
use
comes
Africa, Australia,America

Melanesia.
BULLS
AND
BRIEFS."
In the broadest sense
the
bull is any pontifical
act authorized under
seal of the pope,
pertaining to the authority or
of the Roman
Church, whether dealing
economy
tion,
with points of fact,or questionsof law, administraetc. The term is derived
doctrine,discipline,
a

Bulls

Briefs

and

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

62

and an
Invocation,usually ending with the word
"Amen."
A Valedictoryconcluding the bull was
of early and
permanent
usage, generally in the
when, as under the early popes,
singular even
the plural
used in the first part of the
was
pronoun
bull. The form of valedictoryat first varied,but
since the pontificate
of Hadrian
valete"
I the word "Benehas been fixed. Originally
the word
was
written put, but was
gradually abridged until it
evolved
into the papal Monogram
in the time of
Leo IX.
The
do not sign the bulls. The
popes
Pagina, Scriptura,Decretum, Privilegium,Precepum,
is the signature. Dating. Under
sives
kinds of misAuctoritas.
The three most particular
papal monogram
under the early popes
Empire the popes used the consular
were
Synodical Letters, the later Roman
the
with
Exeats or letters of credential,and Decreta, i.e.,
fasti to designate the year,
calendar to
of the papacy
Kalends, Nones and Ides of the Roman
authoritative pronouncements
upon
denote
the month
and day. When
the consular
and
matters
of administration
discipline.These
elections ceased in the middle of the 6th. century
last constitute one
of the most
important sources
the popes dated accordingto the year of the reigning
of canon
law.
See Law, Canon.
I (772-95) every
From
the time of Hadrian
emperor at Constantinopleuntil the breach between
the Iconoclastic
what
its character, the Greek and Latin churches over
papal document, no matter
ing
called a bull. The Benedictine mediaevalists of
Controversy(q.v.),after which they dated accordwas
to the name
and year
of the Frank
kings.
the 17th. century divided all papal bulls into two
the first pope to date according to his
fication Hadrian I was
categories "great" and "little" bulls. The classiof the popes
own
not a scientific one, for it rested not
pontificate. Some
clung, until
was
well down
in the Middle Ages, to the chronological
of the document, but wholly
the substance
upon
its form.
The
former class comprisedthose
practiceinaugurated by Constantine of dating by
upon
documents
emanating from the papal chancellery the year of the indiction (q.v.). Gregory VII was
III
which
By the time of Clement
complied with every detail of chancellery partialto this usage.
became
composition touching title,salutation,invocation, (1187)dating by the years of the pontificate
signature,dating, etc., and the style fixed. In the 15th. century Nicholas V introduced
valedictory,
the year of the incarnation as an additional date.
or
distinguishedby an
composition of which was
Hadrian
I (772-95) initiated the system of doubleor
rhythmic cadence (cursus) which was
assonance
to indicate the date
of composition
read aloud,as all bulls of impordating, one
tance
very effective when
of a
(scriptum)of the bull, the other to indicate the
were
promulgated, through the mouth
date of publication. During the period of conflict
ance
inheritan
papal legate (q.v.). This practicewas
with the German
the popes
often
schools of rhetoric.
were
from the ancient Roman
emperors
and frequently counter-popes
"little" bulls lacked many
of these diploThe
matic refugeesfrom Rome
As a precautionary measwere
ure,
opposed to them.
insignia,often being emitted without all of
in order to prevent the bulls of counter-popes
them
except the papal title and papal signature,
confused
those
with
of
the
lawful
Bulls
are
pope,
technically entitled being
i.e.,monogram.
Calixtus
II
(1119-24) suppressed the date of
according to their opening words (as secular laws
gether
also in the Middle
were
Ages), as Ausculta Fili, scriptum and substituted designationof place towith date of publication.
Unam
Sanctam, etc.
of "great"bulls what
In the case
is known
as
The history of papal bulls forms an important
to concentric circles
chapter in mediaeval palaeography and diplomatic. the Rota is also added, i.e.,
drawn
Certain of the popes, notably Gregory I (590-604), with a cross
through their center, the inner
circle enclosingthe papal monogram,
and a motto
I (772-95),Nicholas
Hadrian
I (858-67), Leo IX
in the zone
from Scripture
between
the inner and
(1049-54), Eugenius III (1145-53), Eugenius IV
the outer circle. Beyond the papal seal and papal
(1431-47),made permanent changes or introduced
pensable
other witness is absolutely indisno
that the dates of their pontificates monogram,
so
new
practices,
of a buU.
But in the
to the authentication
have served to periodizethe history of the papal
of "great" bulls the seals of the papalchancellor
case
chancellery. The most important of these features
and cardinals,
at least those in Rome, were
The early popes sometimes
as follows: Name.
are
usually
attached.
The last "great" bull bearing the pleninamed
themselves before,sometimes
after the name
tude
lery,
of the diplomaticinsigniaof the papal chancelof the person addressed.
No fixed practiceobtained
that pertainingto the Council of Trent in
tillthe time of Nicholas I, with whom
the usage of
was
1564.
estabUshed.
first was
putting the pope's name
the time of Eugenius IV the tendency has
From
used
title except
earUest popes
Title. The
no
of the term
been
"bull" to
to restrict the use
phrase
episcopus,with or without the qualifying
doctrine
The
ecclesiae Romanae.
catholicae ecclesiae or
important papal pronouncements upon
and to appointments of cardinals and
and discipline,
word papa
(pope) is only occasional before Gregory
are
the Great, who also introduced
the title servus
vorum
serbishops. All other official acts of the pope
to
known
as
practically answer
Briefs, which
Dei, and the invariable titular formula of the
"httle"
bulls.
Benedictine
the
Use
designation of
of the 9th. century.
pope since the middle
As these are said to proceed ex motu
of the Salutation is rare
before the 7th. century.
propriosuch a
is not infrequentlycalled a Motus
document
Propri.
The
early popes sometimes
spoke of themselves
ments
in the singular,sometimes
in the plural; but the
Finallyit is hardly necessary to add that all doculatter usage was rare except in addressingpatriarchal
emanating from the papal chancellery are
Westfall
Thompson
James
written in Latin.
bishops, metropohtans and great lay princes like

from the metal seal or bulla (inthe papalchancellery

in
almost always of lead),affixed to the document
certification thereof.
Besides this insigniaa bull
also invariablyhas the titular formula of the pope,
servorum
semis
Dei, and the papal Benevalete
written in the form of a monogram.
ogy
terminolBefore the 6th. century no systematic
ments
used to classify
the various kinds of docuwas
which were
issued by the papal chancellery.
find many
We
terms, such as Lillerae,Epistola,

"

the Germanic
kings. The tendency of succeeding
for use
of the first person
centuries was
singular,
and from the time of Eugenius III no other usage is
found.
On the other hand, in addressingthe pope,
Holiness'
"Your
the use
of the pluralpronoun,
the nature
is the proper
form.
Depending upon
of the bull there may
be a
Perpetual Clause
(ad perpetvum rei m^moriam, or similar words),

gious
(1628-1688)."English reliJOHN
BUNYAN,
author, born near Bedford, and reared in an
served
in the
He
atmosphere of Puritanism.
in the civil war, 1645, his
Parliamentary army
figuresfor
miUtary experience yieldinghim many
His rehgious experience began
his hterary work.

with

periodof

storm

and

stress

which

overtaxed

A DICTIONARY

63

OP

RELIGION

When
he joined
came
his nervous
energy.
peace
the Baptist church, and
soon
began to preach.
thrown into Bedford
Five years later (1660) he was
he remained
12 years.
jail where
During his
imprisonment he wrote Grace
Abounding (pub.
1666). In 1671 he was
released,but was
again
incarcerated for a brief period in 1675.
During
the periods of imprisonment he wrote
his immortal
Pilgrim'sProgresswhich was pubUshed in 1678 and
reached its tenth edition in 1685.
In 1682 he published
the Holy War, and in 1684 the second part
of Pilgrim'sProgress. He is acknowledged as the
of Christian literature.
greatest allegorist
The act of the interment
of a dead
which is usuallyan occasion for a religious
rite. See Death
Funeral
Practices.
and

BURIAL.

body, an

"

act

AND

Lepers, the
China

Inland
Peace

ETHICS

Caird, Edward

Leipzig Missionary Association,the

Mission
(in
Association.

Bhamo),

and the Missionary

A. S. Woodbuene

BURNT
OFFERING."
A form of sacrificein
which the whole of the victim is consumed
the
on
altar. See Sacrifice.
B U S H I D O .""Military-knight-ways."The
code of moral
action of the feudal retainers or
of Japan from the 13th. to the close of the
samurai
19th. centuries.
The
soul of the
knight was
loyalty but he was
expected also to have the
qualitiesof courage,
fortitude,honor, rectitude,
benevolence.
Hia
training was
courtesy and
intended
to produce fightingvalor, physicaland
moral courage.
His ideal was
honor rather than
wealth
the sword.
or
learning. His symbol was
The
spiritof old Japan, of loyalty to land and
is embodied
in Bushido.
The
word
emperor,
itselfis of comparatively modern
coinage.

RELIGIONS
MISSIONS
OF
AND
Burma
ing
is a province of British India,includthe
old independent kingdom
of
Burma
and
former
British Burma.
The
total area
is
BUSHMEN
OR
about
An aborigiBASJESMANS."
nal
240,000 sq. miles which includes the Chin
African folk,formerly
of nomadic
hills and Shan states.
The population in 1911 was
habits, the
dwell in the less fertile parts of
of whom
remnant
12,115,217as against 10,490,624in 1901.
Toward
S. Africa.
the north they have
The Burmese
mingled
are of the Mongoloid type, and are
with
the Bantus.
Their
Since the coming of the British
religionis an inferior
gay and vivacious.
indications of totemism.
there has been quite an influx of Chinese,Telugus,
type of animism with some
and Tamils.
About
65 per cent of the population
HORACE
other vernacuBUSHNELL,
(1802-76)." American
speak Burmese, but there are many
lars
in use.
The
theologian,
pastor in Hartford,Conn. ,and influential
degree of literacyindicates the
writer on theological
subjects.
progress of education, the proportion being 22 per
His work was
to
cent as compared with 6 per cent in India proper.
prophetic of the change soon
Protestant
In religion,
about
85 per cent of the people are
theology,whereby
appear in American
the Calvinistic framework
and the rigidmethod
of
Buddhists,6 per cent animists,3 per cent Hindus,
proof-textargument were
abandoned, and religious
31 per cent Muslims, 2 per cent Christians,besides
convictions were
derived from a study of Christian
small numbers
of Sikhs, Jains,Zoroastrians,Jews
tian
and Confucians.
The Buddhism
of Burma
is Hlnaexperience. His most important works are Chrisideals of modern
Buddhism
Nurture, in which many
(seeBuddhism) and has done much
yana
education
to enlightenthe people as it has fostered education
religious
are
anticipated;God in Christ,
in which an experiential
and a comparatively high ethical standard.
trine
interpretationof the docof the Trinity is substituted for metaphysical
A largeproportion of the Christian population
of Burma
in which
is comprised of Baptists and
Roman
disputation;and The Vicarious Sacrifice,
the doctrine of penal substitution is rejected in
Catholics.
Catholics have had missionaries
The
Roman
favor of the conception of redemptivesufferingon
and their
in Burma
for several centuries,
work
French
and ItaUan
sions. God's part.
misis divided between
Protestant
missions were
begun in Burma
in 1807 by the English Baptists, but the first
(1692-1752)."Anghcan
BUTLER,
JOSEPH
of the American
mission
that
was
bishop and philosopher. Beginning as a Presbypermanent
terian,
he joined the Church
of England when
a
Baptistswho began work in Rangoon in 1813 under
the leadershipof Adoniram
Judson
youth, entered the ministryand eventuallybecame
(q.v.). Their
wrote
successful work has been among
the hiU tribes, bishop of Durham.
He
most
important works
Christian ethics,but is best known
because of
The mission
on
especiallythe Karens and the Lahu.
is progressing his great apologeticwork, The Analogy of Religion,
has a fine equipment and its work
Natural and Revealed,to the Course and Constituiion
ail classes. The Societyfor the Propagation
amcng
of the Gospel opened work
This was
of Deism
in 1859 and has conducted
(q.v.)
a refutation
of Nature.
and
the ground that the objectionsagainst revealed
the Burmese
on
a
strong work among
missions at work
be urged with equal cogency
the Karens.
Other
Protestant
against
religionmay
Methodist
are : the American
Episcopal (since1879), the whole constitution of nature and that design
the English Wesleyan Methodists
(since 1889), in the universe is argued by analogies between
the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A., the Mission
natural processes and admittedly rational acts.
to the

BURMA,

TO.

"

CABALA."

See Kabbala.

religiousmatters,

e.g.,

the

government

of

Con-

stantine.
CAEDMON."

The

earUest

Christian

poet

of

losopher
England, hved in the latter half of the 7th. century,
(1835-1908)."Scotch phiCAIRD, EDWARD
and wrote
bibUcal and
and theologian;brother of John Caird; in
theologicalnarratives in
in the vernacular.
A hymn, which
1866 became
vigorous verse
professorof moral philosophyin the
Bede translated into Latin, is extant in the Northwas
umbrian
universityof Glasgow, and from 1893-1906
In philosophy
Christian
and is the oldest known
of Balliol College,Oxford.
master
dialect,
of the
hymn in a Germanic
and theology he was
a neo-HegeUan, and one
language.
The Eooluinfluential thinkers of his day.
most
CAESAROPAPISM."
That form of government
tion of Theology in the Greek Philosophersembodies
in which the political
ruler has supreme
his conception of religious
development.
authorityin
.

Caird, John

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

64

crucified. (2) Any

(1820-1898)."Scotch theologian the place where Jesus was
1862 appointed professorof
sculptural
portrayalof the crucifixion.
divinityand in 1873 vice-chancellor and principal
pretation
interof Glasgow University. His theology is an
CALVIN, JOHN
(1509-1564)."Born at Noyon,
of HegeUanism.
of Christianityin terms
Picardy,trained for law, converted to Protestantism
about 1534 through unknown
published
influences,

CAIRD, JOHN

and

philosopher;in

CALIPH."

See Khalif.

an

annotated

edition

of Seneca's

De

Clementia

to

mitigate the

the 15th.
A
Hussite
sect
m
demanded
that laymen should be
permitted to partake of the wine m the eucharist.
See Utraquists; Bohemian
Brethren.
CALIXTINES."

century, which

OR

CALIXTUS,
three popes.
Calixtus
was

CALLISTUS

"

The

name

of

I. 217-222, condemned
SabeUius;
opposed in office by Hippolytus ; the catacombs
"

of St. Calixtus were

under his cemetery.
excavated
Calixtus II.
1119-1124, obtained a settlement
cordat
of the investiture controversy (q.v.)at the Conof Worms, 1122.
Calixtus ///." 1455-1458.
"

GEORGE
CALIXTUS,
theologian. In

Lutheran

(1586-1656)." German
troversy,
syncretisticcon-

the
effect

of
reconcihation
he strove
to
a
Western
Christendom
by eliminatingminor points
and Protestants,
of difference between
Cathohcs

reformers.
persecution of French
Associated with Farel,he estabUshed
in Geneva
a
theocratic church
order notable for its consistory
and
of
rigorous system
discipline.Becoming
unpopular in Geneva he temporarily (1538-1541)
established
himself
in Strasburg where
refugees
from
became
lands
acquainted with his
many
church service and system of theology. Returning
to Geneva
though countering vigorous opposition
he was
able to dominate
the city,making it famed
for its moral tone, educational
and economic
facilities,
hundreds
of preachers
prosperity. Here
trained for the Reformation
were
propaganda in
western
His most
Europe and notably in France.
important literaryproductions were
Catechism,
a
the
a
Commentary on Romans, and the Institutes,
last of which
embody the principlesknown
as
Calvinism, through which its author has rendered
his greatest service toward
See Calvinism.

militant Protestantism.
G. Mode
Peter

CALVINISM.
A name
given, more
narrowly,
A sense
of inner impulsion,
interpreted to the system of doctrine,or, more
broadly,to the
of action, entire attitude towards
Ufe, characteristic of those
as a divine direction to imdertake
a course
Christians known, in contrast
with the
Protestant
a lifework.
specifically,
1. Vocational.
Lutheran, as the Reformed, and one of whose most
tation
By an interestingmisinterpreillustrious teachers in the 16th. century was
John
of I Cor. 7:20 the idea arose
that each man
Calvin.
was
designatedby God to the Ufe work in which he
John
1. Calvin's achievement.
tion,
Calvin, of the
was
engaged, hence the English word call or vocasecond
as
generation of Reformers, standing on the
applied to one's occupation. The conception
is doubtless one
of great religious
significance, shoulders of Luther (whom he delightedto honor),
shared
with
Luther
and
all the Reformers
the
and is taking its placeas part of the modern rehgious
trine
fundamental
endeavor
artificial distinction
obliterate the
to
standpoint of the Augustinian docof the underlying
of grace.
Out
between
the sacred and the secular. That farmers
reUgious
consciousness
of which this doctrine is the expresand
and
are
sion,
carpenters, statesmen
merchants,^
he had
the genius to release a principleof
needed in the kingdom of God as well as ministers
and teachers,is a commonplace of modern
religious Ufe which reinstituted healthy granulation in the
diseased body of European: society and thus, as
thinking. The endeavors that are being made to
Mark
Pattison
The
Europe."
puts it, "saved
develop wise vocational guidance and instruction
vehicle by which this new
have deep religious
if the church
was
life-principle
spread
significance
may
Reformed
Churches.
the
takes its part in the making of a sound human
through Europe was
to be spoken of,accordingly,as "CalThey came
society.
vinistic" Churches
it was
of their own
not a name
2. Religious. There
two meanings of the
are
word
that have
become
somewhat
confused. It
choosing and the complex of their points of view,
take
has always been felt that a person who is to underphilosophical,
ethical,social,economic,
theological,
"Calvinism."
as
reUgious service should be divinelyappointed political,
The
creative
2. Calvinism
in its broad sense.
(Acts 13 : 7). But as the organizationof the church
of Calvinism
has left a permanent mark not
developed those alone could serve as ministers who
energy
had been "called" in regular order and by proper
only on the thought of mankind, but on the social
order of civilized peoples,the politicalorganization
authority. A minister is stillsaid to be called of
lifeof communities.
God
and also called by the church.
The practical of states, and the economic
of the conception is that each person
Taking its start in a readjustment of the religious
significance
its way first to a reformation of
relation it worked
should
with
of himself
seriouslytake account
reference to his opportunitiesfor service in the
tirety
morals,and thence to the reconstruction of the enof life. It has been, for instance,the source
world and should most
carefullyconsider those
liberties of the modern
and guardian of the poUtical
occupations which do not promise large financial
the
reward but do offer peculiaropportunitiesfor benefiting
world; and Max Weber has shown that even
the growth of modern
mankind.
capitalismwhich makes
By conference with friends and
industrialism
possiblehas its root in Calvinism.
by prayer, he should seek to put himself in an
that Protestantism
set
attitude to make
It was
his decision aright and to accept
only in Calvinism
the divine leading,
which
will come
a
complete world-system
to him
over
as
an
against Romanism
inner sense
of obhgation. What
istic
is thus characterhaving in it an organificpower capable of giving
to the entiretyof life. Accordingly
of the decision of Ufe work may
form and energy
also be true
that "of all the developremarks
in the decision to undertake all types of religious P. Hume
Brown
ments
of
Calvinism
and the Church
of Christianity,
service.
Theodore
G. Scares
alone bear the stamp of an absolute reUgion."
Rome
the
From
CALLISTUS."
3. Doctrinal
See Calixtus.
system of Calvinism.
point of view of its doctrinal system, Calvinisni may
either as theism come
to its rights,
CALVARY."
be looked upon
(1) The Anglicized form of the
be
and should
Latin calvaria,
equivalent to the Hebrew
golgotha; in which case it is a world-view
"

CALL.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

65

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Campanile

spoken of as "the five points

comparison with other comprehensive not wholly accurately,
of Calvinism."
the reUgious relation in its
They are really the Calvinistic
or
as
obverse
the five points of Remonstrantism.
to
it stands in
case
purest expression, in which
be treated as the formative
Though they cannot
the other
with
contrast
great religionsof the
world; or as the logicalexpositionof evangelical principlesof Calvinism, however, they provide in
of its subtheir entirety a not unfair summary
stantial
it challengescomparison
case
rehgion, in which
B. B. Warpield
methods
of conceiving Christianity.
teaching.
other
with
pretation
interto its rights in a teleological
Theism
comes
METHODISTS."
A denominaCALVINISTIC
tion
to
of the universe,in which all that comes
of Welsh
aUorigin largely confined to Wales,
pass is explainedas the outworking of God's
combines
the evangelicism of Methodism
which
comprehensive plan, and is referred ultimatelyto
The
with Calvinistic doctrine.
the cause
of all things. The
beginnings of the
the will of God
as
traceable
to
Rev.
Griffith Jones
movement
of absolute
are
religiousrelation in its purity is one
tion
(1684-1761) The firstCalvinist Methodist associadependence on God, and is best expressedin a lifein
dates from 1743,but not until 1795 was
which an attitude of dependence on God, responsibility
tion
separaof England considered.
In
from the church
is sustained in all
and trust in Him
to Him
of ministers
1811 the body ordained the first group
emotional
and execuits activities,
tive.
intellectual,
and in 1823 issued their confession,founded
soul of evangeUcalism lies in utter
on
The
church
the Westminster Confession. The
ment
governdependenceon the grace or free mercy of God as the
and Congregationali
of Presbyterianism
into
is a combination
of all the efficiency
which
enters
only source
in
A vigorousmission is conducted
salvation.
All the revivals occurringin Wales since
From
N. India.
4. Fundamental
of Calvinism.
principle
dists.
each point of view alike the fundamental
principle 1735, have originatedwith the Calvinistic MethoIn many
is seen
to reside in its profound sense
of Calvinism
respects it is the strongestchurch
of churches of the
in Wales.
There are a number
He
of God and its reference of everything to Him.
mined
denomination in England, but the administrative
without reserve, and is deterwho believes in God
work
is done in the Welsh
to him, in all his
that God
shall be God
assembly. There are
vidual, about 190,000 communicants.
thinking, feeling,doing,throughout all his indirelations,is a Calvinist.
religious
social,
CAMALDOLESE."
The
name
This is often,but not very felicitously,
(from Campus
expressedby
saying that Calvinism is the pure embodiment
pf Maldoli, near Arezzo, Italy,the site of their first
of men,
R.C.
order
the
Lutheranism
of predestination,
the principle
rehgious
is, hermitage) of a
as
it is added in contrast, of the principleof justificaoutgrowth of a monastic reform by St. Romuald
tion
have
by faith. Both the doctrines of predestination earlyin the 11th. century. The Camaldolese
ideal
written rule,but endeavor
to practicean
of faith,however, were
no
and of justification
mon
comthe entirety of originalProtestantism; asceticism of silence,
to
prayer, and labor,combining
the claim at least of preserving solitude and community life. Their religious
garb
and Calvinists make
and an ample
is a white robe,scapular,cowl,girdle,
statement.
both
alike in their only consistent
cloak.
There is also a similar order of Camaldolese
Calvinism
What
reallyrepresents is logicaltheoFlorence.
near
centric thinking; a world- view, a religion,
nims
a soteriology, in which the vision of God in His glory
PLATONISTS."
A
of
CAMBRIDGE
endeavor
is to render to God
rules all,and the one
group
and philosophical
His rightsin every sphere of thought and action.
thinkers,of the latter
theological
of
The
formed half of the 17th. century, largely members
Re5. Chief depositoriesof Calvinism.
who
set forth theological
theologyis alreadygiven expressionin its Cambridge University,
and
Neodominated
fundamental principlesin the teaching of ZwingU.
by Platonism
systems
Platonism.
its first comprehensively systematic
It received
They opposed both the sacerdotalism
of Laud, and the rationalistic doctrines of Hobbes;
whose
formulation,however, at the hands of Calvin,
ize
known
day
as
Institutes of the Christian Religionremains until towere
Latitudinarians;sought to harmonrevelation and reason;
were
mystical,tolerant
of its chief classics. It has been embodied
one
and liberal. The best known
of the group are Ralph
since then,however, in a long series of important
the whole predoctrinal treatises,
have
which
Cudworth, Richard Cumberland, and Henry More.
on
served
remarkable conformity to type. Among
a
those by the
be named
the latest of these may
(1579-1623)." Scottish
JOHN
CAMERON,
American, Charles Hodge, and by the Netherlander, theologian,leader of a school of Calvinists,who
Herman
It has also found
expression, modified the doctrine of predestination,asserting
Bavinck.
the human
will is entirely
that God's influence on
naturally,in formal Confessions,which have been
moral.
of the extension
because
particularlynumerous
Churches
of the Reformed
through many
nations,
A section of the Scottish
CAMERONIANS."
the Church
in each
independent
requiring an
Covenanters
influential of
(1648declaration of its faith. The most
(q.v.)led by Richard Cameron
Helvetic
these are
the Second
Confession, the
1680),which after 1690 became a separate church.
fession They refused to take the oath of allegianceor to
Conand the Westminster
Heidelberg Catechism
exercise civil functions.
From
1743 they took the
has the advantage of
the last of which
versy
controReformed
name
Presbyterians; and in 1876 the
having been prepared after the Arminian
and of summing up thus the results of the
majority united with the Free Church of Scotland.
entire Reformed
development.
The
CAMISARDS."
Points"
"Five
6. The
designation of French
of Calvinism." The
against
rebelled in 1702-1705
who
Protestants
Canons of the Synod of Dort contain the replyof the
civil
Churches
made
Louis XIV., assertingreligiousliberty and
Reformed
to the "Remonstrance,
five points against the Calvinistic system by
on
rightslost through the revocation of the Edict of
Excited
the Dutch
of the early 17th. century.
Nantes.
Arminians
by persecution,and led by
frequently
enthusiastic preachersthe Camisards
istic
They reassert over againstthis protest the Calvindoctrines of absolute predestination,
particular developedfantastic ecstatic phenomena.
irresistible grace, and
redemption, total depravity,
considered in
world- views;

"

"

"

the

perseverance

of doctrine

are

of the

saints.

accordinglyvery

These

five heads
but

commonly,

CAMPANILE.
church or town

"

A bell tower in connection with

hall in Italy,usually detached

Campbell,

DICTIONARY

Alexander

OF

RELIGION

famous are those

from the church.
Among the more
in
of St. Mark's, Venice, Giotto's at the Duomo
Florence,and the leaningtower of Pisa.
ALEXANDER
CAMPBELL.
(1788-1866)."
Founder
of the aenomination, Disciplesof Christ
Campbell, and he were
(q.v.). His father,Thomas
Baptists,
Presbyterians,in 1812 became
originally
denomination.
the new
and in 1830 formed
They
taught baptism unto repentance by immersion, the
second advent of Christ,the abandonment
imminent
of creeds,a return
to the primitiveChristianityof
the New
Testament, and church union on these

premises.
McLEOD
(1800-1872)."
JOHN
CAMPBELL,
of heretical
convicted
Theologian; was
and expelled
teachings concerning the Atonement
from
the Presbyterian ministry by the General
Scottish

preached in
His
church.
his work, The Nature
to theology was
of the Atonement, in which the current doctrine
that the death of Christ rendered penal satisfaction
denied.
to God
was
Campbell held that Christ
offered vicarious repentance on behalf of humanity
and so satisfied God's justice.
Assembly,

1830.

in
contribution

Glasgow

an

For

16

years

he

undenominational

See

Campbell,

Alexander.
CAMPBELLITES.
Popular designationof the
Disciplesof Christ (q.v.)because of the foionder,
Alexander
Campbell.
"

66

includingthe impulse

of hunger, the disposal of

dead
sacrificeto the deity, the
kinsfolk,human
desire for revenge, a ceremony
of initiation,
and
various
magical practisesof the sympathetic
and
is usually
protective types. Cannibahsm
regulatedby ceremonials, and probably endocannibahsm
(the victim being a tribesman) is of

rehgiousorigin.
CANON.
cally
(1) The list of writings,ecclesiastiauthorized
as
constitutingthe Bible, (q.v.).
(2) A findingof an ecclesiastical council regarding
doctrine.
See Law, Canon.
or
discipline
(3) The
order.
rules of a religious
(4) A list of canonized
saints.
(5)An ecclesiastical dignitarywho receives
income for the conduct of services in cathedral or
an
churches.
In the Roman
church, canons
collegiate
five in a community as Canons
Regular. In the
Church
of England the rule of ceUbacy has been
removed, but the duties are the same.
(6) The
between
the Sanctus
and
portion of the Mass
the Lord's Prayer. (7) A class of hymns used in
the Eastern church.
"

CANON

uring
(BIBLICAL)." Canon, meaning "measthe term
which
first
was
rod," "rule," was
appliedby Christians in the second half of the 4th.
that collection of books which
has
the Christian church
as
Holy
each
Scripture. The
through which
processes
book passedbefore it was
recognizedas part of the
divine libraryare
too complex to be discussed in
But we
shall specify the epochs
this connection.
of those books seem
in which certain groups
first to
been collected and regarded as sacred and
have
authoritative.
The
gradual growth of the Old
Testament
culminating at the Council of Jamnia
at the close of the 1st. century a.d., and of the New
Testament
culminating for the West at the end of
lowing
the 4th. century a.d., and for the East in the folcentury, is one of the characteristic features
of their formation.
The
Old
Testament.
I. The
growth of the
Canon
be observed
in the
Old Testament
may
recognitionchronologicallyof the three groups of
it has been arranged. (1) The
books into which
the so-called five books of
first collection embraces

century

THOMAS."

CAMPBELL,

ETHICS

AND

been

a.d.

to

recognizedby

The
CANAANITES."
inhabitants of Canaan,
of the ancient names
of the land known
today
in the Tel el
first appears
as
Syria. The name
Tablets and is there used interchangeably
Amarna
with Amurru
lonian
Baby(Amorite-land),the common
designationof the Westland from before
Phoenicians
called themselves
The
2500
B.C.
Canaanites,and so did the Carthaginiansas late
the 5th. century a.d.
as
The inhabitants of Canaan
not a homogeneous
were
people. In most of the twenty-two passages
of the
of tlie Old Testament
where the predecessors
Moses, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Israehtes are enumerated, the Amorites and Hittites
termed
the
"Pentateuch."
This
Deuteronomy,
Canaanites.
hold prominent placesalongsideof the
first publicly
also called "the law"
was
group
Tablets
Similar testimony comes
from the Amarna
recognizedas sacred and authoritative by Ezra and
and the Egyptian inscriptions
which also show the
forth
Nehemiah, about 444 b.c. (in Neh. 8:9). Hencein this region of Indo-European elements.
presence
Jewish writers referred to "the law" as the
and
The
(Amarna
of all the three sections
hieroglyphic,cuneiform
firstand most highlyinspired
Babylonian)and Old Testament records are our
of the Old Testament.
(2) The second collection
chief Uterarysources
for the study of Canaanite
is "the Prophets," broken into two subdivisions:
civilization. In addition we have the results of the
(a) that covering historical material, Joshua,
tion
Exploraexcavations
in Palestine (seePalestine
Judges, (I and II) Samuel and (I and II) Kings,
'
enable
the
to trace
us
story
Fund), which
'the former prophets"; and
called by Jewish writers,
neolithic
from the days when
the Canaanites
were
(6) that embracing pippheticutterances, Isaiah,
in
dwellers.
master
For centuries Egypt was
cave
'the Twelve
(Hosea, Joel,
Jeremiah, Ezekie?%"h(i
Canaan
and greatlyinfluenced its material develop"Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk,
ment, but in the growth of business and legalprocedure Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi) eight
well as in mythological thinking, the
as
was
reckoning. This group
books, by Jewish
influence of Babylonia was
much
about
stronger. The
authoritative
200
recognized as
B.C.,
reUgion of the Canaanites was Baalism (seeBaal).
and accorded an equal placeby side of "the law" as a
D. D. Luckenbill
second part of the Old Testament.
(3) The third

one

"

"

CANDELMAS.
Church
feast commemorating
the presentationof Christ in the temple, celebrated
Feb. 2nd.
The Roman
brating
church regards it as celethe purification
The
of the Virgin Mary.
is derived from the custom, introduced in the
name
11th. century, of blessingthe candles for the whole
year on that day.
"

CANNIBALISM."

by human

beings, a

The

flesh
eating of human
practiseof multiple origin,

called "the Writings" and

books
was
books not found
all the Old Testament
These in their order
in the firstand second groups.
Bible are, Psalms, Proverbs, Job,
in the Hebrew
Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes,
and
(I and II)
Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah
for the most
These were
Chronicles
eleven books.
^art probably recognizedas authoritative in 132 B.C.
by Jesus the son of Sirach in the prefaceto the book
in disbooks that were
Those
of Ecclesiasticus.
group

of

embraced

"

67

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

pute in the times of Christ

(Esther,Song of Songs,
and Ecclesiastes)
were
finallyrecognizedas genuine
and authoritative
by the assembly of Palestinian
Jews held at Jamnia, near
Joppa, about 90 a.d.
puted
disThat Council by its public recognitionof the
books simply confirmed
and fixed what had
been already for a long time the opinion of leading
Jewish writers.
By that decision the full collection
books
was
(Canon) of Old Testament
informally
closed
embracing within its compass
exactlythose
Hebrew
books now
found in our
Bibles and also in
and Revised
the (English) Authorized
Versions of
the Old Testament.
collection of Old Testament
This same
books was
regarded by Jesus and the apostlesas sacred and
mon
authoritative,doubtless on the basis of the combelief of that day. Even
Jewish
the books
which, in some
quarters, had been held in dispute,
their way
to full recognition. The
gradually won
of the
church
founders
and
fathers
Christian
accepted in full the decision of the learned rabbis
of their day at the Council of Jamnia, and henceforth
of the Hebrews
the Old
Testament
was
revered and quoted as Holy Scripture. See Old
Testament.
did
and when
II. The
New
Testament.
How
the books
Testament
now
constitutingthe New
become
authoritative,and take their place by the
side of those already embraced
in the Old Testament?
"

"

Jesus,in his utterances, spoke with an authority

which
ranked
with that claimed
for the Old
soon
Testament.
The
ment
Testaapostles and other New
writers were
influential and effective in
so
their works and words and lives that they secured
the immediate
attention,gradual obedience, and
communities
of
of the Christian
even
reverence
their day. Their letters and other writings were
Christian
read in the churches
and
assemblies,
and were
received with a degree of sacredness and
divine
attributed to them
a
authority that soon
character.
During the 2nd. and 3rd. centuries the
be largely
growth of the Christian church may
attributed to the use which the pastors and evangelists
made
of these same
writingsin their preaching
and
preachers and
teachings. Early Christian
teachers used a larger number
of writings in their
contained in the New
church work than those now
Testament.
Early Christian writers,too, recognized
varying grades of authority in the apostolic
works
in their day, thus verifying the
current
ity
that the whole process of gaining authorstatement
ment,
was
gradual. As in the case of the Old Testament
Testathe so-called authority of the New
books was
a
growth through several stages
there was
and
centuries.
And
a
difference,too,
in the East and in the
between
the results seen
West.
first period in the East and the West
1. The
extended from the close of the apostolicage to about
The thirteen epistlesof Paul (Romans,
220.
A.D.
I and II Corinthians,Galatians,Ephesians, Philippians,Colossians,I and II Thessalonians,I,II,and
III Timothy, Titus and
Philemon) and the four
Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) were
received as sacred
read in the churches
and were
find also Acts,
and divine.
In the same
we
group
I Peter and I John
all with their authority generally
period
recognized by a.d. 220. In this same
also we
find the followingwritings as a kind of
candidates for admission
to authority: The Apocalypse
of Peter, Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles,
Shepherd of Hermes, Epistlesof Clement of Rome
and of Barnabas, Acts of Paul and a second Epistle
of the
of Clement.
read in some
These
were
churches,but failed to obtain generalrecognitionas
equal to the books found in the first group.
"

AND

ETHICS

Canon

(Biblical)

2. In the second
period (a.d.220-323) in the
there seems
been little progress in
West
to have
recognitionof the books stillin dispute. The early
church
fathers in general refer to those already
recognized as accepted and authoritative,and
probably under the influence of Origen, the greatest
scholar in the East, add to their list the Epistleto
the Hebrews, on the basis of its dependence on and
with
apostolic teachings in general
agreement
although not of apostolic authorship. The real
in both sections of the country,
tests now
at work
the East and the West, were
ments
(1) use of the docuin the churches and (2)apostolicauthorship,
(3) appeals to the teachings of those books as
against the heresies of the day. That is,church
usage and authorshiphelped fix the authorityof the
them.
books current among
be desig3. The third period in the West
nated
may
the last three quarters of the 4th. cenas
tury.
Several causes
conspired to fix the limits
to be regarded as
of the books
sacred:
(a) the
difference between them and other books was
sized
emphaby the persecutionsin which the destruction
of those very sacred books was
the chief aim.
That
fact stimulated
their production, so that Constantine ordered
through Eusebius fiftygreat Bibles
now
produced. (6) The
Scriptures were
being
prepared as a whole and so limits thereto became a
practicalquestion, (c) The preparation of creeds
for the church demanded
the fixingof the limits of
the New
There are many
Testament.
lists of the
books
of the New
Testament
which
have
come
down
to us from the 4th. century, but the first one
with those of our
to agree
present (Western) New
Testament
that of Athanasius,a.d. 397.
In the
was
Council
of Carthage recogsame
nized,
year the Third
approved and confirmed as its list (canon),
the same
books
New
Testament
that we
of the
Western
church have today.
On the other hand, the churches
in the East
under
the leadership of Origen and
other great
churchmen
slower in recognizingthe authority
were
of some
of the New
Testament
writings. Origen
to have
seems
recognized James, Jude, I Peter,
I John, and Revelation,but barred II Peter and II
and III John, while II and
III John, Jude
and
Revelation
refused recognitionin Antioch and
were
the Syriac-speaking world
the close of the
to
4th. century. Origen refers to the Gospel of the
Hebrews
the Gospels of Peter and
apologetically,
James, the Acts of Paul, and givesquotations from
Hermas
and
Barnabas
as
"Scripture," though
he admits
that Hermas
not
was
accepted by all.
It is, however, striking that Origen wrote
no
of the books not now
on
commentary
part of
any
New
Testament.
Eusebius
the
historian
our
took a long step ahead in the settlement
of the
troublesome
question. He made three lists of the
books involved in the dispute: (1) those recognized
and regarded as authoritative by all the Christian
churches and leaders.
These were
the four Gospels,
tion
Acts, Epistlesof Paul, I Peter,I John, and Revelawhich
he would
(doubtfully).(2) Books
bar them:
recognize though some
James, Jude,
II Peter, II and
III John.
(3) Books that he
regarded as spurious: Acts of Paul, Shepherd of
Hermas, Apocalypse of Peter, Teaching of the
Twelve
think,
Apostles, and perhaps, as some

Revelation.
In the Western
church during the 5th. century
Augustine (430 a.d.) laid down certain rules
by which the authoritative recognition the canonicity of the several books should be determined:
(1) the books accepted and acknowledged by all
the churches
should
be regarded as
canonical;
be
not
universally accepted should
(2) books
received
by the
subjected to two tests: (a) those
4.

"

"

Canon

(Buddhist)

OF

DICTIONARY

majority of the churches are to be acknowledged,

(6)those received by the ApostoUc churches are
to be preferredto those recognizedby onlya small
number
of churches
of less authority, in other
words, those not founded by the apostles. Augustine's
applicationof these tests gave him precisely
the books of our (Western) New Testament.
Jerome
New
(a.d.420) also accepted the same
Testament,
includingHebrews and Revelation,on the authority
earher
of.
writers,and not because of the opinions
of his day. Augustine's opinion and
Jerome's
Latin
Bible
'the Vulgate seemed
to
complete
the crystallization
of the Western
of the
canon
and

"

"

General
without
the edict of any
this before the middle
of the 5th.
Testament.
century. See New
III. Canons
Churches.
There
Various
op
is no
In
universally accepted biblical canon.
distinction from the Protestant canon
of today the
older churches adopted as their Scripturea collection
of biblical books either with omissions therefrom
Of those bodies mention
or additions thereto.
be made of only a few.
can
The
1. The
Syrian Church.
Syriac version
of Scripture is found
in two
distinct classes of
manuscripts, representing different rescensions.
But they agree on the books found in their canon.
Both classes omit II and III John, II Peter, Jude
and
Revelation, but contain all other books of
the Western
tions.
without any apocryphal addicanon
This version was
also the source
of the
first Armenian
which was
later revised
translation,
from the N.T.
Greek.
The Egyptian versions
2. The Coptic Church.
of the New
Testament
are
two, the Sahidic (Thebaic)
of upper Egypt, and the Bohairic (Memphitic)
of lower Egypt.
The
former exists only in fragments
today while the latter has been published
entire. This is the canon
of the Coptic church.
It
is identical in content with the canon
of the Western
This same
lack is
church, but omits Revelation.
found in the fragments of the Sahidic translation.
3. The Eastern or Greek Church."
We have seen
the Eastern
church
of
establishingas its canon
Scripturethe Septuagint,togetherwith its quota of
Wisdom
of Solomon, Judith,
apocryphal books:
Tobit, History of Bel and the Dragon, History of
of Sirach.
Susanna, I and II Maccabees, Wisdom
4. The Roman
Catholic Church.
'The power
of
tradition as well as the content
led the authorities
of the Roman
church to determine
by Council the
limits of their sacred volume.
had
The
church
sanctified by long usage Jerome's primary translation
of the Vulgate, except the Psalter which was
Jerome's
second
revision of the Old Latin.
No
formal
official decree of the Roman
church
had
fixed the limits of the Bible.
Disputes through
centuries on the authorityof the apocryphal books
were
suddenly settled by a decree of the Council of
that
Trent, April 8, 1546. This edict determined
in the canon
of the Western
church there should be
included Tobit, Judith, Additions
to Esther, Book
of Wisdom,
to
Eccleeiasticus,
Baruch, Additions
Daniel, I and II Maccabees, III and IV Esdras,
books
which
had been
revered
by long usage in
the church, and
whose
claim to recognitionhad
been
generallyrejected by the churches in the
early Christiancenturies.
all the canons
of other minor churches
Practically
based on one
other of those already named.
are
or
And
within most
even
of them
there was
liberty
allowed
in the
discussion of the comparative
of
the
books
authority
already regarded as sacred.
See Bible.
Ira M. Price
New

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

6ft

the written

down
to us
Scriptures have come
Sanskrit.
and
Of these two, only the
of Ceylon, Burma
and Siam is complete.
Pali canon
It is called the Tripitaka or "three baskets" and
consists of the Vinaya-Pitaka or Basket
of Discipline,
the Sutta-Pitaka
Sermon
Basket
made
or
up of five divisions or nikayas (Digha, Majjhima,
the
Samyutta, Aaguttara, and
Khudda), and
Abhidhamma-Pitaka
Basket of Higher Religion.
or
This canon, brought togetherprobably by the time
in the 3rd. century B.C., was
of Asoka
the literature
of the Hfnayana sect.
The Mahayana
form of the
has an extensive literature but no authoritative
religion
in

Testament

Pali

canon.

Council, and

CANON

LAW."

See

Law, Canon.

"

"

ANGLICAN."
The rules and regulations
drawn
ecclesiastical convocation
in
up by an
1603 and ratified by James I. in 1604, as the official
expressionof English church law.

CANONS,

CANONS,

CANON
The language spoken
(BUDDHIST)."
by the founder of Buddhism
was
Magadhi but

See

Apostolic

CANONS,

COLLECTIONS
ANCIENT."
OF
of conciUar decisions and papal decrees
pertainingto church government.
Collections

CANONS,
standards
church.

of

Rules or
ECCLESIASTICAL."
conduct
or
doctrine, fixed by the

CANONESS."

"

"

APOSTOLIC"

Canons.

member

of

R.C.

secular

congregation under the rule of an abbess, and

of obedience and chastity.
governed by vows
HOURS."
Times
rule of the church, Roman

appointed by
or Anglican,
as
devotion, and, in
specificpurposes,
prayer,
England, the celebration of marriage. The usual
devotional hours are called matins
turnes
(includingnocand lauds),prime,tierce,
sext,nones, vespers,
and compline.
CANONICAL

the
for

canon

or

CANONIZATION."
The
Greek
and Roman
churches
is enrolled as a saint.
person
op; Beatification.

formal process
in the
by which a beatified
See Saints, Veneration

sacred song.
CANTICLE.
(1) A non-metrical
Usually adapted from the Scripturesand chanted,
"

in church
services.
also as the
known

(2) PI.

The

canonical

Song of Solomon

or

book

Song of

Songs.
CANTICLE
More
formal

pF

THE

BLESSED

VIRGIN."

designationof the Magnificat (q.v.).

The designationof collections

CANTIONALE."
of ecclesiastical music for the complete liturgyin
and Bohemian
the Lutheran
Brethren
services.
The
infliction by
CAPITAL
PUNISHMENT."
legallyconstituted authorityof the death penalty
for a specific
crime.
In the code of Hammurabi
a

"

collection of laws
'the death
offences.
penalty was
imposed for many
Progress
has been steadilymade in the direction of mitigating
the barbarity of the methods
of execution and of
of crimes for which
reducing the number
capital
punishment is inflicted. In the leading nations
today the punishment is confined to murder and
treason.
See Penology.
the

earliest extant

CAPITALISM,
the

present method

"

ETHICS
OF."
of carrying on

Capitalism is
industry and

09

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

Capitalism,Ethics of

to political
is subsidiary
It is
western
or intricately
Europe and in America.
power
involved in family prestige
and social status.
The
with older methods
of carryingon large
such as slavery or forced levies. It is
capitalistclass receives the successful business
enterprises,
contrasted also with sociaUsm, which
in the form
man
irrespectiveof family. It is also distinct
known
state
socialism would
in its ideals from the farmer class which, although
basic
as
carry on
industries through state resoui^es
and credft. It
owning property, gets little advantage from the
collective process
of modern
is contrasted
also with an
industry and finance,
agriculturalsystem of
farms
which
does
small
not
large works hard at manual labor,gets littlegain through
require any
accumulation
the labor of hired wage
of resources.
It signifies
the accumulation
workers, and does not
of property
realize the meaning of the power
by private hands of a store of tools and
be used to provide material
which
in combination.
It is contrasted
most
resources
can
sharply
with the wage-earning class,which
and equipment for manufacture
little
and
possesses
pay wages of
the
United
Great
and
salesmen
until products
laborers,managers
States,
Britain,
property. (In
and Germany the tendency to the accumuIn its actual operation, P'rance,
are
placed on the market.
lation
it operates
of wealth in the hands of a few is so uniform
largely through corporations. It
as to imply that this tendency is part of the system,
employs the great developmentof credit,by which,
of
though greatly aggravated in Great Britain by
through the agency of banks, the resources
of people and the earning power
great numbers
primogeniture. The richest two per cent in all
of future generationsare
these countries own
all made
than half
available for a
considerablymore
the wealth, the upper
middle
class,comprising
present enterprise. It implies the wage
system
of capitalare the employers,
in which the owners
about oneeight per cent of the population,owns
assuming risks and taking profits,whereas
two
third,leaving from one-thirtieth to one-eighteenth
of workers, commonly known
for the remaining four-fifths of the population.)
salaried
as
groups
and
The
attitude of the capitalist
is not militancy
workers, receive a relativelystable
wage
but no
for its own
profits. It therefore tends to form
sake,but as the builder of enterpriseand
wage
classes having a certain degreeof
the owner
of it .he resents any interference with his
sharply marked
interest in that
both
common
rightsof control and ownership, and hence opposes
normally desire
continuous
and
such recognitionof any group
lesssen his power.
as
industry (subject to
prosperous
limitation of output by either group
this
He is willingto give what he considers fair or even
when
liberal wages,
but is likelyto insist that he must
the more
of enhancing
be
seems
profitablemethod
the sole judge of what
is fair.
interests as to the shares
prices)but with conflicting
of total income which shall go to employers' profits
3. The capitalist
is a competitive group.
group
It observes
and workers' wages respectively.
strictlycertain "rules of the game,"
The ethics of capitalismmust
be understood
condemn
to
forgery, frauds of certain
e.g., which
In merchandizing
signify not the ethics of all engaged in modern
kinds,failure to keep contracts.
it has made
in recent years toward
ards
standindustry and business (the ethics of one group of
progress
these is treated under Labor
of quality and uniformity of prices. But in
Ethics
Movement,
caveat emptor
op) but the ethics which the system tends to foster, large fields of operation,the maxim
in the owning and
prevails. The logicalstandard of value is "what
managing class.
particularly
Individual
members
of the class may
in various
can
get" or "what the traffic will bear" rather
you
than any
assumed
intrinsic value or any
relation
respects be governed by their membership in other
to cost
of production. In this point it has enmined
reUgious, political,local or be detercountered
groups
by temperament or conviction to actions not
oppositionin other groups, particularly
when
ideal.
in accord with the capitalistic
prices for various kinds of quasi-public
services
have been in
1. The primary objectof capitalismis the carrye.g., railroad and gas rates
ing
of business and industryfor profit. It is not
on
question. Monopoly is in such cases
a
disturbing
factor.
the craftsman's interest in skill,
the inventor's
nor
interest in discovery,although these may
be utilized
4. In dealing with labor,capitalismhas in the
It is not the avaricious seekingof wealth
as means.
past also preferred the competitive method, as
contrasted with any method
of collective bargaining.
apart from the process of business; it is "making
It has stood for the "open shop," which means
Success from
in
not merely gettingmoney.
money"
vidual
the capitalistic
point of view is secured by building practicethat the employer bargains with the indiemployee and not with the union to which
up a great business,but the outstanding measure
ness
of success
is not so much
of the busithe efficiency
an
employee may
theoretically belong. The
its service to the public as it is the profits employer believes that in this way there is gjreater
or
incentive to individual efficiency.It goes without
secured as shown
in the annual balance sheet.
scarcity
Further,its conception,although not excluding saying that except in times of extraordinarj^
the spending of money
of labor,the open,
non-union
or the bestowal
i.e.,
shop, is highly
luxuries,
upon
of it upon
education
and philanthropy, does not
advantageous to the employer.
The central idea is that
6. In relation to the pubUc at large,capitalism
directlyfavor such uses.
has adopted the underlying
business enterprisefor profit is not
to
means
a
philosophy of Adam
he will
seel^his own
Smith:
if each man
tious
ostentareligion,
interest,
anything else leisure,
art,science,
the public good.
if not the all-sufficient,
promote, though unintentionally,
display but is itself,
at least the most
important, end and value of life. Capitalism believes the present system to be the
best yet devised for carryingon the world's industry
of acquiring wealth,
It is not merely the means
and
It believes that
it is both
prosperity is
commerce.
a
fascinatingoccupation and, under
ject
of
dependent upon givingcapitalisma free hand, subpresent-day conditions, the greatest source
which
of pubUc control over
to a certain amount
in comparison with
politicsis of
power
banking, etc.,which operates to stabilize
secondary interest and place. The logicaluse to
railroads,
make
is to
of the great bulk of wealth accumulated
pricesand values.
it as
6. The
use
capital for expanding business and
prevailingagency of capitalismis the
be
can
is impersonal. It
industry.
corporation. This
but as it is organized
the capital2. The class which best exemplifies
held to legalresponsibility,
istic
ideal becomes
for a singlepurpose,
not onlyan active accumulative
namely "for profit,"it does
class. As such it is, not admit other motives to enter into its conduct of
class,but a property-ownmg
interfere with profits. Both
would
affairs which
however, distinguishedfrom such a propertiedclass
in its relation to the pubhc and in its relation to
as the British landed
aristocracywith whom
prop-

business in

erty

contrasted

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Capitularies

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

the
corporation frequently pursues
workmen,
policiesvarying widely from the views entertained
directors
stockholders. This
or
by individual
impersonal attitude is of great importance in the
of
ethics of capitalism. It also explains much
the public attitude toward
corporations,since the
public refuses to treat a corporation in the same
has
treat an individual who
On the other hand, however,
the very
fact that the corporation is impersonal
its operationsin the
favors a stricter control over
Jamios H. Tufts
interest of public welfare.
way

it would

in which

feelingsand morals.

CAPITULARIES."
ing
originatLegal enactments
with the Merovingian and CarolingianKings,
called from their divisions into chapters {capiso
capitulariesincluded ecclesiastical
tulae). The
legislation
emanating from the councils of bishops
tians.
and by royal approval made binding on all Chris-

THEOLOGY."
CAPPADOCIAN
Cappadocia
in which
inland province in Asia Minor
an
Caesarea,the episcopalsee of Basil,was one of the
Nazianzus
and
Nyssa were
important towns.
placesof no importance except as the centers of the
temporaries
bishopricsof the two Gregorys. These three conknown
are
as "the three Cappadocians,"
their contribution to theologybeing the formulation
of the Trinitarian doctrine in terms of three hypostases
ousia
(substance). The
(persons) in one
thus individualizations
were
"persons" of the trinity
divine substance common
to the three,the
of one
aim being to avoid tritheism and Sabellianism.
was

CAPRICE.

AND

ETHICS

70

he had to flee Germany and spent the last twelve

years of his lifein Switzerland.
THOMAS
CARLYLE,
(1795-1881)." Carlyle,
like Coleridge,
mediated to England and America
the German
of thought which produced
current
Transcendentalism
and
the
interest in divine
Immanence.
At first a prey to skepticism, oppressed
by the mechanistic view of the Universe,
he reacted powerfully{Sartor Resartus, 1838) to
Goethe's
infused
with
conception of nature
as
deityand of each human will as an utterance of this
divine nature.
Despite his intense moral earnestness
Carlyletends to speak of the divine will as
Force, and his Heroes and Hero Worship, as well
well as his historical
as
the strong
works, glorifying
wills that have
shaped history,verge perilously
the doctrine that might is right. Though dison
trusting
poHtical democracy he was
a champion
of oppressed workingmen with a bitter hostility
to
the laissez faire economists.
He
dealt with the
social problem in Chartism (1829) and
Past and
Present (1843).
F. A. Christie

CARMATIANS."

See IsMA'iLis.

CARMELITES."
R.C.
A
mendicant
order,
founded
by Berthold, a crusader,on Mt. Carmel
in the 12th. century,and called in England "White
Friars" from
the white mantle
their
worn
over
brown
cloak.
St. Theresa (q.v.)introduced drastic
reforms into the order in the 16th. century, resulting
in a division into the discalced or barefooted
and
calced or older branch, the former section being the
active and numerous.
more

An
abrupt change of attitude,
plan without adequate moral grounds.
"

CARO,
JOSEPH
(1488-1575)." Great Jewish
and codifier,
born in Spain,
rabbi,mystic,talmudist,
CAPUCHINS."
A R.C. order of friars ing
his
originat- flourished in Palestine. His fame rests chiefly
on
in 1520 as an offshoot of the Franciscan
order, Shulhan-'Aruk
(set table), the latest and most
authoritative code of rabbinic law.
from their pointed hood (capuche). Their
so named
discipUneis rigorous,and purports to be a literal
purpose

or

of that of St. Francis.

CAROLINE
in

BOOKS."
books
Four
which
peared
apunder
magne,
the name
of CharleA member
of the highest official
CARDINAL.
forbiddingthe worship of images and pictures,
but approving their use
The cardinals form with
works of art for
as
body in the R.C. church.
and memorials.
ornaments
the College of Cardinals,the governing
the pope
body of the church, and elect a pope when there is
CARTESIANISM."
fixed by
The
The number
of cardinals was
philosophical system
a vacancy.
orders:
Sixtus V. 1586 at 70, divided into tjiree
originatingwith Descai'tes (q.v.),attempting with
mathematical
14
demonstrate
mental
fundaexactness
to
6 cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests,and
truths on the basis of indubitable facts of
Nomination
to the office is a
cardinal deacons.
the conscious
self
experience. These facts were
papal function,as is also the installation service.
nence
be
cannot
(cogito,
By decree of Urban VIII., 1630, the title of Emiergo sum) and the ideas which
attached to the office.
eliminated
The
existence of
by critical doubt.
was
God is held to be necessary in order to account
for
of consciousness.
VIRTUES."
Those
the content
virtues which
CARDINAL
conduct.
in human
most
deemed
are
necessary
SYNODS
OF." As the leading
Plato named
CARTHAGE,
prudence, courage,
temperance, and
of distinguished
city in northern Africa and the home
justice. The R.C. church calls these natural and
age
virtues
whom
adds three theological
was
bishops,among
faith,hope, and love.
Cyprian,Carththe seat of a largenumber
Vices.
of Synods during
was
See Virtues
and
the firstsix centuries of the Christian era.
Of these Synods the most important were
those
(1761-1834)." Pioneer mi^
CAREY, WILLIAM
(251,252, 253, 255, 256) concerned with deciding
sionary to India and Oriental scholar. In 1792
through his efforts the first Baptist missionary the attitude of the church to those who under persecution
had lapsed from the faith; and those which
societywas formed; and in 1793 he went to India.
Bible
dealt
with
translated
the
whole
in
into
which
in
the
He
or
arose
as
a
part
questions
great
and was
for 30 years professor Donatist controversy (seeDonatism)
(most impor26 Indian vernaculars,
tant
also
of Oriental languages in Fort WilUam
College.
401, 403, 404, 408, 418). Synods were
held
in connection
with
the Pelagian controversy.
RUDOLPH
CARLSTADT,
ANDREAS,
The
BODENSTEIN
VON
Synod of 419 indicated the independent
(1480-1541)." Protestant
attitude of the African Church toward the Bishop of
Reformer.
Originallya follower of Aquinas and
he became
of Luther, but
Rome.
a defender
Subsequent Synods (525, 535) dealt with
Scholasticism,
the relation of Arians to the Catholicchurch.
to revolutionaryviews which
gradually advanced
Mathews
After confUct with the state
led to estrangement.
Shailer
observance

"

"

790^791

71

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

CARTHUSIAN."
An
extremely vigorous R.C.
order of monks, established in S. Italyby St. Bruno
in 1086.
An almost solitary
life,
poor food with no
and scanty clothing,and a vow
of
meat, coarse
silence are their characteristic rules.

"

AND

ETHICS

Catechism

casuistry,in antithesis to the basing of moral life

attitude and intelligence
rather than rules,and
to the re-shapingof moral ideals in the very process
of applying them, is alien to modern
life. The
method
of legaldecisions forms its nearest present
J. F. Crawford
analogue.
on

PETER
CARTWRIGHT,
(1785-1872)."A
famous
pioneerevangeUst in the Methodist Episcopal
church
in America, noted
for his direct and
of preaching.
unsophisticatedmanner

CATACOMBS."
of some
Originallythe name
low-lying hollows (catacumbae)along the Appian
to designatethe subterranean passages
Way, came
excavated
there and afterwards
in other places by
THOMAS
the Roman
Christians for burial places. They were
CARTWRIGHT,
(1535-1603)."English
excavated
Puritan, who engaged in a long conflict with
principallyin the 3rd. and early 4th.
visited them in his boyhood
centuries.
St. Jerome
Whitgift,in which he defended Presbyterianviews
of church government as againstepiscopalianism.
(ca. 354). By the end of the 4th. century they
venerated
and visited by pilgrims,and were
were
After
the
CASSIAN,
JOHN
(ca. 360-ca. 435)." Monk,
repaired and restored by the popes.
who
founded
monastic
institutions at Marseilles, barbarian
invasions
and
two
they fell into disrepair
the firstin Western
in the 9th, century the bodies were
for the most
Europe. He was
among
to other places. The catacombs
canonized,and a feast in his honor was long observed
were
part removed
in Marseilles.
He wrote
two treatiseson monastic
soon
forgottenand remained so until 1578 when
life.
It should be
accidentallyrediscovered.
they were
observed that they were
made
not for concealment
CASTE.
A term
tians,
or refuge,but
applied to the division of
simplyas placesof burial,the Chrisof earlier times,preferring
like the Romans
societyinto exclusive classes,especiallyapplicable
"

to India.

burial to cremation.

The accident of birth determines

place
a man's
in the social order.
The
basis of society is the
endogamous group.
Marriage outside the group is
forbidden.
Food or drink may
not be received from
members
of lower castes or partaken of with them.
Each caste forbids certain kinds of food.
tion
Occupais restricted,
tional
in a large measure,
to the tradiof the caste.
Each group
claims a comone
mon
ancestor.
In India,the Brahman
castes occupy
but
a
positionof unquestioned social supremacy,
the invention
is not due
and fixation of caste
to priestly
entirely
aggrandizement. They,

as

sessing
pos-

religious
sanctity,as intermediators between
and
men
gods, as sole custodians of the sacred
tacitlyrecognizedas the highestmodels
texts,were
of ceremonial and racial purity.

Edgar

J. Goodspeed

INSTRUCTION."

CATECHETICAL

The

cipline,
dis-

includingespeciallythe impartation of the

fundamentals
of Christian
doctrine, considered
in the
as preparationfor full participation
necessary
fellowshipof the church.
It has been the almost universal theory of the
church

that

person

should

possess

some

gent
intelli-

appreciationof the meaning of Christian life

and
teaching before becoming a communicant.
called
The instruction given to the candidate
was
of impartation catechetical
from the early method
chumen
as
a cate(i.e.,
oral)and the candidate was known
(q.v.). The body of instruction gradually
written form
became
fixed and in its elaborated
called the catechism
was
(q.v.).
G. Scares
Theodore
CATECHETICS."
The science deahng with the
theory and practiceof instructingchildren and new
of Christian
in the fundamentals
converts
faith;
tionally
tradicalled because
has been
the catechism
so
chetical
employed. See also Catechism; CateInstruction; Catechumen.

The
for caste is variia,
earliest Sanskrit word
"color."
first line of demarkation
that
The
was
between
the white Aryans and
the dark-skinned
Dravidians.
basis of the system was
The
purity
of blood, of ceremonial
practice,of social custom.
Then
came
a fixation of the loose division of the
peopleinto priests(Brahmans) , warriors (Ksatriyas)
,
tillersof the soil (Vaigyas),and menials
(Qiidras);
of fundamental
the
CATECHISM.
A
in
became
and
position
occupation
hereditary,
summary
for
Christian
doctrine intended
for children and
social scale depended on
the nature of the occupation
men;
those uninstructed in the faith. See also Catechuand on purityof cult. Some of the twenty-four
Catechetical
Instruction.
hundred
tribal in origin,some
distinct castes are
tion
instrucIn the earlydays of Christianity
religious
some
national,some
occupational,some
religious,
oral and so naturallytook the
to change
due to crossingof blood,to migration,
was
necessarily
are
the whole
tion).
of custom.
formula
will cover
No one
name
teachingby oral repeticatechizing(literally,
In order to elucidate the truth the teacher
system. Caste does not tend to social or national
method.
would
castes
employ the question and answer
are
constantly forming. The
unity. New
and
fixed as set question,
This tended
to become
but changes slowly to
system is not absolutelyrigid,
In the middle
meet
Expulsion from
definite,
accuratelystated answer.
changes of social conditions.
"

the acceptedform of impartingknowledge

ages it was
to
came
in all subjects. Thus the word catechism
cast in the
mean
a body of elementary instruction
form.
Its present religious
of applying general
CASUISTRY."
The
art
question and answer
to date from the Reformation.
actions.
moral principles
to particular
(1)Broadly, use seems
The instruction
1. Early Christian catechisms.
casuistryis involved in all estimation of conduct
under moral standards.
(q.v.)in the early church
(2)But the term is usually given to the catechimien
under
limited to the settlement
of doubtful
was
cases
partly practical,concerned with his actual
fixed,authoritative standards, as in Jewish law, Christian living,and partly doctrinal,that he
Puritan
ethics,and especiallyCatholic practise, might be furnished with sound knowledge of the
Teaching of the
faith. The
of
fundamentals
where authoritative moral prescriptions
applied in
Twelve
the confessional made it necessary
to seek judgment
Apostles (see Didache), written in the
2nd. century, was
pose.
probably designed for this puron
specificconduct by moral experts. (3) Such
to involve three
Subsequent trainingcame
casuistry easily resulted in pernicious legalistic
the
of the most
elements.
One
important was
elaboration and evasion.
the term
Hence
now
to be learned,
Creed (q.v.)which was
Apostleis'
usuallycarries a sinister reference. In thiy sense

caste, for infringement of caste rules,means

social excommunication.

W.

plete
com-

E. Clark

"

Catechism

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

72

church
with fine
in which form the catechism has continued
explained, and believed. The
to the
insightearly realized that the Lord's Prayer is a
present time.
model of Christian aspiration,
and based its teaching
Calvin's Genevan
Catechism
(4) Westminster.
translated
for the
Scottish
regardingfellowshipwith God upon the petitions was
Presbyterians.
"

of this prayer.

The

The controversies of the century led to a demand

central doctrine of salvation
the meaning of sin that Chrisfor a more
tian
exact
definition of Christian doctrine,
teachers found
and
it necessary
the Westminster
to give careful
this
Assembly undertook
this subject. The
task.
instruction on
Two
catechisms
Decalogue was
were
published,the Larger
and the Shorter,in 1647, of which the latter is the
thought to be especiallyuseful for this purpose, as
each of the sins there forbidden could be presented
celebrated.
It is a most
more
elaborate statement
of Calvinistic divinity.It contains 107 questions
the
as
typical of a whole class of sins. Thus
commandment
and answers.
the basis for
was
against murder
Proceedingfrom the Scriptures it
instruction regarding all sins arising from anger
defines God, the Trinity,the eternal decrees,the
the commandment
or vengeance,
fall,the offices of Christ,the work of the Spiritin
againstadulteryfor
all sins of the flesh,and so on.
As the heathen
redemption, effective calling,
justification,
adoption,
tribes of central and northern
and the benefits thereof.
verted,
conEurope were
sanctification,
Questions
it was
useful to be able to put the
39 to 82 deal with the commandments.
Then
very
candidates
follows the consideration of the
for Christian
fellowship through a
of salvation
way
and the doctrine of the sacraments.
disciplinewhich emphasized the ethical meaning
Questions 98
of their new
faith.
to 107 deal with the Lord's Prayer. The
Creed is
While these three elements
of instruction were
appended to the Catechism,but is not explained.
employed during the Middle Ages, we do not know
catechisms have been put forth
(5) Numerous
that they were
from time to time by various Christian bodies and
ever
put into definite catechetical
form
before
the
Reformation.
in the
It was
Most
notable
by individuals.
the latter
among
indoctrinate
endeavor
logical is that of Isaac Watts.
to
Theodore
people against theoG. Soaees
that
the
catechism was
error
developed by
the reformers.
CATECHUMEN."
A
term
applied in early
The
three elements
2. Protestant catechisms.
to one
who
was
Christianity
receivinginstruction
which
bad been traditionally
still
employed were
preparatory to baptism and membership in the
used.
The
Creed
the expression of faith.
church.
The word is now
was
sometimes
used for one
The recitation and explanation of the Law
the
is receiving instruction preparatory to conwho
was
firmation.
of the obligation
statement
taken for the child by
See
also Catechisxm; Catechetical
the sponsors
and now
to be assumed
The
Instruction.
by him.
Lord's Prayer was
the means
of securing from
The first converts
to Christianity
Jews and
were
God the abilityto keep the commands.
Gentiles
To these
familiar with
the Hebrew
faith. The
added
and
were
the doctrine
answers
questions
acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah was sufficient to
upon
of the sacraments.
taken
their incorporationin the Christian comwarrant
Special care
was
munity.
in the phrasing of these latter statements
the
When
the gospel was
as
preached to the
controversies
who
had no knowledge of the Old Testaregarding the sacraments
were
ment
ticularly heathen
parkeen.
A very large number
of catechisms
to give them
background it was necessary
a
appeared of which a few stand out as of chief
period of instruction in the fundamentals of the
faith before they could be baptized and accepted
importance.
(1) Luther's. Martin Luther attached the very
Christians. Moreover
as
children
of Christian
families needed
to the instruction of the young
similar instruction.
greatest importance
There
was
in the Christian faith. For doctrinal reasons
he
therefore developed a class of novitiates who were
the
of
order
the traditional elements
rearranged
permitted to attend the services and to enjoy the
Christian fellowshipbut were
putting the Law firstin order to produce conviction
not admitted
to the
of sin,then the Creed as the expositionof grace, then
Lord's Supper, not even
ance.
being present at its observthe Lord's Prayer as the expression of Christian
Inasmuch
in a condition of
as
they were
life. These
followed
were
by the sacraments
learners.
tutelagethey were called catechumens
or
together with the exposition of confession and
When
the church was
satisfied that they understood
absolution.
He
in 1529
the articles of faith and were
put forth his catechism
tian
livinga worthy Chrisin two
forms, the smaller and the larger. These
life,they were
permitted to take the solemn
attained wide popularity and became
soon
ard
standof allegiance
to Christ and to receive Christian
vow
for the Lutheran
church.
baptism.
church differed
(2) Heidelberg. The Reformed
the adoption of infant baptism and the
With
on
some
important points from the Lutheran, and
acceptance of children into the church before they
it was
therefore that appropriate catewere
had to
capable of personal faith,the vows
necessary
chisnis should
be
The
catechumenate
prepared. Calvin
published be taken by sponsors.
thus
in 1536 and another, the Genevan
one
Catechism,
disappeared. Gradually,
however, the ceremony of
in 1545.
But the great Reformed
catechism of the
confirmation
was
the vow
developed, in which
16th. century was
the Heidelberg, published in
of allegiance
taken personallyby the candidate
was
1563.
It was
translated into many
when
attained
he had
sufficient maturity. The
languages and
is stillthe most popular catechism in the Reformed
which
reasons
same
formerly led to instruction
faith. It is a
of
highly elaborated statement
precedingbaptism now required similar instruction
creed
and
The
child passing through
doctrine, containing 129 questions before confirmation.
and answers.
It consists of three parts: (1) the
be called a catethis period of preparation may
chumen.
sin and misery of man,
(2) redemption by Christ,
which
includes
the Creed
and
the sacraments,
While the above statement
appliesespeciallyto
Life of the Christian,including the Catholic,Lutheran, and Anglican churches, a
(3) the Thankful
the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer.
similar preparation is employed by other bodies
included
in
(3) Anglican. A catechism
before receivingchildren into full church membership,
was
the first Book
of Common
chumen.
Prayer (1549) which
without, however, the use of the term catefollowed the old order, the Creed, the Commandments,
G. Scares
Theodore
and
the Lord's Prayer, the order being
justifiedas faith,duty, and aspiration. In 1604
IMPERATIVE."
A
CATEGORICAL
phrase
there was
added a section upon
the sacraments
used
Kant
(q.v.) indicating the
by Immanucl
turns

so

greatlyupon

"

"

"

"

73

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of the formal concepprioriabsolute supremacy

tion
of the ethicallyright. The
ethical imperative
is thus
normative
and
a
entirely formal
principleof action with a function analogous to
that of the categoriesin the realm of thinking.
a

and

AND

at

-;-apse
"

ETHICS

Cathedral

Architecture

rightangles to it. Beyond this a projection

which
was
commonly
semicircular,continued

the direction of the nave

and terminated
the structure.
A well known
exponent of the type
is St. Paul's at Rome,
though the building as'we
it todayis less than a century old. St. Clement's
see
CATENA.
A series of quotationsfrom Patristic
at Rome, though it too has been rebuilt,gives a
and other acknowledged authorities to form a comfine impression of the early church
because
the
mentary
the Scriptureor an elucidation of Christian
atrium
and old interior furnishingsare
on
preserved.
doctrine.
The earliest known
Those
catena is that of
not in full standing penitentsand
persons
converts
Procopius (d.528).
new
might gather in the atrium and
narthex.
The
within
the
congregation stood
CATHARI.
Puritans; the name
in the left aisle or in galleries
adopted by
church, the women
various reformingsects in the historyof Christianity,above.
The
clergy officiated,
facing the congregation
the Albigenses,Waldenses
New
Manichaeans
as
at the altar table in the transept, or read the
(q.v.).
their
Gospel and the Epistle from pulpits on
sides near
the transept end of the nave.
respective
CATHARINE."
See Catherine.
The
throne
cathedra
of the bishop and
lower
benches
for the inferior clergy were
in the apse.
CATHEDRA."
for the seat
There were
(1) The Latin name
adjoiningdependent buildings,such as
throne of a bishop in the principalchurch of his
or
the baptistryand the dwellingsof the clergy.
The Christian East showed
diocese;hence (2)A designationof officialteaching
great variety in its
of the church
by the bishop. Thus ex cathedra
Early Christian architecture. In the interior
is applied to a formal pronouncement
of the pope
of Syria,where
numbers
vast
of early churches,
in the exercise of his cathoUc
office,indicating, including some
cathedrals,still remain, ruinous
according to the decrees of the Vatican Council, and abandoned, the atrium might be omitted or
the infallibility
of such a pronouncement.
changed to a court at the side of the church, and
chambers
beside the apse
compensated for the
CATHEDRAL."
The church in which the bishop
absence of the transept. In Egypt, too, transept
has his throne
and
atrium
which
he
the
(Cathedra) and near
were
irregular and
sanctuary
resides. Its rank (episcopal,
politan,
metrothe axis
appeared as a separate domed
room
on
arch-episcopal,
of the nave.
patriarchal)correspondsto the dignity of
the see to which he belongs. Without
In
form
contrast
to the longitudinal
specified
church, or
and
of which the above account
or dimension,in addition to the sanctuary, choir,
has been given,
basilica,
the cathedral possesses
there developed contemporaneously the
central
an
nave,
episcopalseat in
which the bishop officiates,
attended by his chapter, type, especiallycharacteristic of Armenia
but best
which constitutes his council,and upon
which
volves known
deture.
by its manifestation in Byzantine architecof souls exercised through a vicar
the cure
The
great example is Hagia Sophia at
chosen
either from
its own
number
outside.
inner
and
or
Constantinople. The
atrium, outer
The members
of the chapter are called canons,
built as in the longitudinal
to
narthex,and apse were
each of which is assigned a stall. Of these canons
feature was
type; the distinguishing
a huge domed
central room
residence is required for a fixed proportion of the
that formed the body of the structure.
In many
tain
Though the atrium later disappeared,the arrangeplaces ceryear, usually three months.
ment
ceremonies
of the aisles about the central room
reserved to the cathedral,espeare
varied,
cially
and innumerable
the administration
of baptism. Its revenue,
modifications of construction and
decoration
were
provided by endowment
introduced, this central type
funds, is entirelydistinct
remained
standard for the territory
from those of the cathedral parish. See Bishop;
of the patriarch
of Constantinople just as
G. Mode
Peter
the longitudinaltype
Canon; Chapter.
did for the territoryof the Roman
patriarch.
CATHEDRAL
ARCHITECTURE."
Because
of overseas
Venice
the
connections
at
Meaning as
it does a church which is the seat of a bishop, the
eastern
type is echoed in St. Mark's; and, for all
word cathedral does not carry any definite implicatheir local pecuharities,
the traditions of Roumania,
tions
to architecture.
The same
as
Russia, and so forth,follow the Byzantine to the
building may
be a cathedral
date and not at another.
at one
present day, though the great height and eccentric
it
make
Thus, the history of cathedral architecture begins decoration of such a cathedral as Moscow
the
with that of the episcopateand with those scattered
to analyze the ground plan to see
necessary
of which
have
derivation.
we
pre-Constantinian churches
still more
In Western
enduring
inadequate
Europe the desire for more
inadequate records and
Under Constantine
remains.
drals
imposing cathebuildingsand the development of ecclesiastical
many
built in Italy,Palestine,and elsewhere.
were
two
organization were
important factors in the
of them, their general
evolution of architecture.
basilica had posThe
Though time has spared none
sessed
ally
features were
astical
but a wooden
therefore continuroof and was
permanently retained in the ecclesiarchitecture
of
Western
in need of repairand was
Europe. An
frequentlydestroyed
obvious
extensive open
most
the
court
atrium
by fire. The
frequently with a
vaulting was
about
achievement
the
which made
fountain in the center
and colonnades
of the Romanesque style,
lennium.
its appearance
at the beginning of the second milsides,separated the place of worship from the
corridor
Northern
street.
Beyond the court -a transverse
Italy (e.g.,Modena), the
narthex
such gave access
to the body of the
or two
Bamberg), and Southern
valley of the Rhine (e.g.,
aisle was
church
the regionof its fullest expansion. The
set
Here a wide middle
France were
nave.
off by longitudinalcolonnades
from
Gothic was simply a continuation of the Romanesque
and
narrow
;
much
lower side isles. The
in it,however, the problems of vaultingwere
latter had
sloping lean-to
often visible
more
roofs, the carpentry of which was
solved; it grew up in Northern
successfully
the interior,
St. Denis, Notre Dame
de Paris,etc.),
and above the abutment
of which
France (e.g.,
on
aisle beneath
the clere-storyof the middle
carried forward
into a great national stylein
was
rose
to Spain and Italy and
a
gabled roof. At the end opposite the entrance
England, spread southward
the aisles were
terminated
aisle
eastward
to Cyprus.
by a transverse
Through the periods of the
the heightof the middle aisle
was
Romanesque and the Gothic the clergy
becoming
transept or aisles,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Catherine

de* Medici

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

and more
more
numerous
powerful. This reveals
in
itselfin the way
their part of the church
grew
relative size. The transept, which
originallyran
the end of the nave,
gradually advanced
across
toward the middle, leavinga long choir behind it;
passed the middle at
finally,the transept even
times and the resultant choir was
so
long that
in England a second easterly
transept was introduced.
Meanwhile
the cult of the saints had led to the
provision of countless subsidiary chapels, and in
the Gothic
cathedrals
of France lady chapels ran
all the way
around
the sanctuary proper.
The Renaissance
deflected the course
abruptlj^
of architectural
evolution
in Western
Europe.
Imitation of classicalbuildings,
the one hand, and
on
the
of Byzantine doming, on
the other, broke
tradition.
the
virility of time-honored
Only
Baroque style,spread everywhere by the Society
the
of Jesus, e.g., even
to Mexico, still retained
of a creative tradition.
But the vascillation
spirit
between
modern
conflictingideals makes
many
cathedrals seem
more
a harmonious
a medley than
composition. At present, however, serious attempts
are
being made to build in an orderlyfashion on the
solid foundations
of the past, though there is much
disagreement as to what past should be chosen.
Shafley
John
MEDICI
CATHERINE
DE'
(1519-1589)."
Queen of France, was influential duringthe period
of turmoil of the wars
of religion(q.v.). She was
a
CathoUc, and resolved to keep down
Protestants,
murder
of Coligny, and
yet not
utterly. The
of St. Bartholomew's
massacre
Day Were results
of her anti-Protestant
policy.

AND

CATHOLIC

ETHICS

74

APOSTOLIC

CHURCH,

THE."

denomination
growing out of a movement
religious
begun in England in 1830 and taking definite
A

Certain persons
form in 1835.
associated by
were
their exercise of specialspiritualgifts and
their
Edward
expulsion from other churches.
Irving
leader in this group,
hence the name
a
(q.v.)was

"Irvingites"was appliedto them, though repudiated

by the group itself. They do not publishstatistics,
all the
claiming that the membership embraces
services
are
baptized. Their
highly liturgical,
much
emphasis being placed on symbolism. They
are
millenarians,believing that the church must
make
spiritualpreparation for the millennium
by
the maintenance
and ministeries
of all ordinances
ordained
Hence
of God.
they support a fourfold
ministry of apostles,prophets, evangelists and
has spread to the U.S.A.,
pastors. The movement
Germany and Holland.
CATHOLIC
Church.

CHURCH."

See Roman

Catholic

CATHOLIC
An act passed
EMANCIPATION."
the British Parliament
under
the ministry
of Wellington and Peel in 1829 by which the civil
Cathohcs
under
which
had
Roman
disabilities,
suffered since the reign of Elizabeth,were
removed.

by

CATHOLIC
The
EPISTLES."
epistlesin the
New
Testament
which
addressed
to general
were
readers in contradistinction
from those addressed
churches
to specific
or
They include the
persons.
epistleof James, two of Peter, three of John and

Jude.

CATHERINE,

SAINT."
There
six saints
are
of this name
in the Roman
Cathohc
calendar.
The
famous
St. Catherine of Alexandria, who
most
are
in the time
of Maximus
professed Christianity
tortured on a wheel
(308-314) for which she was
and beheaded; and St. Catherine of Sienna (13471380),an ecstatic who received the stigmata.

CATHOLIC,

GREEK."
Belonging or
taining
apperthe Greek
designated
church, officially
the Holy Orthodox
Catholic Apostolic Oriental
as
Church.
to

ing
Belonging to or relatchurch, designated in its title as
Church.
the Holy Catholic ApostoUc and Roman

CATHOLIC,

ROMAN."

to the Roman

CATHOLICISM."
A term applied
CATHOLIC,
and practicesof the church to indicate
that they are universallyobserved.
CATHOLIC
SOCIETIES."
Aside from the
The spread of Christianitythrough the Roman
monastic
and clerical Orders
numerous
(q.v.)and
of different
Empire gave rise to a great number
Congregations (q.v.)of medieval and modern times,
with their own
behefs and practices. In no
the Church
of Rome
has developed a complex of
groups
small measure,
these were
the outgrowth of attempts
organizations, international,national
("Church
of various philosophiesand rehgions to appropriate Extension
Society of the United
States," etc.),
element
of Christianity. In opposing these
tion
some
diocesan,or parochialin character,for the cultivavarious groups, the church appealedto the Bible as
the laity.
of piety and charity,primarilyamong
the expression of apostolicviews and
confined to recent
times, the
authority. While in no sense
After the bishops came
to be regarded as the reprea remarkable
development
sentatives 19th. century witnessed
of apostolicteaching,there grew up a sort
of these organizations.
of Bishops' Christianity,which
described as
Sodalities.
tary
VolunI. Confraternities, or
was
that which was
held by all,everywhere and always.
and
associations
canonically established
This idea of a universal doctrine possessed by a
controlled.
They are of three sorts.
ecclesiastically
universal community
of believers,as opposed to
(1) Those
cultivatingpersonal piety through
Confraternities
of
Included
here are
veneration.
sects, heresies and schisms which emphasized some
the "Holy Family," "Holy Ghost," "Holy Name,"
particulardoctrine or practiceis the central element
in Catholicism.
"Holy Sacrament," "Sacred Heart,"and "Precious
After the Reformation, catholic character was
Blood"; of the Virgin ("Holy Rosary," "Our
claimed by the Roman
and Greek churches,as distinct Blessed Lady of Mt. Carmel," "Children of Mary,"
from the Protestant churches.
In late years,
etc.); of angels and saints ("St. Michael," "St.
however, it has been claimed by the Anghcan
Benedict," "St. Anthony of Padua," "St. Joseph,"
and Protestant
Episcopal churches on the ground
etc.).
that they are the representatives
of the historical,
(2) Those manifestingzeal for souls,or engaging
universal
Christian
Catholic
tering
church.
churches
in charity. Included here are Confraternities ministo the poor
regard themselves as the true agents of saving grace
("PurgatorialSocieties");to the
of which the sacraments
the channels.
conformists
Nonare
dying ("ofthe Agony of Christ"); to the conversion
of sinners ("of the Holy
Heart of Jesus");
are
regarded as schismatics,if not
heretics.
In Protestant
the words
indicate
to instruction in the faith ("ofChristian Doctrine");
usage
the universalityand completeness of the Christian
to family hfe ("of St. Francis Regis"); to church
music
system as distinct from variant theories.
("of St. Cecilia"); to temperance reform
Shailer
Mathews
("League of the Cross").
to doctrines

"

"

"

....

DICTIONARY

75

OF

RP^LIGION

(3) Those ministering to the needs of certain

classes of society. Included here are Confraternities
of Christian FamiUes";
such as the "Association
"of the Holy Childhood"
(missionary); "of the
"of the Blessed Virgin"
Child Jesus" (protective);
and
Sacristans";
(for priests);"of Mass-servers
GeseUenvereine (forjourneymen);' "of St. Raphael"
Arch-confraternities include
(foremigrants), etc.
and
several Confraternities having* similar names
and strong.
They are numerous
purposes.
Associations.
II. Pious
Distinguishedfrom
lished,
Confraternities
in not
being canonically estabthough approved by ecclesiastical authority,
cluded
and as being subject to milder regulations. Inde
here are
the Societies of "St. Vincent
Paul" (reUefof poverty); "for the Propagation of
the Faith" (missionary);the "League of the Sacred
Childhood
Heart"
"Holy
(intercessory); the
"

"

etc.
League" (missionary),
forbids membership in all strictly
secret
Rome
societies (Masons, Knights of Pythias, etc.),and
regards with suspicionorganizationsincludingboth

CathoUcs

and

Protestants.

Henry

H. Walker

The
title assumed
by the
of the Armenian
church, and of the
church.

CATHOLIKOS."

spiritualhead
Nestorian

CAUSE,

FIRST."

See First

Cause.

The patron saint of music

CECILIA, SAINT."
and the blind in the Catholic church, whose feast
is celebrated
22nd.
She
Nov.
was
probably a
Roman
lady of musical talent who suffered martyrdom
under Marcus
Aurelius between 176 and 180.
She has been a favorite subject for painters.
CELESTINE."
The name
of five popes.
and
Celestine I.,422-432, opposed Nestorianism
Pelagianism; the first pope to show interest in the
churches of Great Britain.
Celestine II.,1143-1144.
Celestine III.,1191-1198.
Celestine IV., 1241, died sixteen days after
election.
Celestine V., 1294, abdicated after five months,
and was
succeeded
by Boniface VIII. who put
him in prison where he died in 1296; canonized as
St. Peter Celestine in 1313.
CELIBACY
from
(CHRISTIAN)." Abstinence
taken
of the three vows
by the
marriage; one
Catholic monk, and
the
rule binding also on
a
priesthood. Very earlyin the historyof the church
the conceptionarose
that the celibate state was
more
conducive
to genuine piety than the married state.
those who
This gradually grew
into a demand
on
cil
The Counconducted
ecclesiastical ministrations.
of Trent (1545-1563) made
celibacyabsolutely
binding on all taking major orders or the monastic
The various Protestant confessions expressly
vow.
repudiatecelibacyas binding on their ministry.
Of the great
CELIBACY
(NON-CHRISTIAN)."
has developed the celibate
religions
only Buddhism
ideal in any
parallelto Christianity. The
way
and Japan give it no
native religionsof China
forbidden.
It
place. In Iran it was
expressly
entered
Christian
influence.
Islam
only under
In India the ascetic and mendicant
was
expected
first to have
passed through the married state.
Buddhism, however, developed orders of monks
of celibacy and
and nuns
who
under vows
were
celibate
wherever
this religion flourished such
Influenced by Buddhism
communities
found.
are
the Taoist groups
tude
of China have acquired an attiof approval toward celibacy. In Buddhism,as

AND

ETHICS

Celtic

Religion

the Jains,the rule did not apply to the laity

and monks
were
always free to return to the life
of the citizen. Ancient America
also requiredcelibacy
of the oflScialpriesthood,shamans
and medicine
among

men.

Greek
Platonist
who
CELSUS.
A
opposed
Christianityin the latter half of the 2nd. century.
The
Uterary work of Celsus has disappeared
except as voluminously and accuratelypreserved in
evidentlysincere
Origen'smasterly reply. He was
of Christianity
in attempting to show the inferiority
"

plete
philosophyand he marshalled a very comlist of objectionsraised against Christianity
the secret
these were
in that period. Chief among
character of Christian
and illegal
if not shameful
of Christians;the
gatherings;the social inferiority
ings;
of Christian teachcrudity and lack of originality
the impossibility
of the deity of Jesus Christ;
the demoniacal
originof biblical theophanies; and
of declaring the equality of men
the fooUshness
before a God impiouslyclaimed to be loving.
Shailer
Mathews
of
CELTIC
The Celts form one
RELIGION."
the great branches
of the Indo-European peoples.
by classical Greek writers
They are firstmentioned
who
describe them
as
inhabiting central Europe.
A portion of them moved
south, enteringnorthern
Italyand threateningRome itself390 B.C.; another
later date, moved
at a much
southeastward,
group,
The greater
and settled in Galatia in Asia Minor.
body of them, however, went westward, settling
in Gaul
(France) and the British Isles,probably
early in the firstmillennium before Christ. It was
and British Celts that Julius Caesar
with Galhc
fought in his northern campaigns, and his notes
references to these peoples.
first extended
are
our
Celtic languages are today spoken in Brittany (in
France),and in parts of Wales, Ireland and Scotland.
barbarous
that
of other
1. Religion. Like
theism.
peoples,the religionof the Celts was a pagan polyGallic images which have been preserved
show that they venerated animals, or animal-gods,
such as the boar, stag, bear, as is natural among
a
hunting people. Other images indicate veneration
that the
of trees and vegetation,and it is assumed
was
early important.
worship of nature's fertility
the
Celtic temples were
sacred groves, and among
"corn-mothers" and "corndeities honored
were
maidens"
associated with the productivity of the
fields. Other important deities were
merce
gods of comand roads, of war, of poetry and eloquence,
A notable cult was
and of the world of the dead.
fires
that of the sky or sun-god, worshipped with baleand other rites in which fire was
employed.
With
the insular Celts the sea-godwas
naturally
belief that the
common
a
important, and it was
beneath the sea or
dead were
conveyed to caverns
Belief in life after
to islands beyond the waters.
and the
death was
strong in Celtic religion,
very
in myth
honored
spiritsof ancestral heroes were
of Celtic mythology are found
and rite. Remains
nected
chieflyin the British Isles,where the stories conwith King Arthur and King Lear indicate
divine
or
ancient Celtic divinities,
that these were
is true of the Irish saga heroes,
heroes.
The same
Finn, or Fionn, and Cuchulainn.
tic
The most
famous feature of Cel2. Druidism.
the
Druids
The
were
rehgion is Druidism.
priestsof the Celtic peoples of antiquity,and they
are
supposed to have been divided into a number of
that of the bards,
of which was
orders or ranks, one

to Greek

"

"

or

poets.

They

were

regarded not only as priests,

but also as sorfcerersand healers,and as teachers of

the traditional religion. "To worship the gods, to
do no
evil,to exercise courage," are the maxims
which
they emphasized according to Diogenes

Cemetery

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Laertius, while other classical writers ascribe to

them
teachingsas to the motions of the stars,form
of the elements
of the earth,and transformation
Their
crude science.
rites,however, included
a
and hence Druidism
cruel forms of human
sacrifice,
In
unlawful
made
by the Roman
was
emperors.
Ireland it was
early replaced by Christianity.
H. B. Alexander
A place for the burial of the
CEMETERY."
dead, so called by the early Christians from the
Greek
word
meaning a sleeping-place.Originally
they were
separate from churches, as in the case
catacombs
of the
(q.v.). Churchyards (q.v.),
later came
to be used tillthe unsanitary conditions
due to overcrowding them
led to the settingapart
of park-likeenclosures for the purpose,
the practise
coimtries.
teries
Cemein European and American
now
have been used by oriental peoples,such as
the Chinese and Turks, since ancient times.
"

Monks
who
live a community
CENOBITES."
life under
with anchorites
a
or
rule, in contrast
hermits who withdrew
from the world.
See Mon-

AND

ETHICS

76

of the three foundations

mentioned
above.
any
When
personal experience is the source, we have
assurance
the source
(q.v.). In Christianity
of
has usuallybeen reUance on the word of
certainty
inspired Scripture. The critical historical study
of sacred literature,
however, has modified this
basis of certainty,
and more
attention is now
being
given to experimental and rational grounds for
belief. See Assurance; Doubt.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
CHAIR
OF
ST. PETER."
The Papal office in
the R.C. church, so designated because
Peter is
traditionally
regarded as the founder.
CHAITYA.
A
monument
erected
the
over
relics of a saint by the Jains and Buddhists.
It
also to mean
shrine or relic depository
came
any
and is used in a specialsense
to refer to the temples
of these two religious
groups.
"

CHAKRAVARTIN."

designate

The

Hindu

world-conquering ruler

term
or

used to
universal

monarch.

CHALCEDON,

container for burning incense

also called thurible.
religiousceremonials,
CENSER.

"

in

COUNCIL
OF."
The
Fourth
held in 451 for the purpose of
drawing up dogma regarding the person of Christ.
It was
attended
by six hundred
Bishops, mostly
from
the Greek
Church.
The
decision
of the
Council was
to the effect that in Jesus Christ there
two
were
natures, unmingled, but so united in the
Jesus Christ,that neither nature
one
was
person,
affected.
See Creed.
Ecumenical

Council

CENSORSHIP.
Official examination
and regulation
of manuscripts, books
and plays intended
for publication or
production. Censorship of
edict
religiousbooks harks back to Constantine's
regarding the works of Arius, After the invention
of the printingpress, the Catholic church exercised
CHALDEANS.
See Assyria
strict regulationof literature. Benedict XIV.
and
more
Babylonia,
Religion
created the congregationof the Index in 1753 whose
of.
duty is the censorshipof books for the guidance of
CHALDEAN
CHRISTIANS."
all Catholics.
and of
See Nestorians.
matter
Censorship of news
correspondence sent by mail or telegraph is an
CHALICE.
(1) A goblet-shaped cup, used in
important aspect of the State's direction of military
the observance
of the Lord's Supper. (2) Sometimes
operations.
used metaphoricallyof the contents of the cup.
CENSURE.
astical
-Disapprovalexpressed by ecclesiTHOMAS
CHALMERS,
authorityin the form of a publicreprimand,
(1780-1847)."Scottish
with or without
added
an
Presbyterianpreacherand theologian.He instituted
penalty.
ambitious
an
system of education and poor-relief
in Glasgow which met with marked
CERBERUS."
In Hellenic legend,the dog which
success; was an
acted as sentinel at the entrance
influential professor of moral
to the realm
of
philosophy in St.
Andrews
and Edinburgh; a leader in the movement
the dead in the underworld,frustrating
all attempts
for ecclesiastical freedom
and the first moderator
at escape, while permitting all to enter.
of the Free Church
of Scotland
their withdrawal
on
from
CEREMONY."
the established church.
He
See Cult;
CEREMONIAL,
was
a
Ceremonies.
well. Of the more
scholar in economics
than
as
Rites, Rituals and
tion
thirtyvolumes from his pen, the chief is his refutaCERES.
The- grain-goddessof the old Roman
of Hume's
tutes
objectionsto miracles. His InstiCalvinistic.
religion. She is never
a
clearlyanthropomorphic
of Theology were
strictly
figurebut rather the spiritof the growing crops.
CHANCE.
An unassignablecause
of an event;
CERINTHIANS."
the cause
CERINTHUS,
an
Cerinthus,
being unknown, the fortuitous element
itself chance
is frequentlytreated as if it were
earlyJewish Christian Gnostic,lived in Asia Minor
a
toward the close of the 1st. century a.d.
Tradition
real cause.
In Greek
mythology, chance (Tyche)
makes
him an Egyptian Jew who had studied under
was
a goddess. See Tychism.
Philo of Alexandria
before coming in contact
with
CHANCEL.
That
in a church
Christianity. See Gnosticism.
beyond
space
the nave
and transepts reserved for the officiating
CERTAINTY.
An
attitude of unquestioning
table. In Roman
minister,choir,and communion
affirmation of a propositionor idea,making possible churches the word "sanctuary" has largelydisplaced
decisive action.
the word "chancel."
In non-conformist
churches,
the chancel refers to a space railed off in front of the
Certaintymay rest (1)on personalexperienceor
when
is
investigation,
as
an
eye-witness sure concerning
pulpit.
what
he saw;
self-evident or
(2) on
axiomatic propositions,
the postulatesof matheAPOSTOLIC"
matics
The Roman
curia
as
CHANCERY,
of logic; (3) on
the testimony of men
or
(q.v.).
believed to have reUable information,as the conclusions
of an expert.
CHANGELING."
child substituted
for or
A
in folk-lore,
Religiously,
certaintyis urged because it makes
put in the place of another; especially
It may
to have
possible decisive consecration.
rest on
been substituted by the
a child believed
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

77

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

less cultured peoples weaklings or

fairies. Among
infants
imbecile
were
regarded as non-human
Scottish
children substituted for beautiful children.
impossible
people believed such substitutions were
after christening. The origin of the belief lies in
the notion that infants are especiallyliable to the
and fairy-folk.
attacks of demons

on

which

are

ascribed

classic
taries
commen-

to Confucius.

WILLIAM
ELLERY
(1780-1842).
CHANNING,
American
preacher and author, ordained to the
ministry of the Federal St. CongregationalChurch,
He developed strong anti-Calvinistic
Boston, 1803.
and anti-Trinitarian beliefs,
and became
the leader
He
also wrote
of the Unitarian
and
movement.
labored in behalf of the anti-slavery
movement.
See Unitarianism.

"

A song
or melody in church
music,
unmetrical
such as the Psalms,
verses
those comprised of both recitative and rhythm.
or
See Music.
CHANT.

adapted

"

to

CHANUKKA."

See Hantjkka.

CHAOS.
(1) A condition of utter disorder and
lawlessness in contrast
to the conception of order
and design expressed by the word
"cosmos."
See
Cosmogony.
(2) In Greek
mythology the oldest
of the gods,progenitorof Nox and Erebus.
"

CHAPEL.
As distinguishedfrom a church, a
small
to
building devoted
rehgious purposes;
a place of worship not
belonging to an established
church; a small buildingused for worship attached
to or a part of a church
other building. The
or
word has also a number
of derived uses.
"

confirmation

"

CHAPLET.
(1) A head dress, originally
a
garland or wreath.
(2) One third of a rosary, i.e.,
55 beads, used by R.CathoUcs
in counting prayers.
"

See

Rosary.

CHAPTER."
of
the
conventional
(1) One
divisions of a book of the Bible.
(2) A group of
church.
clergyattached to a cathedral or collegiate
(3) A local branch of a societyor fraternity.
CHAPTER-HOUSE."

chapter (q.v.)assembles

The

place in which

to conduct

the

business.

CHARACTER."
The sum
of fundamental traits
which
individual
from
another.
distinguish one
In a moral sense
the settled tastes and purposes
of
which determine
his behavior.
a person
The formation of a rightcharacter is the primary
aim of moral
and religiouseducation.
This end
is attained when
certain habitual preferencesare so
well established that a person's response
to any
stimulus will be directed by them.
This involves
inner conviction as
a cultivation of taste so that an
to the right of certain ideals is present. A good
character is attained when fidelity
to good ideals is
involves
to be depended upon.
Since such fidelity
allegianceto a spiritual
ligious
imperative,it is akin to refaith and is reinforced by religious
experience,
Gerald
Birney
Smith
INDELIBLE."
An ineradicable
CHARACTER,
mark or trait declared by Catholic theologians
to be

Charity and Almsgiving

and

CHARISMATA.

sacraments

of

baptism,

ordination.
"

Superhuman

powers

regarded by the early Christians as

believer by the Holy Spirit.
In most
religionssupernatural powers

were

which

given

held
are
Primitive
persons.
religionsnoticeably recognize the possession of
superhuman powers on the part of medicine-men
and the like. In the Hebrew
religionsuch powers
ascribed to the Spirit of Yahweh.
Such
were
varied from abilityto manufacture
vessels
powers
to the giftof prophecy. Primitive Christians were
the first to hold that the Holy Spiritcame
upon
all members
of the messianic kingdom.
According to Paul (I Cor. 12:18; Rom. 12:5-6;
included
those
of
Eph. 4:11) these charismata
of tongues, the power
to
tongues, the interpretation
work
miracles, and also administration.
They
formed the basis of the organizationin the establishment
of the division of labor in the early church,
since each
office presupposed a charism
(as of
teaching,prophecy, evangelism). Not
apostleship,
all Christians had the same
charism,although more
than
individual.
to
Paul
one
might come
an
of no
moral
value
taught that charismata were
without love,which he also described as a "fruit"
of the Spirit.
It is impossible to understand
exactly the
psychology of the charismata,or to know justwhen
the
Christians.
they ceased to appear
among
Miraculous
attributed to the Christians
powers were
for several centuries after the death
of Christ.
Similar
of
(especiallyof heahng and
powers
claimed
"tongues") have been sporadically
even
into modern
days. See Irving, Edward; Faith
Shailer
Mathews
Healing; Tongues.
be

conferred

on

certain

CHARITY
AND
ALMSGIVING
(CHRISTIAN).
The relief of the poor by giftsor organizedaid.
The
underlying motive to social relief is the
spirit of goodwill. Almsgiving is theoretically
but the expressionof the spiritof charity,but the
with the motive.
act has been confused
the early
Generosity was
conspicuous among
Christians. The gospel of Jesus was
based on the
spiritof goodwill,and the apostle Paul frequently
exhorted to charity. The administration
of charity
compelled organizationin the church at Jerusalem.
New
Testament
teaching emphasized the spiritof
charity as the essential element, but almsgiving
and
was
early recognized as meritorious
very
became
Christian
of
highly approved. Much
charitybecame vitiated by the selfish motives that
the
lay back of it,but we must not underestimate
kindly sympathy that found expression through
the gift. The Catholic church taught the obligation
of charity,and encouraged right motives.
Gifts
the altars of the church, and
were
poured upon
the
The
the
administrators.
bishops became
of wealth that was
amount
given away through and
to the church was
enormous.
Unfortunately the Middle Ages brought Uttle
conception of the importance of estimating the
effects of almsgivingupon the recipients.The donor
with the benefits
almost exclusivelyconcerned
was
accruing to himself. He paid his doles to
the poor, or built shrines and churches that he might
victims
of his
The
gain favor with Heaven.
unimportant. The result
generositywere relatively
swarmed
around the
that thousands
of paupers
was
doors of the monasteries,or infested the citylanes,
The sanction
of subsistence.
begging for the means
of
of the church seemed
to be given to this method
friars set an
the mendicant
when
gettinga living,
example in this respect,but the friars themselves
"

CHAPLAIN.
A minister
whose
office is the
conduct of specialreligious
services for some
age,
personthe state, the army,
the navy, a publicinstitution
etc.
or
a fraternal society,

ETHICS

imprinted on the soul by the

to

Chinese
BOOK
OF."
A
CHANGES,
dating from the 12th. century B.C., the

AND

Charity and

Almsgiving

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

to charity in their social

noble expression
a
gave
the poor and miserable.
service among
The church used poor funds for the aid of the
Later more
of this
parish poor in their homes.
and pubUc
aid was
given in monasteries,hospitals,
institutions. The Reformation
deprived the church
of its property, and the support of the
of much
the public officials. The
thrown
on
indigent was
town
guildshad aided their members in cases of want
the raunicipaUtiesthemselves
or
sickness; now
Private
provisionfor the poor.
began to make
contributions had made
possiblethe maintenance
for a few in poverty, but the poor
of small homes
laws of England provided poorhouses in all the
taken care
of
parishes. At first the inmates were
without their own
labor,but after a century of such
found better to set the people
experiments it was
to work.
In America
provided by towns
poorhouses were
the number
of local dependcounties as soon
ents
or
as
of in families.
became
too largeto be taken care
In these public institutions children and adults,
drunkards
and
imbeciles and
cripples
epileptics,
herded together,and commonly placed under
were
who worked the
of a contractor
the irresponsible
care
benefit. By degrees it came
inmates for his own
advisable to separate the different classes of
to seem
estabUshed
dependents. State institutions were
of the insane and the feeble-minded.
for the care
The aged and children were
placed in homes where
they could be taken care of properly. Defectives
sorted out, and given rational
and deUnquentswere
and
The
19th. century brought new
treatment.
wiser conceptions of charity, and
attempts of
made to systematize
the methods
various kinds were
in vogue in different places,and to co-ordinate pubUc
and privatecharity.
Current interest in charityas a subjectof study
for its
and the best means
centers about its causes
that
It is well understood
prevention and cure.
almsgiving, though bringing satisfaction to the
and should be
giver,is a hindrance to self-reliance,
resorted to in individual cases
only as a temporary
expedient. On the other hand without the large
giftsof philanthropyit would be impossible to
charitable agencies that
the numerous
on
carry
tianity.
the modern
illustrate so beautifully
spiritof Chris-

in use for social uplift.

methods
A great many
are
Some
of these, like housing plans, friendlyclubs,
and social settlements are above the Une of charity,
but they flow from
the same
spiritof goodwill.
Children's aid societies are agencies that with one
hand are preventingindigency and crime, and with
the other are
Ufting victims out of their misery.
careful
Relief agencies find it necessary
to make
investigationsto determine where relief shall be
given,whether in the home or at a publicinstitution,
of aid and the
the form and amount
to decide on
length of time for which it shall be given. It is an
accepted principlethat temporary relief should be
the need, and
then that
large enough to cover
by
steps shall be taken to make relief unnecessary
finding occupations for the individual or some
member
of the needy family. Relief in the home
the feelingsof these who must
receive help,
spares
and it is a generalprinciplethat the home shall not
be broken up if it can
be prevented, but it is often
preferablethat the public authorities should take
of the members
charge of the case, and at least some
of the family be transferred to public institutions.
Co-operation between private and publicagencies
is indispensable.
charities as
It is possible to classifymodern

ETHICS

78

agencies that give aid in the homes, that provide

and medicines,and that plan various means
nurses
of prevention to check the growth of dependency.
As in the days of primitiveChristianity,
ecclesiastical
charity stillexpresses the spiritof Christ,but
the applicationof its ministrydepends increasingly
the teaching of social science.
See Charity
on
Organizations.
CHARITY
Institutional
asylums, and

Henry

K. Rowe

AND

ALMSGIVING
(ETHNIC)."
charity (hospitals, orphanages,
the like)is and has been peculiarto

except as imitated under other systems

Christianity
gions
religionin modern times. Under primitiverelithe only form of almsgiving common
and
considered obhgatory isthe hospitality
characteristic
of

that considered
due to clan or
of many
races
or
from home.
It is not to
totemic members
away
be forgottenthroughout, however, that "the milk
kindness"
has always been a factor of
of human
greateror lesser influence in life.
exists for the
For
Egypt decisive evidence
exercise of almsgiving as a religiousduty in the
uttered
by the soul in
"Negative Confession"
to go
the judgment hall: "I have allowed no man
tomb
inscriptionscarry the
hungry." Numerous
"I gave bread to the hungry and clothes
sentiment:
to the naked."
(Cf. Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian

Resurrection,chap, x.)
Respecting Babylonia data are deficient.
teachers stress benevolence as a
Chinese religious
qualityof the "perfectman," and obhgatory on all.
Mencius
and
Confucius
and
emphasize wisdom
in exercising this quality, the
discrimination
existence of which
they both teach and assume.
The former describes the Chinese phrase "charity
another":
the latter puts it
of heart" by "love one
the four virtues and makes
first among
courtesy a
part of the gift. Later teachers differ greatly
respectingthe applicationof benevolent principles.
II. 53, 414; Tao Teh King,
(Cf. Chinese Classics,
Christie,Thirty Years
XIII; Li Ki, XXXVIII;
in the Manchu
Ti, chaps.
Capital,passim; Mo

XIV,

XV.)

be
worlds it would
In the Greek and Roman
base for benevolence.
difficultto establish a religious
took
the form
of public
benevolences
Private
buildingsand entertainments,often included largess
frequently)of goods and money.
(undiscriminating
But
Rehgion was often an affair of city or state.
possessionof wealth entailed the duty of generosity.
and guildsdisregardedthe
even
corporations
Still,
sick, disabled, widows, and orphans. Claudius
of sick slaves or forcingthem
forbade abandonment
This is indicative in a sinister
out
to starve.
People of Ancient
(Cf. Abbott, Common
way.
Rome, pp. 179 ff.)
the
Zoroastrianism places Benevolence
among
( Yasna, XXXIII,
four "energizing immortals"
"Good
Visparad, XV, 1 implies rehef
Mind").
of the poor: "Place the needy with those without
need."
Parsis boast the absence of beggars in their
community, and their charityto others is a proverb.
set apart for
The last ten days of the year are
deeds of charity,religiousbanquets, ceremonials
for the dead (cf.Vistasp Yast [XXIV], V, 36).
Indian religions(Brahmanism, Hinduisrn,
The
Buddhism, Jainism) favor the ascetic or monastic
fifeof absolute poverty and consequent dependence
alms for bare subsistence.
of the "religious"
on
The sacred laws prescribe
almsgiving,especiallyto
A constantly present
the ascetic and to monks.
motive
is acquisitionof "merit"
by the donors.
The result here and elsewhere under like conditions
and above the ascetics
is a plethoraof beggars over
and monks
(cf.,e.g., Pratt, India and Its Faiths,

including asylums, homes, hospitals,

institutional,
most
of which are cared for by
and reformatories,
such as the voluntary
pubUc authority;or private,
p. 41).

79

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

of the five pillars

In Islam almsgiving is one
the
the
faith, prescribed principallyunder
terms
ness"
zakat,"cleansing,"and sadagah,"righteousgious
which
indicate the reliterms
sufficiently
view of believers and founder of its relation
It is,therefore,
to donors.
a prime duty, is coupled
its wherewithal
the
with
drawn
from
prayer,
of
donor's superfluityyet involving the bestowal
something prized (cf.I Cor. 13:3), and is for the
benefit of relatives,
orphans,the poor, and travellers.
(Quran, 2:40, 211, 216 f., 263; 23:4; 24:27;
of

"

30:38; 64:17; 73:20; 98:4, etc.)

Geo. W. Gilmore
OF."
(1) The designation
benevolent
orders in the
of
mediaeval
in
period. (2) A lay order, founded
1540 in Grenada
by John Ciudad (John of God), a
Portuguese, which is especiallydevoted to care of
exist about
the sick. There
120 houses.
now
BROTHERS
R.C.
various

CHARITY,

AND

ETHICS

Charms

and

Amulets

it is becoming increasingly
necessary that they be
well trained.
For this purpose
trainingschools of
philanthropy have been organized in several cities.
Workers
trained
thus
visit frequently
the
among
houses of the poor, give them friendlycounsel and
and
expert assistance in meeting their difficulties,
ences
bring back their experiencesto the weekly conferof the society. On that occasion specific
cases
discussed on the basis of the facts elicited,
are
and
The success
of organizedcharity
plans are formed.
depends mainly on the abihty of its friendlyvisitors.
They are unpaid workers, but in most cases
they
faithful to
their self-imposed obligations.
are
They are sometimes criticised as case-hardened,but
their sympathy as often needs restraint for the
good of those whom
they are trying to help.
An important part of the task performed by the
charityorganizationsocietyis the keeping of accurate
records of charity cases.
The
society is in
with the various charitable agencies
close contact
in the city, and it keeps the records of its own
visitors. By means
of a card catalogue at the
central office,
and frequently
a period of years
kept over
revised,it is possiblefor the society to
keep well informed and to furnish information to
other agencies that may
be greatlyneeded
as
a
basis for wise action.
In addition to these services the societyis often
able to aid and advise public officials and committees,
to influence the community
to provide
social reforms
and
neighborhood improvements,
such as playgrounds, and to supply information
to
philanthropistswho wish to give help where it is
needed.
most
Henry
K. Rows

CHARITY
ORGANIZATION."
1. History."
Indiscriminate
charity tends to pauperism. Its
antidote is charity organization. Among
the first
this was
Reverend
Thomas
Chalmers
to see
of
giving,
Glasgow. In his parish he was able to check almsand by friendlyvisitation of charityworkers
to help the needy help themselves.
zation
Charityorganisince then has been based on that principle.
A charity organization
societyis not an agency of
direct relief. It often co-ordinates such agenciesin
a whole
city,but its own
object is to prevent and
cure
poverty. It gives aid only in an emergency.
The
experiments of Chalmers, supplemented by
the investigations
of Edward
Denison
in London,
resulted in the organizationof the CharityOrganization
in 1869.
This societywas
SISTERS
OF."
The designation
Society of London
of
CHARITY,
unable to unite all the agencies of the metropolis, several R.C. female associations which
undertake
it Loped to do, but it has performed a valuable
as
the care
of the poor and the sick; e.g., The Sisters
service itself,
and has been an
impetus to similar of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, organized in
1617 and operative in Europe and America; and
organizationsin England and the United States.
American
The Sisters of Charity of St. Charles dating from
societies,
mostly after the London
into existence in the seventies in the
model, came
1626, and found in Europe.
centers
of population in the East.
The first to be
CHARLEMAGNE
organizedthoroughly on the London
of
plan was that
(742-814)." Sole monarch
of Buffalo in 1877.
In the fortyyears that followed
the Franks in 771 Charlemagne extended
Prankish
similar societies were
formed in the leadingcities of
in Italy,Spain,Bavaria,Saxony and, Dec. 25,
power
the country, usuallyunder the name
of the Charity
800, was crowned by the Pope in Rome as Emperor
Organization Society or the Associated Charities.
("the central event of the Middle Ages," Bryce).
of such organiCo-operationwas a cardinal principle
zation, This renewal of the idea of the old empire made
and it soon
him head
of Western
produced a National Conference
Europe both in state and
of Charities and Corrections that became
church affairs,
with something of the
a forum
an
emperor
for discussion.
character
of supreme
Charity organizationrests on the
pontiff. He developed an
following four principles:Pecuniary aid should
efficient administrative
system which united all in
be given only in an emergency,
after thorough
or
ing,
personalallegianceto him, fostered arts and learnreveals
need.
investigationof conditions
of
opened schools and planned even
a system
grave
should take the place of
Friendly encouragement
His largeideal gave an impress
popular education.
world though his work for civilizaalmsgiving in an effort to get an individual or
to the mediaeval
tion
tween
family to achieve self-support.Co-operation belapsed through the weakness of his successors.
relief agenciesis essential to prevent duplication
of effort and oversight. Discussion of problems
CHARLES
V.
of Spain,
(1500-1558)."
and
elected emperor
public education to appreciate the value of
of the Holy Roman
Empire, 1519. He
instruments in
had to deal with the problems caused by the Protestant
charityorganizationare necessary
the effective alleviation of poverty.
Reformation,as well as with the ambitions of
of organization the kingdoms of Prance and of England. His first
2. Organization. The
method
and work may
be summarized
briefly. The membership
the promulgation
was
important act as emperor
of the society consists of those who
of the Edict of Worms, declaringLuther an outlaw.
tribute
conto its maintenance.
The members
elect a
His reignwas
marked
by a constant strugglebetween
board
of directors,
who
Protestants and Catholics ending in the Religious
guide the administrative
of this board
Peace
of Augsburg, 1555, whereby equal rights
policy. An executive committee
keeps in close touch with the superintendent and
were
granted Lutheran and R.C. princes. In 1556
district heads.
There is a central office,
with district he abdicated
and entered a monastery.
centers in the large cities. Sometimes
the district
has its own
center
A charm may
be
CHARMS
AMULETS."
AND
organization,but it is
highly desirable that all sections should be closely defined as a small portable object worn
the
on
co-ordinated
with the main
office of the city orfor magico-religious
ganization.
person, or otherwise preserved,
Since the success
of charity organiderived from the Latin carmen
The name,
reasons.
zation
depends on the efficiencyof its workers, (asong),is also often appliedto incantations,
spells,

king

"

Charms and Amulets

and

passwords.

DICTIONARY

verbal

Such

OF

charms

must

RELIGION
be

whereas
material charms
effective,
continuously effective without any action on

uttered
are

to

be

the part of the wearer.

Material
1. Classification
charms,
of charms.
used specifically
to bring good fortune or to transmit
desirable quahties,are called taHsmans, a word
is a material charm,
of Arabic origin. An amulet
whose purpose
is to protect the wearer
against real
ness,
or
imagined dangers witchcraft,evil eye, sick"

"

etc.
accidents,
Occasionally,
disease,
however,
will be employed for both these
the same
charm
purposes.

As

rule

the

for good luck,the

secretly

talisman
will be worn
amulet
openly to avert

AND

ETHICS

80

artificialcharms
is usually an
important function
of the professional
magician.
6. Diffusionof charms.
The
of charms
is
use
Wherever
the belief in
practicallyworld-wide.
is especially
witchcraft,evil eye, and demonism
pronounced, there will usually be a corresponding
development of prophylacticand protectivecharms.
Man
seldom
nourishes
a
superstition without
effective antidote for it.
devisingsome
HuTTON
Webster
CHARTERHOUSE."
(1) A monastery of the
Carthusian order; (2) a school, chapel and almshouse
in London, Eng., founded
in 1611 in a suppressed
Carthusian
monastery and in 1872 removed
"

evil.
to Godalming, Surrey.
2. Kinds
Talismans and amulets
of charms.
have been of many
different kinds and formed
of
CHARTISTS."
A
19th. century
CHARTISM,
different substances.
Miss Freire-Marreco
movement
in Great Britain to extend the poUtical
ates
enumerthe followingclasses of objects,both natural
power of the working classes.
and
used:
Bad
"stones
harvests
and
as
artificial,
commonly
very
depression,following hard
those of a curious shape or naturally upon
the enactment
of the Reform
Bill of 1832,
(especially
caused
the masses,
perforatea),stone implements (celtsand arrowheads);
great disappointment among
curious vegetable growths, roots, leaves, who in 1838 drew up a program
called the "People's
Charter." It had six points manhood
seeds,nuts; horns,teeth,claws,and other parts of
suffrage,
animals and insects,
hair and teeth, equal electoral districts,
shells,human
vote
by ballot,annual
of
the dead; medicinal substances;subrehcs
stances parliaments, abolition of property, quahfications
believed to have been extracted from the
for membership in the House
of Commons, and
sick in magical cures; iron,gold,
As coercive
silver,
rock-crystal,payment of parliamentarymembers.
it was
alum, salt,coral; red, blue, and white things; measures
prepared to abstain from the use
of excisableproducts,
the bank, and
to cause
rings; representations of
runs
strings,threads, and
on
and animal forms, phallic
human
strikes. Petitions were
emblems, representations to organize nation-wide
of eyes,
hands, horns, and crescents; sent to Parliament. Riots developed. A demonstration
written
in London
beads, imported ornaments;
charms,
planned on a largescale (1848)
quotationsfrom sacred writings,inscribed objects, proved a disappointment and the beginning of
and ornaments;
medals, coins; obsolete weapons
ing
waning enthusiasm, which was hastened by revivrelics and mementos
of holy persons
and places,
Bills of 1867 and 1885,
prosperity,the Reform
and dedicated things."
and the Ballot Act of 1872.
Peter
portionsof offerings,
G. Mode
-In some
3. Choice of charms.
the erronecases
ous
association
of ideas, so
CHARVAKAS."
characteristic of
See Lokayatas.
primitive-mindedpeople, provides a sufficient
the
for
choice of charms.
CHASIDIM.
explanation
(1) A body of piousJews who
Thus, the
color of certain stones suggests flesh,
hence garnets
joinedwith the Hasmoneans
(q.v.). (2) A pietistic
and cornelians may
be carried as amulets
against reaction against Talmudic
legalism,emphasizing
skin diseases.
This logical
Polish Jews of
fallacyunderlies magical
religiousecstasy, originatingamong
other objects
the 18th, century and now
restricted to Southern
practices (see Magic), But many
because they are supto be used as charms
Russia.
come
posed
to contain magico-spiritual
(seeMana).
power
Such power
be ascribed to them
because of
CHASTITY."
The state of refraining
from se"ual
may
their mysterious properties. The fact that amber,
relations so as to secure
moral purity.
or
religious
when
The power
of sexual passion has led to various
rubbed, attracts light objects probably led
to the notion that to look through amber
beads
attitudes.
At one
extreme
it is positively
religious
uted
strengthensthe sight,and the specialvirtue attribworshiped (seePhallicism) ; at the other extreme it
to iron was
has been rigorouslysuppressed as the root of evil
perhaps often based on observation
of its magnetic qualities.Power
be ascribed
(see Concupiscence; Asceticism). In primitive
may
of their rarityor unusual
to other objectson account
to
thinking sexual activityis frequentlybeheved
have an occult influence on processes
of nature
shape, e.g., perforated stones and double walnuts
or
almonds.
sacred or
Again, association with some
is
or
significant
enterprises. Chastityin such cases
powerful being or thing may give rise to charms.
required,e.g., of a warrior before combat, or of a
For
tribe during planting season,
of a candidate
example, the detachable parts of certain
or
before
It has
animals, e.g., tusks of wild boars, lower jaw-bone
religious ceremonies.
commonly
of the tortoise,tufts of eagle-feather,
been demanded
of religiousofficials who
used
be
must
are
to gain their qualities.The lore of rehcs in Chrisclean in order to secure
the favor of the
tendom
spiritually
is similarly
celibate
explained(seeReli cs) Finally, gods. Vestal virgins and
priests are
examples. Asceticism
any objectsupposed to be inhabited by a spirit
may
lays especial stress on
and it is included in the vows
of monks
and
properly be described as a charm; hence it is often
chastity,
between charms and so-called
difficultto distinguish
nuns.
fetishes (see Fetishism),
of chastityis
While the religious
interpretation
When
the
4. Artificialcharms.
and
a development of the idea of tabu,moral
supply of
largely
is limited,recourse
natural charms
will be had to
social considerations have also had great influence.
artificialsubstitutes.
Of these, some
models
has proved to be the type of sexual
are
Monogamy
of objects,
such as the crosses
and
best fitted to develop loyalty,unselfish
or representations
relationship
in European countries.
figuresof the saints worn
love, care for children and other virtues essential
Others are objects containing some
But monogamy
is meaningless
to social welfare.
magical name
such as Jewish amulets
married
or
inscription,
containing unless chastity is expected on the part of all unthe Pentateuch
the Psalms
natural
from
and
The
or
verses
jealousy of men
persons.
in the interests of
Mohammedan
amulets composed of texts from the
has exalted chastityin women
true
that exclusive personal relationshipwhich
Koran,
Among primitive peoples the making of
"

"

"

"

"

,"?!

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

have claimed
in
freedom
not countenanced
standard"
the existing "double
women.
the emancipation of women
of morality. With
and the growing desire for consistencyin ethical
theory,there is an increasingpressure for a stricter
of
terrible scourge
The
code of morals for men.
due almost entirely
to illicitsexual
venereal disease,
is an additional argument for chastity.
relations,
Gerald
Smith
Birney
MARTIN
(1522-1586)."German
CHEMNITZ,
tion
theologianand reformer,prominent in the formulaof Concord.
He
and acceptance of the Formula
in the Adiaphorist controversy (q.v.),
participated
and in polemics againstCrypto-Calvinism, Roman
and
the
Jesuits.
Catholicism
Doctrinally he
stood midway between Luther and Melanchthon.

love demands.
for

themselves
Hence

Unfortunately, men
a

The
CHEMOSH."
ites. See Moabites.

national

deityof

the Moab-

CHERUBIM."
An
order of spirits
CHERUB,
attendant
the Divine presence.
The cherub is
on
survival of ancient Hebrew
mythology, derived
a
the Assyrianwinged bulls,
from the same
source
as
of Phoenician
the griffins
art, and the Egyptian
cherubim
Sphinx. In the Old Testament
appear
bearers of Yahweh's
throne
as
(Ps. 18:10: Ezek.
1:5 ff., 10:1
ff.)as guardians of His holiness
in both capacities
(Gen. 3 :24; I Kings 6 :23 ff.),
or
37 :7 ff.). In Apocryphal literature
(Exod. 25 : 18 ff.,
they form part of the ten "troops of angels" who
mount
guard on the throne of God's glory,"singing
in the boundless
lightwith small and tender
songs
voices"
(Enoch 71:7; 2 Enoch
20:1^). The
four "Uving creatures" of Rev. 4:6 ff. are a blend
and seraphim (q.v.).
of cherubim
R. Gordon
Alex.
See Summum
GOOD."
CHIEF
Bonum.
A group
of books written
CHILAN
BALAM.
scribes of the Maya
Indians
of
the native
America
embodying records of the ancient times
previous to the coming of the Spaniards as well as
The characters
"primitiveastrologyand medicine.
the invention
in which the books are written were
of tlie Spanish monks.
"

by

The
RELIGION
OF."
ence
experiof social relations with the superhuman and
conduct
of boys and
the consequent effects upon
See also Religious
girlsunder twelve years of age.
Education.
hood.
ChildNature
I. Theories
as
to
the
op
(1) The doctrine oj natural depravityshuts
childhood
from
out
possibihty of genuine
any
religionuntil the miracle of regenerationhas taken
the church has often been
place. In consequence,
children a
in young
at great pains to stimulate
consciousness of sin and a willingness
to be saved in
would
be
the hope that the required conversion
secured.
ReUef
obtained
from this difficulty
was
whereby
by the doctrine of baptismal regeneration,
it was
held that the nature of the child was
changed,
could be
thus the process
of religiouseducation
effective.
nature of
religious
(2) The doctrine of the positive
the child has come
to be very generallyheld,partly
children
the theological
are
on
ground that all men
of God
and partly on
the theory that there is a
ndtural instinct for rehgion in man.
According to
this view, it is the task of religious
education
to
develop in childhood a certain religiousquality
which is supposed to be alreadypresent at birth and
which requiresappropriateculture.
Looked
(3) The theoryof instinctive behaviour.
with the tendencies
at biologically,
a child is born

CHILDHOOD,

"

"

AND

ETHICS

Child-Marriage

that have been developed tliroughthe long

of racial fife. He is non-moral
and his acts
purely instinctive. The social group
are, firstof all,
the conditions of fife
to which he belongsdetermines
in which these instincts operate, developing some,
and
modifying others. MoraUty
religion are
social developments, restingon a complex play of
of the
instinct,
representinggradual achievements
be said to have a moral or
The child cannot
race.
He has the common
human
nature
reUgiousnature.
less
which in the process of livingacquiresmore
or
the highermoral and reUgioushabits of the group.
II. iVlORALITY AND
RELIGION
SoCIAL HaBITS.
AS
ences
(1)Social suggestionis one of the strongest influgeneity
to which
we
are
subject. Hence the homoof nations,of communities, of specialgroups
It is almost inevitable that we do what
of fanulies.
for
The
child is a candidate
others do.
young
human
experienceand the natural way to achieve
experienceis by followingthe paths that others set.
called imitation but it is very
This is sometimes
much
than conscious copying. It yieldsthe
more
satisfaction of abilityto do the things that others
Doubtless prayer, various acts of worship,and
do.
in religious
exercises have their
generalparticipation
beginningsin this way.
of the permitted and the non(2) A sense
permittedis an extension of social suggestionas the
child feels the approval or disapproval
of his elders
certain types of conduct.
A very significant
upon
basis of religious
experienceis found in the child's
appreciation of God's approval and disapproval,
imder wise leadership,
hand in
the one
on
resulting,
genuine, if simple contrition,confession,and the
of forgiveness,
sense
and, on the other hand, in joy
in conscious well doing.
(3) An emotional prejudicefor the ways of one's
gious
result in very valuable moral and reliown
group
may
achievements.
be desirous
Thus a child may
of maintaining cleanlinessand modesty, of speaking
ness,
the truth,of performing acts of sympathetic kindof helping God in his good work in the world,
folk do that sort of thing.
largelybecause his own
Stage
Religion.
III. The
Personal
op
to be clear
(1) The danger of precocity. It seems
that earlyadolescence is the time when the habitual
reUgion of childhood becomes
personal. There is
of life
to the way
an
experienceof commitment
which
has hitherto been followed as a matter
of
This should not be called conversion
but
course.
should be recognizedas a stage of religious
progress
childhood.
But
followingupon a genuine religious
the experienceshould by no means
be superinduced
through social pressure and the creation of highly
emotional situations.
(2) The elements of childhood religionare to be
found
and
in the glad conformity to the moral
religious
practicesof the elders and of the church
society;in a joy in the good world where God is and
where so much
kindness is to be experienced and
exercised; in the happy and earnest assumption
of the tasks that belong to the child as a co-operating
Ideas of
member
in God's great family on earth.
with
God, of duty, of social living,corresponding
these experiences,
will be a natural part of childhood
G. Soares
Theodore
religion.
to act

range

"

"

"

The practiceof uniting

CHILD-MARRIAGE."
in formal marriage children under fifteen years of
age, usuallythe marriage of a girlunder fifteen with
older man.
an
to exist
As a custom
child-marriageis known
the
primitive peoples, notably among
among
It is especially
Australians
Melanesians.
and
thought of as a
prevalentin India,and is ordinarily
than one-half of the total
Hindu
More
custom.
female populationof British India are married before
^

Chiliasm

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

while they are mere

fifteen years of age, somet;|mes
in India
infants.
Child-marriage is least common
the Dra vidian and other native tribes which
among
uninfluenced
have remained
relatively
by the caste
In the western
provincesthe
system of the Hindus.
girlremains at home with her parents until sexual
maturity is reached; but in Bengal girlscommence
their married life at the age of nine years.
In 1891
ineffectual attempt
the British government made
an
to check child-marriage
by prescribingthat the age
of legalmarriage should be not less than twelve
The
practice,however, continues and is
years.
supported by all the Hindu castes.
A. Ellwood
Charles
CHILIASM.
See Millenabianism.

ETHICS

AND

of the Bible

was

82

completed by Morrison
published in 1818. These

lation

"

and

and

Milne

was

much
labor spent in the distribution
saw
of tracts and booklets by Gutzlaff,Medhurst
and
others as far north as Manchuria.
The beginning
made
of medical work was
by Dr. Peter Parker at
Canton
At the time of the first Opium
in 1835.
War
in 1842, however, Christianityhad nowhere
soil. Although about fifty
taken root in Chinese
had
been
missionaries
sent from
England and
could
be
America, only five or six converts

earlyyears

numbered.

By the Treaty of Nanking (1842),the ports of

Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai
opened to foreign trade and residence,and

Canton, Amoy,
were

concluded
and
America
two
years later France
I. Nestorian
treatiesgivingthe right to erect houses of worship
and
of these cities was
in the ports. Each
speedily
Roman
The
history of
Itinerant evangelization
missions in China
covers
occupied by mission boards.
a
period of 1,300 years.
carried on from these centers, but hostility
was
Discardingunconfirmed traditions of earlier evangelization,
The number
of
continued.
and petty persecution
it is now
generallyconceded that Nestorian
to nineteen,
mission boards increased from seven
missionaries reached
China
in 635 a.d., and were
with about 169 missionaries on the ground, but at
Their
favorably received by the reigningemperor.
of converts
the end of fifty
influence was
at its heightin the 9th. century, when
years the total number
hundred.
above one
not much
hostile imperialedict compelled 3000 Christian
was
a
2. The middle period the period of expansion
teachers
to
to
return
private life. Apparently
recovered from this reverse, although as
began in 1860,at the close of the war with the British
they never
thrown
additional cities were
Seven
and French.
found in
as
30,000 Nestorian Christians were
many
and for the first time the
to foreignresidence,
China by the Franciscans as late as the middle of the
open
out
14th. century.
rightwas conceded to travel with passports throughthe eighteen provinces.Both
foreignersand
A brief but interesting
period of missionary
natives were
also protectedin the "quiet profession
begun in
activityunder the Mongol Dynasty was
tian
and teaching" of the doctrines of the ChrisCorvino and the Franciscans,
1292 by John of Monte
of Peking who even
sent an
under the Great Khan
religion,although the provinces of Shansi
not opened till 1876, and the four
and Shensi were
embassy to the Pope. But in 1368 the Mongol
Dynasty was
overthrown, and, in the anarchy most westerly provincestill a year later. Hunan
In 1860, over
the last to be occupied,in 1897.
appeared.
diswas
that followed,the last traces of Christianity
missionaries were
hundred
waitingin Shanghai
one
for the opening of these new
hundred
doors, and Tientsin
Two
years later a permanent lodgment
societies.
entered
and Peking were
by numerous
effected in the country by the Jesuits,under
was
lished,
and
speedilyestabMedical and educational work was
the famous
Ricci (1583). Franciscans
Matteo
work grew rapidly after 1868.
and woman's
Dominicans
1,600
followed, and by 1664 over
in five provinces.
had
churches
been established
Throughout all this period,however, although
the common
In 1724 the Emperor Yung Cheng issued an edict
people were well disposed,the steady
of both officials
oppositionif not the open hostility
strictlyforbiddingany further propagation of the
diminution.
almost without
and literati continued
tained
and for 130 years the church was only mainreligion,
The most extravagant propaganda of misrepresentaSince the
tion
secretly by heroic endurance.
carried on against the Christian religion.
was
rapid
treaty of 1860 Catholic missions have made
The culminating outbreak of this antagonism to all
Their statistics for 1916 {Les Missions
progress.
the Boxer Uprising,brought this
de Chine et da Japon, 1917) give a total of 1,800,000
foreigninfluences,
Christians distributed over
all the eighteenprovinces
periodof slow but steadyexpansionto an end in 1900.
had been accomplished from 1860-1900
much
and Mongolia; a full half milhon
of these are
in
How
statistics lor
1898.
the province of Chihli.
Eleven
societies are
is indicated by the mission
now
to 80,000,
hundred Christians had grown
Of these the Lazarists have the largest The one
at work.
and the nineteen societies to fifty-three.Twentynumber
of adherents,the Jesuits coming second.
male and female, were
II. Protestant
Missions.
1. The earlyperiod. five hundred
missionaries,
of
be said to reach
the field,aided
The
by twice the number
period of beginnings may
upon
1766 day-schools and
from the coming of the first Protestant missionary, native helpers. There were
of
institutions
in 1807, till the opening of the whole
105
higher learning. Foreign
empire to
numbered
190.
the Rev. Robert
missionary work in 1862. When
physicians
since the Boxer Uprising
3. The modern
peri,od,
Morrison, under
appointment by the London
in 1900, has been
significantand fruitful. The
in September, 1807, the
Mission, reached Canton
classes has
resistance of the educated
stubborn
Chinese
chances
of Christianizing the
seemed
broken
indeed.
Neither
residence
work
in
remote
down, and an attitude of receptiveness
nor
of friendUness
toward
western
Chinese
teaching,and even
permitted, and after a year
territorywas
has largelyreplaced the
toward
the missionaries,
he was
of
driven
to the Portuguese settlement
old dislike. The
sionaries
of the work
of the earliest misMacao.
Most
change has been due to several
the disillusionment
chief causes
followingon the
of necessity carried on
at various
was
decree in 1905 aboUshBoxer Rebellion,the imperial
ports in the Malayan Archipelagowhere colonies
of Chinese were
to be found.
Singapore,Malacca,
ing the old system of education, the promise in
throw
1908 of constitutional government, and the overoccupied
Bangkok were
Java, Penang and even
The new
in 1911.
repubhc
of the Manchus
from time to time, and some
was
made,
progress
Missionary
and
was
widely supportedby Christians.
especiallyalong educational
literary lines.
aid in flood and famine work, in the national Red
An
Anglo-Chinese College was
opened by Dr.
and at the time of the pneumonic
about
in 1818, where
Morrison
in Malacca
fifty Cross associations,
sion.
students finished their education; a half million
plague,had produced a deep and favorable impresAs the firstexalted impulses of the revolution
volumes
also issued in Chinese. The transwere
TO."
MISSIONS
Missions.
Catholic

CHINA,

"

"

"

""

"

"

83

began

DICTIONARY

OP

and bribery and dishonesty

fail,
began

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

China, Religions of

and the earth.

Yang is subdivided into an innumerable

of good spiritscalled shen; Yin,
new
into numerous
evil spiritscalled kwei.
republicanconditions,thoughtfulmen
Man's
began
to see that fresh moral impulse was
finer qualities
needed for new
from his shen; his passionsand
come
times.
coarser
qualitiesfrom his kwei. The air of earth
of these and other causes,
As a consequence
and
is supposed to swarm
with evil spirits
was
innumerable.
Such
opportunitiesfor wider influence on the part of the
religionas the Chinese had
church have sprung
side. Old separabefore the 6th. century b.c. consisted in the endeavor
up on every
tions
and divisions,
both national and denominato propitiatethese spirits. At
tional,
the basis of the
have everywhere been breakingdown, and
Chinese conception of life lies the Tao, or the
union efforts,
in educational and medical
order of the universe.
the orderly
especially
It embraces
The
revolution of the seasons.
tional
undenominalines,multiply year by year.
Closelyconnected with
work of the Y.M.C.A., especially
this is a righthuman
the
order,Jin Tao, or the "Tao of
among
large government schools,has been of great value, Man."_ There was
for man
to cona
duct
proper way
and
its staff has increased five-fold within ten
himself.
Indeed
the smooth
working of the
Central boards
for united
action are
order of nature, the Tien Tao, depended upon
how
years.
a
feature of this modern
order was
followed
correct
human
out
periodthat promise to be of
by men.
the widest helpfulness. The
so-called "Continuathis had
led to the
tion
By the time of Confucius
Committee"
of the federated churches in the
fucius,
or^nizationof a definite state religion.ConChina
while animated
Edinburgh Conference, the new
Medical
by a high ethical purpose
in no
the
the
Board, the Christian Educational Association,
reformer. He reverenced
was
sense
a
China
Medical
order of nature
Missionary Association are all full
as
expressedin the Chinese empire
of promise for the future.
and religion. Even its burdensome
Practicallyall bodies
customs, such
working in China now
of an
recognizethe primary need
as the three years' mourning for the death
Chinese
of training
ship
the
youth for the efficient leaderemperor, which suspended all business and even
of a modern
church.
of marriages,were
Already there are the
consummation
regarded by him
beginnings of the "Chinese Christian Church"
as
expressions of proper
feeling. He
necessary
which
is wholly independent and
endeavored
unconnected
in Chinese
domestic and
to secure
denominational
with any
organization. The posipoliticallife the observance of the proper forms,
tion
of the Christian community has been much
proved the fostering
imof proper
and the preservation
feeling,
by the granting of full religioustoleration, of ethical standards.
Through the influence of the
in a law of May, 1916,providingthat "the people of
the forms of Chinese life
Confucianists,
therefore,
the Republic of China shall have libertyto honor
have been crystallized.The Tao of Man
has been
Confucius, and libertyof religiousworship, which
thought to be expressed entirelyin the Classics.
shall be unrestricted,
These have been studied to the neglectof all unrewith
except in accordance
lated
law." This seemingly brings to an end the effort
literature,
they have been made the basis of
of Confucianism
state religionand to
make
to
Chinese education, of examinations
for the civil
a
and their teachingshave been dogmatically
tianity. service,
perpetuate the old discriminations.against Chrisimposed by the government upon the nation. This
statistics for 1916
The
result has been reached by gradual steps.
(China Mission
Yearbe
3. Historical development. About
as
follows:
hundred
briefly summarized
hook) _may
a
Chih HwangOrganized congregations,3,880; communicants,
y;earsafter Mencius the Tsin emperor,
to destroy the literati and all their
ti,endeavored
268,652; adherents, 526,108; Sunday school
scholars,165,282; contributions,
$644,401 (Mex.); books; and Confucianism and its classics came
near
missionaries,5,338; Chinese
workers, 20,460; to extermination along with the rest. The Tsin
ordained
The num330.
bers
djrnastysoon gave place,however, to the Han, under
pastors,764; hospitals,
of the foreignworkers are divided among
which the teachingsof Confucius were
the
revived and
leadingchurches as follows: China Inland Mission, revered. During both the earlier and later Han
976; Presbyterian,943; Methodist,754; Anglican, periods(206 b.c. to 220 a.d.)Confucius was held in
In 1 a.d. he was
canonized
"Duke
as
621; Baptist, 534; Lutheran, 385; Congrega- high honor.
Henry
284.
Kingman
tionalist,
Ni, the all complete and illustrious." In the first
part of the Han period,however, the commentaries
OF."
I. Confucianism
Confucius were written by men
who were
to a
CHINA, RELIGIONS
upon
takes its name
from Confucius
and
(q.v.). It is a sysgreater or less degree under Taoist influence,
tem
of morals engrafted upon
the nature
rupted
religion who, in the judgment of later generations,corwhich had existed in China from times primeval.
the teachings of the master.
In the reign
of Wang
the
1. The sacred books of Confucianism are
books,said to be
Mang (6-23 a.d.)some
the Shu King, or "Book
of History," more
five Classics,
ancient,were
presented to the government.
the Shi King, or "Book
of Poetry," the / King or
These
differed from the corrupted commentaries.
and application
"Book
of Changes" (explanations
The books presentedwere
to
said to have been dug up.
of divination of eightenigmaticdiagrams),
mentaries
They were called "Ancient Literature"; the compurposes
Ch' un
Ts'iu or "Spring and Autumn
it
Literature."
"Modem
In 57 a.d.
Annals," and
the Li Ki or "Book
of Rites."
All of these except
ordained
that sacrifices should be offered to
was
the last were
Confucianism
Confucius. In 165 a.d.
compiled by Confucius. To the
was
finally
five Classics four books
and became
are
from Taoism
a
added, though these
disentangled
separate
character.
of a less authoritative
are
They are
system.
the Lun
Yu or "Analects"
fucius
Confucianists were
much opposed to Buddhism,
(memorabilia of Conto strike
of
whose monastic
orders seemed to them
compiled by his pupils),the "Works
Mencius"
at the bases of Chinese life. Confucianism
the Ta Hsiao or "Great Learning,"
glorified
(q.v.),
and the Chung Yung or "Doctrine
of the Mean."
that life and fostered all those institutions which
These
had been developed during the nation's longstruggle
were
compiled or written by disciples
or
followers of Confucius.
for existence.
In spiteof the growth of Buddhism
2. Fundamental
and the frequent extension to it of imperialfavor,
ceive
conception. ^The Chinese conthe universe to have originatedby generation the estimate of Confucius rose higher and higher as
stA^led "the
from two
he was
souls or breaths called Yang and
Yin,
time
passed. In 492 a.d.
Yang represents light,warmth, productivity,life, venerable Ni, the accomplishedSage.'' In 609 a.d.
and the heavens; and
be
directed that a temple to him should
Yin, darkness,cold,death, it was
to

manifest

themselves

in their old forms

under

to

the

number

"

"

China, Religions of

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

erected at every seat of learning. In 659 he was

styled "K'ung, the ancient Teacher, the perfect
Yuan
Sage." The emperor
Tsung (713-766 a.d.)
him
the title "Accomplished and
Sagacious
gave
King." Cheng Tsung (1068-1086 a.d.) advanced
him to the title of "Emperor."
Chu
Hsi
(1130-1200 a.d.) introduced a new
of the Confucian
departure into the interpretation
classics. He refused to interpretone
in one
way
_

and

another

in another.
His influence
a sober interpretation
of the Classical
been
books. His works have never
translated into a European languageand are little
known
in the West, but his influence seems, on the
whole, to have tended toward
agnosticism. In
1907 the late Empress Dowager raised Confucius
with
to the first grade of worship, ranking him
Shang-ti,the Supreme Spirit.
4. Pantheon,templesand ritiuil. The divinities
of the Chinese
Confucianism
which
state religion,
has made
fall into three classes.
a part of itself,
(1) There are those worshiped by the Emperor
the spiritsof Heaven
and
Earth, the Imperial
Ancestors,and the gods of the ground,and of millet
On the night of the winter solstice the
or
com.
Emperor (or President)offers the most important
sacrifice to Heaven
in a temple to the south of
solstice,
Peking,and on the night of the summer
to the Earth in a temple to the north of that city.
On both occasions he sacrifices also to his ancestors.
Sacrifices are offered to corn
gods and gods of the
ground, in the spring and autumn, in a park to the
southwest
of the Tartar cityeither by the President
his deputy. (2) Gods of the middle
class are
or
the sun, and various famous
who are believed
men
such
to
have introduced civilization,
as
Sheng
Nung, the divine husbandman, and Sien-ts'an,
the firstbreeder of silk worms.
In this class of gods
rulers of the past are worshiped; also Confucius,
many
than
togetherwith his ancestors, and more
In this class
seventy exponents of his doctrine.
find also the planet Jupiter,deities of clouds,
we
mountains
rain,wind, and thunder,the ten principal
of the empire,five ranges of hills,
etc.
(3) A third
class of deities is worshiped by Mandarins.
This
includes the physiciansof olden time, a star in the
Great
Bear
which is regarded as the patron of
Classical studies,the Prince
of the north pole,
the god of fire,
gods of walls and moats, the god of the
eastern mountains
(inShantung), gods of water and
of storehouses,
and many
rain,of porcelainkilns,
others.
In the time of Confucius the worship of the
passage
was

way

accordinglyon the side of

"

"

restricted to reverencing
people was
their ancestors, but they have not been content with
this. All over
China in villages
and other localities
they now have temples for the worship of mountains,
streams, rocks, and patron divinities of all sorts.
Images of these gods exist by tens of thousands.
The altars consist of two or more
tables,on which
are
placed wax
candles,flower- vases, and pots in
which sticks of incense are placed to burn.
These
is no
offeringsexpress
homage. There
atoning
sacrifice. The sacrifices are propiatoryrather than
common

expiatory.
5. Principles. (1) Foremost

the principles
among
is reverence
for
reverence
the
the Shen, or
Soul of the
for the chief deities menreverence
universe,i.e.,
tioned
above,and for ancestors who were believed to
be possessedof a shen kindred to that of the universe;
and institutions
reverence, too, for all the good customs
which had
in China's
past.
grown
up
(2) According to Confucianism the five Classics
contain and reveal all the binding principles
of the
Tao of man.
All that conflicts with these is to be
uprooted and discarded. Confucianism, when
"

of Confucianism
manifestations
of

"

AND

ETHICS

S4

applied,is accordinglydogmatic and

consistently
intolerant.
(3) Sin is recognized,but its punishment
from
is expected in this life. Reformation
but is believed to be within
wrong-doingis required,
one's own
(4) Confucius was a formalist.
power.
of self-control was
admirable.
His power
He inculcated
code of honor and exhibited urbanityand
a rigid
courtesy. In these respects he became an example to
his followers. Confucianism
has,accordingly,as one
of its principal
elaborate system
an
expressions,
of etiquette and
politeness. (5) Confucianism
embraces
also a high degree of ethical teaching.
Confucius advocated
kindness,rectitude,decorum,
wisdom, and sincerity. He does not employ the
word "lie,"but he lays great stress upon
sincerity.
His motive of conduct
of the
was
a negative form
Golden
Rule:
which I do not wish others to
"That
others."
put upon
me, I also wish not to put upon
He did not, however, believe in forgivingenemies,
but advocated
He
blood revenge.
thought that
heaven with
should not live under the same
a man
the murderer
of his father.
(6) Confucianism
noble.
It
nature
essentially
as
regards human
has inculcated loyaltyand has upheld a high ethical
standard,and has thus been of untold benefit to the
China of the past. In spiteof its noble standards,
to lack the ethical power
to
however, it seems
the China which
must
create
be, if that land is
stillto have a mission in the world.
rupted
The
overthrow
of the Empire in 1912 interfor a time the state religionabout
which
entwined
had
Confucianism
itself,but in 1915
President
of the Chinese
Yuan
Shi Kai, then
the
made
Confucianism
more
Republic, once
religionof the state.
II. Taoism
is a system of Chinese
thought and
hundred
practicewhich, after existingseven
years
as a philosophy,
developed,about eighteenhundred
from
years ago, into a religion. It takes its name
the Chinese word
Tao, "path," "road," "way."
Early Chinamen
spoke of l^ien Tao, "the Way
of Heaven,"
contrasting it with Jen Tao, "the
The former was
bright,holy,right;
Way of Man."
Then
the latter,dark, perverse.
omitting T'ien
they employed Tao alone to denote the summum
which
eludes the transis a word
lator.
bonum.
Tao
It seems
the
or
at times to be "Nature"
"Way the Universe goes." Tao was reverenced by
all the early Chinese, and forms the basis of both
Confucianism
(q.v.)and Taoism.
The founder of Taoism
as
a distinct system was
and who
born about
600 b.c,
Lao-tze, who was
He is beUeved
hved to be about 80 years old.
to
be the author of the Tao Teh Ching, the oldest of
He lived in the
the sacred books of the Taoists.
cated
midst of increasingwealth and luxury, and advoand the simple life. To
to nature
return
a
the inexpressibleInfinite,
the
seemed
him
Tao
exalted spirit. To
come
greater than the most
to attain all virtue.
into harmony with the Tao was
This harmony was, he believed,to be attained
by quietism, living according to nature, selfcally
radiLao-tze differed
effacement,and meditation.
from his younger
contemporary, Confucius.
Confucius
taught a system of strict etiquette;he
Lao-tze
would
would
all life into a mould.
run
free from convention; to him the perfect
set man
His famous
the primevalman.
saying:
man
was
"The
Way (Tao) which can be walked is not the
enduringand unchanging Way {Tao); the name
ging
is not the enduring and unchanthat can be named
Name," expresses his transcendentahsm.
For two hundred
years the teachingsof Lao-tze
undefined
life a somewhat
exerted upon
Chinese
influence.
At least a few under this influence had
sought through asceticism to return to primitive
holiness.
In the 4th. century b.c,
Chuang-tze,
_

85

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

abilitygreater than that of Lao-tze

a literary
and reinforced the philosophy
himself,advocated
He
held the punctilious
of the great founder.
Confucianists up to ridicule and sought to commend
the teachings of Lao-tze.
Chuang-tze possessed
of pure
philosophicthought than
greater power
Mith

other Chinese

writer.
relative.

AND

ETHICS

China, Religions of

rivalry to

Buddhism, which reverences

Buddha
under three aspects as past, present, and future.
San tsingis the god of contemplation. Yu Hwang
Shang-ti,"the preciousimperialgod," is worshiped
He controls
as the ruler of the physicaluniverse.
human
their
can
affairs; to him men
express
hopes and griefs. Magicians and alchemists have
added other deities. The earth is said to consist
of five constituent parts, metal, wood, water, fire,
and earth,which are respectively
representedin the
heavens by Venus, Jupiter,Mercury, Mars, Saturn.
These planets,which are regarded as the sublimated
of these earthlythings,are regardedas gods.
essences
Other stars are deified. The Great Bear comes
in
for a good degreeof worship,one
part of it being
thought to be the palace of a goddess, Tow-mu,
another part of the god Kwei-sing. The god of
thunder, the spiritof the sea, the mother of lightning,
the king of the sea, the lord of the tide,and
other spirits
able
are
worshiped. Spiritsinnumermany
which
preside over
possiblecallingare
every
also invoked.
In spiteof the fact that wealth and
ers,
honor are discountenanced
by the great Taoist writno
god is more
eagerlyworshiped than Tasi-shin,
the god of riches. In short,Taoism
has absorbed
into itself any
the
popular spiritor god whom

He held that all human

The
fundamental
most
distinctions of our
in the
thought crumble away
He thus sums
hght of nature.
up the whole duty of
man
: "Resolve
your mental energy into abstraction,
into inaction.
Allow yourself
your physicalenergy
fall in with the natural order of phenomena,
to
without
of self." The
admitting the element
logicaldeduction from this teaching was that all
would come
does nothing,an attitude
right,if man
that did not appeal to great numbers
of practical
Chinamen.
Chuahg-tze'sinfluence did, however,
attract
a
followingand by the next century the
efforts of the Taoists to live in accord with Nature
had led them to dabble in various doubtful arts in
the hope of discovering Nature's
hidden
secrets.
In particular,
Taoists had come
to believe that an
island in the Yellow
Sea produced a plant from
which the elixir of life could be made
elixir
an
which
would
immortality. The
great
procure
Tsin emperor, Shih Hwang-ti (221-209 B.C.),desiring
peopledesire to worship.
this elixir,
In the principal
Taoist temples are numerous.
patronized the Taoists,and, when
he persecutedthe Confucianists and destroyed their
hall of the temple stands an altar and a shrine.
In
the shrine is a venerable figurewith a long beard,
books, the Taoists were
spared. For the same
the Han emperor
Wu-ti (140-87 b.c.) was
with
folded
reflect the
features
reason
an
hands, whose
ardent supporter of the Taoists.
Under
the influence
calm of contemplation. Canton
in 1900 contained
of such
ideals the teachings of the great
in these
ten such temples. The
priestswho serve
thinkers,Lao-tze and Chuang-tze, while nominally
temples practiseexorcism, tell fortunes,and practise
revered, fell into the background. They were
chronomancy, i.e.,they tell what days and
understood
times
favorable
for
and
unfavorable
are
by few. The Taoists became
or
largely
any
of magicians.
monasteries
Taoist
a group
undertaking. While
every
Taoists and Confucianists were
survive to the
few of them
were
once
not, however,
numerous,
of the priestsnow
clearly
separated from one another until the 2nd.
present. Most
mingle freely
the efforts of
Under
the later Hans
in the common
lifeof their fellows.
century a.d.
the Confucianists
All this organizationof Taoism
is the result of
to purify the teachings of their
Master
from Taoist corruptions,combined
with a
native Chinese opposition to Buddhism, a foreign
growing self-consciousness of their own, as well as
religion. It has, however, never
appropriated the
imitation
of the recently introduced
Buddhistic hopes of a future life. Faithful to native
Buddhism,
with an organizationChinese
helped Taoism to become a real religion
tendencies, its arts and teachings are
confined to matters
the present life.
It possesseda pantheon,
which concern
wholly its own.
doctrines of sanctity,
it was
fostered
For
centuries
Taoists
have
secret
a system of ethics which
said would
lead to sanctity,and votaries,saints, societies. Sometimes
they have existed for the
of contemplation or for the cultivation of
hermits,teachers,and pupils. In 165 a.d, Chang
purpose
Sometimes
they
Tao-ling or Chang Ling, a man
regarded as a saint
mystic arts, such as exorcism.
times
Someand described as a miracle-worker,a distillerof the
have been organized for political
purposes.
been
ehxir of life,
those formed
have
for other reasons
an
exorcist,and a god-man, claimed
that Lao-tze had appearedto him and commissioned
diverted
to
agitation
politicalagitation. Such
him to become
ingly
usually has taken the form of opposition to the
patriarchof the Taoists. He accordingly,
assumed
this position,and his descendants
dynasty of the time. These societies have, accordhold it to the present day.
frequentlybeen prohibitedand broken up by
In rivalry
the government.
with Buddhism, Taoism soon
One of the latest of the societies
developed
and
the Boxers, which the late Empress Dowager,
a monastic
was
order,a system of temples,sacrifices,
hundred
Tsi Thsi, encouraged as a means
of ridding China
a
priesthood. In the last seventeen
of
vicissitudes.
of foreigners,
it has
thus precipitatingthe massacre
experienced various
years
the year 1900.
Under
the Ch'i dynasty (479-502) temples and
under
Buddhism
III. Chinese
Buddhism.
monasteries
constructed for them
(q.v.)had
were
the
Chin
had a historyof five hundred
dynasty
imperial patronage. Under
years in India before
The
first authentic
(5.56-580A.D.) their establishments were
destroyed its introduction into China.
reached
record that a knowledge of Buddhism
along witJi those of the Buddhists,while under the
China comes
from the reign of Wu-ti of the Han
was
great Tang dynasty (618-907 a.d.) Taoism
favored to such a degree that it is regarded by
dynasty (140-87 B.C.). During his reign the
Chinese penetrated to Tibet and the Caspian, and
the state religionof the Tangs. It was
some
as
also favored
by the Sung emperors
(906-1127), one of Wu-ti's generals,Chang-k'ien,reportedto the
but persecuted by the Kin dynasty (1127-1235). emperor
that he had heard that in India they
Their magic arts commended
them to the Mongols
Feu-to
(Buddha).
worshiped a divine person,
in Pamir
a
that under the Yuan
Another
so
dynasty (1260-1368) they
general, Hu Kui-ping, saw
adored.
who was
the last two
dynasties golden image of the same
again flourished. Under
person,
imperialfavor has varied with different sovereigns. Possibly missionaries also followed in the wake of
At the head
of the Taoist
the Chinese
pantheon stands
armies, for in 6 B.C. an ambassador
Lao-tze,who is worshiped under the titleSan tsing, of the Massagatae with the aid of a Chinese scholar
"The
three Pure
book into Chinese.
Ones"
title given him
in
translated a Buddhistic
a
any

perceptions are

"

"

"

China,Religions of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

official introduction
of Buddhism
into
The
China
dates,however, from the reign of Ming-ti,
The faith thus introduced
what is
58-86 A.D.
was
known
Buddhism.
It was
in many
as
Mahayama
nally
respects quite different from the simple faith origithat which
as well as from
taught by Gautama
is still perpetuated among
the southern Buddhists.
stillthat existence is an
Its fundamental
tenets were
to successive
evil, that individuals are doomed
reincarnations
until they become
sufficiently
fect
perto attain Nirvana
by losingtheir individuality
in Tag^thata, the substantial
hypostasis of the
universe,and that the way to attain this perfection
the Noble, Eight-Fold, Middle
But
Path.
was
to this simple faith many
thingshad been added.
The
lously
Buddha, it was
believed,had been miracuconceived
and
miraculously born without
As an infant he had
causing pain to his mother.
behaved
in a most miraculous way.
Daevas (theold
gods) had rejoicedat his birth; they had attended
him throughoutlife. Into the system of belief there
had
been
introduced
a
goddess, Abolokitesvara,
in China as Kwan-yin, and a divine being,
known
Amitabha, called by the Chinese Amita, or Mi-to.
belief in Boddhisattvas
The
was
already a part
and
faith in heaven
of it,as was
hell as places
different incarnations.
of temf"orary sojourn between

AND

ETHICS

86

strong protest against the whole

has been often quoted.
undertook
to
At different times Chinese emperors
check the spread of Buddhism
of perseby means
cution.
these for a time were
While
vigorously
pushed, in the end the religion
proved too strong to
be repressed.
Hindu
The
conception of the transmigrationof
souls has never
taken deep root in China.
Chinese
the other hand, have easily
on
gods and spirits,
been transformed into Buddhas
or
Boddhisattvas,
and the phrase "all the Buddhas"
has become
in
northern
Buddhism
almost
an
equivalent to "all
the spirits"
"all the gods." In addition to these,
or
Buddhism
two deities of northern
have won
a very
largeplace in the Chinese form of the faith. They
Amita
are
Kwin-yin and Mi-to (i.e.,
or
Amitabha).
Kwan-yin is the "goddess of mercy," who is believed
to descend
regularlyto hell to release spiritsbound
She is worshiped now
there.
by a ritual which
resembles a Christian liturgy. Indeed it
strikingly
is believed to have been borrowed
from Christianity.
It appears
to have reached China at the time of the
Tang dynasty in the 7th. century with Nestorianism,
and to have been adapted in the time of the Mings
in the 15th. century.
The other deity,Mi-to or Amitabha, is a kind
of Saviour
Buddha.
Originallyonly a form of
Buddha, he has become in the minds of the people
practicallya god. He is believed to control the
tsingtu, or "Pure Land," a Paradise supposed to
be situated in the West, to gain which assures
petual
perbliss. Gradually there has grown
the
up
doctrine that faith in Mi-to
combined
with the
will insure entrance
of his name
into this
repetition
Paradise.
Admission
Land"
tutes
constito that "Pure
salvation.
result of this doctrine
As
a
Chinese
Buddhists
will sit for hours repeating the
word
is supposed to contain
the
Mi-to, which
elixirof life,
which
and to contain the magic power
delivers from the circle of transmigration. It thus
happens that in China a religionof faith and of
of the name
of a Saviour has been
ritual repetitions
substituted
for the strenuous
ethical endeavor
which
constituted
taught by Gautama
primitive
Buddhism.
Chinese
have nothing to
who
While
there are
do with Buddhism, it may
truthfullybe said that
Buddhism
has penetrated the whole
of Chinese
life. There is no clearly marked
line of distinction
between
and those of the
the devotees of Buddhism
The
other religionsof China.
great majority of
the people are on friendlyterms with all three.
In
be
a
therefore,all China's millions may
sense,
Buddhism
counted as Buddhists.
has contributed
to Chinese thought an eschatologyand a conception
it calls its devotees to attain heaven
of the hereafter,
and escape hell by frequentinvocations of Buddhas
and
Boddhisattvas, together with fastings and
the leadingof a moral
and it encourages
pilgrimages,
the whole
and altruistic life. It has had on
an
elevatinginfluence on Chinese life.
George
A. Barton
The system of knighthood in the
CHIVALRY."
of feudalism
(10th.-14th.century) in which
age
aid
knightly honor was pledged to protect women,
the weak, and act magnanimously toward
a
quished
vanfoe. Chivalry was
recognized by the
ture
church from the time of the Crusades,the investielaborate church
of the knight including an
Han

Yu, wrote

procedure,which

This form of Buddhism

had developed in northand northwestern
India among
Scythians and
other tribes who
of
had come
into India by way
Parthian
enced
empire, and had been profoundlyinfluby ideas originallyforeignto it.
The progress of Buddhism
in China was
at first
slow.
While
it does not demand
that all who
it does hold that
accept it shall live a celibate life,
such a life is the most
perfect,and organizesmany
monasteries
and
nunneries.
withdrawal
of
The
people from active married life was
contrary to
Chinese ideals,
in which the duty of being economically
tain
productiveand of begettingchildren to maindue to ancestors
had
perpetuallythe reverence
for centuries been deeplyingrainedinto the national
consciousness.
Both
Confucianism
and
Taoism
and legal
(q.v.)were
ments
impediopposed to Buddhism
from
were
employed to prevent Chinese
than
two
turies
cenbecoming
monks.^ For more
after the introduction of Buddhism
the
orders were
monastic
kept alive by the influx of
After the beginning of the later
foreign monks.
Tsin dynasty in 265 a.d.
the opposing influences
weakened, and in 335 a.d. an imperialdecree permitted
the Chinese
orders.
to enter
the monastic
established
monasteries
in northern
were
Many
nine-tenths of the people had in a
China and soon
become
Buddhists.
ism,
sense
Buddhism, Confucianand Taoism
not mutually exclusive syswere
tems,
and the majority of the Chinese
have from
themselves
that time counted
members
of all
as
three faiths,so as to gain whatever
benefits each
can
bring. As neither Confucianism nor Taoism
held out a hope of a future life.
Buddhism
supplied
at this point a real lack.
Although the imperial
favor wavered, one
favoringConfucianism
emperor
at the expense
of Buddhism, another Taoism, and
another veering again to Buddhism, and although
the same
emperor would at times veer from one faith
to another, Buddhist
monks
multiplied rapidly
and
began to make
pilgrimages to India. In
.526 A.D.
cessor
Buddhidharma, the twenty-eighth sucof Gautama, and the first of the Buddhist
ceremony.
from
India to China, arrived
patriarchsto come
and from that time China became
the seat of the
of the self by which a
CHOICE."
That power
Buddhistic patriarchate. In 819 a.d. Hsien Tsung,
of action,
selection is made
from alternative courses
of the Tang dynasty, sent commissioners
tive
to escort a
things,or ends, and involvinga comparison of relaChoice
the selection
values.
is ethical when
to the capital. Great
supposed bone of the Buddha
reverence
was
paid to the relic. A Confucianist, involves a moral evaluation of the alternatives.
em

87

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Christian Science

services
CHOIR.
In most well-ordered religious
of the ancient world the people responded to the
trained
priestsin the chanting of litanies,
or
a
choir
(chorus) of singers followed a leader or
alternatelychanted psalms. The early Christian
Church
continued
modified synagogue
service of
a
psalm chanting. After the 4th. century, especially
in monasteries,we hear of choirs (schola cantarum),
who
occupied a prominent place in church, which
place is also called choir (from chorus or corona
or
chancel),the chorus forming a circle about the
altar,separated from the people by a railing.
J. N. Reagan
CHRISM.
(1)An unguent made of oUve oil and
balm
used as an
anointing substance in the Or.
and R.C. churches at baptism,confirmation,
ordination
and consecration services.
Consecration of the
chrism is performed by a bishop on Maundy
day.
Thursused for the
(2) A designation sometimes
olive oil employed in the administration
of extreme

the Congo in Africa,the West Indies,and in three

countries in South
America.
The
latest mission
260 foreignmissionaries,
reportsshow some
many
of whom
are
lay workers, engaged throughout
this mission field,
with a native communicant
body
of about
The
7,000, and 450 native workers.
Alliance puts unusual emphasis upon
conventions,
and local,regular,and occasional
national,district,
the means
of promoting its evangehstic and
as
missionaryinterests. Leaders in the Alliance have
been
not
especiallyprominent in the modern
interdenominational and rehgious movement.
James
L. Barton
CHRISTIAN
CATHOLIC
CHURCH
IN ZION.
A rehgious body organized in 1896 by John
Alexander
Dowie, laying stress on faith-healing,
abstinence from pork and tobacco, and cultivating
life. The
a
sect
strong religiouscommunity
is
located at Zion City, 111.

unction.

CHRISTIAN
CONNECTION."
A
of
group
Christians organizedby James O'Kelly (1735-1826)
in North Carolina with tenets similar to those of the
Disciplesof Christ (q.v.).

"

"

CHRISMON.
first two
appears

on

A
formed
of the
monogram
letters of the Greek
word, Christos. It
the tombs of some
of the earlyChristians.

CHRIST.

"

"

See Jesus

CHRISTIAN
PEOPLES'
SOCIETY
Societies.

Christ; Messiah.

CHRISTADELPHIANS."
A
founded
in
sect
1848 by John
Thomas, the tenets of which are
millenarianism,conditional immortality,anti-trinitarianism,and churches with neither organization
nor

ministry. Membership

(1919),2,922.

CHRISTENDOM."
That
part of the world
which Christianity is the dominant
reUgion.

"

in

CHRISTENING."

The
of Christian
ceremony
the ceremony
when an infant is
baptism, specifically
baptized and named.
CHRISTIAN.
Ideallya person possessedof the
moral and religious
character of Jesus Christ. In
ordinary usage, however, the term is used to denote
more
even
a professedfollower of Christ or
loosely
who
is associated with a Christian group
one
or
Mohammedan.
not a Jew, pagan
or
nation; i.e.,
CHRISTIAN
AND
MISSIONARY
ALLIANCE.
A religiousmovement
which
has as its founder
and
president Albert B. Simpson. In 1879 the
International Missionary Alliance and the Christian
Alliance were
separatelyincorporated. Later these
two societies united in the Christian and Missionary
headauarters
in the
Alliance.
The
national
are
44th Street,New
tabernacle at 8th Avenue
ana
the Hudson,
York, and at Nyack Heights upon
where is established the Nyack MissionaryInstitute,
the educational
of the Alliance and
the
center
of its leaders.
It mainofficial residence of many
tains
and orphanYork City various homes
in New
ages
and
also a training college. Membership,

9,625 (1919).
Doctrinal
rehgious doctrines
position. The
especially
prominent in the Alliance and upon which
it puts constant
emphasis are Gospel Evangelism,
Personal
Heahng, Baptism by
Holiness, Divine
Immersion, the Second Coming of Christ,and the
and persons
Extension
of Christianityto all races
with
the purpose
of offeringsalvation to every
nation and individual in this generation.
In 1887 at a convention
at
Foreign missions.
Old Orchard, Maine, the AlUance
announced
its
foreign mission policy. Since that date missions
have been begun in Palestine,three provinces in
India, six provincesin China, on the border of Tibet,
Aunam, Japan, PhilippineIslands,the Soudan, and
"

"

OF."

YOUNG

See Young

Peoples'

CHRISTIAN
SOCIETY
FOR
KNOWLEDGE,
PROMOTING."
A
the
society operated by
Church
of England to publishand distribute Bibles,
Christian literature and tracts.
It dates from 1698,
and has been a great missionary agency
in publishing
books in various languages.
CHRISTIAN
REFORM
CHURCH."
A body
consistingof secessions from the Dutch Reformed
Church
1882.
Its
(q. v.) in 1822, 1857 and
strongestschools are in western Michigan.
CHRISTIAN

"

"

ENDEAVOR,

SCIENCE."

scientific system

of

metaphysical or spiritual
healing,discovered by
Mary Baker Eddy in the year 1866. Christian

Science is so called because of its exact and scientific

nature.
It implies a correct
and
demonstrable
knowledge of God; a systematizedand formulated
knowledge of the divine Principleof being, which
be apphed spiritually,
since God
is infinite
must
Spirit. It is Christian because it explains and
unfolds the teachings of Jesus, whose
knowledge
and apprehension of God
have been scientifically
must
correct, hence the teachings of Jesus are at
Christian and scientific.
once
I. Discoverer
Founder.
and
Mary Baker
of Christian
Eddy, the Discoverer and Founder
Science,a gentlewoman of culture and refinement,
born at Bow, near
was
Concord, New Hampshire,
in 1821.
She was
of English and Scotch descent.
Her ancestry was
marked
by sturdy devotion to
Protestant
libertyand deep rehgious tendencies.
Her mother
was
especiallydevout and spiritually
minded.
relatives were
Her immediate
prosperous
people of local prominence. She received a liberal
favorite
Her
tutors.
education, mainly under
studies were
natural philosophy,logic and moral
She was
science.
instructed in Hebrew, Latin,and
Greek
by her brother, a graduate of Dartmouth
made
an
honorary
College. In 1903 she was
tion.
Revolumember
of the Daughters of the American
ethical and moral
She was
a fluent writer on
subjectsand for a time earned her liveUhood through
and other
contributions to newspapers
her literary
"

periodicals.
As a child Mrs. Eddy took an unusual interest
in religious
subjectsand at the age of twelve she
in
recovered
illness by turning to God
from
an

Christian

Science

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

At an
admitted
church
to
early age she was
membership in the Congregational Church
tarian). church
(Trini-

AND

ETHICS

88

voluntary religiousassociation. The

and is known
The
organized was
as
Her parents had been members
of Christ,Scientist,
of that
in Boston, Massachusetts,
it is more
or
as
nection
body for about fortyyears and she retained her confrequently called,The
Church.
therewith
until the first Christian Science
Mother
The headquarters of this church
church
founded.
established in Boston, where they continue at
As
was
she
were
a
woman
young
further developed and
afterward
the present time.
maintained
The organizationof the church
an
intense interest in religious
and metaphysical subjects, and formation
of its By-Laws were
directlyunder
the supervision of Mrs.
causation.
and
includingmental and spiritual
Eddy;
today the
Church
In February 1866 she sustained an injurywhich
Manual, as given by her, is the accepted
and duly recognized constitution and law of The
was
pronounced fatal by her physician. In her
Mother
Church.
extremity she turned to God, called for her Bible
and opening it at the ninth chapter of Matthew,
IV. The
Tenets
Christian
op
the
Science
she read the account
Church.
of Jesus' healing of the man
The reUgioustenets of Christian Science,
sick of the palsy. The
clear realization of the
as formulated
by Mrs. Eddy, are as follows:
1. As adherents
of Truth, we
take the inspired
healingpower of the Christ came to her at that time
Word of the Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal
with such illumination
and
conviction
that she
Life.
arose, dressed herself and walked into the adjoining
2. We acknowledgeand adore one
and
having disappeared.
room, every trace of her injury
supreme
infinite God.
After this experience she retired from society for
We
acknowledge His Son, one
about three years, during which
Christ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; and
period she read
littlebut the Bible and finally
in God's image and likeness.
man
a complete revelation
of the Science of the teachings of Christ Jesus
3. We
acknowledge God's forgivenessof sin in
the destruction of sin and the spiritual
unfolded to her and she began to teach and practice
understanding
prayer.

as

thus
First Church

"

this Science for herself and others.

II. Textbook.
The
Christian Science textbook,
Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures,
written by Mary Baker Eddy during the years
was
immediately followingher discovery. It was first
publishedin 1875 and was revised by the author at
various times until 1910 when
the latest change
This book contains the complete statemade.
ment
was
of Christian Science,definingits Principleand
rules,with the elucidation thereof. The prayerful
study of this book has not only healed thousands
of its readers, but it has enabled
them
to heal
others and so made
it possiblefor them
to fulfill
the command
of Christ Jesus to "heal the sick."
Health
Science and
with
Key to the Scriptures
acknowledges only one God and that the All-good.
It shows Christ Jesus to be the Way-shower, who
be followed in every
must
act of Ufe if one
is to
merit the name
of Christian. It awakens
each
student
of its pages
to the awful and deceptive
of sin and of all evil. From
nature
to cover
cover
it stands for God and His laws; and all those who
love this book are turned to a more
appreciative,
consecrated,and intelligent
study of the Bible. It
contains
eighteen chapters, with the following
and Eucharist;
headings: I. Prayer; II. Atonement
III. Marriage; IV.
Christian Science
versus
Spiritualism;V. Animal
Magnetism Unmasked;
VI. Science,Theology, Medicine; VII. Physiology;
VIII. Footsteps of Truth; IX. Creation;X. Science
of Being; XI. Some
Objections Answered;
Science Practice; XIII. Teaching
XII. Christian
Christian Science;XIV. Recapitulation;
XV. Genesis;
XVI.
The
Apocalypse; XVII.
Glossary;
XVIII.
Fruitage.
The
complete list of the published writings of
Mary Baker Eddy is as follows: Science and Health
vnth Key to the Scriptures;
The People'sIdea of
God
spection
(1886); Christian Healing (1886); Retroand Introspection(1891); Unity of Good
(1891); Rudimental Divine Science (1891); No and
Fes (1891); Church Manual
(1895); Miscellaneous
Writings(1883-1896); Christ and Christmas (1897);
Christian Science versus
Pantheism
(1898); Pulpit
and Press (1895); Messages to The Mother
Church
(1900, 1901, 1902); Poems
(1910); The First
Church of Christ,Scientist,
and Miscellany (1913).
These works may
be found at all Christian Science
and at most
Public Libraries.
Reading Rooms
III. Church
first ChrisThe
Organization.
tian Science church was
founded
by Mrs. Eddy in
1879 and was
given a charter by the Commonwealth
In 1892 she reorganizedher
of Massachusetts.
"

"

that casts out evil as unreal.

But the belief in
sin is punished so long as the belieflasts.
the
as
_4.We acknowledge Jesus' atonement
evidence of divine,efficacious Love, unfoldingman's
unity with God through Christ Jesus the Wayis saved
shower; and we acknowledge that man
through Christ,through Truth, Life,and Love as
demonstrated by the Galilean Prophet in healing
the sick and overcoming sin and death.
5. We acknowledgethat the crucifixion of Jesus
and his resurrection served to upliftfaith to understand
eternal Life,even
the allness of Soul,Spirit,
and the nothingness of matter.
6. And we solemnly promise to watch, and pray
for that Mind
also in Christ
to be in us which
was
Jesus; to do unto others as we would have them
do unto us; and to be merciful,just,and pure.
Mary Baker Eddy
The
Mother
Church
has, at
_V. Branches.
this date, 1920, upwards
of eighteen hundred
branch
churches
societies. These
and
branches
have their own
democratic
forms of government,
Church
subject to such By-Laws of The Mother
churches
as
are
applicable thereto. These
are
formed
by loyal Christian Scientists in their own
and conform
to the requirements of the
locaHties,
laws of the states in which
they are organized.
The formingof a branch church in its own
locality
does not constitute it a branch
of The
Mother
Church.
After churches are formed
in accordance
with the state laws and the directions given in the
Church
Mother
Manual, they must be recognized
by The Mother Church before they become branches
thereof.
The
affairs of The
Mother
Church
are
administered
by its Board of Directors, which
according to the laws of Massachusetts is a body
of holding property,
corporate, for the purpose
"

receivinggrants, bequests,etc.
VI. Church
conducted

The
Sunday services
and
Second
Reader,
Such services consist
usuallya man
of Scripturalreading, prayer, and the singing of
hymns, followed by the reading of the Lessonis
Lesson-Sermon
Sermon
The
by the Readers.
composed of Christian
prepared by a Committee
and
it consists of selections from the
Scientists,
from the Christian
Bible,with correlative passages
Science textbook, Science and Health with Key to
issued
are
the Scriptures. These Lesson-Sermons
Science
Publishing
Christian
quarterly by The
of service is followed
form
same
Society. The
used in all Christian
Lesson-Sermon
and the same
Science churches throughout the world.
are

Services.
First
a
and a woman.
"

by

DICTIONARY

89

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Christian Science

The
midweek
of Education
services consist of testimonial
of The
or
Mother
by the Board
form
to
classes and
Church, authorizing them
meetings held each Wednesday evening. At these
take pupilsin Christian Science.
relative
of
meetings there is reading from the Bible and corOnly one class,
from the textbook,also prayer and
not more
than thirtypupils,is taught yearlyby
passages
monies
each teacher.
singingof hymns, followed by the giving of testiof the congregationof healing
f) Practitioners. There
by members
are
upwards of six
thousand
of Christian Science in this
from sickness and sin.
practitioners
and other countries,who
in connection
devote their entire time
Sunday Schools are conducted
Church
with The Mother
and all branch churches, to the healingof disease and sin. They are usually
those who
have taken instruction from authorized
where pupilsare received up to twenty years of age
teachers and are qualified
to do the healing work.
and instructed in the simplermeanings of the truth
concerning Christian Science.
They are authorized to make a charge for their
services equal to that of reputable physicians
service is observed
Communion
in the branch
in
churches semi-annually,but no communion
their respective localities. A
service
classifieddirectory
Church.
of Christian Science teachers, practitionersand
Mother
is held in The
Bread
and wine
not used, the only outward
are
being nurses is published in The Christian Science Journal.
ceremony
Christian
Science
the kneelingof the congregationin self-examination,
g) The
Publishing Society,
with God
and prayer.
silent communion
We read
operating under a deed of trust granted by Mrs.
"Our
under
the provisionsof the
in Science and Health:
eth
bread, 'which ComEddy and conducted
from heaven,' is Truth.
down
Our cup is the
By-Laws, publishes the current literature of The
wine
Our
the inspirationof Love, the
Mother
The followingare the periodicals
Church.
cross.
drank
which it issues: (1) The Christian Science Journal,
and
commended
to
draught our Master
his followers." "It is the livingChrist,the practical a monthly pubUcation ; (2) Christian Science Sentinel,
Jesus 'the resurrection and
Herold der Christian
a weekly publication; (3) Der
Truth, which makes
follow him in deed.
in German; (4) Le
the life'to all who
Science,a monthly publication,
Obeying
Heraut de Christian Science,a monthly publication,
his precious
precepts, followinghis demonstration
in French; (5) The Christian Science Monitor, a
shall
at last we
far as we apprehend it,
so
with
ing
him, in a full understand(6) The Christian Science Quarterly,
dailynewspaper;
rest, sit down
for use
in
of the divine Principlewhich
containing the Lesson-Sermons
triumphs over
Christian Science churches and societies and issued
death"
(pp.35, 31).
"

"

"

"

....

Mother
Officers
The
Church
The
of
tian
follows: The Pastor Emeritus; The Chrisof Directors; President; First
Science Board
Reader; Clerk; and Treasurer.
Reader; Second
nance
The Christian Science Board of Directors,in consowith a By-Law of the Church Manual, is a selfperpetuatingbody, which elects the other officers
annually,with the exceptionof the Readers, who are
elected by the Directors for a term of three years.
Mother
Church
The financialsupportof The
from its Publishing
Society,as the result of
comes
of the
to the pubUcations
sales of and subscriptions
Church; also from a per capita tax of one dollar
tions
and from voluntary contribu($1.00) per annum,
from its membership.
(A By-Law prohibits
the numbering of the membership for publication,
of Christian
statistics regardingthe number
so that no
VII.

are

as

Scientists are available.)

^The By-Laws proActivities.
VIII. Church
vide
for:
a) A Board of Education,under whose direction
to become
pupils are instructed and authorized
number
The
of
Science.
of Christian
teachers
class
Normal
teachers prepared is limited to one
in three years.
of thirtypupilstaught once
"

numbering
of Lectureship,now
b) A Board
twenty-three members, who deliver free lectures
under
the
Science
the subject of Christian
on
Church
and of the branch
auspicesof The Mother
These lectures
throughout the world.
organizations
of correctingmisapprehensions
are for the purpose
in regard to Christian Science and for presenting
of its fundamental teachings.
some
quarters
Committee
on
Publication,with headc) A
in Boston, has
representativesin all
and
large cities where Christian Science is known
is to
practiced. The duty of these committees
impositionson the
correct,in a Christian manner,
public,in regard to Christian Science,which may
in the dailypress or in circulated literature of
appear
any

sort.

tian
authorized Chrisbe read or purchased,
literature may
are
to the generalpublic and are maintained
open
by all Christian Science churches.
e) Teachers of Christian Science are those who
have been granted certificates
either by Mrs. Eddy

d) Free Reading Rooms, where

Science

quarterly.
Christian Science Benevolent
tion
Associainstituted and is maintained
by Christian
Scientists under the generaldirection of The Mother
Church.
Its property is situated in Brookline,.
at
Massachusetts, and
present consists of an
administration
buildingand two dormitories. It
accommodate
hundred
and forty
about one
can
now
guests. The object of this institution is to receive
Christian
the sick and injured among
Scientists,
who come
for restoration to health and for recuperation;
and
also for the instruction
training of
in the proper
(who are Christian Scientists)
nurses
of the sick.
care
Terms.
IX. Important
Following is a list
of some
of the important terms used in the exposition
of Christian Science.
Animal
magnetism as understood in Christian
action of erroneous
Science represents the mesmeric
belief. Christian Science is the very antipode of
mesmerism, hypnotism, mental suggestion,or any
Animal
of the allied occult or esoteric influences.
and represents
for all evil,
magnetism isthe synonym
beliefs and false concepts of humanity,
the erroneous
individuallyand collectively."Animal magnetism
is the voluntary
or
involuntary action of error in
all its forms; it is the human
antipode of divine

h) The
was

"

Science."
(Scienceand Health,p. 484.)
tian
Atonem"nt.
Atonement
as understood in ChrisScience is defined by Mrs. Eddy in Science and
is the exemphficaHealth as follows: "Atonement
cation of man's unity with God, whereby man
It
Love.
reflects divine Truth, Life, and
to reconcile man
therefore Christ's purpose
was
and Truth
are
God
Love
to God, not
to man.
with God's image and likeness. Man
not at war
exceed divine Love, and so atone for himself.
cannot
to error, for
reconcile Truth
Christ cannot
Even
irreconcilable. Jesus aided
Truth
and
are
error
"

in

truer
a
to God
by giving man
reconcilingman
ings,
of Love, the divine Principleof Jesus' teach-

sense

redeems
of Love
man
and this truer sense
from the law of matter, sin and death,by the law
(pp. 18-19).
of Spirit,"the law of divine Love"
in
Baptism. There is no baptismal ceremony
sidered
Baptism is conScience Church.
the Christian
by Christian Scientiststo be the spiritual
"

Christiad

Science

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

90

mind"
Paul's "carnal
and
crates
"fleshlymind," that
experience of each individual,in which he conseof thought and
which seems
to be but which has no real or substantial
himself,through purification
existence.
deed, to God's service and makes daily progress in
It is defined in Science
his journey heavenward.
Prayer. Christian Science teaches its adherents
Rule and, in so doing, to obey
to obey the Golden
and Health as follows: "Our baptism is a purification
mergence the laws of God and of the land.
Christian Scien"Purification by Spirit;subtists
from all error."
endeavor
to live in accordance
with the injuncin Spirit." "The
baptism of Spirit,
tion
of Paul to "pray without
ceasing" and they
washing the body of all the impuritiesof flesh,
know
that they have prayed arightin proportion as
God
and are
in heart see
that the pure
signifies
their prayers
answered.
The first chapter in
Life and its demonstration"
are
approaching spiritual
Science and
Health is devoted
to the subject of
(pp.35, 581, 241).
Christ. Brieflystated,as taught in Christian
prayer and is preceded by the words of Christ Jesus
in Mark
and Matt.
The
"The
divine manifestation
11:23-24
6:8.
chapter
Science,Christ means,
follows:
"The
that reforms
the
of God, which comes
as
to the flesh to destroyincarnate
opens
prayer
sinner
and
the
sick
is
absolute
God's spiritual,
eternal
heals
faith that all
"Christ expresses
error."
an
with Messiah,
The name
is synonymous
nature.
a spiritual
thingsare possibleto God
understanding
unselfed love."
which is taught,illustrated, of Him, an
and alludes to the spiritualitj^
Later, on the same
in the life of which
and
demonstrated
"Thoughts unspoken
page, are found these words:
embodiment."
to the divine Mind.
Desire is
Christ
Jesus
the
was
(Science are not unknown
from trusting God
and no loss can
with the
occur
and Health,pp. 583, 333.) "In accordance
prayer;
with our
be moulded
and
Christian Science textbooks, the Bible, and Science
desires,that they may
exalted before they take form
in words
and
in
Health with
and
Key to the Scriptures,^and in
deeds."
accord with all of Mrs. Eddy's teachings,members
(Scienceand Health,p. 1.)
shall neither entertain a belief nor
of this Church
(For further meanings of ethical and religious
in Christian
used
Science
terms
consult
the
that
than one
as
Christ,even
signifya belief in more
Christ whereof the Scripture beareth
testimony." writingsof Mary Baker Eddy, with Concordances,
in Christian Science Reading Rooms
and in public
(ChurchManual, p. 42.)
in
Christian
understood
Error.
Error
libraries.)
as
In Miscellaneous
Writings (p. 21) Mrs. Eddy
Science is a belief in that which is untrue, or the
"As
the
advance
in spirituality,
state of consciousness
of one
holding to such belief; writes:
ages
Christian Science will be seen
to depart from
the
that which appears
to be but is not; a departure
in no wise
from that which
is true.
"Error is a supposition trend of other Christian denominations
that pleasureand pain,that intelligence,
substance, except by increase of spirituality."
The
Christian Science
Board
Directors
existent in matter.
op
Error is neither Mind
are
life,
"

"

"

"

"

"

nor

faculties. Error is the contradiction

of Mind's
Error is a belief without understanding.
of Truth.
It is
Error is unreal because
untrue.
which
is not."
to be and
seemeth
(Science

one

CHRISTIAN
SOCIALISM."
The effort to combine
the fundamental
aims of Socialism with the
that
reUgious and .ethical convictions of Christianity.
It was
inevitable that so powerful a spiritual
and Health,p. 472.)
Socialism
modern
would
movement
God.
as
react
The teaching of Christian Science always
on
absolute and invariable premise
Christianityand produce individuals and movements
starts from the one
these
of
of the omnipresence, omnipotence, omniscience
supporting or
opposing it. But
reactions have varied widely.
the one
and it renounces
all that
and only GOD,
Where
the conservative
is contrary thereto
European Churches,
as
evil, powerless, untrue.
Catholic or
the religious
God
is defined in Science and
Health (p. 587), as
Protestant, dominate
follows: "The
the all-knowing,allsituation.Socialism has been anti-clerical and in
great I AM;
and
the Churches
have
all-wise,all-lovingand eternal; the main anti-religious,
seeing,all-acting,
opposed it as godless,destructive,and immoral.
Principle; Mind;
Soul; Spirit: Life; Truth;
Their
from
to protect the masses
concern
was
Love; all substance; intelligence.
Socialist influences.
But no
tian
one
can
successfully
Healing. The great difference between ChrisSociaUsm
the working classes without
Science and other religions
is that Christian
oppose
among
for
Scientists rely entirelyupon
assentingto most of its criticism of the capitalistic
spiritualmeans
social order
and
outbidding its practical
healingthe sick and sorrowing,as well as the sinful.
sincere religious
but is divinely organizing efforts. Strong and
This
healing is not miraculous
such as the Catholic Bishop Ketteler
appears personalities,
natural.
Disease, being a mental
concept, disand
court
the Protestant
with the introduction
of spiritualtruth
chaplain Stoecker in
de Mun
and Marc
and its activities in the thought of the individual, Germany, and Count
Sagnier in
the competitive selfishness of
and this is the result of the teaching and practice France, condemned
of Christ and demanded
of our
Master as taught in the Scriptures.
a
capitalismin the name
Powerful
antisolidaristic social order.
Christian Science teaches that heaven
Heaven.
more
of workingmen, and
is not a localityand is not limited to experiences socialistorganizations
even
thus created under religious
On
the contrary, Christian
political
beyond the grave.
partieswere
and
radical
combined
Science accepts the teaching of Jesus, that "the
leadership.They have
medieval
and
with
conservative
modern
aims
kingdom of God is within you." The definition of
interests and ideals. Socialists regard this kind of
heaven,in /Scienceand Health (p.587) is: "Harmony;
"Christian Socialism" with hostility,
the reign of Spirit;government
ple;
believingthat
by divine Princiits main aim is to protect the church rather than
spirituahty;bUss; the atmosphere of Soul."
Hell is defined in Science and Health (p.588),as:
to free the people.
"Mortal
In Great
Britain, Switzerland, America, and
belief; error; lust; remorse;
hatred;
French
Socialism,
Protestants, Christian
sin; sickness;death; sufferingand self- among
revenge;
effects of sin; being frankly democratic, does not seek to hinder
destruction; self-imposed agony;
"
but to propagate its ideas
of Sociahsm
that which 'worketh abomination
the progress
or maketh
a lie.'
victions
within
Mortal
the Church.
mind.
A
used
term
Sharing the essential conby Christian
of Christianityand
Socialism,Christian
"the flesh opposed to Spirit,
Scientists to mean
mediators
act as
the human
mind
Socialists can
and evil in contradistinction
to
interpretersand
The early "Christian SociaUst"
the two.
the divine Mind, or Truth and good" (Scienceand
between
of F. D.
formed in 1848 under the leadership
114). It is regarded as equivalentto
Health,
group,
"

"

"

"

p.

91

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Maurice, Charles Kingsley and J. M. Ludlow, is

Since 1880 the "Guild of St. Matthew"
well known.
Social Union"
in the Church
and the "Christian
of
of England, and nearly all the wider movements
in
have proved that Christianity
the Free Churches
Great Britain has been deeply affected by Christian
have had no organized
Socialism.
In America
we
of equal popular strength, but
the
movements
religious
spread of diluted Socialist ideas among
of the most
fruitful religious
leaders has been one
influences of the last forty years.
The phrase "Christian SociaUsm"
was
formerly
used in a loose way
to designateany
radical social
selves
sympathies. To-day those who apply it to themindicate that they accept at least the substance
of the Socialist platform. But
Christian
echo of orthodox Socialism.
Socialism is not a mere
Its Christian spirit
ness.
creates a distinctive consciousof Socialism.
It is a pecuhar genus
The
Christian sense
of the sanctityof lifeand personality
and of the essential equalityof men
re-enforces the
SociaUst condemnation
of the present social order.
The religiousbelief in the fatherhood of God, in
the fraternal solidarity
of men, and in the ultimate
social redemption of the race through Christ lends
to the Socialist ideals.
reUgiousqualities
the followingpoints it is in conscious
At
antagonism against tendencies prevailingwithin
the Socialist movement:
(1) It sets a positive
religiousfaith against the materialistic philosophy
SociaUsm
which
has inherited from its European
beginnings. (2) It believes in the value and social
of the churches.
possibiUties
(3) It lays stress on
factor in the salvation
as
a
religiousregeneration
of society. (4) It accepts "economic
determinism"
but asserts the
as
a chief factor in social evolution,
forces.
of spiritual
realityand independent power
(5)It recognizesthe influence of social environment,
of the individual.
but stillasserts the moral responsibility
(6) It stands for the sanctityof the family
and the radical Christian attitude on the question
Walter
Rauschenbusch
of mtoxicants.
An association
UNION."
CHRISTIAN
SOCIAL
of Christian Socialists organized in England in 1889
Scott
under the leadershipof Bishop Gore, Canon
the
Holland, and others, aiming to: (1) secure
authority of Christian law in social matters; (2)
study the applicationof Christian ideals to current
social and economic
problems; (3) hold up Jesus
and the master
of social wrong,
Christ as the enemy
of love and righteousness.
CHRISTIAN

UNION"

See Union, CmjRCH.

CHURCHES
UNION
CHRISTIAN
rately
(more accuOF CHRIST
CHURCHES
INDEPENDENT
tional
interdenominaAn
CHRISTIAN
IN
UNION)."
body organized in the U.S. in 1863 primarily
the
or
to protest against the preaching of politics
ship
emphasizing of doctrinal differences. Member-

13,692 (1919).
The
CHURCH
YEAR."
CHRISTIAN
YEAR
or
celebrations to be observed in
calendar of religious
the Christian church.
Catholic and Anglican churches
In the Roman
the year begins with the first Sunday in Advent,
which
is so dated as to give four Advent
Sundays
calendar
festivals are
before
Christmas.
Other
Epiphany, Easter,Ascension Day, and Whitsunday,
the various Sundays being numbered
according to
of these Sundays.
their distance l"efore or after one
is the
The
CHRISTIANITY."
religionwhich
outgrowth of the life and work of Jesus Christ and
centers

about his personaUty.

AND

ETHICS

Christianityas
teachings and

Christianity

religion is

institutions. It

than

more

is

its

reUgious-

historical movement
from
which
teachings and
institutions have
emerged in group
life,i.e.,the
churches.
As a religion
it illustrates the structural
laws which
condition
all religiousdevelopment
generally. It did not begin as a completed system
of doctrines,or a thoroughlystandardized
body of
practices,but in a group
confessingfaith in its
Founder.
What
it is has been developed from what
it was, and this process
is stiU in progress.
Not
Buddhism
shows a largervarietyof form than
even
does Christianity,the religionwhich
has become
the dominant religion
in Europe, the two Americas,
and
Australasia,and is markedly extending its
influence in both Asia and Africa.
I. History.
pendent
inde1. Historical Origins. Christianity
as
an
religionhad its rise in the group of Jews
who
in the second
quarter of the Christian era
that is,as
as
accepted Jesus of Nazareth
Christj^
the one
God had empowered by His resident
whom
spiritto become the savior of His people and the
estabhsher of His kingdom (see Jesus
Christ).
This definition illustrates how
thoroughlyJewish
the movement
in its original
was
stages. So far
know
to be found among
as
we
only Jews were
the immediate
followers of Jesus.
They accepted
him
fulfiU their national
the one
who
would
as
reUgioushopes. After his death they preached
his resurrection
abandoning the
and, without
worship of the temple or the customs of pious Jews
of their day, awaited
his return
from heaven
for
the establishment
of the messianic kingdom.
In the
meantime
to live according to the
they undertook
Thus this early
teachingwhich he had given them.
of the hopes and
perpetuated not only many
group
practicesof their Jewish contemporaries and their
Hebrew
progenitors,
but,unconsciously, also elements
of earlier Semitic religions
which had been absorbed
(seeKingdom
of God;
Messiah).
by the Hebrews
Yet it would be a mistake to thmk
of primitive
Christianityas a form of religioussyncretism.
Various similaritieswhich
have been pointedout
between
the early Christian
hopes and those of
other nations are not independent elements appropriated
and
combined
in a system.
They are
rather the fruitageof the complex religiouslife
from
which
the Jewish
life of the 1st.
religious
The
not
century sprang.
early Christians were
conscious of any form of syncretism. It is doubtful
whether
they even knew the historical pedigree
of their most
characteristic hope. The significant
fact is not
the conceptions which
they used to
the value of Jesus,but rather that in the
express
midst of a definite historical situation they recognized
Jesus as more
than a prophet, as the divinely
That
endued
Savior.
current
they should use
inevitable.
conceptions in such an evaluation was
The precisecontent
of their messianic conception,
ity,
while not without great influence in later Christianin many
turned out to be less significant
particulars
than the fact that through it the early
Christians made
Jesus central in their reUgiousUfe.
This simple Jewish evaluation of Jesus as Christ
almost
was
immediately supplemented by other
reUgiousconceptionswhich came not from Hebrew
of those who
but from
life. The
Greek
group
acceptedJesus as Christ soon became propagandists
non-Jewish
people. Of these propagandists
among
know
little or nothing, except of Paul and his
we
associates.
immediate
Western
Christianity is
to
largelythe outgrowth of his activity. Thanks
his preaching,the cities on the northern coast of the
contained groups of Christians
Mediterranean
soon
Jewish and
who
not predominantly Jewish.
were
had
Gentile Christians believed that Jesus who
"

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Christianity

DICTIONARY

OF

been put to death, and

had gone to heaven

would
of the world and saviour
of those who acknowledged him as their Lord.
For
modern
the early Greek, as for some
Christians,
literalness carried no intellectual difficulties. But
time passed and Jesus did not return, confidence
as
fulfillment of the hope weakened,
in the immediate
marked
and the tendency became
to expect the
parousia in a general way and to center attention
of men
the rescue
from the power
of death.
upon
Thus by the end of the 1st. century these Christian
churches seem
to have lost to a very conor
siderable
groups
the expectationsof an
imminent
extent
and
have
to
given themselves to a practical
return,
and philosophical
explanationof that faith and hope
which the gospelof the risen Christ,the Son of God,
soon

return

as

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

Christians. These
synods attempted to
correctly in current
philosophical and
of their inherited
religiousterms the significance
of

blies

conqueror

92

express

faith.

efforts gave rise to endless controversy

the theologiansof the two great
cities of Antioch
and Alexandria, but resulted in
ecumenical, i.e.,catholic dogma concerning God
and Christ.
has been
(5) Catholic Christianity
commonly
considered a process of Hellenizing
the earher beliefs.
It might with equal justicebe described
the
as
result of the Christianizing
of Hellenism.
The
however
inevitable as men
described,was
process,
possessed of the civilizationof Greece and Rome
undertook
co-ordinate
their faith with
to
their
culture.
seek to modify
They did not consciously
their inherited faith but rather to seek effective
provided.
of the original
How
far this group
born of ecoformulas of those who
movement
interpretation
was
nomic
is not easy to state with
accepted Jesus as the Christ and expected him to
protest and purposes
That Christians were
return
to do his Messianic
work.
ready to share their
Theological
accuracy.
clear from the
development, which began in the middle of the
possessionswith each other seems
with
of Acts
the
of
2nd.
account
defense
century
originalconfessions
(2:44,45; 4:34, 35), but such
of faith, preserved intact and
without
serious
was
charity rather than economic
munism.
comgenerosity
There is no evidence that the primitive modification the ancient formulas
which we
know
firstin the old Roman
Christians ever
attempted or taught the reorganizasymbol, the main ancestor of
tion
the Apostles'Creed (q.v.).
of the economic
life. Their sense
of the imminence
of the return of the Messiah
made
economic
(6) The growing regard for the mystery religions
laid new
which
emphasis upon the simple practices
superfluous.
programs
characterized
the original group
The expansion of the
of Christians,
2. Influence
of Hellenism.
into an independent and wellChristian movement
namely, the bath, or the baptism, and the common
memorial
meal.
rounded
the result of its expansion
religionwas
By the second or third generation
these two rites had begun to acquire a significance
non-Jewish
peoples. Its further development
among
of their own
as
an
was
expressionof regenerationand of
largelyset by the Greek culture in
very
which practically
all of its new
members
had been
immortality due to the impartationof the divine
nature.
As
the Christian
reared.
needs led to the revaluation
Their religious
religiondeveloped a
beheved
its members
their restless philoof their acquired faith. With
class,
were
increasingly
sophicalpriestly
and with the current
ments
beUef, to have the sole power of administeringthese sacratemperament
in such way
their blessingsto
to assure
born of the mystery religions,
that salvation was
to
as
the recipient. Conditions
in the
for participating
be accomplished by the impact of the divine essence
Lord's Supper were
also developed,and the lifeof the
the human
it was
inevitable that
upon
essence,
centered around the two sacshould
seek doctrinal preHellenistic Christians
raments.
increasingly
cision church was
So important did baptism appear that from
and guard it against all forms of interpretation
the 2nd. century onward it seems
istered
to have been adminwith what were
not in accordance
regarded as
but by pouring -and
not only by immersion
the beliefs of the originalor apostolicChristians.
and its recipients
not only adults
were
sprinkling,
ception
Beginning with the rise of the Stoic-Platonic conwho
could make
of the Word
personal professionof faith but
(Logos) as an equivalent in
adult spoke. Gradually
also infants for whom
in Jewish thought, the
some
Hellenism for the Messiah
of sacraments
increased until seven
the number
were
new
religionrapidlyacclimated itself to the nonentered.
Jewish world into which it had successfully
recognized. The precisedate at which this development
reached is not to be fixed. See Sacraments.
was
the 2nd. century to the 5th. the movement
From
of characteristics which
began to developa number
from
the start
has
been
a
(7) Christianity
to survive the destruction of the nations and
were
of moral ideals,
it sprang.
The
portant religion
imcivilization from
which
most
although these ideals have
of these characteristics are:
generally been those recognized by the existing
(churches), social order. There is no clear indication that the
development of groups
(1) The
the Roman
to transform
of
less affiliated,
early church undertook
or
possessed of a sense
more
Empire as such, but its recognitionof the worth
catholicityor universalityas distinct from the
tutions
of personalityindirectlyaffected such social instiunder the control of cosmobeliefs of groups more
of criminals,and
cism;
as
slavery, treatment
logicaland theosophical influences (see Gnostimarriage. The church,however, was not interested
Docetism; and Heresy) from which sprang
ciently
in developing a public opinion or patriotismsuffinovel
interpretationsof the original Christian
ern
See Catholic.
faith in Jesus as the Son of God.
strong to withstand the assaults of the northHeresies were
the occasion of theology which
peoples,and the moral idealism of the church
was
suffered in the general collapse of the empire
before being systematic.
apologetic
and militarydecadence.
born of economic
literature. The
ment
Old Testa(2) Authoritative
the religion
3. Christianity
of European civilizo/from the earliest days regarded as divinely
was
tion. At the start this new
only a
religionwas
developed a collection of
inspired,but there soon
member
of the large group
of oriental
humble
other writingsclaiming Apostolic authorship and
cults seeking recognitionin the Roman
Empire.
which put them on a par
an
inspiration
so possessing
decided
It had, however, very
advantages over
See Canon
with the Old Testament.
(Biblical)
Jewish
them all. Like the
the
religionit was theistic,
(3) The rise of the Bishop who was at once
acceptance
champion and expounder of the generallyaccepted bu.tit was not ethnic and did not demand
cult. It promised salvation by the
of the Hebrew
and therefore true Christian doctrine,and the head
union of the divine and the human, but was
opposed
also regardedas
He was
of his Christian group.
of polytheism. It taught strongly
to all forms
character.
priestly
possessing
immortality and the resurrection of the dead, but
(4) The development of authoritative doctrines
of
to accomplishthis in the way
did not undertake
successive synodsor other assem(seeII
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below),by

These

between
especially

93

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

the mysteries. It was

universal but did not, like
philosophy, make morality the exclusive property

Christianity

church was
furthered by the Romanization
of the
Christian
movement.
Centralization in church
affairs grew steadily. The Bishop of Rome
of the intellectuals. It had its vision of a better
already
and Stoicism it was
of the Apostle Peter,from
world, but unUke Platonism
regarded as the successor
anchored
to a definite historical person,
and was
other
causes
(forgedDonation of Constantine,
many
thus prevented from becoming a mere
Pseudo-Isidorean
economic
and political
system of
Decretals,
thought. It taught the forgivenessof God, but
needs,alliance of the Franks with papacy, persistent
unlike all religionsof its time did not undertake
conviction
that the Roman
Empire continued)
to placate the Deity by sacrifices,
inherited such
since He had
imperial power
survived
as
the
revealed
Himself
Saviour.
If to these charcalamities of the period between
acteristics
as
Romulus
Augustus
there be added
admitted
and Charlemagne.
zeal for
Thereafter for several centuries
an
effort was
made
to
an
converts, philanthropy, morality, and a certain
unify and Christianize
degree of economic
democracy, together with a
Europe under the Holy Roman
Empire (q.v.),in
popular reputationfor the abihty to work miracles, which Emperor and Pope both were
to represent
it will not be difficult to see how
Jesus
Christ
in
Lord.
as
Christianity
the Roman
had
the
elements
evitably (2) The effect of the social changes which ga/e
inwhich
Empire
made
towards
leadershipin the religious rise to the civiHzation of the Middle Ages is also
field.
in the development of the religion. The creaseen
tive
This leadership
social mind
of Europe from the 9th. to the
was
gained,however, only after
12th. century was
severe
feudal.
The
struggle. The rise of the worship of the
break-up of the
Roman
state organization established
into
brought the new
movement
emperor
by Rome, together
direct conflict with the state.
with the incursion of armed foreigners
For nearly three
who held their
hundred
this conflict continued
with intermittent land in militarytenure, and especially
the attempt
years
but increasingly
and extensive perseto build social solidarity
the basis of reciprocal
on
grave
cution.
By the 4th. century, however, so far had it
obligations between
in the
classes,all reappear
that the Christians
spread that Constantino
lifeof the time.
saw
The most significant
tration
illusreligious
constituted a group
with political
of such influence isto be seen
not to be
in the significapower
tion
tianity,
ignored,and with his triumph over his rivals Chrisgiven the death of Christ by Anselm
(q.v.).
The
feudal system
already a licensed religion,
became, though
also, however, involved the
not strictly
of the state,the
church
in a long struggle to decide who
speaking the sole religion
should
From
invest the bishop with his office and the land which
religion of the emperor.
Constantine's
time, the developmentof the church was materially constituted the episcopalestate under the current
affected by politics.
politicaltheory as to the Holy Roman
Empire.
This situation,commonly
Both Pope and emperor
could claim to possess that
regarded as the conquest
of the Roman
The
Empire by Christianity,
was
right.
struggle ended with compromise contained
in the Concordat
of Christianity.
quite as truly a Romanization
of Worms
ing
(1122) accordThe
institutional life of the Empire gave
to which
the bishop received his investiture
great
impetus to the development of church organization. for his temporaUties from the emperor
and for his
The
Bishop became
a
municipal figure if not an
spiritualbenefice from the Pope.
official. It was
natural, therefore,that political
(3) Primitive eschatology was transformed into
methods
and organizationshould be appropriated
of future rewards in heaven,
a well-rounded system
This process
future punishments in hell,and future penitential
continued
by the church.
for centuries,
and after the disintegration
of the Roman
time the concleansingin purgatory. At the same
ception
of salvation
Roman
Empire resulted in a transcendentahzed
modified
to meet
this
was
Catholic
Church.
It
Empire called the Roman
readjusted eschatology,and morality was
ingly
increasthat
this
made
is,however, noteworthy
ecclesiastical interest.
an
shaping power of
the imperial
social mind was
not clearlyfelt in the
due to
(4) Penitential systems, in largemeasure
half of the empire where social affairs had
the influence of Irish ecclesiastics,
eastern
had an effect in
become
ful
life. Penance
largelystatic. Even before the feardeveloping the church
became
very
destruction wrought by the Arabian
invasion, systematized,and the ascetic qualityof the reUgion
the organizationof the Eastern
became
church was
never
thoroughlyfixed in a desire to save the soul
as
systematized as that of the West, and had proFrom
this attitude
gressed by the mortification of the body.
but slightlybeyond the results gained by
of mind, reinforced as it was
by the fear of hell,
the process
of Hellenization.
The lack of political there sprang
vast
a
development of monasticism.
and social development furnished no
Monastic
stimulus for
estabUshments appeared over
the entire
the East to make
tionally. western
instituor
not only the
theologically
Europe, where they became
progress
The break between
home
the two halves of the
of those who sought salvation by retiring
from
empire was
worldly lives and pleasures,but also the centers of
complete by the 9th. century and ran
along the line of cleavage between the eastern and
culture,and increasinglyof learning.
western
history. Thereafter CathoHc
(5) Early in the Middle Ages the sacraments
Christianity
existed in two
increased in number, the originaltwo, baptism
were
great branches, the Eastern being
littleaffected by the progress
of the modern
and
world
Lord's Supper, being supplemented by the
and the Western
or Roman
sacraments
of marriage, confirmation,ordination,
being a distinct element
in that
addition
these
In
main
to
and extreme
became
unction.
The mass
progress.
penance,
branches
the Armenian, Coptic, Nestorian,
were
increasinglyregarded as a true sacrifice performed
and Maronite
churches.
at the altar.
To partake of the bread and the
4. The effect
wine was
to partake of the real body and blood of
of the fallof the Roman
Empire.
This was
in (1)pessimism as to human
seen
Jesus into which the substance of the elements had
nature,
See
expressed by Augustine in his teaching as to sin; been transformed
in the miracle of the mass.
(2) the fixingof secondaryelements on the religion, Transubstantiation.
Furthermore, during the
for
Middle
between
e.g., asceticism,worship of images, reverence
Ages the line of demarcation
the clergy and the laity was
martyrs, hagiology,the worship of the VirginMary;
sharply drawn,
very
with the body
(3)the growth of power on the part of the bishops, and the church identified increasingly
of the clergy.
especiallythe Bishop of Rome, because of the
stimulated
collapseof other social control.
increasingly
(6) The intellectual life,
5. The
Roman
Catholic Church
of the Middle
by scholasticism and the foundation of universities,
the classical
Ages. (1) The development of an imperialistic was primarilyconcerned in assimilating
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DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

This intellectualheritagein so far as it survived.

ism was
subject to the control of the church and
of church beliefs.
completed the systematization
6. The rise of nationalistic Christianity.The
transformation of Europe through the economic
development which began with the rise of cities in
the 12th. century, togetherwith the collapseof the

AND

ETHICS

94

From
each of the
great a variety of ways.
dominant
social minds which have shaped Western
civihzation have
not
only characteristic
sprung
needs, but also a geneticsuccession of doctrines.
The originof these doctrines liesin the revelation
contained
in the Bible, supplemented in Roman
Catholicism
by tradition and the decisions of the
church
feudal system, resulted in the rise of nationalities
councils (now of the Pope, speaking ex
of the term.
in the modern
with monarchs
sense
cathedra)and interpretedby the Fathers.
in the western
world
transformation
This
was
Orthodoxy as an inherited and continuously
accompanied by wide-spread restlessness at the
expanded system is to be traced back to the faith
control of the Roman
and beliefs of the earliest Christian groups.
Church, which had for centuries
Other
but also a
been not only the ecclesiastical,
have been induced
tianity,
reUgious movements
by Chrisof this new
and others evolved by way
of opposition
pohtical institution. In consequence
to the growing mass
social experience,the Christians of the lands which
of authoritative group
beliefs;
broke from
had not become
but their influence,
far as it has been extended
thoroughly Romanized
so
civilization had been
those of the territorywhose
nonbeyond the immediate
membership of some
pendent orthodox
built up on the Roman
has been chieflyfelt through their
plan, and organized indegroup,
Bible was
The
modification of those fundamental
state churches.
beliefs which the
by them
taken as the sole basis of authority. This movehas perpetuated.
ment,
generichistory of the movement
which was
not a break with Catholic theology,
These may
be brieflystated as follows:
1. The Bible. ^To all bodies of Christians
the
except in so far as it affected the ideas of the church,
Under the
Bible
is of prunary
is commonly known
it
as the Reformation.
importance. Through
the wisdom
as Luther,
of revelation as distinguished
comes
guidance of such profoundlyreUgiousmen
formers,from that of nature.
All creeds and confessions of
Zwingli,Calvin, and the English and Scottish Rechurches carried forward a conthese new
faith claim to be the expositionof its contents.
The
ception
of reUgion which freed northern Christians
Bible has been treated in a great variety of ways
Church
the Roman
and emfrom dependence upon
to the rationalism
phasized
ranging from practicalbibliolatry
the immediacy of the soul's relation with
of the early19th. century. See Bible ; Inspiration.
and justification
2. Theism.
God
Because of its loyaltyto the Bible,
by faith alone. Secondary
form
of Christianity has
to play so largea role
Christianitywhich had come
no
consciously been
in Mediaeval
Christianitywas largelyabandoned.
pantheisticor polytheistic.It has always opposed
7. Modern
developments. Thus Christianityas
anything approaching a mechanistic or impersonal
the rehgion of Western
view of the universe.
This theistic view was
torically
hisEurope in the 16th. century
passed into a new
phase and began that process of
grounded in the Hebrew
religionand
has given rise to the
social differentiation which
under the influence of the Graeco-Roman
mind was
order.
At
modern
present the
religiousworld
developed into the generalconceptionof trinitarianbe roughly classified into
Christian movement
is that the one
of which
divine
ism, the essence
may
Catholic
hold to the one
of those who
substance
exists in three personae:
the groups
Father, Son,
church
and Holy Spirit;that is to say, Christianity
teaches
(in turn broken into three general groups
lics)
God
of the Roman, the Greek, and the Anglican Cathothat one
into actual personal relations
comes
of so-called Protestant
and the group
with nature
and man.
sects
It should be added
that
individuals but is a term
does not mean
a
happy one)
(although the term is by no means
personae
derived from the Roman
holding to the
including those Christians who
courts, in which the same
individual might appear
in various personae,
that
Lordship of Jesus and endeavoring to embody the
fundamental
conceptions of older Christianity, is characters; e.g., in one law suit he might be a
into self-determining father and
in another
See Trinity;
have segregated themselves
case
son.
Creed.
Many of these groups are the survivals of
groups.
founded
in the 16th. century.
the state churches
3. Jesus, the Christ,the Son of God, the Lord,
the Saviour.
All these terms
have essentially
the
This period of disunion was
duringthe
very marked
17th. and 18th. centuries,and reached its climax in
same
content, although springing from different
social conceptions and national hopes. The comthe 19th. century.
tion
Recently there has set in a reacmon
in them
and
element
all was
from excessive group-individualism,
expressed in the
away
of Chalcedon
decrees of the Council
there are strong tendencies toward co-operationand
(451 a.d.)
federation of the more
which
significantdenominations.
recognizesin the historic individual,Jesus
consubstantial
with God
See Church; Federation
op
Churches; Church
Christ, a divine nature
the Father
and
human
consubstantial
There
is also a very widespread nonnature
Union.
a
ecclesiastical Christianitythat finds expressionin
with us, joined without
confusion in one
person.
relation of the two
Catholic
individuals.
The
exact
natures
Content.
able to state in a dogma.
II. Chief Doctrinal
was
Christianitynever
This Christologyhas been successivelyattacked
Doctrinally Christianityis the most complete
Those opposed to it have, however,
of all the world's reUgions. It has shown
itself
and defended.
adaptable not only to the Semitic civilization from
generallyrecognized the uniqueness of Jesus as a
which it sprang
and the classical in which it was
divine example and saviour.
The defense of the
oped
doctrine has largely consisted in the restatement
first developed, but also to the more
highly develindustrial civiUzation
assumed
of western
from some
philosophicalpositionof the
Europe.
It is at the present time making decided
tology;
gains elements of the historic Christology.See "Christhe
Socinianism; Arianism; Unitarianism.
peoples of Asia, and has thus become
among
4. The
church.
most
widely diffused and influential of all religious
Christianity hke aU genuine
of history. This extraordinarydevelophas had its social group, the church.
The
movements
religions
ment
has been due not only to the efficiency
in its
largestvariations in the content of the Christian
doctrine are to be found in the field of ecclesiology.
organization resultingfrom its appropriation of
the experienceof a virilecivilization and its adoption
On the one hand are those who hold that the Christian
of the agencies most
effective in successive stages
community is the sole channel of grace which
of political
such salvation is
mental
makes
salvation possible,and
development, but also to the fundalimited to membership in the true church.
On the
teachingswhich characterize the movement
other hand are those who hold that a church is a
and which are capableof being institutionalized in
so

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voluntary grouping of those who have experienced

regeneration. All groups, however, unite in holding
that the church exists not only for the maintenance
but also for the
of worship and religious
instruction,
of the sacraments,
observance
the two universally
recognizedbeing those of baptism and the Lord's
See Church.
5. Sin and the need of divine salvation. Since his
day, the doctrine of sin as organized by Augustine
has been the point of departure of the entire doctrine
of salvation.
According to this doctrine based
that of Paul, the race was created perfectwith
upon
the abihty to choose the good as well as the evil.
By Adam's
fall,this originalnature, while not
corrupted that evil impulses
so
destroyed, was
enslaved the will,so that until the nature
has been
regeneratedby the Holy Spiritthe will is incapable
of choosing the good, although free so to do.
The
emphasis of this doctrine has naturallyled to the
insistence upon
good works following
regeneration.
these demands
In many
standardized
cases
were
which
has sometimes
into penitentialdiscipline,
served to restrain moral development along social
lines.
6. The Atonement, the death of Christ as a factor
in the revelation of the divine forgiveness.Christianity
sets forth God as loyalto both love and law.
The ethical problem of how
he could forgivethe
sinner and yet maintain
his moral order did not
bulk in theologicalthinking until the time
of
Anselm (q.v.).Since that day the freedom of God to
love has been repeatedlyset forth as made
possible
by the satisfaction which Jesus by his hfe and death
rendered to God 'sdignity
or his punitive
justice or the
sovereigntyof law. There is,however, no catholic
doctrine of the atonement
comparable with that of
of the death
the Trinity. The religious
significance
of Christ has been set forth in various ways
(e.g.,
vindication
of law, substitutionary
punishment,
of sin,
representativerepentance, condemnation
moral influence). The persistent
value of all such
theories has been
the exposition of the ethical
character of God's love.
The idea of the death of
Christ as a sacrifice,
in which his value was
expressed
both
in New Testament
times,has been perpetuated
in church teaching and by the Roman
Catholics in
the sacrifice of the Mass (qv.). See Atonement.
7. Morality. The historyof Christian moraUty
shows the development which is to be seen in the
At the start it was
hardly
religionas a whole.
of
than that of current Judaism.
In the course
more
time,however, the church itselfbegan the development
intended to
of its own
which
customs
were
set forth the new
of the lifewhich was born
mores
of the divine spirit. The church has been a laboratory
of social progress, and the moral ideals of the
Christian groups
of
have always been in advance
societyat large,although seldom so far in advance
of a contemporary
as to questionthe presuppositions
social order.
Thus in New
times there
Testament
into the moral
was
no
justiceof slavery,
query
which had always been a part of the social order.
the less always insisted
But Christianityhas none
the maintenance
of moral standards so far as
upon
of its recentlydeveloped
organized,and in consequence
interest in the teaching of Jesus has moved along
very decidedlyidealistic lines in the applicationof
the principlesof Jesus to the social order.
8. Missionary zeal. The conviction that they
have had the only authoritative revelation of God
and the only assured way
of salvation has always
spurred Christians to an extension of their faith.
than a
This missionary zeal is something more
The Christian church
desire for proselj^ting.
mere
has regarded itself as possessedof a knowledge of
under sacred obligation
which it was
the way of salvation,
to share with the world at large,that others

Supper.

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RELIGION

ETHICS

Christians of St. John

of the
might also be saved from the consequence
hfe.
In
originalsin which has affected all human
later days among
Protestants
the eschatological
motive, if not weakened, has been at least supplementea
by the social,ethical motive of sharing
have
with those who
a
partial knowledge the
full content
of the blessings
of the deeper knowledge
and his salvation to be seen
in Jesus Christ.
III. Modern
Tendencies
Christianity.
op
Just because the Christian reUgion is not static
but is a movement
embracing .socialand cultural,
as well as strictly
religious
ideals,it partakestoday
of the great characteristics of the modern
period.
Christian doctrine to a considerable
1. The
from the point of view
extent is being reinterpreted
See Science
of modern science.
in Its Relation
That
there is opposition to such
Theology.
to
be denied, especially
from
cannot
reinterpretation
those who feel that the philosophical
and scientific
world- view
found
which
expression in various
dogmas of the church is an essential part of such
dogmas, and from those who insist upon a literalistic
But the last hundred years have
of the Bible.
use
the part of
decided movement
on
seen
a
very
representativesof the leading Christian groups
towards the acceptance of the results of scientific
At the present time
discovery. See Modernism.
modernists the issue is less that of such
among
with consequent readaptation,than
appropriation
the fundamental strugglewith the impersonaland
mechanistic
interpretationsof the universe and
man's place therein.
Christian
movement
is also being increasingly
2. The
revaluated
from
the point of view of
trines
different philosophical
systems. The historic doc'
embodied to very largedegree elements both
of Platonism and AristoteUanism.
The rise of new
ments
philosophical
systems has naturallyled to restateof fundamental values in addition,as in the
task of answering the objections
of those who hold to
purely utilitarian or impersonal views of the world,
with a philosophyof efficiency
and force
especially
to which Nietzsche gave such vigorous expression.
in a democratic
3. The
place of Christianity
The
world order is yet to be fully determined.
fact that any democracy as representedby AngloAmerican
pohticalhistoryis to such a largeextent
the outgrowth of church
hfe justifies
the hope
that Christianity
will be as significant
in the growing
democracy as it was in the imperialismof Rome
the
nationalities
of
and
America.
and
Europe
the conceptionof God as immanent
J ^
Simultaneously,
in nature
and history resultingfrom a personal;
of the forces of the cosmos
interpretation
given us
by science,finds helpfulanalogiesin the developing
in democratic;
conceptionof authorityas immanent
time there exists a definite
society. At the same
and serious problem in the fact that the church,
both in its organizationand in its theological
concepts
embodied
and championed monarchy.
once
The democratizingof such teachingand conceptions
will require no
A
small wisdom.
large element
of hope in the situation liesin the fact that religious
leaders are
emphasizing the hfe and teaching of
formulas.
Jesus rather than precisionin theological
tudes
Loyalty to Jesus Christ is certain to develop attiwhich will not only conserve
the fundamental
values of the inherited doctrines and institutions,
but will also stimulate humanity to organize a
Christian democracy which will give rather than
Mathews
Shailer
merely demand
justice.

of God

"

i|"^

CHRISTIANS."

See Disciples

CHRISTLA.NS
OF ST. JOHN."
of the Mandaeans
(q.v.),due to
John the Baptist.

of

Christ.

A designation
their honoring

Christians of St. Thomas

DICTIONARY

OF

OF ST. THOMAS."
The designation
of the Nestorians in India,who hold to the
tradition of Thomas'
mission to India.
apostolic

CHRISTIANS

CHRISTMAS
CHRISTMAS
CUSTOMS.
AND
The festival of Christ's Nativity,
celebrated
now
of
Dec. 25, and the center
of a large number
on
of pagan
popular customs, some
origin.
to
1. The date. No feast of the Nativity seems
have been observed
previous to the 4th. century,
have
who may
except, perhaps, by the Basilidians,
dence
held it on Jan. 6 or Feb. 19-20.
The earUest eviof its celebration (Ephraem Syrus,
373)
points to Jan. 6 (now restricted to the feast of the
Epiphany). Why this date was chosen is thus far
uncertain
(see Epiphany), but as Jan. 6 was also
there was
the feast of the baptism of Christ,
danger
lest Adoptianistheresies creep in,and Christ's divine
be held from his baptism rather than from
nature
Luke
3:23
his Incarnation, especially as
was
sometimes
held to imply that he was
baptizedon
feast
his thirtieth birthday. Accordingly the
first done
shifted to Dec. 25.
This was
by
was
Pope Liberius in 353-54 (lessprobably by Pope
observance
the
in 336), and from Rome
Marcus
nople
introduced at ConstantiIt was
spread to the East.
between
378 and 388; at Antioch
by 388;
between
400
in Cappadocia by 383; at Alexandria
stated that the date
and 432 (here it is definitely
had previouslybeen Jan. 6) ; at Jerusalem certainly
by 425-58; about 385 it was still
by 635 (perhaps
the old date
Jan. 6); in Asia by 387; in Armenia
"

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RELIGION

ETHICS

96

dead were also supposedto revisit the earth,and in

Scandinavia there are still distinct traces of this
The
behef.
mistletoe,probably a Celtic feature
with a solstitial feast,perhaps
and not connected
invoked to bless the
representsthe vegetation-spirit
coming year; the Christmas-tree is a German
date.
recent
importation of relatively
L. H. Gray
The doctrinal expositionof
CHRISTOLOGY."
the nature
of Jesus Christ and of his redemptive

work.

Christologyis

valuation of Jesus as
a
religious
cerning
furnishinga theological
theory conthe redemptive work of Christ,and formulating
assertions
concerning the metaphysical
Christ.
The
of
following are
typical

saviour of

nature

men,

theories.
1. Messianic
Christology.Primitive Christians
shared the Jewish conceptionthat salvation involves
"

deUverance, which was to be consummated

divinely authorized and empowered
a
word
"Christ"
deliverer. The
properly means
The questionin Acts 1 :6,
"anointed" for this end.
"Lord, dost thou at this time restore the kingdom
indicates
Israel?"
this Jewish
to
expectation.
Jesus,as the divinelysent saviour,must fulfilthis
messianic hope. Since he had not established the
kingdom during his hfe, the great consummation

national

through

future.
Behef in
in the near
to be awaited
Jesus as Messiah
was
grounded on the supernatural
attestation of his mission during his life,
his triumph
death, his ascension to the righthand of God,
over
and his future coming in glory to usher in the messtillprevails.
sianic
2. Reasons for the date. These are of two kinds:
kingdom. The Apostles' Creed represents
this interpretation,
mentioning virginbirth,passion
(a)based on a "plan of the ages"and (6)drawn from
and death, resurrection,
the Gospels.
ascension,session at God's
righthand, and future coming to judge the living
(a) The "Plan of the Ages." According to the
items
have
and
the dead.
These
De Pascha
usually been
Computus, the first day of creation was
when a
March
retained in subsequent Christologies,
even
25, and as Christ is the Paschal Lamb born
differentinterest appears.
1548 years after the Exodus, his nativity must
March
2. Logos Christology.When
have been at Passover of that year, i.e.,
28,
Christianity
passed
to the Hellenistic world, it encountered
the date of creation of the sun.
a different
If,however, March
Here the idea of an allthe first day of creation,and if
25 be taken
as
conception of salvation.
"nativity"be regarded as referringto Christ's pervading control of the universe by divine Reason
conception,the day of his birth would naturally (Logos)rather than that of a cosmic catastrophe
dominant.
be Dec. 25.
cording
ReUgious salvation consisted,acwas
in "Hving according to the
to the Stoics,
(b) The Gospels. By a faultyexegesisof the
Logos." A Christian Hellenist,therefore,would
story of Zacharias in Luke, chap. 1 it is deduced that
conceived after the Day of
John the Baptist was
naturallyvalue Christ in terms of the divine Logos.
that Christ's
the Logos,
Justin Martyr identified Jesus with
Atonement
so
(inthat year in Sept.),
conception would be in March, and his nativity thereby makmg him the eternal divine being who
and who
It is also possible,though not proved,
in Dec.
ap-"
inspiredprophets and philosophers
that the view that the Crucifixion of the "Paschal
peared personally in Jesus. Since the Logos
Lamb"
also is the organizing divine force in the cosmos,
took place on March
ception
25, the date of his conlater
of the Logos Christ in the work
of
and of the beginning of creation may
participation
creation was
have influenced the choice of Dec. 25 for the feast of
affirmed by Origen and others. But
since Hellenic thought made
a
the Nativity.
sharp contrast
and the immaterial
the material cosmos
between
3. Influenceof paganism. The fixingof Dec.
the Logos, who
divine spirit,
25 by the "plan of the ages" caused the feast to
participatedactively
coincide with the Mithraic festival in honour of the
defined as subordinate in nature to
in creation,was
God.
This subordination, inevitable
the immutable
"birthdayof the unconquered sun," i.e.,the end
when cosmic problems were
of the winter solstice;and this coincidence
was
foremost,was the
central affirmation of Arianism.
furthered by the association of Christ with the sun.
doubtless accidental,
All this was
3. Incarnation
Christology.Hellenistic reUgious
though good use
the
Some
have
a
made of it when it became known.
thinking made
sharp distinction between
was
of evil,and
feast of the Saturnalia
flesh,which was considered the source
sought to connect the Roman
Unked
which
to God.
To overheld on
Dec.
17
the spirit,
man
with Christmas, but this was
come
to the spirit
and in origin.
the flesh and give full dominion
and was
totallydifferent both in spirit
The
essential to salvation.
the SaturnaUa
Much
of the merriment
apostle Paul set
was
characterizing
of redemption through the
forth the doctrine
has,however, been transferred to Christmas,notably
with
of the Christian
and games.
the givingof gifts,
The more
Christ,
mystical union
feasting,
important non-Christian customs connected with the
whereby Christ, the divine Spirit,so took possession
that the flesh lost its dominion.
of man
in origin. The
Yule-feast
festival are
Teutonic
Hellenistic
translated
into
ideal
the
time
the
When
this
about
of
winter
was
celebrated
was
solstice,
laid
the
and from this came
cakes
corruptible
the yule-log,Christmas
on
terms, emphasis was
In order to overcome
nature.
sacrifice
"essence" of human
for good crops in the
(the survival of a
this corruption,
of the
a
metaphysicaltransformation by
coming year),etc. At this time the spirits
was

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07

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Chucius

(Chu Hsi)

of divine "essence"
tions
limitabelieved to be
During the 19th. century the human
was
of the historical Jesus were
made
In the Nicene Christology
Christ is savevident by
iour
he is "consubstantial
because
(of identical historical study. An attempt was made by the socalled Kenosis Christology
to do justice
to these while
metaphysical nature) with the Father.
ing
By assumhe brought the divine transformhuman
ing
nature
conservingthe traditionaldoctrine of the essentially
of Jesus. This
found
"essence" into vital contact
divine nature
with human
nature,
expression
the divine
in the doctrine that in becoming man
thereby deifyingit. The Nicene Creed affirms the
carnation.
Christ laid aside (kenosis)his divine attributes,
metaphysical deity of Christ and his genuine incontroversies
reassuming them at the resurrection. In the human
SubsequentChristological
there is latent or potential
due to attempts to define exactly the relation
life of Jesus,therefore,
were
between
these two
His
metaphysicallycontradictory divinity. We may thus worship Jesus as God.
is the revelation of the
See
"natures" in one
historical person, Jesus.
or humiliation
self-abnegation
of God in his purpose to save men.
Nestorianism
EutychianApollinarianism
utter self-giving
;
;
rationalistic form of revelation Christology
A more
Monophysitism;
ism; Chalcedon, Council
of;
and in Unitarianism,
m onothelitism
is found in Socinianism
In the Greek Orthodox Church, to this day, the
where the teachings and the life of Jesus are portrayed
of God's will,
but the
It finds its
incarnation Christologyis dominant.
as trulyrepresentative
of the
practical completion in the sacraments
metaphysicalpuzzles connected with the doctrine
set aside.
Jesus is a
of a divine "nature"
are
church, whereby the saving potency of the divine
is mediated
endowed
It is fundamental
to needy man.
essence
genuinely human
by
person exceptionally
to the sacramental
cism,
CatholiGod to teach and live the truth.
systemof Roman
and
has entered
tant
through rituahstic usage
When, as is the case with much modern Protesity.
profoundly into the devotion of Western Christianthinking, the valuation of Jesus consists in
of the elements
transmutation
of the
The
estimatinghis rehgiousexperience,his faith in God,
of the miracle
with God, his growing appreheneucharist in the Mass is a repetition
his communion
sion
his human
of the incarnation.
of his mission, and
consecration
to the point of death,there is
4. Atonement
Christology. In the Latin church
to that mission even
during the Middle Ages, salvation was
interpreted no second concept, such as Messiah, or Logos, or
primarilyin terms of reconciliation between God and
pre-existentdivine nature, with which to equate
merits divine condemnation.
The
the sinner who
The
Jesus.
logicalproblems connected with the
be one
God
thus disappear, and the signifisaviour must
who
and
older Christology
can
cance
propitiate
make
the
of Jesus is set forth directlyin terms
of
pardon possible. Christ thus becomes
God
and man,
mediator
between
He
reveals God
his experience of God.
to us.
rendering to God
will enable God
He initiates in us a
such atoning work
to forgive. He enables us to trust God.
as
God.
Jesus is able to act and speak on man's
with
He
evokes
As man,
life of communion
our
Such
the conceptions
are
behalf;as divine he can offer the infinite efficacy worshipfuladoration.
of his atoning work
for all mankind.
For fuller
take the place of the
which
in these Christologies
Atonement.
former metaphysical discussion. See Jesus Christ.
see
details,
made
Gerald
Smith
6. Revelation Christology.Luther
Birney
ance
assurSuch
favor central in salvation.
of God's
CHRISTOPHORUS"
Pope 903-904.
assurance
springsfrom a revelation of the gracious
attitude of God.
While this is secured partly by
The greatJOHN
(.344-407)."
CHRYSOSTOM,
est
in the Bible,and partly
trust in the promise of God
of ancient preachers, a brilliant pupil of the
Libanius in Antioch, a lawyer, then a monk
by the reassuring effect of the sacraments, it is
pagan
potently and personallyeffective in the revelation
(367),deacon (381),presbyter (386),Patriarch of
in the lifeand the death of
of God's lovingpurpose
Constantinople(397). His puritan attacks on
Luther
While
Jesus.
never
questioned the truth
court luxury gave
opportunity to his ecclesiastical
and while in his
of the Chalcedonian
Christology,
rival,Theophilus of Alexandria, to conspire with
doctrine of the communicatio
idiomatum
the Empress Eudoxia
for his banishment
(q.v.)he
(403).
Restored
to appease
the people, he was
employed the scholastic conception of essence, his
again
able
interest nevertheless
exiled to Armenia
lay in securing God's favor(404)and in 407 to the Caucasus,
attitude rather than in an impartation of the
dyingfrom the final hardships. As a theologianhe
Thus
in Protestantism
the theological illustrates the grammatical exegesisand practical
divine "nature."
of Christ has
discussion of the "natures"
ethical emphasis of the Antioch
school.
been for the most
scholastic perpetuaF. A. Christie
tion
part a mere
In recent
times
of traditional controversies.
CHTHONIAN
See Earth
Gods.
DEITIES."
there is a general frank recognitionof the fact that
formula
Chinese
CHUANG-TSE."
the Chalcedonian
A
employs concepts quite
religious philosopher
of the later 4th. century B.C.
He is best
religiousinterests,and that a
foreignto modern
this
described as an
absolute idealist,
vital Christology is not to be derived from
developing the
of Greek metaphysics.
system of intuitive mysticism of Lao-tse (q.v.).
exposition
with
this vital
The
Tao is the ultimate reality. This impersonal
Schleiermaeher,in accordance
of Jesus in terms of a
defined the significance
Absolute gives rise to God and the transformations
interest,
spiritual
the Great
Jesus was
of being we
know
the phenomenal
as
perfect God-consciousness.
with the life
self and
the Tao
world.
Man's
true
one
are
one.
Mystic whose conscious life was
tual
God.
This
God-consciousness
of
was
unique, Hence not works of charity,nor duty, nor intellecimderived
tuted
and constifrom
human
knowledge but intuition only is the way to the
sources,
any
inherent divinity in him.
real knowledge of realityand to the complete life.
an
inaction
Ritschlian
Tlw
He says: "Repose, tranquility,
stillness,
theology (q.v.) defined the
in terms
of revelation-value.these are the levels of the universe,the ultimate
of Jesus exclusively
significance
In the personal life of the historical
Subjectiveand objectiveare
perfectionof Tao."
and man's life are
is revealed.
Jesus God's lovingattitude toward men
of appearances
one, the world
In Jesus alone do we find an absolutely
in the obliterating
(Also
convincing embraced
unity of Tao.
Jesus is divine in
of divine love.
manifestation
of.
Chuang-tze.) See China, Religions
in him; but the metaphysical
the sense
that God meets
us
CHUCIUS
ated
conception of a divine "nature" is repudi(CHU HSI) (1130-1200 a.d.)." A
the
Jesus' real power.
commentator
Chinese philosopher and
on
as beinginadequate to express
the power
necessary.

"

"

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Chuntokyo

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

of
of the New
canon
Testament, and the presacred classics. He is the chief representative
eminence
of the Roman
church
in the West.
the
influential Sing-li philosophy. It has
the
involves
ideals
Catholic
all
these
of
but
the
rational
dualism
Christianity
of
or spiritual
appearance
Catholics do
with the exception that the eastern
The
"Great
Ultimate" is Li,
is always supreme.
church.
which
acts upon
not recognizethe primacy of the Roman
the universal principle
or reason
The
another principleKH, a material base, to produce
history of the church after the separation
entiated of the eastern
halves of the empire
the cosmos.
Under the influence of Li are differand western
heaven
in
the churches
nomenalis one of little progress
(yang),earth (yin),and the pheamong
The
world composed of the five elements.
decided
the east, and
development among
very
rational principleconstitutes the law or order of
The
the churches of the west.
See Christianity.
moral nature of man.
and is the intelligent,
churches
of the west, both consciouslyand under
nature
to this inner
True moral life consists in obedience
the leadershipof Rome, gradually evolved
sort
a
which
of transcendentalized
Roman
spiritualnature
partakes of the universal
Empire, which like
There
is no
reason.
recognition of a personal its predecessorcentered around Rome, and in the
miracles or immortality.
of the
Catholic church
Roman
God, spirits,
preserved many
significantelements of the Roman
empire. But
See Korea, Religions
CHUNTOKYO."
op.
orthodox
Christianityin both the east and the west
insisted that salvation was
possibleonly through
An organizedgroup
CHURCH
the work of the Catholic church, to which alone was
(CHRISTIAN)."
of baptized believers in Jesus Christ which exists for
of the sacraments.
given charge of the administration
of worship, the administration of the
the purpose
of preaching,and
The Middle
in the west
sacraments, the maintenance
saw

tive
Ages

reUgiousand moral education.

In the

New

Testament
we
in various

see

rise of the

the

placeshad accepted
professed themselves through

societiesof those who

and
baptism as the loyal followers of Jesus. These
in their earlystages had very littleorganization
groups
to
beyond the elders or bishops, who seem
have
been
sometimes
appointed by an apostle.
tain
Jewish and did not undertake to mainThey were
a
religiouslife independent of the Jewish
faith as institutionalized in the temple and synagogue.
who
As the movement
gathered members
not Jews, it became
increasinglyindependent
were
to be known
from Judaism, and the groups came
those
from their dominant
quality as Christians,
believe in Christ.
The
who
organization of the
early Gentile churches was very simple,but by the
to have
end of the 1st. century the bishop seems
gradually acquiredpre-eminence, both as the one
who was
the guardian of the true teaching,and as
to the church
the specialrepresentativeof God
which he presided.
over
tion
Economic
forces may
have assistedin the formaof these groups,
but it is inaccurate to speak
the majority of
of them as proletarian. Doubtless
their members
slaves and poor workingmen,
were
who
also contained
but these early churches
those_
ence
possessed wealth and social standing. The influof the collegia(bodiessomewhat
resembling
also felt,but the prevailing
the later guilds)was
rather
motives leadingto membership were
religious
that they
evidence
is no
than economic.
There
the

were

Gospel

communistic.

centuries which
immediately followed the
tered
scatthese communities
death of the apostlessaw
basin
around the Mediterranean
growing
another.
It was
into closer relationships
with one
The

cities
in the smaller
that the churches
natural
around churches
should gradually
themselves
group
in some
metropolis,and it was also natural that in
such grouping the lines of the Roman
imperial
there
administration
should
be followed. Thus
of which the
bishoprics,
sprang
up the metropolitan
chief in the
east
were
Alexandria, Jerusalem,
Antioch,Ephesus, and later Constantinople; and
Rome.
These
in the
west
large metropolitan
churches,however, were not united into a complete
ecumenical
councils were
organization,although
held which supposedly representedthe entire body
of fact, however, no
of churches.
As a matter
fair representationof the more
council had any
distant churches.
By the 3rd. century we can see the development
of the idea of the Catholic
church, of Catholic
dogma, of the power of the bishop,of an authorita_

noteworthy

attempt to establish a conjunction of the church

and state in the Holy Roman
Empire, but despite
of such
the power
as
Gregory VII. and
popes
and popes as
Innocent
III.,the rivalryof emperors
the effort
well as of bishops and feudal lords made
Empire.
Roman
unsuccessful. See Holy

Catholic
During the Middle Ages the Roman
completed (except
conception of the church was
of the Pope speaking ex
that the infallibility
cathedra was
not made
dogma). This conceptionis
in brief:
united together for the profes"A body of men
sion
Christian faith and by participaof the same
tion
in the same
sacraments, under the governance
of local pastors, more
especiallyof the Roman
Pontiff,sole Vicar of Christ on Earth."
is determined
of this church
their sucthe Apostles and
cessors,
the regularityof their appointand upon
ment
depends the vahdity of the sacraments.
of this divine establishment,the
In consequence
Catholic
Roman
theologians regard the church
there arises
as
superior to civil power whenever
character.
dispute over matters of religious
The

government

by Christ, through

national movements
the rise of the new
of Christians
there appeared groups
broke with the imperial idea and organized
development of
state churches, each with its own
had grown
the great theologicalsystem which
up
during the Middle Ages. These state churches in
and
control
the
religious
thought
turn attempted to
lifeof the various states in which they were
ized,
organfound
themselves
and in consequence
soon
forced to take action against those who
were
regardedby them as heretical. On the continent
rule succeeded
of Europe the state churches
as
a
With

in
who

Europe

until very recent times in maintaining a high degree

the
of conformity. In England, however, where
democratic
than on the
more
history was
political
conformity
continent, the attempt to enforce
with increasing
met
opposition. A succession of
especiallyin England separated themselves
groups
from the established church,and gave rise to various
These in turn tended to
non-conforming churches.
until there developed today's general
subdivide
situation in the United States and Great Britain.
bidden
the democratic
In America
spirithas not only forthe existence of a state church, but has
organizations,
brought about absolute freedom in religious
and
the conception of the church
a
as
unit has disappeared in denominations.
ever,
all this process of subdivision,howtained.
the fundamental function of a church is maincarries on
church
The
worship, rehgious

Through

99

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

the administration of
be
value
with
whatever
they may
tain
Churches
of all sorts mainthought to contain.
have
of which
special
a
ministry,members
functions which are recognizedby most states,but
who are not of uniform status, varying accordingto
from priests
the conceptions of any given church
to preach.
to laymen chosen
Speaking generally,therefore,there is at the
present time a two-fold conception of the church.
church and that
One holds that there is a Cathohc
tianity.
this should be co-extensive with organized ChrisOn the other side is the view of those who
is strictlya local body, and
hold that a church
of spiritthat the true unity of the church is one
ual
See
fellowship with Christ.
Christianity;
Shailer Mathews
Bishop; Deacon.
and

moral

education, and

sacraments

ARMY.
An
nection
organization in conof England, founded
the Church
by
Carhle,1882, which conducts (1)evanthe
through lay workers
among
(2) social work
unemployed and deUnquent classes,
in the form of labor homes, employment bureaus,
lodging houses, cheap food depots, old clothes'
depots, dispensariesand an extensive emigration
CHURCH
with
Rev. Wilson
geUstic work

"

system.
CONGRESS."
An annual
CHURCH
of the clergyand laityof the Church
of
discuss rehgiousand ethical questions.

conference

England

to

The church established

CHURCH
OF ENGLAND."
mined
in England with relations to the state deterat
by parliament since the breach with Rome
the Reformation.
1. Origin and
continuity. Christianity was
introduced into Britain at least as early as the 3rd.
then of the
century, probably from Gaul, and was
oriental rather than the Roman
ing
type. The comof the English,drivingthe Britons before them,
almost extinguished it in the South; but it continued
until the British
to flourish in the North
coalesced with the
differences,
Church, after some
missionary church which Augustine had introduced
There
is difference of opinion
in the year
597.
polemical writers on the question of the
among
continuityof the church in spite of successive
national,theological,and constitutional changes.
its identity
The
Anglo-CathoUcs (q.v.)maintain
throughout primitive,mediaeval and modern times,
while some
Protestants
(e.g.,Schaff) confine the
of England" to the periodsubsequent
title "Church
under
This questo the settlement
Henry VIII.
tion
for it
is metaphysical rather than historical,
has been
the nature
of identity. There
turns
on
of the doctrine and discipUne
continuityin much
well as in the religiouslife of Christianityin
as
Cathohc,
England from the first;
so that the Roman
churches
Anglican, Methodist, and Nonconformist
less sucof today may
all be regarded as more
or
cessors
to the Mediaeval
Church, like the divisions
of a river at its delta.
But the Anglican Church
holds the cathedrals,parish churches, and other
ecclesiastical national
property, including tithes,
and, with the exception of the Roman
Cathohcs,
deviates least from ancient custom.
2. Establishment.
After the breach with Rome
under
Henry VIII. , again under Elizabeth, the
church
which
less connected
or
was
always more
the state, came
under
its direct control,
with
its "Supreme
acknowledging the sovereign as
Governor."
The Prayer Book with its doctrine and
ritual has been authorised by parUament and cannot
be altered without that authority. The bishops
and some
other church
dignitariesare appointed
nominallyby the sovereign,really by the prime
"

"

AND

ETHICS

Church

of

England

The
church
minister.
courts
are
subordinate to
of the civil government.
law courts
The
clergy
enjoy the fruits of the tithes,except where these
have been ahenated, and also of lands and other
vested in the hands of the "Ecclesiastical
propertiesnow
Commissioners,"a board of officials under
the state authority. Most
of the bishops have
of Lords.
seats in the House
The Archbishop of
Canterbury ranks as the first subject in the realm,
above
all the nobility. In the coronation
of the
King, and other state functions,such as that of
Chaplain of the House of Commons, it is only clergy
of England who conduct the requisite
of the Church
rehgious services.
and
administration.
The
3. Order
Anglican
church is Episcopal in its government, recognizing
the three orders of bishop,presbyter (orpriest),
and deacon.
There
two
are
at
archbishops, one
The
bishops
archCanterbury and the other at York.
presideat convocations of the clergyin their
respective provinces, but the establishment has
and
deprived the convocations of legislative
power
transferred
it to ParUament.
England is geographically
divided into parishes,
the incumbents
of
which have the rightsand duties of "corporations,"
be said that the unit of the church is
so that it may
the parish,rather than the diocese.
The presentation
of patrons, most
to hvings is in the hands
of
whom
laymen and
are
land-holders,although
and other bodies have the
bishops, universities,
of them.
Under the "Enabling
presentationof some
of self-management are
Act," 1920, new
powers
A National
conferred.
tuted
Assemblyhas been constiand the laityadmitted
to mcreased
bility.
responsiChurch
matters
to be managed by the
are
Council elected by an annual church meeting
parochial
of parishioners
who are members
of the C. of E.
4. Ritual.
The ritual of the Church
of Elngland is laid down in the "Book
of Common
Prayer,"
last revised in the reign of Charles II,according
as
the worship is conducted
to which
liturgically.
The rubric and prayers are based on pre-reformation
of service,largely modified
forms
by Protestant
divines so as to exclude distinctively
Roman
Catholic
doctrines and practices. In spiteof this fact,large
latitude is observed,the "advanced," or "ritualistic,"
"cathohc"
or
clergy reverting in a considerable
while the "Evangelical"
degree to ancient practices,
clergyadhere to simplerforms of worship,although
all use the same
Prayer Book.
5. Doctrine.
The
authorized
doctrine of the
Church
of England isthat of the whole content of the
Prayer Book, but it is more
especiallydefmed by
the 39 Articles and the homilies. The articles were
based on the Augsburg Confession and are due to
Lutheran
in parinfluence,that of Melanchthon
ticular,
but somewhat
modified by Calvinism
of a
mild type. They base their authorityon Scripture
and the three Creeds.
Anghcan divines of the 17th.
ity
authorcentury and later have also attached some
Fathers of the firstfour centuries.
to the Church
In point of fact the clergy enjoy great hberty of
belief and teaching,the Evangelicalsholdingby the
Articles and taking the Bible as almost their sole
more
authority,while the Anglo-Catholics make
of the ritualistic part of the Prayer Book and revive
ideas and practicesformally repudiatedas Roman.
Some
of the latter also accept principles
known
as
Church"
"Broad
both in bibhcal criticism and in
regard to politicaland social questions. There
are
some
High Church sociahsts.
All baptized citizens of the
6. Communicants.
nation who have undergone the rite of confirmation
to the communion
by their bishop have a right to come
in their own
parishor district church unless
inhibited by the incumbent
for immoral
conduct.
As a matter of fact many
clergyadmit to the rite
"

"

"

"

Church

of

England

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

other
denominations.
from
who
come
whom
Some
they
keep a roll of communicants
in private from
time to time.
endeavor
to meet
and
this is a voluntary arrangement
But
not
be said that practicallythe
universal.
It may
is open.
Therefore
communion
it is impossibleto
furnish any
statistics of the communicants
in the
of a
AngUcan church correspondingto the members
mate
Free church.
to estiAttempts have been made
the number
at
by counting the attendance
the Easter
Communion; but, though this is by
far the best attended
occasion,necessarilysome
habitual attendants would not be present. A rough
calculation suggests that the communicants
in the
Church
of England are about equal in number
to
those of the Nonconformist
churches.
bury
7. Synods. The two
convocations
of Canterand York
meet
for the
to advise legislation
church, which, however, can only be enforced by
Diocesan synods discuss their own
ParHament.
local affairs and deal with practicalquestions of
church
of the
work and the spiritualconcerns
diocese.
administrative
have
no
They
power.
The "Church
Congress" is a voluntary association
in
meeting annually to hear addresses and engage
discussions on
the religiousproblems of the time.
Once
ten
a
Pan-Anglican synod is
years
every
assembled, representativeof all branches of the
church
This
throughout the world.
AngUcan
also is wholly voluntary and
advisory. Actual
administrative
authority rests locally with the
parishclergyactingthrough the Councils mentioned
above. No. 3, and in the several dioceses with their
persons

"

"

"

AND

ETHICS

100

"Provided"
that is the AngUcan and other denominational
schools
were
granted an equal share of
aid from
the rates
with
the Non-Provided
or
Council Schools.
These acts gave rise to "passive
resistance" on
the part of people who
refused to
for reUgious teaching of which
rates
pay
they
Walter
F. Adeney
disapproved.
"

"

CHURCH
OF
GOD."
The
title assumed
by
several independent reUgious bodies
holding to
precisedoctrinal views which prevent them from
desiringfeUowship with the largerdenominations.
The most important with membership (in1919) are
the Church of God in Jesus Christ (Adventist)(3,457
of God
members); the Church
(Dunkers) (929
of God
members) ; the Church
(EvangeUstic)
(12,012members) ; the Church of God and Saints
of Christ (a colored body) (3,311members); the
Church
of God as Organized by Christ (227 members)
of God in N. A., General Eldership
; the Church
similar to the Dunkers) (25,847
(doctrinally

members).
CHURCH
OF
IRELAND."
The
Episcopal
church in Ireland which was
the established state
church until 1871 when it was
disestabUshed
under
the " Irish Church
Act."
CHURCH
OF
THE
LIVING
GOD."
A smaU
of colored Christians in the United
States,
tian
Chriscomprising,in 1919, two smaller bodies
Workers
for Fellowship (13,050 members) ;
and
General
Assembly, Apostolic (1,000 members).
sect

"

bishops.
The
main
8. Finance.
support of the clergy
is derived from the tithes which are
rent charges
all the land of the country, where they have not
on
The holder
been commuted
by a capitalpayment.
tithes of corn, hay, and
of the "great tithes,"i.e.,
wool, is designated "rector" of his parish. At the
Reformation, tithes of parisheswhich had been held
by the monasteries
amounting to about one-third
of the whole
were
given to court favourites and
other laymen as privateproperty, an action known
"the great pillage."The new
holders of these
as
tithes became
"lay rectors," and the spiritual
was
charge of the parishesconcerned
given to
Thus
therefore called "vicars."
clergy who were
it has come
about that the clergyman of one
parish
is a "rector," and
the clergyman of another
a
"vicar."
nance
In addition to the tithes for the maintethere
of the clergyand other church expenses
are
properties,
chieflyin land,administered by the
ecclesiastical commissioners, moneys
from "Queen
Anne's
Bounty," various local endowments, pew
in some
rents
churches, and offertories at the
services.
The higher education
is mainly
9. Education.
in the hands
of the Church
of England, although
and undenominational
there are some
nonconformist
schools.
Most
of the secondary schools receiving
government
grants are under pubUc control and
undenominational.
In
the
early 19th. century
the Church
of England provided elementary schools,
commonly known as "National Schools," in which
it gave
its own
teachings,and at
type of religious
the same
time "British Schools" were
provided by
the supporters of undenominational
teachings.
religious
The
Education
Act of 1870 created school
boards for building and maintaining schools all
the country at the pubUc expense except that a
over
small charge was
made
the parents. In 1876
on
school
attendance
made
was
compulsory, and
in 1891 free. At the same
time grants of public
funds were
made
of
of the Church
to the managers
schools.
In
England and other denominational
in London
1902
and 1903 in the country the
"

CHURCH
OF
SCOTLAND."
The Presbyterian
church in Scotland which was
made
the established
church by the Act of Union of 1707.
CHURCH

OF

THE

BRETHREN."

See

DuN-

EARDS.

"

CHURCH

"

"

New

OF

THE

NEW

Jerusalem, Church
CHURCH

FEDERATION."

bringingtogether local

or

JERUSALEM."

See

of.

The

process

of

denominationally organized

bodies of Christians.
Such federation differs
from organic union in that the federatingbodies
their respectiveexistence.
maintain
Thus, in the
of local churches,the members
case
the
constituting
receive members
constituent bodies may
of their
as
faith and order and make contributions to their
own
respectivedenominational
work, although arrangements
vary in the different local federated churches.
of local reUgious groups
Federation
is most
monly
comwhere the competo be found in small towns
tition
between
number
of Protestant
a considerable
churches has been deemed
and
expensivefinanciaUy
inefficient spiritually.
In a somewhat
more
generalsense, itis customary
to speak of the church federations of different towns.
the co-operationof the different
By this is meant
denominations
under more
less organized central
or
in certain tasks,generallyevangeUstic
management
social. It is more
or
however, to speak
common,
of such co-operatingbodies as Federal Councils or
Church
See Federal
Council
Federations.
of
Christ
Churches
THE
of
in America.
Shailer
Mathews
CHURCH
GOVERNMENT."
The theory and
practice of ecclesiastical organization. See also
Minister
Pastoral
and
Ministry;
Theology;
Order; Bishops; Priests; Deacons.
There
are
essentiallythree forms of church
in use, each claiming to follow the
government

primitivepractice.

101

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ment
TestaEpiscopal. It is held that the New
recognizes three orders of the clergy: (1)
are
men
Deacons, who
generally young
serving
kind of apprenticeshipand limited in authority
a
of
church.
when
in
even
a
charge
(2) Priests,the
clergyin charge of parishes,exercisinglargepowers,
(3) Bishops, having oversight of a considerable
number
of parishes,the entire district being known
diocese.
The
as
a
bishops have the sole right of
1.

ordination

"

and of confirmation.
Greek
Orthodox

Church;

See Roman

Church;

lic
CathoChurch

England.
The
and
Greek
Anglican church, the Roman
CathoUc,and other of the eastern churches have a
superiorrank (notorder)known as the Metropolitan
has wider territorial jurisdiction
or Archbishop, who
number
of dioceses generally comand governs
a
prised
in a major poUticalunit.
The Roman
lic
Cathochurch completes the hierarchical system with
the pope, who is the ruler of the entire church.
A modified form of episcopacy is maintained
by
the Methodist
Episcopal churches in the United
States,in which a body of bishops is elected to
each bishop
supervisethe work of the denomination,
being assignedfrom time to time to the oversightof
But he has no diocesan
certain groups of churches.
do the bishops constitute a separate
allocation nor
order of clergy.
2. Presbyterial.This is an attempt to reproduce
Testament
the practicesof the New
churches
in
of elders. Distinction
which there was
a plurality
between
the teachingelder,who is now
is made
the
ordained minister and preacher, and the ruling
elders who are laymen selected by the congregation
for their abilityin leadership. They together constitute
decide matters
the Session and
of ecclesiastical
The
whole
denomination
business.
is
organized in a series of ecclesiastical bodies having
and judicial
the Presbytery,the
legislation
powers,
Synod, and the General Assembly. See PresbyOP

"

AND

ETHICS

Circumcision
the provisi3n"pf
prop^rldy,;

church
and
church
necessities for the services and
order.

"

tne' maintenance

of

"

v,

The ceremony of
OF WOMEN."
thanksgiving after the birth of a child,the genesis
of which
the Levitical purification
was
ceremony
(Lev. 12:6).
CHURCHING

CHURCHYARD."
(1) The enclosed piece of
the
ground adjacent to a church; (2) technically,
burial ground within the enclosure.
CIBORrUM.

arch
altar.

(1) An

"

by four pillars,
over

an

supported
canopy,
ing
(2) A vessel contain-

the host.
CIRCUIT."

See Station.

CIRCUMAMBULATION."

walking around
times). When
indicates

an

the

The

object or
circuit

practice of
(usuallythree

person

is made

respect, loyalty and

sun-wise

reverence.

it
The

oppositecircuit is of ill-omen and when deliberately

indicates ill-will and disrespect. The practice
differs from the magic circle in that there
to be no idea of protectingthe objectinvolved.
seems
It was
the Hindus, Celts
especiallycommon
among
and Greco-Romans
though found also in America
done

and

the Semites.
While no
certain statement
be made as to its originit is probable that
it is connected with the observation of the movement
of the sun.
among
can

CIRCUMCISION."
A ritualisticaUy
significant
of the male
surgical operation for the removal
prepuce, or two operations on the female genitals.
The
of practicing circumcision
custom
is almost
non-Semites
in America,
universal,except among
known
and
observed
Europe and Asia. It was
the ancient Egyptians, the Hebrews, the
among
TERIANISM.
American
3. Congregational.'Upon the theory that each
Mohammedans, some
Indians, and some
African and Polynesian peoples. There are
local church
is a
self-governinginstitution,all
many
settled by the vote of the members.
surgicalmethods of performing the rite,which var}^
matters
are
from
the above definition,
but their purposes on the
ordained
ministers but have no
Preachers
as
are
whole are substantially
the same.
governmental authority. Deacons are elected from
1. Subjectsof circumcision.
The
the laityas associates of the minister in the spiritual
age at which
ately
leadership of the congregation. Congregational the rite was performed was almost always immedibefore or at puberty; but among
the Hebrews
churches
are
loosely organized into associations,
it was
set for male children on the eighth day after
conventions, congresses,
etc., but retain complete
and his household
Abraham
cised
circumpendency. birth.
Indewere
independence. See Congregationalism;
Yahweh's
as
Theodore
G. Scares
adults, except Ishmael, when
established (Gen. 17:23-27). Whenever
covenant
was
."The
ORDER
ecclesiastical constitution
a
CHURCH
foreignerwished to join with Israel in the
observance
of the passover
of a German
(Exod. 12:48), or to
a
state, which usually makes
he was
of the agreement of the State church with
intermarry with Israelites,
statement
obliged to be
circumcised
the Lutheran
a
(Gen. 34:14-24). It was
reproach
Confessions, followed by various
for an Israelite to remain uncircumcised
ecclesiastical regulations.
(Josh.5:9).
Extra-Israelitish peoples such
the Philistines
as
called "the uncircumcised"
PEACE
CHURCH
UNION."
An
31:4;
(I Sam.
organization were
founded
and
Judg. 14:3).
consisting of a board of trustees
cision
2. Reasons
miUion
dollars by Andrew
with
two
endowed
Though circumfor circumcision.
distinctive mark
of Jews, it was
of which
is to interest the
stricted
rewas
a
Carnegie, the purpose
Its office is at
in international
churches
nearly every other people to certain
peace.
among
York City.
ancient Egyptians, priestsand
70 Fifth Ave., New
classes,
e.g., among
warriors had to accept the rite; in Madagascar
REGISTER."
A church book which
CHURCH
today circumcision is required of a soldier or an
official. In the early church the Judaizers declared
of accounts, but
be a book
of liturgies,
or
may
usuallydesignatingthe book in which are registered it,and the Gentiles denied it,as a necessary prerequisite
and
in the
for church
membership;
births,removals, and
baptisms,marriages,funerals,
council the Gentiles won
their case
records of discipline.
sometimes
(Acts 15:1, 5,
peoples the legaland social
28, 29). Among some
is conditioned on circumcision,as
See Union, Church.
status
CHURCH
UNION."
of a man
African
the Turks
and
Malays. Some
among
from society,and
tribes exclude the uncircumcised
WARDEN."
In
the Episcopal
CHURCH
churches
the United
admit no one
either to their councils or to the rights
in the British Empire and
of inheritance unless he has submitted to the rite.
States,a lay officialwhose duties are the care of the
"

"

"

Circumcision, Feast

of the

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

of-iki
vrigin. These are numerous.
plausibletheories are:
(1) a sanitary
for marriage, (3) con))i*oviis6h,-'"(3X
a'prepfi^tio^
8e?!rit,'ono' the generaiive*^owers,
(4)a condition of
social and legalstanding, (5) a tribal distinction,
community, (7) mark
(6) initiation into a Hebrew
of Israel's covenant
relation to Yahweh, (8) sacrifice
circumcision is rarely
to a tribal deity. Female
connected
with any religious
observance.
"3.'Theories

Tlhe

"

more

Ira M. Price
FEAST
OF THE."
A festival
Jan. 1st. in commemoration
of the
of Jesus.

CIRCUMCISION,
observed
on
circumcision

CISTERCIANS."
A R.C. monastic
order, also
known
the Grey or White
as
Monks, dating from
1098 when
tery
Robert, a Benedictine,founded a monasat Cistercium.
Rapid development ensued
because
of the influence of Bernard
of Clairvaux
often
members
of the order are
(q.v.),whence
known
Bernardines.
A rigidobservance of the
as
Benedictine
rule was
the 12th.
prescribed. From
to the 15th. centuries the Cistercians were
most
and influential. The rise of the mendicant
numerous
orders
involved
the decline of Cistercian
influence.
There
stillexist about 100 monasteries
of the order.
CITY-GOD.

"

patron deity of

deity who was regardedas the

over
particularcity as Athena

Athens.
CITY
technical

MISSIONS."

The

is used

term

in

signifythe organizedco-operative
activityof a group of churches usuallyof the same
communion
of a city,or of a city and its suburbs,
or
along educational,philanthropic,ecclesiastical,
rehgioushues.
City Missions are differentiated from the work
of an individual citychurch, in that there are representative
of a group
of churches,
ideallyall the
and
of a given communion
of a city
its
churches
in being municipal
Missions
suburbs; from Home
rather than national in its field of service;and from
Church
Federations
in that
usually
they are
denominational, though often, broadly cathoUc
in spiritand non-sectarian
in much
of the work
which
they undertake.
In

sense

to

acquired this technical

the

ETHICS

102

associate in co-operativeundertakings in behalf of

the rehgious hfe of the city.
Denominational
City Mission
organizations
into being about fiftyyears ago in
began to come
found
to that social compunction which
response
expression a few years later in organized charity
and stilllater in the social
and social settlements
service of the municipahty itself. The entrance
of
other agenciesinto the field has modified from time
to time the distinctive task of the denominational
City Mission organization.
The evolution of City Missions during the past
generation has been essentiallyas follows: in
palUativeand remedial efforts in behalf of the very
ing
met to an increaspoor whose physicalneeds are now
table
degree by the municipahty or by specialchariorganizations:in redemptive effort to reach
and
the "fallen,"
and out," the "Flotsam
the "down
Jetsam"
of societyespecially
through Rescue Halls
denominationa
and Homes
which are now
quitelargelyon an interties
communibasis; in churching new
be kept
that the institutions of rehgion may
to the requirements of rapidly growing communities,
up
although such church activityoccupies
a
relativelysmaller part of the attention of the
City Mission organizationsin the older and larger
tianizing
cities than formerly; in Americanizing and Chrisnew-Americans
especiallythrough the
mother-tongue of a particular people,largelya
in checkingthe
development of recent
years;
where they
rout of the churches
from communities
needed
is impracmost
but where self-support
are
ticable
and
local leadei'ship
inadequate a work
which
City Mission organizationshave not
many
Several denominations
are
ing
spendyet undertaken.
considerable
in organized City Mission
sums
work.
These
the tasks of denominational
are
City
Mission
undertaken
in the attempt
organizations,
to objectifythe principles
taught by Jesus Christ
and to reincarnate
his spiritin intimate,direct,
social,educational,and philanthropic ministries.
cils
Through interdenominational
City Mission CounChurch
"the twin sins of overFederations
lapping
or
and
neglect" in City Mission work are
and in a few instances two or more
being overcome
been
denominations
have
brought into definite
Church
shall
Federations
co-operation. When
ministries
become
have
effective certain
more
performed by City Missions will be undertaken
Sears
Hatch
in a largerfellowship. Charles
"

not
has
In others it is
used in a more
restricted sense
to refer only to certain
ministries of mercy,
ameliorative efforts in behalf
of the poor
unfortunate, particularlyin
giVA. See Shiva.
or
public institutions. This is frequently its use in
CLAIRVOYANCE."
Terms
Inner
the Episcopal Church.
In Lutheran
CLAIRAUDIENCE,
usage
connotation
connected
with
Mission
as
spirituahsm (q.v.), indicating
(q.v.)has about the same
of the
to hear and to see disembodied
spirits
CityMissions,as here defined,and City Missions is
power
used in the narrow
dead.
to include only benevolent
sense
charitable work.
or
ASSIZE
OF."
See Assize
have grown
out of a
op
City Mission organizations
CLARENDON,
Clarendon.
certain
and
attendant
municipal consciousness
of community
sense
responsibilitythe recognition
CONSTITUTIONS
See
that there are social problems peculiarto great
OF."
CLARENDON,
of
Constitutions
Clarendon.
cities which
will not
of
yieldto rural methods
content
social distreatment.
Poverty, irrehgion and
FREEMAN
bred in the laissez faire atmosphere
are
JAMES
(1810-1888)."
CLARKE,
which
has been carried over
Unitarian
from country village Influential
American
preacher and
into the complex growing city where
economic
scholar,who interpretedreligionin a broad cosinterested in applying
well-beingand respectabiUtyon the one hand and
mopohtan spiritand was
misery and crime on the other,each seeks its own
Christianityto social problems, e.g., the slavery
Great
and the
work
is Ten
place and where the checks and restraints,
problem. His best known
individual sense
of the obHgations of neighborliness Religions.
of the country villagemay
The
be found.
not
NEWTON
CLARKE, WILLIAM
(1841-1912)."
necessityof organized social effort to meet pecuUar
American
being recognized. Success in
Baptist theologian;an influential exponent
cityconditions is now
of liberal orthodoxy, giving to traditional
the desire and
City Missions is dependent upon
consistent with
doctrines spiritualinterpretations
to
abilityof the churches of a given communion
some

denominations

AND

term

meaning.

"

103

modern
and

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ing
knowledge. His literarystylewas charmwritingsspiritually
inspiring. His most
important works are Outline of Christian Theology,
and The Christian Doctrine of God.
his

In certain Reformed
CLASSIS.
churches, an
ecclesiastical court, comprising ministers and ruling
"

elders,correspondingto a Presbyterianpresbytery
and
a
having a status between
consistory and
synod.
CLASS-MEETING."

feature

UNCLEAN."

See

ETHICS

Clergy

to the Greeks, The

Tutor, The Miscellanies,Who
is the Rich Man
that can
be Saved?
and the (now-

lost)Outlines. He left Alexandria in a.d. 203 and

died between
211 and 216.
a.d.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
CLEMENT
OF ROME
(ca.a.d. 40-97)." The
third head of the Roman
church, author of Epistle
of the Church
at Rome
to the Church
at Corinth,
written about a.d. 95 to restore order in the Corinthian
church, in which oppositionto the authority
of the church officers had developed.

of Methodism

whereby a congregation is divided into groups or

each with a class-leader who has the oversight
classes,
welfare of the members
of the spiritual
of his
class. The
meetings of the class are designed to
promote rehgious development and to give opportunity
for maintaining discipUne.
CLEAN
AND
Purification.

AND

CLEMENTINE
LITERATURE."
Writings
ascribed to Clement
of Rome, purporting to represent
Petrine teaching as Clement
said to be a
was
discipleof Peter. The hterature includes the socalled Second Epistleof Clement,two
Epistles on
Virginity,the Epistleto James, the Homilies and
and the ApostolicConstitutions.
Recognitions,

Defilement

CLERGY.
A
within
the Christian
group
Church
appointed and usuallyordained
particularly
Stoic philosopherof the 3rd.
CLEANTHES."
to conduct
public worship, administer the sacraments,
to Zeno
leader of the
and carry on in general the work of the
successor
as
century b.c;
school.
A magnificenthymn
to Zeus
church.
reveals his
See Order, Holy.
See Stoicism.
religiouspower.
Strictlyspeaking, the early Christian Churches
had no clergyand laity,
but all Christians possessed
The name
CLEMENT."
of 14 popes and 2 antiequal privilegein the presence of approach to God,
tributed
although differingaccording to the divinely disF"opes.
Clement //.- Pope, 1046-1047.
gifts. See Charismata.
Clement III."Fope, 1187-1191.
On the basis of these giftswere
officialswhose
business was
Clement I v." Pope, 1265-1268.
the spiritual
tion
development and educaClement
V.
the
of others in the local groups
of Christians.
Pope, 1305-1314, removed
These came
to be known
papal seat to Avignon, 1309.
as
Bishops or Presbyters,
VI.
and Deacons, as well as Apostles,Teachers, and
Clement
^Pope,
1342-1352,strovefor unity
with the Armenian
Evangehsts. By the 2nd. century, the influence
church; proclaimed a crusade
of the Old Testament
in 1343.
priesthoodand the universal
VII.
Clement
tion
world
resulted
priesthood in the Graeco-Roman
Antipope, d. 1394. His elecin the separation of those
in 1378 in opposition to Urban
VI. began
performing specific
duties in the church
the great schism in the west.
from the rest of the church
Clement
F//." Pope, 1523-1534, had
been
istic
charactermembers, and they began to assume
and the powers
of priests. As
dress,insignia,
practically
papal administrator under Leo X., but
himself a weak, narrow
the CathoUc
He made
was
churches, both Greek and especially
no
pope.
the Roman, developed, the distinction between
the
strong effort to deal with the Reformation, and
the English
during his reign the schism between
clergyand others,that is,the laityincreased. The
and Roman
churches
occurred.
to be regarded as constituting
clergycame
an
order,
Clement
entrance
to which was
F///." Antipope, 1425-1429.
conditioned upon
the divine
election through the church and the possessionof
Clement
VIII." Pope, 1592-1605, obtained the
readmission
transmitted
of Jesuits who had been expelledfrom
of
through the succession
grace
France.
the revised edition
Bishops from the Apostles. Privilegeswere
corded
acDuring his pontificate
them
of the Vulgate was
ture
completed and Catholic literaEmperor and through
by the Roman
the Middle Ages they constituted an estate distinct
Bruno's
execution
expanded. Giordano
was
from that of the nobiUty on the one
in his reign.
side and the
town's people on
Clement IX."
the other.
Pope, 1667-1669.
They were
exempt
from the jurisdiction
Clement Z." Pope, 1670-1676.
of the laityand were
possessed
Clement XI.
of various
other privileges.They were
divided
Pope, 1700-1721, a scholar,and
of letters;promulgated the Bull, Unigenitus
into two
man
classes,the higher clergy,including all
in 1713 againstJansenism.
ing
Bishops and Priests;and the lower clergy,includClement XII.
acolytes,exorcists and other minor officials.
Pope, 1730-1740,sought reunion
with the Greek church; encouraged art and literaIn the Roman
Cathohc
ture.
Church, the clergy is still
further divided into the regular clergy or monks
Clement XIII."
who are in holy orders,and the secular clergy,
which
Pope, 1758-1769.
demerit
A7F."
includes the priestswho have parishesand are not
Pope, 1769-1774, sigticd the
brief in 1773 by which
the Jesuit order was
solved. in any monastic order.
disof the
In the Protestant churches,the position
clergy with relation to other church members
CLEMENT
OF
ALEXANDRIA
varies somewhat.
In the Anglican Church, the
(ca.a.d. 150and teacher of Origen,
215). Pupil of Pantaenus
holyorders are preservedand the clergyare regarded
dist,
leading Christian scholar and writer,head of the
as
priests. In the Lutheran, Reformed, Methocatechetical
school
Alexandria.
A
at
convert
bodies,
Baptist and other dissentingreligious
from paganism, Clement
there is no recognitionof orders beyond the official
was
widely read in Greek
well
Christian
and
Jewish
in
as
certain
and
as
act of appointing a man
literature,
(or woman
exhibited remarkable
minister and pastor.
as
hospitahty to truth wherever
denominations), to serve
he found it. He sought to relate Christianity
to
Generally such persons are formally inducted into
the best elements
in philosophy and in this way
Like ministers in holy
office after examination.
did much
to prepare
the way for Christian theology. orders they are regarded in law as possessingcertain
His principal
works
The
were
Hortatory Address
legalrights,
marriage,
as, for example, of celebrating
AND

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Clericalism

but
set

DICTIONARY

of the churches

in the eyes

are

OF

RELIGION

simply laymen

apart for the performance of certain duties in

of the church

the furtherance

life.
Shailer

ETHICS

AND

104

Theodore
De Beze (Beza) from 1562-81.
It contains
the gospels (Matt., John, Luke, Mark), the
end of III John
(Latin only), and most of Acts
and Latin.
in Greek
Its text is the erratic type
It is now
known
in the libraryof the
Western.
as
University of Cambridge.

Mathews
The
pohcy of controUing
and administeringthe essential functions of social
and pohtical life by the clergy as officials of the
CODEX
EPHRAEMI
RESCRIPTUS."
A 5th.
church.
divinely authorized
form of ecclesiasticism,century parchment manuscript in uncial letters,
is an extreme
Clericahsm
containingthe Old and New Testaments
originally
distrustingand discreditingall secular forms of
belief
in Greek, but becoming dilapidated
and probably
the
social
organization. Starting from
faded by the 12th. century. Many
leaves of the
that the church is the supreme
authority ordained
parchment were lost and the rest reinscribed with a
by God, clericalism is inclined to sacrifice all other
Greek version of treatises of Ephraem the Syrian,
considerations
to that of ecclesiastical supremacy.
contains various scatthat the manuscript now
social and political
life has developed
tered
Since modern
so
ism
portions of its originalcontents, mostly of
freedom, clericalso
largelyon the basis of religious
the New
has been regarded as an obstructive force,and
Testament, in a text curiously mixed.
has received
sinister meaning. If,
the name
a
SINAITICUS."
A 4th. century parchCODEX
ment
however, the premisesof ecclesiasticism be admitted,
of
clericahsm is only an especiallyconsistent way
manuscript of great textual excellence of the
in Greek, found
and
Testaments
Old
New
of the church.
by
securingthe supremacy
St. Catherine's
Tischendorf
at
Convent, Mt.
ment,
REGULAR."
The name
CLERKS
given by the
Sinai,in 1859, and includingwith the Old Testasomewhat
R.C. church to clerics who are engaged in the regular
now
fragmentary, certain apocryphal
to the
time conform
clerical duties and at the same
writings; and with the New
Testament,
the Epistleof Barnabas and part of the Shepherd of
rule of a community.

CLERICALISM."

Hernias.

Originally,the enclosing wall of

A 4th. century parchVATICANUS."
within the
CODEX
ment
a rehgioushouse; then, the monastery
within
area
manuscript (so called from having belonged
enclosure; latterly,the quadrilateral
since the end of the 15th. century to the Vatican
a
rehgious house about which the buildings are
provided with a
Library),containing except for a few gaps, especially
grouped, and which is customarily
at the beginning and end, the Old and New
covered ambulatory connectingthe various buildings.
in Greek, in a text of remarkable
Testaments
excellence.
CLOVIS
(ca. 466-511)." King of the Franks,
who
married Clotilda, a Burgundian Christian
TAYLOR
SAMUEL
(1772-1834).
COLERIDGE,
princess. By her influence Clovis was baptized as
English poet and philosopher,who exercised a
496, and with him 3000
Christian,Christmas
a
wide influence on
the protector of the church,
religiousthinking early in the
Franks.
He became
CLOISTER.

"

"

and

in 511

the council of Orleans.

convoked

the stimulus
of German
Under
19th. century.
idealistic philosophy he expounded rehgion on
the
and rational principlesin contradistinction
basis of moral
to the appeal to external
authority,
and liberalizing
of
and thus aided in the vitalizing
Christian ideals.

A R.C. order
OF."
of the monastery at
Cluny. The Cluny Monastery was founded in 910
by William I. the Pious. From 910 to 1157 Cluny
and was
ruled by a succession of strong men,
was
GASPARD
DE
(1519-1572)."
COLIGNY,
the mainspring of religiousvitality in Europe.
French
admiral and Huguenot leader; strove to
of
houses adopted the manner
Several Benedictine
obtain religious
hberty; was killed in the massacre
Benedictines.
But
Cluniac
life,hence the name
of St. Bartholomew's
day (q.v.).
the order is in every respect independent. The rise
orders effected the
of the Cistercians and mendicant
COLLECT."
(1) A brief prayer, frequently
had become
of the Cluny order,which
decadence
one
zeal. It was
solved only one
dissentence, supphcating for some
wealthy and had lost its religious
or
AngHcan
specificblessing. (2) In the Roman
in 1790.
before the reading
the prayer which comes
liturgies,
Theologian, born, of the Gospel and Epistlefor the day, so designated
COCCEITJS, JOHANNES."
because it epitomizesor collectstheir teaching.
In
Bremen, August 9, 1603, died, Leyden, 1669.

CLUNY,

presidedover

CONGREGATION
by the abbot

fessor
Prohe became
1650, after a distinguishedcareer
works
He published
of Theology at Leyden.
the Hebrew
important, a
on
language and, more
treatise upon
theology in which he set forth the
Federal Theology (q.v.).
so-called Covenant
or

COLLECTIVISM."

See Socialism.

APOSTOLIC"
of persons
the
task.
Hence
common
apostles of Jesus, conceived

COLLEGE,

law

meant

group

Coite^iumin Roman
co-operatingin a
application to the
authoritative

CODEX
A manuscript in book form of large
round
characters
(uncial); used particularlyin
Testament
New
manuscripts.

body.

CODEX
ALEXANDRINUS."
A
5th. century
Greek parchment manuscript,so called from having
once
belonged to the patriarchateof Alexandria.
and the
Testaments
It contains the Old and New
worth.
Epistlesof Clements in a text of moderate

CARDINALS.
the R.C.
-In
OF
COLLEGE
church the council or senate which is composed of
six cardinal
bishops, fifty cardinal priests and
The cardinals elect the
fourteen cardinal deacons.
the ecclesiastical administration
continue
pope,
during an interregnum,and act as the papal advisory
body. Also called the Sacred College.

"

CODEX

AMIATINUS."

See

manuscript

A 6th. century parchment

BEZAE.
called from
so
having belonged to
"

an

Amiatintjs,Codex.
OR
COLLOQIUM."
conference for the discussion of
there are
points of
matters, where

COLLOQUY

CODEX

as

formal
(1) An intheological

differencQ.

105

(2) A term formerly used

in the Reformed
Genevan

for classis
church.

OF

DICTIONARY

or

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Comte, August

presbytery individuals. Communism

sociahsm

which

holds

to

thus differsfrom Marxian

collective ownership of

capital.
SAINT

COLUMBA,
From

563
Picts,and

who

he was
Abbot

(521-597)." Irish monk.

missionary to the Scots and

of lona.

SAINT
COLUMBAN,
(543-615)." Irish monk,
preached in France, Switzerland and Italy. He

was

classical scholar and writer.

COMFORT."
That
which
conduces
toward
a
condition
of freedom
from
physical or psychical
toward
the
of
satisfaction
felt need.
pain or
a
of comReHgion is variouslyconceived as a source
fort
through fellowshipwith God.
COMMANDMENTS."
the
Hebrew
(1) In
Decalogue.
rehgion, see
(2) Of the Roman
church, six commandments, including observance
of mass
and church festivals,
of the fasts,
of auricular
at least once
a
confession,of communion
year,
ance
preferablyat Easter,support of pastors and observof church regulationsin marriage. (3) In the
Greek
of the
church, nine precepts are demanded
faithful.
COMMENIUS.

See Bohemian

"

Brethren.

ECCLESIASTICAL."
In the
church
ecclesiastical bodies, estabUshed by
law for the exercise of specific
offices committed
to them, either ecclesiastical or theological.

COMMISSIONS,
R.C.
canon

Communistic
experiments have always been
less in evidence since primitiveciviUzation
or
and communistic
have
been elaborated
programs
writers since Plato.
Most notable among
by many
such writers in modern
times have
been
Babeuf
during the French
Revolution, Robert
Owen,
Lenine.
Various
have
attempts at communism
been made
by mendicant
orders,reUgious bodies
hke the Brethren of the Free Spirit
(13th.century),
Adamites
in Bohemia
baptists
(15th. century), the Anaof Munster, Moravians, Shakers.
said that the primitiveJerusalem
It is sometimes
church practicedcommunism, but such a description
is misleading. The societywas
not economic
and their "having things in common"
rather
was
of excessive voluntary charity doubtless
form
a
due to their expectation of the immediate
return
Shailer
of Christ.
Mathews
'

more

COMPACTATA.

An agreement consummated
trant
Basel,Nov. 1536,by which recalciBohemians
accorded the rightto administer
were
of a
the Communion
in both kinds, assured
strict exercise of disciplineover
the clergy
paore
and guaranteed
in respect to temporalities,
especially
a more
tent
generous provisionof preaching by compepriests.
at the Council

COMPARATIVE

"

of

RELIGION."

method

of

studying reUgionswhich consists of gathering from

world-wide
sources
apparently similar forms,
under
and
IDIOMATUM."
COMMUNICATIO
municationbeliefs and customs
"Compresenting them
of the attributes";in Lutheran
theology certain static groupings or rubrics arranged in a
the statement
of the Christological
doctrine which
supposed order of development. Its chief service
to the religious
sciences was
declares that the propertiesof either nature
to show the necessity
may
of a
better method.
All broad
be transmitted
to the other in the divine-human
generalizations
abandoned
when
students
to realize
Christ.
The doctrine was
were
came
employed to support the
that every
religionand every religiousform and
theory of the omnipresence of Christ's human nature
belief must
be studied in its own
in connection with the eucharist.
peculiarcultural
and geneticsetting. See Science
Religion.
of
COMMUNION."
gious
(1) An interchange of reliCOMPLACENC
Y." Self-satisfaction. In
thought and emotion.
(2) The ordinance of
the Lord's supper
the celebration of it. (3) A
theology,satisfaction with or approval of a person
or
Love
of its inherent virtue.
sect of Christians,holding to a common
or
object on account
or
group
of complacency, e.g., that of God for Christ has been
doctrinal or ecclesiastical standard,as the AngUcan
contrasted
with love of compassion, e.g., that of
communion.
(4) In the R.C. church, an antiphon
recited by the priestafter the ablutions following God for sinners.
the celebration

of

mass.

COMMUNION,

HOLY."

See Lord's

Supper.

COMPLIN."
last R.C.
canonical
The
hour,
so-called since the 6th. century.
As Prime
was
their
the monks'
morning prayer. Complin was
It consists of the General Confession,
night prayer.
lucis
"Te
Absolution, three psalms, the hymn
ante
demittis,"
terminum," the canticle "Nunc
the evening
and oration.
It is sometimes
as
sung
service in Church
instead of Vespers.

COMMUNION
OF
SAINTS."
One
of the
of faith expressed in the Apostles'
affirmations
Creed.
it is interpretedto mean
In Catholicism
a
spiritualfellowshipincluding,not only believers
on
earth, but also the souls in purgatory and the
saints in heaven.
Real
reciprocity is possible
agreement
individuals
in this all-inclusive sphere.
between
COMPROMISE."
(1) An adjustment of a disconcessions on the
of mutual
Living persons may benefit those who have departed,
by means
such
When
and may
invoke aid from the saints. In Protestantan
ism
part of the parties concerned.
the conception is usually so explained as to
adjustment involves the rehnquishment of principles,
exclude definite deeds or rites directed toward
it may
unethical.
Hence
the
become
(2) popularly,
one's
action which
throws
departed.
suspicion on
ethical motives.
(3) In ecclesiastical law, the
COMMUNION
WITH
THE
DEAD."
See
transfer of a legalright,as the rightof nomination
tion
of the rightof elecNecromancy.
to a benefice;or the commitment
by the collegeof cardinals to a sub-committee.
THE
COMMUNION
WITH
DEITY."
See
AUGUST
losopher,
(1798-1857)."French phiCOMTE,
Mysticism; Prayer; Sacrifice.
of Positivism
the founder
(q.v.). His
of
social
and
COMMUNISM.
A theory
chief works
the
Positive Philosophy, the
nomic
ecowere
organizationwhich substitutes for the right Positive Polity,the Posilivist Catechism,and the
of private property ownership by the community
SubjectiveSynthesis. The religiousexpression of
his system is the Religionof Humanity in which
and distributes products of labor equally among
"

Conception

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

collective humanity is worshiped as the "Great

Being," and an elaborate ritual is enjoinedembodying
various successive consecrations
vidual to service for humanity.

of the

inoi-

AND

ETHICS

106

German

states
(1824-39),Austria (1855, repealed
1870), Spain (1523, 1640, 1737, 1753, 1851, 1860,
Shailer
Mathews
1904).

CONCUBINAGE."
THE
Conception.

CONCEPTION,
Immaculate

See

IMMACULATE."

A
CONCEPTUALISM."
pounded
logical theory exby Abelard (q.v.)as a mediating position
stated
nominahsm
and
between
realism, which
that concepts or general ideas have an existence in
the mind though there is no correlative existence in
ments
reaUty, and that these concepts are the instruof knowledge.

tioned
Cohabitation,
legallysanc-

and woman
not
or
not, of a man
vaUdly
married
Such cohabitation was
(seeNe Tbmere).
countenanced
in the O.T. as well as among
the
Greeks
and Romans, and even
Christians
among
tillthe Middle
Ages, though clandestine marriage
condemned
was
as
early as the time of Ignatius
the
time
the
Catholic Church
Martyr. From
began to impose celibacyon the clergy,any cleric's
cohabitation with a woman
considered
was
cubinage.
con-

CONCLAVE."
(1) A meeting of a group of
in secrecy
or
privacy. (2) The sacred
when
assembled for
collegeof cardinals,especially
the election of a pope.
(3) Also the apartment in
is kept locked
which
which the cardinals convene
until the election is complete, a custom
dating
from 1274.

CONCUPISCENCE."
Inordinate
sexual
sion,
paswhich Augustine and various R.C. theologians
considered
evidence
of the depravity of human
other
scholastic
nature.
writers
Aquinas and
desire in
employed the term to connote
sensuous
the broader sense.

The collective documents

BOOK
OF."
of the Lutheran
confession,comprising the
creeds,the Augsburg
Apostles',
Nicene, and Athanasian
the
Confession, the Apology of the same,
Schmalkald
chisms
Articles,the Large and Small Cateof Concord.
of Luther and the Formula

and

persons

CONCURSUS."

CONCORD,

The most
FORMULA
OF."
plete
comof the Lutheran
confessions,
promulgated in
1580 with a view to uniting the various parties
embittered
within Lutheranism
who had become
by
doctrinal dissension.
It consists of two parts, the
Epitome and the Solid Declaration,each of twelve
the first making a statement
of, and the
sections,
second giving the argument for,Lutheran
doctrines.
Faith.
See Confession
of

CONCORD,

CONCORDANCE."
An
alphabeticalarrangement
the
of the words used in any work, especially
in
which
each
all
the
occurs.
Bible,showing
passages
This was firstdone for the Latin Vulgate in a.d. 1244.
of the Old Testament
There are excellent concordances
in Hebrew
(Davidson, Bagster, Mandelkern)
and in Greek
(Hatch-Redpath) and of the New
toric
in Greek
Testament
(Moulton-Geden). The hisconcordance
of the EngUsh Bible is that of
Alexander
Cruden
(firsted., 1738) but Young's
Analytical Concordance
(1879-84) and Strong's
Exhaustive
Concordance
modern
(1894) are more
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
EngUsh works.
_

CONCORDAT.

between

"

formal

agreement

or

A scholastic term
CONDIGNITY."
indicating
that with supernaturalaid man
may Uve in such a
way

as

to

merit

for meritorious

life.

eternal

denotes

congruity (q.v.)which

Used, in
a

contrast

natural

to

capacity

Uving.

CONDITIONAL
IMMORTALITY."
The
view
that immortality is not possessedby all by virtue
of their humanity, but that it is possibleonly for
those who
have acquired certain spiritualpowers
and characteristics due to divine salvation.
See
Future
of.
Life, Conceptions
CONDUCT."
Activityor behavior judged by
social standards, and
moral
thus rendering a
or
liable to approval or
disapproval. See
person
Ethics.
CONFERENCE."

In

assembly of ministers

Protestant

churches,an

cussion
laymen or both for disof church
or deliberation concerningmatters
business or theology. In the R.C. church the name
applies to a conference of priests. In Methodist
polity it designates the official assemblies of the
church, e.g., the General Conference.
or

treaty

the Pope of Rome

intended to formulate
to the disputed
a decision as
Catholic Church
in the sovereign's
rightsof the Roman
some

(1) The doctrine of Augustine

Calvin that man,
previous to his fall,
was
served
prein spiritual
perfectionby the aid of God.
(2) The theoryof the co-operationof God or the
First Cause with second causes
in the processes
of
and history.
nature

sovereign and

country.
The oldest of such agreements is the Concordat of
Worms
(September 23, 1122) drawn between Henry
V. and Pope Calixtus,by which there was
ended the
so-called War of Investiture.
Perhaps the most celebrated of such Concordats
is that drawn
by Napoleon I. and Pius VII. (1801).
chief provisionsof the seventeen
The
articles of
this agreement
those making the Roman
were
Catholic Church
amenable
the
to civil regulations,
relinquishingthe Church's claims to property sold
during the Revolution, assuring it support from
the State, and
of bishops.
reducing the number
remained
This Concordat
in force until its repeal
by the French Republic in 1905.
Concordats
have been made
all
by practically
most
European nations. The
were
important
those with Bavaria (1817), Prussia (1821), other

CONFESSION."

The

acknowledgment, either

entitled to hear,of
sinful or criminal action.
annual confession was
In the Hebrew
an
religion
required on the Day of Atonement
by the chief
also enjoined to
priest,whereat individuals were
the
confess.
In
New
Testament
confession
is
mentioned.
enjoined,although only occasionally
With
the development of church
fession
condiscipline,
became
of securing
recognizedas a means
remission of post-baptismalsins,
and the church prescribed
(q.v.)whereby the penitentscould
penance
accompUsh reconciliation. Today the R.C. church
demands
the confession of "mortal"
sins. It is
not necessary
to confess "venial" sins although religious
lead the penitentvoluntarilyto
devotion may
do so.
The canonical age for beginningconfession is
In the Eastern church confession is obligaseven.
tory.
The Lutheran
and Anglican churches teach
that
suffices,
public confession and absolution
although auricular confession is still practised
or privatelyto
publicly

person

107

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Confession

of Faith

positionof the ecumenical

creeds,have published
frequentlyin very considerable detail their
theological
positions.
CONFESSION
OF
formal
FAITH."
A
and
1. Early dissentingconfessions.The oldest of
the important confessions
is doubtless
that of
systematic organizationof the religiousbeUefs of
Christian group
for definingits purpose
the Waldenses
and determining
a
(the 14th. century and possibly
its membership.
of other confessions
well as a number
ear her), as
issued subsequentlyby the same
The term
is also used for the simpleavowal of
the most
group,
faith in God or Christ,and in this sense
is antecedent
important of which is that of the Waldensian Confession
to the organizationof what
in 1855.
in 1655, reaffirmed
In
1431
properly be called
may
In a more
which
a creed.
set
particularsense
appeared the Confessio Taboritarum
martyrs were
said to be confessors in that they testified pubUcly
forth the extreme
This
positionof the Hussites.
in turn was
followed by thirty-four
to their faith in Jesus through their death.
Bohemian
fessions
conof faith,perhaps the most
Technicallyspeaking confessions of faith differ
important of
from the creeds in that they belong to particular which are the so-caUed
First Bohemian
Confession
rather than to Christians generally,
include
presented to George, Margrave of Brandenburg in
groups
than is regarded as indispensable
for salvation, 1532 (resivedin 1535), and the Second Bohemian
more
and are not used in pubUc worship. In most
and
cases
Confession (1575) in which both Lutherans
Calvinists
addressed
to
milian
Maxithey have been the result of controversy born of
agreed. It was
the separation of some
less dissatisfied
II.
more
or
2. Lutheran confessions.Among the Lutherans
group from a parent body, and are intended to make
there have been a series of confessional pubUcations.
in
plain the position of the newly formed group
distinction from
it
that of the body from
which
In 1529 appeared the fifteen articles of the Marburg
Conference drawn
separated.
by Luther and intended to
up
define the position of the German
reformers
as
Generally speaking, however, confessions as
distinct from the creeds are the result of the Reformation
over
againstthat of Zwingh. The Marburg Articles
later enlarged and presented to the Lutheran
and the consequent organizationof State
were
and
Churches
princes as the Seventeen Articles of Schwabach.
subsequent independent groups.
followed
They have been made a basis for church discipline, These in turn were
by the Articles of
and naturally were
carried into very considerable
T organ (1530),also put out by Luther and Melanchamong

Church.

certain adherents
of
See Confessional.

OF

the

High

Anglican

eral

"

"

detail. Various
and
thon. In 1530 at the Diet of Augsburg Melanchthon
divisions both of the Greek
Latin churches have also issued confessions.
in the name
of the reformers
drew
the
up, and
I. The
Greek
Church.
While
the
Greek
Saxon elector and other German
princespresented
Church has never
V. the great confession which
to Charles
drawn up a creed beyond those
to
was
of the Ecumenical
become
the basis of Lutheranism.
cumstances
This Augsburg
Councils, under various cirdifferent sections of the church
have
Confessionis in two parts. In the first the chief
doctrinal positionsof the Lutherans are stated in
set forth in some
detail their teaching. The first
of these is that drawn
and in the second part is the
at
twenty-one articles,
up in 1453 by Gennadius
the request of Sultan Mohammed
condemnation
II. It contains
articles of abuses in the
in seven
Church.
Roman
This confession was
subsequently
twenty articles and seven
arguments for the truth
of Christianity. After
the
Reformation
in 1540, the edition being
period modified by Melanchthon
Greek
known
confessions were
hke
the
of
them
in
which
is
there
as
made, some
a movement
Variata,
towards formulas regardingthe Lord's Supper which
that of Cyril Lucar (1629)in favor of the Calvinist
would
not be too hostile to the Calvinists.
position,while others like that of Peter Mogilas
The
(1640-43) are
During the pohticaland ecclesiastical struggles
opposed to Protestantism.
of the 16th. and
latter work together with the Answers
17th. centuries the Lutheran
of Jeremiah
(1576) and the Confession of Dositheus
(1672) churches produced a number of doctrinalstatements,
constitute
for the
of which the most important probably is the Formula
the
standards
authoritative
orthodox
doctrine,although the Full Catechism of
of Concord (q.v.),which appeared in 1577 as the
of several other attempts at unity. This
Philaret
has
successor
replaced the confession of Peter
Formula
authoritative in most
Mogilas in Russia.
of Concord became
of the German
Other
eastern
churches have issued a number
troversy
states, but as the theologicalconof confessions approving or rejectingvarious docdid not cease
it was
followed by the Nassau
trinal
churches.
was
developments in the Greek or Roman
Confession (1578) which
crypto-Calvinist
II. The Roman
Church.
Cathohc
The Roman
(q.v.). This was opposed by the Saxon Visitation
also
Church issued in 1564 a Profession of the Tridentine
confessions have
Articles (1586). Lutheran
of Denmark,
Faith which was
been
drawn
made
authoritative through all the
by the churches
up
ans
Lutherchurch.
It consists of twelve articles which explain
Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary. American
the creeds, the decrees of the Council
of Trent,
accept the
Augsburg Confession, generally
and various other teachingsof the Roman
Church.
preferringthe unchanged form.
3. Refor7nedConfessions. The earhest reformed
The
Roman
Catechism
(1566) is less a confession
confession was
than a syllabusintended to assist the clergyin their
the Sixty-sevenArticles of Zurich
issued by ZwingU
Catholic
in
These
of the Roman
correspond
1523.
teaching. Other summaries
to the theses of Luther, but served more
in a way
doctrine appeared during the
16th. and
17th.
centuries.
directly as a basis for subsequent confessional
issued a
formulas.
The
most
In 1532 a Synod at Berne
formulations by
important modern
intended
to
the Roman
Cathohc
Church
voluminous
was
doubtless
the
are
statement, which
to preaching of the
give direction and content
Syllabusof Errors issued by Pius IX. in 1864,which
opinions pastors. In 1530 Zwingh issued a confession of
gave in compact form the various modern
had
which
been
condemned
faith to Emperor Charles V., and in 1531 his Brief
by the Pope; the
Decrees of the Vatican Council issued in 1870 which
and Clear Expositionof Christian Faith to Francis I.
"

"

"

forth the fundamental

positionof the church
regardingthe Catholic faith;and the Papal Syllabus
of Pius X. in 1907 which
set forth the positionof
set

the church relative to modernism.

III. The
Bodies
Various
of
Protestants,
while almost without exceptionaccepting the gen-

of France.
those of
early reformed confessions were
(1528) and the Four Cities (Tetrapolitana)drawn up for presentationto Charles V.
at the Diet of Augsburg.
Subsequently various
cities hke Basel, Miihlhausen, Lausanne, Zurich
Other

East Friesland

Confession

of Faith

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

108

issued
The New Hampshire Confessionwas
church.
issued confessions. In 1536 appearedat Basel the
used in the north than
in 1833 and is more
ments
of the grand docuFirst Helvetic Confession,one
generally
is not
issued the
the PhiladelphiaConfession. Its Calvinism
of reformed faith. In 1552 was
that of the latter. Free-will Baptist
as
so extreme
ConfessioRhaetica which attempted to give some
churches have issued various declarations and conin Switzerland.
fessions
sort of imity to the Protestant movement
fession
settingforth the Arminian rather than the
In 1566 appeared the Second Helvetic ConCalvinistictheology.
drawn
by Henry Bullinger,one of the
up
4. Anglican Confessions. After the separation
greatestof the Protestant confessions. It consists
of England from Rome, under Henry
of the Church
the entire field of
of thirty chapters and covers
which
and ecclesiastical interest.
VIII.,the King issued in 1536 Ten Articles,
theological
did not oppose
the Catholic doctrines,although
Calvinist
confessions
of faith resemble
The
somewhat
under
the influence of Lutheranism.
formed
fundamentally the Zwinglian, but present the reThe
faith from
the point of view of Calvin's
following year appeared the Institute of a
Christian Man, or Bishops* Book in which
The number
of these confessions is large
tory
purgasystem.
of them
of national import. Many
and some
was
repudiatedand salvation declared to
are
Christ.
merits
the
of
In
1539
depend solelyon
the product of State churches,the most
tant
imporare
which attached a heavy
of them being the Gallican Confession (1559);
appeared the Six Articles,
doctrines.
berg
Formula
penalty of violation of the Cathohc
Helvetic Consensus
(1675); the HeidelThe King's Book, 1543, repudiated the Pope, but
Catechism (1563); the BelgicConfession(1561);
again reaflfirmed the Catholic doctrine. The First
the Canons of the Synod of Dort (1619) which organized
authorized in 1549
the five points of Calvinism
in opposition Book of Common
Prayer was
and
is Lutheran
as
to the Arminians
regards the Lord's Supper.
(seeFive Articles); the Scotch
Confession(1560); and the Westminister Confession From that time on the process of reformation moved
toward
the Calvinistic view of the Lord's Supper.
(1646^7).This last confession was first submitted
and the Forty-two Articles
In 1553 the Catechism^
December
1646 without, and in April
to ParUament
scription.
submitted to the clergy for subIt consists of thirty-tlu-ee of Religion were
1647 with proof texts.
It is probIn the reaction imder Mary, the gains
ably
chapterseach with several subdivisions.
made
the most complete presentationof the Calvinby the reformed faith were temporarily lost.
istic doctrine.
With
the Westminster
Confession On the accession of EMzabeth, the church's doctrine
should be joined
the Larger and the Shorter Catechism
was
pubhshed in the Catechism in 1570, and in 1571
of the Confeswhich reproduce the generalteaching
sion
appeareda revision of the Articles of Faith,known
the Thirty-nineArticles. These
The Westminster
in catechetical form.
as
sion
ConfesThirty-nine
the doctrinal
the Prayer Book
Articles and
has been adopted by the Presbyterianchurches
are
basis of the AnglicanChurch
in England and the
throughout England and America, and has never
byterian Protestant EpiscopalChurch in the United
States
been seriouslymodified,although in 1902 the Presof America.
Because
of their historythey repreChurch
in the United States of America
sent
no
singletheological
but, unlike
movement,
passed a Declaratory Statement regarding certain
of both
the Lutheran
with phases
the confessions
and
those dealing
the
of its articles,
particularly
Reform
of wide variety
of theological
characteristic of the
Churches, are susceptible
thought more
byterian in interpretation.Speaking generally,
The United Pres17th. than of the 20th. century.
however,
be said that the Thirty-nineArticles tend
it may
of America
Church
and the Cumberland
Calvinistic point of view than
to express a more
what
PresbyterianChurch have issued their own somemodified editions of the Westminster Confession. does the Book of Common
Prayer.
Articles. The
5. Methodist
Arminian
ment
moveSpace will not permit a detailed discussion of
confessions of other Calvinist groups.
It will be
in the
organized its beliefs most effectually
which
led
to
famous
the Synod of Dort
enough to mention a few of the most important.
protest
Churches
ment
the
c) CongregationalConfessions. Browne's State(q.v.). Among the early Methodist
standards
of doctrine
issued
consisted
fundamental
of
of CongregationalPrinciples(1582) was
of a catechism.
in the form
Testament and
Congregationalism John Wesley'sNotes on the New
of his sermons.
issued a number
of local confessions,
in London
and
Mr. Welsey never
the first series
the Thirty-nine
or
Amsterdam, and New England. Of these,perhaps the
repudiated the Prayer Book
Articles of the Church of England, and his work
Cambridge Platform of Church Doctrines (1648) is
the most important for New
was
quence
never
predominantly theological. In conseEngland, and the Savoy
the Methodist
movement
Declaration (1658)for Great Britain. The Congregalays emphasis
tional
denomination
immediate
and
in America at the present time
more
experience of God
upon
has no
authoritative confession,but the National
has always been less interested in formal orthodoxy
Council of Congregational Churches
issued in 1865
than in the spreading of the Gospel and the conversion
of sinners.
Declaration of Faith in some
detail. This was
a
Church
followed by the Oberlin Declaration of 1871, the
When
the Methodist
was
organized
creed drawn
held in Baltimore,
in America, a convention
was
missioners
by a body of twenty-five comup
in 1883, a Union
issued in
December
Statement
pline
24, 1784, and at that time the first Disciof the Methodist EpiscopalChurch was adopted.
1906, and the Kansas City Creed in 1913.
had an authoritaThis Disciplineconstitutes one element of the theological
tive
6) Baptistchurches have never
creed but have drawn
Church
confession of the Methodist
number
of conwhich
a
fessions
up
of faith chieflyfor the purpose
his Notes on the New
of fixing also includes Wesley's sermons,
relations in Associations.
Not
mention
the
to
Testament,twenty-fiveof the Thirty-nineArticles of
confessions
earUer
of the Anabaptists and
of England, which, however, were
the
the Church
Mennonites
which
all possibility
of a rituaUstic
considerable
revised so as to remove
probably won
in the 16th. and 17th. centuries,
numbers
in the Anglican or Roman
the oldest
sense.
interpretation
Various branches of the Methodist
Baptist confession is that of the Seven Churches in
Church, such
which appeared in 1644.
London
Protestant and the Free Methodist
From
that time
as the Methodist
of Baptistchurches
articles of faith, but speaking
the great movement
their own
have
on
was
Calvinistic in theology. The
fession generallythey differ more
as regards church
zation
organiPhiladelphia Conwhich was
Shailer
than doctrine.
Mathews
adopted in 1742 as the basis of
the
is practically the
Philadelphia Association
Westminster
CONFESSIONAL."
Confession modified to meet the BapProperly an enclosed seat
tist
and
the
where
the priest'
hears confession through a grill
position relative to the sacraments
"

"

"

109

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Confucius

confess to Almighty God," etc.

In the early
The word
touching the other person.
Antiochene
and Alexandrine
also what goes on in the confessional,
the celebrant
liturgies,
namely
It is found in
of penance
began the Mass with such a G.C.
confession,and the sacrament
(q.v.).
the Roman
Missal since the 11th. century,and is in
Many points in the early history of confession
controverted.
are
present R.C. frequentuse.
pubUc and for grave
Originally
developed along lines of safety,
offences,
penance
and
confession has
CONFLICT
OF DUTIES."
See Duty.
universaUty. Annual
secrecy
been required in the West since the Fourth Council
of the Lateran
In countries
CONFORMITY."
such
(1215),and is preUminary to the
as
land
EngEaster dutyof receivingHoly Communion.
and Germany
where
there is a state church,
Annual
confession is a minimum
See Non-Conformity.
to that church.
adherence
demand, supplemented in
those parisheswhich
daily communion
by
-urge
advice to confess ordinarilyonce
CONFRATERNITIES."
brotherhoods
a week.
Religious
The Protestant reformers made private
confession
church, usually
or associations in the R.C.
and usuallysubstituted therefor a public composed of laymen who, with ecclesiasticalsancoi^tional,
tion,
Under
the leadership
of E. B.
undertake
educational
general confession.
some
philanthropic,
work.
The
earliest type was
the
Pusey private confession has been revived in many
or
religious
of England
since the
brotherhood
in the
8th.
monastic
parishes of the Anglican communion
middle
of the 19th. century. The
confraternities
opment
develare
a
attempt to
century. Modern
make
confession and absolution (q.v.)prerequisites
trade
of mediaeval
guilds which were
to the receptionof the Eucharist in the Church
of
the patronage of a saint. See Catholic
under
Societies.
England is unauthorized.
Advantages claimed for confession include a
CONFUCIANISM."
See China, Religions
new
contrition,
humility,
beginning,
self-knowledge,
of.
and the modern
tendency to consult the
sincerity,
CONFUCIUS
expert. Protestants say that the confessional is not
(551-478 B.C.).
(K'UNG-FU-TSE)
renowned
One
of the most
teachers of China.
requiredby Scripture,lessens the power of selfdirection,
Living in the periodof distress when the ancient
destroysmoral autonomy, and makes
he
devoted
his
feudalism was
possiblea secret and ultimatelyforeigncontrol in
breaking down
private and in poUtical affairs. If the priest as
energiesto the task of bringingpeace to the empire.
He held,
judge gives the benefit of the ethical doubt (see His life was
comparatively uneventful.
with distinction,
Probabilism), there is danger of lowering the
public offices in his native state
standard.
and was
itinerant advisor of neighboring provan
inces
Roman
but findingthe rulers unwillingto follow his
legislation
punishes solicitationwithin
the confessional,and
the
suggestionshe retired from public life and devoted
ordinarilyinvaUdates
absolution
of a partner in guilt. Civil law safeguards
himself to the collection and editingof the ancient
the secret of the confessional.
records with
of showing how
the
the purpose
W. W. Rockwell.
virtuous rulers of the past had secured peace
and
The
died defeated and discouraged
CONFESSIONALISM."
He
disposition to
prosperity to China.
exalt a creed or a confession of faith as the standard
of all his efforts
by the apparent futility
of Christian faith.
to help his native land.
Over two centuries later
the Han dynasty recognizedthe value of his political
CONFESSOR."
(1) In the ancient church, a
philosophy and exalted him to the position of
he has held for over
teacher of China which
two
martyr or one who confessed his faith in the face of
thousand years.
tain
ceron
persecution. (2) An appellationbestowed
of the past, as Edward
the Confessor.
His system is typical
of the naturalism of Chinese
holy men
are
(3) A R.C. priestwho has power to administer the
thought. Heaven, nature and man
a solidarity
of penance.
sacrament
in which every unit must
peculiar
perform its own
function
of
the whole.
the harmony
to secure
Virtue is natural and human
CONFIRMATION."
A word of two-fold signifiis good. With
nature
cance:
families properly ordered through self-controland
(1)In the Roman
Cathohc, Greek, Lutheran,
Anglican, and other churches it is an initiatory knowledge the states would be properly governed.
and
The emperor
should be a sage appointed by Heaven
rite,consistingof the impositionof hands
because
of his virtue whose
by bishop, priest,or pastor, implying a
example and correct
prayer
strengtheningof the soul by the Holy Spirit.
performance of duty would keep the whole realm
In the Greek and Roman
churches it is the second
of human
affairs in harmony with the cosmic order
of the sacraments
administered
Destiny.
(q.v.),
or
by anointing under the control of Tien, Heaven
secured
with holy chrism
in conjunction with a formula
life are
Peace and equihbriura in human
of consecration.
It imprints an
indelible mark
of the social whole knowing and
by each member
the recipient's
soul.
In the Greek
church it
doing the duty belonging to his status. Evil
upon
follows baptism in the same
is a disturbance of order and is overcome
by a
service,in the Roman
the
church
after an
interval of about
In
ten years.
return to propriety. Duty is elaborated on
the Protestant churches employing the rite it is postof ruler and subject,
poned basis of the five relationships
until the fourteenth or sixteenth year when
and
wife, elder and
parent and child, husband
mandments,younger
Comthe candidate, after instruction in the Ten
brother,friend and friend. The supreme
which seems
the Creed, and the
the Lord's Prayer,
virtue is jin,humanity or benevolence
to include justice,
love,loyalty,reverence,
simple duties connected with the church, renews
courage,
fucius'
in Conassumed
for himself the baptismal vows
filial
by his
pietyand righteousness.It is explained
and is now
words:
"Jiii is to love all men" and "Do not
prepared for full communion.
sponsors,
wish done to
not
What
do to others what
exact divine giftis conveyed in confirmation
you would
is a question which receives various answers.
knowledge
yourself." He laid great stress upon
but
it was
the pragmatic knowledge of social
(2) Confirmation
signifiesalso the assent of
He was
the
election
duties and how to perforinthem.
agnostic
constituted authorities
by which
of bishopsis ratified by the church.
regarding the supernatural, indifferent to the
C. A. Beckwith
rites of religion,
spirits,
prayer and immortality.
formula
of General
fession, The supreme
ConCONFITEOR."
A
blessedness and the complete life are
so-called from
the beginning word, "I
and to be found by faithfulperformance
this-worldly

without
covers

"

A DICTIONARY

Congregation

RELIGION

OF

of social duties in whatever status the individual

of
is found.
"The
is the incarnation
holy man
in the service of humanity ' '
(Knox )
righteousness
Confucius
looked
As a professed conservative
back to the good old ways of the peacefulpast
when
the rulers of China acted as the earthly
of the cosmic law and were
embodiment
examples
from
this
Two
to men.
great results followed
emphasis after the Han
dynasty the classics
the sacred books of public education
and
became
established.
the divine right of virtuous rulers was
exalted to divine rank and
The sage himself was
has through the centuries received both
public
A. Eustace
Haydon
and private worship.
.

AND

iftythousand.

There

110

are

schools for
eighttraining

students.
theological
II. Congregationalism
Continent.
on
the
few Congregational
in Gerchurches
many,
a
are
"

There

Hungary,

Norway,

Switzerland.
Holland
churches,Sweden
more
hundred thousand
one

III.

"

1.

Poland,

Portugal,

has nearly a score

of free
than a thousand with over

members.
Congregationalism

America.

in

"

History. ^A portion of the "separatist" of

church at Leyden emigrated to Plymouth,
Scrooby
Mass., in 1620, and were
designatedas "Pilgrims."
The
Massachusetts
"Puritans"
Bay Colonists
who
left England (1628) for religious
reasons,
yet
"

"

with
CONGREGATION."
(1) An
assembly of
people,whether organized or not, for worship and
Levitical
the
religious instruction. (2) Under
law, the whole assembly of Israel. (3) In the R.C.
of high clerics charged
church
(a) a committee
the congrewith the conduct of church business,as
gation
of cardinals,(b) a committee
of bishops in
which
conference
the agenda, (c) a
a
arranges
order bound
religious
rule,but not by
by a common
Scotch
name
vows.
(4) The
given the whole
Reforming party in the second half of the 16th.
the "Lords
as
century, their leaders being known
of the Congregation."

ETHICS

no

intention

of

rupture

with

"

the

"

mother

church,influenced by the Plymouth church founded

Congregationalchurches in Salem (1629), Boston
and in neighboringtowns
before 1640.
Two
(1630),
other

colonies went' out from these: the Connecticut

Thomas
Hooker
(1634-1636),the
Haven
New
colony under John Davenport (1638).
In the Connecticut
and Massachusetts
Bay colonies
1664
and
1693
respectivelysuffrage was
until_
fication
restrictedto church members.
In the early identiof church
and state arose
the "Half- Way
Covenant" (q.v.)by which for more
than a century
reckoned
"unregenerate" persons
were
as
many
church members.
By 1700 Congregationalchurches
had spread over
nearly the whole of New England.
CONGREGATIONAL
SINGING."
In the firsthalf of the 19th. century, by an arrangeSinging in
ment
which
assembled
with the Presbyterian
the whole
congregation participates;
church, few churches
element of worship common
to the history
were
an
organized west of the Hudson
river; this
of Christianity,
dissolved in 1852 and the formation
although the council of Laodicea
agreement was
of
(4th.century) forbade it.
rapidly increased,
Congregational churches
mostly in the northern states, until (1918) they
of
form
As a
number
CONGREGATIONALISM."
6,050 with 808,415 members.
church
2. Fellowship. This is expressed in local councils,
polity this is defined by two principles:
of the local church; (2) the right
conferences
associations
state
(1) autonomy
(semi-annual),
and duty of fellowship
and an
with sister churches.
Chief
(annual),the national council (biennial),
churches
international council (occasional).There are also
sharing the same
general features are
ministerial
associations.
In
the
tion,
Congregationalists,
Baptists,the Christian connecpast twentyfive years greatgainshave been made in co-operative
Disciplesof Christ,
Unitarians,and Universalinterest in social reforms, centrahzing
the term
ists. More
designates the
specifically
activity,
and activity
control of missionary organizations,and defining
of the firstmentioned of these
history
denominational
chief agent
consciousness.
The
a
Christian bodies.
1. Origin in this movement
Council
has been the National
Congregationalism.
1. English
is composed of representativedelegates of
which
and
several
History. After
"Separatist"and
"Puritan"
the churches.
Its aim is to foster the unity of the
beginning in 1526, Robert
movements,
churches and to promote their common
interests and
formed
in Norwich
Brown
a church
(1580). Soon
tional
organized at Gloucester, work in national "international and interdenominaafter,other churches were
relations."
Bury St. Edmunds, London, and Gainsborough
The
grated
3. Missions.
missionaryinterests of the
(1602),and Scrooby (1606). The two last emiin 1606 and 1608 respectively denomination
cared for: in foreign fields by
to Amsterdam
are
Board
the American
of Commissioners
for Foreign
the Scrooby church removing again to Leyden in
Missions
With
1609.
(1810); in the home field through the
varying fortunes of toleration,
persecution,
and again of toleration,
under the "Act of
Congregational Education
Society (1816), the
Toleration"
Mission
Society (1826);
Congregational Home
(1688), the Separatists of Great
Britain who
became
gradually the Congregational Sunday School and Pubhshing
Congregationahsts
tion
distinctive features
attained independence. The
Missionary AssociaSociety(1832); the American
of their history
(1846); the Congregational Building Society
are
(1)the definitionof their poUty
of Ministerial
Board
and doctrine in distinction from the Presbyterians; (1853); and the Congregational
Relief (1907).
(2) the leavening of their reUgious life by experience
ology
derived
the Methodist
4. Theology and
Creeds. Three types of thefrom
revival; (3) a
have appeared: (1) the Colonial,to about
modification of individualistic in favor of a social
Calvinistic;(2) The New England theology
temper, resultingin denominational
consciousness, 1750
modified by
Calvinistic,
municipal reform, and missionaryextension.
(q.v.)from 1750 to 1900
Arminianism;(3) transition to the historicaland
2. Fellowship and
Missions.
Fellowship is
fostered by County Unions, the Congregational scientific method.
Corresponding to these types,
creedal expressionshave been formulated:
Union
of Scotland
(1) the
(1812), of Ireland (1829),of
tion
Cambridge Synod (1648) and the Savoy DeclaraEngland and Wales (1833) with its Declaration of
the Westminster
Faith (declaratory
(1680), embodying substantially
only). Foreign missionarywork
is under
two
Confession; (2) the Burial Hill Confession
societies,the London
Missionary
(1795) and the Colonial Missionary (1836); its
(1865) and the Commission Creed (1883); (3) the
insular work
is under
the Church
and
Home
Kansas
City Creed (1913).
Several controversies have
Britain
6. Controversies.
in Great
Missionary societies. Churches
and her dependencies number
about six thousand
disturbed the churches:
(1) the witchcraft delusion

colonyunder

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

with

membership of about

seven

hundred

and

(1688-1692);'(2) the Half- Way

Covenant

(q.v.);

Ill

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

England theology (q.v.); (4) the

(3) the New
Universalist and Unitarian controversy (1780-1825);
Horace
Bushnell
(1842(5) the controversy over
1870); (6) the Andover
controversy (1882-1893).
6. Education.
CongregationaUsm has from the
first fostered education,founding Harvard
College
(1636) and Yale College (1701), following these
than fortyother colleges
with more
and universities,
eight theologicalseminaries in the United States,
besides many
collegesand seminaries in foreign
C. A. Beckwith
lands,
"

CONGRESSES.

Assemblies
of
conferences
or
for purposes of deliberation
discussion.
and
The
Church
name
Congress is
given to such gatheringsof the Church of England
the Protestant
or
Episcopalchurch of the U.S.A.
Catholic Congresses are
R.C. gatherings,usually
Such
national in character.
religiouscongresses
usuallymake ecclesiastical or theological
pronouncements
for the body which they represent.
"

representativepersons

CONGRUISM."
of the divine
co-operationof the
CONGRUITY."

The
grace

effectivetheory that the ness

is conditioned
by the

recipient.
(1) A

term

in scholastic

ology
the-

to
indicating the natural capacity of man
acquiremerit, in contrast to the merit achieved by
supernatural aid (condignity,q.v.).
(2) The later scholastic doctrine that human

has of itself a meritorious

fitness for the
grace of God, and is able to perform certain lower
ethical actions.

nature

AND

The

of

rather
loosely-definedpoUty. Occasionally, since the
middle of the 18th. century, a group of ecclesiastical
units, more
closely interrelated through some
form of general authority,than is admissible in a
called a
purely congregational poUty, has been
Connexion.
used to designate
This term has been
hke that under the headship
circle of societies,
a
of John Wesley, which lacked the status of a church
Quite as frequently,however, it has been
proper.
incorporated into the title of an
independent
referred to the New
nection
Conchurch.
Thus
we
are
of General
New
Baptists,the Methodist
nexion.
ConConnexion, and the Wesleyan Methodist
H. C. Sheldon

Conscience

whom
a
performed during pregnancy
ceremony
determines
which of the husbands
of the mother
is
to be considered, for all social purposes,
the
as
father of the child. Consanguinity,then, is not
necessarilythe decisive factor in the formation of
is an impedirelationships.Too close consanguinity
ment
to marriageaccording to various religious
and
civil regulations. See Marriage.
HuTTON
Webster
CONSCIENCE."
The perception of moral distinctions
accompanied by the feelingof jiersonal
obligationto do what is morally right.
There is no more
elusive word in the vocabulary
of ethics. The
actual existence of the sentiment
of moral obhgationis admitted
as
a fact of experience;
but the explanationsand applicationsof this
sentiment are so various as to cause
perplexity.
I. Historical
Conceptions
op Conscience.
1. The religiousconceptionof an
invisible and
the
mysterious power or presence
watching over
enforcement
of what is morally right
is characteristic
of primitivethinking. Tribal or family obUgations
thus surrounded
are
by the dread of what may occur
if these are not fulfilled. Conscience
is developed
when the sense
of inner obUgation binds one.
It is
thought of as the voice of God in the soul.
frequently
Socrates spoke of the demon
within him
whose
guidance he must foUow.
Many Christian teachers
have regarded conscience as a divinelyimplanted
"

faculty.
2
The scholastic definition
between
distinguished
synderesis(by which is meant
a generalrecognition
of the authority of moral
law), and consdentia,
which
acknowledges the duty of specificacts of
.

moral
CONNEXIONALISM."

ETHICS

obedience.

Out

of

this distinction

casuistry (q.v.)which
Catholic^

arose

dealt with "cases

of conscience,"
the discussion of duty in coni.e.,
crete
instances where circumstances
are
pecuUar.
3. Intuitionist theories assume
to
conscience
be an
innate faculty of moral
judgment. Some
exponents have gone so far as to regard conscience
as
inherentlycapable of determining what is right
in each instance.
Conscience
would
thus be infaUible. Others
have
held to a general native
of moral obhgation, but have admitted that
sense
conscience must
be educated
like any other faculty
of judgment.
See Moral
Sense.
4. Empirical theories seek to explain conscience
the acquired knowledge that certain acts or
as
attitudes are visited with disapproval and punishment,
while others are
approved and rewarded.
When
the fact of social sympathy is taken into conCONON."
sideration,
Pope, 686-687.
this acquired knowledge may
come
ERCOLE
CONSALVI,
by emotional and imitative processes, so that its
(1757-1824)." Italian
rational character may
be lost sightof because of the
cardinal and statesman
; secretary of the conclave at
of emotion.
and secretary
It may
like a divine
the outbreak of the French revolution,
seem
power
inward
He proved his ability
of state to Pius VII.
be traced in
as
a
voice; but its genesis can
human
diplomat and organizer in securing the restitution
experience.
II. The
of and in reorganizingthe States of the church.
Principal
Facts.
1. The
existence of a feeUng of obUgation is
CONSANGUINITY."
The
undeniable.
term
Such feehng is indispensableto highapplied to all
hcit or
minded
we
as
blood-relationships,whether
illicit,
Hving. The
great loyalties which
admire
ship
it. It is desirable that a man
distinguishedfrom affinity,an artificial relationpresuppose
created by adoption, sponsorship, or intermarriage should feel uneasy
in the presence
of duty unfulfilled,
and that he should feel pleasureat duty performed.
the
married
(excluding that between
This is the fact of conscience.
comprehensive than affinityis
Why mankind should
persons). More
be established
be so constituted as to experiencethis feelingis no
by common
kinship, which
may
for
and no less mysterious than is the reason
The
more
membership in a clan or other similar group.
American
the
anthropologist,L. H. Morgan, was
any other emotional reaction.
various peoples, such
first to show
that among
2. So far as the content
cerned,
of conscience is conthe Red Indians,
the AustraUans, and the Polyit seems
to be largelythe product of social
as
nesians,
degrees of relationshipare distinguished, sympathy and social regulation. The child,both
but as ties between
cipline,
not as ties between
individuals,
by sympathetic imitation and as a result of dissocial classes or
where
to
is emotionally and mentally committed
sanguinity
congenerations. Even
is recognized,it may
for littleor
count
certain attitudes.
Thus
the precise dictates of
different social
conscience
differ widely among
nothing unless sociallyratified. Rivers instances
of India,
the case
of the polyandr"usTodas
For
example, blood feuds are almost
among
groups.
name

"

DICTIONARY

Conscientiousness

OF

RELIGION

in some
communities, and are
in others.
vigorously condemned
3. The
recognitionof imperfectionsin existing
moral
standards
suggests a higher morality than
of a
The
conscience
that of prevaihng custom.
and thoughtful individual may
earnest
particularly
in the interest
lead to a defiance of existingcustoms
of an
ideal. In such
conscience
case
a
points
social sympathy, suggestingreligious
beyond mere
loyaltyto a higher order.
4. A
religious interpretation of life brings
conscience into relation with the divine wUl, and
thus invests the loyaltiesof moralitywith superhuman
significance.
Popular questions concerning conscience should
be answered
in the light of the facts. Since the
moral consciousness is demonstrably
of our
content
derived from experience,
conscience is not infallible.
be educated;it is always
Conscience not only may
the product of education.
A man
ought always
to foUow conscience,
but ought equally to make
that he does not
sure
identify conscience with

sacred
religiously

mere

inherited emotion

his

which

reason

criticizes.

character of moral
recognitionof the empirical
ness
judgments would obviate the dogmatic stubbornThe

of many
"conscientious
objectors."In any
"conscience"
should not be so isolated as to
of moral ideas which
prevent the modifications
case

enlargingexperienceought

to

bring.

Gerald
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS."
of conscience,or

Birnet

Smith

Loyalty to the
faithfulness to duty.

tates
dic-

CONSECRATION."
The religiousact or ceremony
of separating,dedicating,or settingapart as
sacred certain persons, animals,places,objects,and
times.
Among
primitive peoples certain persons
and objectsbeing considered as set apart for sacred
tabu
were
(q.v.) or dangerous. The
purposes,
of consecration are varied,includingthe direct
means
unusual
work
of the god or consecratingagency,
meteorological occurrences,
participationin a
ing,
sacrifice or sacrament, the saying of charms, blowlaying-on of hands, branding or singeing a
the use of names,
and the tyingon of amulets,
person,
religion
talismans, etc. In the Christian
connected
with
the
consecration
ceremonies
are
dedication of persons
elements used
to holy offices,
in the sacraments, church
buildings and utensils,
burial
and
grounds. Analogously consecration
is used of any solemn
dedication such as to one's

country

or

to

cause.

collective and
CONSENSUS
The
PATRUM."
unanimous
Fathers of the
teaching of the Church
of the
firstfive centuries of the Christian era; one
of authoritative Catholic doctrine.
sources

CONSENT,

AGE

OF."

See Age

of

Consent.

results of a
."The
CONSEQUENCE
the conduct
line of conduct
in distinction from
itself. UtiHtarianism
quences,
(q.v.)is an ethics of conseevalucutingconduct in terms of results.
sels;
CONSILIA
EVANGELICA."
EvangeUcalCounin R.C.
ethics,the designation of certain
stringentmoral ideals based on the New Testament
seek especialhoHness
and commended
to those who
that are
in distinction from commands
obhgatory
The distinction appears in the
all Christians.
on
writingsof TertulUan,Cyprian and Ambrose, but
formulated by Thomas
was
Aqmnas.
finally
CONSISTORY.-

An

ecclesiastical coxirt:

papal consistory consists of the college

of cardinals over
which
the pope
presides and
(1) The

ETHICS

AND

112

formal

ratification of
measures.
Reformed
consistory corresponds
to the session in Presbyterian polity. (3) The
French Reformed
consistorycorrespondsto the presbytery
in a presbyterialbody.
(4) The Lutheran
consistoryis officially
appointed by the state. (5)An
has jurisdiction
in a diocese.
Anglican consistory
convenes

(2) The

for

Dutch

row
(1) The alleviation of sordisappointment; used also to denote the
the act of bringing consolation,reUgion
or
agencj'
an
being frequently
(2)A compensation for
agency.
loss or sacrifice. The evening meal of Monks
was
decreed by the synod of Angers (453)to be a consolation
for the loss of sisters,
mothers and friends.

CONSOLATION."
or

OF
COUNCIL
CONSTANCE,
(Nov. 5, 1414"
Apr. 22, 1418). The second and possiblythe most
cils
important of the various so-called reforming Counsummoned
of the 15th. century.
It was
by
and the Emperor Sigismund to
Pope John XXIII.
the
of the Church, to end
consider the reform
the rival Popes, and to pass on the
schism between
teaching of John Huss with the attendant disorders
Council
The
of the
in Bohemia.
deposed two
Benedict
XIII.
and
John
XXIII.
rival Popes
third pope
The
Gregory XII. abdicated. The
decided
amenable
that
to
Council
Popes were
at
Councils,and that the latter should be summoned
regularperiods. Cardinal Oddo Coloma was elected
and
Pope as Martin V. John Huss was condemned
burned July 6, 1415, and Jerome of Prague, May 30,
gious
This action,however, failed to end the reli1416.
"

"

The efforts of the

controversies in Bohemia.
defeated by the
Council to reform the Church
were
Such
higher clergy, especially the Cardinals.
for reforms as were
mended
adopted or recomsuggestions
were
ignored by Martin V. See Basel,
Shailer
Mathews
Council
op.
Steadiness or immutabihty of
CONSTANCY."
The ethical task is to develop
motives or conduct.
of thought and action,
constancy in right modes
evil.
and in opposition toward
CONSTANTINE."
Roman
Emperor, 306-337,
He
converted
312,
to Christianity,
granted
of religionby the so-called
the Christians freedom
Edict of Milan, 313.
By his order the council of
Nicaea convened in 325.
During the post-Nicene
Arian controversy and in deahng with the Novaserve
tians,Donatists,and others,his pohcy was to preby an opportunistpolicythe undivided church.
was

of two popes:
CONSTANTINE.
The name
Constantine I. Pope 708-715.
Constantine II.
Pope 767-768 ; a layman before
his election by a faction;not recognizedby Catholic
"

"

"

authoritiesas

legitimatepope.

The
OF."
COUNCILS
CONSTANTINOPLE,
First Council of Constantinople (2nd, ecumenical)
in 381 re-affirmed the Nicene formula and re-dealt
with the Arian
controversy. It established four
doctrinal canons
which were
accepted by the Roman
and Greek churches, and three disciplinary
canons
which were
accepted only by the Greek church.
Second
CouncU
The
(5th. ecumenical) in 553
and the Third Council (6th.ecumenical) in 680-81
Monothelite
dealt
with the
controversy. The
Fourth
Council
(8th.ecumenical) 869-70 dep9sed
Photius, patriarch of Constantinople,and decided
that Constantinople should be the first of the four
eastern
patriarchates.See Trinity; Arianism.
also held at Constantinople in 692
Councils were
the use of
and 754, the latter of which condemned
Mathews
Shailer
images in churches.

113

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The forCREED."
mula
held in
the Council
Constantinoplein 381. This Decree became widely
known
as the Nicene
Creed,because it was regarded
as
expressingthe views of the Council of Nicaea
held in 325.
There has been considerable speculation
the Nicene
to whether
as
Creed, so-called,
however, is really the formula adopted by the
Council of 381.
In the absence of preciserecords,
it is probable that this matter
of
will always be one
Creed
is very
similar to the
conjecture. The
Baptismal Confession used by Cyrilof Jerusalem.
Shailer
Mathews
CONSTITUTIONS
OF
CLARENDON."
A
body of laws promulgated at the Assize of Clarendon
(q.v.)by Henry 11. of England in 1164 in his
Becket
strugglewith Thomas
(q.v.),definingthe
spheres of the civil and the ecclesiastical courts.
CONSTANTINOPOLITAN

adopted by
supposedly

AND

ETHICS

perfectlyproper

Conversion

speak of

to

of men.
in its popular

convent

will be taken

In this article the term

sense.

1. Rise of convents.
The
Egyptian Pachomiua
(died346),who instituted the firstChristian monastic
under
the charge of his
rule, put a nunnery
"

sister.

is from the Coptic,

signifying
the Rule of St. Basil convents
in the East, and
of women
founded
were
under
that of St. Benedict, in the
particularly
West.
Not
all nuns
2. Enclosure.
are
"enclosed,"
i.e.,forbidden to leave the grounds of their convents.
The
French
Revolution
and conditions of
work
in Protestant
countries have brought about
widespread relaxations of the ancient enclosure,
which had restricted the social work
of nuns
very
The

word

nun

Under

"clean,pure."

"

largelyto keeping boarding-schools.

In ancient
3. Immuring.
Rome
vestals who
buried aUve, and under
lapsed from virginitywere
"

PAPAL."
Enactments
CONSTITUTIONS,
the pope of Rome, which the church beUeves
obligatoryfor those involved.

of
to be

CONSUBSTIANTIATION."
A
term
appUed
the Lutheran
doctrine of the Lord's Supper,
according to which, after the words of institution,
the substantial body and blood of Christ become
united
and
with
wine
the bread
sacramentally
which
unchanged, the union subsisting
remam
only until the purpose of the consecration has been
fulfilled.
to

Concentrated

CONTEMPLATION."
a

highestgood in
Buddhism, the
certain R.C.

tion;
meditathe attainment
of the
types of mysticism such as
school
of Hinduism
and

employedfor

means

certam

Yoga

orders.

CONTEMPT."

attitude of despising,often
unsocial ethical or religious
object or person considered as

An

expressingitself as
attitude toward
inferior.

the

older

law

fallen nuns
mured."
to be "imwere
"shut up within four walls"
(closeconfinement); the punishment of burial alive
is said to be legendary.
4. Abuses.
have led to demands
for
Rumors
the state inspectionof convents.
The machinery
of the Roman
church is adequate to remedy abuses.
The rule that nuns
be given two or three times
must
a year the opportunity to confess to a priestother
than their regular confessor gives opportunityfor
the denunciation of malfeasants
in office.
W. W. Rockwell
CONVENTICLE."
secret
(1) A
private or
held in
meeting for worship. Conventicles
were
the early church
and
in the schools of WycUf.
(2) In Great Britain,the meetings of dissenters
from
the established
church.
In the reign of
Charles II.,thousands
of Scotch Covenanters
were
fined or imprisoned for attending conventicles.
canon

This

means

"

an

CONVENTICLE

ACT."
An act passed (1664)
in greater numbers
than four, of
sixteen years
and upward, attending services "in
CONTENTMENT."
faction other manner
than
is allowed
of satisA mental
state
by the Liturgy."
A third offense was
from
induced
either by
or
punished by deportation
quiescence. When
moral
the realm for seven
act (1670)
A second
or
religiousexperience,it is regarded as
years.
lessened the penaltiesof the ear Her enactment
but
highly commendable.
imposed fines upon officialsfor neglectin enforcing
CONTINENCE."
the
statute.
lowed
Severe
Self-restraint in regard to
persecution therefore folthe passionsand appetites,
until in 1672 the king interposedhis dispenssexual passion,
especially
ing
in cehbacy; an ideal emphasized in monasticism
as
by granting to the nonconformists
power
licensed meeting placesfor worship and such preachto purity of hfe.
as conducive
ing
not
as
was
derogatory to the Established
Church.
CONTINGENCY."
Roman
Catholics were
Possibihtyof an occurrence
permitted to meet
not predictableby any
In 1673
annulled
disrule. The Scholastic phiParliament
only in their homes.
losophers
used
the term
the king's declaration of indulgence but
for what
is accidental
in contrast
with what is logically
passed a "ReUef Bill" permitting worship to nonconformists
necessary.
who took the Oaths of Supremacy and
CONTRITION."
In R.C. theology,repentance
Allegianceand subscribed to the doctrinal articles
of the Estabhshed
Church.
This continued
to be
springingfrom the highestmotive, viz.,the love of
God
and genuine sorrow
for sin; contrasted
with
the status of nonconformist
worship until in 1812
attrition (q.v.). See Penance.
the Conventicle Act was
repealed.
P. G. Mode
R.C.
CONTUMACY."
CONVENTUALS."
branch
of
the
A
Contempt of authority. In
EngUsh law contempt of the ecclesiastical court is
religiousorder of Franciscans
(q.v.),dating as a
Sometimes
1517.
punished by a writ de contumace
they are
separate order from
capiendo, this
called "Black Franciscans,"from the color oi their
statute
of
taking the place of the older custom
excommunication.
about
garb. They number
2,000.
CONVENT.

an

against persons

word
has
The
two
meanings:
of women
or
reUgious commvmity of men
viewed in its corporate capacity; (2) the buildings
occupied by such a community.

(1)

CONVERSION."

"

of a
is used of a branch
flexible form
religious
order,not of part of the more
of organization called a congregation. Popularly
the word is restricted to female rehgious,though it is
"convent"
Strictly,

change from

transformation.
either of nature
a

man

Changing
state

one

or

Broadly, a
or

function.

causing to
another;
thoroughgoing change
or

condition
A

profoundly altered in moral

to

converted

man

is

in
or
disposition

mental attitude.
In Ethics, conversion describes a radical change
of moral character;involvingmotives,aims,ideals;

Conviction of Sin

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

changingfrom an evil or indifferent to an earnest

attitude.
moral
conversion involves this moral change
In religion,
with some
impUcation of the divine power that has
wrought the change. Religiously,conversion is a
radical spiritualand
moral
change, commonly
attending a change of belief,and involving profoundly
altered spiritand conduct, "a change of
heart.
The conversions of Paul and of Augustine
a

strikingexamples.
the experience is associated with
Historically,
various religions.Moreover, in a more
general
it may
be appliedto a social group as well as to
sense
individual.
The
familiar meaning refers
an
more
are

to individual

conversion in the Christian sense.

logians
conceived
Conversion was
by the older theo-

of grace,"a specific,
miraculous
as
a "work
divine act by which
a
man
brought from a
was
condition of eimaity toward God
into a state of
salvation. By some
sacramental or other duly
authenticated
plished,
accomagency, the radical change was
and the man
henceforth had a "new heart"
which was
both guarantee and source
of the transformed
hfe.
Commonly, conversion was regarded
instantaneous
in which the miracle
as an
occurrence
of transformation
occurred,though the adjustment
of the whole
hfe to the inner change might be

gradual.
Modern
theologydescribes conversion in terms of
the laws of ethical and rehgious transformations.
The
divine
which
effects the change is
power
regarded as operating not lawlessly,but by social,
psychologicaland ethical laws which it is the task
of scientific study to trace and set forth.
The fact
of rehgious and ethical awakening is a matter
of
of conceiving
common
experience. The manner
the change and
is a
of effectingthe conversion
field in which rehgiouspsychologymust
speak with
vation.
authority.See Regeneration; Holy Spirit;SalHerbert
A. Youtz
CONVICTION
of

OF

personal sinfulness

inward
SIN."
An
leads to
such
as

"

COPTIC
church
as
and other

CHURCH."
The
native
Egyptian
distinguishedfrom that of the Greeks
churches
of Egypt.
While
dition
Coptic tratraces an unbroken
succession of patriarchs

from

CORNELIUS."

the 1st. century on, it is probable

tianity
that Chrisdid not reach the native
Egyptians much
before the end of the 2nd. century, and the Coptic
church can
hardly be said to have had a separate
existence until by the adoption of Eutyches' doctrine
tianity
of the singlenature
of Christ,Coptic Chrisdivergedfrom Catholic beUef. The rejection
of the Eutychiandoctrine by the Council of Chalcedon
not
(a.d.451), was
accepted by the Copts
who
adhered
The
to the Monophysite doctrine.
itself through the
Coptic church has maintained
Moslem
occupation of Egypt and stillconstitutes a
small fraction (nearly
700,000)of the population.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed

114

Pope,

martyred by the

emperor

and

exiled

251-253;
GaUius.

CORONATION.
A ceremony
arch
whereby a monis inaugurated in office,
so-called from
the
the head.
In O.T. history
on
placingof the crown
anointed
kings were
by the priest and crowned.
Christian a religious
Wlien Europe became
liturgy
In the
was
arranged for coronation ceremonials.
strugglefor papal domination,the claim was that the
by the pope, a custom
Emperor must be crowned
broken by Napoleon.
"

CORPORAL.
A piece of linen spread
altar when the Eucharist is handled.
"

CORPORATION

ACT

OF

1661."

An

the

over

act

mulgated
pro-

by the Enghsh parhament compeUing all

members
of municipal bodies to receive the Holy
Communion
in the Anglican form.
The
act was
suspended from 1689, but not abohshed until 1769.
CORPUS
of the Real

CHRISTL"
A R.C. festival in honor
Presence in the Eucharist,observed on
Thursday after Trinity Sunday, originatingwith
Robert, Bishop of'Li^ge,1246 and becoming ecumenical
in 1264 by a bull of Urban
IV.
CORPUS
DOCTRINAE."
The
designationof
certain
16th.
collections
of doctrinal
century
formulas put forth as representative
of
statements
specific
types of faith or of churches,especiallythe
and
Calvinistic collections. With
Lutheran
the
Formula
of Concord
(q.v.),the importance of
collections declined.
other Lutheran
CORRECTION."

sense

This experienceof guiltin the sightof God has

been characteristic of some
leaders
of the spiritual
in Christianity,
notably Paul, Augustine, and
Luther.
It has been
emphasized in evangehstic
preaching in America
during the 18th. and 19th.
century, as the indispensablecondition of salvation
While
instances of Christian
there are
by grace.
experiencewhich do not involve this profound sense
of sin,it is nevertheless a typicalfeature in many
conversions.
See Sin; Repentance.
Smith
Gerald
Birney
COPE.
A semicircular cloak used in the R.C.
Church
as
a
on
liturgicalvestment
ceremonial,
but not on sacerdotal,
occasions.

ETHICS

OF THE."
R.C.
CORD, CONFRATERNITIES
the members
of which wear
associations,
a cord or a
cincture in commemoration
of a saint,
or as a S3Tnbol
of purity.

genuine

repentance.

AND

or
or

an

The

act

or

process

discipline
(q.v.),
designed to

remove

tion
of rectificaa

wrong

error.

COSMOGONY

AND
COSMOLOGY."
mogony
Costhe birth of the world,and cosmology
the descriptionof the world (or universe,the kosous
mos), but both words are now
apphed to the varitheories which have been advanced
concerning
the originof things. Cosmogony is more
usually
applied to the mythologicalexplanations, cosmology
to the more
philosophical.
When
men
began to inquire how the world in
which they found themselves
to be they gave
came
either in terms
of external nature
the answer
in
or
of human
terms
experience. Thus it was
possible
like the revival of vegeto say that the process was
tation
after the deadness
of winter, or that it was
hke the buildingof a hut which the man
knew
to
result from his own
exertions.
In the latter case
be a Creator; in the former this was
there must
but the tendency of the mind
not so essential,
to
personifyforces external to itselfis so inveterate that
mechanical
of early theories does assume
the most
of the gods. This
the existence
however
only
pushes the inquiry further back for the question
raised.
of the originof the gods themselves was
soon
and Night
It is difficult to say whether
the Chaos
of the Greeks placed at the beginning
which some
first conceived
of as personal or not.
Some
was
mythologiesposit a cosmic egg from which the
world developed.
Since the forces of the world are often in conflict
cosmogonies describe rival and contending
many
Parallel to
gods, like the Titans against Zeus.
this is the Babylonian myth accordingto which the
means

115

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

chaos personified
by
as
a
monster, Tiamat
is conquered by Marduk, representingthe
The bodj^of the defeated Tiamat
ordered universe.
furnished the material out of which the world consists.
Her body was
splitinto halves, the lower
the vault of the
making the earth, the upper
similar conception,
meet
we
a
sky. Elsewhere
accordingto which the earth is the body of a giant,
the rocks being his bones, the vegetationhis hair,the
his veins.
and Earth
streams
are
Again Heaven
husband
and wife,and all animate beingsare their

watery
name,

offspring.

AND

ETHICS

Councils

(Buddhist)

h) The
which

First Council
of Constantinople(381)
restated the position of Nicaea
and
demned
con-

ApolUnarianism (q.v.).
c) The First Council of Ephesus (431) which
condemned
Nestorius and
aproved the use of the
"Mother
of God"
term
(q.v.).
Council
of Chalcedon
d) The
(451) which
declared the presence
of two natures
in the one
person

Christ.
Second

e) The

Council of Constantinople
(553)

which

condemned
the Three Chapters (q.v.).
/) The Third Council of Constantinople(680Monothelitism
681) which condemned
(q.v.).
Council of Nicaea
g) The Second
(787) which
favored the use of images.
The Fourth Council of Constantinople (869-70)
is sometimes
reckoned
as
an
eighth ecumenical

Where
a creator
god is credited with the making
of the universe he is not always thought to be the
of the more
one
unique One or even
important
divinities. He might be one
of the smaller animals
Indian myth tells
insect. An American
or
even
an
how the muskrat
council.
brought up mud from the bottom
of the primeval ocean
that the ecumenical
and thus created the dry land.
It will appear
councils did
not proceed far in the development of the fundamental
Apparently the idea of a creatio ex nihilo is not
beliefs as contained in the Apostles'Creed.
The
Hebrew
readily grasped by primitive man.
account
in its earUest form does not affirm creation
The R.C. church liststwenty councils as ecumenical,
in the strict sense.
It assumes
but those not mentioned
above
a desert land already
were
wholly
in existence but without
animals
or
composed of R.C. clergy.
plants. The
creation is likened to the work of the cultivator who
of other councils,how2. A very large number
ever,
redeems
the desert by watering and
held dealing
with various questionswhich
were
planting it.
The other Hebrew
in the church.
account
In fact the entire history of
to start
arose
(Gen. 1) seems
with a watery chaos on which
the early church might be said to be found in the
the Almighty exercises
his skiU.
In this (priestly)
account
the
see
we
development of a group of authoritative beliefs as
be
product of a strong religiousfaith working on material
organized in councils and synods. It would
impossiblein the space at our disposalto give any
mythological. This material was
originally
of the decisions of these councils in detail.
from
the
account
probably borrowed
Babylonia. But
Hebrew
writer rigidly
excluded
polytheistic It is,however, well to call attention to the fact
every
and he avoided anthropomorphism, making
that the 11th. century councils showed
allusion,
very decided
each act of the drama
intention to reform the church,especially
the morals
proceed from a spoken word;
God spake and it was
of the clergy" the 12th. century councils were
and it
cerned
condone; he commanded
stood fast. In this account
discover
with the relations of the papacy
largely
moreover
we
with the church and with the development of the
an
evolutionaryelement; the successive acts of
creation form
an
dogmas of transubstantiation
ascending scale culminating in
(4 Lateran 1215);
These
the Council of Lyons (1274) attempted unsuccessacts
man.
fully
are
now
brought into the six
to end the schism between
the Greek and the
days of the week, in order that the sanctityof the
Sabbath
Latin churches; the councils of the 15th. century
be emphasized by the divine example.
may
In modern
times cosmogony
takes the form of
including those of Pisa (q.v.),Constance
(q.v.),
some
theory of cosmic evolution in which physical and Basel (q.v.),were
largelyconcerned with the
forces shape the universe in accordance
with scientifically reforming of the administration
of the church.
In
ascertainable laws.
the period of the Reformation
the most
See Evolution.
important
R.C. council was
H. P. Smith
that of Trent
(q.v.)which was
convoked
COUNCIL
OF
BASEL."
cil
for the purpose
1542-1563
of undertaking
See Basel, Counreform both of the matters
of administration
OF.
and
of doctrine in view of the progress
of the
COUNCILS
Reformation
AND
SYNODS."
AssembUes
(q.v.). The Vatican Council held in
senting
repreChristians of some
defined the dogma of papal infalhbility.
in which decision
1869-1870
locality
is made
relative to the doctrine or administration
The Protestant groups
have also held innumerable
of the group
of
councils
and
represented.
synods for the purpose
difference between
The
the Council and
the
Most
correctingheresy or working out reforms.
ing
Protestant bodies have such meetings with more
Synod is not easy to draw, possiblythe most strikor
difference being that the latter is more
local
less authorityholding sessions at regular intervals.
than the former.
ences,
These are generallyknown
as
conventions, conferCouncils are by no means
Umited to Christians,
associations.
In American
or
practicethe
for the history of Buddhism
word Council commonly is used for meetings called
abounds
in records
of the meeting of representativepersons
for special decisions while Synod is used as an
to deal
with heresy or undertake
official designation for the authoritative
to organize correct views
body of
to be held by the clergy and their fellows.
definite territory.
Shailer Mathews
some
of a group, has almost
as
a religion
Christianity,
from its inception held meetings in which matters
COUNCILS
There is evidence
(BUDDHIST)."
of policy or belief were
decided.
held
in the
The
earliest of
of a succession
of councils
early
of presuch meetings is the so-called Council of Jerusalem
centuries of Buddhism
for the
serving
purpose
but
held for the purpose
of adjusting the relations between
the law and discipline
of the movement
the Pauline and the Jewish group of Christians.
is impossible
confident assertion regarding them
1. The Ecumenical
the best attested.
Councils.
first three are
These are seven
at present. The
in number
and were
never
thoroughly ecumenical.
(1) A coimcil held at Ragagriha under KaSyapa in
Their membership was
the law
when
447 B.C.
composed largelyof eastern
(dhamma) and discipline
established with the assistance of
These
clergy with only a few from the west.
(j)inaya)were
councils are:
Ananda
and Upali. (2) A council at Vai^ali in
First Council
of Nicaea
377 B.C. which decided regarding certain practices
a) The
(325) which
formulated
the belief in the consubstantiabihty of monks
of that place not provided for by the law.
of the Son with the Father.
(3) A council at Pataliputra under Asoka about
"

Counsel

of Perfection

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

had the character of real ecclesiastical

by the king. The authority of
councils came
from the conof the Buddhist
sensus
most
claimed
to preserve
of elderly saints who
the originaltradition of Buddha.
A. EtrSTACE
Hatdon
OF PERFECTION."
See Consilia
COUNSEL
EVANGELICA.
242

B.C.

which

authority backed

A
COUNTER-REFORMATION."
term
monly
comapplied to the reaction in the R.C. church
had
Reformation, which
against the Protestant
serious-minded
aroused
to the painfulconsciousness
men
of widespread depravity and
urgent
of reformation
of both clergy and laity.
demand
which had already begun
The reformingactivity,
with Catholic princeslike William
IV. of Bavaria,
of
continued
for a hundred
years, from the middle
the 16th. to the middle of the 17th. century, with
had
aim
of reclaiming those
who
the twofold
and of corabandoned
the church for Protestantism
recting
the
the abuses which
had
brought on
who
the
Reformation.
Prominent
men
among
task
themselves
the
to
were:
Ignatius,
gave
Canisius, Cardinal Bellarmine, and other Jesuits;
Philip Neri, Cardinal
Baronius, and other Oratorians,by their sincerityin preaching and writing;
Vincent
de Paul by his congenial active charity;
missionaries like the Franciscan
Fidelis of Sigmaringen; Bishops like Francis de Sales, Charles
Borromeo, Otto of Walburg, Hosius of Ermland.
Juhus Echter alone, it is said,brought back more
communion.
than 62,000 Protestants to Roman
authoritative
The
procedure began with the
of cardinals by pope
appointment of a commission
drawn
Paul III. to carry out the programme
up
by cardinals Contarini, Morone, and Caraffa in
zealous
The
1537.
Inquisition,generally under
stopped the spread of the
Dominicans,effectively
lands.
faith in Italy,Spain, and the Spanish Nethernew
and Bavaria
of France
The
were
crowns
in maintaining the
strenuous
discipline"cujus
nots,
regioillius religio." The persecutionof the Huguemew's
of St. Bartholoculminating in the massacre
effect of their zeal.
an
Night (1572), was
milian
Austria, despite the tolerant inclination of Maxiwithstood
the Reformation.
II.,persistently
had
In its effort to correct
the abuses which
vened
brought on the Reformation, the R.C. church conits bishops in numerous
synods and enacted
decrees for the reform of the clergyand
disciplinary
laity. The most important by far was the Council
of Trent (1545-1563) (q.v.) Besides anathematizing
the teachers and teachings of Protestantism, the
council enacted
"reformatory decrees" providing
in teaching Catholic
for more
efficient methods
exact
theology and philosophy (Session5), more
.

frequent
seminary discipline(S. 23, c. 18), more
the duty of
diocesan synods (S. 24), insistingon
residence, of bishops and pastors (SS. 6 and 23),
simplicityof clerical dress and life (SS. 14 and 25),
visitation (S.6),
frequent diocesan and parochial
regulation of ecclesiastical benefices (S. 7), care
in the ordination and installationof clerics (S.21),
restoration
of monastic
discipline(S. 25), and
correction of the misuse of excommunication
(S.25).
To protect the faithful from dangerous reading it
and
the Index
librorum
prohibitorum^
the
safe guide in Catholic doctrine m
The
to
Catechismus
Romanus.
was
"Inquisition"
be more
vigilantand exercise its power under the
fideitridenbishop in each diocese. The professio
Pius V.
to be required of all CathoUcs.
tina was
executed the laws of Trent.
Gregory
unflinchingly
XIII. was
kinder than
Pius and his reform
ran
smoother, but withal quite as effectively.It was a
turned the attention
relief when
Sixtus V. happily

drew

up

provided

AND

ETHICS

116

of Catholics to literatureand art, incidentally,

as it
were, introducingreform in the study of Scripture,
in Canon
Law, and in Liturgy, which has perhaps
than anything else brought about
concord
more
and proper
understanding of devotional practices
the point whence
the Reformation
started.
So
the reformatory
was
thorough and far-reaching
work of the Council of Trent that the church has
since that time done little more
than apply and
enforce its decrees,which, with slightmodification,
stillin force.
J. N. Reagan
are
"

of the cardinal virtues in

COURAGE.
One
Greek
Christian
and
in mediaeval
ethics. It
denotes in Greek philosophy the capacity of a man
to control impulses and to subordinate
emotions
in
the interest of the rational end prescribedby wisdom.
Christian
moralists emphasized the fearless
fortitude of martyrs and saints and the persistent
from temptations. In modern
times
turning away
the term
is employed in the military
of fearlessly
sense
of resofacing danger, and in a social sense
lutely
facing disapproval of others or personal
disadvantagefor the sake of loyaltyto principles.
See Virtues
Vices.
and
"

COURTS,

ECCLESIASTICAL."
Congregational
internal disputesand moral offenses soon
developed the Bishop's Court which obtained fixed
procedure when
synodal legislationcame
(4th.
century). Constantine
(321) allowed
episcopal
arbitrate in civic cases
courts
to
belonging to
This soon
state courts.
ceased, but the mediaeval
and contracts,
Bishop'sCourt dealt with testaments
infraction here being sin. The
appeal from the
bishop is to the archbishop, the highesttribunals
The Sacred Penitentiary,
courts:
beingthree Roman
The Sacred Roman
Rota, The ApostoUc Synatura.
Protestant procedure varies with the denomination.
The Presbyteriancourts are the session,
the presbytery,
the synod, the General Assembly.
Methodism
with an
provides a judicialcommittee
appeal to
conferences.
F. A. Christie
action

on

COUVADE.
^A custom
certain primitive
among
peoples of putting the father to bed after the birth
of a child,in recognitionof paternal obligation.
"

COVENANT.
^Any formal and solemn agreement
between
individuals or two
two
or
groups
between
individuals or groups
and a god or gods.
The covenant
is usuallysealed by means
of symbolism.
In covenants
between
the purposes
men
include the adoption of a stranger into a tribe,the
making of peace between enemies, the production
of kinshiprelationship
or of friendship
or of identity
of interests,
and the founding of an alHance; and
the covenant
is symbolized by mutual
drinking,
infusion or
smearing of blood as in the bloodcovenant
(q.v.),by an interchange of names,
ments,
garmeal.
or
or
utensils,
by a common
weapons
In covenants
and deities the rehgious
between men
is the
ceremonial
symbol which
an
expresses
in
exchange of duties,worship or giftsfrom men
return for some
boon from the god. The commoner
are
symbols of such covenants
eating the sacrificial
meal, ceremonies in which the blood of the sacrificial
victim is the vehicle,and totemistic rites. Sometimes
"

meteorologicalphenomena are regarded as

in Gen.
9 : 16
covenant-signs, as the rainbow
Covenants
constituted
important factors in the
reUgion of Israel,and an important development
of Protestant
based on
the conceptheology was
tion
of
Covenant

between

covenant

God

and

man.

See

Theology;

COVENANT
GRACE.
See
"

OF

WORKS;

Covenant

COVENANT
Theology.

OF

117

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

FEDERAL
THEOLOGY
COVENANT
or
the
THEOLOGY."
A type of theology in which
relations of God and man
are
presented under the
form of a covenant
contract
or
(Joedus)
Cocceius
The
(q.v.) is
theologian Johannes
commonly regarded as the founder of this type of
of fact,the conception of
theology. As a matter
God's relations to man
under the form of a contract
not unknown
to writers before him, although
was
he may
fairlywell be said to have given the theology
its first systematic form.
federal theology,
or
According to the covenant
God is represented as having estabUshed
nants
covetwo
with man;
Covenant
of Works,
the first,
or
made
with Adam, the representativeof the
was
human
This
covenant
race.
promised Ufe and
happiness as a reward for obedience and death as
of
the penalty of disobedience.
This
covenant
works Adam, again as representativeof the human
thus brought upon
humanity the
race, broke,and
God
then subsequently made
a
penalty of death.
second covenant
Covenant
of Grace with Christ,
or
the representative
of his people. According to this
new
covenant, the promise was made of salvation to
those who believed in Jesus Christ.
The covenant
of grace
includes various
subordinate
covenants
that of Redemption made
God
and
between
as:
Christ that God
should give Christ spiritual
seed;
the Abrahamic
declared to Abraham
and his
as
descendants.
Covenant
The
theology thus starts from the
generalpoint of view of Calvin.
By it,the covenant
of grace exists only between
those elected by God
for salvation.
and acts
Christ is the Son of God
for those for whom
he was
to be the representative
and head.
To this end, he became
incarnate in
order to unite the deity with humanity, thus becoming
the federal head of the elect humanity.
For
them he suffered,
making expiationfor those whom
he represented.
It is significant
that this type of theology has
found
not
wide
those
acceptance except among
reformed
churches
which
belong to countries in
which the idea of the covenant
in poUticalaffairs is
less familiar.
of Trent
Council
more
or
The
condemned
the Covenant
especially
theology.
Shailer
Mathews
COVENANTERS."
A
party holding to the
in
principlesof the Reformed
church, originating
Scotland,and playing an important part in the
Scottish and English history of the 17th. century.
In 1557 and again in 1581 these "godly bands"
covenanted
to resist the encroaching of the Catholic
church.
In 1638 there was
of the covenant
a renewal
of 1581
in opposition to the attempt
of
Charles I. and Laud
to foist the English Uturgy
Scotland.
In 1643 the leaders of the English
on
parUament, after defeat in the civil war, entered
into the Solemn
League and Covenant
(q.v.)with
the Scots for the establishment
of the Reformed
church
in both
countries in return
for miUtary
dominated
Scottish politihelp. The Covenanters
cal
life from 1638 to 1651, but were
weakened
with
Cromwell's
with the
victory,and lost their power
accession of Charles II.
.

MILES
COVERDALE,
(1488-1568)."English
translator of the Bible; was
at first a priest,
then
Austin
an
afterwards converted to Protestantism.
friar,
His translation was
the first complete Bible
pubhshed in English (1535.)

COVETOUSNESS."

Inordinate

desire

for the

acquisitionand possessionof anything.

COWARDICE."

hardship or danger

An attitude of shrinking from

such as to lead one
to evade

ETHICS

AND

Creed"

it involves discomfort or peril. Cowardice

anti-social and in times of
is thus essentially
great social need, e.g., in war, is readilyseen to be
contemptible. In less dramatic ways it insidiously
prevents a positiveespousal of moral ideals and
thus contributes
to the breaking down
of social
morality. See Courage.

duty when

COWL.
(1) A cloak with a hood attached or
simply the hood of such a cloak,used by the monks
"

of certain R.C.

orders.

WILLIAM
COWPER,
(1731-1800)."
EngUsh
hymn-writer; joint author with John
of the Olney hymns, 1779.
Newton

poet and

THOMAS
CRANMER,
(1489-1556)." First
Protestant archbishopof Canterbury; was
the mainstay
of Henry
VIII. in the separation of the
EngUsh church from the church of Rome, and the
leader of the reformation
in England,
movement
masses
repudiating celibacy,pilgrimages,
to the saints.
The
dead, and prayers

for the
First and
Second
VI.
and
the
Prayer-books of Edward
tually
Evenchieflyhis work.
Forty-two articles were
burnt at the stake for his Protestant
he was
views during the temporary
reversion to Roman
Catholicism
in the reign of Mary.
CREATION."

See Cosmogony.

CREATIONISM."
(1) The doctrine that the
originof the material universe is due to a creative
act of God, usually regarded as
opposed to the
evolutionary hypothesis. (2) The doctrine that
human
soul
being begins life with a new
every
created by God, as opposed to traducianespecially
ism (q.v.).
CREED.
The statement
of fundamental
gious
relibeUefs which the group holding them regards
essential to salvation,or in a looser sense
as
any
formulation
of beUefs.
The
Christian creeds as
distinct from confessions of faith are held by Christians
generally and are used in public worship.
A
creed in the strict sense
of the term
is
usuallyUmited to the Christian rehgion. Elements
of beUef are, of course, to be found in other reUgions,
notably in the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.
The Christian reUgion,however, is the only one
in
which there has been any authoritative formulation
of faith as the basis of membership in an organization,
of a
conditioningthe right to be a member
"

given reUgious group.

In

it is possibleto find creeds in

a wider
sense
of the great reUgions,especiallyafter they
have come
in contact
with the Christians or have
been brought into conflict with some
other reUgion.
1. The Apostles'
Creed,whose evolution through
Creed
Rule
of Faith
the old Roman
or
(q. v.)
be traced from at least the beginning of the
can
creed.
It
2nd. century, is the oldest Christian
doubtless found its originin some
baptismal formula
of what the
and may
be regarded as the summary
ity.
in Christianearlychurch believed was fundamental
It is to be noticed,however, that the Apostles'
Creed makes
reference to the love of God, any
no
theory of atonement, or Christian moraUty.
is supposed to
2. The Nicene
Creed, so-called,
be that adopted by the Council of Nicene 325 a. p.
is
of fact,however, the creed which
As a matter
commonly used in the churches as the Nicene
Creed is one
probably adopted at the Council of
Constantinople (381). It is impossible,however,
form of the creed adopted at
to get at the correct
in Ught of its being quoted in
Constantinople,even
most

Cremation

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

118

The visible part of the moon

CRESCENT."
It has been claimed by many
in 451.
in
Chalcedon
its first or last quarter, the symbol on the Turkish
creed was that of
that the Nicene-Constantinopolitan
standard.
Hence
but these questionsthus opened
metaphorically, the Turkish
CjtH of Jei'usalem,
itself.
or Muhammadanism
not settled to the satisfaction of all scholars.
are
power,
"We believe in
Essential elements of this creed are:
See Penology.
CRIME."
Lord Jesus Christ,the son of God, begotten of
one
the Father, only begotten,that is of the substance
CRIOBOLIUM.
A ceremony
of the Father, God of God, lightof light,
nection
performed in convery God
substance
with the cult of the Great Mother, Cybele
of very God, begotten not made, of one
and Attis. The ram
whose
blood was
allowed to
with the Father," etc.,the central words of which
the devotee
stance." fall upon
subconsecrated
to Attis
was
be said to be "begotten" and "of one
may
and served the same
mas
the blood of the
as
The Nicene Creed also contains anathepurpose
bull in the taurobolium
those who differ from its formula.
(q.v.).
upon
"

3. The Creed of Chalcedon

(451) was adopted
for the purpose
of setthng disputesconcerning the
trine
of Jesus.
This creed organized the docperson
of the incarnation.
Its essential phrases,
ing
added to the Nicene formula,are "We, then, followthe holy Fathers, all with one
consent, teach
and the same
to confess one
Son, our Lord
men
and
Jesus Christ, the same
perfect in Godhead
also perfectin manhood; truly God and trulyman,
of a reasonable soul and body; consubstantial with
the Father
according to the Godhead, and conin
substantial with us according to the Manhood;
all things Uke unto us, without sin; begotten before
all ages of the Father according to the Godhead,
and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation ;
ing
born of the VirginMary, the Mother
of God, accordand the same
to the Manhood;
one
Christ,Son,
Lord, Only-begotten, to be acknowledged in two

CRITICISM,
LOWER.

"

BIBLICAL, HIGHER,

TEXTUAL,

Criticism.

See Biblical

formed
enclosure
distarce apart
buried in prehistoric
within which the dead were
times.
The burial places within are often marked
by cairns,dolmens, or mounds so that it is probable
that the largeenclosure was
for the
a place intended
of rites connected
observance
with the cult of the
circles are
found
dead.
These
in France,
stone
Norway and the British Isles. The best known
example is Stonehenge.
CROMLECH.

"

by large standing

circular

stones

set

some

OLIVER
(1599-1658)." Lord
CROMWELL,
of England, a
Protector
example of
supreme
Puritan faith in the divine guidance and of Puritan
or
rehgious tyranny joined with
natures, inconfusedly,unchangeably, indivisibly, hatred of political
narrow
a
conception of liberty. As the Lord's
inseparately;the distinction of natures
being by
warrior against Charles I. he recruited his troops
taken away
no
means
by the union, but rather the
from
who
men
curring
fought only for religiousfaith,
property of each nature being preserved,and conin one
Person
and
one
chieflyIndependents opposed like himself both to
Subsistence,not
monarchy and the establishment of Presbyterianism.
parted or divided into two persons, but one and
His stern zeal created the Irish problem by his
the same
Son, and only begotten, God the Word,
ginningruthless
the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beslaughter of captives, suppression of
his
CathoUcism, and division of estates among
(have declared)concerning him, and the
soldiers. As head of the state his poUcy was
Lord Jesus Christ himself has taught us, and the
to
maintain
church
with
state
Puritan
Creed of the Holy Fathers has handed down to us."
a
worship
Creed {Symbolum Quicunque)
4. The Athanasian
only of a Puritan type.
toleratingnon-conformists
attributed to Athanasius
held
but it is now
was
Personally in sympathy with complete toleration
Jews and liberated imprisoned Quakers.
he protected
rather
generally that this is incorrect. It seems
F. A. Christie
to represent a theological
atmosphere of the Latin
ecclesiastical ornament,
CROSIER.
An
Africa.
in Gaul, Spain, and
North
It
churches
tinctive
disof a bishop. It is in form a shepherd's
never
was
adopted by the Greek church in its precise
of pastoralauthority. It may
form.
The probabilityis that it arose
in the
have
staff,
symbolical
of Gaul or North
been a Christian adaptation of the Roman
churches
Africa and developed
augur's
tury.
lituus, or originallysimply the elder's haculum.
by use until perhaps the beginning of the 9th. cenIt is very probably composed of two parts,
Its present form and
significancedate from the
5th. century.
with separate authors,a damnatory clause
possibly
in the middle indicatingthe point of junction. On
CROSS.
A figuremade
of authorship, however, there is no
the matter
by the intersection of
hnes transversely. The cross
two
or
more
as
uniformity of opinion. While in its present form
an
instrument
was
it does not date from earher than the 9th. century,
frequently made of wood, and in
ancient times was
used for centuries
it probably was
in its essence
put to two uses, as a mystic or
before that time.
it may
Whatever
whenever
or
rehgious symbol and as an instrument of punishment.
Creed
found
its
have originated,the Athanasian
it
in
As
into
church.
the
the
of
the
western
In
a
rehgioussymbol
pre-Christian
use
appears
way
times among
the Egyptians,Indians,Chinese,BuddCatholic Church
hists
it seems
to have been used
Roman
and
Its
use
was
Europeans.
widespread among
generallyfor morning services,mostly in Advent
Indians.
The significance
American
either as a
and Lent.
Of late years its use has been restricted
was
in the Anglican church
symbol of the four winds, associated with the four
pretty largely to certain
of the active
Whitsuntide.
or as emblematic
The
and
pointsof the compass,
festivals,like Easter
and passiveelements in nature, or as a phallic
of the United States
Protestant Episcopal Church
symbol,
of Thor's hammer, symbohzing
emblem
book.
Creed from the prayer
omits the Athanasian
or
as
an
As an instrument
of punishment and
It was held in high respect by Protestant theologians destruction.
of suffering,
the cross
is preof the Reformation
a consequent emblem
period,being formally adopted
Whatever
ritual
Christian,but the crucifixion of Jesus attached to
by the Augsburg Confession.
for Christians.
From
it new
the time
of the creed,however, it undoubtedly
is made
significance
use
it has been the recognized symbol
of Constantine
promising
represents the trinitarian positionin its most uncomof the Christian rehgion. The
form.
Shailer
Mathews
"Holy Cross" has
its specialchurches, and so-called fragments have
It has been placed on flagsand
been venerated.
Funeral
CREMATION."
See
Death
and
churches
and
Practices.
ensigns, in heraldic devices, upon
"

"

A DICTIONARY

119

OF

RELIGION

ecclesiastical utensils. It is carried in ecclesiastical

by
processionsand used as a personal ornament
word
watchThe
ecclesiastical dignitariesand others.
cross."
"to take the
of the Crusades
was
The making of the "signof the cross" as a ceremony
implyingdevotion and truthfulness is of earlyorigin,
and
the writings of Tertullian
from
as
appears
Augustine. The performance of healingsand other
is
miracles through the employment of the cross
it was
to which
evidence of the magical purposes
of the
put. The stress placed on the significance
death of Jesus in Christianityhas led to the use of
for atonement
the word "cross" as a synonym
(q.v.)
and
sometimes
for the Christian
reUgion. The
and of work
continues to be a sign of suffering
cross
done in sympathy with an alleviation of suffering,
Cross Society (q.v.).
e.g., the Red
A. S. WOODBTJRNE
time
BURIAL
AT."
At one
CROSS-ROADS,
the method
of disposition
of the bodies of suicides
and
executed
criminals.
An
ancient
Teuton
to offer human
frequently
sacrifices,
practisewas
criminals,on altars erected at cross roads. Hence
the originof the earUer Christian practiseof burial.

AND

of Byzantium.

ETHICS
The

lappingwaves

Crusades, Th"
of its floodtide

disturbed

Jerusalem,also,and added to the plaints

of pilgrimsfrom the West.
On
request for aid from Byzantium, Gregory
VII. had planned a project very
like the later
to safeguard
Crusades, a campaign led by himself,
to gain control of the Holy
Byzantium's frontier,
Sepulchre,and incidentallyto effect a reunion of
the churches.
The
project was
dropped when
Gregory presently involved himself in political
difficulties at home.
Not
long after his death
Cluniac
Urban
the great French
II. in a happier

collocation of similar circumstances

set in motion
the first Crusade.
The most
distinctlymediaeval
was
as
institution,
fitting,had set on foot the
most
movement.
characteristicallymediaeval
of Peter the Hermit
with the
(The connection
of the crusadingidea is a legend.)
origination
It was
Without
a magnificentconcept.
izing
jeopardhis dignityby attempted personalleadership
Urban
of the
quietly asserted the supremacy
all Christendom.
Disunited
over
Europe
papacy
to be imified in a great movement
was
against a
foe. The economic
distress of western
ope
Eurcommon
would be alleviated,
the Byzantine Empire saved
and perhaps reconstituted,
the Byzantine church
CRUCIFIX.
A
with
cross
an
image of the
reunited with Rome, the holy places of Christian
crucified Jesus.
See Symbols.
origins be brought under
Christian, more
ticularly
parpapal, rule. And thus a splendid beginning
CRUCIFIXION."
The
infliction
of
the
death
(1)
in the establishment
would
be made
of the
of naiUng or binding the victim
penalty by means
Christian civitas Dei on the earth.
The similarity
of
of capital
to or impaling him
on
a
cross; a mode
this program
with that of the Moslem
war
holy
oriental countries.
punishment employed in many
QihcLd)is striking.
at
(2) The death of Jesus Christ on the cross
the power
of
By unusual good fortune,fitiding
Calvary.
resistance of the Moslem
world at its lowest ebb,
this first expedition,despitepoor organizationand
CRUELTY."
The deliberate infliction of suffering
inefficient equipment and
leadership,gained its
and pain. Modern
legislation
aiming at the
most
tangible objective,possessionof Jerusalem,
prevention of cruelty to those unable to protect
stream
or less constant
July 1099. How, by a more
themselves such as children,
and animals,
defectives,
and
of reinforcements,now
again reaching the
is evidence of a growing humanitarianism.
dimensions
of an
expedition similar to or greater
than the first (some count
others twelve,
seven,
less securelyin
or
THE."
A warlike episode in the
etc.),Jerusalem remained more
CRUSADES,
Christian
hands
for almost
relations between
half of
the eastern
and western
exactly 100 years
and some
the
Mediterranean
world
(with interruption),
stripsof the Syrian
during the Middle
coast were
be
held about a century longer,cannot
of
Ages, characterized
by military invasions
told in detail. The more
Palestine by Christian armies.
important and well known
of these expeditionsare:
the one
lure of the Levant
The
generallyknown
was
strong in western
the third Crusade, led by jFrederick
I. Barbaas
Europe as the 11th. century approached its end.
of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and
This was
due to general cultural superiorityof
rossa
Richard
I.,Lionheart,of England; the crusade of
long standing, but, like all else in the mediaeval
Frederick
II. (the last powerful Hohenstaufen) ,
world, it took on religious,
theologicalcolor: the
by the pope, gained
who, though excommunicated
Holy Land, the Holy Sepulchre loomed
large in
social and
men's
minds.
Meanwhile
economic
by diplomacy what could not be got by force of
for a brief space;
distress was
Feudal
organization,
dispossession of Jerusalem
prevalent at home.
arms,
the crusades
of St. Louis of France, out of the
the incipientdisaggregationof the
second (and last)of which grew a crusade of interest
Germanic
Roman
Empire, the birth throes of
and importance to readers of the EngHsh tongue,
national
developments, famines, etc., weighed
I. of England. As for the other
heavily,especiallyon the lower strata of society. that of Edward
with which
the Crusades
schism
The
between
and
the Byzantine
Rome
were
begun:
purposes
relieved at
distress of Europe was
Church
the economic
wound
the body politic
of
was
a recent
on
least temporarily,perhaps in a measure
permanently,
Christendom, still keenly felt on occasion,and not
the papacy
by the fosteringof trade and commerce;
yet appearing so hopelessas a few centuries later.
attained its
The most distinctly
mediaeval
institution of western
in and with the crusading movement
Europe, the papacy, had arrived with Gregory VII.
greatestpower, but presently,having overstrained
the Byzantine church
it begin to slipaway;
In it, it,saw
(Hildebrand) nearly or quite at its apogee.
in the heart of western
as
before;
was
more
Christendom, met more
seriouslyestranged than ever
information
its way
to
hastened
about
and concern
for all the things
the Byzantine empire was
on
for that counterthrust
mentioned, than in any other individual or
destruction,making room
in Europe.
of Islam against Europe, which is properly called
)ody of men
East
of the Mediterranean
the Seljuk Turk
the Ottoman
Empire
(improperly Turkey, or
cent
and
invasion,followed
by speedy conversion
Turkey in Europe). It was under Pope InnoIII. (1198-1216),apparentlyat the zenith of
absorptioninto the Mohammedan
world,had caused
a brief but forceful revival of the conquering power
its glory and power,
that the degenerationand rapid
of Islam, especially
in the direction of Byzantium.
decay of the crusading idea set in. The crusading
The
of this thrust helped to create new
diverted
from
movement
war
was
against nonpressure
difficultiesand disorders on the northern
frontiers
Christians in and for the Holy L^-ud to warlike
"

t'ust

Crypt

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

120

a family likeness. It is also noticeable

that the cults of the various deitiesamong
a
given
the bright,
people show marked
kinship. Thus
humanized
deities of all the Greek
cults stand in
marked
contrast
to the dark, grotesque gods of
Hinduism.
As a cult is a system of rites and
beliefs so a religion
like the Egyptian or Christian
religion comprehends within the stages of its
sects a variety
development and within its differing
tends
of cults. The word
cult,in common
usage,
to the more
to be applied
primitiveand less familiar
hear of strange cults and
Land.
types of religion.We
oriental cults.
To
name
precise moral or religiousvalues
Durkheim
has emphasized not only the fact that
ished
diminor
created, gained, established,enhanced
the cult is a system of diverse rites,festivals and
is a
in whole
in part by the Crusades
or
difficult perhaps an
ceremonies, but that they reappear
periodically.
impossible task. That
very
cultural
indifferent,For example one speaks of marriage rites but not
elements, good, bad, and
of a marriage cult,of rites of birth but not of a cult
rather intangible,
have filtered in from
must
many
of the new-born
child. He makes
much
of this in
the East, goes without
saying. Begun with an
had
the criticism of animism
as
a
stage of religion,
avowedly fanatical purpose, these movements
of their devotees
of leaving a fair number
holdingthat there is no cult of ancestor worship
a
way
but only rites of burial
the Australians
broadminded
in the end.
Something like
more
among
and mourning. The
the world was
historic outlook
life and
primitivecult as Durkheim
on
an
attained by mediaeval
expounds and illustrates it in terms of the Australian
Europe. Luxuries became
of livingwas
the standard
perceptibly tribes includes a negative and a positive side.
necessities;
interdictions.
cult includes the tabus
The negative
raised.
Some
were
countries, e.g., Germany,
These
interdictions restrain the uninitiated from
imfavorably influenced in their development; in
touching the sacred objectsused in the ceremonials;
Italy, England, evil and good effects are
some,
from
touching blood, a corpse, and sacred food
against each other. A few
fairlywell balanced
benefited
objects. They prohibitthe sight of certain things
helped in its
distinctly.Spain was
In
certain
circumstances.
speech under
efforts to throw off African (Moorish) overlordship. and
with
connection
such
tabus the
negative cult
France during,and in considerable measure
through
barriers.
of overcoming such
means
the Crusades
developed into a great, well ordered, includes
Among these are abstinences,unctions,lustrations
nation; its historic claims in the Levant are of this
and benedictions.
Ascetic practicesare
M. Sprengling
mediaeval
time and type.
common.
The rites are
often cruellypainful. The positive
cult includes ceremonies
to insure the prosperity
vault
subterranean
^A hidden
CRYPT.
or
of the animal or vegetable species serving the
used
those in the catacombs
chamber; specifically
their sacred
These
totems
clan as totems.
certain churches
are
ployed
emfor burial,and those under
objects,their deities. The very life of their gods
as
cemeteries,chapels,confessionals.
of the cult.
felt to depend upon the enactment
are
These sacred beings are subject to the rhythm of
An opprobrious term
CRYPTO-CALVINISM."
renewal
and
decay. Vegetation dies every
used in the 16th. century to denote a Calvinistic
year
is no disinterested
animals perish. Man
and many
in regard to
conception held by certain Lutherans
life
His
of
these
depends
changes.
spectator
the presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper.
and he therefore seeks to help them.
them
upon
he imitates
He sheds his blood for them in the rites,
with a
ANSATA.
An
CRUX
Egyptian cross
them
the processes of their production to make
to the
loop handle, bearing a strikingresemblance
acter
Such
thrive.
performances are magical in charname.
sandal cord called in Egyptian by the same
of
ceremonies
that the group
and
show
its origin,it has been to the Egyptian
Whatever
religionas well as the black arts of privatepersons
Semitic world the symbol of life or of
and eastern
the
difference between
full of magic. The
found
in
forms
Similar
are
are
life-givingpower.
magic of individuals and the public, ceremonial
India and America.
ful
powermagic of religionis that the latter is more
and
and is directed toward the welfare of men
In Irish mythology, the name
CUCHULAIN.

againstthe

movements

schismatic

stantinople;
Greeks of Conplaceshave

against heretical Albigenses in the

south of France; against non-Christian peoples on
frontiers of Germany;
the eastern
against an
Christian prince,John
insubordinate
Lackland of
against the HohenEngland. The_ "crusade"
staufen ended, indeed,in the complete destruction
of this dynasty; but it marks, also, the distinct
decline of papal sovereign power
of the mediaeval
effective crusading movement
was
no
type, and
to the Holy
thereafter actuallystarted on its way

"

"

"

"

of a cycle of romances,
the same
name.

centeringin

sun-hero

of

gods.
The

cult is thus

seen

representationof the
QUDRAS.

"

See Sttdras.

RALPH
(1617-1688)." English
renowned
of the
Cambridge
His chief reUgiousand ethical doctrine
Platonists
based upon a prioriprinciples,
viz.,the reaUty
was
of a supreme
world,
intelUgenceand of a spiritual
the eternal reaUty of moral ideas,and the reahty of

be

more

than

dramatic

growth in nature
of growth for
means
of

life. It is the very

"The
gods would die if their cult
has
made
Harrison
rendered." Jane
not
were
the same
interpretationin Greek religionand has
traced the originof the god Dionysus to the cult
This she regards as typical
which pertainsto him.
and
supports this view from parallelsin other
peoples. These views, which are shared by other
or

human

gods and

CUDWORTH,
philosopher, most

to

processes

men.

meaning to religious
scholars,have given a new
cults. They are held to furnish an understanding
CULT.
The
system of beliefs and practices of the natural origin and development of religion
ness
or
specific and of the birth of the gods in the social consciouspertainingto a particularsocial group
generated by the performance of the cult.
divinity. Thus we speak of the cult of Dionysus,
The cult is complex. It involves not only the
the cult of Osiris.
of the great gods of Greece had his own
Each
performance of the rites but the myths or beliefs

moral freedom.
"

cult and there was

in fact a local cult for Zeus in
cults
of his worship. These
main
each
center
of any
one
god disclose resemblances
justas the
different
character and legends ascribed to him m

In primitivestages
the same.
which
accompany
fundamental
the action and external details are more
ness
than the beliefs or myths. Correctand persistent
is more
carefully
in ceremonial minutiae

121

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

more
easilyobserved than individual
fact this is the case
throughout the
higher stages of the religionsof civilized man.
the activities
The cult reflects in interestingways
it arises.
whom
and interests of the people among
The central objectsin it are likelyto be the features
of most
in
which
of the environment
are
concern
the staple
practical life. Frequently these are
food objects,animals among
hunters,cereals among
The
bear is sacred to the Ainu
agriculturalists.
of his cult. Rice for the Malay,
and the center
maize
for the American
Indian, the sheep for
for the
ancient Hebrews, the Nile and the Sun
Egyptians, their Emperors for the Chinese and the
Romans, held their main interest. In all of these
of
centers
peoples, however, there were
many
sacredness and a consequent varietyof cults. It is
to trace modifications of the
cases
possiblein many
cult under the influence of conquest and migration.
ritual after
and wine appear in the Hebrew
Meal
tillersof the
where they became
they enter Canaan
Other
in
soil and
vine growers.
changes occur
of observing the cult. At first all
the manner
at least all initiated males,
of the group,
members
participated.Later it was performed by selected
A strikinginstance of
individuals for the group.
in the officialcult of China in which the
this is seen
elaborate
and
the officials maintained
emperor
intended to take the place
ceremonials which were
of the local cults. Changes also occur
by transfer
of cultures as may
be seen
of cults through contacts
in China
and Japan.
in the spread of Buddhism
S. Ajmes
Edward
EPOCHS."
The name
CULTURE
given to the
race.
great stages in the development of the human
The term is often used in connection with the theory
that the individual in his growth from infancy to
adulthood
actually passes
through the cultural
savage, barbarian,semi-civihzed
stages primitive,
through which the race has passed.
has had a great
The
theory of recapitulation
influence on education.
It has been supposed that
the child should be given the stimuli corresponding
at a given time.
to the culture epoch in which he was
This theory is now
severely criticized.
G. Scares
Theodore
CHURCH.
PRESBYTERIAN
CUMBERLAND
A sect of Presbyterians which
separated from
in 1810.
in the U.S.A.
the Presbyterian Church
Owing to a great revival in Kentucky and Tennessee,
tion
for ministers necessitated the ordinathe demand
of inferior educational standards which
of men
led to dissension and separation. The synod drew
fied
was
a modiup a confession of faith in 1816 which
Calvinism, rejecting predestination,Umited
and originalsin. In 1906 a re-union
atonement
with the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. was
consummated, though nearly half the membership
in the union.
See Presbyrefused to participate

guarded and

beliefs.

In

"

"

"

AND

ETHICS

CURIALISM.
matters

"

An

Cycle

attitude

in

ecclesiastical

exaltingthe papal authorityas supreme.

CURSING.

"

See Blessing

and

Cursing.

CUSTOM.
A norm
of voluntaryaction that
has been developed in a social group.
Custom
is to
be distinguishedon the one
hand from hahit,which
is a relativelypersistentmode
of activityin the
from
individual,and on the other hand
usage,
which
is a mere
"folkway," or "social habit,
without the normative
character of custom.
tom
Cusis,therefore,a habit which has become
mon
comand more
to a social group
less sanctioned
or
by it.
Custom, being built upon the basis of acquired
habit,can scarcely be said to exist in the lower
social
animals,but it is all important in human
evolution,which proceeds largelyby the method
of accumulating and
modifying acquired habits
in individuals.
Thus
is the basis of both
custom
law and morality in human
society,while primitive
itselfmainly with the maintenance
religionconcerns
of custom.
Custom
is also the basis of cultural
and historical continuityin human
although
groups,
tradition (thehanding down through oral or written
language of knowledge, standards, and values)
plays an equal part, being indeed essentiallythe
in the group.
more
subjective side of custom
caUs customs
Sumner
mores.
Charles
A. Ellwood
^A Phrygian goddess whose
cult
CYBELE.
the
and
around
spread widely in Asia Minor
Mediterranean
during the Greco-Roman
period.
She is the symbol of the fruitful,
all-producing
earth while her consort
Attis represents the vegetation
which
dies and is reborn.
lated
Emascugrows,
priestsperformed the wild ceremonies of the
absorbed
that of many
cult which
other similar
deities in the empire and developed elaborate mysteries
of resurrection
giving hope and assurance
the individual
initiate. See
desses;
GodMother
to
Mystery
Religions.
"

"

conception of a cycle or "Great

dramatically,at the beginning
of a new
order of being, in its
by the entrance
middle by a characteristic development, and at the
close by a more
less cataclysmic finale wiping
or
all that has passed and completing the tale,
out
has been developed independently in several centers
of civilization. Its foundations
in virtually all
two:
cases
are
first,a notion of periods or ages,
and
in culture history, that is, a
in cosmogony
doctrine of Ages of the World, such as the classical
division of world-history into a Golden, Silver,
Iron
Age; and second, calendric
Bronze, and
Round"
computations resulting in a "Calendar
or
dates, at the end of which
cycle of nameable
be begun anew.
the series must
Commonly, the
TERIANISM.
myths belong to
cosmogonical and culture-history
there
older stratum
of speculation. As soon
as
See Buddhism, sec. III.
an
CUNYATA.
in astronomy to give mensuris sufficient progress
able
covered,
disseries of years
the calendric cycles are
is
CURATE.
(1) A minister or priest who
vast
and
these eventually assume
vicar of a parish.
as
or
assistant to the rector
an
proportions, they are naturally conceived of as
(2) Canonically, a holder of a benefice who was
of the older mythic cycles. The most
the measures
responsiblefor the "cure" of souls. Cf. the French
frequent basis for the computation of cycles is
cur^.
the discovery of the synodic periodsof the heavenly
bodies.
A phrase used in the R.C.
OF SOULS.
CURE
According to the Egyptian notion, the
of the New
to designate the spiritual Sothic cyclerepresentedthe recurrence
and Anglican churches
Year's day of their civil year of 365 days and their
of a congregationby the clergy.
of members
care
the same
of 365| days upon
astronomical
year
nomical
for the "curia RoCURIA.
The
usual term
date, which took place at the end of 1460 astroThe Babylonianscomputed a great
mana," or system of officials who comprise the
years.
Catholic
See Pope; Roman
cycle of about 33,000 years, its beginning and end
papal government.
Church.
being marked by the appearance of all the planetsin
"

"

"

"

CYCLE.

"

The

Year" of time marked

Cynics
the

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

sign. The Maya of Yucatan

cycle of nearly the same
length,based
of day-signs in orders deterthe recurrence
mined
upon
by various calendric factors. But of all
such cycles the vastest
those computed by
are
of the years of the four ages
the Hindus, the sum
of a "Day of Brahm"
reaching the vast period of
4,320,000 years, while the corresponding "Night
endures through a thousand
of Brahm"
times this
same

computed

zodiacal

number.

H. B. Alexander

AND

ETHICS

122

toleration and

the
readmission
of
penitents.
influence both
religion and ethics
were
standardized
and the primacy
ecclesiastically
of Rome
was
greatlyadvanced.

Through

his

CYRENAIC"

post-Socraticschool of Greek
by Aristippus of Cyrene,
whose
main
tenet
was
positive hedonism.
tippus
Arisheld that prudence discriminates between
pleasuresand guides to ethical conduct.

philosophy founded

CYNICS."
A
school
of Greek
CYRIL
AND
METHODIUS."
philosophers
brothers
Two
between
Socrates and the Stoics. They
who were
originating
"apostlesto the Slavs"; Cyrildied 869
of the human
will and
and Methodius
emphasized the freedom
885.
Cyril invented the Slavonic
absolute individualism
in morals.
Morality must
script,and the brothers translated the New Testament
be in ultimate harmony with reason.
Their individualism
and certain portions of the Old Testament
into Slavonic.
was
a denial and
neglectof social virtues.
They also began the use of Slavonic
The dog was
for certain portions of the liturgy.
popularly regarded as their emblem,
their name
or
coming from that source
quite as
CYRIL
OF ALEXANDRIA
probably from the Cynosarges, their Athenian
(376-444)."Bishop
of Alexandria and Church
place of meeting. They are
important as the
Father, a noted dogmatic
forerunners of Stoicism.
In the earlydays of the
theologianand defender of orthodoxy, and champion
Roman
of a Christology
that insisted on two natures
Empire the word had not gained the opprobut
brium
later associated with it. Epictetususes cynic one
in Christ.
He
made
person
regrettableuse
of the true philosopher.
of his power
in the persecutionof Jews, heretics and
as the description
the chief opponent of Nestorius (q.v.),
was
pagans,
OF
CARTHAGE
CYPRIAN
and the power
behind the strife in which Hypatia
(ca. 200-258)."
murdered.
was
Bishop of Carthage, martyr and saint in the R.C.
calendar. Cyprian'scontribution to Catholic thought
his formulation
of the doctrine of the one
CYRIL
OF
was
JERUSALEM
(ca. 315-386)."
church, the sole ark of salvation,bound
by one
Bishop of Jerusalem, defended
the Nicene
creed
united episcopate of apostolicsuccession,a doctrine
during the Arian controversy as a result of which he
twice deposed and reinstated.
developed in oppositionto Novatianism(q.v.) was
His strength
with reference to the treatment
of those who
had
as a pastor is evidenced
by his great work addressed
to catechumens.
lapsed duringthe Decian persecution. He favored

DAEVA."

See

Deva.

DAGDA.
An
agriculturalgod of the Irish
of
Celts, called "Good
God," "Creator," "Lord
Great
had
the
over
Kjiowledge." He
power
supplies of corn, milk and fruit. His cauldron
of plenty. He
is probably
was
always a source
the Irish god of fertility
corresponding to the
"

under-world
See Danxt.

Dis-Pater

oi

the

continental

was

The
of

Atonement

in which

he modified

the trine
docof a

penal satisfaction in the direction

mystical doctrine of vicarious suffering.

Celts.
DALMATIC.
A loose garment worn
by deacons
of the R.C. church over
the alb and cassock when
"

DAGOBA."

See Stupa.

celebratinghigh

god, perhaps the principal

deity,probably a god of agriculture. He was
worshipedin parts of Phoenicia and in Babylonia.
DAGON.

ROBERT
WILLIAM
DALE,
(1829-1895)."
Enghsh
Congregational divine and
theologian,
who took an active part in political
and educational
affairs. He
noted
was
a
preacher and a strong
administrator.
His best known
theologicalwork

A Phihstine

"

Colossal images of Buddhas

DAIBUTSU.
found
in Japan. The two most notable are that of Nara
erected about
750
and
that of Kamakura
a.d.
dedicated
in 1252
both
seated
a.d.
They are
53 feet and 49 feet 7 inches
figuresand, respectively,
in height.
"

DAI
NICHL"
Absolute
The
in the
Shingon
Buddhism
of Japan around
which
all things,real
and
Dai
Nichi
is Buddha
phenomenal, center.
the ultimate truth or reality. By the common
as
and so with
people it is identified with the sun
Amaterasu, the sun-goddess of the old nature
religionof Japan.
DAITYAS.
Demonic
enemies
of the gods in
Vedic
of a goddess, Diti,
religion,the progeny
and of similar nature
to the Danavas
and Asuras.
"

DAKHMA.
Towers
in which
dead are exposed to be devoured
to the Parsi custom.
"

the bodies of the

by birds according

DAMASUS.
Damasus

mass.

The name
of two popes.
I.
zealous in
Pope, 366-384; was
discoveringand adorning the tombs of the martyrs;
of the
encouraged the preparation by Jerome
Vulgate edition of the Bible.
Damasus
II.
Pope, July 17-Aug. 9, 1048.
"

"

"

DANAVAS.

-A

class of demons

in Vedic

reli-

gion.
DANCING.
Dancing includes all bodily movements
of an artistic character,
those
as distinct from
which are merely useful like running,or communicative
like gestures.
versal
1. Significance
of dancing. The dance is a unihuman
expressionof powerful emotions, such
social joy or reUgious exaltation.
As an art it
as
combines
modes
of esthetic enjoyment.
The
two
so
as
spectators see the plasticmovements
many
swiftlychanging pictures;the participantsfeelthe
rhythm of music.
people dancing
Among civilized
has become
but
merely a frivolous amusement,
unciviUzed folk it has often a serious meaning.
among
Grosse emphasizes the social importance of
of
dancingfor small primitive
groups, the members
"

"

DICTIONARY

123

OF

RELIGION

which
in amity and move
meet
rhythmicallyin
accord.
less
As a school of "soHdarity,"
it has doubtbeen a noteworthy factor in the evolution of
culture.
and formal dancing. The
mimetic
2. Mimetic
dance is histrionic rather than saltatory. Those
who take part are usuallymen
masks and
; they wear

AND

ETHICS

his influence being

moderation.

always

Deaconess

on

the side of

theological

DEACON.
One
of the mmor
officers in the
church.
The word is derived from the Greek
diakonos,
to indicate that the office
servant, and would seem
to represent animals,ancestors, or deities, originatedin the employment of persons
costumes
to perform
and they act out a narrative,
certain services for members
of the church.
Some
legendary or historical.
have identified these originswith the appointment
Such a dance has often a magical character,as in the
buffalo dance
of the seven
of the Plains Indians.
Here
the
(Acts 6:1-6), but the term deacon is
not there used.
In the course
of time, groups
of
performers represented buffaloes and reproduced
similar officials,
the scenes
of a buffalo-hunt,
with the idea that the
in number, appeared
usually seven
real animals
would
in various churches throughout the Roman
thereby be attracted to the
Empire.
Their chief office seems
to have been to care
for the
neighborhood of the camp.
Magical pantomime
of the drama, as develof this sort forms the germ
oped,
poor and the sick.
for instance,
At the present time, deacons are to be found in
by Greeks,Japanese,and Hindus.
The formal dance does not attempt to enact anyaU forms of organized Christianity.
thing;
it is purely saltatory. There are, of course,
Church
1. In the Cathohc
(Roman, Greek and
intermediate
instances.
AngUean) the deacons are the lowest of the three
mimetic
sacred orders.
3. Varieties of dancing. Both
and
They have the rightsand duties of
formal dances may
be classified,
the priestexcept those of pronouncing absolution
according to their
from
sin and
in the
place in primitive life,as festive,ritual,warhke,
consecrating the elements
eucharist.
hunting, courting,matrimonial, funereal,and the
Uke.
Of these, the ritual or sacred dances have
2. In the
Lutheran
are
Churches, deacons
anity
regarded as belonging to the clergy,or as recoglingered longest in the higher religions.Christinized
retained the dance in its rites as late as the
workers in some
form of charity. They are
Hutton
8th. century a.d.
Webster
not ordained
as
preachers and so are not, strictly
is also
speaking, pastors. There
a
tendency
ALIGHIERI
Lutherans to build up fraternities of deacons
DANTE,
(1265-1321)." Dante's
among
who
become
social service workers
of the Inner
poetry and prose mirror not only the life of his
native Florence but the whole
mediaeval
Mission (q.v.).
civihzation of his time.
His first poetic effort,
the Vita
3. In the Reformed
Churches,the deacon is an
assistant of the pastor and is chosen by the church
the Beatrice lost to his love into
Niuwa, allegorizes
an
image of divine truth. Having (served his city for a longeror shorter period. His chief duty is the
in war
and government
in troubled times he was
administration
of charityand the generaloversight
a
victim of factional strifeand in banishment
(1302ff.) of the spiritualinterest of the body of the church.
endured privationsin Paris and North Italy tillhe
In Presbyterian Churches
deacons
sometimes
are
found refuge finally(1317) with the ruler of Ravenna. ordained,
but they are not members
of the governing
enthusiastic Ghibelline he
In churches of the
an
Living in exile,
body of the local church.
life by the
hoped for the regeneration ofltaUan
Congregational order, the deacons are chosen and
of the
restoration
German
of the
imperial authority. appointed for the general administration
This inspiredhis De Monarchia
of
spiritualneeds of the church and have care
(1317) which argues
that the peace
needed
for human
be
the poor among
welfare can
its members.
offered only by a
4. In the Methodist
universal
elevated
monarch
Episcopal Church, the
above all possibility
of envy
and greed. The imperial deacons are
regarded as an order (in so far as the
Methodist
is directlyinstituted by God and not
church
recognizesorders) in that they
power
God's wiU fulfilsitself by both state
elected and ordained.
Their duties are essenare
by the pope.
tially
and church.
The
monarch
man's
the same
secures
as the ordained minister,
earthly
except that
happiness,the pope reveals the path to enjoyment
they are not pastors. See Order, Holy.
of God.
The Divine Comedy, the fruit of his last
Shailer
Mathews
DEACONESS."
A woman
officialin the church
years, is a poeticdescriptionof the three realms of
Hell,Purgatory and Paradise,an intricate allegory in generalco-ordinate with the Deacon.
led to
In the early church the activityof women
reflectingthe theology and
cosmology of the
scholastics and
the recognitionof some
series of judgments upon
of them
class with
a
men
as
a
and events.
This powerful image of the mediaeval
known
at first as "the
peculiarduties. These were
and thought reveals also the wrestling
society,history,
widows," but by the 4th. century,if not earlier,
they
of a great heart with the problem of human
known
deaconesses.
chief duties
life.
Their
were
as
F. A. Christie
to minister to the women
of the church as a class
were
DANU.
of the gods in the ancient
The mother
of assistants to the deacon.
In some
they
cases,
to have been ordained,but apparently did not
seem
religionof the Irish Celts. She is probably an
underworld
administer baptism or celebrate the Lord's Supper.
figure and hence an
Earth-mother,
traditions
form
symbol of fertility.Certain
point The Protestant Churches have usuallyhad some
to a cult of human
sacrifice connected
with her.
of woman
officialwhose business it is to care for sick
She is giverof wealth and plenty.
it is not
and perform other duties which
women
desirable
deacons
to
for the
perform. They
DARWINISM."
See Evolution.
chosen by the churches,but strictlyspeaking
are
not regarded as an order.
are
DASYTJS
decided
Of late years, there has been a very
(DASUS)." Names
applied to the
darker-skinned
peoples of India conquered by the
development of deaconess's work in the Lutheran,
have
invading Aryans. The words
the
double
Reformed
and Episcopal Churches.
In America,
and slave.
there is a marked
meaning of enemy
development of the deaconess's
Candidates
work especially
the Methodists.
among
ANDREW
BRUCE
DAVIDSON,
(1831-1902)."
are
licensed,given probationary work and training
Scottish theologian. He
for two years, and after passing an examination
was
an
authority on
are
the Hebrew
admitted
into the office. Thereafter,they usually
language,and a pioneerin Great Britain
ip the field of Old Testament
dress. The
uniform
other Protestant
exegesisand criticism. wear
a
"

"

"

"

Deae

denominations
of
training

DICTIONARY

Matres

are

women

OF

establishinginstitutions for the

esses
who, whether known as deacon-

for their chief duties the care

and children and the
women
Shailer
Mathews
ministryto the poor.
or

not, have

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

124

the corpse
is seated in
take,although occasionally
state.
During the time between this toilet and the
funeral the corpse is usuallywatched
night and day,

either on the chance that the wizard who has caused

the death may
be caught, or to guard the dead
body or its soul from demons, or because it is stilla
member
of the household, or to protect the living
DEAE
MATRES.
Mother-goddesses, Earthin sleep
Mothers, whose cults appear in the pre-Christian against danger of being snatched away
in the Germanic
and Celtic provinces of the
(when the soul readily leaves the body) by the
era
these "wakes"
associated with
Roman
are
ghost. Where
empire; also called Matronae and worshiped
with funeralto be parallel
in triads.
merriment, they seem
etc. (seeSec. 7). Naturally,as being a thing
games,
and
of dread, death imposes on the survivors pollution
the
Roman
DEAN.
^A clergyman in
of varying extent and manifold taboos.
See Wake.
AngUcan churches who is: (a) chief official in a
The
church ; (6) the assistant to
4. Disposal of the corpse.
cathedral or collegiate
object of the
funeral rites is (a)to give rest to the dead and (6)to
a
spiritualand temporal; (c)a
bishop in matters
free the survivors from the pollutionof death.
tain
Cerminister with pastoral
duties who acts as deputy of a
categoriesare, however, excluded from these
bishop or archdeacon,as a rural dean; (d) the dean
ecclesiastical court in
infants and young
an
rites,
children;those
of the arches presidesover
especially
uninitiated in tribal or religiousrites;slaves and
England.
the very poor; those who die evil deaths,as by suicide,
AND
FUNERAL
PRACTICES
other manifestation
of divine
DEATH
or
by lightning
Like
!. Explanation of death.
(PRIMITIVE)."
anger, by drowning, by ordeal (q.v.),by certain
and marriage,death is one of the
in
or
smallpox; women
birth,initiation,
diseases,
e.g., leprosy
in the life of man.
four great events
Naturally it
childbed;debtors; executed criminals;and those
with peculiarawe, and many
is viewed
On
guiltyof such offenses as sacrilegeor treason.
attempts
and kings,being exempt
made
the other hand, holy men
to explainit. It is regarded as the result
are
from various usual restrictions and
of disobedience to a divine command, or of a curse,
being bound
often have funeral
of a whim
careless act of some
or
animal, or
by certain specialobligations,
or
In any event primitive
holds
rites widely divergentfrom those of ordinaryfolk.
etc.
of revenge,
man
It may
be due to the permanent
it to be unnatural.
The corpse
is disposed of in several ways:
by
of the soul (temporary escape
cannibalism (q.v.),
ing
merely caususuallywith a view to acquiring
escape
th desirable c[ualities
of the deceased; exposure on
to the direct act of a supernatural
or
illness),
the ground or in trees,usuallyin unfrequentedplaces;
being,or (most usually)to witchcraft (q.v.).
2. Treatment
disposal in caves, casting into water, frequently
of the dying. In view of the fear
find practices with the belief that water
forms a barrier which
attaching to death we occasionally
which savour
to us of cruelty. The
dying may be
prevents the ghost from returning; inhumation;
in the house,probably that the spirit
abandoned, lest he take the livingwith him to
preservation
the realm of the dead, or he may
be buried
and with his family;
stillremain in his home
even
may
considerations may
aUve.
Here economic
also play
cremation,often to deprivethe dead of allhis earthly
of the frequentdifficulty,
in savage
a part,in view
habitation,thus severinghim completely from the
of providingeven
for the livingand
civiUzation,
living and unitinghim with the departed; and
healthy; what was once
a common
necessitymay
mummification, closely akin to house-disposal.
have become
stereotypedas a custom.
Frequently
Occasionallythe corpse is bound or mutilated in
the dying man
from his house or from his
such a way as to prevent the ghost from returning
ia removed
to distress the living.
bed,and in the latter case he is often laid on straw,
of the dead,
etc.
The
6. The grave. As being the home
to be fear of
underlying motive seems
the grave is often fitted out with much
death, and removal from the bed is apparently a
elegance.
modification of the older removal
be either scattered or grouped; they
from the house,
Graves
may
this being substantiated by the burning of the
contain many
mates
may
corpses or only one; their inthe frequent
interred in various
destruction of a
are
straw, thus paralleling
positions,often
house
in which
death
has
occurred.
Since
at
crouchingin the lower civiHzations;strict rules are
death the soul is believed to leave the body permaoften observed as to the direction of the head of the
nently
(not temporarily,as in dreams and often in
corpse; the dead body frequentlyhas the protection
efforts are
sometimes
of wood, pottery, wicker-work,
made
of a coffin,
whether
to keep the
illness),
soul,as by inhaling the last breath or by calling or hide; and the shape of the grave varies according
it to return.
to definite customs.
Very frequently the grave
upon
death and funeral. Since due pro3. Between
contains,besides the corpse, the bodies of his wives,
vision
be made
must
for the escape
favorite animals,etc.,slain to serve
him in the
of the soul, slaves,
windo\vs are
often opened (sometimes only for a
other-world,as well as food and drink, and implements
short time, lest the spirit
of various kinds, whether
whole, or "killed"
return),or a hole made in
the house.
Food and drink are frequentlyprepared;
made
of his own
status)by being broken, or
(i.e.
and the dead man's bees,cattle,
formed in miniature models, etc. ; and also various articles
trees,etc.,are inof his decease and are
with
the
sometimes
have
been
which
pollutedby contact
put in
mourning, i.e.,
they are disguisedso that the spirit corpse.
wiU be unable to take them with him.
6. The funeral. The
lapse of time between
Wailing and
destruction of property, death and the disposalof the corpse varies widely;
dirges,"occasionally
even
universal.
are
practically
Apart from natural grief, in regard to choice of time of day for such disposal
these ceremonies,particularly
when repeated on set
S3rmpatheticmagic often plays a part. In general
occasions,seem, in most cases, intended to placate funeral rites show a mixture of fear and affection.
the dead by showing the poignancy of sorrow
which
Thus the corpse is frequentlytaken from the house
his decease has caused.
Before the final disposal in an
unusual
(e.g.,through a hole broken
way
of the corpse it is usuallywashed
to confuse the
for the occasion); eflfortsare made
or
painted,and
in its best attire and with its ornaments,
dressed,
ghost so that it may be unable to find its way back
placed
to its earthlyhome, or various obstacles are
etc.; the eyes are closed (perhaps to prevent the
ghost from seeing)
along the road by which the dead body has been
; and the body is placed in the
told
that its
to
or
carried;and the spiritmay be bluntly
position(squatting
prone) which it is finally
of

work
religious

among

"

"

"

"

dying

"

"

"

"

125

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Death

and

Funeral

Practices

acterized
The Romans
no
longer desired. The funeral is charpracticedboth burial and burning
from early times.
A distinguishedman's
by manifestations of grief,often of an excessive
funeral
degree. Where blood isshed in these rites and
was
pre-announcedby a herald,and burial expenses
the corpse
caused to fall on
the
or
on
were
defrayed by the city. The funeral cortege
grave, and
where hair is similarly
made up (1)of hired mourners,
was
cut, the intention in part
(2)of bearers of
at least
to be the wish to have a corporeal
ancestral images kept in the home-hall,(3)relatives
seems
bond of union with the departed,as in the converse
clad in black,(4) then of
dancers,mimics,
players,
desire to have a lock of hair or some
trinket,etc., one of them imitatingthe deceased's words and
of the deceased.
Where
fires or hghts are burned
actions,(5) of the corpse borne on men's shoulders,
before or during the funeral,the intention may
be
(6) this was followed by a crowd of both sexes.
A
either to help the spirit
and Hght, or to
noble citizen's cortege came
by warmth
through the Forum,
While
that the body might lie in state before the rostrum
keep the ghost away.
returning from the
funeral various means
often adopted to prevent
where
"a eulogy" was
are
pronounced by a relative,
of the deceased from followingthe mournthe spirit
ers;
friend,or magistrate appointed by the Senate.
and on reaching home
Women
well as men
honored
they purify themselves
as
were
by an official
from the pollutionof death,especially
by fumigation "eulogy." This differs from the Egyptian way,
and bathing.
which demanded
a trial of the deceased.
7. Funeral feastsand games.
Before or after the
A corpse
not burned
was
placed in its marble
funeral it is very customary to hold feasts,
of which
laid in
sarcophagus. Sometimes
an
was
inscription
the departed is beUeved
to partake; and in some
the coffin with the letters,
D.M.
or
D.M.S., i.e.,
is

presence

"

"

"

instances these feasts are of the nature

of farewells
The wide-spread custom
to him.
of funeral combats
and games seem
in originto be intended to drive
the ghost away,
while at least some
of the dances are
designedto awaken the procreativeinstinct in antagonism
to death.
8. Mourning and tabus. Death
imposes on the
survivors a wide varietyof tabus,abstinences,
mutilations,
etc.
Very frequently there is a reversal
of the ordinary garb e.g., black instead of white
apparentlyas a form of sympathy with the dead and
to denote
that the persons wearing it are under a
ence,
of everyday existspecialtabu which is the reverse
tion
just as death is the reverse of life. The duraof these tabus varies extremely. Not
only
individuals,but houses, and even
villages,
require
the house and belongings of the
or
purification;
deceased may
be destroyed. In particular
the name
of the dead man,
as
being an essential part of him
may be tabu.
9. Second funeral. Among
peoples the
many
corpse is taken up after a longeror shorter interval,
and then receives its final disposition,
this being the
custom
to
especiallywhere the spiritis beUeved
remain near
the corpse tillall the flesh has decayed.
is so held that it may
be
Very often this ceremony
for largenumbers
of dead.
performedsimultaneously
The bones may
then be buried or may
be kept in
the houses of the survivors.
The motives seem
to be
of the spiritfrom the hving and
the final severance
his admission to fuU rank in the other-world,or (in
the latter case)provisionfor a place for him to visit
or to reside in his earthlyabode.
10. Effigies.Very often effigies
of the departed
made.
In some
these are mere
are
cases
memorials,
but frequentlythey are intended as abodes of the
L. H. Gray
spirit.

Diis

"

"

DEATH

AND

FUNERAL
PRACTICES
I.
Feriod."
Classical
The
funeral solemnities
Greeks
held
to be religious.
closed by a near
relative.
Upon death,the eyes were
The cori)se was
washed
in hot water
and anointed,
clothed in white
laid on
and
Around
couch.
a
this friends raised loud laments, or hired mourners
took
this part accompanied on
the flute. The
bereaved
tore out their hair to strew
the corpse.
on
Funeral
rites lasted for three,or even
seven
days
and more.
Either burning or burial was
practiced.
The body was
borne on a bier to the funeral pyre,
which were placedobjectsdear to the deceased,
upon
animals.
Sacrifices were
even
ants
slain,while attendwailed and chanted during the burning. The
flames were
sacred liquid
put out by pouring some
them.
Charred
bones and ashes were
over
gathered
into an urn
A funeral
to be buried or entombed.
repast ended the ceremonies.
^

Sacrum.

elsewhere

Christians

were

under

Emperors placed their

pagan

dead in catacombs,

as

miles

Appian Way,

the
chapel;and bodies
sealed and inscribed.
out

near

were

that

of St. Calixtus
wherein
laid in rock-hewn

a
was

few
a

niches

of the dead were

Mourning periods in memory
fixed by law, that of a widow
being ten months.
Anniversary feasts memorializing the date of death
observed
at the grave,
often attended
by
and gladiatorial
shows, and distribution of
food; the mob would at times extort from heirs
their expense
at
these
anniversary feasts and
were

games,

games.

"

(DEVELOPED)."

or

Esquilinegate.

"

"

Manibus

Monuments
the
over
erected
bearing some
and a list of virtues.
epitaph,includingthe name
Both pubhc and private burial grounds are found.
The
and
former, e.g.. Campus Marlius
Campus
Esquilinu^,were devoted to great men
by vote of
the Senate.
Burial of the poor was
outside the
grave

II. Burial

Other

Lands.

In

India

the
Parsees
place their dead on "towers of silence" that birds
devour
all the flesh. In China the dead are
may
buried; but burial often is delayed during several
locate a
to
"lucky
geomancers
years to allow
China
one
grave." This makes
huge graveyard,
is the case
in Korea
also. The
as
Japanese use
both cremation
and burial,usually with Buddhist
rites.
III. Hebrew
Thoughts
Burial and
of Death.
^Relatives must
bury their dead, but humanity
The
requires that no
body be left unburied.
tomb
left
not
was
immediately covered, but was
the firstthree days that friends might see that
open
the dead did not come
death the
to life. Upon
eyes are closed by the nearest kin,a son or brother,
is held closed by a band drawn
the mouth
over
sand or salt
the cheekbones, the body placed on
floor to retard decay, and a metal or
strewn
on
glass disk is laid on the navel to avoid swelling.
The body is then washed, and anointed with fragrant
oil,and wrapped in linen clothes. To be buried
without garments is a disgrace. Objects favored
stand,
by the deceased, as writing tablet,pen and inkkey or bracelet are put into the coffin or
the face,
It came
to be the rulo to cover
grave.
except that of a bridegroom. The bier was borne
ging
set chanshoulders
of barefooted friends,one
on
with another
to allow this honor to as many
as
preceded the bier,lamenting
possible. Women
and singingdirges. Mourners
threw grass behind
them
was
on
leaving the cemetery. Interment
of Palestine,
in the family sepulchres
not immediate
tillreduced
but the corpse was
left in its chamber
then itsbones were collected,
to a skeleton;
wrapped

Hindus

"

in

"

practicea rude form of cremation.

Decalogue

anew,

tied

together like

DICTIONARY

mummy

OF

and

RELIGION

solemnly

interred.

AND

ETHICS

126

old form is preserved in the 6th.,7th.,8th.,and 9th.

laws, all of which would be accuratelydescribed by
the Hebrew
term for word.
The
striking characteristic of the Decalogue,
as
compared with other early Semitic reUgiouslaw,
is the relativelylarge place given to ethical precepts
as
over
against ritual,which is represented
This is in keepingwith
only in the Sabbath-law.
the character of the reUgion of the prophets, the
gloryof which is in its rightestimate of the supreme
importance of ethics in reUgion. The Christian
of the Decalogue has always made
it
interpretation
universallyapplicableand treated it as the Magna
Charta of ethics.
J. M. Powis
Smith

to visit cemeteries
to sleep
custom
a
hold communication
with the dead, for
believed to be still semi-conscious
and
they were
sensitive to the words
and behavior
of the
very
livingaround them.
Praying for the intercession
of the dead was
an
tomary
cusearly practice. It was
to bend the thumb
of a corpse so that the
whole
the word, Shaddai
hand resembled
(the
Almighty). A small stick was laid in the crossed
hands
of
as
a cane), a tiny bag of earth
(to serve
the Holy Land under the head, and a thi-ee-toothed
fork to be used in digging a subterranean
wooden
to the Holy Land
on
Resurrection-day,when
way
A towel and
all Jewish dead will arise in Paradise.
DECISION."
The act of selectively
ing
determinbeside the body so that the
of conduct
glass of water were
where alternatives are
a
course
soul might bathe when it returned to it.
presented.
burial "is not religious."
Jews
With modern
DECIUS
crated
Respect for the person who has died calls for consewho
(201-251)." Roman
emperor,
ment
ground and a simple ritual. Jewish sentiorganized a systematic persecution of Christians,
in
favors utmost
the objectbeing the reinstatement
of the old Roman
simplicityand economy
funeral necessities. It is customary to honor the
religion. As a result of controversies due to this
of the death-day of parents.
recurrence
persecutionNovatianism
(q.v.)arose.
Catholic
Burial
Rules.
IV. Roman
Except
in contagiouscases, burial of the dead must be from
DECLARATION
OF INDULGENCE."
An act
The
the body at the
the church.
priest meets
promulgated by Charles II. of England in 1672
church
conducts
the
and
it
to
door of the
communion
whereby penal laws against non-conformists and
rail. Then
follows the requiem Mass.
A final
Roman
Cathohcs were
suspended.
the coffin. There is
absolution is pronounced over
at the grave.
It is the common
DECREE.
A formal authoritative statement,
a ritual of prayers
(though not a Church rule) a month, after
usage
emanating, e.g., from an ecclesiasticalcouncil,or
burial to hold "The
Month's
Mind"
with Mass
at
from the pope.
Also year-by-year
the church.
there is observed an
continuous
memorial
to
as
DIVINE."
a
The eternal judgments
anniversary Mass
DECREES,
When
is dying a priestvisits
the dead.
of God whereby he has predetermined
a
or
person
purposes
the sick-room with the Viaticum,or last sacrament,
whatever
is to transpire. Calvinistic theologians
and grants extreme
unction to the dying.
referred the course
of historyand the ultimate fate
V. Burial
Practiced
Protestants.
as
of individuals to these decrees.
See Election;
among
denominations
which
For
use
a
prayer-book, Predestination.
Church
of England and Protestant Episcopal,
e.g.. The
DECRETALS
Methodist, and Lutheran churches,a funeral
^Authoritative ecclesiastical
and burial ritual is provided. With other denominations
documents.
the conduct
of funerals is a matter
of the
Catholic church law consists of canons
voted by
individual
minister's
practise. Quite generally councils and decisions made by popes either in the
^in rural regions burials are
from
the home; a
of constitutions or
form
permanent
ordinances,
brief sermon
is preached; and
neighbors attend
encyclicals
instructingbishops in particularcases,
at the grave
in large numbers.
Fraternal orders, decrees adopted on
the advice
of cardinals,
and
Masons
and Odd Fellows,use elaborate religious decretals strictlyso-called,which
as
are
interpretive
rituals at the cemetery.
While
burial is the rule,
laws.
Decretals were
first joined to canons
by the
cremation
is steadily growing
in
favor.
See
Abbot
Roman
Dionysius (ca.500 a.d.)and others
Future
op
added in a later Spanish collection wrongly
the.
Life, Conceptions
were
attributed to Isidore,bishop of Seville. AU these
quincy l. dowd
DECALOGUE."
The Ten Commandments
said
materials enriched by the forgedDonation
of Constantino
to have been revealed to Moses
at Mt. Sinai.
See
and
the
forged decretals made
many
also Law, Hebrew;
Hexateuch.
Pseudo-Isidorian
famous
collection ("False Decretals")
The Ten Words
probablyarose out of the need
produced in the Prankish church (ca.852).
of the Hebrew
community for certain basal principles Decretal became later a term for the collections of
of conduct, the practiceof which would enable
laws made
imder papal auspices like the Decretum
them to live togetherharmoniously. Such an origin
Gratiani (ca. 1150) which
with the official collections
carries with it the necessary
conclusion that the
of Gregory IX. (1234),
Boniface VIII. (1298),
cominandments
Clement
V.
originallyhad not universal scope
(1313), and Chappuis'collection of
and significance,
but only relative appHcation. This
decretals from John XXII.
to Sixtus IV. form the
that such a precept as "Thou
means
shalt not steal," Corpus Juris Canonici.
Later papal decrees are
for example, was
intended to prohibittheft by one
found in collections of Bulls and Briefs (q.v.).
Hebrew
from another
and had no
F. A. Christie
applicationto
the conduct of Hebrews
toward non-Hebrews
See False Decretals.
FALSE."
(cf.
DECRETALS,
Deut. 14:21). The ascriptionof universal appHcation
to the Decalogue
came
DEDICATION."
The rite or process of solemnly
only after the prophets
and sages of Israel had succeeded
in leading Israel
consecratingto reUgioususage or to the service of a
of monotheism
to think in terms
and of universal
deity,as the dedication of a church as a place of
human
brotherhood.
worship. See Consecration.
That the Decalogue is not now
in its original
form is clear from the name
OP
DEFENDER
THE
A title conFAITH."
ferred
givento it in Hebrew,
"the ten words," and from a comparison of the
Henry VIII. of England by Pope Leo X.
upon
form in Deut. 5 with that in Exod. 20.
The original in 1521 for his work
the seven
in
sacraments
on
words have undergoneexpansion in most cases; the
The
title was
refutation of Luther.
revoked by

It

was

there and

"

"

"

"

127

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Paul III.,
but restored by parliamentin 1544,and has
continued to be a designationof English monarchs.

AND

ETHICS

Deism

the
the

Greeks, Romans, Egyptiansand Indians where

gods were
pictured in vivid anthropomorphic
symbols. If gods acted hke men, the next step was

heroic men
DEFILEMENT
AND
PURIFICATION."
The
natural
after death
should
attain
idea of defilement,
in religion
does not,
or pollution,
deity. In some
instances,as with the Roman
in its more
ancient forms, make
of
tinctionemperors
the Augustinian age, the title of "god"
clear disany
between physicaland spiritual
uncleanness.
was
given the hving sovereign, as emblematic
Defilement
of power.
incurred by contact
See Emperor
with the dead,
was
Worship.
The
tion
deificaof natural phenomena is frequentamong
by childbirth,
by sexual intercourse,
by the changes
tive
primiof life;it was
incurred again by disease or contact
peoples,one of the most frequent forms being
with disease,by bloodletting,
whether
in crime or
a god or goddess of fertihty. Where
the existence of
broken tabu,contact
war
or
the supply of a certain animal,
a peopledepended on
sacrifice;
by sacrilege,
of sacred and profane, even
that people frequentlyidentified itself with the
of the old and new;
sin itself was
animal
and treated it with special reverence, as
a
defilement,but in large part conceived
in the practisesof totemisra (q.v.).
we
see
as a physicalor magicaltaint rather than a
The
latter conception, of a
spiritualcondition.
defilement or impurity, appears
DEISM.
A philosophy
spiritual
and theologythat repreonly with
sent
in religiousideas, and
God's
relation to humanity as
great advances
chieflyin
expressed
although it is present also in the
through universal natural law rather than through
Christianity,
thought of the classical poets and philosophers, revelation.
the Choephorae and
Deism
is distinguished
Eumenides
of Aeschylus,for
from atheism in that it
example, being studies of the sin and purification affirmsthe existence of God : from pantheism in that
of Orestes,in which
the ritual element
it is dualistic;from
theism in that it conceives
gives way
to the moral.
the relationship
of God as less immediate, constant
and personal. To a very considerable extent,it is
is naturallyconceived
or cleansing,
Purification,
also as primarily a physical process,
the expressionin theology
and a great
of the social mind that in
the politics
of the 17th. and 18th. centuries develportion of the rites exacted of individuals in primioped
tive
in character.
the constitutional monarchy
Forms
religionsare purificatory
in EnglandI.
of purification
transferred from tW
As certain prerogativeswere
are
by bathing or sprinklingwith
consecrated
sacrificial blood; by fumigawater
or
king to the nation, so the deist came
to conceive of
tion
with incense or anointing with oils; by the
God as a creator
who
permitted his creation to
of herbs
administer itself through natural law.
or
Deism
use
wal
drugs, especially emetics and
scientific
common
cathartics;by the sweat-bath, very
attempt to put faith in God upon
an
a
American
Indians; by shaving and depila- basis by discoveringin humanity a so-called natural
among
tion; and in the case of material things,by fire. reUgion, independent of any particularcult and
Along with the use of these go priestlyoffices revelation. In a sense the movement
was
apologetic
and ceremonies, such as exorcisms, incantations, in that many
of its representativesundertook
to
sacrifices.
the
In
historical
show
that
lustrations,prayers,
was
higher
Christianity
fundamentally
forms
of religion,confession, the
undergoing in accord with natural rehgion.
of penance,
and finallyrenewal
of religiouslife
As a system, it may
be said to have taken its
readmission
to sacred
the
rise in the works of Lord Herbert
through
of Cherbury in
rites,become
of purifying the defiled; while
the first half of the 17th. century.
As organizedu^
important means
eventually the ideas of sin and repentance replace by him, deism included five fundamental
positionsT*
the more
and
the existence \of God; the duty of worship; the
primitive conception. Defilement
in primitive forms, pertain not only
identification of worship with morality; the need of
purification,
but to whole groups,
to individuals,
armies of
and
as
repentance from sin; rewards
punishment^
The
warriors,or even
nations; and again to places,as
anti-supernaturalismof Lord Herbert's position
the house in which death has occurred,or to seasons,
advanced
the
was
by
Hobbes, who
philosopher
the harvest season.
H. B. Alexander
as
traced all religionback to the primitive
of
~fear
from which arose
nature
anthropomorphic conceptions
DEGENERATION."
of placating
of natural forces. The process
Biologically,the act or
of reduction from a higher or more
the God thus created was
process
complex
a part of the social lifeof
to a lower or less complex type; analogously,deterioration
different communities
and in more
highlydeveloped
from a higherto a lower ethical standard
life.
a
peoples,religionbecame
phase of political
of behavior.
Such a position,
of course, left no room
for miracles
undertook
to
in the strict sense, although Hobbes
DEGRADATION."
In ancient canon
of them
rationalistic interpretation
law, the
a
give some
sometimes
meted
which ante-dated some
out
to
of the efforts of rationalism
punishment which was
itself. In the latter part of the 17th. century,
deUnquent clergy,withdrawing all the rights of
orders from them.
This penalty ceased with the
Charles Blount
still further developed the deistic
rise of the doctrine of the indelible character of holy
bility
weight to the possipositionalthough giving more
orders in the 12th. century.
of miracles.
All three of the above writers
raised
and
criticized the biblical material
questions
DEICIDE."
The murder of a god; (1)In certain
of all accounts of the
to the historicalaccuracy
as
lower animals who
or
rehgionsthe slaughterof men
supernatural. During the latter part of the 17th.
were
and the firsthalf of the 18th. centuries, the deistic
regarded as incarnations of the deity,such as
the slayingof the totem
animal.
became
movement
sophical
(2) The mimetic
one
phase of the generalphilorite in connection with the mystery rehgions (q.v.).
characterized Enghsh
which
movement
the efforf
(3)Rare, the crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
life. Speaking generally,it represented
the part of the philosophersand some
preachers
on
DEIFICATION."
The
elevation
of men
and
the supernaturalas an essential element
to remove
Christianity
the phenomena of nature, lower animals or
in religionand to conceive of any religion,
women,
abstract qualities
to the rank of deities,
the purpose
included,as a social evolution of a universal
needed
Deists differed in the
being to obtain some
shiper
reaction to natural laws.
help which the worbeheves the deified person, power
or
object extent to which they recognized the teaching of
might be able to impart. The deification of men
as
logicallytenable, but were
ticularly
parChristianity
and women
is commonest
such peoples as
personal
among
skepticalas to any immediate
"

"

Delitzsch,Franz

if
especially

working of God
or

DICTIONARY
it

OP

RELIGION

involved miracles

revelation.

ETHICS

128

whether it be large or small,pohticalor industrial,

free and able to direct the affairs of the group.
In the pohticalsphere it is fairlywell understood
because
of the constitutional development of the
past century and a half.
The term had an earlier usage in the Greek city
of the
occasionally in governments
states, and
of
Middle Ages where, as in the case of the cantons
mination.
Switzerland,the people had the right of self-deterIn its modern
political
sense, however,
tutional
democracy is largelythe outgrowth of the constidevelopment of England and the United
States due to the rise of the middle class. The results
of this growth have been felt in modifying the
governmental ideas and practicesof most nations to
such an extent that sovereigntyis regarded as vested
in the people of a state who have power
to choose
and
laws
their own
government
pass their own
through elected representatives.
The ideal is now
being extended to industrial
relations and may
be said to have entered into a
Various theories for such
second phase of influence.
advanced.
See Socialism;
extension
have
been
establishment
Communism.
The
of industrial
at least the determination
democracy would mean
by the workers of the conditions under which they
should
labor, as regards sanitary arrangements,
of working days in
length of working day, number
control of productive
the week, division of profits,
are

had a very considerable

The deistic movement
influence on the development of French philosophy.
more
pletely
comIts outcome, however, in France
was
atheisticthan in England.
The real contribution of deism to the development
in its particular
of thought lies not so much
tenets as in the fact that the deists anticipatedthe
and to some
studies in comparative religion
modern
the historical criticism of the Scriptures.
extent
They were, however, too speculativein method to
of criticalscientific
with the advance
hold their own
tional
method, and their religionwas too devoid of emowarmth
to
compete with a rationalistic
Shailer
Mathews
orthodoxy.
FRANZ
(1813-1890)." German
DELITZSCH,
theologian,an ardent Lutheran, much interested in
the conversion of the Jews to Christianity
; a scholar
rabbinic and
in the post-biblical,
of great renown
talmudic
hterature, being called the "Christian
Talmudist."
See Oracle.

DELPHI."

AND

for the biblical

usual
The
term
DELUGE.
of the
in a secondary element
flood described
and
the priestlysections of
narrative
Yahwistic
Gen. chaps. 6-8.
processes, etc.
The story belongs in a cycleof similar traditions
The bearingof these developments upon religious
ous
widely diffused over the world, the most conspicuthinkinghas been profound,although unfortunately
exceptionsbeing Arabia, Egypt, Central Africa, not sufficiently
In all
reaUzed
by the churches.
Of these traditions a
Asia.
Japan and Northern
Protestant
churches, however, there is a very
certain number
embody reminiscences of separate
toward
the participationof
marked
movement
local inundations
(e.g.,in China, N.America, and
in ecclesiastical affairs. Many
laymen and women
various parts of Greece), while others are mythical church
assembhes, conventions, and other central
stances
inexplanationsof natural phenomena, in some
bodies have passed resolutions in support of a larger
influence
Christian
colored by
(as among
share on the part of the worker in self-direction in
and South
Sea Islanders).
Indians
the American
not be overIt must
looked,
and of the industrial process.
On
the other hand, the bibhcal story, together
attitude
that in many
respects this new
also,
with the classical Greek
(the of mind in politicsand industry is very unlike
legend of Deucalion
able
wanderings of which can be traced with considerthat from which orthodox theologyemerged. Some
certaintyby way of Phrygia and Syria)and the
readjustment will undoubtedly be necessary by
mate
later E. Indian traditions,
point clearlyto an ultiborn of analogies
the doctrinal formulas
which
relation of these
in Babylonia. The
source
be made
rnore
drawn
from oriental monarchies
can
traditions was
already manifest from the fragments
effective in a world that no
longer permits such
of Berossus, and is now
placed beyond all doubt
In such recastingas has already been
monarchies.
by the decipherment of the originaltablets,some
attempted there is an increasingemphasis upon
Here it is related
date from B.C.
2100.
of which
wit hin
of monopolized privileges
the democratization
the gods sent a flood to destroy Shurippak,
how
and society. This is vitalizing
both the churches
but
Ea
Persian
vealed
rethe
ancient
Gulf,
an
city near
those deaUng with
of doctrines especially
a number
their purpose
to his favorite Sit- (or Par-)
God, Jesus Christ,and the Atonement.
saved
himself
who
on
a
ship, together
.napishti,
Mathews
Shailer
iwithhis wife and certain of his people,and animals
POSSESSION.
DEMONIACAL
DEMONIAC,
thereafter,
and
was
id goods of various kinds,
See Demons.
of
translated to dweU with the gods "at the mouth
round
"he jivers." The story has probably grown
demon
word
The
DEMONS."
(from the
tradition of a tidal flood,accompanied by a
some
Greek word daimon, probably signifyingoriginally
the neighborhood
cyclonicstorm, which overwhelmed
"apportioner") is used to designate a lower order
of Shurippak; but it is so heavilycolored
rule
as
a
of superhuman beings (seeSpirits) who
by mythicalelements that no great account can be
Demons
are
thought to be enemies of mankind.
The chief value of
taken of itshistorical significance.
the one hand from gods and
be distinguished
on
may
lying
the story lies in a comparative study of the underthe other from ghosts (q.v.). At times the ghost
on
moral and rehgiousideas.
See Assyria
and
deport itselfnot unlike a demon but the latter
may
Alex
R. Gordon
op.
Babylonia, Religion
is generally,
always, a creature
though by no means
human
of the other world rather than a disembodied
DEMETER.
In Greek rehgion,the goddess of
spirit. In contrast with angels (q.v.),who are
gion;
Reliagriculturaland civilized life. See Greek
regarded as friendlytoward mortals,
prevailingly
Religions.
Mystery
demons
are
usually assigned a hostile r61e. They
cause
disease,misfortunes,and dire calamities.
DEMIURGE.
capable
Literally a craftsman
is widely
Belief in the existence of demons
used
of creatingobjects. In Gnostic speculations,
in many
current
religions.Savages have always
of the world as distinct
to designate the creator
peopled the world about them with hosts of demonic
See Gnosticism.
God.
from the supreme
(see Animism), while the adherents of even
powers
social
the most
DEMOCRACY."
An ideal of political
highly developed ethnic faiths frequently
or
give a largeplace in their thinldng to demonology.
organizationin which the individuals of a group,
"

"

"

"

129

In ancient

times

DICTIONARY

about
speculation

demons

OF

RELIGION

throve

ETHICS

AND

DEPARTMENTAL

Design
GOD."

In

the

historyof

the Egyptians,
the Babylonians,
religions,
a deityregarded as presidingover
a specific
particularly
among
Hebrew
the Assyrians,and the Persians.
thinking department or subdivision of human
affairs,
as,
education
or
this subject was
agriculture.
comparatively simple previous
e.g.,
upon
but during the Persian and Greek
to the exile,
DEPOSITION."
In ancient ecclesiasticaldiscipline
an
periods of their history the Jews developed^
removal
from office meted
extensive demonology resembling in many
quent
out
to delina
lars
particuthe Persians.
that of the Babylonians and
as degradation (q.v.).
clergy,at firstthe same
A deposed cleric may, however,be reinstated withalso among
the
Belief in demons
out
common
was
reordination.
the distinction
Greeks, yet they did not draw
between
good and evil spiritsso sharply as did the
DEPRAVITY.
^A confirmed moral corruption
taken
Jews.
over
Jewish views were
extensively
of tastes and impulses. Theologically
the equivaregarded all demons
as
by the Christians,who
lent
of original
sin (q.v.).
the leadership of
evil powers
organized under
Satan
(q.v.). Christians also consigned all the
DERVISH.
medan
{Darwish,a Persian word; in
gods of paganism to the demonic sphere. Mohamof a Mohammedan
gious
reliArabic,Fakir),a member
bining
similarlyelaborate,comdemonology was
Drotherhood of mystic ascetics,similar to
belief in evil spirits
as it did ancient Arabic
_

"

"

with

derived

features

from

both

Judaism

and

Christianity.
natural dwelling-place
The
of evil spiritswas
and desolate parts of
the lower regions,or remote
the earth, but their sphere of actual operations
included
practicallythe whole universe. They
about
credited with abilityto move
were
unseen
and might lodge in a tree, a stone, an animal,or
being. A characteristicform of demonic
a human
the
that of "possession,"in which
activity was
demon
assumed
to reside within the individual
was
thus under
the control of this foreign
who
was
impelled to various forms of strange
power and was
conduct.
Familiar examples of this type of belief,
furnished
in many
which
is current
are
religions,
of Jesus' encounters
accounts
by the New Testament
evil spirit (e.g.,
with
possessed by an
persons

Christian friars.

Legends trace their origins to the patriarchal

age of Islam and to the prophet; they do not appear
in history before the 11th. century a.d.
They
have complete initiates,
also lay members
similar
to_ Christian "tertiaries." By various means,
chieflyhypnotic,they seek religiousecstasy. At
present they are the lodges and clubs of the lower
classes.
Many orders have flourished and still flourish.
Best known
in the west are the Mevlevis
(dancing
dervishes),Rufaifs (howHng dervishes),Kalandaris
(Calendarsof the Arabian Nights),and the Senussis.
M. Sprenglinq
_

RENE
(1596-1650)." French
the
mathematician, known
as
"father of modern
philosophy," because he began
the method
of appeal to rational inquiry in contrast
Markl:23ff., 34; 3:11,22; 5:lff.; 9:17"f.).
The ancients gave much
attention to the probwith the theological
lem
supematuralism of the Middle
of the evil spirit. Ages.
of ridding the possessed
one
exorcists
magicians and
appeared who
Many
DESCENT
TO HADES."
The visit of Jesus to
the art of
practiced with greater or less success
the under
world
described in I Pet. 3:19; 4:6.
expellingthe demon by callingto their aid other
These obscure references reflect a behef, probably
more
powerful spirits (see Magic; Exorcism).
Thus
Jesus credited his success
to the assistance
suggested by Ps. 16:10, quoted in Acts 2:27, 31
of God
("Thou wilt not leave my soul in Sheol"),that Jesus
(Matt. 12:28), while his enemies ascribed
between
his death and his resurrection visited the
it to collusion with Beelzebul,the chief of demons.
world of the dead and preached to them.
Jesus' discipleshad attained
Eph. 4 : 9,
Subsequently, when
10 perhaps refers to the same
of the
their belief in his exaltation to a positionof superiority
interpretation
interval left by the gospelnarratives between
Jesus'
in the world of heavenly spirits,
they took
death and resurrection.
The idea that the Messiah
of exorcizingin his powerful name.
up the practice
would
of demons
xmknown
not
For several centuries the exorcism
tinued
conpreach to the departed was
the Jews.
That Jesus should have preached
to occupy
a prominent placein the attention
among
S. J. Case
of Christians.
especiallyto the antediluvians is perhaps explained
by the especialinterest shown in the 1st. century in
HANS
DENCE,
(ca. 1495-1527)." One of the
their spiritualdestiny. Some
scholars however,
ablest leaders among
whose
the Anabaptists (q.v.),
amend
the text to read, "In which also Enoch
went
marked
writings were
by profoimd mysticismand
and preached to the spirits
in prison,"and find in the
deep spiritualinsight.
only a reference to Enoch's mission to the
passage
fallen angels described in Enoch, chaps. 12, 13.
First bishop of Paris,martyred
DENIS, SAINT."
In the early church the descent to Hades -^Mis
Valerian
at Paris,either under
(253-60")or
emphasized (as in the Gospel of Nicodemus) andXeMaximian
(285-305). In a biography of the 9th.
of the
essential part of the interpretation
came
an
identified with

DESCARTES,
philosopherand

century he

Dionysiusthe

was

opagite. He
saint of France.

is venerated

on

Oct. 9

as

Are-

the patron

death

of Christ

as

ransom

to

It

was

become

an

Satan.

natural, therefore,for belief in it

element of the Apostles'Creed.

to

J. Goodspeed
Edgar
JAMES
(185"-1917)." Scottish
DENNEY,
MAN."
The
DESCENT
OF
theory that all
Presbyterian theologian, author of The Death of
is derived from and
Christ,Jesus and the Gospel,and other theological organic life,and hence man,
See Evolution.
related to earlier forms.
genetically
works, dealing especiallywith the doctrine of the
He attempted, without radical deparatonement.
ture
ing
The act or process of divertDESECRATION.
from conservative theology,to adjust Christian
as
from a sacred to a secular usage; sacrilege;
demands
the
of
modern
doctrines to
thinking.
the profaningof a temple or sacred vessels.
DEONTOLOGY."
From
the Greek, meaning
"discourse on duties" ; a designationsometimes
DESIGN.
The
used
explanationof instances of
for ethical science,denoting a conception of ethics
adaptation in nature
Isy reference to a conscious
quently
in which duty rather than goodness,
virtue,or right and deliberate plan of action; an argument fre"

"

is paramount.

used for the existence of God.

Destiny

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OP

AND

ETHICS

130

from the tensions of life. Devotion

an
escape
is a deliberate withdrawal
from the world, and an
endeavor
to see
It is akin to the
things whole.
mountain
contemplation of a landscape. To be
from
healthy,it must, of course, be a withdrawal
assumed to be in control of both human and cosmic
Ufe in order to go back the more
strenuouslyinto life.
processes.
It is the endeavor
to get God's point of view.
It is
The
DETERMINISM."
unhurried,though it may be brief. It is the "quiet
hypothesis that the
hour."
Audit is the spirit
of receptivity.
tion
In devohuman
will,in the exercise of the power of choice
the human
between alternative courses
of conduct, is absolutely
spiritexpects to be spoken to, to be
or external.
controlled by existing
encouraged and comforted,to be filledwith the Holy
conditions,
psychological
Ghost.
M oral freedom is thus held to be a delusion.
3. Devotional leaders. In religion,
as in all other
human interests,
the giftedsouls lead the mediocre.
for God in Hindu
The general name
DEVA.
Poets and painters help us to appreciate nature,
religion(fern.
devi). In the Zoroastrian reUgionthe
musicians stimulate our
love of harmony, good men
and
term
is applied to devils,the enemies of men
lead
lead the way
toward
So i,he devout
virtue.
of Ormazd.
is sometimes
others to devotion.
This leadership
have
the great manuals
come
A designationfor an evil spirit,
designed, whence
DEVIL.
particularly
of devotion.
More
often the saint is simply constrained
the chief of demons
(q.v.). Primitive
his own
to express
experience, and his
man
early became conscious of the fact that nature
book becomes
the classic for those who seek to share
sometimes
hostile,and
was
Idndly and sometimes
of good and
what he has found.
thus there arose
a belief in the activity
historic
literature is very
abundant.
4. Devotional
devils. All the
evil spirits gods and
faiths have personalizedthese forces of good and
Psalms,prayers, and hymns belong to it. A few of
The Soul's
the great works
be mentioned.
to elevate one
evil,and where there is a disposition
may
above all other good
Progressin God, by Bonaventura, is a typicalwork
god to a place of supremacy
tianity, of mediaeval mysticism. The Imitation of Christ,
spirits e.g., in Zoroastrianism,Judaism, Chrisalso tend to assume
k Kempis, is stilla classic for Catholic
evil spirits
and Islam
by Thomas
Rules and Instructions for a
with a chief devil at
and Protestant aUke.
hierarchical arrangement
a
their head.
Holy Life,by Robert Leighton,is a pieceof Scottish
Among the Jews this prince of dernons
duction
Introdevoutness
is usually called Satan
the early Christians
from the troubled 17th. century.
(q.v.),
Satan and sometimes
refer to him sometimes
to the Devout Life,by Francis of Sales,is an
as
as
has
Brother Lawrence
the devil,but in the later history of Christianity example of Jesuit devotion.
The
becomes
the more
The Rule and Exercise of Holy
the latter term
been noted above.
common.
devil figuredprominently in the Christian thinking Living,by Jeremy Taylor, The Saints' Everlasting
for Luther he was
of the Middle
a
Ages, and even
Rest,by Richard Baxter,and The Rise and Progress
but
his prestige has
realistic personage,
of Religionin the Soul, by Philip Doddridge, are
very
waned
S. J. Case
somewhat
in modern
times.
famiUar
English manuals.
Among the numerous
modern
works are The Still Hour, by Austin Phelps,
DEVIL-WORSHIPER.
One who worships the
My Aspirations,by George Matheson, The Greatest
of evil,a practisecommon
The
to many
or spirits
Thing in the World, by Henry Drummond,
power
Fosdick.
primitivetribes in Africa,Asia and America; the
Meaning of Prayer,by Harry Emerson
of
devotional
Uterature
A
specific
designationof the Yzedis
a Mesopotamian
having the note
Rauschenbusch's
tribe.
modem
realityis a desideratum.
ing
For God and People Prayersof the Social AwakenDEVOTION
DEVOTIONAL
TURE.
LITERAAND
is an essay in this direction.
The
in
G. Scares
Theodore
experience of quiet confidence
communion
with God, and books conducive
to such
WILHELM
MARTIN
DE
LEBWETTE,
RECHT
experience. See also Worship.
theologian, pro(1780-1849)." German
fessor
1. The experience of devotion.
at Basel.
Religionis always
Adopting a free,critical attitude
both subjectiveand objective,an
he strove for a better understanding between
ology
theappreciationof
the will of God
and an active undertaking of it;
and science,
approaching the study of doctrine
from the side of feelingand morality.
pietyand service. In a healthy religiouslife these
are
mttmately united,though one or the other may
at any moment
be in the ascendancy. The danger
DHARMA.
^A Hindu
word
meaning law,
of an
spective justice,or duty, the performance of which
over-emphasis on a contemplative or introgives
In Buddhism
the
to
salvation.
it came
religiousexperience divorced from active
mean
human
service is evident.
cosmic
law
See
ultimate
Dharor order or truth.
Within the range of subjectivereligious
experi- MAKAYA.
ence
devotion is to be distinguished
for its peaceful
and joyous character.
DHARMAKAYA."
The
Struggle with temptation
Buddhology of some
and doubt, painfulwrest Ung with the problems of
is triniimportant sects of Mahdyana Buddhism
life"-these are not devotion.
They are occasional
tarian, the Buddha
possessing three bodies"
and incidental religious
while devotion
experiences,
nirmdnakdya.
dharmakdya, sambhogakdya, and
be regular and naturallyresponsive to sumThe
may
mons.
dharmakdya, "body of the law" or of the
We
not say, "I will now
enter upon
may
"truth,"is the substratum or essential buddhahood
"but we may say, "I will betake me
and
spiritual
of all the Buddhas
the
ultimate
nature
struggle,
or
This is not to eUminate
to devotion."
from devotion
of all beings. It is called the "void"
real nature
heart searching,prayer for forgiveness,
this ultimate realityassumes
longing or "reality." When
after holiness,
all of which
inevitable to the
with
all the
are
a
supra-mundane form, endowed
devout soul.
of a transcendant
Buddha,
gloriesand powers
2. The experience
it is
visible only to the spiritualvision of saints,
of devotion may he cultivated.
Like all other experiencesit develops by practice. called the sambhogakdijaor "body of bUss."
The
Brother Lawrence,one
of the most
devout of men,
nirmdnakdya is the human, illusoryform appearing
entitled his work, "the practiceof the presence
of
to the vision of ordinary men,
as
e.g., in Gautama.
God."
Devotion is a condition of spiritual
relaxaSee Doceticism
(Buddhist),

(1) Antecedently determined lot

being sometimes
fortune, the determination
referred to human, and at other times to divine
(2) An inscrutable and immutable
power
agency.
DESTINY."

tion,

or

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

131

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

DHIKR.
A religious
ritualused by the Moslem
dervish fraternities to assist in remembrance
of
God
The verbal form varies
and to glorifyhim.
but usuallyconsists of some
or all of the 99 names
for
Allah.
"

DHYANA.
of Hindu

Meditation.
The
religiouspractice
and Buddhist
in which
one
groups
the mind
concentrates
a
singleidea in order
upon
to arrive at that complete poise of mind
leadingto
suppression of the senses, ecstasy, quiet joy and
indiflference to joy or sorrow.
finally
DIASIA.

"

A primitive social rite of Greece in

made
to underworld
offeringswere
powers
associated with the dead.
The huge snake representing
"

which

the

underworld

power

was

was

to

ward

the diocese,but in modem

times the title is
frequentlyattached to the diocese.
DIOCLETIAN."
Roman
emperor, 284-305, who
instituted the longestand most
severe
persecution
of Christians in the empire. Donatism
(q.v.)originated
at the time of the Diocletian persecutions.
EPISTLE
TO."
An early Christian
of the writingsof the ApostoUc
Fathers.
The ".uthor is unidentified,
and the date
between
150 and 300.
uncertain,being somewhere
The letter refutes idolatryand Judaistic ritualism,
and makes
a vigorous defence of Christianity
the ground of the morahty of Christians and of
on
the revelation of God through his own
Son.

DIOGNETUS,
apology, one

DIONYSIUS."
Pope, 259-268, reorganizedthe
Roman
church after the Valerian persecution;engaged
in a doctrinal controversy with Dionysius,
bishopof Alexandria.

off

DIASPORA.
The term means
tering,
scatdisp"ersion,
but it has come
to be appliedspecifically
to
the distribution of the Jews among
the Gentiles,
particularlyafter the Exile. By the beginning of
the Christian Era the Jews of the Diaspora,perhaps
were
exceedingin number their kinsmen of Palestine,
to be found in all the lands about the Mediterranean.
"

DIATESSARON."
(Greek, "through four") a
tinuous
harmony of the four gospelsso as to make one connarrative,especiallythat composed by
in
(q.v.)

Disciplesof Christ

to

DIONYSIUS

AREOPAGITE."
A convert
the preaching of Paul
at
Athens
(Acts 17:34); by other writers said to be
the first bishopof Athens, tradition adding that he
was
martyred there. In the 6th. century certain
Greek works of a Neo-Platonic
mysticaltheological
ascribed to him, although criticism
type were
shows
that these could not have been composed
before the 6th. century.
These
treatises were
of
great influence on later Christian thought. Another
mistaken
tradition identified St. Denis of Paris with
to

Tatian

ETHICS

in later times

displaced by the Olympian god, Zeus, under the

euphemistic name,
Meilichios, "Easy -to-be
somber and gloomy;
entreated."
But the rites were
the offerings
abandoned
were
wholly to the dreaded
deities and their chief purpose
evil from the living.

AND

the 2nd. century.

DICHOTOMY."
Technically,a logicaldivision
whereby a genus is divided into two species;more
popularly,a division into two parts. In the latter
the theory that man
is divided into two parts,
sense
the material body and the immaterial spirit
or mind.

THE

under
Christianity

Dionysius.
DIONYSOS
(DIONYSIA)." God of fertility
who was
brought to Greece from his native Thrace.
In the originalform of dancing, coarse
satire and
fertility
symbolism his rites are similar to many
vegetationcults. In Greece, however, the winter
and springfestivals,
known
the Rural and the
as
Great
or
City Dionysia, developed into stately
ceremonies.
The
rude dialogue and dancing of
the revelers clad in goat-skins
transformed
into
were
the classical tragedy and comedy of Athens.
The
maintained
however
and
religiouscharacter was
in the comedy many
elements of the ancient fertility

DID ACHE,
THE."
Also called the Teaching of
ment,
Twelve
Apostles,an ancient Christian docudiscovered
in 1875 and published in 1881.
It consists of (1) moral
precepts, chaps. 1-6, to
guide Christian conduct, to be taught to catachumagic persisted.
in preparation for baptism; (2) a manual
of
mens
church
PAPAL."
The study of ancient
hfe,chaps. 7-15, with definite instructions
DIPLOMATICS,
officialdocuments
in the papal chancery.
the Eucharist; the
as to baptism, fasting,
originating
prayer,
of teachers,apostles(i.e.,
treatment
missionaries), The science of diplomaticshas to do with questions
of authenticity,
nated
prophets, and visitingbrethren; worship on the
signatures,dates etc.. and origiLord's Day; and the appointment of bishops and
as
a check
on
forgeries.
the

deacons; (3)an eschatological

conclusion,
chap. 16.
ence
The work in its present form shows abundant influof the Gospel of Matthew, and was
probably
written between
The firstpart of it is
130 and 150.
which
has
based on an earher form of the Didache
to fightin a Latin version (1900),and proves
come
of the last
to be a document
of Jewish Christianity
quarter of the 1st. century.
J. Goodspeed
Edgar
DIES
IRAE."
Latin,"Day of Wrath" or Day of
Judgment. Also the designationof a well-known
hymn of the R.C. church,so-caUed from its opening
words.

SPIRITUAL."
The
guidance of
toward
the acquirement of spiritual
CathoUcism
such direction
well-being. In Roman
be given by the church.
must

DIRECTION,

individuals

ing
A book containCATHOLIC"
DIRECTORY,
the regulations
of the R.C. church for the mass
and office for each day of the year.
DISCERNMENT
whether
the

OF

SPIRITS."

The ascertaua-

allegedsupernaturalactivityof
an
"inspired"person is due to the Spiritof Christ.
such as primitive
The practicearose
in communities
CHRISTIAN
FRIEDRICH
where
good and evil are referred to
DILLMANN,
Christianity,
AUGUST
Lutheran
logian; good and evil spirits
theo(1823-1894)."German
respectively.
scholar in the field of the Ethiopic
a noted
A religious
DISCIPLES
OF
CHRIST."
body of
language and fiterature.
ment

which has grown

Protestantism
out of a
American
and Alexander Campbell.
DIOCESE.
The territory
of the churches under
led by Thomas
movement
the administrative
In certain sections of the country it is known
as
ditional
authorityof a bishop. The traof Christ."
the "Christian Church," or the "Church
for the episcopaltitle to be
custom
was
but for co-operation
in polity,
It is congregational
attached to the see where the cathedral is,and not
"

Destiny

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OP

AND

ETHICS

130

from the tensions of life. Devotion

an
escape
withdrawal
from the world, and an
is a deUberate
endeavor
to see
It is akin to the
things whole.
mountain
contemplation of a landscape. To be
from
healthy,it must, of course, be a withdrawal
assumed to be in control of both human and cosmic
lifein order to go back the more
strenuouslyinto Ufe.
processes.
It is
to get God's point of view.
It is the endeavor
The
DETERMINISM."
unhurried,though it may be brief. It is the "quiet
hypothesisthat the
Andit is the spirit
of receptivity. In devotion
hour."
human
will,in the exercise of the power of choice
the human
of conduct, is absolutely
spiritexpects to be spoken to, to be
between alternative courses
controlled bj^existing
or external.
encouragedand comforted,to be filledwith the Holy
conditions,
psychological
Ghost.
Moral freedom is thus held to be a delusion.
3. Devotional leaders. In religion,
as in all other
the giftedsouls lead the mediocre.
human interests,
for God in Hindu
The
DEVA."
general name
Poets and painters help us to appreciate nature,
religion(fem.devi). In the Zoroastrian reUgionthe
musicians stimulate our love of harmony, good men
and
of men
is applied to devils,the enemies
term
lead
toward
So Jthe devout
lead the way
virtue.
of Ormazd.
is sometimes
This leadership
others to devotion.
have
the great manuals
come
'A designationfor an evil spirit,
designed, whence
DEVIL.
particularly
of devotion.
often the saint is simply conMore
strained
the chief of demons
(q.v.). Primitive
his own
to express
experience, and his
man
early became conscious of the fact that nature
book becomes
the classic for those who seek to share
sometimes
hostile,and
was
kindly and sometimes
what he has found.
of good and
thus there arose
a belief in the activity
literature is very
abundant.
historic
4. Devotional
devils. All the
evil spirits gods and
these forces of good and
faiths have personalized
Psalms,prayers, and hymns belong to it. A few of
The Soul's
be mentioned.
the great works
to elevate one
may
evil,and where there is a disposition
above all other good
Progressin God, by Bonaventura, is a typicalwork
god to a place of supremacy
tianity, of mediaeval mysticism. The Imitation of Christ,
spirits e.g., in Zoroastrianism,Judaism, Chrisk Kempis, is stiU a classic for Catholic
also tend to assume
evil spirits
and Islam
by Thomas
Rules and Instructions for a
and Protestant ahke.
with a chief devil at
hierarchical arrangement
a
their head.
Holy Liife,
by Robert Leighton,is a pieceof Scottish
Among the Jews this prince of demons
duction
Introdevoutness from the troubled 17th. century.
is usually called Satan
the early Christians
(q.v.),
to the Devout Life,by Francis of Sales,is an
Satan and sometimes
refer to him sometimes
as
as
has
Brother Lawrence
the devil,but in the later history of Christianity example of Jesuit devotion.
The
The Rule and Exercise of Holy
becomes
the more
been noted above.
the latter term
common.^
devil figuredprominently in the Christian thinking Living,by Jeremy Taylor, The Saints' Everlasting
for Luther he was
of the Middle
a
Ages, and even
Rest,by Richard Baxter,and The Rise and Progress
but
his prestige has
realistic personage,
of Religionin the Soul, by Phihp Doddridge, are
very
S. J. Case
waned
somewhat
in modern
times.
famihar
English manuals.
Among the numerous
modern
works are The Still Hour, by Austin Phelps,
DEVIL-WORSHIPER."
One who worships the
My Aspirations,by George Matheson, The Greatest
The
of evil,a practisecommon
to many
Thing in the World, by Henry Drummond,
power or spirits
Fosdick.
primitivetribes in Africa,Asia and America; the
Meaning of Prayer,by Harry Emerson
of
devotional
Uterature
A
^a Mesopotamian
specific
designationof the Yzedis
having the note
Rauschenbusch's
modem
tribe.
realityis a desideratum.
ing
For God and People Prayers of the Social AwakenDEVOTION
AND
DEVOTIONAL
TURE.
LITERAis an essay in this direction.
in
The
G. Scares
Theodore
experience of quiet confidence
communion
with God, and books conducive
to such
DE
LEBWILHELM
MARTIN
WETTE,
RECHT
experience. See also Worship.
theologian, pro(1780-1849)."German
fessor
1. The experience
at Basel.
ofdevotion. Religionis always
Adopting a free,critical attitude
both subjectiveand objective,an
he strove for a better understanding between
ology
theappreciationof
the will of God
and an
active undertaking of it;
and science,
approaching the studyof doctrine
from the side of feelingand morality.
pietyand service. In a healthy rehgious Ufe these
are
intimatelyunited,though one or the other may
be in the ascendancy. The danger
at any moment
DHARMA.
^A Hindu
word
meaning law,
of an
spective justice,or duty, the performance of which
over-emphasis on a contemplative or introgives
salvation.
In Buddhism
it came
the
to
religiousexperience divorced from active
mean
human
is evident.
service
cosmic
ultimate
law or order or truth.
See DharWithin
the range of subjectivereligious
experience
devotion is to be distinguished
for its peaceful
and joyous character.
The
DHARMAKAYA."
Struggle with temptation
Buddhology of some
a,nd doubt, painfulwresthng with the problems of
is triniimportant sects of Mahayana Buddhism
life ^these are not devotion.
They are occasional
tarian, the Buddha
possessing three bodies
and incidental religious
while devotion
experiences,
dharmakdya, sambhogakdya, and
nirmdnakdya.
be regular and naturallyresponsive to sumThe
mons.
dharmakdya, "body of the law" or of the
may
We
not say, "I wiU now
enter upon
"truth,"is the substratum or essential buddhahood
may
"but we may say, "I will betake me
and
of all the Buddhas
the
spiritual
ultimate
nature
struggle,
or
to devotion.
Tliis is not to eliminate from devotion
of all beings. It is called the "void"
real nature
heart searcliing,
for forgiveness,
this ultimate realityassumes
longing or "reality." When
prayer
after holiness,
all of which
inevitable to the
all the
with
are
a
supra-mundane form, endowed
devout soul.
of a transcendant
Buddha,
gloriesand powers
2. The experience
it is
visible only to the spiritualvision of saints,
of devotion may he cultivated.
Like all other experiencesit develops by practice. called the sambhogakdijaor "body of bliss." The
Brother Lawrence,one
of the most devout of men,
nirmdnakdya is the human, illusoryform appearing
entitled his work, "the practiceof the presence
of
to the vision of ordinary men,
as
e.g., in Gautama.
God."
Devotion is a condition of spiritual
relaxaSee DocETicisM
(Buddhist),

(1) Antecedentlydetermined lot

being sometimes
fortune, the determination
referred to human, and at other times to divine
(2) An inscrutable and immutable
power
agency.
DESTINY."

tion,

or

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

131

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

DHIKR.
A religious
ritual used by the Moslem
dervish fraternities to assist in remembrance
of
God
and to glorifyhim.
The verbal form varies
but usuallyconsists of some
for
or all of the 99 names
Allah.
"

DHYANA.
of Hindu

Meditation.
The
religiouspractice
and Buddhist
in which
one
groups
the mind
concentrates
a singleidea in order
upon
to arrive at that complete poise of mind
leadingto
suppression of the senses, ecstasy, quiet joy and
indifference to joy or sorrow.
finally
DIASIA.

"

A primitive social rite of Greece in

made
to underworld
offeringswere
powers
associated with the dead.
The huge snake representing
"

which

the

underworld

power

was

was

the diocese,but
frequentlyattached
to

to

ward

in modem
to the

times the title is

diocese.

EPISTLE
TO."
An early Christian
of the writingsof the Apostofic
Fathers.
The author is unidentified,
and the date
between
150 and 300.
uncertain,being somewhere
The letter refutes idolatryand Judaistic ritualism,
and makes
a vigorous defence of Christianity
the ground of the moralityof Christians and of
on
the revelation of God through his own
Son.

DIOGNETUS,
apology, one

DIONYSIUS."
Pope, 259-268, reorganizedthe
Roman
church after the Valerian persecution; engaged
in a doctrinal controversy with Dionysius,
bishopof Alexandria.

off

DIASPORA..
The term means
scattering,
dispersion,
but it has come
to be appliedspecifically
to
the distribution of the Jews among
the Gentiles,
particularlyafter the Exile. By the beginning of
the Christian Era the Jews of the Diaspora,perhaps
exceedingin number their kinsmen of Palestine,
were
to be found in all the lands about the Mediterranean.
"

DIATESSARON."
(Greek, "through four") a
tinuous
harmony of the four gospelsso as to make one connarrative,especiallythat composed by
in
(q.v.)

Disciplesof Christ

DIOCLETIAN."
Roman
emperor, 284-305, who
instituted the longestand most
severe
persecution
of Christians in the empire. Donatism
(q.v.)originated
at the time of the Diocletian persecutions.

DIONYSIUS

AREOPAGITE."
A convert
the preaching of Paul
at
Athens
(Acts 17:34); by other writers said to be
the first bishopof Athens, tradition adding that he
was
martyred there. In the 6th. century certain
Greek works of a Neo-Platonic
mysticaltheological
ascribed to him, although criticism
type were
shows
that these could not have been composed
before the 5th. century.
These
treatises were
of
great influence on later Christian thought. Another
mistaken tradition identified St. Denis of Paris with
to

Tatian

ETHICS

in later times

displaced by the Olympian god, Zeus, under the

euphemistic name,
Meilichios, "Easy-to-beentreated."
But the rites were
somber and gloomy;
the offerings
abandoned
were
wholly to the dreaded
deities and their chief purpose
evil from the living.

AND

the 2nd. century.

division
DICHOTOMY."
a logical
Technically,
whereby a genus is divided into two species;more
popularly,a division into two parts. In the latter
the theory that man
is divided into two parts,
sense
the material body and the immaterial spirit
or mind.

DIDACHE,

THE

under
Christianity

Dionysius.
DIONYSOS

of fertility
(DIONYSIA)." God
brought to Greece from his native Thrace.
originalform of dancing, coarse satire and
fertility
symbolism his rites are similar to many
vegetationcults. In Greece,however, the winter
and springfestivals,
known as the Rural and the
Great
or
City Dionysia, developed into stately
ceremonies.
The
rude
dialogueand dancing of
the revelers clad in goat-skins
transformed
into
were
the classical tragedy and comedy of Athens.
The
maintained
however
and
religiouscharacter was
in the comedy many
elements of the ancient fertility
magic persisted.
who was
In the

THE."
Also called the Teaching of
ment,
Twelve
Apostles,an ancient Christian docudiscovered
in 1875 and published in 1881.
It consists of (1) moral
precepts, chaps. 1-6, to
guide Christian conduct, to be taught to catachuin preparation for baptism; (2) a manual
of
mens
church
PAPAL."
The study of ancient
Ufe,chaps. 7-15, with definite instructions
DIPLOMATICS,
officialdocuments
to baptism, fasting,
the Eucharist; the
in the papal chancery.
as
originating
prayer,
treatment
of teachers,apostles(i.e.,
missionaries), The science of diplomaticshas to do with questions
of authenticity,
prophets, and visitingbrethren; worship on the
nated
signatures,dates etc.. and origiLord's Day: and the appointment of bishops and
as
a check
on
forgeries.
the

deacons; (3)an

eschatological
conclusion,chap. 16.

work in its present form shows abundant influence

of the Gospel of Matthew, and was
probably
The firstpart of it is
written between
130 and 150.
based on an earher form of the Didache
which
has
to Hght in a Latin version (1900),and proves
come
of the last
of Jewish Christianity
to be a document
quarter of the 1st. century.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
DIES
IRAE."
Latin,"Day of Wrath" or Day of
Judgment. Also the designationof a well-known
hymn of the R.C. church,so-calledfrom its opening
words.
The

CHRISTIAN
DILLMANN,
(1823-1894)."German

FRIEDRICH
Lutheran
logian;
theoscholar in the field of the Ethiopic
a noted
language and Uterature.

AUGUST

SPIRITUAL."
The
guidance of
toward
the acquirement of spiritual
CathoUcism
such direction
well-being. In Roman
be given by the church.
must

DIRECTION,

individuals

ing
containA book
CATHOLIC"
DIRECTORY,
the regulations
of the R.C. church for the mass
and office for each day of the year,
DISCERNMENT
whether
the

OF

SPIRITS."

The ascertainment

allegedsupernaturalactivityof
an
"inspired"person is due to the Spiritof Christ.
such as primitive
The practicearose
in communities
where
Christianity,
good and evil are referred to
respectively.
good and evil spirits

A rehgiousbody of
DISCIPLES
OF
CHRIST."
which has grown
out of a
Protestantism
American
DIOCESE.
of the churches under
and Alexander Campbell.
The territory
led by Thomas
movement
the administrative
In certain sections of the country it is known
as
ditional
authorityof a bishop. The traof Christ."
the "Christian Church," or the "Church
for the episcopaltitle to be
custom
was
in polity,but for co-operation
It is congregational
attached to the see where the cathedral is,and not
"

Divine

Right

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

134

the assumption that it ispossiblefor man

to learn
small per cent of the total number
of divorces in
the wiU of those Powers
which reveal themselves
Protestant countries.
in the natural world.
Divorce is a practicecommon
practically
among
Have
5. Efficacy of divination.
divinatory all peoples. Speaking generally,marriage is not
of life-long
is
duration. Among primitive
practices any intrinsic efficacy? The answer
necessarily
for in the
for a variety of causes,
peoples divorce is common
easy as respects heteroscopicdivination,
whole
"monstrous
but chiefly
because children failto be born.
truth or
farrago" resides no
Among
On the other hand, it is possible peoplesorganized on the basis of maternal prerogavalue whatever.
tives
that autoscopic methods
conscious
the right of divorce usually rests exclusively
make
of subuse
may
of actual impressionsfrom
with the wife; among
or
suggestions,
paternallyorganizedpeoples,
external objects or external minds.
in the patriarchal
The scientific
especially
stage, it frequentlyrests
of crystal-gazing,
automatic
the
writing exclusivelywith the husband, although among
investigation
the Jews),
by the planchette,
presentiments,and clairvoyance Greeks and Romans
(sporadically
among
has not proceeded so far that we may dismiss them
wives had won
the rightto divorce their husbands
all with certaintyas utterlyfallacious.
well before the beginning of the Christian
era.
6. Uses of divination.
a
private
Among most uncivilized Among all ancient peoples divorce was
tion
divinaact requiringno
as well as those of archaic civilization,
peoples,
public legalprocedure, although
holds an important place in both pubhc and
in order to check the evils of loose divorce in Rome
nesses.
witrequiredthe presence of seven
privateUfe. As a rehgiouspractice(haruspication, Augustus finally
with
connected
civihzed
practicallyall modern
Among
augury, and the like)it is closely
the rites of sacrifice and prayer.
It forms a recogpeoples, however, divorce takes place through
nized
formal procedure in courts of law, the practiceof
mode
of judicialprocedure,being often
under the form of the ordeal, granting divorce through legislative
for
enactments
employed, especially
continued.
known
the guilty. each separate case
to indicate the innocent and make
having now
largelybeen disDivination also appears
in folk-medicine as a means
Divorce is important sociologically
tion
indicaof discoveringthe cause
of the iUness from which
as an
of the relative instabiUtyof the family. While
the patientsuffers.
all unstable family hfe gets recorded
in the
not
7. Survival of divination.
In its privateaspects
divination lingersfar into civiUzation.
Pahnistry divorce courts, in a country like the United States
books are
still
where divorce is relatively
and astrologyflourish yet; dream
free,the vast majority
of
of unstable unions show up in the divorce statistics.
consulted; and fortunes are stilltold by means
It is significant
of modern
social conditions that
playing cards. The folk continue to take omens
from seeingand meeting animals,to "read the speal- divorce statistics during the last half century have
bone" (scapulimancy),and to relyon the divining- shown
a
rapid increase in nearly aU Christian
Ancient
rod to discover water or hidden treasure.
countries.
This is especiallytrue of the United
of
yield but slowlyto either science or
States,which leads the world in the number
superstitions
divorces granted each year
Webster
Hutton
common
(in 1905, 67,976). In
sense.
the rest of the Christian world, taken as a whole,
DIVINE
RIGHT."
A rightallegedto be derived
there were
less than
the
40,000. In Germany
number
from God, hence giving absolute authority to the
was
11,147 in the same
year; in France,
holder.
10,860; and in Great Britain and Ireland,821. In
The doctrine that a king derives his authority
France the ratio was
to every
one
marriages,
thirty
from
God
code of
in Germany
has been
to every
one
wide-spread. The
forty-four,in England
four
while
United
States
in the
Hammurabi, e.g., represents the king as receiving one to every
hundred,
from
Shamash
he promulgates.
the ratio was
divorce to twelve marriages. By
the laws which
one
of divorces granted in
The deificationof kings and emperors was
a familiar
1916, however, the number
The
Mikado
the United
States reached 112,036,while the ratio
phenomenon in the ancient world.
divorce to every
nine marriages. These
to
of Japan was
was
one
regardedas endowed by Heaven
rule.
statistics show that divorces in the United
census
the doctrine of divine rightfound
fast
States are increasingmore
than three times as
In Christianity
lible
the population. See Family.
as
religiousexpressionin the conception of the infalcountries
Divorce statistics from non-Christian
authority of the ApostoUc Church, which
Christ.
derives its divine commission
from
The
seldom rehable. We have the following,
are
however,
vice-regentof Christ has an authority from Japan: In 1905, 60,179 divorces; in 1903,
as
pope,
consent.
not derived from human
65,571; in both years the proportion being one
divorce to six marriages in Japan. Previous to the
During the Middle Ages political
authoritywas
divine provision. "The
believed to rest upon
a
adoption of the new
legalcode in Japan (July 16,
that be are ordained of God."
Later with
much
higher,although
1898) the divorce rate was
powers
the new
code stillpermits divorce by mutual
the emancipation of nations from ecclesiastical control
sent.
conFor example, in 1897 there were
there cajne naturallyan exaltation of the direct
124,075
divorces in Japan or one
divine authorityof the ruler. The Stuart monarchs
to three marriages. The
insistence on unconFrench government furnishes the followingstatistics
in England by their stubborn
ditional
divine rightprovoked the revolution which
regardingthe Mohammedan
population of Algeria:
lutist
absoIn 1905, 14,569 divorces granted; in 1904, 15,084,
initiated parhamentary sovereignty. The
to two
riages,
marassertion attributed to Louis XIV., "L'tltat,in each year the proportionbeing one
in the French Revolution.
c'estmoi" met its overthrow
though the usual ratio in Algeria is one to
three marriages.
A. Ellwood
Charles
The doctrine continued into the 20th. century
the dynasty of Russia and in Prussia,but with the
rf
DOCETISM."
The doctrine tha^ Jesus Christ,
of 1914 was
at War
completely discredited.
Birney
Smith
because divine,could not have had a material body,
Gerald
in whole or in
but only a body which seemed
DIVORCE.
The legaldissolution,
(from Greek dokein,
due to the
part,of the marriage bond. Modern law recognizes to seem) to be real. The belief was
as
inherentlyevil.
sorts of divorce, absolute divorce
two
(a vinculo
prevalent conception of matter
Docetic views were
held by the Gnostics, Maniet thoro).
matrimonii)and limited divorce (a mensa
extent
is used alone we
the word
mean
chaeans,to some
by Origen,and by various
Usually when
anity.
is commonly
sects and
individuals in the history of Christidivorce
absolute divorce; Hmited
called "legal separation"and constitutes a very
on

"

"

"

OF

"

135

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

While
the con(BUDDHIST)."
servative
Theravadins
maintained
the
position
that Buddha
teacher who had in
was
a real human
the way
of salvation for men,
his own
life shown
the drift of all later schools of Buddhist
teaching
toward
of his human
life.
was
a docetic treatment
for this lies partly in the social mind of
The reason
India and
partly in the teachings of the early
Hindu
faith itself. The
migration
transemphasis upon
led to the construction
of elaborate
speculationsregardingthe previouslives of Buddha.
The
dominant
philosophy of the age taught the
unreality of the phenomenal world and the sole
realityof the world-essence or Brahma.
Moreover,
Gautama
emphasized the ultimate
reality of
the
and
dharma
truth
cosmic
or
ultimate law of
karma
as
against the changing flux of the
over
the
"aggregates" (skandas) of personaUty and
of the world revealed and clung to
nature
illusory
Buddhist
When
teachers
by the senses.
lated
specuregarding the person of Buddha attributing
to him
transcendent
and
multipUed his
powers
manifestations
it was
natural to proindefinitely
ceed
to the conclusion that the Buddhahood
behind
all the Buddhas
real
than
was
more
any individual
manifestation.
When
this was
coupled with the
idea of the dharmakdya (q.v.)as the essence
of
realityand the "body of truth" and with the idea
of prajnd or the finding of realityonly by transcending
the phenomenal and
rational in mystic
to identify the real
contemplation it was
easy
Buddha
with this dharmakaya and to think of the
historical Buddha
assumed
as
a docetic appearance
for' pedagogical reasons.
A
variety of docetic
views are
represented,e.g., by the teachers of the
Prajna school such as Nagarjuna, by the trinitarian,
and
Ashvaghosha and by Vasubandha
Asanga.
Tantric
While
Buddhism
not properly be
may
called docetic it is pantheistic and
practically
ignoresthe historical Buddha, Sakyamuni.
A. Eustace
Haydon
DOCTOR.
The
Latin word
for teacher,used
of certain eminent
fathers of the church on account
of their learningand orthodoxy. The Greek
tors
Docare
Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory
Nazianzen, and Chrysostom; the Latin are Ambrose,
The
Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great.
with a descriptive
name
adjectivewas used as a title
for many
mediaeval
scholars.
DOCETISM

AND

ETHICS

Donatism

DOGMATICS

or
DOGMATIC
THEOLOGY."
of theological
study which systematically
expounds and organizes the dogmas of a church.
See Dogma;
Systematic
Theology.

That

branch

DOLLINGER,
IGNAZ
JOHANN
JOSEF
VON
(1799-1890)."German Church historian and
leader of the Old CathoUcs
(q.v.). His historical
study led him to take a tolerant attitude in matters
of doctrine,
and to urge the independence of church
and state.
He was
an
opponent of the dogma of
enunciated
in 1870 by the
papal infaUibility
as
Vatican
council,and as a result was
cated.
excommuniThereupon he allied himself with the Old
CathoUc
and
leader
its
strove
as
for the
party,
reunion of Christendom.
In later years he came
favorable appreciationof Luther and the
to a more
Protestant Reformation.
DOLMEN.

formed
prehistoricgrave
by
and covering them with a
whole
then
covered
was
by a

"

settingup slabs of
The
of earth.

cap-stone.
mound

stone

DOMINICALE."

A white Hnen cloth formerly

in the R.C. church at the Eucharist;
to the veil worn
the napkin upon
or
the bread was
placed; stillretained in Italy.

by women
appliedeither

worn

which

DOMINIC,
the R.C.

SAINT
(1170-1221)."Founder
order of the Dominicans
(q.v.).

of

DOMINICAL
LETTER."
A letter used in certain
ancient calendars to denote Sunday, and to
assist in determining the date of Easter.
The first
marked
A to G.
seven
The
days of the year were
letter marking the first Sunday in the year designated
all Sundays, excepting in leap-years.

DOMINICAN
ORDER."
The
Order
of St.
includes three parts: the Friars Preachers,
the Dominican
Sisters (Second Order),and the
Brothers of Penitence of St. Dominic
(Third Order).
The Dominican
Order received papal confirmation
in 1216._The founder, Dominic, a CastiUan,had
worked
in Southern
France to win back the Albigensian heretics. He aimed to organize and train
good preachers, skilful controversiahsts,stern
who should beg their way
mendicant
as
moralists,
friars. They won
great distinction in university
logian, fife; to them
and
(1834-1909)."Scottish theobelonged Albertus
Magnus
pODS, MARCUS
Thomas
Testament
professorof New
Aquinas (qq.v.). They had many
troversies
conExegesis and
with the Franciscans
principalof New
College,Edinburgh. His principal
(Thomists vs. Scotactivitywas in the field of Bibhcal scholarship. ists;Immaculate
Conception); and later protested
against Jesuit concessions to converts
insistently
DOGMA.
^A doctrine of theology officiallyfrom heathenism.
asked
Dominicans
were
defined and declared to rest on divine authority.
to take
charge of the Inquisition(q.v.). The
Catholic
French
Revolution dealt them a staggeringblow,
According to Roman
theory, Christ
to the apostles from which they have been rallying
since about 1850.
organized the church and committed
the truths which every loyalChristian is expected to
In 1910 their rehgiousnumbered
4472.
affirm.
In the course
of Christian
W. W. Rockwell
historysome
of them have been expressly
formulated by ecclesiasDOMITIAN."
81-96
tical
Roman
emperor,
a.d.,
tians
councils,as e.g., the dogma of the Trinity. who caused a brief but severe
persecutionof ChrisIn case
of uncertaintyas to the content
of doctrine,
in 96.
the church is to decide.
A distinction is made
tween
beDONATION
CONSTANTINE."
A forged
dogmas, which are ecclesiastically
OF
authorized,
and the personalopinions of a theologian.
document, written probably between 752 and 778,
Protestantism
rejectedthe authority of the
purporting to have been addressed by Constantine
CathoUc church, and consequently abandoned
the
the Great to Pope SylvesterI.,and lendingsupport
CathoUc
notion of dogma.
The conceptionof scrip- to the papal claims of territorial possessionsand of
turallyauthorized doctrines,however, is logically universal spiritual
authority.
the same
that of Cathohcism; and the official
as
creeds of the various Protestant bodies have served
A
schismatic Christian
DONATISM.
sect,
standards
When
the conception of
of dogma.
as
in the 4th. century in N. Africa,holding
originating
that the sacraments
valid only when
tered
adminisreligiousauthorityis modified,the dogmatic conception
were
of doctrine vanishes.
by a priestof blameless life. The Catholic
Birnev
church held that the validityof the sacraments
Gerald
Smith
was

Dominic

"

usually

"

"

Donus

or

Domnus

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

136

That
responsibilityvaries according to age,
official position or
is a
particularcircumstances
fact. While
is usually a
well-known
truth-telling
duty, there are circumstances in which deception
ing
to be a moral necessity,
seems
as, e.g., the withholdfrom
of bad
news
a
dangerously ill.
person
"double
The term
morals," however, is appUed to
sanctioned
certain officially
variations
DONUS
or
socially
or DOMNUS"
Pope, 676-678.
in moral behavior.
Catholic morals.
1. In Roman
exit
A distinction is
into or
DOOR.
The
place of entrance
made
between
the Christian precepts which all men
from a house, temple or other enclosure.
Being a
must
with
its
of separating the outside world
obey, and the "evangelicalcounsels" which
means
are
troubles from the inside world with its comforts,
requiredonly of those who dedicate themselves
sequentlyto especialholiness of life. A layman's life may
Conit had a sacred character for primitiveman.
be morally perfectif he obeys the general laws of
magical and reUgious rites and customs
Christian living;a monk
who takes reUgious
the household
sacrifices to propitiate
or one
arose, e.g., offering
observe a stricter standard.
The moral
must
Guardian
vows
spiritsare
patron deity, etc.
believed to reside sometimes
in household doors and
danger is that aspirationmay be satisfied by the
lower standard; or that any surpassingof it may
peoples suspend
again in temple doors.
Many
be regarded as a work of supererogation. Protestantism
and
amulets
from
charms
doorways to inhibit
demonic influences. Analogously death is portrayed
rejected double morals, insistingon one
and
the same
kind of moral lifefor clergy and
lifeand death,and the heavenly
as the door between
and lower worlds are frequentlypicturedas abodes
laymen.
There
is widespread a
with doors or gates and guardians. SimilarlyJesus
2. In sexual morals.
so-called "double
is symbolizedby the door as a means
of entrance
standard," whereby unmarried
ing
into life. In Babism
women
are
expected to be absolutelychaste,while
(q.v.)Bab means
gate, bearfor ilUcit
unmarried
condemned
like significance.
not socially
are
men
a
of today is
sexual relations.
The best moral sense
that both sexes
should conform to the ideal
ISAAK
AUGUST
insisting
DORNER,
(1809-1884)."
hitherto demanded
of women.
German
theologian,whose most important works
tian
Christian Doctrine and Chris3. In political
and international relations. The
were
on
Christology,
Ethics.
His theology combined
elements
of
policyof states often compels citizens to support
national actions which
would
be conSchleiermacher
and Hegel, togetherwith an appreor
demned
political
ciation
in the relations of individuals toward one
of historical development.
is the most strikinginstance,of this,
another.
War
OF."
Held in Dort, HoUand,
in which soldiers are called upon
to kill their fellow
DORT, SYNOD
the
November
There
is a strong tendency to demand
men.
13, 1618, to May 9, 1619. The Synod
nate
marks
the nearest
reformation of international relations so as to elimiapproach which the reformed
churches
made
ecumenical
this dual standard.
to developing an
Quakers, conscientious
ever
character.
all of the Calvinist Churches
objectors,and those who are laboringfor a league
Practically
of Europe were
there represented,with the excepof nations are seeking to bring consistencyhere into
tion
of those of Anhalt, Brandenburg, and France
Gerald
Birney
Smith
the moral Ufe of men.
the delegates
from the latter country being forbidden
DOUBT.
^A hesitant or
by Louis XIII. to leave the country.
questioningattitude
The
chief business of the Synod was
that of
toward a propositionor idea.
Doubt
is to be distinguishedfrom disbeUef,in
considering the Remonstrance
proposed by the
Arminians.
The
that the latter pronounces
a
representativesof the Arminian
definitelynegative
ing,
positionwere permitted to state their views in writverdict,while doubt indicates merely an inabiUty
but were
not permitted to speak against their
to affirm.
But since this inabilityprevents any
decisive
is often
classed with
opponents; and withdrew from the sessions of the
attitude,doubt
mitted unbelief as irreligious.
belief is regarded
Where
Synod, although offeringto answer
questionssubin writing. Finally they were
trines,
to them
as
acceptance of authoritativelyprescribeddocfrom the Synod.
doubt seems
to indicate a moral unwillingness
expelled
The Synod decided that the five Articles of the
to the divine declarations.
to subject
privatereason
Remonstrance
doubters
have
Hence
often been
(q.v.)were
punished and
contrary to the doctrine
of the reformed
church, and that the Heidelberg persecuted by ecclesiastical authority. Usually,
Catechism and the Helvetic Confession were
tained
sushowever, provisionhas been made for meeting the
five chief doctrines
by Scripture. The
objectionsof honest doubters by rational defense
the determining eleaffirmed by the Synod became
ments of the tenets
of faith. Modern
philosophyand
in the development of the Calvinistic and Arminian science recognizethat doubt in the form of critical
of discovering
theologies. See Five Points of Calvinism.
questioningis an indispensablemeans
Shailer
Mathews
and
testing the truth. Accordingly a more
DOUAI
BIBLE."
An
English translation of
positivevalue is being attached to doubt, and
the Bible prepared for the use of Roman
Catholics
ecclesiastical compulsion is increasingly
disapproved.
See Certainty; Assurance; Apologetics.
by EngUsh scholars in the Universityof Douai in
France.
The N.T. was
Smith
Gerald
Birney
pubUshed at Rheims, 1582,
and the O.T. at Douai, 1609,whence
the name.
DOUKHABORS."
Sects.
See Russian
not

dependent on

of the ministrant.

the character

the sect was

named, was
a
Donatus, from whom
prominent leader. Augustine (q.v.)and Optatus
(q.v.)did much to heal the schism,but the Donatists
persisteduntil the Saracen invasion of the 7th.
century.

"

"

"

"

"

"

DOUBLEMINDEDNESS."

lack

of

clear

DOXOLOGY.

"

convictions,leading to inconsistent

impulses and

(toGod).

actions.

characteristic

The
Jews used
and
their
prayer,
Christian
usage.

In

extreme

cases

this

betrays a divided personality.

DOUBLE
MORALS."
The
application to a
moral problem of two different standards,
whereby
certain individuals are held to stricter conduct than
others.

An

ascriptionof praiseor glory

doxology to conclude public

example doubtless suggested
The
Trisagion {Tersanctus,
"Holy, Holy, Holy") of the eucharistic office dates
from
Greater
the 2nd. century. The
Doxology
also still used in that office,
{Gloriain Excelsis),
a

isfound full-formed in the Apostolical

Constitutions

137

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Dreams

The most
John
the

famous
of these plays preserved is the
Baptist of the Scotch reformer,George
The
reformers
Buchanan, in Latin.
also freelyused the moralityplay (q.v.)and the dramatic
in attacks on the Mass.
debate,especially
A conspicuous
John Bale,
figurein the movement
was
who wrote
Protestant
plays in English,following,
however, the miracle and the moraUty type. Before
1600 Puritan
sentiment, in England particularly,
had led to a reaction againstreligious
cirama which
has lasted to the present day. But
Milton, an
ardent humanist, used the masque
in Comus
for
E. T. Merrill
moral instruction and wrote
his Samson
A term used generallyof a deified
DRAGON.
Agonistes
in ancient mythologies in the form of a Greek tragedy.
serpent, a figurewidely current
C. R. Baskervill
where it occupiesa placesimilar to its present
RELIGION
OF
THE."
The
DRAVIDIANS,
positionin the popular fancy of China and Japan.
which
Sometimes
is friendly,but
religionof an aboriginalnon-Aryan race
this fabulous
monster
inhabits southern India.
struction
more
commonly it is a terrible creature whose deof some
is the crowning achievement
Many of the Dra vidians have been received into
the Hindu
social organization,and
their rehgion
overcame
mighty hero. The Babylonian Marduk
classified under Hinduism; many
which are
Daniel
the
chaos-demon
groups
Tiamat, the Hebrew
effected the death of the dragon Bel, Hercules slew
beyond the pale are gradually winning a place on
the lowest fringe of Hindu
the many-headed Hydra, the Book
of Revelation
society. In northern
India, where the two races
the dragon Satan,
predictsChrist's triumph over
amalgamated, Aryan
culture and
and
mediaeval
language prevailed. In the south
legend is replete with stories of
there is comparatively httle Aryan influence of mixture
similar heroic exploits of a St. George, a King
of blood, and about sixty millions speak DraS. J. Case
Arthur, a Siegmund, or a Tristram.
vidian languages.
Aryan shades off into Dravidian in
such a way that no hard and fast line of demarcation
DRAMA
IN
RELIGION."
1. Pa^an." From
between Aryan and Dravidian reUgion can be drawn.
intended
certain pagan
to avert
rites and charms
evil or placategods, drama
the symbolTypical Dravidian
when
reUgion is animistic and
ism
arose
tially
magical,a demonophobia. Dravidian life is essenunderlyingthe action that accompanied the
Dravidians
that
the
rural.
beheve
The
and the element
ceremonies
faded from consciousness,
world is filledwith a multitude of spirits
of play entered.
(many are
Notably various festival
evil. These
of them
rites of the Greek religion,
spiritsof the dead), most
developinginto the satyr
become
local godhngs {grdmadevata,
"villagegods")play, comedy, and tragedy, furnished the model
There
is no
Various
for modern
universallyrecognizedgreat god; no
types of Mterary drama.
dramatic
forms
caste, like that of the Brahmans, to develop
developed from cults elsewhere, priestly
elaborate system which could be recognizedby
an
of them
most
not progressingbeyond the stage of
and serve
ritual dance or mimetic
as a whole
as
action shown
a unifyingforce; no
especially society
in season
festivals of all peoples,as in May
tendencytoward unification except where Brahman
Day
influence has become
rites. Ritual drama
with song and dialogueor even
very strong. The pantheon is
stillin the making.
is rather
The aim of the religion
the folk in
an
embryonic plot is stillfound among
to propitiateand
ward
off the evil spiritswhich
dramatic
of children are
Europe, and many
games
quakes,
relics oi pagan
formal ritual,
bring disease and disaster (smallpox,famine, earthritual. Of the more
or
Each
village
folk drama, an interesting
etc.)than to worship them.
specimen is the Christmas
god (each viUage has its own
tutelarydeity or
play of the Enghsh mummers
(now contaminated by
deities)has a small shrine and altar,a mound of
the miracle play,and called the St. Georgeplay),with
earth and a few stones, with a rude image or fetich
its representationof a battle symboUzing perhaps
There may
be temples to Vishnu and Qiy^
the conflict of summer
and winter.
The
English stone.
and the superiorclaims of these deities
logue, in the village,
Plough Monday play,with a rather elaborate diawas
originallyprobably a fertilization rite, to cosmic power may be tacitlyrecognized,but the
primitivecommunity turns in time of trouble to the
taking the form of wooing ana marriage. Kindred
local gods. Most of the deities are female,perhaps
material but dramaticallyless developed is found in
because
Dravidian
society is largely matriarchal
Germany, northern Greece,and the Balkans.
fices
like Aryan society). Animal sacriFor the apparentlyindependent (notpatriarchal
2. Christian.
are
general. The ministrants at the local
development of drama within the Catholic church,
of all
shrines are
The
not
and
Play.
Play
Miracle
Mystery
Brahmans, but holy men
see
castes
these plays
which
(or none). Vishnu and Qiva represent a
as
religiousdrama
sprang
up
cultivated type. In the
waned
of a far more
largerview of the world, a reaction to the universe
was
lously
seduThe thoughts of the Dravidian
villagers
Renaissance
the forms of classic drama
as a whole.
were
concerned
ties,
in academies and universiare
only with local affairs. The village
imitated,especially
and
deities represent a reaction to local affairs,
as a vehicle for instruction in Latin,and
a great
number
of reUgious plays in Latin were
are
more
intimatelyconnected with the happiness
produced.
than Vishnu or Qiva
and prosperityof the villages
The early leaders of the Reformation
being for the
W. E. Clark
could be.
most
part humanists, the drama was eagerlyseized
instrument
for Protestant propaganda.
as
an
upon
occurring
DREAMS.
Conscious
The
medieval
processes
type of play developed under the
Catholic
drawn
church
fightsleep.
ordinarily
during relatively
was
replaced by dramas
ous
continuconsciousness is essentially
The dream
from the Bible which
hand
the one
taught a
on
with the waking life,
Protestant theology and on the other followed more
although it is different
in the absence,in
from itin important ways, primarily
These Protestant
nearly classic models in drama.
dream states,of that control by organizedideas and
in Germany.
plays were
especially numerous
Nicholas Grimald produced notable playsof the type
motives that is characteristicof most waking states.
in the thought
Much
stress is placedon dreams
at Oxford near
the middle of the 16th. century, two
believed that
of all primitivepeoples and it is now
of which, Christus Redivivus {Christ's
Resurrection)
and
Archipropheta{John the Baptist),survive. they have played an important part in the origin

(about 375 a.d.). The Lesser Doxology {Gloria

Patri),said or sung chieflyat the end of canticles
(exceptTe Deum, itselfregarded as a doxology) and
psalms, is earlier than the 4th. century, and then,
in its later (and present)form, was
or
regardedas
Cathohc
asserveration
heresy.
a
against Arian
Metrical doxologiesformed the usual conclusion of
especiallysuggests
early Latin hymns, and the name
to EngUsh-speaking Christians Bishop Ken
s
(1637-1711) stanza beginning "Praise God from
whom
all blessings
flow,"thus used by him.
"

"

"

Druids

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

and development of such concepts as those of the

soul and of the Ufe after death, as well as in the
various notions of inspirationand of supernatural
well as among
as
guidance. Among the Hebrews
peoples both ancient and modern, dreams
many
have been supposed to reveal facts and events hidden
in
from
events
ordinary consciousness,
especially
the future.
Scientific investigation
of dreams and the systematic
gathering of facts regarding their supposed
mysterious potency, does not lend any support to
this ancient superstition.Dreams
called vericidal,
that is those which
found to correspond with
are
facts unknown
for the time being,are regardedas
sometimes
coincidences. A dream, moreover,
may
be the cause
of its own
fulfilment by firstsuggesting
action which is afterward consciouslyor unconan
sciously
dwelt upon
elements
until its main
are
In the
actually realized in the external world.
of the dream
case
of divination it has been proved
to be possible that
unrecognized or suppressed
cues,
when one is awake, are aroused into activity
and start trains of thought that lead to startling
culties.
discoveries or to the solution of perplexingdiffi^A certain
real significanceof dreams.
strated
of sensory
is clearly demonawareness
in many
pretation
dreams, in fact,the actual misinterof visual,tactual,auditory and organic
sensations has been shown
to be the basis of simpler
dreams
ment
and possibly furnishes an
important elein the more
elaborate dream
experiencesand
do not, however, all arise from
pictures. Dreams
such sensory stimuh, and even
have
those that may
such an
origin are largelysupplemented by deep
not
currents
of emotional
life which
or may
may
have found a placein the stream
of waking thought.
Thus
dreams
often reflect the surprise,fear,
our
passion and the deep desires which have played a
definitepart in our waking hfe. Their main significance
or
may thus be found in their reveahng more
less elaborately
the suppressedor half-acknowledged
secret plans,hopes and passions
emotions,interests,
which in ordinaryconsciousness have only inarticulate
expression. This revelation is important when
pathologicalmental complexes develop from these
suppressed phases. Freud is the main exponent of
this theory of dreams, holding that they are
all
actual
or
symbohcal expressions of suppressed
desires and he seeks to discover throifghanalyzing
them
the roots of such pathologicalconditions of
waking hfe as hysteria,unreasoning fears and
counter
inhibitions that run
to and interfere with
the normal
conduct of life.
Irving
King
The

"

amount

AND

ETHICS

138

flesh,characterizes their religionas derivative,

but
distinct
from
Mohammedanism.
Gnostic
and
dualistic doctrines
of the
kind
prevalent in
the Near
East throughout late antiquity and the
Middle Ages, are
other prominent elements.
The
whole is a phenomenonsimilar to Behaism
(q.v.),
except that their Moslem
originsare traceable to
those who believe in seven
Imams.
The name
is derived
Druses, given by outsiders,
from one of their founders,Darazi; they call themselves
Unitarians.
Numbering about 185,000 (in
1914),they seek no converts and admit no applicants.
"The wise and the foolish" are those who
do or do not adhere to the tenets and precepts of
their religion. "The foolish" must
pass through a
probationer'sstage to be accepted as "wise."
M. Sprengling
DRYAD.
In Classical mythology, a nymph
and inhabitingtrees and forests.
presidingover
"

DUALISM.
A type of explanation of the universe
of Hfe which divides reaUty into two inheror
ently
different substances
to
realrns in contrast
or
Monism
Pluralism (qq.v.).
or
1. Theological
dualism consists in the aflfirmation
of two deities or metaphysical substances inherently
opposed to each other. The best known
example
is Zoroastrianism
(q.v.)which declared that Ahrithe god of darkness,and Ormuzd, the god of
man,
fight,were
competing for the control of things.
in thel
threatened with duafism
was
Christianity
Gnostic movement
(seeGnosticism) and in
chaeism
(q.v.),but established over
against thesg
the doctrine of the supreme
of God|"Moreor
power
less definite rehcs of duafism are found in the doctrine
of the Devil,however.
The term is also used to denote a theology which
makes
the natural and
a sharp distinction between
the supernaturalrealms, so as to divide men
and
institutions
into
classes. Thus
CathoMc
two
different from a
theory makes a priestessentially
layman, and the church inherentlydifferent from any
other social organization. Christian doctrine has
contrasted
the natural man
with the regenerate
Where
such dualism is pushed to an extref^g,
man.
refigionbecomes ascetic and unworldly. In Christologydualism denotes such an extreme emphasis on
between
the difference
the two natures
of Christ as
to destroythe unity of his personafity.
2. Philosophicalduafism
is concerned with the
difference between
and
matter
spirit. In Greek
philosophy and in philosophy followingDescartes,
largelyconcerned with attempts
metaphysics was
to explain the difference.
A similar problem has
confronted psychologists
in the distinction between
body and mind.
While
duafism
is logically
unwelcome, yet the
inevitable distinctions which we make
in experience
between
good and bad, inteUigenceand matter, and
the like seem
to demand
strict
a recognitionwhich
monism
Gerald
cannot
Birney
Smith
give.
"

Mani-j

DRUIDS."
The
priestsof the ancient Celtic
religionof Gaul and Britain. They constituted
a
well-organizedorder having control of religious
sacrifices,
teaching,divination,incantation and a
the
exercise
of
science.
In
magical medical
status
the people they claimed
a
authority over
superiorto that of the secular ruler. Their sway
broken by the domination
of Roman
was
authority
(180"-1878)."Scottish
and culture and by the oppositionof the Christian
Influential in securing the
missionary to India.
sionary
clergy.
recognitionof educational work as a branch of mispropaganda, and in the shaping of the
tish
HENRY
(1851-1897)."Scotgovernment's policy regarding higher education.
DRUMMOND,
After retiringfrom India he became
scientist and
evangeUcal writer, lecturer on
professorof
natural science in Free Church
Missions in New
College,Glasgow.
CoUege, Edinburgh.
His great work
Natural
Law
in the Spiritual
was
DUNKARDS.
World (1883)an attempt to interpret
Tunkor
ligious
(Also called Dunkers
evangehcal reGerman
also as
analogies.
Baptist
ers.) A body known
conceptionsby using biological
founded by Alexander
Mack
Brethren"
(1679-1735)
DRUSES.
A people with a peculiar religion in 1708, which a few years later began immigration
_

W^tSC a^^^r-

"

"

"

in the southern Lebanon

and the Hawran.
Their most distinctive belief: al-Hakim, Fatimid
Caliph of Egypt, 996-1021, God manifest in the

to America.

The
church

Dunkards
life of the

seek to reproduce fiterally

the
New

Testament

period. They

139

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

Dyothelites

DUOMO.
An Italian designationof a domed
(Dunkard is derived from Ger.
practiceimmersion
of Florence.
cathedral,as, e.g., the Duomo
tunken to immerse), observe the love feast followed
ing,
by the Lord's Supper, practice the rite of feet washDURGA.
of the forms
One
of the wife of
another with the kiss of charity,
salute one
Shiva.
Under this name
she is the black goddess of
anoint the sick with oil,adopt the plainestsort of
in blood. See also Kali.
suits, destructive power delighting
clothing,and refuse to take oaths or engage in lawholding to the doctrine of non-resistance.
REFORMED
DUTCH
CHURCH."
See
formed
ReTheir ministry includes bishops or elders,ministers
Churches.
(frequentlywith ordinary business vocations),and
"

"

deacons.
The first congregationin America
was
organized
in Germantown, Pennsylvania, December
25, 1723.
in Pennsylvania,Virginia,
Other communities
arose
Carolina,
Maryland, and subsequently in North
Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and later in
While opposingslaverythey took no
other states.
They have established a
part in the Civil War.
number
of schools,carry on foreignmission work in
various parts of Europe, and also in India.

poHty they are Congregational,but have an

Meeting or Conference whose decisions are
The
binding on district conferences and churches.
central body is a conference made
up from delegates
from local churches,and the officialsin charge of the
State work are called Bishops. Their churches are
democratic.
strictly
known
In 1881 the body divided into two groups
and the Progressives
or simply
as the Conservatives
largelyin
Brethren,the point of difference consisting
the attitude of the respectivebodies toward
formity
conusual
social practices. Progressives
to
do not adopt the styleof dress and the cuttingof the
hair and beard favored by the Conservative
group,
and beliefs approach
and in generalboth in practices
known
the other bodies of Baptists. A third group
In
Annual

conservative
Brethren
the Old Order
are
more
the Conservatives,oppose
than
Sunday Schools,
and higher education.
Young People'sSocieties,
as

The Seventh
a
Baptists are now
Day German
of those who in 1728 seceded
small group, successors
from the original
They observe
body of Dunkards.
features of
the Seventh
some
Day and maintain
communism.
economic
is another
Dunkers
of God or New
The Church
the general
to be distinguishedfrom
small group

body.
Church
of the
Statistics (1917):
Brethren,
about 100,000; ProgressiveBrethren
(or Brethren),
18,468;Old Order,3,399;Seventh Day, 136; Church
Shailbr
Mathews
of God, 929.
DUNS
JOHN
(1255-1308)." Bom
SCOTUS,
teacher at Oxford,
in Northumbria, a Franciscan
a doctor of the Universityof Paris (1304)sent by the
General of his order to Cologne (1308)where he soon
died.
His system of thought antagonizesthe intellectualistic and determinist system of Aquinas who
mined
deterwill were
argued that both divine and human
best.
Scotus disproves such
by the known
determinism
by the accident and evil of the world.
God's will is not necessitated but free,able to will
is not a logicalimpossibiUty. A thing is
whatever
good not in itself but because God wills it. This
be
causeless arbitrary,inscrutable divine will can
known
Theology is therefore
only by revelation.
tion
instrucnot a system of rational truth but practical
by revelation. The doctrine of meritorious
of the will,man's will
works rests on the freedom
determiningby free attention what idea shall engross
F. A. Christie
consciousness.

DUTY.
The
conduct
action requiredof a
or
person by moral considerations.
moral
The
conception of duty presupposes
a
order which ought to be maintained,and which thus
self-interest.
has prior claim over
motives of mere
Duty is therefore obedience to a moral imperative,
and finds a place
tive
only in an ethics emphasizing objecright in contrast to self-interest. The source
located
and sanction of this imperativeis religiously
God
is
wisdom.
Where
in the divine will and
conceived in terms
of absolute self-sufficiency
(see
duty may be conceived as sheer
Transcendence)
obedience
to objectivecommands
(see Legalism).
rather than the sovereign will
Where
the wisdom
of God
is emphasized, duty consists in loyalty to
ence
the dictates of reason.
Kant defined duty as obedito the absolutelyrational dictates of the
Practical Reason.
A so-called conflict
ofduties arises when a person
interests,
feels a sense
of obligationtoward
conflicting
when
as
enUsting in war is incompatible with
the duty to support and sustain one's family.
Eventually, of course, actual duty requiresthe
choice of one alternative to the exclusion of the other.
the conflict
The
"conflict of duties" differs from
moral
between
self-interest and
obligation only
instance decision
in the fact that in the former
while in the
social interests,
be made
between
must
latter case individual satisfaction is weighed against
If the word duty
of broader welfare.
the demands
ance
restricted to the obligationto act in accordwere
with one's best moral
wisdom, the conflict
would be seen
of duties,but rather of
to be not one
Gerald
Smith
ununified interests.
Birney
"

sky god of the Indo-European

circle of
applied to the whole
warmth
of light and
nature
powers
without
clearly anthropomorphic meaning. The
name
Dyaus Pilar,sky-father,is also used and
in various branches
of the Aryan religions,
appears
as
e.g., Zeus pater, Juppiter.
The

DYAUS."

peoples:
heavenly

term

to
DYNAMISM."
The
philosophic attempt
for cosmic
phenomena by reference to
force or
The
doctrine has appeared in
energy.
various phasesin (1)the Ionic explanationof motion
as due to the operationof love and hate ; (2) Leibniz'
explanationof material substance as a combination
ence
of moulding and resisting
forces; (3) Kant's referof matter
sion;
to the forces of attraction and repulthe identificationof matter
or
(4) energetics,
with energy
in Spencerian evolution; (5) Ostas
account

wald's monism

of energy.

of the party
The designation
DYOPHYSITES."
which declared for the existence of the two natures,
This party triumphed
and divine,in Christ.
human
nople
in 451 and Constantiat the Councils of Chalcedon
in 553.
See Christology.
of the party which
The name
DYOTHELITES.
two
claimed
wills,the
that in Christ there were
human
and the divine,corresponding to the two
defined as true orthodoxy
It was
natures.
officially
in the 6th. Ecumenical Council at Constantinople
"

SAINT
(ca.925-988)." Abbott of
DUNSTAN,
lated
Glastonbury and Enghsh archbishop. He stimueducation

and

English monasticism
rule.

aided in the reformation

of
in accord with the Benedictine

(680).

"a

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

140

E
EA.

God
of the fresh waters in ancient Babylonia.
His worship was
centered originally
at Eridu
the
Persian
Gulf
the
at
confluence of the Tigrisand
on
Euphrates. Later he was
incorporated in the
oldest triad with Anu
and Enlil as the god of the
He was
underground waters.
always a beneficent
creator of the earth and of man;
champion
power;
of the good powers
in the earliest story of the
conflict with Tiamat, the vast ocean;
teacher of
and building. It was
he
arts, writing, medicine
who
revealed the coming of the flood to Utnapishtim and taught him how to save
his family in a ship.
"

EARTH,

EARTH-GODS."

Among all the

worshiped by polytheisticman,
Earth
is not the least important. Libations
are
poured on the earth,sacrifices of food are buried in
it,prayers are addressed to it,and oaths are sworn
ing
by it. Earth is commonly reverenced as a nourishmother, from whose womb
springall good things.
From
such conceptionsthe transition is easy to the
cult of Earth-deities,
sometimes
mating
thought of as anithe physicalsubstance,and sometimes
set
adored
in anthropomorphic shape.
apart and
the Vedic
these are
Among
Prithivi,the Greek
Demeter, particularlya goddess of the cultivated
earth,the Teutonic Nerthus, the Babylonian En-lil,
and the Mexican
Centeotl,specifically
a goddess of
the maize.
The
three chief mother-goddesses of
the Semitic
Ashtart
area,
(Canaan), Atargatis
and Ishtar (Babylonia),have been interpreted
(Syria),
as
originallyEarth-deities.
Similarly,the
whose gold
great goddess of the old Cretan reUgion,
and ivory statuettes
be seen
in archaeological
may
is supposed to have been
Earthan
museums,
In many
mother.
low and high, Heaven
rehgions,
and Earth are conceived as a divine pair,the parents
of both gods and men.
Hutton
Webster
aspects of nature

AND
EASTER
CONTROVERSY."
EASTER,
English Easter from Eostre, the goddess of
for the
spring and the dawn, the Teutonic name
Old

of "Easter
Eggs." From early patristictimes
to be usually celebrated at Easter.
baptisms came
The
catechumen, first prepared by a course
of
instruction and
after being baptized,
discipline,
partook of the Eucharist for the first time. This
is to be associated with the exceptional
custom
either as
importance of the Easter communion
"

effect.
II. The Controversy.
The firstschism in the
Catholic church turned on the so-called "quartodeciman
controversy" as to the time of keeping
Easter.
The churches of Asia Minor
followed the
Jewish custom
of beginning the Passover week on
the 14th day of the month
the
Nisan, whatever
and
day of the week; but the church at Rome
others in the West
commemorated
of
the death
Christ on a Friday and His resurrection on the
followingSunday. This is the first Sunday after
the full moon
followingthe equinox March
21st,
the date of our Easter.
1. Anicetus and Polycarp. In or about a.d. 160
bishop of Smyrna, paid a visit to Anicetus,
Polycarp,
discussion on
bishopof Rome, and they had some
the subject,each arguing for the custom
of his own
church, but without coming to agreement.
2. Victor and
Polycrates. Thirty years later
(a.d.190) the controversywas revivea,and became
more
The bishops of
wide-spreadand embittered.
Asia united in contendingfor the quarto-deciman
positionand Polycrates of Ephesus wrote a letter
in their name
cating
to Victor,the bishop of Rome, advoit. In reply Victor excommunicated
the
churches
of Asia and all who
joined with them,
declaring the quarto-decimans to be heretics.
tine
While, as Eusebius informs us, the bishops of Palesand Alexandria
assented to Victor's pronouncement,
there were
bishopswho protested,most
many
whom
Irenaeus of Lyonne
important among
was
and Vienne in Gaul, who, though he came
from Asia
and had been a discipleof Poycarp, followed the
Western
and did not "observe"
the
custom
(i.e.,
14th Nisan). Nevertheless
he objected to Victor's
action in cuttingoff whole "churches
of God"
who
were
followingthe tradition of an ancient custom.
3. Final settlement. At the council of Nicaea
(a.d.325) the controversy was
finallysettled by
church
authority in favor of the Western
usage
and
the quarto-decimans denounced
heretics.
as
After this they rapidly declined in number
and
cause,

or

as

"

"

"

festival of the resurrection of Christ.

Latin
The
and Greek
churches
derived
terms
from
the
use
Greek
ItaUan
pascha, the Passover, (e.g.,
Pasqua,
French
Pdques).
I. Origin.
The
celebration
of Easter
is the
most
ancient of all the annual church festivals and
the most
in the
important. It does not appear
New
A.V.
Testament, for in Acts 12:4, where
importance.
reads "Easter," R.V. rightlyhas "Passover," the
Laodicean
4. The
Controversy. This occurred
reference being to the Jewish festival which set the
between
170 and
the quarto177 among
a.d.
time of the death and resurrection of Jesus.
In
decimans, some
contending that the last supper
their
took place on
the 14th Nisan
and the death of
Apostohc times the Christians commemorated
Lord's resurrection every Sunday, by meeting on
Christ on the 15th, others that Christ anticipated
that day for worship. When
the day of the Passover meal, taking it on the 13th,
St. Paul refers to
Christ as "our Passover"
and dying. Himself
the true pascal lamb, on
the
(I Cor. 5:7) his language
is metaphoricaland cannot
14th.
be regarded as containing
Quite unimportant as this discussion is in
allusion to a church function.
church history,it has obtained a factitious value in
less
Nevertheany
the annual
celebrations of the Pascha
connection with the Tubingen hypothesis which
by the
Christians may
be traced back to the sub-apostolic discredits the historicity
of St. John's gospel,our
We find it being observed by Polycarp, a perauthority for the belief that Jesus was crucified on
age.
sonal
the day when the Jews killed the pascal lamb.
discipleof the Apostle John, and also at
But
the controversy itself is too obscure to throw much
Rome, though with a different date. In these
not
confined to the
early times the festival was
lighton the Johannine problem. W. F. Adeney
Resurrection; it included the Crucifixion. Indeed,
there is some
EATING
that at first more
THE
THEOPHAGY."
to think
A
reason
or
GOD,
stress was
laid in the Pascha on the death of Jesus
ceremonial
meal in which the participantspartake
than on
His resurrection,
its weekly
of the substance which symboUzes their deity; due
which
had
reminder.
It was
then the Christian
equivalent to the magical conception that the propertiesof a
of the Jews' Passover
feast of deliverance and so
thing are transferable through eating. The objects
commemorated
the great fact of redemption. The
eaten include animals,human
victims,plants,grains
later Teutonic
"Easter"
and dough images; and the custom
combines
the pagan
name
prevailsin Polynesia,
festival of spring with the celebration of Christ's
Central America, Mexico
and equatorial
resurrection. Hence the custom of making presents Africa.
"

"

"

141

DICTIONAKY

OF

RELIGION

EBIONISM.
A form of Christianity
of extreme
Judaistic
tendencies, which
appeared in New
Testament
prominence
times, and acquired some
in the 2nd. century in connection
with
gnostic
ideas.
Its essential features are sedulous devotion
law and a more
less pronounced
to the Mosaic
or
Ebionites
held
that Jesus
asceticism.
the
was
Messiah
but not divine,and that Paul was
to be
to be honored.
rejectedwhile James and Peter were
itselfis from the Hebrew, meaning "poor,"
The name
and was perhaps applied to the party by its enemies.
and Recognitionsof the
Homilies
The
Clementine
Ebionitic.
Ebionitic views per3rd. century are
sisted
until the 7th. century when they disappeared
before Islam.
"

ECCE
HOMO."
Literally"Behold the Man!"
representation of Jesus
phrase denoting any
of thorns.
See John 19:5.
wearing the crown
a

MAIER
(1486-1543)." German
ECK, JOHANN
eminent
controversiaUst
R.C. theologian,the most
in opposition to the
the side of Cathohcism
on
and Zwinglian Reformers.
Lutheran

ECKHART

(ca. 1260-ca.

(or ECKEHART),
JOHANNES
1327). German
philosopherand
"

under the influence

He came
wide influence.
of the Beghards, making certain statements
condemned.
He
Ariswhich
the church
was
an
of NeototeUan in philosophy,but under the sway
Platonic mysticism, worked out a sort of mystical
Christian pantheism.

mysticof

AND

ETHICS

Edmund,

forms of religion
practicaland intelligent
do
but modify its expression.
lack emotion

Saint

not

Edward
S. Ames
A council purporting
to be representative
of the entire Christian world,
doctrinal decisions have received universal
or whose
acceptance. There is no fixed hst,R.C. authorities
giving twenty councils as ecumenical,while Protestant
scholars usuallyconfine the term to the following
First Council
of Nicaea, 325; First
seven:
Council of Constantinople,
381; First Council of
Ephesus, 431; Council of Chalcedon, 451; Second
Council of Constantinople,
553; Third Council of
Constantinople,
680-681; and Second Council of
Nicaea, 787.

ECUMENICAL

EDDAS.
literature

COUNCIL."

collections of ancient

Two

"

consisting of

mythology

Norse
and
heroic
of 35 poems
1643 and by

legends. The elder Edda is a group

discovered
by Bishop Sveinsson in
mistake
credited to the 11th. century historian,
and called the Saemundar
Edda.
Saemund
The
Younger Edda is a prose work written by Snorri
Sturluson in the 13th. century making use
of the
older materials.
They are an important source
for northern
Edda
was
mythology. The name
not applied to them
by the authors.
EDDY,
founder

and

MARY
BAKER
(1821-1910)." The
discoverer of Christian Science (q.v.).

ALFRED
EDERSHEIM,
(1825-1889)." Biblical
scholar and author of Austrian
Jewish parentage;
converted
to
Christianity and ord"ined to the
Presbyterian ministry in Scotland, 1846; took
RELIGIOUS
AND
ENTHUSUSM.
ECSTASY
orders in the Anghcan
church, 1875; author of
abnormal
state
of emotion
in
Ecstasy is an
The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah and various
the subject is carried out of his usual suswhich
ceptibility other works.
to stimuli and inhibited from his ordinary
A cityof northern
EDESSA.
It is felt as an exaltation or rapture and
reactions.
Mesopotamia,
built by Seleucus Nicator in 203 b.c.
associated with religious
excitement
It is conis particularly
nected
with
the very
and mystical
experience. It has been characteristic
early Christian tradition
of the letter of Abgar.
A council was
held there in
in its lower forms to induce intoxication
of religion
197.
It was
the
home
of Bardesanes
(q.v.).
by drink or narcotics and to interpretthe phenomena
Thence
the Peshitto
version
came
(q.v.)of the
by spiritpossession. In such a view the individual
and attains the
of Tatian
is then full of the sacred power
O.T., and the Diatessaron
(q.v.). Its
greatest fame as a school of theology dates from
specialprivilegeof union with the divine. Various
methods
are
(middle of the 4th. century) the coming of St.
employed to reach this condition
flagellation,
dancing, and whirling
as among
Ephrem (q.v.)after Nisibis had been ceded to the
fasting,
Each
Persians.
Nestorian
doctrine there found support,
method
the dervishes.
apparently produces
different drugs
state
characteristic mental
as
especiallyunder Bishop Ibas (q.v.)and Jacob Bara
to the "Jacobites"
have been shown
(q.v.).
experimentallyto excite different
daeus, who gave his name
closed by the Emperor Zeno (489)
The school was
In general modern
Christian
types of exaltation.
to Nisibis.
and the Nestorian scholars moved
have
not
sects
employed the cruder forms of
revivals have resorted to
stimulation but evangelical
The statute proniulgated
EDICT
OF MILAN."
music and
the influence of the crowd, of sensuous
gious
and Licinius,granting reliin 313 by Constantine
emotional
appeals of various kinds.
Mysticism
freedom
to Christians.
has sought the experienceof ecstasy
in all religions
since it has been regarded by mystics as the state
effected
A settlement
NANTES."
EDICT
OF
An analysis
in which union with God is achieved.
1598 by which the French Protestants after a long
it clear that the state is
of the phenomena makes
of worship
received privileges
succession of civil wars
accessible to certain temperaments than others.
more
ship.
cities and towns, and rightsof citizenin specified
It is possibleto those of "nervous"
or
"psychic"
in 1685.
revoked
It was
since they are
character
more
suggestible. The
of the
study of hypnotism and the subconscious afford
The promulgation
EDICT
OF WORMS."
In hypnotism,when the subjecthas
valuable data.
Imperial Diet which met at Worms, Germany, in
he
be
been put under
influenced to
can
control,
1521,by which Luther, his followers,and his literary
apparently intense emotion either of the pleasurable
It was
works were
virtually
put under the ban.
he is awakened
he
or painfulvariety. When
abrogated by the Diet of Speier,1526.
isunable to describe the experience One reaches the
the Greek, meaning a
suggestion.
From
EDIFICATION.
mystic ecstasy only after effort and prolonged autoAt last,if he is of the susceptible
In Christian usage, metaphoricallythe
type,
buildingup.
he may
vidual
pass out of ordinary discriminatingselfenhghtening and strengtheningof the indispiritual
consciousness into the happy, effortless state which
the church by instruction or exhortation.
or
he has so long cultivated and sought.
bury,
SAINT."
Archbishop of CanterAs religionadvances
the cruder forms of posEDMUND,
session
of his
d. 1240; canonized 1247; because
disappear and the restraint and discipline

"

"

"

"

of the emotional Jifedevelop. The

higher, more

eloquencewas

chosen

to

preach the crusades in

Edomites

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

142

the
features of the Egyptian'slarger world were
clear sky with its brilliant sun
by day and its moon
and myriads of stars by night, and the great river
the backbone
of his land.
which formed
A Semitic people inhabiting the
Sky and
EDOMITES.
Nile together served to indicate time, seasons, and
country southeast of Palestine called Edom, or later
Information
Idumea.
direction;and togetherthey made possiblethe life
regarding their religion is
scanty. The references in the O.T., in inscriptions,of Egypt. The sun itselfand the principleof everlife exemphfied in the yearly inundation
renewed
etc.,shows them to have been polytheists. They
chief gods of the
and its fruits became, then, two
were
probablyeventually fused with the Hebrews.
known
land.
The
as
sun
was
by many
names,
JONATHAN
Re, Atum, Khepri, Horus; the inundation became
EDWARDS,
(1703-1758)." One
different myths
Osiris. Many
to
of the ablest theologiansin American
arose
explain
history. He
in which
these deities took part.
the phenomena
graduated from Yale College 1720, was tutor there
Fate, Taste, etc. evolved
1727-1749, A few abstractions
1724-1726, pastor at Northampton
Of
the
consciousness.
these
man's
from
Indians
minister
to
own
at Stockbridge 1750-1757,
The
foremost was
the goddess Maat, the personification
and president
of Princeton College 1757-1758.
of Truth or Righteousnes.
his advocacy of
chief features of his ministry were
took place for certain
The
deification of man
the absolute sovereignty of God, his leadershipin
Thus
to
units.
the Great Awakening, his earlier lukewarm
as
prehistorickings seem
support
groups
of their
survived
the so-called "souls"
have
and later repudiationof the "Half-Way Covenant"
as
In historic
ancient capitalsHeliopolis,Buto, etc.
his trainingof young
like Bellamy and
men
(q.v.),
identified with
times each king became
at death
Hopkins for the Christian ministry,his Dantesque
The
of hell. In spite of riis
living king,
Osiris,the ruler of the dead.
picturesof the torments
ated
associthe other hand, regularlybore the title "Horus"
extreme
on
Calvinism, he and those who were
of Osiris,and from the
which
made
him the son
with him are said to have made
ten improvements
IV. Dynasty
also considered
bodily
in theology. These
a
on
was
however, wholly
were,
and set
"son of Re
in the interest of a justerestimate of man
(the sun)." Though regularly called
the task of the New
not, however, worshiped during his"
England Theology (q.v.). a god, he was
lifetime. By the Middle
in his extremely
(before 2000
His metaphysical genius appears
Kingdom
B.C.)the identification of the dead with Osiris was
precociousnotes of his Mind (1717-1720),in which
the
extended
from
the king to everybody, and
he proposed a theory of ideas similar to that of
humble
folk of that period often
coffins of even
Berkeley; yet no trace of a historical connection
not strong but his
As archbishop he was
saintlycharacter gave him great influence.

England.

"

"

writes that
He
Berkeley has been found.
is the only entity, that the universe exists
of
only in the mind or idea,that God is the source
ideas,and that excellence is measured by the degree
God consents
to
to which
or
being whether of man
Narrative
being. His principal writings were:
of Surprising Conversions,The ReligiousAffections,
The
Nature
of
Qualificationfor Communion,
True
Virtus, The End for Which God Created the
of the
World, and An Inquiry into the Freedom
A. Beckwith
Clarence
Will.
with
God

"

provide in picture the scepters, etc., appropriate

to the god.
In practice,of course, Osiris definitely

Osirises. Besides
remained the ruler of allthese new
various
such
individuals,partly royal,
groups,
in their day, and partly
famous
partly wise men
perhaps such as had met death by drowning (like
in later ages
Osiris,according to one myth), came
to be worshiped in regular fashion.
-The land of
Gods.
II. Interrelations
pf the
munities
Egypt consists fundamentally of a series of comments
strung along its great river. Such settleeach had a
at first independent and
were
When
town
quered
conone
sionary deity or deities of its own.
HANS
(1686-1758)."Norwegian misEGEDE,
the colony at Godto Greenland; founded
another, the victorious god would extend
might
in his
his sway
to the latter,and its god in turn
thaab, and met with considerable success
to be
almost
mission among
the Eskimos.
disappear or might perhaps come
tionships
considered the child of the victorious deity. Relathus came
about which had nothing to do
COSMIC.
The
origin of the natural
EGG,
of three (father,
with origins. The
world from an egg is a natural form of cosmogony.
family group
moulds
the
Khnum
It is found
in Egypt where
mother, and child)became frequent. Thus Amon,
at Thebes; Ptah, Sekhworld egg; in Orphic speculationwhere the egg of
Mut, and Khonsu
appear
at Memphis.
Already in preand breaks into heaven
from Aether
historic
met, and Nefertem
light comes
times the settlements along the Nile had
and earth yieldingthe light of the world and the
and Upper
the impersonal
been united into two kingdoms. Lower
primeval God; in India where
and
becomes
Set, presumably
Brahma
gods, Horus
personalas creatinggod (Hiranya- Egypt. The
their natural
became
belongingfirstto their capitals,
garbha or Prajapati) and divides the egg to form
heaven
and earth.
patrons. As in the historic titularyof the pharaohs
takes precedence over
Horus
Set, a conquest of
The
OF."
RELIGION
I. Origins."
Egypt is next to be assumed.
Upper by Lower
EGYPT,
Then a shift in control puts Nekhbet, the goddess of
rehgion of ancient Egypt arose far back in the most
capitalof Upper Egypt (the South), ahead
primitivetimes. It grew out of man's superstitious a new
of
this state
With
for the mysterious in nature:
animals, of the Delta goddess Uto.
reverence
affairs begins the I. Dynasty of historic Egypt,
man
ings
himself,trees,plants,and stones; his imaginabout
3400
about the origins,structure, and processes of
Upper Egyptian kings in
B.C., with
pohtical
united
control
of a
earth and sky; and the promptings of his own
kingdom. Such
mirrored not only in the status
inner consciousness.
The
earliest expressions of
developments were
of local deities,but by priestlyenvisagings of a
these feelingswere
of
colored by the peculiarities
the gods, where
Re, the sun,
the Nile valley. Some
of the creatures
of nature
mythic state among
for his prune
was
king, with Thoth, the moon,
evidently began as independently divine, but in
historic times are found almost wholly as aspects
minister.
deities were
only
But new
of more
relationships
among
complex deities. Other natural objects,
The priestsof any
events.
in part due to pohtical
parts of the body, and even invented forms, served
fetishes or were
as
Magic
given city might seek to emphasize the greatness
reproducedas amulets.
of their specialpatron by ranging their god at the
formed
indeed at all times a prominent phase of
the ennead
Egyptian religious
practice.The two outstanding head of a group of deities. Of such
"

"

143

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Egypt,Religion of

their written names

became
them, or even
effective
(nine) of Heliopolis,with the sup-god at its head,
substitutes.
To provide against possibledestrucAt Shmun, by a pun on the
famous.
is the most
tion
of the body itself by accident or by enemies,
city'sname, the group was made an ogdoad (eight).
such
substitute bodies,or even
of HeUopoUtan theology was
detached heads, came
But the renown
into
^the world's
earliest portrait statues
became
used
use
term
that "ennead"
a
commonly
^by
about
3000
volved.
of deities actuallyinb.c.
regardlessof the number
The tomb
had meantime
developedfrom a mere
Moreover, in the attempt to explain the
world many
pit heaped with sand until it was
myths arose, in which the gods came
protected above
And
the Egyptians,
into still other associations.
ground by a soUd rectangular masonry
structure
with
would
slightlysloping sides. By putting! such
mythologize and
might suppose,
who, one
one
on
cing
top of another,graduallyreduintelUgible "mastabas"
theologizeto get their gods into more
their size,and then filhng out the slope,the
really multiplyingthe disorder. For
order, were
attained wherein
Hence
Old
pyramid-type of tomb was
alongsidethe new, the old beliefs remained.
vidual and Middle
comes
ffingdom pharaohs were buried. The
perennialconfusion in interpretingthe indiearliest pyramids (about 3000-2650
b.c.) were
mere
gods of Egypt.
of stone
'Allusions to mjrths appear
in the
which
seemed
bent on
III. Myths.
masses
winning
most
immortality by main strength. But the kings of
primitive religious texts preserved. They
the next two centuries felt the inadequacyof force
the originof the gods and of the universe
concern
alone.
The
walls of their burial-chambers and
earth before human
and the rule of the gods on
of all was
the story
carved with prayers, hymns, magic
are
dynastiesbegan. Best known
passages
of Osiris,his faithful sister and wife Isis and their
formulas,etc.,thus put at the disposalof the dead
to help him reach and enjoy the other world.
of his father."
"the avenger
Horus who became
This
son
of mind
to control matter
Osiris had been given the throne of Egypt by his
continued
use
was
by
father Geb, the earth-god, and
proved a great
coveringwith texts of similar function many coffins
of the Middle Kingdom (around 2000 b.c). Later,
and beneficent ruler. But his jealous brother Set
under the Empire (1580 b.c. fT.),
death.
His
dismembered
his
finally effected
imaginings
priestly
had so multiphedthe dangers of the Hereafter
body was
ultimately reunited by the aid of other
required to contain
gods, and Isis reinspiredit with the breath of life; that long rolls of papyrus were
all the helps that should now
the dead only. His
but he ruled thereafter over
the dead.
accompany
These documents, like their predecessors,were
later-born son
in
Horus, after a childhood spent in
content
defeated the
of the Delta swamps,
the concealment
merely compilations of independent texts,
from copy to copy in selectionand arrangetreacherous
differing
Set, first in a frightfulhand-to-hand
ment.
But
their roll form is that of Egyptian
combat, then in a law-suit before the gods, in
ship.
books.
such a papyrus
Hence
is commonly called
which Set had aspersed the youth's birth and heirof his
"Book
of the Dead.^'
Thus
the earthly crown
Horus
a
won
The body or its replicawas
father.
to serve
as a home
for the soul. Prominent
Such myths as survive have conae
in Egyptian belief was
IV. Magic.
also a third main element of personality,
the spirit
down cLieflyin the form of charms.
Sympathetic
This individual guardian angel as it were
ka.
or
magic, evidenced in Egyptian medical writingsby
is pictured like a twin and hence
such prescriptionsas the blood of a black calf to
has often been
called the "double."
It took charge of the foodtion
keep hair from whitening, is found also in connectheir vicissitudes as
with
the gods. For
offeringsand brought them to the dead; hence a
in the
man's
recorded
mortuary
priest is called "servant of his
myths provided analogies for
human
misfortunes
such as burns and snake-bites.
ka," and the tomb-chapel where the offeringswere
Thus
is bitten in the marshes,
Horus
deposited is the "house of the ka." The shadow,
Isis,when
and especially
the name
noted above,were
also
as
appeals to the Sun-god Re, who stops his barque
and sends his prime minister Thoth
to heal the lad.
at first thought
parts of one's being. The soul was
unsettled existence,
to lead an
".
And the Sun moves
about like a
not on from his position
flitting
bird or appearing where and in what form it would.
of yesterday until Horus
is healed for his mother,
But
until the sufferer Ukewise
is healed for his
and
enced
alongside this belief others developed, influmother."
His apparent death
simply state
largely by the sun.
Again, the magician may
out
each evening in the West
led to locating
his desire as if it were
realm
a
already accomplished, withof the dead there and callingthem
in addressing
"Westerners."
reference to the gods. Or he may
Since the Sun evidentlyspent each night under the
evil identify himself with the protector god.
an
earth (at that time of course
The gods may
with disaster if
be threatened
even
supposed to be flat),
Such threats have
that region too, called Duat, became
abode of the
boon.
an
they fail to grant some
of the
real name
value if one
knows
the hidden
departed. But the speciallyfavored (atfirst probably
kings only) might join the Sun-god in his
lies,according to
god addressed, for in the name
and
the
Others
the
of
across
man
god alike; daily voyage
sky.
thought that
Egyptian belief,
power
control that
the dead appeared in the countless stars of night.
and one who knows another's name
can
While the sun
and stars thus affected conceptions
other as he will.
twined
involved.
of the other world,earthlyforces too were
V. Future
Life.
^ReHgionand magic are interA life
wolves
and
the desert
The
not only in this life but in the next.
jackals slinking on
to lie behind
such mortuary gods as
beyond the grave was
margin seem
aspired to already by the
the
possibilityof
Upwawet ("the way-opener") of Assiut and Anubis
predynastic Egyptians. But
dreds
Osiris in turn became
the patron of embalmers.
of attainingit depended for hunenjoying or even
of years upon
one's surviving relatives and
identifiedwith another such deity,Khenti-amentiu
friends. For the physicalbody must
be preserved,
("the presider over the Westerners") of Abydos.
must
be perof an earlyking there had by the Middle
and over
it the proper ceremonies
formed, The tomb
Kingdom (before2000 b.c.)become to the folk that
e.g., the ritual of "opening the mouth,"
So Abydos became
of Osiris himself.
that the deceased might be able to eat and drink.
a place of
then required. Clothing,
a
Offerings of food were
pilgrimage,
spot where one wished to be buried
jewelry,tools, or at least to erect a memorial tablet that he might
ointments,cosmetics,toilet articles,
into direct companionship
thus come
in some
or weapons
often placed with the body. The
sense
were
burden of continuallyrenewing actual food, etc., with the ruler of the dead.
led to the application here too of sympathetic
VI. Ethics.
To the Sun-god Re were
imputed
of
the virtues which the nation found or hoped for in
or pictures
magic, whereby models of the offerings,
"

"

"

"

"

"

Egypt,Religion

A. DICTIONARY

of

OF

RELIGION

its kings. The

mj^th made Maat
("Truth") his
daughter. Nobles
already in the Old Kingdom
(about 3000-2500
B.C.)were priding themselves in

Kingdom
kiadness

AND

ETHICS

writingi seek
in the current

144

to inculcate justice and

generation. Indeed, these

became
the theme
principlesnow
of an official
their kindness
address which
to the
the king regularly
delivered at the
their districts,
thus
installation
to
of a prime minister.
desiring
IX. Ikhnaton
justify themselves in the Hereafter before "the
and
Monotheism.
The worship
So
of the Sun-god had maintained its importance in
tion
great god."
early,then, began the transformain the estimate
of the future life from
an
spite of temporary or local prominence of other
external to a personal,individual affair,
gods. The priestsof these latter indeed found it
dependent
in some
at least on one's own
From
measure
acts.
advantageous to assimilate theirs to the Sun,
humble
beginnings the level of moralityinspired and even
Amon
in the height of his power
most
was
by the solar faith shifted gradually upward. An
In line with the added
commonly called Amon-Re.
ethical element passed also into the Osu-ian cult,for
prestigeacquired for Amon
by his identification
Osiris came
to be considered not only the ruler but
with the Sun, his high priestabout 1500 B.C. was
the judge of the dead.
raised to titular head of all the priestsof Egypt.
In the illustrations which
The hierarchythus created, ever
he
regularlyform part of the "Book of the Dead"
enriched
more
is to be seen seated on his throne while the heart of
with
spoil presented by successive pharaohs,
the deceased is being weighed in a balance before
rivaled
the throne
soon
itself. King Ikhnaton,
him.
devised
about 1375 b.c, opposed this rising
Unfortunately,magic charms were
power, and by
later to secure
of
the strength of his amazing personalitychecked
verdict regardless the
a favorable
kind of life that had been lived; but the fact that
it in his time.
The faith which he developed and
need for them
felt indicates in itselfthe pricks
was
undiluted sun-worship raised to
sponsored was
of conscience.
the plane of monotheism
hundreds of years before
VII. State
In. the Old
that stage of thought was
Reugion.
Kingdom
attained by the Hebrews.
likewise
For as Egyptian territoryhad been expanded into
temples. Near
great state
grew
up
Memphis, the capital,a temple of that distant
an
empire, so the sway of Egypt's gods had widened,
the consciousness
age survives in ruins that stillreveal its distinctively until to Ikhnaton came
that his
solar character.
Its focus of worship was
a
god was indeed the god of all the earth. To set this
great
"sole god" apart in thought from the deitiesof the
obelisk,whose essential element was the pyramidal
ancient suncapstone derived in shape from an
past, Ikhnaton called him Aton, "the sun-disk."
fetish of Heliopolis.And close by the temple was
He originatedalso a new
symbol, the sun with rays
built a barque of brick,symbolicof that in which
reachingearthward and terminatingin human hands.
Re dailycrossed the sky. Besides such temples to
This well expressed his conception of the sun's
national deities,
heat and lightas vital forces in the affairs of men.
there were,
of course,
shrines of
local deities scattered throughout the land.
Then
In this new
faith the king stillfeels himself the
divine not only in theory
between
too, since dead kings were
Yet
his
only mediator
god and man.
but in practice,the mortuary
emphasis is chieflyon Aton's love,his sole and universal
temples attached
to their pyramids must
Bits of
be included here.
for all his creatures.
As
sway, and his care
the equipment of these survive, indicating a hymn
even
art the mother
and the
puts it: "Thou
luxurious vessels of gold inlaid with turquoise and
father of all that thou hast made."
Such a religion
of love would
lapislazuli. So state religionwas already a matter
folk.
appeal strongly to us modern
of pomp
and ceremony.
But the Egyptians of the 14th. century B.C. had
But there was
as yet no
distinct priestlyclass; for the pharaoh himself
behind
them
different traditions than ours.
The
of their dead was
and
was
all bound
care
nominallythe only mediator between man
up with Osiris;
the gods, and even
and
their numerous
through the Middle Kingdom
holidays had been thrilled
the temples were
by the celebrations in the great state temples where
largely staffed by successive
shifts of laymen, only the chief administrative
Amon
of a sudden
was
so
these
prominent. Now
officials being permanently on duty. The Empire
familiar deities were
done away
with; their names,
and especiallythat of Amon, were
(1580 B.C. ff.)witnessed
chiseled
a
great change in this
even
from the monuments;
and the capitalwas
regard. For now
removed
began the influx of wealth from
from Thebes.
The common
conquests in Asia as well as Nubia
-conquests which
people and the ancient
the pharaohs of the XVIII.
tary
Dynasty unhesitatingly priesthoodswere
joined in discontent by the miliascribed to Amon
of Thebes, their city-god,who
class; for the propagation of his faith had so
them
become
had with
in the nation.
engrossed Ikhnaton that his Asiatic empire was slipsupreme
ping
III. and other great conquerors
Thutmose
divided
without a struggle. After his death the
away
with him their spoil,until Amon
adherents
the richest
of Aton
few
and
too
selfwas
too
were
interested to withstand
the forces of conservatism;
god in Egypt. Such vast expansion of temple properties
staff
of
of
all
that
within
few
so
and
a
a largepermanent
required course
years Ikhnaton's
memory
his faith alike were
to janitorsand
execrated
and
ranks, from administrators down
apparently
blotted out.
field-laborers. During this period and later,the
The Amon-priesthood, thus returned to power,
priesthood was
a field of wide
opportunity.
VIII. Social
^The Old
increased its control of the state,until the god's
Problems.
now
Kingdom
had begun to appreciatemoral values.
But by the
statue
made
to give oracles and even
to utter
was
Middle
Then
in the beginning
later, decisions in legal cases.
Kingdom, about five hundred
years
the short-comings
first keenly felt.
of the 11th. century b.c, the high priestof Amon
of societywere
himself took possessionof the throne at Thebes;
to
Along with this development of man's ability
to the
and his descendants, expert diplomats, by intermarriage
as
contemplate himself, skepticism arose
value of accepted religiousbehefs and
which
had
at first
practices.
regained the North
The massive
had after all
tombs
of the ancestors
established its independence. The official religion
been violated or fallen into decay. Of what avail, of the late Empire was
thus controlled by priestly
But
the
then, were all the elaborate rites and equipment for
politicians.
loving care
imputed to
the dead?
it not better to eat, drink, and
Aton
Was
affected men's
had in spiteof his overthrow
be merry in this present lifewhich one was sure
of?
conception of their traditional deities. Among the
Yet the abuses and oppressionsof the intervening humble
folk there developed a devotional attitude
centuries were
toward
their gods, a confidence in divine love and
leading others to look to the future
for a just ruler,in fact a "messiah"
of unworthiness
such as the
justice,and a sense
distinctly
with the more
Hebrews later were to long for. Many more
Middle
contrasting
customary endeavors to
their
common

on
tomb-inscriptions

folk of

"

"

"

"

145

OF

DICTIONARY

gain the gods' approvalby magic means

RELIGION

instead of

blameless life.
X. Foreign
Formalism.
Contacts;
Among
the deities to whom
Egyptians looked in this later
from
natural
in
some
imported
Asia,as was
age were
intercourse (eitherfriendly
view of the continuous
or
hostile)after the establishment of the Empire.
Such borrowings from up the Nile existed already
thousand
in the Old Kingdom.
Two
after,
years theresance
in the 7th. century B.C., occurred a Renaiswhen
the priestslabored to restore that (to
them) Golden
Age. But developments such as
have been traced above rendered it of course
sible;
imposand their attempts led only to formal ritualism,
dwelling on the letter and losingthe spiritand
the vigor of the past.
When
XI.
Propaganda.
Animal-Worship;
the nation's vitality
been exhausted
and
had finally
it had sunk into subjection to Persia,Herodotus,
visiting
Egypt about 450 B.C., found animal-worship
omnipresent. In the old times individual animals,
of Mendes
and
the bull Apis at
e.g., the Ram
Memphis, had been thought to house the soul of
then held sacred.
some
deity to whom
they were
But by the Greek
period whole specieshad come
then
to share such
sanctity. Their bodies were
like those of men
in such quantipiouslymummified
ties
that the cemetery of bygone cats at Benihasan
for example has served as a mine
for a modern
fertilizerfactory. Identifications or confusions of
once
becoming even
independent deities were
than of old. The
relative importance
commoner
also shifting;
of the Sun and of the Osiris-group
was
Oriental
that when
in the first centuries a.d.
so
were
spreading throughout the Roman
cults^
Empire it was Osiris-Apis(Serapis)and Isis who
found worshipers as far as the Rhine
and even
in
France
and
England. Again, Isis and her son
of devotion and filiallove,
Horus, as embodiments
found kindred
spiritsin Christ and the madonna
when
into Egypt.
introduced
was
Christianity
Allen
T. George
ELDER.
An officer in a religious
organization
ence.
appointed because of his age and experioriginally
In Judaism
the elders had the generaloversight
of the administration
of the affairs of the
In Christianity
the term is the designation
synagogue.
of officialsof the church.
Its usage, however,
Methodism
elders are fullyordained
is various.
In
of the annual
conferences.
ministers, members
In Presbyterian churches, ruling elders are
lay
officialsconstituting
the session of the local church.
See Presbyter.
"

"

AND

ETHICS

Emanation

Jewish community, yet so as finally

to embrace the
Jewish people.
2. The
doctrine is that
Augustinian-Calvinistic
God, out of mere
good pleasure,has chosen some
who are neither better nor
than the rest to
worse
faith and holiness ; yet this choice isneither caused nor
conditioned by any foreseen merit or faith in the elect.
hold that election is God's choice
3. Arminians
of those who on account
of Christ and through Christ
by grace believe the gospel and persevere in faith
based in part on foreto the end; it is conditional,
seen
faith of those who believe.
defined election as the divine
4. Schleiermacher
of grace which
all men;
ideallyembraces
purpose
since,however, it subjects itself to historical conditions,
it reaches only a portion of humanity in
this world, but is destined to universahty in the
world to come.
C. A. Beckwith

ELEMENTS.

In early scientific speculation

the simplest forms of material substance
which combine
the world.
In India there
to make
four
were
earth, water, fire,and wind; in China
five metal, wood, water, fire, and
earth; in
Greece four
and air.
earth,water, fire,

they

"

are

"

"

"

ELEUSINIA."
A
Mystery
Religions.

Greek

ELEUTHERIUS."

Pope,

religiousfestival. See

ca.

175-189.

ELEVATION
OF
THE
HOST."
The
before the people the elements
Eucharist
for adoration
in the feast of
as
Christi (q.v.).

liftingup

of
of the

act

Corpus

ELF.
or fairy,
(1)In Norse mythology, a gnome
there being two classes,
the elves of Ught (Ljosalfar),
and those of darkness
(Dopkalfar or Svartalfar).
(2) Hence any one of the imagined diminutive folk
or spirits
picturedin folk-lore as meddfing in human
affairs.
"

"

ELEATICS."
A school of Greek
philosophers
originatingin the 6th. century B.C., the leading
Parmenides
of which
and
Zeno.
were
doctrine was
fundamental
that all real existence
is a unity, Pure Being, diversitybeing due to
illusion of the senses.
On philosophicgrounds,
an
cized.
critithe anthropomorphic deities of Homer
were

SAINT
ELIZABETH,
(1207-1231)." Daughter
of Andrew
II.,King of Hungary, and wife of Louis
IV. of Thuringia; renounced
her position and
tions
wealth, giving her life to asceticism and ministraand sick. She was
canonized
in
to the poor
of the miracles of healingwrought
1235 on account
on
pilgrimsto her grave in Marburg.
ELKESAITES.
A syncretistic
the
movement,
elements of which
included Judaistic legalismand
circumcision,Christian baptism and the Lord's
Supper, pagan ablutions,astrologyand magic, and
the Gnostic use of the Scriptures. They were
one
of the influences leading to the rise of Islam.
"

exponents
Their

OF."
An ecclesiasticalcouncil
ELVIRA, SYNOD
which convened
in Spain early in the 4th. century
with the object of restoringorder to the church.
It was
the first council to demand
celibacyof the

priesthood.
ELECTION."
The
theologicalterm for God's
choice of those who are to be recipients
or bearers of
salvation.
of the nature
1. The key to the interpretation
and historyof the Jewish nation is that "God
chose
Israel for his people." This election is to be referred
not to a singledivine act but to a continuous
dential
provicontrol,conditioned in part on an inner
capacity of the Jewish spiritfor the task involved
aim as apprein this supernatural calling. The
hended
by the prophets was that Israel was to proclaim
the truth and righteousness
of God throughout
the world.
taken over
This idea of election was
by
Paul and appUed to the Christian instead of to the

ELYSIUM."
In Greek
mvthology, the abode
of the blessed; in Homeric
legend, set apart for
heroes who
translated thither without death,
were
the region of the
while in later mythology it was
underworld
reserved
for the
righteous dead.
joy or a
Analogously, a region of consummate

paradise.
EM A, EMMA-0.
Buddhism.
Cf. Yama.

"

god of hell in Japanese

EMANATIONISM."
The
EMANATION
or
doctrine that the world and all existingbeings are
derived by a cosmologicalprocess from the divine

Ember

Weeks

DICTIONARY

OF

It is held by certain schools of Indian

the Vedanta,and was
istic
characterthought, especially
of Neoplatonism and Gnosticism, the latter

essence.

explainingChrist

as

an

emanation

from

AND

RELIGION

God.

EMBER
WEEKS
AND
EMBER
DAYS."
Ember
weeks
the complete weeks which follow
are
Holy Cross Day (Sept.14),St. Lucy's Day (Dec.13),
the first Sunday in Lent, and Whitsunday, the four
seasons
designated by the R.C. and AngUcan
churches for fastingand prayer.
The Wednesdays,
Fridays and Saturdays of these weeks are Ember
Days, being the days appointed for the ordination
of clergy.
RALPH
WALDO
EMERSON,
(1803-1882)."
American
of letters. Born of a family of ministers,
man
and educated
for the Unitarian
ministry,he
retired because
radical.
his views were
too
soon
He was
of the New England
a leadingrepresentative
school of transcendentalists,
teaching a mystical
doctrine of the presence
of God in all men, in which
he was
influenced somewhat
by Brahmanic mysticism.
-

ETHICS

developed stages. It is also of the highest

of emotion
importance to note the heightening
in
more

connection

with

the

EMOTION
IN RELIGION."
Emotion
in general
be defined as the affective accompaniment
may
and outcome
of instinct. This is strikinglyillustrated
in the elemental emotions
of fear and anger.
The
James-Lange theory set forth the view that
is afraid because one
from the bear, or
one
runs
feels griefbecause of weeping. Extended
gations
investihave confirmed
this theory and accounted
for many
of the variations and complicationswhich
It is
in the expression of the emotions.
occur
foimd that organic sensations from the viscera and
and
deep-lyingmuscles contribute massiveness
where
there is
intensity. In pathological cases
widespread anaesthesia of the body muscles, little
emotion
is felt. This doctrine aids greatly
or
no
of religionin
in the explanation of the emotions
which
love, fear,and hope play so large a part.
The
rehgious ceremonials center about the most
vital interests,
and they are
intenselydramatic in
also
social or
character
character.
Their
group
where
heightens their emotional
quality. Even
the incipient
the outward
movements
are
inhibited,
tendencies to action within the body furnish the organic
basis for the emotion.
Changes in breathing,
in the heart-beat,and in the muscle tensions may
be very
pronounced while the subject remains
restraint
and
this
outwardly passive. Often
suppression of the normal activityintensifies the
In the more
feeling.
primitive states of religion
The emoaction is more
direct and unrestrained.
tional
obvious to
manifestations are therefore more
the observer,but the origin and character of the
different from those of
states are not essentially

elaboration

of

the

means

employed to reach a desired end. In hunthig,the

preparationof the weapons, lying in wait, the risk
of danger and the persistentuncertainty of the
outcome
the stretch.
keep the nerves
on
Among
the Zuni Indians when the dry season
was
tmusually
the
rain
ceremonials
enacted with
prolonged
were
gous
corresponding zest and carefulness. Under analoin times of pestilenceor
as
circumstances,
civilized men
extend
their ceremonies, and
war,
their heightened emotion
enhances
the value of
the placeand functions of reUgion. Jane Harrison
and Irving King have set forth the view that the
of sacredness
arises out of this heightened
sense
emotion

derived

from

the ceremony,

and

that the

and deities of religion

have their originhere.
spirits
The
of the control of emotion
is sugpossibility
gested
and
modern
some
by these phenomena
have hit upon
devices for overcoming fear
religions
and worry by preventing the attitudes and tensions
from
which
they arise. They are able also to
induce the expansive,hopeful moods
by appropriate

discipUne.
EMMANUEL
MOVEMENT."
A plan worked
Samuel
Worcester
and
out
by Drs. Elwood
and
started
in 1906, in connection
McComb,
with Emmanuel
Church
in Boston, whereby the
aid of religious
encouragement, prayer, and suggestion
could be used to aid in the cure
of disease or
the maintenance
of health.
The
plan differed
from most
cults of healingin that a diagreligious
nosis
of a physician was
required,and the religious
ministrywas carried on in co-operationwith medical
science. This treatment
has been very successful
in cases
where
mental
moral
has
uneasiness
or
contributed
to nervous
disorders.
creation
The
of a favorable mental condition is of great importance
for successful medical treatment;
and the
service which
be thus rendered
can
by religious
faith has been conclusively
shown in the results of
the Emmanuel
Movement.

146

Edward

S. Ames

EMPEROR-WORSHIP."

Worship of the
prominent item in the religious
history of the Romans
turies
during the first three cenemperor

was

of the Christian Era.

The custom
of deifying
rulers both during their life-time and after their
death had been common
in the eastern
ranean
Mediterlands since the time of Alexander
the Great,
and thus the way
had been prepared for worship
of the Roman
in the eastern
particularly
emperors
before the inauguration of the
provinces. Even
imperial regime under Augustus, the people of
the East
had
rendered
divine honors
to certain
officials for their prominence in eastern
Roman
affairs and had deified Rome's
in the form
power
of a new
This tendency
goddess called Roma.
received a new
stimulus under Augustus. In the
formallyestablished
year 29 B.C., worship of him was
at Pergamum
and at Nicomedia.
From
this time
on
worship of emperors, both while they lived and
after their death, continued
to be an estabhshed
institution in the eastern provinces.
The
less rapid progress in the
cult made
new
The
West, especiallywithin the city of Rome.
Senate unhesitatinglyapproved of the provincial's
deification of either living or
dead
rulers but
restricted the worship of Roman
citizens to such
deceased individuals as had been officially
sized
apotheoThis
honor
was
by senatorial decree.
bestowed
Julius Caesar
on
January first,
upon
42 B.C., and only in exceptionalcases
it withheld
was
from any
ruler of early imperial times.
As
the Romans
practiced among
imperial apotheosis
undoubtedly derived its impetus very largelyfrom
of deifiyingrulers,but the
the oriental custom
notion of the genius of the emperor,
Roman
as a
of divine double
kind
capable of ascending to
furnished a
heaven after the death of the individual,
further basis for the custom.
It is noteworthy
became
also that the deified emperor
a divus,not
a deus.
fact of peculiarsignificance
a
Emperor- worship was
tians'
for the early historyof Christianity. Chrisrefusal to acknowledge the lordshipof Caesar
taken as evidence of disloyaltyto the governwas
ment"
and inspiredsome
severe
persecutionson the
S. J. Case
authorities.
part of the Roman
A
EMPIRICISM.
philosophical or scientific
method
requiring all theories to be tested by or
derived from experience. It is thus opposed to all
forms of a priori
authority.
"

147

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

Enlightenment, Thd

Greek
While
philosophy sought to question Holbach, Montesquieu, Turgot, and others,and,
interest was
versal in the supplement (1776),by Haller and Condorcet.
in a uniexperience,the fundamental
The
from
often
suggestion for the undertaking came
or
metaphysical ultimate,which was
Chambers'
contrasted
with
ancient and
Cyclopedia of the Arts and Sciences,
experience.Thus
mediaeval
thought characteristically
employed reinforced by the conviction that the time was ripe
for a comprehensive work which should gather all
either in the form of innate
super-empirical
norms,
ideas or of transcendental reaUty. Modern
science
writers were
far
thought and knowledge. The
interested in science,art, and
this emphasis. Francis Bacon, who urged
more
reverses
philosophy
than in theology; indeed on account
of their attitude
an
unprejudiced questioningof Nature, and John
toward
Locke, who taught that the mind is a blank tablet
theologyand the church, they were
which experience
fiercelydenounced
writes,are the forenmners of
by ecclesiasticaland political
upon
their publicationrepeatedlysuspended
authorities,
empiricism.
by the government, and articles destined for the
Early empiricism regarded the mind as a mere
later volumes
mutilated. These men
ever,
recordingmachine, and ultimatelybroke down when
were, howconfronted
with the fact of universal judgments
atheists as rationalistic skeptics;
not so much
which far outrun
their animus
toward
the deliverances of actual experithe Christian
religionwas
ence.
In
much
times
recent
directed,one
Pragmatism (q.v.) has
against the
say, not so
may
elaborated the conception of "radical empiricism,"
Testament
of Jesus and the New
as
Christianity
which abandons
the copy-theory of knowledge, and
against the church of France in the second half of
the 18th. century.
to search
for a purely "objective"world.
C. A. Beckwith
ceases
ReaUty for radical empiricism is preciselywhat it
ENDOGAMY.
is experiencedas, and the old metaphysical
^A marriage rule of earlysociety
puzzles
which made it necessary
for a man
to find his mate
drop away.
The
within his own
social group.
of empiricism in religionand
significance
ethics lies in the fact that it ehminates
all appeal
ENDOWMENT."
to extra-experiential
The gods of reUgion
to be
norms.
(1) A talent deemed
exist in experience,grow with experience,and dismata.
appear a donation or giftfrom nature or God.
See Charisif experience can
to be used in
no
(2)A giftof property or money
longer employ them.
the maintenance
The norms
of an institution,
of moral conduct
be determined
must
as the endowment
of an institution,
such as a collegeor hospital.
by asking what experience declares to be good.
Since traditional theology and
ethics appeal to
ENEMY.
transcendental
The
original significancewas
a
sanctions,empiricism has produced
ruthless criticism,
and has generallybeen opposed.
stranger or aUen.
Gradually the idea of antagonism
became
The fact that modern
science is frankly empirical
attached,in many cases because of the
creates an unfortunate
lack of sympathy with a nonmately
disparatemorality or reUgion of the aliens. Ultithe word came
and efforts are constantlybeing
to mean
state or
a person
or
empiricalreligion,
force regarded as antagonisticand harmful, and
made
to employ empiricism more
radicallyin the
realm of reUgion.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
subjectto hostile activity.
_

"

"

CHURCH
CONGRESS
OF."
OF." See Church
A
conference
of
of
EMS,
ENGLAND,
representativesfrom four German
archbishoprics, England.
assembUng in Ems, Prussia,1786, which issued the
ENHYPOSTASIA."
Punctuation
Endowment
with personference
of Ems, a protest against the interof the pope in the conduct
of the Cathohc
aUty in union with previouslyexistingpersonaUty.
The term is specificaUy
See Febronianism.
Church in Germany.
appUed to the union of the
human
EMULATION.
An
ambition
imitate
to
or
of another;
equal the accompUshments or possessions
it may
be a wholesome
incentive to worthy aspiration,
but sometimes
degeneratesinto jealousyand

and

divine natures

in the person

of Christ.

"

antagonism.
ENCHANTMENT."
The
of magical or
use
occult instrumentalities
to allure,charm
ence
influor
toward a specific
of action.
See Magic;
course
Sorcery; Charms.

Greek, "self-discipUned"
; the
adopted by a heretical sect of Christians
arisingin the 2nd. century, who practisedasceticism,
believingthe world to be evil. Most of them held
ENCRATITES."

name

to Gnostic

views of God

and

Christ.

ENCYCLICAL.
An epistle
designed for general
circulation and dealing with ecclesiastical matters,
of papal
now
usuallyrestricted to such documents
"

origin.
THEOLOGICAL.
Encyclopaedia.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA,
Theological

-See

ENCYCLOPEDISTS."
A name
given to the
principalwriters of the celebrated French Encyclopedia

Encyclopedieou
des Arts, et des
Sciences,

Dictionnaire raisonnd
des
Metiers (1751-1780).
The work was
edited by Diderot and d'Alembert
in collaboration with Voltaire,Rousseau, Grimm,
"

ing
describTHE."
A term
ENLIGHTENMENT,
the critical,
rationaUstic philosophy of the 18th.
century, which sought complete freedom of thinking.
the
As
name
suggests, the EnUghtenment
achieved a self-conscious and boasted freedom from
the superstitions
and traditions of the past, beUevhad found its own
ing that human
reason
power to
Ufe. In the
dispelthe intellectual gloom of human
had discovered
14th. and 15th. centuries the Renaissance
in ancient culture the indigenousgreatness
of human
nature, and so laid the foundations of the
Uberation of the human
spiritfrom the thraldom of
authority;in the 16th. century the Reformation had
achieved the Uberation of the nationaUstic spirit
well as that of the
from the absolutism of Rome
as
ism,
from the fetters of Latin officialChristian Scriptures
and thereby secured a largedegree of freedom
tions
for the indiviaual
conscience; and the revoluof the 17th. century had achieved
a
degree
over
of poUtical self-determination
as
against
These
within the nation.
monarchical
absolutism
Uberty in practicaland
widening circles of human
social spheres necessarilygave increasingimpetus
and we find the growing Ught of these
to philosophy,
centuries caught up and concentrated in several
the spiritof the new
age
great thinkers,by whom
focussed as to produce the "illumination" of
was
so
In England the initiator of the
the 18th. century.
Locke; in France, Voltaire;
EnUghtenment was
in Germany, Leibnitz.

Enlil

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

148

be noted particularly
in
ENVIRONMENT."
Locke's influence may
In biology, the sum
total
three directions.
of all conditions to which livingplants and animals
(1) He laid the foundations of
in psychology,repudiatingthe conassodationism
ception
are
exposed. It is made up of innumerable
factors,
of innate ideas but introducinga barrenness
so that as
yet it is impossibleto analyze completely
and artificiality
from which
psychology has with
Biologists
are
beginningto recogany environment.
nize
tions
two generalcategories
escaped. (2) He reinforced the foundaof environment, external
difficulty
of deism in theology,
and internal.
which freed
External environment
a movement
is represented
faith from credulousness,
the
but revealed ultimately
by the world in which plants and animals live,the
barrenness
of a religionthat appeals only to the
world outside of their own
bodies,including such
stimulated that reflection on
reason.
(3) He
conspicuousfactors as hght, temperature, water,
ethical problems which culminated
food supply,other animals and plants,etc.
in Adam
Smith's
isms
OrganWealth of Nations, which
served to discredit the
to these factors in various ways;
and
respond
old mercantile
Middle
changes in the factors of environment
system which followed the
may result in
trial
changes in the structure of the organism. Once this
Ages and to deliver the individual from that indusserfdom; though it remained for the succeeding was thought to be so important that such a change
might result in a new
century to discover the barrenness and harmfulness
species(seeEvolution) ; at
least the changes are sufficient to produce individual
of the atomistic laissez fairetheory which was
basic
in that movement.
variations resultingin individuality,
so
complete
In France
that no
the Enlightenment had a brief and
two
individuals
The
are
exactly ahke.
science
Voltaire's
which
hectic career, stimulated
deals
with
the
effects
of
external
largely by
of the Lockian ideas,and expressing environment
is called Ecology. Plant Ecology, for
interpretation
itself as a vehement
viduals
example, deals with the response of plants as indiprotestagainst oppression of
all kinds^
and against traditionalism in all spheres
to their environment,and
also with the
of experience.
of plant masses,
Voltaire's influence in liberalizing responses
etc.
as
forests,
prairies,
France was
The latter aspect is reallyplant sociology. Factors
immense, though his social theories had
the Umitations characteristic of the Enlightenment.
of environment
not independent of one
are
another,
but affect organisms in combination.
For example,
Believingprimarilyin the power of clear reason, he
mistrusted the ignorant classes and, not
other thingsbeing equal,a combination
of maximum
necessarily
water
and
maximum
results in a
conceiving the ideal of popular education, fell far
temperature
short of being truly democratic.
of minimum
tropicaljungle; while a combination
In Germany the geniusof Leibnitz produced(and
water and maximum
temperature results in a desert.
the work of his follower Wolff popularized)a comincludes the conditions
Internal environment
placent
within the body but external to the livingsubstance
type of philosophy,in which this "best of all
environment
possibleworlds" is shown to be rational through and
(protoplasm). This is the immediate
in which the protoplasm must
live and work, often
through, a "pre-estabUshed harmony" of cosmic
fact and divine purpose.
The ideal of human
effort
spoken of as the "condition of the body." Internal
is shown
and matheenvironment
matical
to be the quest of rationality,
belongsto the fieldof the psychologist.
clearness and logicalconsistency are
the
John M. Coulter
chief norms
of rationaUty.This philosophywas
ENVIRONMENT
behavior
a
(SOCIAL) ."The
of animals
tremendous
stimulus to the intellectual life of Germany,
with a complex nervous
system and a
but in all departments there developed a
prolonged immaturity is more
largelydetermined
and barrenness.
than is the case
with the lower
by environment
great superficiaUty
The supreme
animals.
Thus in man
value of the Enlightenment lay
approximately four-fifths of
in the reaction which it finallyprovoked and the
the growth of the brain takes place after birth
while infancy in man
(in the ape only one-third),
is
consequent deepening of all philosophy. The superficiaUty
of the Enhghtenment
much
was
more
challenged by
prolonged in relation to the total length
of lifethan in any other animal.
and
in England, France,
Kant
This givesopporHume, Rousseau
tunity
for the formation
and Germany, respectively.
A. C. Watson
of many
by man
complex
habits of behavior not obviously predetermined by
A storm
ENLIL.
god of Sumerian
originwho
heredityor instinct in other words for the development
replaced the sun god, Ninib, at Nippur in ancient
of a type of behavior which is controlled by
his functions.
In the
Babylonia and assumed
formed
habits rather
experience and intelligently
great triad of the earlyperiodEnlil is givenauthority than by mere
instinct. From
a
strictlyscientific
the
and
the
earth
heavens
over
air,Anu,
upper
basis which has
point of view this is the biological
and Ea, the waters.
enabled man
to build up "culture,"or civilization
in the broadest sense, since civilization is a complex
ENNEAD.
In the process
of combination
of
of acquiredhabits,slowly built up by the accumulation
and cities in ancient Egypt there was
also
nomes
of knowledge and standards,and transmitted
a
grouping of the local gods. The triad is the
from generationto generationby means
of language,
form
but
several
of nine
commonest
groups
personalexample, and modifications of the material
(enneads) are foimd presided over
by the chief
environment.
god of the city. HeHopoUs, the great center of
The immense
ment
importance of the social environhad three enneads.
theological
speculation,
for understanding the behavior
of civilized
BOOK
OF." A collection of pseudepiis thus evident.
While
all men
born
man
are
ENOCH,
the capacity to acquire a high degree of
with
graphic writingspurporting to report the experiences
and revelations made
civiUzed behavior,the difference between the savage
in order that
to Enoch
he might prophesy concerning the affairs of the
is entirelya matter
and the civilized man
of social
Jews in the last century B.C. and the 1st. century
the same
environment.
For
reason
sociologists
The literature belongs to this period and Uke
hold that the difference between
the most
A.D.
social
antiother apocalypsessets forth the certain triumph of
and the most
immoral
conduct
moral or
or
the Jews through the intervention of God in estabsocialized conduct is due to the social environment
bar those instances where
of the individual,if we
hshing their kingdom over the earth. The literature
had an influence upon
is correlated
conduct
with
immoral
the primitiveChristians and
hereditary
is a very valuable source
the case
in manifestly
of knowledge of the apocadefects,as is sometimes
lyptic
individuals.
abnormal
messianism
with which
the early Christian
movement
An important element in the social environment,
was
lyptic
so
largelyidentified. See Apocais socially
often overlooked in discussion,
prevalent
Literature; Messiah.
^

"

"

"

149

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

These
ideals,values,standards.
opinions,beliefs,
the so-called psychic or
"subjective"
environment, and their continuity is the basis of

AND

ETHICS

Erastianism

is not to be feared,for while we are present,

is absent,and when death is present, we
not.
are
Epicureanism had an unbroken
existence
of fullysix centuries.
Walter
Goodnow
Everett
EPIPHANIUS
(ca. 320-403)." Bishop of Constantia and metropoUtan of Cyprus; noted for his
combination
of profound learning,
ascetic piety,and
zeal for orthodoxy. He vigorouslyopposed Origen's
of all heresies. His best
teachings as the source
known
"medicine-chest"
work, the Panarion
or
deals with eighty heresies,
and is the main extant
of information
source
obscure
concerning some
heresies.

sciousn

constitute

death

the process of socialization and civilization. As

civilized man
lives mainly in a world of ideas rather
the immense
than of real objects,
importance of this
for civihzed society is
phase of the environment
real environment," says Cooley,
"Our
evident.
"consists of those images which are
most
present
to our
thoughts." Approved social standards, or
the mores, are especially
recognizedby sociologists
of group
as
all-powerful in the determination
behavior.
for
The
importance of the social environment
behavior
and the formation
of individual
human
the problems of religion
character sheds hght on
EPIPHANY."
(1)A manifestation of the deity;
morals.
and
Manifestly a completely Christian
apphed to certain events in the lifeof Christ,such
environment
seldom
exists for the individual. as the birth,baptism, the appearance
or
of star to the
never
It is,however, evident that, if the production Magi, and certain of the miracles.
(2)The festival
of Christian character is the aim of religion, celebrated on
Jan. 6th. in commemoration
of the
visit of the Magi. See Christmas.
attention should be paid to the transformation
as much
in a Christian direction as
of the environment
Charles
A. Ellwood
to the individual himself.
EPISCOPACY.
A form of church government
in which supreme
authorityis exercised by bishops.
A
another
See Bishop.
ENVY.
feeling of illwill toward
because of the desire to possess what he does or to
EPISTEMOLOGY."
ence
accomplish what he has accomplished, inducing
(Gr. episteme+logos sciand one's
of the other's superiority
of knowledge ) The department of philosophy
a resentful sense
which is concerned
with the nature
and vaUdity of
own
deficiency.
the process
of knowledge. The
epistemology of
OF."
An
ecumenical
COUNCIL
religionis a critical study of the validityof human
EPHESUS,
assembled
at Ephesus in 431, and
council which
knowledge concerning God or the reUgious object.
Nestorius
excommunicated
(q.v.)for his ChristoEPISTLE.
addressed
A written communication
involving his opposition
logicalheresy, specifically
"Mother
of God"
used of Mary.
to a person
of persons
to the appellation
at a distance,of a
or
group
Synods.
formal literary
See Councils
form than a letter;an imporand
more
tant
type of early Christian literature.
ROBBER
SYNOD
OF." A council
EPHESUS,
at Ephesus in 449
of 130 bishops which assembled
The
casuistic theory
EQUIPROBABILISM."
that when
and
two
differingjudgments on an ethical
acquittedEutyches (q.v.) of heresy. The
council did not obtain universal recognitionby the
question are equally defensible,the individual is
church.
morally free to choose either. See Casuistry.
"

"

"

vestment
EPHOD.
A priestly
priests. See Exod. chap. 28.
"

RESCRIPTUS,

EPHRAEMI
Ephkaemi
Codex

worn

by

Hebrew

CODEX."

See

Rescriptus.

EPIKLESIS."
The
EPICLESIS
or
portion of
the hturgicalprayer used in the ancient church and
stillin the Eastern church, whereby the elements
of the sacraments
(water,bread, wine, and oil)are
consecrated,and the blessingof the Holy Spiriton
is invoked.
the participants

EQUITY. Ethically, the appUcation of the

principleof equaUty, fair play or justice;legally,
or
a system of technical proceduredesignedto modify
law in the interests of jussupplement the common
tice
and the moderation
of rigor.
"

The
of terms
which
use
EQUIVOCATION."
have a double meaning or are ambiguous, usually
with the intent to deceive
action defended by
an
certain casuistic moralists.
See Lying; Casuistry.
"

reckoning the chronology of

torical
hissome
a reckoning from
tian
Thus the Chrisevent or fixed pointof time.
is popularlyregarded as beginning with the
era
from
birth of Jesus Christ; the Mohammedan
era
from Mecca, etc.
voluntary exile of Mohammed
ERA.

"

of

means

events, the basis being

Greek philosopher of the Stoic
EPICTETUS.
school (born ca. 60 a.d.). According to Epictetus,
true father who expresses
God was
a good king and
and in human
Men
his purpose
in nature
reason.
of kindred nature with God, and virtue consists
are
human
welfare
in rational Uving in which common
interest. See Stoicism.
is the dominant
"

DESIDERIUS
(1466-1536)."Of
ERASMUS,
Dutch parentage, trained for the priesthood,
through
a
his acquaintance with Colet and More he became
service
in
of letters. He rendered significant
man
editingand translatingseveral of the Fathers,also
and
Testament,
Greek
edition of the New
a
a
paraphrase in the Latin. Critical of the clergyfor
iUiteracyand immoraUty and of the Reformers for
general
imprudence and dogmatism he advocated
the exercise of tolerance,and the
enlightenment,
the patronExtensive travel,
restriction of dogma.
age
of princes,and wide learninggave him world
P. G. Mode
See Humanism.
renown.

The philosdphy
of EpiEPICUREANISM."
curus,
chief representative of hedonism
among
the Greeks.
Epicurus (341-270 B.C.)made pleasure
preted
the only good, pain the only evil. Pleasure is internegatively "absence of pain from the body
It is also pleasure
and trouble from the mind."
for life as a whole, not for the passing moment.
Epicurus championed simplicityand temperance.
"Give
me
barley bread and water," he exclaims,
"and
I will vie with Zeus
in happiness." He
ism
grounded his moral system in the atomistic materialA system advocatingextreme
ERASTIANISM.
of Democritus, which offered release from the
to the State.
fears inspiredby religion. Death, the end of consubservience of the Church
"

"

"rigena,John

Scotus

This system derived its name

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

150

The activitiesof the dead are reproductions

of their physical habits.
The
influence
of the mysteriesis seen in the more
complete organization
of this life of the shades in conditions set by
a
judgment held by divine or semi-divine beings.
In the Orphic teachings the status of the dead was
related to cycles,sometimes
thousand
in
a
years
such
length. In Platonic teaching there is no
definiteness of duration of the cycle and a reversal
exercise in the Jewish commonwealth
The
of the cosmic order is expected. The Stoics taught
magistrateought to consult,when doctrine is concerned,
that the present cycle (seeCycle) would terminate
those who have particularly
studied it,but
with a world-conflagration.
that there should be any ecclesiastical tribunal to
take cognizance of men's conduct, we find no such
3. In the Hindu
to be four
thought there were
thing anyTvhere appointed in the Holy Scripture." ages totalingmillions of years in length. At the end
These
of 100 such
periods (which form a kalpa) the
opinions, while never
promulgated by any
world was
to be cleansed with fire and water, the
organized following,exerted considerable influence
virtuous
in Germany and notably in the EstabUshed Church
to be absorbed
and the good were
in
of England.
Brahma
who
after sleepinga kalpa would
P. G. Mode
recreate
the world.
The
of transmigration (q.v.)
process
would then begin anew
except in the case of those
ERIGENA, JOHN SCOTUS
(ca.800-ca. 877)."
who
had desired complete absorption in Absolute
Irish mediaeval
philosopher and theologian, to
whom
this succession
of
is primary and reUgion
Being. In popular Buddhism
philosophy or reason
works
or
kalpas survives but is enlarged with the expectation
authority is secondary, although in some
of a judgment and hell. In Japan, Amida
he identifiesphilosophy and religion. He regarded
hism
Buddhas emphasized salvation into a Western
the world
rational manifestation
of God.
as
a
but has not developed any eschatological
of dogma, and
Erigena did not deal with matters
Paradise,
in Japan have
stood midway between
ticism.
Neo-Platonism
and Scholassystem. Other types of Buddhism
conventional
Buddhistic
eschatology.
4. In Parsi teaching is a clear presentationof a
of German
SCHOOL."
A group
ERLANGEN
judgment for the dead, a Paradise for the good and
A more
hell for the wicked.
tology
a
theologians at the University of Erlangen who
systematic eschain Persian teaching that the world
developed a type of theology based on the facts
appears
of evangeUcal religiousexperience rather
than
period is 12,000 years broken into four ages each
influential men
external authority. The
most
on
3,000 years in duration,in the last of which we now
of this school were
J. C. K. Hoffman
(1800-1877), live. A striking parallel to Jewish eschatology
of Zarathustra
Gottfried Thomasius
is seen
in the appearance
at the
(1802-1875), and F. H. R.
Frank
beginning of the last period,a thousand years of evil
(1827-1894).
culminating in reform, a final millennium in which
is born.
The struggle
tish
EBENEZER
new
a
ERSKINE,
deity,Hushetar-mah
(1680-1754)." Scotbetween
intense as the
good and evil grows more
divine,a noted preacher in his day, and the
leader in founding the Scottish Secession church in
Serpent is freed but ends with the destruction of
of the Savior Soshythe latter and the appearance
1733.
He conquers
ans.
a
evil,brings about
tion
resurrecof the dead, and
in a great judgment fixes
THOMAS
ERSKINE,
(1788-1870)." Scottish
of
the conditions
eternityby passingall livingthings
lawyer, who interpretedChristian doctrine in vital
In its heat all
terms
over
through a sea of molten metal.
against the rigid Calvinism of his day
traces of sin are
to be removed.
and exercised wide influence.
5. Babylonian eschatology does not reach the
full system found in Indian literature. It forms the
ESCHATOLOGY."
Doctrine
to
the "last
as
background of the Gilgamesh Epic where the state
things,"i.e.,the end of the present order on the
and the relations of
of the dead in the underworld
earth and the estabUshment
of that of eternity.
this life to the future are described at length. The
Eschatologicalbehefs obviously include those
cussed succession of ages, however, is not prominent but
concerning life after death, but as these are dislife for the dead is described and
imderworld
in the article Future
an
Life, Conceptions
of the righteous from
the evil
OP
(q.v.)we shall consider here the more
general the dehverance
in the succession
of one
expectations involved
powers is promised.
,
gions,
6. The
eschatologiesof other non-biblical reliage to another.
with
less concerned
1. ESCHATOLOGIES
RELIGIONS.
OF NON-BIBLICAL
e.g., the Egyptian, are
world orders and can
be best treated as
that we
1. It is only by accommodation
can
ages and
speak of the eschatology of primitive peoples. aspects of their teachings as to the future life.
and
The
such peoples expect
it is true that many
Japan are
While
original reUgions of China
lack genuine eschatologicalelements.
and
sort of catastrophe(byfire,
some
water, earthquake), naturahstic
as cosmic
as their intellectual development suggests,
Biblical
Religions.
II. Eschatologies
of
will wind up the present age, only in rare instances
Further
it
1. In the Hebrew
does this belief involve any
religioneschatology is absent.
program.
While belief in life in Sheol was
cessive
is often possiblethat such behefs as pass beyond
present, the sucthose of the
be
periods and judgment were
a
general expectation of such catastrophe may
to be marked
The Day of Yahweh
was
due to the untraceable
influence of Christianity. nation.
by
the punishment of Israel's enemies, and, in later
Where
such influence is precluded,the expectation
by
involves httle more
than a Happy Hunting Ground
prophets,by that of the unrighteous Hebrews
natural catastrophesand wars.
retribution for sins. In a few instances there is
or
Judaism
2. In
eschatologicalteachings are
found the expectationof a new
peoplingof the earth
increasinglyimportant. The apocalypticliterature
by those who, because of their virtue,have survived
into an
the
(q.v.) develops the Day of Yahweh
catastrophe. Closely associated with such
of vengeance
and
elaborate program
behefs are primitiveconceptionsof life after death.
dehverance,
time there is
the messianic
2. In Greek and Roman
hope. At the same
religionthe dead people
be recognized as a universal
underworld where some
form of social order is
nothing which can
an
from

the Latinized

maintained.

Liiber (1524-1583), a medical

spellingof Thomas
professorin Heidelbergardentlydevoted to Zwinglianism, in defense of which he wrote (1565)SeventyfiveTheses,an elaborate discussion of ecclesiastical
polity. "I see no reason why the Christian magistrate
at the present day should not possess the same
which
God
commanded
the magistrate to
power

"

"

151

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The central hopes are the

and orthodox formula.
and
the
of Israel
dehverance
punishment of
and his peopleusuallyby the
the enemies of Yahweh
Messiah
(q.v.). Just how far these expectations
is still under
Persian sources
derived
from
were
investigationthough the general tendency is to
find their chief originsin ancient Semitic behefs.
both
of the
While
the eschato logical views
individual
show
apocalyptistsand of the masses
be said
their general content
characteristics,
may
of historyas involving
to constitute an interpretation
and the consequent triumph of
God's presence
righteousness. In particular this view includes:
the control of
"this age" under
(1) Two
ages:
the control of
and
Satan
the coming age under
God.
In one
is the kingdom of Satan and in the
other the kingdom of God.
(2) The introduction
of the "coming age" (themessianic)by catastrophe,
is developed into a struggle
sometimes
which
between
God's representative
(usuallythe Messiah)
and his enemies, e.g., Satan, Dragon, Anti-Christ
Beast (q.v.). (3) The judgment by God
(q.v.),
identified
is sometimes
Messiah
which
the
or
of the
with the catastrophe. (4) The establishment
Jewish
people.
kingdom of God, as a renewed
(5) The resurrection,certainly of the righteous
resurrections
In
two
Jews.
were
cases
some
expected, one preceding and the other closingthe
strictlymessianic reign. (6) The Messiah, i.e , the
one
empowered by God's resident spiritto punish
The comHis enemies and establish His kingdom.
ing
of Elijah was
increasinglyexpectedto precede
Judaism
Modern
Messiah.
the coming of the
trine
tends to refine this eschatology into a general docJudaism.
of the future life. See Reform
is essentially
the same
3. Christian eschatology
the Jewish, but with the followingmodifications:
as
(1) Jesus is the Messiah but his messianic activity
is threefold in that during his earthly life he
suffered and died in behalf of his kingdom; in his
heavenly lifehe rules and directs his church through
his return
the Holy Spirit; and
(see
only on
Parousia) will he carry out the full messianic
He will
of N.T. times.
as held by the Jews
program
then judge the livingand the dead (who have been
raised)sending the wicked to hell and welcoming
Christian theologieshave
to heaven.
the righteous
of
varied as to the details of this consummation
_

the age,

some

foretelhngan

earthlykingdona,some

AND

ETHICS

Established

Churches

immortalityas the goal of a completedindividuality

governedby the ideals.
4. Mohammedan
ment
eschatologyis also a developof Jewish
but without
the spiritual
quality
given the Christian

hope by Jesus Christ. In it

Paradise and hell are
pictured sensuously though
without
ethical elements.
not
It shows
these
tology
stages in its development: (1) the originaleschaof Mohammed;
(2)that of the Sunna; (3)the
refined views
of later sects, particularly
more
the Shi'ites and mystics. See Age; Future
Life,
Conceptions
op
of; Cycle; Judgment; Kingdom
God; Millenarianism; Messiah; Resurrection.
Shailer
Mathews
books
of."
There
in all six
ESDRAS,
are
books
of Esdras.
The
bestbearing the name
known
of these are the Apocryphal I and II Esdras.
I Esdras arose
late in the 4th. century b.c.
and includes
II Chron. 35:1
of
36:21, with paraphrases
of the Hebrew
much
Ezra in a different arrangement
of chapters and
of Neh., chap. 8, plus a
section of new
material in I Esdras 3 : 1
5 : 6. The
Greek
translation was
about
the
probably made
middle
of the 2nd. century B.C.
II Esdras is in
It
Latin and was
written probably about 100 a.d.
is a Jewish apocalypse that received some
cation
modifiat the hands of Christians.
"

"

ESKIMOS
RELIGION
OF."
or ESQUIMAUX,
land,
Aborigines of Arctic N. America, inhabitingGreenand the
N. Newfoundland, Alaska, Labrador
islands of the Arctic,the Eskimos
are
peaceable,
truthful and faithful,
but have a low standard of
domestic relations. Their religion
is animistic,the
the
chief deities being Tornassuk
who
rules over
beneficent spirits,
in the sea
Sedna, the old woman
who
controls the food supply,and Aningahk, the
is a hunter.
who
and
Russian, Danish
moon,

Moravian
Eskimos

missionaries
of

have

the
labored among
and Alaska with

Greenland, Labrador

good success.
The real character or nature of
The
which
its attributes inhere.
Greek Fathers used the words ousia and hypostasis
for the essence
of God, and the 4th. century Christologicalcontroversy debated the question of whether
the Son was of the same
essence
Qiomoousios)as the
{homoiousios)to the
Father, or of similar essence
Father.
ESSENCE.

"

thing within

thousand
years of peace culminating
Orthodox
in the finalvictoryof Christ over Satan.
sions
as
representedin the creeds and confestheologies
ESSENES.
A Jewish pietistic
monastic sect
have, however, rejectedChiliaism and describe
existingat the beginning of the Christian era, practicing
the future kingdom as in heaven where the redeemed
communism, celibacy,and a rigorousmanner
will live in enjoyment of their resurrection-bodies
held to
animal sacrifices,
of life. They renounced
The
transition from the early
and eternal bUss.
immortahty with future rewards and punishments,
return of Christ to
Christian belief in the immediate
engaged zealouslyin works of mercy and charity,
tion
establish his kingdom to the expectationof a salvastrict community
maintained
discipline.
a
of Christ, and
and the delayed return
in heaven
Many of their ideals appear in early Christianity.
accomplished after the 3rd. century and parwas
ticularly
formulated in the expositionof the
was
ESTABLISHMENT
ESTABLISHED
for humanity by Augustine in his
divine program
or
authorized
CHURCHES.
The church organization
City of God.
the
Christian theologytends to disregard
Modem
and supported by a State.
to establish
detailed eschatology of the N.T., findingin it
The effect of the Reformation
was
truths in the
As these were
number
of state churches.
the figurativeexpositionof spiritual
a
ported
supThis
ment
interpretation
by taxes levied by the state the appointthought forms of Judaism.
in
the
the
of
Jesus
the
tenable as
largely
to
teaching
pastoralpositionswas
grows the more
hands of pohticalauthorities.
Many of the privileges
concerning the kingdom of God and his messianic
Catholic clergy were
officeis more
thoroughly studied. The fundamental
enjoyed by the Roman
be stated as (1) the
verities of eschatology may
enjoyedby the clergyof these estabUshed churches.
cratic
demohas become
more
As pohtical organization
presence of God in historyassuringthe triumph of
and free churches have increased in number
righteousnessas the end of the historical process;
and influence,there has been a tendency to give
(2) Jesus as the revealer of the divine will and
character as that of a loving and saving Father;
rightsto separatistgroups, and in most countries,
with the exceptionof England,the church has been
(3) social progress under divine guidance toward
largerjusticeand brotherliness;(4) full personal disestabUshed.

expecting

"

"

Eternally-Begotten

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

A phrase used by
ETERNALLY-BEGOTTEN."
of the Logos, and which later
Origen in description
The purpose
to
was
theology ascribed to the Son.
and yet
show that Christ was eternally
pre-existent
subordinate

to the

Father.

ETERNITY."
(1) Infinite duration, without
beginning or end, and independent of time, as when
used of the existence of God.
(2) Existence which
has a beginning in time, but is unending, as is used
of the immortality of the soul.
(3) In philosophy,
that which is supertemporal,i.e.,
is neither related
to nor
limited by time, so used of the Absolute by

AND

ETHICS

152

Recently an Arts High School has been added,

which, besides technical instruction in art, includes
in history,science,
and literature presented
courses
in their bearing on
The
distinctive features
art.
of the school are its democratic spirit
and the ethical
emphasis in all its teaching.
of the
Though not a church in the strict sense
word, with clergy,creed, and liturgy,the Society
for

Ethical

Culture

nevertheless

puts

its main

emphasis,as the churches do, on preachinga religion,

pursuing an infinite,
though not a mysticalor supernatural,
ideal.

It

sees

in

the

classification and

of moral
aims a never
progressiveappropriation
writers.
some
ending duty, whose
compulsion hes in its very
tions,
apprehension,without need of supernatural sancFOR."
SOCIETIES
ETHICAL
CULTURE,
promise of reward, or threat of punishment.
Ethics is Ufted to the supreme
Organizations chieflyin the U.S. and England to
position in man's
of certain
life based on ethical principles, hfe, not a corollaryand
promote a spiritual
consequence
revealed dogmas^ but itself the source
foundations of churches.
of man's
in contrast to the theological
and beliefs,
The
of all his other
Ethical Culture
movement
as
was
organized religious
disposition
and
moral
choices.
Since knowledge of
mental
in 1876 in New York City by Dr. FeUx Adler,son of
one's duty is the most difficultand delicate question
a
distinguishedrabbi and lecturer in the Semitic
in the world,it needs all the lightwhich the philosophies,
languagesat Cornell University. The purpose of
and historyof past ages
the new
societywas to elevate the doctrine and pracreligions,
literature,
tice
of ethics to the positionof supremacy
in men's
throw on it.
can
The Ethical Societies in America
today number
philosophyand conduct of hfe, and to free ethics
D. S. Muzzey
about 2,500 members.
from^dependence on the supernatural dogmas of
York society
Judaism and Christianity.
The New
The
ETHICS.
has a membership of 1,200,while apostlesof the
science, or
philosophy, or
now
movement
have gone
more
By
modestly, the study of moral conduct.
forth, under the founder's
conduct regarded as
societies in Chicago (1883), moral conduct in turn is meant
to estabhsh
inspiration
rightor wrong, or as what "ought" or "ought not"
Philadelphia(1885), St. Louis (1886), London
to be done; or as involvingdeliberation and choice
ment
(1886),and Brooklyn (1906). The ethical movebetween
ends viewed as "good."
has spread also to the continent of Europe and
The
Field.
Division
1. Generaij
op
to the Orient, societies either directlyconthe
even
nected
1. The
with the movement
more
important problems of ethics are:
or in closest sympathy
with it existingin Berlin and a dozen other German
originsand development of moral conduct; this
take (a) the psychological
path of a
centers,in Vienna, Venice,Zurich,Lausanne, Paris, in turn may
and Tokyo. International congresses, pledged to
emotion, purpose, desire,will,or
study of instinct,
lines of consideringthe mores
work
for the social and moral
betterment
of the
(6) the sociological
tions
and economic, political,
for the improvement of the condition
social,and rehgiouscondiwage-earner,
which have given rise to ideals.
of women
in industry,for moral education
in the
2. Examination
or
of national egotisms
(1) of the nature
peculiar
schools,for the eUmination
and rivalries,
character and meaning of the moral, that is of the
which
hinder the advent
of world
"right," "ought," "good"; (2) of the "moral
(1896),Eisenach
peace, have been held at Zurich
of how we arrive at moral judgments,
i.e.,
(1906), London
(1908), and the Hague (1902)"
faculty,"
the last two devoted
to the subject of
by "intuition,"or by estimating
especially
e.g., whether
moral education.
ence,
(3) of the claims of various kinds of experiresults;
actual or imagined,to be considered good, such
The activities of the societies for Ethical Culture
selfin America
be summed
self-expression,
pleasure, virtue, power,
as
up under three heads:
may
exhortation.
social relief,education, and
moral
reahzation; (4)of freedom of the will.
in (a) a
view conduct
This examination
Hudson
The
of Dr.
Guild, under the management
may
of
Adler's first assistant.
Dr. John L. ElUott,is one
"jural"way, as rightor wrong, as in accord or not
with duty or what
the largest and
most
active social settlements
"ought to be done," involving
Madison
House
The
the lower
in New
York.
on
questions of authority of the moral law, criterion
House
in Philadelphia, for what is right,motive for doing duty, and means
East Side of New
York, Southwark
of discoveringduty; or (6) from the point of view
and the Henry Booth House in Chicago are
tive
of "value,"as to the meaning of good, and the relaother settlements.
One of the earUest activities of
value of goods, involving questions as to the
York
the organizationof
the Societyin New
was
of ideals,
the various virtues,
The
nature and formation
a
system of district nursing for the poor.
of the societyhave been very active in relief
or
types of good character,the relation of the
women
ful,
with the
measures
morally good to the useful,the pleasant,the beautiwork, co-ordinatingpractical
writers to theories
and
in the meetings
constant
leading with some
study of ethical principles
and the
Manhattan
Conference.
The
of their Women's
concerning the ultimate nature of reality,
tions.
existence of evil.
Trade School for girlsis one
of their early foundawork
3. Study and criticism of (1) individual acts as
A recent development in the society's
to whether
has been the formation
of vocational groups (busithey are rightor wrong, or of proposed
ness
of action
casuistry; (2) of individual or
courses
tion
lawyers,physicians)to study the applicamen,
national character; (3) social,economic, pohtical,
of ethical principles
to their profession.
The founder of the movement
has insisted that
family,and religiousinstitutions as to their value
ethics is a matter
of Ufe-longeducation,therefore
morally.
"

"

"

the very basis of his system hes the School.

Ethical Culture School,founded on Froebelian
modest
of education, has grown
from
.principles
at

The

beginnings,forty years ago, adding kindergarten

(the first in America), normal, and high school

departments,and

now

contains

some

700

pupils.

chieflythe theories
For 3 see Capitalism, Ethics
of;
Labor
Movement, Ethics of; Politics, Ethics
Ethics.
of; Justice; Social
oped
Oriental peoples develII. Oriental
Ethics.
in close contheir moral codes in most
cases
This

article will consider

under
falling

2.

"

153

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

Ethics

in this insistence upon

great service was
inquiry
and upon
what
the germ
of one
was
aspect of
scientific method
the effort to generalize,or to
seek the common
factor in various cases.
In answer
to the question: What
does wisdom
teach as to the good, three typicalanswers
came.
Cyrenaics,headed by Aristippusof Cyrene,declared
for pleasure intense, permanent;
Cynics, among
Antisthenes
and Diogenes were
whom
famous, held
the
that
the
wise
his
shows
on
man
contrary
superiorityand freedom by disdainingpleasures,
promptings of desire,and the commonly accepted
burden rather than
goods of civilization which
both
followed
a
satisfy. Plato
metaphysical
and a social-psychological
line of inquiry. Pursuing
the former he took up the conception of a
quest for the one genuine,permanent, universal good,
with the many,
transient,
as contrasted
seeming or false,
particularor private goods. Pursuing the
method
he seeks a well-ordered
social-psychological
harmonious
life,guided by reason, a health of the
soul,as contrasted with a lifeof feverish appetites
be a
and uncramped passions. Happiness cannot
standard
for living since different types of men
will seek happiness each
in satisfyinghis own
desires. Rather
for happiness must
standard
a
be set, and this Plato finds in the choice of the
he pictures
expert, the wise. In the Philebus
the perfect life as a mixture
of five ingredients:
harmony, wisdom, knowledge of the
measure,
various
and
arts
sciences,pure pleasures (e.g.,
The
acter
aesthetic and
intellectual).
types of charadmired
and
esteemed
excellence
or
are
analyzed and become known as the cardinal virtues:
ance
(1) wisdom, (2) courage, (3) self control,tempersoundness
of mind, and (4) justice. Here,
or
a
then, was
great attempt to set forth a rational
plan of life and of society,which should take the
and unthinking control on
place of conventional
the one
those of
The fundamental
relations for him were
hand, and of the anarchy of lust and passions
the other.
on
sovereign and subject,father and son, elder and
correlate of such an
The
social and
and
political
wife, friend and
brother,husband
younger
ordered
life is to be found, according to Plato,
rule was
that of
friend, and the fundamental
not in extreme
ment
democracy, but rather in an improveReciprocity. Do not unto others what you would
of the class system.
A ruling class is as
For Hebrew
ideals see
done
not
to you.
nave
in the
in a state as a ruling principle
of.
necessary
Israel, Religion
Ethics.
tion
III. Greek
Roman
Greek reflecindividual,but this ruling class should not be
and
determined
standards
and values began in the 5th.
by birth or wealth but by wisdorn.
upon
for their responsishould be educated
with the general unsettling of traditional Its members
bilities,
century B.C.
and
allowed
codes.
no
private property, lest
Religion,as representedin Homer
and Hesiod, no
they subordinate public to private interests. The
longer had its old authority,and
ceptions
religion. Certain ethical conmoral
and
given clear statement
The dominant
teachingswere
given systematic form.
note is practicalrather than scientific. Thus
in Egypt the concept justiceemerged at a very
of a
earlyperiod,in connection with the justification
mortal before the judgment seat of Osiris,and is
given social setting in the Tale of the Eloquent
Peasant in which the figureof the balance or scale
Book
of the Dead
is introduced.
The
recognizes
againstperson, property, and sexual purity,
wrongs
and gives prominence to kindliness,truthfulness,
code shows
the conand honesty. Hammurabi's
ception
notable for
of exact requital. Persia was
the sharp oppositionit set between
good and evil,
tracing them to independent principlesor powers.
India's central conception was
Karma, the deed
persistingas a determining series or system of
and
retribution
causation
through successive
how
rebirths. The
this
to escape
problem was
and
necessity.
unending chain of consequence
Brahmanism
sought relief through metaphysical
in the universal
paths such as merging individuality
insisted on
the ethical path of
self; Buddhism
attackingthe root of individuality,
namely egotistic
desire. This attack is to be made
by moral disacter
the
and
the
goal in charciplinCj Eightfold Path,
extinction of egotistic
IS holiness; in the
it is nirvana.
desire and emancipation from karma
for conduct in the
In China Lao Tse sought a norm
of nature,
the Way, or course
conception of Tao
which is characterized by unity, harmony, repose,
with no personal display. Confucius
(b. 551 b.c.)
impressed with the
K'ung Fu-tsu, likewise was
The
and human
nature.
order displayed in nature
path of moral education must begin with knowledge
and proceed, through enlightenment and sincerity
of mind, to rectifythe heart,and thus to cultivate
the person, and then to order well family and state.

nection

with

their

were

"

"

"

its morals

offended the ideals of the day. Politics

examples of the doctrine that might is right,
and that justiceis merely what the ruler declares to
for his own
interest. Impatience at the
be law
restraints laid by laws upon radical or individualistic
endeavor
expresseditselfin a challengeto laws and
institutions to justifythemselves.
They were called
and
"nature."
conventions
were
opposed to
Increasing opportunitiesfor careers
appealing to
and love of gain stimulated reflection
love of power
what constitutes real good. Conflicts between
upon
gave

"

dialogues Protagoras,Gorgias,Phaedrus, Republic,

for ethics.
Philebus,and Laws are most significant
Aristotle,
pupil of Plato,with less of the artist
and more
of the scientist in his make-up, writing
for his son, emphasizes like Plato the importance
of life.
of reason
as the guide and
orderingprinciple
Life's good or well-being must
be found in the
the
excellence
of man's
peculiar endowment,
intellectual nature, rather than in the vegetative
be defined as the perfect
and may
or animal
functions,
development or energizing of man's true nature.

furniture of external
be added some
between
the will of the
To this must
classes led to contrasts
be
multitudes
tage,
goods. The practicalvirtues,in which may
swayed by passion,or seeming advangentlemen,
demnationrecognized the traits of the Athenian
Conof the few who think.
and the wisdom
the due or proper degree
observe the "mean"
of Socrates by a popular assembly
i.e.,
be considered either as falling
of impulse,which may
even
though it was on complaint of the conservatives
is a mean
between
extremes
two
of the day
served as conclusive proof to Plato
generosity
(e.g.,
of the incapacity of "the many" to judge wisely. between
prodigalityand miserliness)or as being
the
"reasonable"
the
Socrates began systematicinquiryinto what is meant
degree. Pleasure is not
activity.
end of life,
but has a function as reenforcing
by good. In view of the varying portrayals of
him by Xenophon and
Higher than the moral virtues stand the intellectual
Plato, and of the extent
regard as divine,
and it is only these which we can
to which
Cynics and Cyrenaics alike claimed to be
God
consider
as
be cautious
cannot
curbing His
his disciples,it is necessary
to
in
since we
aeval
attributingpositivedoctrines to him, yet it seems
impulses. This gave the suggestionfor the mediclear that he emphasized the duty of examining
view that the contemplative lifeis superiorto
as contrasted
and the value of knowledge,or wisdoiji. His
the practical.In his Politics,
Aristotle,
life,
"

"

Ethics

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

with Plato, argues

that the illsof societyare
due
rather to bad men
than to institutions. He
finds
important values in property, and defends natural
slavery as a direction of the less capable by the

capable.
Despite the pre-eminent genius of Plato and
Aristotle the schools which had the largestfollowing
those of the Stoics and
were
Epicureans. These
more

AND

ETHICS

154

his being could find rest,and findinglittle

his fellows,
sympathy or understanding among
suffer
Spinoza finds the evils from which
men
arise from their ignorance and error
which permit
such divisive passions as hate, envy, and fear to
rule. To see
the world
from
the point of view
of eternity{subspecieaetemitatis)
by the intellect is
in which

substance
to see it as one
and to
^nature or God
ourselves as dependent. It is also to see the
both held up as pattern the ideal "wise man"
who
see
of imagining genuine goods to be separate
is guided by reason.
But
the Stoic temper saw
error
wisdom
and reason
in stern repressionof impulse
and conflicting.In the intellectual love of God we
find that union
and passion,the Epicurean in the selection of the
with
true
being, that supreme
most refined and lastingpleasures.
good, which renders us free and participantin the
divine.
IV. Christian
Ethics.
The Hebrew-Christian
In Great Britain the particularform taken in
conceptions of sin, redemption, and a kingdom of
God
ethical theory was
into which
due
could enter through divine
men
largely to the radical
Hobbes.
In the troubled
times
only, confronted the Graeco-Roman
thinker,Thomas
grace
tion
concepof the strugglebetween
of a lifeaccordingto nature.
The saint replaced
ment
King Charles and Parliawhen
asked what is the basis of rightful
the wise man.
Instead of a highestgood sought
men
in an
ordered
Hobbes
life or in a balance
of faculties authority,
answers:
right is what the state
declares to be such, and the state in turn gets
appeared the mystic goal of union with God.
ideals of poverty, chastity, and
Monastic
of keeping
ence
obedimeans
authority as being the necessary
claimed
a
higher regard than the class
peace_ and thus of self-preservation.To nearly
ideal of the Greek gentleman. The
faith, all his contemporaries this appeared dangerous
graces,
with
variously combined
ground. One school of critics aimed to show that
hope, and love were
the four virtues of Plato or the ten of Aristotle.
morality was grounded in eternal laws of nature,
Divine
or
reason
authority gave its sanction to the moral
(Cudworth,Cumberland, Clarke); the
and respKjnsibilityother that man
law.
The questions of freedom
has a taste or sense
which revolts
at certain actions and
became
others
more
urgent because of the overshadowing
(Shaftsapproves
both reason
solemnity of the great final Judgment with its
bury, Hutcheson). Butler combined
and feelingin his conception of conscience; Hume
awards
to eternal destiny.
Abelard
into pleasure plus symrationalistic
distinctively
a
stamp
analyzed the moral sense
gave
pathy,
of the will as the
and Adam
Smith used sympathy and social
to ethics by his doctrines of consent
Utilitarianism
decisive fact in moral good and evil,and of conscience
psychology to explain conscience.
of judgments. Thomas
Mill not
and
advocated by Bentham
was
as the norm
as
a
Aquinas
effected the most comprehensive synthesisof Christian
vindication of morals but as a method
of social
of
and Greek conceptions. Thus his treatment
reform.
twofold:
Its strength was
CI) its more
the natural or acquired
scientific method, the right or wrong
of an
the virtues seeks to combine
act,
from
Aristotle with the
virtues taken
Plato and
must
be tested by its consequences;
cratic
(2) its demoChristian virtues of faith,hope, and love divinely
standard, the greatest happiness of the
of law seeks a foundation
for one.
to count
man
infused; his treatment
greatest number, every
in the divine reason
but finds a knowledge of its
Its weakness
also twofold:
was
(1) its hedonistic
mind; his psychology theory of good according to which pleasure is in
principlesin the human
voluntariness
between
of human
moves
activity the last analysisthe only good, and (2) its hedonistic
seeks and. can
and supernaturalinfluence from divine omnipotence;
seek
theory of desire everyone
makes
his heavenly consummation
love result from
only pleasure.
the most
notable system was
the beatific vision.
His work
has had great and
On the Continent
that of Kant who, after promising earlyessays along
permanent influence. His doctrine that will follows
intellect was
the path of social psychology, produced a system
attacked by Scotus and Occam
who
asserted a primacy of will. According to Thomas,
duty, defined as a
which, like the Stoic, made
God recognizesthe good by his wisdom
and therefore
"categori(;alimperative," its central problem.
of man,
commands
He sought the solution in the dual natm'e
it; for Scotus the will and command
active is opposed to inclination
constitute the goodness; good is not independent
reason
as universal and
of voluntary selection. Casuistry,
the application
belonging to
as private,selfish,
passive (i.e.,
of principles
to the decision of specific
our
endowment, rather than to our spontaneous or
cases, had a
will gives
large development in the later Scholastic period. active will). Reason as man's legislative
him
end in himself.
an
man
dignity and makes
Mysticism,which magnified the vision of God and
union with him as the one true good was
represented The secret of duty lies in autonomy, that is,in the
of Clair vaux,
Hugo of St. Victor, fact that man
by Bernard
giveslaws to himself.
The influence upon ethical theory of the doctrine
Bonaventura, and Eckhart.
The
of evolution
Schools.
sided.
V. Modern
To
leading schools of
was
Spencer the
many
modern
ethics agreed in seeking an
law of struggle
and survival offered a criterion for
independent
basis of morality as contrasted with the authority
justice; the generallaws of biology,psychology,
which had been a dominant
scientific method
note.
and sociologypromised a more
Broadly speaking,
the 17th. century sought this basis in an
for reaching happiness than empirical observation.
intuitive reason,
the 18th. in feeling,the 19th.
But the most
important effect has been to direct
in a calculation of consequences.
But there were
the
origin and
development of
study toward
of the leadinglines of ethical inquiry
The
currents:
cross
one
politicalstrugglesfor liberty morality,
had
which found expressionin Locke and Rousseau
at present.
their ethical counterpart in Kant's
The
other field of greatest present interest is
conception of
social,economic, and political.On the one hand
autonomy or self-rule;the general growth of
relations
humanitarian feelingand of democratic
opposition the international
brought about
by
"the
modern
with
less developed
to privilegespoke in the Utilitarian maxims
trade, by contacts
greatest happiness of the
peoples,by the ambitions of imperialism,and the
greatest number,"
rise of nationalistic
one."
to count
brought
as
"every man
aspirations,have
The
of rationalistic ethics
the demand
for a largerethical world of obligation;
classic formulation
the other, the struggle between
is the Ethics of Spinoza. Seeking for a true good
on
capital and
"

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155

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Eunomianlsm

standards of living
set by the wealth
labor,the new
EUDAEMONISM
EUDEMONISM."
In
or
due
day, the changed relation of the sexes
ethics,the theory that the ultimate purpose of
the great social changesinvolved
to greater equality,
moral conduct consists in seeking,
experiencingand
in the shift from rural to urban
life,and finally creatinghappiness or well-being.
social classes formed
the new
economic
largelyon
The
EUGENICS."
lines are
application of the laws of
ards.
compelling a re-thinkingof ethical standheredityto the improvement of the human
James
H. Tufts
race.
All of our
knowledge of the laws of heredityin
is
inference
naan
from
ETHNIC
an
RELIGIONS."
The reUgions of racial
experiments with a few
simple plantsand animals,
conducted for a few years.
possessing features characteristic of such
groups,
The
factors
of
inheritance
in man
often used to distinguishother religions
are
more
groups;
infinitely
from Judaism
complex than in the simple organisms studied,so
and Christianity.
of the

that inference is often doubtful.

As material for
a
ETRUSCAN
is entirely
study of heredity,man
RELIGION."
The reUgion of the
beyond rigid
ancient Etruscans, who
experimental control,so that such evidence as we
occupied a large part of
have cannot
be tested.
central Italy.
The
method
used is to
collect testimony of every kind from
Although our knowledge of the religionof the
every source,
such as familypedigrees,records of physicians,
Etruscans is limited and fragmentary,we can gain
etc.
The "facts" of human
considerable information from the Etruscan
inheritance,therefore,upon
ments
monuwhich eugenics is based, are
inferences from more
and the Greek
and Latin writers.
If the
remains
of the Etruscan language are
factorily or less reliable data, impossible to be tested by
satisever
and interpretedby what is known
in
experiments,
add considerably to
deciphered, we may
reference to a few plants and animals.
As a result,
our
ences
present knowledge. Yet Italic and Greek influand
statements
in reference
were
so
many
some
legislation
strong that it will probably always be
to eugenics are
of doubtful value.
difficult to distinguishclearlyin all cases
It has become
the Etruscan
evident
that there are two categoriesof inheritance
from the alien elements.
in man,
called for convenience
Gods.
It is evident, however, that the Etrus"normal"
and "abnormal"
cans
and there are also two kinds
had a triad: Tinia, Uni, and Menvra, correinheritance;
sponding
of abnormal
which
inheritance,
roughly to the Greek Zeus, Hera, and
require different
treatment, a fact which makes effective legislation
Athena, which was established at Rome
at an early
difficult.
period as Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.
To
this
In spite of the limitations of knowledge, the
triad in each Etruscan
city three gates and three
when
eugenics movement,
dedicated. Besides these there was
temples were
wisely guided, deserves
a
council of nine gods; and we
is to give to
support. Its purpose
hear of a group
of
every child all
twelve gods, known
possibleadvantagesthat can be secured in connecto the Romans
the dii contion
as
with birth,by the eUmination of undesirable
and
sentes, six pairs, male
female, who
suggest
characters
and
the
sirnilar groups
acters.
the Greeks
improvement of desirable charand
certain
among
Thus far the movement
Oriental peoples. Above
the dii superihas been concerned
these were
with
the
eUmination of the undesirable,
divinities vaguely conceived, who
and this
ores, involiili,
has been restrictedchiefly
were
to inheritable diseases of
superiorto all.
After these emergency
Of lesser divinities there were
body and mind.
problems
many
groups:
have been solved by eliminating
the undesirable,
all
lares,
penates,genii of men, and junones of women,
the largerfieldof eugenicswill be to improve what is
of which
the Remans
adopted. Gods of the clan
and of the family as well as the spirits
desirable,
providing all the conditions that determine
of the dead
health and vigor.
received worship. The
John
M. Coulter
horrible punishments of
hell and the very material dehghts of paradise are
EUGENIUS."
The name
of four popes.
vividly portrayed on paintingsin Etruscan tombs.
Eugeniusl. Pope, 654-657.
Ritual.
In matters
of worship the Etruscans
Eugenius 11."Pope, 824-827; duringhis pontificate
most
were
punctihous. Their system, the Etrusca
it was
enacted
that priestsshould not wear
of the Romans, was
discipliria
rately
elaboset forth most
secular dress or engage
in worldly pursuits.
in writingsknown
to us onlyin part from the
Eugenius III. Pope, 1145-1153, enjoyed the
Latin authors.
Especiallyhighly developed was
and
friendship
of Clairvaux
support of Bernard
their system of divination. Portents were
of three
(q.v.);organized the second crusade; excommunicated
classes: those sent by lightning,
those given by the
Arnold of Brescia.
entrails,
chieflyby the Hver,of animals,and thirdly
Eugenius IV.
Pope, 1431-1447; his papacy
those shown by other means, such as earthquakes,
marked
was
tion
by a long and bitter strugglefor dominashowers
of blood or of stones, comets, etc.
Other
between
the pope
and the council of Basel.
books dealt with the limitation of plots of ground
Although once deposed by the council,the pope was
and of temples, with sacred law, and with fate and
ultimatelytriumphant, the victory establishing
the dead, all these topicsbeing regarded as
part of
church
unity and re-estabhshing the prestige of
religion. Although our knowledge of many
details
the papacy.
is lacking,it is clear that the Romans
took many
religiousas well as political
institutions from their
EUHEMERISM."
The
Euhemerus
name
is
northern neighbors. The art of the Etruscan harusthat of a Greek writer of the 3rd. century b.c. who
piceswas
highly prized by them to the end of the
to
the
Greek
attempted
explain
gods as ancient
4th. Christian century.
Clifford
H. Moore
rulers and heroes who, because of their services to
had
been worshiped as divine after their
mankind,
EUCHARIST."
See Lord's
Supper.
death.
His work was
ing
describa fictitiousnarrative
his discovery
of the inscriptions
and of the grave
EUCHITES.
(1) A 4th. century monastic sect
of Zeus in Crete.
The
is now
term
applied to
which
originatedin Mesopotamia and spread into
theories which trace the originof gods to reverence
Syria. They
emphasized mystic communion
for the souls of the dead,ancestral,
heroic,or kingly.
through incessant prayer, and depreciatedthe sacraments
and rites of the church.
Also called MessaliEUNOMIANISM."
An extreme
form of Arian
ans.
(2) A sect of Thracian dualists of the 11th.
Christology,
developed by Eunomius
(died ca. 393)
century which was a recrudescence of Manichaeism.
that
Christ
was
holding
creature
a
ordinate
wholly subSee New
Manichaeans,
to God
in nature.
"

"

"

"

"

"

Eunuch

EUNUCH.

"

An

DICTIONARY

emasculated

or

OF

RELIGION

desexualized

man.

Among certain peoplesthe practiceof desexuaUzation was

as
a
performed sometimes
punishment
and sometimes
act of voluntary asceticism.
as
an
the eunuch
In Asia Minor
priestwas frequently
associated with the mystery cults. The social status
is usuallylow, and among
of eunuchs
the Indians,
denied
and
Hebrews
early Christians,they were
privileges.The Muslims
religious
employ eunuchs
as
guardians of the harems and as trusty servants.
R.C. church
has recorded
its disapproval of
The
unless surgicallyperformed for
sexual mutilations
pathologicalcauses.
EUSEBIUS."
for four months
Bishop of Rome
in 309 or 310; included in the listof popes.
EUSEBIUS
OF CAESAREA
(ca.26("-ca. 340)."
Ecclesiastical historian and theologian. He was
a
pupil of Pamphilus, presbyter of Caesarea, with
in the preparation of a
he collaborated
whom
defense of Origen'steachings. He became
bishop
At the council of Nicaea,
of Caesarea
314.
ca.
ates,
325, he was the leader of the middle party of moderbut assented
to the Alexandrian
position,
although he reserved the rightof interpretingit in
then
From
on
the direction of Semi-Arianism.
_

he supported orthodoxy againstArianism, although

He
his friends were
possessed
chiefly Arians.
amazing erudition,his books furnishingknowledge
concerning the whole field of theologicaldoctrine
in his day, and servingas a most
important source
scholars.
of information
to modern

AND

ETHICS

156

scepticismand indifference. The

at the beginning of the calendar
achievements
lands where
international

"week of prayer"
is one
of the
of the Alhance.
It is active
in
religiouspersecution prevails. Ten
conferences have been held.
year

EVANGELICAL

ASSOCIATION."
A Christian
in Pennsylvania by Jacob
Albright (1759-1808), a German
Lutheran
who
had become
The poUty and theology
a Methodist.
resemble
those of Methodism.
In 1891 there was
a
branch
breach, the eastern
taking the name,
United
The
Evangehcal church.
sociation
Evangehcal Asin 1919
had
159,310 members, and the
United Evangelicalchurch, 88,847.

denomination

founded

EVANGELICAL
EVANGELICA.

COUNSELS."

See

Consilia

EVANGELICAL

UNION."
A
denomination
in 1843 by Rev. James
Morrison
(18161893), his father,and two other ministers of the
church
of Scotland
who
were
deposed for antiCalvinistic views.
It found
sympathizers
many
the Scottish Congregationalists,
and finally
among
in 1896 was
in
the CongregationalUnion of
merged
Scotland.

founded

EVANGELICALISM."

form

of

orthodox
man's sinful
nature, the necessityof the atonement, salvation
through faith,
personalunion with Christ,and which
labors for the conversion
of sinners through the
preaching of the Gospel. Similar movements
Cocceianism
in Holland and Pietism in Germany,
were
but evangelicalism
in English-speakingcounThe theory that under certain
EUTHANASIA."
tries
its rise to the Wesleys and Whitefield.
It
owes
circumstances, such as disease or age, a person
agreeable
is opposed to ritualism,
and has made least progress
life is rendered
whose
permanentlyinutile or dischurches.
in liturgical
It has given birth to numerkilled either by himself
be painlessly
ous
may
another.
missionaryand philanthropic
as well
or
enterprises,
primitivepeoples there
Among some
as
was
expressingitself in revivalistic movements.
a practiseof this kind, although the methods
not often painless. Christian ethics has rigidly
were
EVIDENCES
CHRISTIANITY."
OF
See
opposed either suicide or the taking of life on any
Apologetics.
There
has been a tendency in certain
account.
quarters to revive the doctrine in recent years.
EVIL.
That
wnich
thwarts
or
prevents the
satisfaction of human
EUTYCHES
and
EUTYCHIANISM."
ter
Presbydesires,or ideals,and hence
is an obstacle to the reahzation of the good.
and archimandrite
of Constantinople,Eutyches
into prominence as
The existence of forces and realities which
an
(ca. 380-ca. 456), came
restrict the full exercise of vital impulses and aspiraadherent of Cyriland an opponent of Nestorius at
tions
He declared that the
is univei sallyrecognized,
the council of Ephesus, 431.
although the explanations
coalesced in the womb
of evil are various.
Both religion
and ethics
human
and divine natures
neither God nor
aim to aid men
of Mary, producing Jesus,who was
to recognizethe nature
of evil and
but God-man.
from its power.
At the "robber
to escape
synod" of
man,
Evils.
I. Classification
of
vindicated, but at
(1) Physical
Ephesus, 449, Eutyches was
Natural
Evil exists when
the forces or moveor
ments
EutychiChalcedon, 451, he was excommunicated.
for a Christology
which
anism is a historical term
of the physical world injurehuman
welfare.
in the
distinct natures
does not preserve
the two
destructive
Physical disasters such as earthquakes,
See Monophysitism.
incarnate Christ.
storms, diseases,and death are inevitable in the
world as we
know
it. Here man's choice plays a
EUTYCHIANUS."
insignificant
relatively
Pope, 275-283.
part. (2) Moral Evil is due
to man's
own
choice,and springsfrom uneducated
used
to
A
term
EVANGELICAL.
or
perverted desires. Cruelty,oppression,murder,
express
licentiousness,
primary loyalty to the Gospel of Jesus Christ,in
etc., are examples.
II. Explanations
No
Physical
contrast
to ecclesiastical or rationalistic types of
op
Evil.
Evil is essenChristianity The Y.M.C.A., e.g., permits only
explanation is entirelysatisfactory.
tially
officers.
members
irrational thing,out of placein a good world.
of evangelicalchurches to become
an
in
The
of Christ
Federal
Council
of Churches
Typical theories are: (1) Malignant activity
of evil
America
is composed exclusivelyof evangelical spirits,
which
In some
torture
and ensnare
men.
bodies.
evil spirit
is held responsible,
cases
one
as
supreme
Ahriman
in Zoroastrianism,or the Devil in Jewish
EVANGELICAL
Christian
ALLIANCE."
A
uncontrolled
voluntary and
thought. (2) The
association of Protestants of various denominations
domination
to
of desire. To give one's self over
and various countries organized in London, England, desire is to make life dependent for its satisfactions
in 1846 to promote Protestant liberty"against
the incidental occurrences
of nature.
on
Rehgious
the encroachments
rational suppression of desire eUminates
and Puseyism," and to
of popery
evil.
or
inculcate genuine Scripturalpiety in the face of
Buddhism
and
Stoicism
represent this view.
which laysspecial
Christianity
emphasis on

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157

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

ETHICS

AND

Evolution

This is a
EVIL
The ordinary English term for the
EYE."
metaphysical absence of Good.
the power,
have
of including evil in a monistic
superstitionthat some
persons
Evil means
killing
or even
finiteness,or imperfection. whether voluntary or not, of injuring,
system.
with a glance,men, animals and plants. This belief
for more
It indicates room
goodness. Augustine,
ancient peoples and survives
most
prevailedamong
e.g., declared that anything is good in so far as it
the uneducated
classes in Oriental and European
uneducated way of
exists at all. (4) A perverted
or
among
that from
countries.
be assumed
conceivingreality. It may
God's point of view all is good. If we could see
EVODIUS.
Christian
First bishopof Antioch, according
things as he does, evil would vanish.
The
Greek
church
monistic philosophies
Science (q.v.)
and some
regards him as
expound to Eusebius.
this theory. (5)Maladjustment in a growing world.
a martyr, but there is no
early evidence of martyrdom.
The conception of evolution suggests this doctrine
be
of "growing pains." Further development may
EVOLUTION."
The terra has very broad application
ment
expected to relieve the tension.
(6) Divine punishin science,but as ordinarilyused it refers to
for wrong-doing. This has been a favorite
"organic evolution,"meaning that existing
plants
theologicaltheory, but failsto meet the facts,as is
and animals
have been derived by lineal descent
so
convincinglyshown in the Book of Job.
Evil.
from
unlike
III. Ways
Escape
Physical
of
from
previously existing forms that were
not static,but
It implies that species are
These are implicitly
suggested in the theories given. them.
Evil spirits
be placated or rendered impotent;
must
vary so as to give rise to other species,and that in
this way
the plant and animal kingdoms have been
hence charms, incantations,
its,
protectionof good spirSee Magic;
Exorcism.
Or desire must
etc.
evolving since fife began.
I. The
Idea.
The idea of evolution is as old
be ehminated; hence ascetic discipline.Or wrong
record
of man's
be righted;hence philosophical as
our
general
thought. The
conceptions must
authors of the idea
tian
in Chrisimpression that certain men
are
as
refinements,or religious
indoctrination,
of evolution is a mistake.
So far as we know, it is
Science.
Or maladjustments must be reheved,
the common
as by manipulating
physicalforces. Applied science
property of the human
race, and no man
be cited as its author.
in the fields of medicine and
can
engineering is an
II. The
Fact.
That
organic evolution is a
important agent here. Or divine forgivenessmust
fact was
scientific observations
be secured that the "curse "may be removed.
All
suggested when
of the above ways
in almost any comcurrent
began, which set thoughtful men
munity.
thinking that perare
haps
idea.
evolution is a fact and not merely an
None can be said to be entirelysuccessful.
Concerning
IV. Theories
these
Moral
Evil.
observations,arranged in
Conspicuousamong
their chronologicalsequence,
the following:
choose what harms themselves
were
Why do men deliberately
observed
that it
1. Inter gradingforms. It was
and others?
to
(1) Free will enables man
is often impossible to separate related species by
make evil as well as good decisions. But it does not
hard and fast lines. All sorts of intergradeswere
explainwhy he chooses evil. (2) Temptation must
thus be recognized as an alluringinfluence,either
found, shading so insensiblyfrom one speciesinto
evident.
another
in the form of evil suggestionfrom another (Satan,
that no
line of separation was
Museum
collections of plants and animals represent
evil men) or in the solicitation of immediate
sensuous
of consequences.
distinct;
gratification,
(3)Fleshly selected material, and these are
regardless
very
but when
observation
is extended
to large popument
desire is often contrasted
with
spiritualattainlations
evil propensity inherent in
in the field,these distinctions often disappear.
so
as to suggest an
the flesh. So long as desire is active,moral evil
will result. Asceticism
2. Adaptation. It became evident that plants
(q.v.) frequently adopts
and animals often change in response
tions
this theory. (4)Originalsin (q.v.)
to the condihas been invoked
first
of living. This abiUty to change was
by Christian theology,assertingan innate propensity
due to our inheritance from Adam.
to evil-doing
spoken of as "adaptation" to environment, but
it is more
declared by Socrates to be the
often called a "response" to changed
now
(5) Ignorance was
conditions.
that
for wrong-doing. In the sense
of a lack of
shown
one
reason
Experiments have
be
moral education
it is responsiblefor much
can
species of plant, as ordinarilyrecognized,
wrong
behavior.
ditions
changed into another speciesoy changing the con(6) Finiteness is a more
philosophical
way
of expressing
the hmitations due to ignorance. (7)
of living.
of
3. Vestiges. In
Atavism, or the persistenceof animal instincts in
studying the anatomy
human
beings, is an explanation suggested by the
plants and animals,numerous
vestigesof structures
found.
used but now
once
theory of Evolution.
no
longer useful were
V. Ways
Escape
Moral
Evil.
The
It seemed
of
from
impossible to explain such structures
The
problem is to assure
a rightexercise of choice.
except that they have been inherited from plants or
occasion
for wrong
choice must
used them.
be removed
animals that once
Such vestigesappear
and
the will set free to follow the good. Two
plantsand animals,
principal not only in the bodies of mature
in the
have been recommended
in religious
and moral
but even
often appear
more
strikingones
ways
systems.
(1) A physicalor metaphysicaltransformadeveloping embryo, and disappear before the body
tion.
is employed to loosen the
Ascetic discipline
is completely organized.
hold of the flesh,and
the geological
4. The geological
record. When
spiritualor philosophical
meditation
observed that there
to fortifythe spirit. Often
record began to be opened, it was
or
prayer
this is secured by dramatic
had been a succession of plant and animal forms, the
religiousrites. See
In
ancient very different from those of today,but
most
Purification; Initiation; Regeneration.
much
laid on
stress has been
the subsequent ones
Christianity
graduallyapproaching our
eration
regenand
the
imparting of divine
present flora and fauna, and insensiblygrading into
grace
historical record, clearly
them.
This
extensive
(q.v.). (2) Moral education always accompanies
the above
exist without
them.
methods, and may
showing a gradual approach through uncounted
Today it is increasinglyfelt to be fundamental.
existingplants and animals, was
haps
peryears to our
Choices are influenced largelyby the ideals which
tion
influential than any other singleobservamore
enlist the emotions.
The great problem is to put
in extending the beUef in the fact of organic
evolution.
developinghuman
beings into vital possessionof
ideals. See Religious
5. Domesticated animals arid plants. Men
Education;
began
Teleology;
Gerald
Birney
Smith
Good; Sin.
to realize that animals and plants taken from the

(3) The

"

philosophical
way

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Evolution

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

be called
wild state and subjected to what
may
domestication,had become very much changed, in
that the wild originals
could
cases
so much
so
many
tion
not be recognized. Through centuries of domesticaplants and animals had been responding and
modified that if they had been
often had become
so
found growing wild they would have been described
tion
as
new
species. This was an experiment in evolua giganticscale,
proving that organisms
upon

AND

ETHICS

158

period of experimental work, by means

of which
control are
plants and animals under proper
served
obto produce new
species. The theory was
announced
by Hugo DeVries of Amsterdam, whose
breedingexperimentswith a speciesof evening primrose

led him
to his conclusion.
He
found
that
the progeny of this primrose a few individuals
ent
appeared occasionallythat were
entirelydifferfrom the parent, and these individuals continued
to breed true to their differences.
not static.
In other words,
are
whose names
III. The Explanation.
^The men
in a singlegeneration,suddenly
new
speciesarose
and completely formed, without
associated with evolution are those who
have
are
the slow building
All of
attempted to explain the fact of evolution.
up requiredby natural selection.
The conclusion is that all of these explanations
the explanations offered may
to be wrong,
prove
enter into the problem; that perhaps no one
and still the fact remain
of them
to be explained. More
is adequate to explainall the phenomena of evoluintensive experimentalwork has suggestedthat some
tion;
and that still more
of the explanations may
be adequate, but it
needed.
not
are
explanations
should be understood that this does not involve any
John
M. Coultek
the
EVOLUTION
fact. From
IN RELATION
lack of behef in evolution
TO THEOLOGY.
as
a
be selected as
four may
several explanationsoffered,
During the past half century Christian thinking
ginninghas been compelled to reckon with the conception
the most
important, since each represents the beof evolution.
obvious
The first and most
of a new
quence
conseepoch in the history of the
to raise the question of the historicity
was
subject.
ment
of the first chapters of Genesis; for the theory of
1. Environment
(1790-). The factor of environing
biologicalevolution pictured the various species
as explainingthe variations of organisms leadannounced
to the origin of new
arisingthrough a long and complicated process,
species was
whereas
the account
in Genesis picturesthem
almost simultaneouslyduring the last decade of the
as
created by fiat. The
18th. century by Goethe in Germany, St. Hilaire in
was
hypothesis that man
derived by a transmutation
in England. Their
of lower speciesseemed
Darwin
France, and Erasmus
and are
and the trato discredit the religious
value of man;
conclusion was
ditional
that organisms are plastic
moulded
into various forms by the direct effect of
explanationof the originof sin isundermined
if the historicity
of Adam
is called in question.
environment.
The seasonal changes in the plumage
Christian theology has not yet adjusted itself
offered among
of birds and the fur of mammals
were
In general
to the new
the first
the evidences
of this effect. This was
satisfactorily
point of view.
it may
be said that those who
insist on the maintenance
and naturallyit is
scientificexplanationof evolution,
of the doctrine of Scripturalinfallibility
It was
the most
recognized
soon
one.
superficial
either frankly hostile to the doctrine of evolution,
role in evolution,
that while environment
does play some
are
else so "interpret"it in the interests of
it is relatively
or
a subordinate
one, and that some
in
fundamental
more
preserving a "harmony" with the accounts
explanationwas needed,
2. Use and disuse (1801-). This explanation Genesis that they fail to deal honestly with it.
of religious
On the other hand an increasingnumber
in the
offered by Lamarck, the first great name
was
thinkers have sought to reinvestigate
the problems of
He called it "appetency" or
historyof evolution.
He had observed that an
the "doctrine of desires."
theologyin the lightof the new conception. It has
been discovered
that while the acceptance of the
is developed by use, and deteriorates through
organ
disuse.
His picture was
that of an animal
facing evolutionary hypothesis requires considerable
revision of the content
of doctrine,a world conconditions of livingwhich made
demands.
ceived
new
new
in terms
of process
As a consequence,
certain organs
would be called
(which is what the
in its most
before and would develop; while
general
conception of evolution means
never
as
upon
others which had been of service in other conditions
sense) is capable of a religiousinterpretation
which
shall preserve
of
the essential attitudes
would be no longeruseful and would deteriorate and
full implications of the
Christian faith. The
perhaps even disappear. In other words, new needs
demands
would make
new
point of view are as yet very imperfectly
(or "desires" as Lamarck
new
stantly
apprehended; but fruitful thinking is being conput it),and the organism would respond in a new
done
the problem. It would
kind of development. This explanation was
on
deep
appear
that Christian
seated enough to involve the whole organism, but
theology will ultimatelywelcome
is scientifically
established
and
whatever
due to the fact that itinvolved the
its weakness
give
was
lation
inheritance
of acquired characters,a possibility it a religious
in Reinterpretation.See Science
Smith
has discredited.
which subsequent investigation
Gerald Birney
TO Theology.
tory
his3. Natural selection (1858-). The modern
AUGUST
VON
GEORG
HEINRICH
of biology and of science in generaldates from
EWALD,
orientalist and theologian,
the announcement
(1803-1875). German
by Charles Darwin of natural
noted
He had
selection as an explanation
of evolution.
as
an
exegete, bibUcal critic,grammarian
and philologist.His HistoryofIsrael was
had been able to change animals
an
observed that man
epochand plants from their wild forms into others better
making work of historical interpretation.
the most desirable
suited to his purpose,
by selecting
from
EX
CATHEDRA."
individuals generationafter generationfor breeding,
a
bishop's
Literally,
seat
and thus graduallyincreasingthe desired character.
a
specifically
professor'schair; a term
or
He conceived of nature
emanating from
as
appliedto those officialutterances
engaged in a similar process.
ing
to be authoritative and, accordin every direction, the Pope, deemed
Plants and animals vary
council of 1871,
to the decree of the Vatican
and nature
selects the individuals best adapted to
to be infallible and binding on all Catholics.
the conditions of living,by destroying those less
adapted. This impUes a competition,which Darwin
EXALTATION
OF CHRIST."
In R.C. theology
called "the strugglefor existence,"
resultingin what
the events
figuration,
in the Ufe of Christ such as the transHerbert
Spencer afterwards called "the survival of
resurrection and ascension which showed
the fittest."
his divine power
in contradistinction from the events
4. Mutation
(1901). The theory of mutation
of his hunuliation (q.v.).
of evolution ushered in the modern
as an explanation
among

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

159

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

EXAMINATION
OF
CONSCIENCE."
A
one's past deeds, words, and thoughts
for the purpose
of repentance and correction.
It
in
was
ancient religiousmen
practicedby many

scrutinyof

Egypt, Babylonia, India, especiallyBuddhists,

and Pythagorean and Stoic philosophersin Greece
and Rome, as well as by the Jews.
R.C. theology
considers it a requisitepreparation for confession,
and
Christian
spiritualwriters generally recommend
its dailypractice.
EXARCH."
(1) In the Eastern church, a dignitary
intermediate
in rank between
the patriarch
and the metropoUtan, his diocese being one
of the
several
politicaldivisions; also a general over
monasteries.
(2) In the Greek church, a legateor
deputy of the patriarchwho has oversight of the
to him.
clergy and churches committed

AND

ETHICS

Exegesis

prophecies all looked forward to Jesus as Messiah

and so were
to be expounded in detailed reference
Otherwise scribal rules were
to his career.
followed.
2. Allegory. Greek thought in the 5th. century
in an attempt to save Homer
from the charge
B.C.J
of irreligion,
adopted the method
of allegory.
This taught that the apparent meaning of a
passage
has a deeper meaning underlyingit,which
is the
that the author reallywished to
sense
a
convey,
to be detected
sense
rules.
by various (arbitrary)
This method was
followed freelyin the Hellenistic
world (especially
in Stoicism) and
was
adopted
by certain Jews (notablyby Philo)and, as a matter
of course, by Christians.
3. Patristic and
medieval
first
periods. The
elaborate exegesiswas
produced by the Gnostics,
who
were
and the allegorical
thorough allegorists,
method
dominated
the works of Origen and the Alexandrian
school also. In opposition,
the Antiocheans
used allegory more
sparingly,insistingthat it be
built on
the literalsense
Chrysostum)
(especially
it (Theodore of Mopsuestia, the
or
even
discarding
ablest patristic
exegete). The Latin fathers differ
TertuUian was the strictest literalist
considerably;
but the influence of Augustine gave later interpretation
in GregAlexandrian tone (particularly
an
ory
I.). In the medieval church,the fathers' specific
were
interpretations
generallyheld to be normative,
and so medieval
works
were
largelycompilations
from the past (catenas,
or
scholias,
glosses;Wilifrid
Strabo's glossa
ordinaria came
to have almost canonical
authority). Developed Scholasticism (Thomas
in Scripture,
Aquinas) distinguishedfour senses
moral and anagogical
literal,
allegorical
(doctrinal),
"

"

EXCOMMUNICATION."
Temporary or permanent
exclusion from the religious
fellowship.
Power to exercise this discipline
entrusted
to
was
the elders of Jewish communities
(Ezra 10:8, John
9:22) and from Apostolic times was exercised by
the Christian congregation (Matt. 18:15ff.) and
later by
the
excommunication
bishop. Minor
until
suspended from sharing in the sacraments
reinstatement
after penance,
while major excommunication,
the greater bann, meant
complete
exclusion from the church and from Christian burial.
Before a man
under
the greater bann, mass
must
not be celebrated and the faithful who had dealings
with
him
incurred
the minor
excommunication.
Pius IX. in 1869 limited this to the case
course
of inter(eschatological).
with one
publiclyexcommunicated
by name
4. Reformationand modern periods. Humanism
by the Pope. In the Middle Ages major excommunication
brought a revival of interest in historyfor its own
involved banishment
and, in the case of
sake as weU as a knowledge of the originaltongues.
In the Catholic
a king, loss of the right to rule.
The
broke
with tradition as deterReformation
mining
church the rightto excommunicate
and to absolve
and
with allegory. At
exegesis
(usually)
the
absolution
in
certain
to
cases
belongs
bishop,
first (Luther and Calvin) there was
a tendency to
Certain acts of themselves
being reserved for the pope.
of the Bible but Protestant orthodoxy
a freer ha,ndling
excommunicate
without
official action.
In
est.
to dogmatic intersubjectedall interpretation
Lutheranism
ciplinary
the practice has dwindled to a disDuring the 17th. century CathoHc expositionis
refusal of the sacrament.
In churches of
not seldom
truer than Protestant.
With the 18th.
Calvinist lineage it has been
more
a
prominent
cism
and the criticentury the growth of historic method
feature of church
discipUne,though tending to
of orthodoxy by pietism led to better exegesis
fallinto disuse.
In a Congregationalpolityexcommunication
(Bengel). But a really objective interpretation
to be an act of the whole congregawas
tion.
came
only through a freer philosophy;with J. A.
Now
there is often a quiet exclusion by a
Semler
modern
his time
exegesis begins. From
committee
revision of the membership fist.
the historyof exegesisis largelythat of Biblical
criticism (q.v.). Schleiermacher
insisted on studying
EXEGESIS.
Explanation of the meaning of
the psychology of the Biblical writers.
H. A. W.
in
of
Biblical
a
particular,explanation
writing;
Meyer developed most elaboratelythe grammaticwritings.
historic method.
The
influence of the religiousIn modern
tinguished
parlance "exegesis"is usually dishistorical school is now
prominent.
from "exposition,"
the former word being
II. Method.
Exegetical study of a passage
used for historical explanation and the latter for
edge
accurate
an
text, togetherwith knowlpresupposes
practical
reUgiousexplanation. The rules governing
of all "introduction"
questions (author,
exegesisare known as "hermeneutics,"but the word
readers,time and place of writing,etc.). And it
is fallinginto disuse,as these rules do not really also
knowledge of contemporary history,
presupposes
form
a
primary task of
separate science. The
The task is usuallydivided
thought and customs.
exegesisis to furnish the Biblical basis of theologyt intu linguistic
the meaning of the words
fixing
exegesis,
time!
until
modern
unfortunately,
comparatively
ical
and explaining
the grammatical constructions ;historthis task was
too often construed
defense
the
as
on
the concepts as they would
exegesis,
interpreting
a preconceivedtheological
position.
have been understood
istic
by contemporaries;and stylI. Exegesis
History.
in Christian
exegesis,determining the form of the expressions
1. Palestinian Christianity.Palestinian Jewish
(history,conscious legend, hyperbole,irony,
times was
Testament
concerned
exegesisin New
etc.),and endeavoring to penetrate to the mind of
the Old Testament
the author as he wrote.
Modern
chieflyin interpreting
as
a guide
exegesisendeavors
for legalistic
to interpret
the parts of a writingin relation to the
observance,with especialreference to
into accord with scribal
whole and prefersto deal with entire paragraphs,in
bringingthe interpretation
tradition
In contrast,
of a (not distant)past that
(see Scribes; Talmud).
contrast
to the method
of the Law were
Jesus taught that the moral demands
All
treated singleverses
the units of discussion.
as
to be explained by his knowledge of the nature
of
theologicalpresuppositionsshould be barred and
God.
His interpretation
construction should not begin until the
was
tive
norma(theoretically)
theological
for the church.
The church held also that the
work is completed. But it is needless to
exegetical
"

"

"

"

say
can

DICTIONARY

Exemption

OP

RELIGION

that only a student reallyinterested in religion

writingsuccessfully.
interpreta religious
B. S. Easton

EXEMPTION.
(1) A dispensationwhereby a
from an
is granted freedom
obligationor
person
failure to meet
from the penalty consequent upon
such obligation. (2) In the R. C. ecclesiastical
"

dispensation whereby

regulations,a

or
persons
institutions are released from the authority of their
regularlyconstituted superior,and placedunder a
higher authority,or directlyunder the Holy See.

EXOGAMY.
The marriage law of earlysociety
outside
which
to find his mate
compelled a man
kin or social group.
his own
"

A name
EXORCISM.
appliedto the freemg
of
of human
beings from evil spirits,by means
is
Exorcism
rehgious ceremonies.
magical or
and is to be distinguished
individual rite,
an
strictly
from the occasional or periodicexpulsionof demons
from an entire community.
1. Demoniacal
possession. According to the
"

"

AND

ETHICS

160

4. Exorcism

in the higher religions.Exorcism

regularlypracticedby the ancient Egyptians.
As for the Babylonians and Assyrians,it has been
pointed out that in almost the whole of their religious
literature the expressions "sin," "sickness," and
terms.
"possessionby evil spirits"are synonymous
"

was

exorcism-formulas
that have survived contain
information
about
the Assyro-Babylonian
and the procedure for expellingthem.
demons
The
classical peoples had their professional
and
exorcists,
the same
true of the Jews.
The numerous
stances
inwas
of exorcism recorded in the New
Testament
be interpreted
spread
in the Ught of the widemust, therefore,
and ancient doctrine of demoniacal
possession.
tians
5. Exorcism
in Christianity.The early Chrisdeities to real but evil
degraded the pagan
which entered the bodies of men, disordering
spirits,
their health and stealingaway
The
their minds.
minute
Fathers
contain
writings of the Church
of the demoniacs, or "energumens," for
accounts
whom
created by
a
specialorder of exorcists was
Cathothe middle of the 3rd. century.
The Roman
hc and Greek churches use exorcism in the baptismal
of persons supas well as in specific
cases
posed
ceremony,
of
Church
The
to be possessed by devils.
discarded
England has now
exorcism, but it still
of the
accompanies baptism as practiced by some
churches.
Hutton
Webster
Lutheran
The

much

"

principleof the animistic philosophy (seeAnimism),

souls and spiritsare capable either of independent
in human, animal, or
existence or of embodiment
The theory of demoniacal
other forms.
possession
often provides a sufficient explanation of abnormal
and
mental.
Just as
conditions,both physical
The
is
EXPEDIENCY."
theory that what
there are
spiritswhich produce internal diseases
cumstances
existing ciradvantageous or utihtarian under
ditions,
accompanied by severe
pain,fever,or anaemic conshould determine
the course
of human
in
whose presence
there are other spirits
so
is expedient may
regard
disconduct.
Sometimes
what
the human
body results in hysteria,delirium, or
conflict with what
is ethical.
In
or
even
madness.
is
the expedient in the broadest sense
other cases
disease
When
and
2. Methods
made
the criterion for determining ethical obUgaof exorcism.
insanity are supposed to be caused by attack of
tions,as in Utilitarianism (q.v.).
of cure
is to get
demons, the most obvious means
rid of them by appropriate ceremonies,
The act of making amends
for
EXPIATION."
(a) Words
the
earliest
Doubtless
form
powerful charms.
fault or sin.
some
words
used for exorcisingwere
is a
simple extempore
The
primary conception is that a wrong
but these in
commands
addressed
to the spirits,
trespass on the right or property of another and
time would stereotype into more
or less complicated
be made
good by an equivalent. Property
can
and
formulas containing sacred or powerful names
damage can be estimated and payment to a like
If the exorciser felt himself stronger
invocations.
made.
of injury to the person
be
In case
amount
he would
be likelyto address
than the evil spirit,
tion
claims the inflicthe natural feelingof resentment
scurrilous language; otherwise he
him in the most
the guilty party
of a similar injury on
an
to induce the
would rely on entreaties and prayer
This talio
eye and a tooth for a tooth.
eye for an
is often
demon
to quit the patient. (6)Flagellation
thing
does not restore the injured member, and so someis demanded
in the shape of confession
employed; the possessed person is soundly beaten
more
until the demon, speaking through the patient's or penance.
of murder
In case
or
manslaughter
demand
the life of the
the kin of the slain man
body, promises to depart. The tortures inflicted
witches and lunatics in West Africa have sometimes
intentional
on
slayer,and this whether the deed was
enthusiasts
this object. In 1914 four religious
be reached
If the guilty party cannot
not.
or
tried to whip "sin and the devil"
in an Illinois town
is slain. Thus the
member
of his social group
some
small boys, who
of two
out
were
result in greatly weakening
feud starts and may
badly cut and
fice
bruised by a chastisement
lastingall day. (c)SacriTo avoid this catastrophe
the clans concerned.
the Zulus, who
be resorted to, as among
the partiessometimes
may
agree to compound the guilt
offer cattle to the ghosts of the dead regarded as
(bloodwit),and a regular
payment
by a money
other
scale isfixed in which the lifeof a freeman, a woman,
responsible for disease, (d) But
many
found.
In China the exorciser enmethods
deavors
are
or a slave each has its price.
to rout out spirits
by producing disagreeable
offence has been committed
When
against
an
of the Malay Islands a sick person
first
smells.
In some
of the offence must
a
divinity,the nature
with pungent spices,in order that the
is sprinkled
of property, like
If it is a case
be discovered.
the withholding of the tithe or neglect to bring
pricklingsensation may expellthe demon of disease
be
a
patient was
can
clinging to his body. In Hawaii
a
gift that has been vowed, the wrong
sometimes
thing
pricked with needles,for the same
made
pose.
purgood by the payment of the debt with somethe anger
unpleasant the
Generally speaking,the more
added as a penalty. Whether
to be in
efficacious it is deemed
of the offended divinitywill thus be appeased is
remedy, the more
demon-riddance.
stilla question,and therefore confession and penance
Since disease or rniscist
3. The exorcist. In the lower culture the exorare
regularlyinsisted upon.
evidence
of the divine
fortune
is commonly
is regarded as
the magician or medicine-man;
to make
with a vow
be a prophet
civiUzed peoples he may
more
anger, confession and penance
among
the prayer
saint.
India the exorcist is a
In modern
sort of offeringusuallyaccompany
some
or
a
the sufferer fears that his Ufe
for relief. Where
medium, who works through the inspirationof a
offer a substitute
has been forfeited he may
even
"familiar,"which enters him while he is in a state of
"

"

"

ecstasy.

to

be slain in his stead.

H. P. Smith

161

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Faith

Orthodox church, consistingof the anointingof

FAITH."
Belief in the doctrines
EXPLICIT
those in extremis,i.e.,
of the dying.
of the church, involvingthe abilityto give a reasonable
The Rituale Romanum
provides that the priest
explanation,includingknowledge of the details;
standard
apply consecrated oil to the eyes, ears, nostrils,
a
imposed on the higher clergy in the
lips,
hands
and
feet. In emergencies he may
Middle
Implicit Faith
merely
Ages. Contrasted with
anoint one
part, saying: "Through this holy unction
(q.v.).
the Lord pardon thee whatever
sins or faults
may
thou
has committed."
The
EXPOSITION."
is to mediate
aim
interpretation or
(1) An
Extreme
forgivenessand to aid recovery.
explanation of the meaning of a passage.
tory
Exposiimction,
like the viaticum
be repeated. Institution
(q.v.)may
preaching is that type of preaching which
by Christ issaid to be proved by James 5 : 14 f
expounds BibUcal passages.
(2) A R.C. practise
tion
W. W. Rockwell
of exposing the elements of the Eucharist for adoraEXULTET.
An
ancient
in the
hymn
by the faithful.
sung
R.C. church
Easter eve
at the blessing
of the
on
EXTREME
UNCTION."
A sacrament
of the
paschal candle or taper, so named from the opening
word.
R.C. church, and similar rites in the Eastern
.

"

be absolutelyproved; as faith in the victoryof a

righteousclause or in the existence of God.
Faith is a practicalnecessity in almost
any
We
have to order our
realm.
life,not simply on
the basis of what has been demonstrated, but also
in the realm of more
less uncertainty. We must
or
have faith in our
friends,faith in the honesty of
FABER
(ca. 1455(or FABRI), JACOBUS
faith in the processes
of nature.
of French
ca.
Protestantism; business associates,
1536). A precursor
Religiously,faith involves confidence that superthe
version of the Bible on
human
published a French
will be exercised for one's good
basis of Jerome
in 1530.
powers
WILLIAM
(1814-1863).
FABER, FREDERICK
man
British hymn writer; became
a follower of Newand
joined the R.C. church in 1845; best
known
for his devotional
h3rmns, used alike in
Catholic and Protestant
churches.

""

"

FABIAN."
Pope, 236-250.
Origen addressed
to him a letter in defence of his theology. He was
martyred in the persecution of Decius.
FACULTY."
(1) The capacity of the mind or
body for specific
types of activity. (2) In the older
of the mind,
psychology a specificnative power
ing
such as the facultyof perception. (3) The teachmembers
of a university,college,or school,as
the theological
law, the disfaculty.(4) In canon
oensation
or
permission to perform a function or
hold an office for which the person
does not possess
technical qualifications
or
ordinary jurisdiction.
FAIRY.

non-human
imaginary being of
folklore,possessed of various extraordinary
powers
and livingin a region called Fairyland.
be
In the general category of fairy should
included the dwarfs, trolls,
elves and like creatures
are
which, with fairies,
particularlycharacteristic
of Celtic
and
Teutonic
tales. However,
folk
closely similar superstitionsare found practically
all over the world.
In size,fairies are often conceived as diminutive
beings and again as large as mortals, they possess
and witches,have
magic powers similar to sorcerers
the abiUty to change their shape and visibility
and
humans
in
to exert various spellsfor good or illover
whom
to be greatly interested.
they seem
They
associated with various places such as streams,
are
woods
and
houses.
social order
a
They have
similar to that of mortals,with occupations,amusements,
While
wars.
beyond
they have
powers
less dependent on
those of men,
or
they are more
children
to strengthen their
them, steal human
own
them,
race, fall in love with people and marry
play various tricks on them or do them highly good
In many
turns.
respects fairylore may be regarded
as composed of scattered fragments of older religious
ated
beliefs which have persistedeven
though disassocifrom
later and
better developed religious
Irving
King
systems.
A

"

FAITH.
An attitude of confidence
trustworthiness
of something
"

and

in the reality
that
cannot

if proper conditions on the believer's part are fulfilled.

The content
of faith will be largelydetermined
by the content of the generalintelligence.It
from crude superstition
to a
may
range all the way
rationallydefensible hypothesis; or from a vague
hope to a preciselydefined doctrine.
J7i Christianity,
faith has from the firstoccupied
a
primary place in religiousexperience. As contrasted
with
philosophicalspeculation, it has
represented certainty resting on revelation. As
contrasted
with a religionof mere
good works, it
represents a mystical appropriationby the behever
of the saving power
of God.
Christian
faith
growth
developed out of Jewish faith,
which, as the outof the apparent defeat of Israelitish hopes

through foreign conquests, developed a prophetic

expectation that God was
preparing in heaven a
which
be
should
sometime
plarU of deliverance
accomplished through the intervention of divine
the
Christianity asserted that Jesus was
power.
divine agent of such redemption, and built up its
of the
system of religiousbelief by elaboration
details of God's
plan of deliverance. Faith thus
the acceptance as true of a fairly
to mean
came
live in
complete theology, in order that men
may
accordance
with it.
Catholic theologyfaith is regarded
In Roman
the unwavering acceptance of divinelyrevealed
as
not
but
truths, inaccessible to natural reason,
will is
human
The
contradictoryto reason.
assisted by divine grace
to the attitude of firm
Since the content
of truth to be believed
assent.
is already objectively provided in revelation,
faith means
the acceptance of this truth rather than
unauthorized
spiritualexperiment. One may have
to assent
implicitor unformed faith ifthe willingness
of doctrine is not
is present even
if the content
fully comprehended.
Explicit or formed faith
involves a rational understanding of doctrine and
In practical
thereto.
for assent
of the reasons
the church
trusts
to
religiouslife the Catholic
himself to
salvation for him if he submits
secure
its guidance.
the repudiaThe Lutheran
tion
Reformation meant
of the doctrine of the authority of the Catholic
ual
individchurch.
to mean
an
Faith,therefore,came
personal relation to God rather than allegiance

Faith

Healing
church.

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

162

defined
known
"New
as
by- religiousmovement
Thought"
in God's
it calls "Metaphysical Healing,"
Word,
performs what
in the divine promise of forgiveness. a practice based on
the assertion that faith in a
specifically
laid
See Justification.
Especial emphasis was
perfectspiritualfife may result in the cure of any
the sole sufficiency
of faith to secure
on
salvation, malady.
2. Explicit use
in Faith
quence
good works being regarded as a spiritualconseof natural methods
of saving faith rather than as a condition
Emmanuel
HeaUng. The
movement
represents
In the endeavor
the work of religious
of salvation.
faith
to define saving
an
attempt to harmonize
and
medical
faith Protestant theologiansanalysed the process of
science in the cure
of human
ills.
be
comprehension
can
beheving into nolitia (intellectual
Consequently it is believed that cures
effected through the aid of medical science as well
of God's Word), assensus
(admission that it is the
as
through divine intervention.
truth), and fiducia (personaltrust). Only when
saved.
III. The
The
faith is completed in this last is one
Scientific
Basis for
Faith
ing.
Healvarious controversies
in Protestantism, however,
of faith healing pracThroughout the maze
tices
there runs
accentuated
of natural principlewhich
doctrinal differences and led to the
a thread
in some
form or other is invoked to bring about the
virtual inclusion of creedal affirmations as essential
desired results. The
to faith.
scientific means
employed
have been only crudely developed in a hit and miss
I?i recent times the attempt is being made
to
faith heahng lies
the conceptionof faith from dogmatic complirescue
cations. fashion. At the basis of most
the principleof suggestion,which is used to produce
Kant, Hamann, Herder, and others gave
of adaptationbetween
to faith a moral rather than a doctrinal significance. a condition
the individual
ends of
and his environing circumstances; he is made
Faith is the practicaladoption for moral
to
feel at ease in his surroundings,and this means,
not
certain inherently rational ideas which
of
are
that the person
whole
demonstrable
is undergoing
as
a
by purely intellectual processes.
course,
Therefore the * 'cure"
RitschUanism
(q.v.)gave a Christian turn to this
a desirable change of behavior.
positionby definingfaith as the practicalspiritual may be not only mental but physiologicalas well.
makes
and
to the religious
a
man
Although all genuine faith healing is based upon
response which
definite scientific principle we
fail
moral appeal of the person and teaching of Jesus.
cannot
some
to be impressedby the precariousnessof the cures,
The broader historical knowledge of religionwhich
which is explained by the fact that healers do not
is today available suggests that faith is an attitude
for the sake of discovering appreciatethat it is not the faith that heals but the
of spiritualadventure
assent
to an
psychophysical effect of that faith, and so the
higher resources, rather than mere
the actual
emphasis is not placed upon
already given body of doctrine.
proper
curative conditions.
Gerald
Birney
Jacob
Smith
Kantor
HEALING."
A process
FAITH
of preserving
FAKIH.
^A moslem theologian
and restoringhealth by means
of induced religious
or expounder of
the law.
sometimes
are
attitudes,which
accompanied by
the overt aids of medical science.
FAKIR
I. The
CuLTURAi.
Perspective
Faith
or
op
FAQIR." Arabic, "poor"; (1) A
From
Healing.
the earliest days of civiUzation
countries as equivalent to
designationused in some
dervish
assumed
the reUgious functions
to include
were
(q.v.),a Mohammedan
ascetic; (2) in
Indian
viduals,popular usage,
indian
or
religiousmendicant
caring for the complete welfare of human
Some
practicessannydsa or asceticism.
as, e.g., the complete regimen prescribed yogi who
fakirs have a genuine religious
for every
phase of life by the Old Testament.
interest;others are
Naturally this included physical ills,and healing lazy beggars with revoltinghabits,who prey upon
the creduhty of the populace.
was
a
employment of reUgious leaders.
supreme
With
the growth of secular institutions,
rehgion
and
FALASHAS.
A Jewish
withdrew
from
sect
such
more
more
living in Abyssinia,
practical
closelyresembling the other natives in their
pursuits as physical healing. In recent decades
find a tendency to beUeve
looks and customs, but observing their own
however
that salvation
we
religion.
of the Old Testabe complete unless it includes
ment,
the
cannot
They follow closelythe Judaism
the
later
the
soul.
of
not
knowing many
developments
body as weU as
Varieties
of the faith.
II. The
In
Faith Healing.
op
have
influential and
recent
observed
we
years
FALL
OF
doctrine that the first
MAN."
The
powerfulreligiousheaUng institutions grow up and
and
tinct human
being disobeyed the divine command
develop. These we
classifyinto three dismay
the original
types: the first denies the value of scientific thereby lost for himself and the race
aid in effecting
its service; righteousnessand blessedness which he enjoyed.
cures; the second avows
The conception of a Golden
while the third professesno overt attitude toward
ning
Age at the beginof human
it formulates
its doctrine in
the problem because
history is wide-spreadin folk-lore.
Contrasted
with
Since it is obvious
that original perfection is the
that any
metaphysicalterms.
involve
the use
of
actual healing results must
present state of evil and misery, which is explained
natural means,
we
place the first and third
by the theory of an act of disobedience or rebelUon
may
the part of the progenitorsof the human
under the heading of impUcit use of natural methods
race.
on
The
be conbiblical account
in faith healing, while the second
as
represents Adam
having
sidered
may
seduced
been
of forbidden fruit. As
eat
of using natural
to
a
as
an
expUcit method
he was
expelled from the Garden of
principles.
consequence
Eden
and condemned
to a life of toil and sorrow,
in Faith
1. Implicit use
of natural methods
and to death.
Theology, both Jewish and Christian,
Healing. (a)Specificdenial of the value of medical
this account,
elaborated
aid. A prominent example of this type is Christian
as
portraying Adam
with originalrighteousness
at creation
Science (q.v.)
denies the necessity endowed
which categorically
lost as
a
of any
natural means
for the heahng of disease, and
immortality, both of which were
Historical and
of his disobedience.
Other prominent movements
organicor functional.
consequence
scientific anthropology gives no confirmation of the
of this type are
"Dowieism," founded by John A.
by
doctrine,and it is quite generallyinterpretedtoday
Dowie, and "The Christian Alliance" founded
Original
folk-lore. See
tion
Depravity;
as
A. T. Simpson, (b) No specfficdenial or affirmaSin;
Smith
Gerald
of the value of natural means
Birney
Anthropology.
of healing. The
to

the

Luther

as

au

Religiouslyit

OF

unwavering

was

trust

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

16S

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Family, The

More
and
important, however, is its preservation
transmission
of the spiritual
possessionsof human
society. It is the chief institutional vehicle of
tradition in the sociological
that is, it is
sense;
the chief medium
of handing down
from
one
another
generation to
knowledge, standards,
cultural line. The child,therevalues along every
fore,
gets his ideas and standards on government,
and morality largelyfrom the family.
law,religion,
(3) The family is the chief generator of altruistic
and
ideals in human
sentiments
society. This
primary group furnishes the basis upon which such
primary ideals as fatherhood, brotherhood,love,
service,and self-sacrifice have been built up in
moral
and
social traditions.
our
It is in other
words the chief means
of socializing
both the child
and the adult, and forms, as Comte
said, a sort
of natural transition from the egoism of the individual
to the high degree of service and altruism
demanded
by civilized society.
2. The primitiveform of human
family life.
There has been much
debate about the primitive
of the family in human
form
society. Spencer,
and others held that the primitive form
Lubbock
of sex
relation among
human
beings was that of
of
sexual promiscuity or irregularity.On account
the facts that a well developed family life is found
of the anthropoid apes, man's nearest
some
among
relatives in the animal wortd; that promiscuity is
less permanent
the peoples
THE.
A
not found to exist to any
extent among
more
or
FAMILY,
of parents and offspring;in human
society, lowest in point of culture; that the upright attitude
group
formed
of man
made it necessary under primitiveconditions
the group
dren.
by the father,mother, and chilword
The
is sometimes
used for a much
for the male parent to care
for both mother
and
child before and after the birth of offspringif both
largergroup tracingdescent to a common
ancestor,
of sociologists
that is,a kinship group.
not
to perish; the consensus
were
and anthropologistsat present is that a primitive
considerations.
of a
1. General
In the sense
less permanent
of parents and
or
existed,but that the
more
stage of promiscuity never
group
offspringthe family exists to a considerable extent
originalform of the family i^ the human
species
such
that of a simple, pairing monogamy,
in the animal world below man.
Thus
it is found
was
of the higher
of the higher fishes,
and it is
the birds and many
as is found
beginning with some
among
animals.
that the union
the birds,the higher carnivora,and
common
among
By "simple" we mean
and
and without
the legal moral
the primates. Strictly speaking, we
have
the
was
instinctive,
animal
religioussanctions of later ages; by "pairing"
only when both parents unite in the
group
that the monogamic union was
not necesof the
sarily
mean
care
doubtedly we
offspring. Animal
family life unof a permanent
its origin (1) to the productionof
owes
many
type, but, as among
"child" or immature
forms that need more
less
animals, lasting oftentimes
merely through the
or
morahzed
rearing of offspring. The
ment
prolonged parental care; and (2) to the developmonogamy
of parental instincts which
of later ages
should not be confused with this
keep male and
female together for the care
of the offspring. In
primitive pairingtype of family life,which even
the most
other words
the family group
is due not to sex,
primitive
yet generally prevails among
though that is a necessary condition,but to parental peoples. See Marriage.
device of nature
'paternal families. The
It is essentially^
for the
maternal
and
3. The
a
care.
less originalform of the family in the human
species
preservation of offspringthrough a more
or
to have been of the type which anthropologists
seems
prolongedimmatrurity.
and
of the primary social groups
the family
As one
sociologistscalled "maternal"; that is, the
has played a very large part in the development of
mother
the center
of the family, the children
was
tary
took her name,
human
it is a
Because
and if there was property or heredisociety and of civihzation.
characterized
titles,
they passed along the female line,not
by intimate, face-to-face
groui"
maternal
association and by the presence
and
line. Thus,
of both sexes
along the male
among
of the mother's
all ages, it exhibits social Ufe at its maximum
sity.
intenpeoplesthe children bear the name
found most
of the essential forms
In it are
kinship group, or clan, and the property of the
between
individuals.
father or his rank descends not to his own
of social relationship
For
children,
this reason
the older sociologists
generallyregarded but to his eldest sister's children. Indeed, there
in
the
social
is
much
evidence
unit of
that
to show
the family as
not the
primitivesociety
organization,
father and
between
individual.
Be this as it may,
the family is to be
the physiologicalconnection
chila was
not
known; and therefore that it was
regarded as the primary social structure, and from
both a cultural and moral standpoint,as the most
impossible to trace blood relationshipalong the
institutions.
In
male line. This primitive form of the family life
present
important of human
and of tracing blood relationships
persistedamong
human
performs the
societythis primary group
times.
to recent
However,
(1) It continues
peoples down
following important functions:
many
the life of the species. It determines
thereby the great historic civilized peoplesof Europe and
form of the family
Asia had all left the maternal
the child's physical
heredity and furnishes the child
the historic
until maturity is
and nurture
with physical care
behind before they appeared upon
all social
reached.
(2) It preserves and conserves
stage, and had developed in varying degrees the
names,
paternal family in which
property, and
tion
possessions. It transmits property from generathe father is
titles pass along the male line,ana
thus furnishes the child
to generation and
equipment for life. the head of the household. The Chinese,Hindus,
largely with his economic

DECRETALS."
A collection of canons
FALSE
letters dealing with ecclesiastical law, purporting
to have been written by popes
priorto Gregory
the Great.
This collection has three parts the first consisting
of 70 letters attributed to popes of the first
three centuries,
entirelyspurious; the second of a
collection of canons,
largelygenuine; the third of
genuine and false letters about evenly divided. The
skilful blending of authentic elements with forgery
aroused no suspicionuntil the 15th. century, and not
and
until the 17th. century were
scholars,Romanist
the spuriousnessof this
Protestant,agreed upon
The name
Isadora suggested for a long time
work.
that this compilationoriginatedin Spain. Modern
investigation,however, has established its origin
somewhere
in the Frankish
Empire, with opinion
of Mainz, Reims,
sharplydivided as to the provinces
and Tours.
The object of the forger,as stated in
the preface,
the better applicationof canon
was
law.
His constant
anxiety is to protect bishops
from being imjustly accused or deprived of their
sees, also to safeguard the property and persons
of the clergy against the encroachments
of the
tories
temporal power.
Throughout the Frankish territhese decretals lent powerful impulse to the
toward
centralization around
movement
the see of
Rome.
Peter
G. Mode
and

"

"

"

"

"

Fana

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

1G4

The doctrine that all events

FATALISM.
had
are
all,indeed,
Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans
efforts
irrevocablypredeterminedso that human
type
early in antiquity,developed that extreme
call the "patriof the paternal family which
we
archal."cannot alter them.
"

main
See
System.
The
Patriarchal
this transition to the paternalsystem
been
wife capture, wife purchase,
to have
seem
and pastoral
industry. See Fatherhood.
Charles
A. Ellwood
The final step in the program
of salvation
FANA.
the soul secures
of the Sufi mystic when
plete
comtion."
"extincThe word means
absorption in God.
of

causes

"

and
imrestrained
FANATICISM.
Excessive
moral conviction.
zeal in behalf of some
or
religious
The fanatic is so completely possessedby his idea
that he is incapable of appreciatingother interests.
Under
the stress of this "fixed idea" he displays
and
of the characteristics of monomania,
many
be
welfare
even
or
disregard human
may
may
willingto sacrificelifefor the sake of his conviction.
Fanaticism
prevents the exercise of deliberation
is an expressionof irrational
or criticism and hence
its sway
zeal. Under
religiousor moral actions
the total realm, of social
detached from
become
is
is thus anti-social and
interests. Fanaticism
"

represents the universe

as
a field where
scheduled
to occur
at a
It differs from mechanism
definite time.
minism
deteror
in
with the
(qq.v.) that it is concerned
of an event at a specific
inevitable appearance
time,
while the other theories are
concerned
merely to
establish an
unbroken
causal
Fatalism
nexus.
be attached
to some
theory of causation,
may
leaves the precise
but it more
characteristically
of events
causes
inexpHcable mystery, either a
an
Fate (q.v.)
or the inscrutable will of God, as in
vague
the Mohammedan
conceptionof Kismet (q.v.).
Fatalism
is a natural attitude whenever
one
feels himself entirelyincapable of influencingthe
Soldiers exposed to the incalcuof events.
lable
course
hazards of battle are fx'equently
fatalists. The
in lands where hopeless
doctrine has wide currency
of scientific
misery exists with no developed means
social control.
It is a pronounced trait of
or
and
of Indian religions. In
Mohammedanism
western
civihzation,with its aggressive powers,
has little place. See Fate; Determinism;
fatahsm
Gerald
Smith
Predestination.
Birney

Fatahsm

specificoccurrences

are

usually morally defective.

FATE.

(1) A shoulder cape, hke an amice,

ecclesithe alb,formerly used by other astics
over
worn
reserved for the pope alone.
(2) A
but now
napkin or cloth for the use of tha celebrant at mass
bread.
in handling the holy vessels and offertory
FANON.

"

events,
and

"

an

The mysteriouspower
which determines
in Greek
object of religiousreverence
thought.

Roman
The
both the Greeks
concept of Fate among
much
closer to the Roman
and Romans
came
notions conideas of Fortuna
than to the Greek
cerning
both
Fate
with
Tyche
(see
Fortuna).
GUILLAUME
(1489-1565)."French
FAREL,
whose
a
determining power
peoples was
potency
and Swiss Reformer, persuaded the Genevan
ment
governconceived
sometimes
to be superior to all;
was
to adopt the Reformation
by edict in 1535;
In the Homeric
again it was regarded as Umited.
influential in enhstingCalvin in the movement.
was
there are passages
in which Fate seems
to be
poems
identified with the will of Zeus, and other placesin
WILLIAM
FREDERICK
(1831FARRAR,
the king of gods and of men
is subject to
which
1903). Anglican preacher and writer; held various
the idea of
Fate's power.
In Homer
also appears
honorable
positions in the Church of England.
of the
the web or thread of Fate which one
or more
His writings include pedagogical and philological
gods spin for mortals; but in Hesiod the spinners
pioned
works, as well as fiction and theology. He chamare
already Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who
the doctrine of an
opportunity to repent
allot good and illto mortals at their birth.
after death in his Eternal Hope, and in all realms
In the Greek
tragedians Fate plays a mighty
views.
He is probbroad humanitarian
advocated
ably
part. Aeschylus especiallydweUs on the unescapbest known
by his LifeofChrist and LifeofPaul.
which
the guilty house
from
able doom
pursues
Abstinence
from food or from
FASTING.
generation to generation; Sophocles also speaks
particularkinds of food for a prescribedperiod. with awe of the mysterious power which determines
be either jejunium,
men's Uves; and Euripides,for all his revolt against
rite fastingmay
As a religious
cruel notions,speaks often of
all kinds of food and drink are avoided,
the older and more
in which
applying only to specifiedarticles. Fate's power which defeats man's hope and brings
or
absiinentia,
him in sorrow
to his end.
The practicehas had a varietyof origins. (1) The
Among the common
ple
peowide spread and persistent.
the behef in Fate was
to the consumption of food,
physicalrepugnance
observed
individual
other
that
The
or
after experiencinggrief,
tion,
emofear,
strong
philosophersearly
conventional
nence,
abstia
would tend to become
phenomena are the result of chains of causation;
sometimes
and
the
the symbol,
pretense,
as
Herachtus, so far as we know, was the first to give
the mourning fast
Doubtless
to this truth in the phrase, "all things
utterance
of such emotions.
Plato accepted the belief
to pass by Fate."
in this manner.
often arose
times
come
(2) Fasting is somebut
of events
that the course
act of precaution, to avoid
was
consuming
predetermined,
an
did Aristotle.
did not discuss the matter; nor
food supposed to be tainted with a mysterious and
The Stoics were
the first to deal seriouslywith
dangerous influence. Thus, the natives of northern
and
Fate.
The founder of the school identified it with
India will not eat during an ecHpse of the moon,
and with Providence; others
of Nature
the course
high-casteHindus no food which has been
among
made
it one
with God.
in the house during a lunar eclipsemay be eaten.
Epictetus,hke the other
later Stoics in general,
taught that God's will would
(3) The enforced abstinence of primitive hunters
could endeavor
to
or
fishers,through scarcity of the food supply, be done, and that although man
conditions
would
result in abnormal
nervous
resist,his effort would be vain and could result
and
favorable
to dreams
visions,and_such phenomena in only wretchedness for the rebel; happiness
induced
in complete submission
to God.
to be found
to be deliberately
was
by
might come
The
New
of fasting. It is a Zulu axiom that "the
course
Academy denied the existence of Fate
a
continuallystuffed body cannot see secret things," altogether,accounting for the accidents of hfe
realities. Hence
and Chance; but in general a behef
to spiritual
cannot
by Nature
i.e.,
gain access
in Fate persistedin all classes of ancient society.
for the place which the fast
the prime justification
held a belief in Fortune
The
Romans
still holds in Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity.
(q.v.)
Webster
Hutton
analogous to the Greek in Fate; but the influence
"

"

165

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

of Greece
so
was
strong that their writers like
Horace
and
Vergil use the Greek mythology of
the Fates and reproduce the Greek beliefs. Their
writers only repeated what they had
philosophical
learned from their Greek sources.
Clifford
H. Moore

AND

ETHICS

leasts and Pasts

FEAR."
A dread of possibleevil events.
Fear
is one of the psychologicalfactors in
primitive
many
and
has
had
religions,
a
though
considerable,

diminishing,influence over
higherreligions.
Petronius
expressed a

the

individual in the
but

common

extreme

view in his oft-quotedverse:

the
In
Primus
in orbe deos
primitive times
fecit timor. Many
18th.
physiological fact of fatherhood
philosophers in the
probably
was
hence
traced
blood relationshipwas
the origin of all
century taught that fear was
imknown;
"heathen"
and the anthropologistsof the
through mothers
religions,
only, and the family organized
19th. century gave it a more
about the mother
(see Family). As far back as
important position
than does the science of our
trace the human
time.
we
can
Primitive
family life,however, the
social importance of the father in the family as a
be
religions
are
now
to
seen
largelymatters of social
and
custom
and observance;the gods are tised as well
provider was recognized. Originally
protector
feared and propitiated. Still fear has been
these functions
as
tively,
were
perhaps performed instincsince they are found
in the family life of
considerable though steadilydecreasingfactor
a
in the attitude of the individual toward the deity
animals below man,
but in all human
some
groups
throughout the historyof rehgion. In the more
Recognition of the
they are enforced by custom.
social importance of fatherhood is thus practically highly developed forms
of reUgion it is found
universal among
the phenomena of conversion and as
men.
chiefly
among
a constituent
of the sentiment of awe.
Nevertheless, the full social importance of
fatherhood may be said not to have been recognized
James B. Pratt
FEASTING.
until the patriarchal stage was
reached. Then,
Feasting and banqueting are
indeed,the rightsof fatherhood became exaggerated, natural forms of joyous celebrations when
men
the father becoming practically
of all persons
gather together. The hearth-fire and the common
owner
meal is perhaps the chief social mark of the family,
and property in the family group, often having the
and sometimes
and invitation to share such
primitiveor civilized,
the
right to sell wife and children,
meal is still the symbol of hospitalityand good
a
to death
right to put them
(see Patriarchal
due
feeling.From the family meal to the tribal feast
System). These extreme developments were
the social banquet is but a step,which has been
or
in part to ancestor worship,in part to economic
taken by all men,
conditions.
of the
The
father
feasts being characteristic of
despotic power
culture.
grade of human
patriarchalpeoples,however, was in pracevery
Inevitablythe
tice
among
feast has become
associated with religiousrites,
mitigated by natural affection,by moral
hood
probably in the first place because of religiousor
customs, and by religious
scruples. Hence fatherideas in regard to food, as in the case
became
them
moral and religious superstitious
a
among
of the well-nigh universal feast of first-fruits,
and
concept to express the highest social values.
again from a desire to honor the gods or appease
The patriarchalsystem thus gave the concept
of the fatherhood of God
In savage
societies the
to developed religions. the spiritsof the dead.
of an abundant food supply is made
The idealism of Jewish family life and of the promere
presence
phetic
the
occasion
for feasting. In
advanced
in Judaism led to the inclusion in
movement
more
where
the food supply is under control,
societies,
the attributes of motherthe concept of fatherhood
hood
becomes associated with all events of imporin Christianitythe concept of the
also. Hence
feasting
tance,
birth, induction into society, adoption,
zation
fatherhood of God represents a synthesisand idealiand even
swearing of brotherhood, naarriage,
of all the social values found in parenthood
death,
and again the celebration of victory, election of
Charles
A. Ellwood
generally. See Family.
chiefs and accession of kings,festivals of the seasons,
sacrifices to the gods, great commemorations.
In
CHURCH."
A
term
FATHERS,
applied as
festivalsof a religiouscharacter feastingis often
early as the 4th. century to the leading representatives
preceded by fasting,as a form of purification.
of Christian doctrine whose
works
to
came
Probably the oldest of European festaloccasions is
be the standard for later belief. The most eminent
the "harvest home," the feast of the final harvesting
of them
afterward further distinguishedas
were
in autumn, which is certainlyprehistoric,
and
"doctors,"Ambrose, Augustine,Jerome, and Gregory
"
with which
the American
Thanksgiving Day"
the Great among
the Latin fathers,
and Athanareasonably be associated. With it is also
may
sius,Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, and
associated the worldwide
feastingof the dead
the Greek.
John Chrysostom among
"Hallowe'en"
at harvest-time,
or All Souls Day.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
is formed from
of these festivals.
a combination
FATIHA.
^The opening section of the Koran
The determination
of dates for the seasonal festivals
which, through tradition and use, has acquired
early made the precisionof the calendar important,
a ritual significance.It is used as a dailyprayer and
and naturally placed it in priestlyhands, so that
in intercession for the sick and for the souls of the
this oldest of the sciences has always possessed
dead.
It reads: "In the name
of Allah,the Merciful,
See Food.
character.
a sacerdotal or ecclesiastical
the Compassionate. Praise
belongeth unto
H. B. Alexander
Allah the Lord of the worlds, the King of the day
FEASTS
AND
FASTS
(CATHOLIC)." i^osiing
Thee do we serve
and of thee do we seek
of doom.
is considered a self-inflictedmortification and moral
aid. Guide us in the straightpath,the path of those
certain
(2 : 18) makes
discipline.Though Mark
to whom
thou
hast been gracious,not
of those
ones
complain to Jesus, "Thy disciplesdo not
with whom
thou art angered or of those who stray."
fast," there is reference to Christians fasting in
ch. 8,prescribes
Acts 13,etc.
The Didache (q.v.),
a
FATWA.
A
decision, usually in writing, fast on Wednesday and Friday. The fast from
regarding any matter of duty given to a layman by
Good
Friday to Easter Sunday, observed apparently
law in Islam.
a teacher of the canon
extended to all Fridays,
at an early date, was
and to Saturdays in some
later
places, and was
FAUN.
In Roman
mythology a god or goddess
lengthened to forty days, "Quadragesima,"as it is
of the fields and
in form,
The custom
still called,or in English "Lent."
of
cattle,partly human
and feet like those of a
have been sughaving short horns, a tail,
fastingon the vigilof feasts may
gested
goat.
by the fast before Easter, or by similar
FATHERHOOD."

"

"

"

"

Pebronianism

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

"katharsis"
in the
Seasons"
the "Four
(QuatitorTempora,
Days: Wed., Fri.,and
Sat., after Ash Wed., Pentecost, Sept. 14, and
Dec. 13) dates from the Middle
Ages. At present
the law of fasting varies in different locaUties:
full meal, a bit of food
with notable exceptions,one
in the morning, and a lightevening "collation" may
nence"
be taken on a fast day. Friday is a day of "absti"Eucharistic
from flesh-meat only. The
fast" is abstinence
from all food and drink after
not required in serious
midnight till Communion:
illness.
of Easter
The
Feasts
(Resurrection,
Sunday after the full-moon of the Springequinox)
and Pentecost
(50th day after Easter) date apparently
from the beginning of Christianity.Sunday,
"the Lord's
Day," from the 1st, century, is an
tion"
Easter in each week.
Epiphany (the "Manifestaof Christ at his birth,the adoration of the
Magi, and his baptism), Jan. 6, was of earlyorigin.
Toward
the end of the 3rd. century, the Birth was
transferred to Dec.
25 in the Western
Church,
"dies solis invicti." The
Polycarpi
Martyrium
of
(XXI), Feb. 23, 155, evidences the custom
keeping the feasts of martyrs on the anniversary
of their death ("birth"). Third century calendars
give the dates of the feasts of SS. Peter, Paul,
Stephen, etc. At present the ecclesiasticalyear
mas),
is divided into Advent
(4 weeks preceding ChristChristmas, Epiphany and the six weeks
following,Lent (from Ash Wednesday to Easter),
Easter and the seven
weeks following,Pentecost
and the twenty-four weeks
to Advent.
following
Circumcision (Jan. 1),
The
principalfeasts are:
Presentation
(March 25),
(Feb. 2), Annunciation
Assumption (Aug. 15), All Saints (Nov. 1), All
Souls (Nov. 2), Immaculate
Conception (Dec. 8),
J. N. Reagan
and those of the Apostles.

fasts of

"preparation" and

world.

pagan

The

fast
Ember

of

"

FEBRONIANISM.
movement
A
originating
in the R.C. church
in Germany in the latter part
Nikolaus
of the 18th. century with Johann
von
Hontheim
under the pseudonym,Jiistinus Febronius,
limit the sphere
to
the object of which
was
to
that of general administration,
of the pope
authority.
giving to councils of bishops supreme
Punctuation
The
promulgated by the Congress
The movement
of Ems
was
(q.v.)was Febronian.
(q.v.).
perpetuatedin the Old Cathohc movement
"

CHURCHES
COUNCIL
OF
THE
A body composed of
IN AMERICA."
of various evangehcal denominations
representatives
ent
which, although without authorityover its constitubodies,acts as their representativein matters
of counsel and the expression of general church
OF

FEDERAL
CHRIST

attitudes.
The Federal Council of the Churches

of Christ

166

and
is usually attended
by approximately three
hundred
and fiftyrepresentatives.
The Federal Council has no authority over
the
bodies representedwithin it. The province of its
activityis hmited to the expressionof counsel and
recommendations
to its constituent bodies as to the
of action in matters
of interest to denominacourse
tions,
local councils,and individuals.
It carries
its work through a regularquadrennial and an
on
occasional
and
special meeting of the Council
annual
Committee.
meetings of the Executive
Between
these meetings, affairs are
conducted
by
Administrative
Committee
and
various coman
missions,
of which
the following are
the most
ated
important: Social Service,Rural Church, Federism,
Movements, Peace and Arbitration,Evangelwhich make
Temperance. Other commissions
those
are
reports to the quadrennial convention
dealingwith the family, home
missions, foreign
The expense
of
missions,and rehgious education.
the Council is met by contributions from its constituent
bodies at the rate of $1.00 for every thousand
members
and from privategiftsand appropriations
from various co-operatingorganizations. In 1920,
there were
thirtydenominations
representedin the
Council and in addition the Protestant Episcopal
mission.
Church co-operated with the Social Service ComCharities
Its office is in the United
Shailer
Mathews
Building,New York City.

FEDERAL
Theology.

See

THEOLOGY."

FEELING.

"

See Emotion

in

Covenant

Religion.

The
FEET-WASHING."
practice of feetwith
the
Jewish, the
washing in connection
monial
Roman, the Muslim, and Coptic rituals is a cere-

cleansing from defilement preparatory to

worship. It is an evidence of hospitahty among
Orientals to provide water for guests to wash their
feet on
arrival. Among
other Orientals
it is a
custom
with
observed in connection
marriage.
The
as

recorded in John

instance
a

sermon

on

humility. But

13 : 1-17 is intended
from it the early
of washing the feet

church instituted the ceremony

of the newly baptized. A widespread custom
arose
in the 11th. century and stillexists to some
extent for
and royal persons
monks
the feet of the
to wash
tant
Certain Protespoor, usuallyon Holy Thursday.
sects have
perpetuated the rite such as the

Moravians, Mennonites, Dunkards, Seventh-day

Adventists,and the Church of God, holding it to be
ordinance
an
as
binding as baptism and the Lord's
supper.
FEINN

CYCLE."

One

of

the

three

great

denominational
Celtic mythologicalcyclesin which Fionn and the
long effort at interits forerunners Feinn are representedas heroes with supernatural
co-operation. Among
the Evangehcal Alliance (o-v.)and
who
were
accomplished great deeds of military
powers
for Christian
of Churches
the National Federation
in the early history of Ireland.
In the
prowess
Workers.
In 1905, the latter body called a meeting
later literature elements
of Norse
mythology, of
Conference
for
York
of the Inter-church
in New
religiouslegend, and of mediaeval
magic and
were
witchcraft were
introduced.
Federation, in which thirty denominations
tentative
a
body drew up
represented. This
in America

constitution

is the outcome

which

was

of

ETHICS

AND

submitted

to

the

bodies

represented and, after it had been approved by

two-thirds
of their number, summoned
a
vention
conAt
in Philadelphia in 1908.
which met
Federal
of
the
this meeting the constitution
Council was
adopted and the Council organized.
Representation within it is limited to evangehcal
has
churches.
Every co-operating denomination
and one
the right to appoint four representatives
additional member
for every
bers.
memfiftythousand
The Council is thus ecclesiastically
organized

FELIX.

"

The

name

of five popes.

Felix

I.,pope 269-274.
Felix II.,appointed pope
355-358
by imperial
influence in the place of Liberius,
banished
who was
for refusing to concur
in the condemnation
of
Liberius
Athanasius.
soon
restored, when
was
Felix retired.
Felix

III.,pope, 483^92.
IV., pope, 526-530.
Felix v., pope, 1439-1449.
Felix

167

MOVEMENT."
FEMINIST
of the agitation to
traditional restrictions and
See Woman.
the sex.

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The modern
nation
desigfrom the
free women
disabihties resting on

AND

ETHICS

Fetishism

back either to classical paganism, or,

more

remotely,

the observances
of our
prehistoricand heathen
ancestors.
Festivals
lie always outside
of the
routine of ordinary Ufe : they are occasions marked
by much eating and drinking,
dancing,buffoonery,
DE
SALIGNAC
DE
disregard of the current conventions,and sexual
FRANCOIS
FENELON,
MOTHE
Saturnalia and the
LA
(1651-1715)." French
ecclesiastic; license. Compare the Roman
Holi.
This
Hindu
saturnaUan
archbishop of Cambrai; eminent as a literaryand
aspect of early
camivab
pohtical critic,and as an educator.
Religiously, festivals has its pale survivals in modem
inchned
and similar amusements.
to mysticism, and
he was
upheld the
tion
3. Seasonal festivals.With
quietisticdoctrines of Madame
Guyon, until the
advancing civilizacondemned
them.
festivals tend to increase in number, to develop
He
was
pope
always a loyal
of the Catholic church,and bitterly
elaborate ritual,and to fix more
servant
precisely
opposed a more
Jansenism
the time and order of their celebration.
It becomes
zealous and somewhat
(q.v.). He was
a
successful
the business of the priesthood to estabhsh
and
missionary to the Huguenots,
maintain
calendar of holy days, in accordance
of coercion then in favor.
modifying the methods
a
Hfe is best known
with the natural divisions of the year.
Seasonal
by his Adventures of Telemachus,
written for the grandsons of Louis XIV.
festivals may
be lunar,such as those at new
moon,
or
solar,such as the solstitial ceremonies held by
FENG-SHUI."
See Fttng-Shui.
the Pueblo
in
character.
Indians, or agricultural
By many
primitive peoples the end of the old
FENRIS-WOLF."
The
FENRIR,
offspringof
year or the beginning of the new
year is observed
Loki and enemy
of the gods in Teutonic mythology.
festively.This time usuallycoincides with seasonal
At Ragnarok, the day of the doom
wet
and
of the gods, the
or
changes (winter and summer,
dry
wolf will engage
in battle with the chief god, Odin,
seasons) or is fixed with reference to agricultural
and slay him.
operations (beginning of sowing, end of harvest).
of New
The
Year's Day
European observance
OF "A
illustrates the fusion of festivals,
since old Celtic
COUNCIL
FERRARA-FLORENCE,
and
New
have been transand Teutonic
Year customs
ferred
gathering of representativesof the Roman
Greek
to the firstof January. Many other popular
churches, which met in 1438 at Ferrara or
Florence to consider the union between
the two
festivals of medieval and modern Europe have had
churches.
An agreement was
reached and signed
a seasonal
origin. All Fool's Day (April1) seems
to be a relicof ceremonies held at the vernal equinox.
by 115 Latins and 33 Greeks, but was not made
effectual. In
1472
honored
the spiritsof trees and
a
synod in Constantinople May Day once
aU budding vegetation in the spring. The
fire
repudiatedthe Florentine agreement.
Midsummer
festivals on
Eve
(June 23), marking
FESTIVALS
AND
FEASTS"
A
festival or
the summer
either solar rites,
once
were
solstice,
observances
ceremonies
for
holy day is a time set apart for religious
probably, purificatory
or, more
of a publiccharacter.
Hallow
Eve
animals, and growing crops.
men,
1
Relation offeaststo festivals.Etymologically, (October 31) forms another survival of a seasonal
festival and feast are synonymous
celebration.
terms, both being
derived from the Latin festum. From
pological
anthro4. Anniversaryfestivals.It is a further developan
ment
when
well-defined
anniversaries,marking
standpoint,also, the prototype of the
found in the higher religions,
is to be
as
festival,
important events in the communal
Ufe, give rise
feasts of primitivepeoples. to festivals. The generaltendency will be to consought in the communal
vert
Such feasts are often part of the ritual of sacrifice.
the earlier seasonal observances
into anniversary
Sacrifice.
See
festivals. Thus, the Hebrews
associated
If the god is supposed to be
satisfied with the immaterial
and Pentecost
all originally
of the food,
essence
Passover,Tabernacles,
the visible material substance
festivals with episodes of their early
then be consumed
agricultural
may
the
the Athenian Genesia,an annual
by his worshipers. It is sometimes
history. Similarly,
to present part of the offeringto the deity,
of the dead, came
to be connected
custom
commemoration
the remainder
with the victoryof Marathon.
being eaten by those who take part
in the ceremony.
of this sort
A common
meal
5. Secularization offestivals.With the progress
of culture the rehgious element
less a sacramental
has more
character: it forms
in festivals tends
or
less and less pronounced. This remark
of union between
at once
the eaters and
to become
a bond
them
but even
to seasonal festivals,
between
and the god. Communal
feasting appliesparticularly
usuallyaccompanies birth,marriage,and death rites, those of an anniversary character will lose their
rather
the events
commemorated
which in the lower culture are clan or tribal,
as
rehgious significance
zation
than purely family affairs,
well as the important
as
by them recede into the distant past. The seculariillustrated by the
of festivals is perfectly
ceremonies
at arrival of puberty. See Initiation.
crated
conseOther occasions for feastingarise in connection with
history of the Roman
ferioe,which were
but which ended
to deities of the state cults,
the beginning or end of the huntmg and fishingseaby becoming to all intents and purposes simply
sons,theinaugurationor close of agricultural
operacivic holidays. The same
tions,andat certain times which have a calendrical
process of secularization
and full moon,
be traced in connection with the principal
the
moon
now
importance, such as new
may
solstices and equinoxes,and the risingand setting festivals of the Christian Year.
Webster
HuTTON
be conseof the Pleiades. Feasts will commonly
crated
FETISHISM.
to particular
as soon
as polytheistic
Any form of behef in which
divinities,
attributed
to
are
cults arise: they then become
reUgious festivals
mysterious or magic powers
to

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

properlyso called.
2. Characteristics of festivals.Festivals have
pre-eminently a social character and express the
clan,
feeUngs of an entire community, whether
tribe,or nation. Being folk possessions,
they are
and may
exist through long
very tenacious of lifo,
pean
EuroMost
almost
unchanged in nature.
ages
for instance,can be traced
popular festival,
"

material objects.
first apphed by the Portuguese
The term
was
of this character
explorersto beliefs and practices
found among
the natives of West Africa.
Closely
to be common
known
similar beliefs are now
among
and traces persistin higher
all of the natural races
fetishism
While
cannot
bo
levels of culture.
regardedas a distinct stage in the developmentof

Feuerbach.Ludwig

Andreas

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

in evidence in the lower

religionit is particularly
phases of religions.It is the expression of the
widely-spread primitive notion that the world is
pervaded by mysterious powers, a notion which
lies at the base of both primitivereligion
and magic.
This power
is ordinarily
thought of as locaUzed or
capable of being locahzed iu particularobjectsand

AND

FIFTH

ETHICS

168

MONARCHY

MEN."

A sect of English
time
of the
Commonwealth
and
after the restoration,
even
declared that Christ was
about
to set up
fifth
a
universal
monarchy, and that existing governments
should be removed
of preparaas
a
means
tion
for his kingdom.

fanatical Millenarians

who, in the

availablefor use to anyone

who discovers itspresence.

It is easy to see how the primitiveman
would
associate power
with any pecuUar object. Oddly
colored
or
shaped bits of stone, trees unusual
in shape or size,twigs, bark, roots, claws, teeth,
skin,feathers,human
remains, all sorts of curious
and even
and even
animals
commonplace trifles,
placesassociated with mystic power become objects
of superstitiousregard by the fetish worshiper.
Or such objects may
be transformed
into fetishes
Sometimes,
by appropriaterites and incantations.
instead of a vague
it is a definite spiritthat
power,
dwells in the fetish. Sometimes
it is little more
than a charm, an
amulet
clever device by
or
a
which one may
bringto himself good luck or success
in certain und.ertakings.
The interest in the fetish
is often,though not always,privateand malevolent.
The
essential idea of fetishism,namely that
find embodiment
in material
spiritual
powers
may
objects,persistsin higher reUgious and in many
modern
behefs and practices,for example, in the
of the Hebrews, Greeks and Romans
for
reverence
sacred places and trees, the Hebrew
ark of the
and its sacred objects,the mistletoe of
covenant
the Druids, the relics of the saints,the cross, the
eucharist.
The multitudes
of charms
and amulets
believed in by the cultural races
all attestations
are
of tendencies to behefs that are largelyfetishistic.
Irving
King
LUDWIG
ANDREAS
FEUERBACH,
(18041872). German
philosopher, belonging to the
left wing of the Hegehans who interpretedidealism
the
pantheistically.He
explained religion on
basis of psychology,
God and immortality
declaring
to be subjectivecreations due to imagination and
desire.
"

FICHTE,
German

JOHANN

GOTTLIEB

(1762-1814)."

ethical
an
idealism.
An
enthusiastic
discipleof Kant, he
later developed an
independent system which he
worked
out
largelyduring professorshipsat Jena
and Berlin.
Knowledge is not a passivemirroring
of a given world-order,but a personalachievement,
moral
creation.
The
life is hkewise
free act
a
a
of the self against opposition within and without.
The self thus active is not an independent individual
in a universal hfe-process. Fichte
but an element
with the moral order.
identifies God
Individuals
of its realization.
instruments
are
Religion can
of symbols. These
represent God only by means
stantly
symbols are makeshifts of our thought, and conrequireto be developed to clearer and more
significant
forms, for "every representationof God
is a misrepresentation." Fichte's ethical teaching
had important social applications. With feeling
of a propheticmission he presented to the German
people the ideal of a state of justiceand freedom.
Government
has its end in the education of men
for
freedom, and this can be attained only when property,
leisure,and higher culture are secured for
Philanthropy is only a wretched
every individual.
substitute for such an order.
W. G. Everett

philosopher,champion

of

makes
trinal
with reason
the basis for docin
is employed
The
statements.
term
cated
France
to designate the type of theology advoand expounded in Pans
by E. M6n6goz and

FIDEISM.
A
faith as contrasted
"

positionwhich
theological

Auguste Sabatier (q.v.).

FILIAL
PIETY.
Reverence
for parents was
is
very early recognized as a social virtue, and
found among
all peoples. Even
practically
among
those nature peopleswho put to death aged parents
this sentiment is not absent,but careful examination
rather shows that this act is itself an expressionof
filialpiety as the aged are put to death only with
their own
consent
and because of certain animistic
as
superstitions
regards their state in a future life.
Filial piety,in the form in which it is known
in
ancestor
history, however, took shape under
worship in the patriarchalperiod. Ancestor worship
be regarded as in part an
(q.v.)itself may
for parents,
expression of the natural reverence
other causes
also entered
though many
into its
origin. Filial piety under ancestor worship became
the chief social virtue.
Reverence
for fathers was
"

most
especially
enjoined,though among
patriarchal
peoplesthe honoring of mothers was also inculcated.
The
large part which filial piety played in the
and social life of the Greeks and Romans
religious
is well known.
In India and China it has played
an
even
be
larger part. Thus filial piety may
said to be the central principlenot only of the

Chinese

social system but

well.
as

Confucianism

piety was

not

only

of the ethical system

of

the
Jews
filial
Among
religious
duty toward parents,

but it was
standardized
the attitude to be
as
maintained
toward
Jehovah.
Thus
filial piety
became
in Christianity
ideaUzed
attitude to be
an
maintained
God
by the individual toward
a
as
father
See Fatherhood.
A. Ellwood
Charles
from
the Son.")
FILIOQUE."
(Latin, "and
The clause added to the Latin version of the Nicene
creed at the council of Toledo, 589, indicating
that the processionof the Holy Spiritis from the
Son as well as from the Father.
It was
the chief
doctrinal ground for a schism between
the Greek
and
Roman
churches, the former rejecting the
clause.
filioque
_

FINAL
PERSEVERANCE."
The doctrine that
those whom
God elects and who accept salvation in
Jesus Christ will persevere
in grace
and may
be
certain of final salvation; one
of the five points
of Calvinism
(q.v.)in oppositionto the Arminian
doctrine of the possibiUty
of falUng from grace.
FINALITY."
condition
The
of
being fully
fixed or absolutelyestablished,
in the doctrine
as
that Christianityis the ultimate form of religion.
See Teleology.
CHARLES
GRANDISON
FINNEY,
(17921875). -American
congregational divine. From
the date of his conversion
in 1821 he engaged in
he met
in which
with
evangelisticwork
great
and
President
professor of systematic
success.
theologyin OberUn CoUege.
"

RELIGION
OF."
The
inhabitants
FINNS,
of Finland
comprise chieflythe Swedish-speaking
of Scandinavian
descendants
immigrants and the
Finns proper, a people whose linguistic
and physical
Asiatic origin; indeed,
characteristics point to an
it is believed that the J'inns entered Finland only in
the 7th. and 8th. centuries of the Christian era.
in the 12th. century,
Christianized
They were
although the native paganism only slowly sur-

169

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

Reformed
The
religionwas introduced
of
in 1528, and today nearly all the inhabitants
The originalpaganism of
Finland are Lutherans.
and
of ancestorcombination
the Finns
a
was
nature-worship. The cult of the dead was early
present among
important, and is still vestigially
the more
tant
importhe peasants. Of deities proper
the guardians of the household
classes were
and farmstead,analogous to the household tutelaries
of the classicalpeoples; the greater deities of the
and
thunder, gods
elements, especiallyof storm
navian
have become
which may
important throughScandirendered.

influence;'vegetation,deities,especially
of water
of trees and grains; and the great number
which have left in Finland a rich
and forest spirits
folk- and fairy-lore.In the Middle
Ages, under
Christian and pagan
the influence of combined
ideas,
the
arose
a
poetic mythology centering around
and deeds of the hero, Kalevala, and represented
person
is rather a
of that name
which
by a poem
collection of traditional

songs than a composition

See Kalevala.
having a singlesource.
H. B. Alexander
of
St.
FIORETTI."
Little Flowers
"The
Francis,"a collection of earlylegendsof St. Francis
said to be the
and
been
his companions, have
life in the
"most
exquisiteexpression of religious
Middle
breathe
the
delightful
Ages." They
childlike trust and love of St. Francis,and a naive
realistic faith in the Supernatural that is delightful.
The simplicityand purity of the Italian in which
them
a place
they are written has deservedly won
oldest
in early Italian classical literature. The
J. N. Reagan
is dated 1390.
MS.
known

ETHICS

AND

Fish, SymboUsm

of the

of the ancient Medes and Persians,

In the religion
reformed by Zoroaster,fire was
made
the symbol
of the power
of righteousness,
more
or less identified
with the sun, and the preservationof continuous
fires upon the altars was
so important a part of the
ritual that
Zoroastrians
have
frequently been
called fire-worshippers.They are representedtoday
by the Parsis of Bombay, descendants of refugees
the former country was
from Persia to India when
by the Saracens.
conqueredand Mohammedanized
H. B. Alexander
as

In
the
FIRMAMENT."
cosmologies of the
ancient
religionsof the Babylonians, Hebrews,
ceived
conEgyptians, Greeks and Romans, the sky was
expansive dome
(firmament) created
as an
by God to separate the terrestrial and celestial
regions;or, as in Genesis, the waters above from
those below the earth.
FIRST

CAUSE."

religious
thought

as

forms
the kernel
Its logic runs
as

The

first

Creator
of the
follows:

cause

appears

in

prime Mover, and

cosmological argument.
or

the

universe

of

each

of the
the imiverse
is dependent upon
this upon
an
preceding moment,
earlier,and so
rest except in a
ad infinitum. Thought cannot
on
moment

first cause, assumed

the beginning of the whole
as
series. But the logicof the argument is abandoned
for
the moment
make
we
a halt,since the demand
of any assumed
is as exigent
first cause
the cause
take
as
ever.
Further, such reasoning could never
outside of the world to its creator.
Religious
us
thought is compelled rather to view the universe
as
eternallyexistent fact,and to find the basis of
faith in its nature
in what it is and does.
Goodnow
Everett
Walter
"

authoritative theology and law of

Islam.
law
The
was
developed by four
canon
uted
attribFIRSTBORN."
Especial sanctity was
schools which
all accepted as orthodox; the
are
other peoples,to
by the Hebrews, as by some
Hanbalite
(Central Arabia), Malikite
(Upper
the first crop of the fruit tree, the first sheaf of the
Egypt and N. Africa), Hanifite (Central Asia,
harvest,the firsthngsof animals, and the firstborn
Shafi'ite
and
N.
Egypt,
(Lower
India),
Turkey,
result
child (ifa male) in each family. The logical
S. India,Malay and Syria).
the sacrifice of firstlings
of the flock,and apparwas
ently
also in the earlier stages of Semitic religion
FIRE
AND
FIREWORSHIPPERS,
FIRE,
the sacrificeof firstborn sons.
is more
GODS.
No element
commonly regarded
of the sanctity of the
Another
manifestation
than is fire.
sacred by primitiveand pagan
men
as
firstborn is their consecration
to the priesthood,
fire and as the
Both as the hearth- or household
of which
have
traces.
some
According to
we
fire of heaven
(lightning)or of earth (volcanic
into
taken
the priestly
writer the Levites were
inflammable gas) fire has been deified in nearly
or
the service of the sanctuary as an equivalentfor the
t
he
usually
polytheistic
firegod
religion,
every
firstborn of all Israel,the implicationbeing that
of the great deities. In
being regarded as one
liable for this service.
these were
Deuteronomy
the
classical religionVulcan, or Hephaestos, was
intimates that the firstborn had a claim to a larger
the
of
natural
and
deity
fire,
Vesta, or Hestia,
share of the property than the other sons, a privilege
goddess of the hearth-fire. The worship of Vesta
in some
countries.
that stillpersists
in Rome
the worship of the hearth-fireof the
was
H. P. Smith
hearthcity,after the analogy of the household
FIRSTFRUITS."
The earliest ripenedproducts
and in the temple of the goddess a perpetual
fire,
fire was
guarded and fed by the Vestal Virgins. of agriculture; also the firstborn of domestic
animals and human
beings.
identical custom
observed by the
An almost
was
the body being
Produce
from
the soil and
whom
the fire-godswere
ancient
Celts, among
regarded as the gift of superhuman powers, the
important,and again by the Incas of Peru, whose
also guarded by chosen virgins. earUest (and best)are in aclmowledgment offered to
perpetualfire was
tion
spiritsor deity. Often they are eaten in celebraThe
keeping of perpetual or symbolic fires was,
be
of a religiousharvest feast. They may
barbarous
indeed, characteristic of many
nations,
offered to ancestral spirits,
to a
(divine)living
while a rite also widespread was
the periodicextinction,
by children. The
chief,or eaten representatively
after periodsvarying from one
to many
years,
time of celebration varies.
of such holy fires along with all others in the community,
animals
are
The
first born
of domesticated
and the kindling of a new
fire,which was
born
Firstif not, redeemed.
if sacrificable;
sacrificed,
made
the occasion for sacrifices and an elaborate
consecrated to the
redeemed
children are
or
festival.
Sacrifice by burnt offerings,
ordeals by
sacrifice them
(so in New
god;
primitivepeoples
divinations by fire,
fire,
purifications
by fire,
appear
Guinea, China, India, Africa, Peru); and even
in numberless
it is
in the
and

FIQH.

"

The

"

perhaps
forms;
than any others that
worship of fire-godsmore
human
sacrifices,
generallyby burning alive,have
been most
and longestpreserved. The
numerous
Biblical Moloch
were

was

sacrificed.

sun-

or

to
fire-god

whom

dren
chil-

eat

them

in

Vestigesremain

feast (Africa, Australia).

solemn
in modern harvest festivals.
Geo. W. Gilmore

OF
SYMBOLISM
FISH,
the fish was
Christian practise

THE."

In

early

frequentlyused in

Five Articles

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

Christian symbolism. A famous

made
acrostic was
from the first letters of the phrase, "Jesus Christ,
and Savior" which in Greek
Son of God
speltthe
word "fish."

ETHICS

AND

all human
has
and
an

170

thinkingfrom primitivetimes.
between
always been drawn

A distinction
the body
element
which
known
was
the
as
"breath," "the soul" or "the spirit"(q.v.) In the
more
developed thinking of the pre-scientific
age
FIVE
ARTICLES
damental a distinction was
FunOF
ARMINIANISM"
between
the
naturally drawn
tissues of the body and the bones and the blood.
doctrines set forth in the Remonstrance
As this tissue portionof the body seemed
of 1610 affirming(1) election dependent upon God's
to be the
foreknowledgeof a sinner's faith; (2) universal seat of feeUng and passions (seeHeart; Liver),
natural for the term
to be
alone; (4) it was
(3) salvation by grace
atonement;
by metonymy
not
irresistiblethough necessary;
(5) posgrace
sibilityused to represent the physicaland passionalelements
of the human
of faUingfrom grace.
personahty. See Body.
In the New
Testament
thought, the body itself
is not evil,but the flesh is the agent of sin. Paul
FIVE
five sacred
THE."
The
CLASSICS,
does not identify
the flesh with the body, but with
Scriptures of Confucianism
(q.v.),viz. (1) The
aU those elements
of life which
the evolutionist
Book
of
Book
of Changes (Yi King), (2) The
To
might describe as survivals of animalism.
Rites (Li Ki), (3) The Book of History (Shu King),
some
extent, this is identical with the rabbinical
(4) The Book of Odes (Shi King), and (5) The
thought of the "evil impulse" which is as old as
Annals
(Chun Tsiu).
Spring and Autumn
humanity, although it is difficult to show any direct
connection between
the two terms.
As the quahty
ACT."
MILE
An
FIVE
act passed by the
of the flesh is to be seen not only in licentiousness
man,
Enghsh parliament in 1665, whereby any clergybut also in quarrelsomeness,there naturallyarises
who had been expelled
from his parishby the
between
it and the more
a contest
spiritual,
Act of Union of 1662, was
superprohibitedfrom coming
animal elements of the personahty and this contest
within five miles of his former
parish or of any
the door to asceticism
(q.v.). Death, by
opens
form
incorporatedtown or city,unless he agreed to confrom
the flesh,makes
it possible
This cut off the majority deUvering man
to the state church.
for his personahty to achieve higher development.
of Puritan pastors from their churches.
Early church writers thought that the flesh would
be restored to the spirit
at the resurrection but the
FIVE
five
POINTS
OF
The
CALVINISM."
Pauline teaching does not contain
this view but
distinctivetenets of Calvinism adopted at the Synod
expects rather that in the place of the flesh the
of Dort, 1610 (q.v.),
in oppositionto the five articles
tion
spiritwill be given a spiritual
body. The resurrecof Arminianism
(q.v.),viz., (1) unconditional
of the flesh may
ever,
properly be considered,howUmited
to the elect; (3)
election;(2) atonement
as
total depravity; (4) efficacious and
an_ imperfect expressionof the hope of a
irresistible
genuinely individual immortahty. See Future
of the saints.|
grace; (5) perseverance
Shailer
Mathews
of.
Life, CoNcaaprioNS
"

FLABELLUM."
(1) In the R.C. church, the
fan carried in processionbefore the pope.
(2) In
the Greek
to prevent flies
church, the fan waved
from ahghting on the chahce during the celebration
of the Eucharist.

WILLIAM
(1729-1785)."
became
of
one
theologian who
John
Wesley's associates,and who wrote
many
treatises expounding Arminianism.

FLETCHER,
Clergyman and

JOHN

THEODOR
FLIEDNER,
(1800-1864)."German
MATTHIAS
(1520-1575)." German
the founder
of the
clergyman and philanthropist,
advocate
of
theologian,chieflyknown
as
deaconess
order in modern
Protestantism.
extreme
form
of the doctrine of originalsin,
an
active in most
of the theological
although he was
FLOOD."
See Deluge.
controversies of his day.

FLACIUS,

Lutheran

FLORENCE,

FLAGELLATION,

FLAGELLANTS."
tion
Flagellais self-inflictedscourgingas a method
of religious
There are evidences of it in the Egyptian,
penance.
Greek, Roman, Indian, and Semitic religions.In
ecclesiastical punishment,
an
Christianity,
originally
it became
a
The
FageUants
voluntary penance.
fraternities who
were
in Italy in the 13th.
arose
century, practising voluntary scourging. The
movement
spread throughout Europe, and appeared
from time to time until as late as 1820.
Both the
Cathohc
church
and
European states have endeavored
to control or suppress
it.
FLEECE.
In certain religions,
magical practices
became
associated
with fleece,such as the
magical transfer of the animal's propertiesto the
of its fleece,
wearer
protectionagainst disease and
other evils,rain-making ceremonies
and agrarian
rites. In many
the fleece used was
fertility
cases
from the hide of a sacrificial victim.
The
Greek
myths of the golden fleece are well known.
"

FLESH.
A term
used with a variety of meanings,
but generally to indicate the material and
less spiritual
elements in a man's personahty.
The theological
usage of the term is an extension
of the simpleanthropology which has characterized
"

Council

COUNCIL

OF"

See Basel,

of.

FLORIGELIA.
Compilations of quotations
from
the Fathers
and
other early ecclesiastical
the ends of theological
authors, collected to serve
or efthicaldoctrines.
"

FLOWERS.

"

Because

of their

beauty,flowers

naturally are used on ceremonial

occasions,hke
or to reinforce emotion.
weddings,funerals,
Among
the Indians,Chinese, and Japanese, certain flowers
and

certain

arrangements

of flowers

are

used

in

In India and Persia certain

rehgioussymboUsm.
flowers are regarded as sacred to, or as an acceptable
lotus is especially
offering to the deity. The
and Hindus.
sacred among
Buddhists
In Japan
festivals
certain flowers.
many

are

associated

with

the

blooming of

FONT.
A vessel or receptacleused as a container
for water
for the administration
of baptism.
"

ASPECTS
OF."
FOOD, RELIGIOUS
Rehgion
is associated with the use
of food in many
ways.
(1) Food gods, or deities presidingover
important
of food-supply,are the objectsof universal
sources
worshipamong pagan peoples;as gods of grain,

171

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of hunting, of herds, of animal

fruits,the fields,
species,gods of the sea, of marine foods. Such
deities are
always very important. (2) Sacrificial
often in the form of food-offerings
are
more
offerings
be in the form of
than in any other; they may
devotions,as in the biblical whole burnt offerings,
and as is customary in food offerings
to the dead, or

AND

Thus

ETHICS

Formorians

forgivenessmay

favorable response of the god

be

little more

than

fice.
a

or

ritual.

In

the

more

pleasingsacrifice
ethical interpretations
of
moral attitude of helpful
to

is a
religion,
forgiveness
approval on the part of God and is conditioned
solely on honest repentance on the part of the
sinner.
The
great prophets of Israel in clearest
in the form of sacrificialfeasts in which the per
worship- fashion proclaimed this ethical conception,declaring
deems himself to share with the god, each parwould
that God
not heed attempts to placate
taking
of the offering. (3) Sacramental
him in merely external ways.
feasts,in
See, e.g., Isa. 1 : 10which
the body of the deity is believed to enter
In later Judaism, the observance
20.
of rituals
form
was
symboUcally, as in the Eucharist,are a special
emphasized as evidence of the genuineness of
of communion.
(4) First fruits,comprising the
repentance.
first gatherings of harvest
the first born
of
In
or
forgiveness has been conChristianity,
nected
with
the atoning work
flocks,are very generallyrecognizedas appropriate
of Christ.
See
to the deity, harvest offeringsin particularbeing
Atonement.
obstacles in the way
The
of God's
both very ancient and very important among
favorable attitude toward a sinner are removed
by
pagan
who
peoples. (5) Tabu foods, or forbidden fruits,are
Christ,so that anyone
accepts this atoning
work in faith may
be freelyforgiven. The Catholic
forbidden unless
religiousin origin; foods are
Chufch
holds that the benefits of Christ's work
properly prepared, certain foods at certain seasons
of the year, certain times of life,
to certain classes
entrusted to the Church, so that forgivenessis
are
of people,etc.,in a multitude of forms.
crated
granted only through the church to the individual,
(6) Consecumstances
clusively,
foods, or foods enjoined under special cirthrough the sacraments,though not exordinarily
and to specialends, by being blessed
since perfect contrition or love of God
Modes
obtains
ritual.
or
prepared according to
of
(7)
forgivenesswithout the sacraments,even for
the heathen, who
is thus said to belong to *'the
one
eating,as to with whom
lawfullyeat, the
may
bond created by eatingtogether,form an important
soul of the church."
See Penance;
Absolution.
Protestantism
released forgivenessfrom ecclesiastical
chapter in the historyof social organization,and
are
even
today influential among
Mohammedans,
conditions,referringthe sinner directlyto
H. B. Alexander
God's love as manifested in the death of Christ.
Hindus, Jews, and others.
A
less explicitaffirmation of beUef in
more
or
The Hebrew
the efficacyof Christ's atoning work
has usually
and Greek words
FOOL, FOLLY."
translated by "fool" and
been insisted upon
condition
of forgiveness.
"folly" in the EngHsh
as
a
Bible denote a person
without wisdom, or absence
the remission of the penalties
Forgiveness means
of wisdom, rather than an imbecile or witlessness.
which otherwise
the sinner must
suffer,hence his
The
is that of divine law,
deUverance
from the fear of Hell.
In CathoUcism,
conception of wisdom
moral and religious,
and upright
certain
of disciplinary penalty is
amount
as
a
a truly devout
should
to be done
person
comprehend it: its beginning is imposed either in deeds of penance
"fear of the Lord."
during this fife,or in purgatory after death.
Folly,accordingly,is a moral
rather than an intellectualfailure,
and the fool is
Protestantism
has emphasized the experience of
akin to the sinner.
gratitude for free forgiveness as a motive for
Fools proper,
with
the
or
primitive gladly living hereafter in accordance
imbeciles,among
often than not regarded as pospeoples are more
sessing will of God.
In ethics,
a sanctityof their own,
being viewed either
forgivenessis a magnanimous attitude,
in which
claims!
the offended party foregoes any
as
possessed or as under the protection of an
interested deity. In not
for damages
and
few
all ill-feehng.It
renounces
a
cults, clownish
and fool-playing
furnishes a way
be
in which a new
is a recognizedpart
moral start may
impersonation
of reUgious festivals. Greek
and is
made without the encumbrance
of past evils,
probably
comedy
from such a source, and something not dissimilar one
of the most
arose
of securing more
important means
flexible adjustments. When
appeared in the Mystery Plays of the
forgivenessis formally
Middle Ages.
H. B. Alexander
or
pronounced, it is called Pardon.
officially
Gerald
FEAST
OF."
A Christian perpetuation
of the ancient Roman
Saturnaha
in which burlesque
representations of ecclesiastical proceedings of
church services were
celebrated in
given. It was
France until the 15th. century.

FOOLS,

FOREKNOWLEDGE."
The abiUty of God
to
foresee from eternityaU the course
of future history
and future existences.
Cf. Foreordination.

FORM.
(1) In
determinants
which
"matter"
and thus
"

Birney

Smith

those quahties and

philosophy,

fix the arrangement of the

give a thing definite identity.
According to Kant, the a priori factors which
determine mental activity,
such as space and time,
and the categoriesof the understanding. (2) In
for the
scholastic theology form came
to stand
form or
intrinsic determinant
of a species. The
identified with
formal cause
of Aristotle (q.v.)was
form of an angel."
essence, as "the form of God" or
of what God
Aquinas made form the determinant
and men
are
essentially.
*

FOREORDINATION."
previously determines

The

doctrine that God

the course
of events
of
kind,particularly
salvation,so that all things
every
happen according to his plan.
FORGIVENESS."
The
decision of an
act or
offended
to
whereby the offender ceases
person
incur the displeasureof the injured party and is
released from penalties.
In all rehgions where men
believed to be in
are
relations with a personal deity,forgivenessor its
the deity has been
equivalentis essential whenever
offended.
The
conditions under which
the deity
be placated vary
greatly with varying kinds
may
of cultures. See Atonement; Propitiation; Sacri-

to external
FORMALISM.
A strict adherence
rules in rehgion or moraUty, without
any
proper
appreciationof the spiritualreahty lying behind
The
formaUst
on
mere
the rules.
formity
condepends
acts of worship to
or
to sacraments, rites,
The
scribes
win for him all the rewards of reUgion.
and
Pharisees are
representedin the gospels as
"

formahsts.
The
FORMORIANS.
gods of the original
inhabitants
of Ireland before the coming of the
the arrival of the new
Celtic gods
Celts. On
"

Formosa. ReUgions

of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

treated as evil powers

of storm, darkness
were
and
death, though their originalfunctions were
those of gods of fertility
and growth.

they

RELIGIONS
OF AND
MISSIONS
TO.
An island off the coast of China ceded in 1895
China
to Japan ; now
called Taiwan.
The popuby
lation
of Chinese, Japacomprises a large number
nese,
and about 300,000 Formosan
aborigines. For
the reUgions of the Chinese and
Japanese, see
China
and Japan.
The aboriginesare polytheists,
of their important deities being Tamagisangak
two
who beautifies man
and Tekarpada who sends rain.
and many
of their ceremonials
Idolatryis practised,
are
information
is very
wildly orgiastic. The
about
the only
concerning them, and
meager
that done
missionarywork was
by the Dutch
Holland
in the
pastors when
possessed Formosa
firsthalf of the 17th. century.

FORMOSA,
"

FORMOSUS."

AND

172

greatlyto the spread of the belief in Chance.

the cult of Fortuna
Empire there arose
with the worship of the emperors,

Under
in connection
which
concepts of

the

lasted
Fortune

beside

the other manifold

of paganism.
Clifford
H. Moore
FORTY
HOURS'
DEVOTION."
A service in
the R.C. church in honor of the Blessed Sacrament
of the Mass, continuingfor fortyhours during which
time the Host is exposed on
the high altar,and
conducted
are
prayers
by the priests.
on

to the end

FORTY-TWO
ARTICLES."
An
fession
AngUcan conof faith issued in 1551 and ratified by the
Privy Council and Bishops of England in 1553.
They were
subsequentlyreduced to the ThirtyNine
Articles (q.v.)by the ehmination
of three
articles directed against the Anabaptists.

FORUM,

Pope, 891-896.

ETHICS

c clesiasti

ECCLESIASTICAL."

See

Courts,

cal.

FORMULA
OF
The
last great
CONCORD."
FOSSARIAN."
(1) A grave digger in the early
confessional formulation of the Lutheran
church,
church
dating from the use of specialcemeteries
pubUshed in 1580 with the signature of the large
probably in the 3rd. century. Also called fossar.
majority of Lutheran
princes and
clergy. It
of a hermit sect of the 15th. century
(2) A member
to
endeavored
give a true Lutheran interpretation who
observed their rites in ditches and caves.
of the Augsburg Confession (q.v.),which
should
preclude the teachings of Melanchthon, Flacius,
FOUNDATION-RITES."
Among primitive
and
the
fessions
Crypto-Calvinists. See Creeds; Conpeoples the erection of a house or temple, or the
Faith.
OF
estabUshment
of a settlement
is an
occasion for
ceremonies of magical and rehgious character. In
FORTITUDE."
Courage or strength of mind
the
choice of a site divination is employed to ascertain
for patient endurance; one
of the four cardinal
the wiU of supernatural powers.
Again in
virtues
of classical ethics.
In
early Christian
the apprehension and
consecration
of the site
a
history fortitude was
passive rather than active
shamanistic practisesare frequent. The collection
virtue.
See Courage.
of buildingmaterials and the actual laying of the
foundation
called forth rites designed to intimidate
FORTUNATUS
tian
(ca. 535-588)." ItaUan Chrisevil spirits,
neutrahze
charms
and spells,
concihate
of
poet of the 6th. century. Translations
the earth spirits
other local powers
and to make
or
of his hymns are stillused.
some
provision for a patron spirit. The modem
custom
of laying the corner-stone
of churches
and other
FORTUNE.
A goddess of chance in the Grecoedificesis a survival of this ancient custom.
Roman
world.
"

1. Greek.

Fortune as a goddess of chance seems

development of historic times in Greece.
In
the fragmentary poetry of the 7th. and 6th. centuries
the word
tyche occurs
meaning "good luck,"
"success."
Pindar
celebrates Fortune
especially
in his twelfth Olympian ode; at times he attaches
divine power;
tycheto some
again he makes her one
of the Fates.
In Aeschylus and Sophocles Fortune
plays no great part, but Euripides makes
her a
rival of the gods in power.
From
the orators
and
others it is clear that in common
behef Fortune,
Chance, played a largerole. She was personified
and
worshiped with various appellatives. The
for the most
great philosopherswere
part inclined
to exclude Chance from their systems, regardingthe
popular belief as due to the fallibihtyof men's
judgments, so that they attributed to Fortune those
elements which they could not foresee and calculate.
The popular mind, however, continued the worship
of tyche to the end of antiquity,often identifying
to be

"

her with Fate.

2. Roman.

"

Fortuna

among

the

Romans

was

goddess of Chance, but a controUinggoddess,

often prophetic. Her
oracles at Praeneste
and
Antium
famous.
Contact with the Greeks,
were
however, brought in the idea of Chance which
classes of society.Among
spread among
many
not

the educated the influence of Stoicism tended

to
foster the concept of Fortuna
as
a power
working
toward a definiteend, and to identifyFortune with
Destiny. This later idea is given splendid expression
by Vergilin his Aeneid. But the disasters
which attended the end of the Republiccontributed

FOUNDLING

ASYLUMS."
doned
Orphans and abanchildren were
wards
of the early churches,
and given a trade (Tert.
being reared by widows
Apol.39; Augustine, Ep. 39). The Second Council
of Nicaea (787)enjoinedfoundhng asylums and one
Under
was
soon
the influence
opened in Milan.
of St. Vincent
of Paul
(17th. century) France
tions.
developedmany which in 1789 became state instituSecret dehvery by placing the child in a
box
revolving within the wall led to alarming
increase of foundhngs and in 1834 was
abandoned.
Similar
experience led the London
Foundling
Hospital(founded 1741) to receive a child only on
the mother's attestation that it is the first illegitimate
and that the father has not hved with her.
has
such asylums but "baby farming"
no
Germany
has recently been put under
the control of city
such
institutions are
physicians. In America
aided by pubhc funds.
private though sometimes
Massachusetts
forbids them, the State Board
of
Charities placing abandoned
children with hcensed
families. This measure
has reduced the high death
rate found in asylums.
F. A. Christie
FOUR
POINTS.
Four particularsconcerning
which
American
has declared itself:
Lutheranism
ing
(1) Chiliasm condemned; (2)secret societies teachanything contrary to the Bible or confessions
condemned;
communion
approved;
dis(3) mixed or open
(4)exchange of pulpitsbetween Lutheran
and non-Lutheran
ministers permitted, if orthodoxy
is not therebyimpaired.
"

173

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

(1624-1691)."Founder of the
FOX, GEORGE
Society of Friends (Quakers). Born at Drayton,
showed
Leicestershire,England in 1624. He
psychopathicaltendencies in his youth. At the
of twenty-three he had a great constructive
age
experience,which profoundlytransformed
religious
him, and he believed hirnself divinely sent as a
He was
a mystic of
preacher of the Light within.
the same
generaltype as Jacob Boehme (1575-1624),
organizerand reformer. He was
a great traveller,
severe
constantly persecutedand suffered seven
of a
famous
religious
imprisonments. Author
autobiography, the Journal of George Fox, and
expounding his
religioustracts and epistles,
many
Ruptrs

views.

M.

Jones

OF MARTYRS."
A book written
FOX'S
BOOK
John Fox
(1516-1587),being a compilation of
from
the persecutionsof Christians
1000
a.d.
to his own
day; a book which exercised a wide
influence on subsequent Christian history,
especially

by

among

FRANCIS

OF

ASSISI, SAINT

(1182-1226)."

of the Franciscan order (q.v.);born in

Assisi,
Italy,where he received a meager education.
As a youth he was
given to adventure and carefree
indulgence,but as a result of illness during which he
visions he consecrated himself to a Ufe
experienced
of poverty and ministrations to the poor, attempting
of Jesus.
ciples
DisUterallyto follow the commands
cent
soon
gathered about him, and in 1209 InnoIII. sanctioned
the order.
The
outstanding
his rigorousasceticism
features of Francis
were
combined with joyous mysticism and the ideal of
lovable saint
service making him perhaps the most
in history. He resignedthe office of generalof the
order in 1220.
Founder

FRANCK,

F. A. Christie

SEBASTIAN

Free

Church

of

England

(1499-1542)."An able

who
began his career
R.C. priest,
as
a
converted
to the Lutheran movement,
and
passed on from this to a humanistic,liberal,
and
unsectarian
trusted
conception of religion.Although disby the Protestant leaders of his day, his
writingsboth then and since exercised wide influence
in the direction of a free type of mysticism.

FRANCKE,

AUGUST
HERMANN
(1663-1727).
Lutheran
theologian,professor at Halle in
Germany, who under the influence of Spener (q.v.)
became
of the most
one
vigorous exponents of
Pietism (q.v.). He was
noted for his original
ideas
in religious
education,for his power as a preacher,
and for his skill in organizingand maintaininga
school for orphans.
A

"

FRANZ
HERMANN
REINHOLD
FRANK,
(1827-1894). ^An influential German
theologian,
professorat Erlangen,who elaborated a profound
"

of Christian doctrine

on

the

basis of the

specialknowledge derived from the experience of

thus derived
regeneration. Christian truth was
from
a
source
possessedonly by those who had
Christian experience. His
passedthrough a specific
famous
most
works
were
System of Christian
Certainlyand System of Christian Truth.
RECfiSS (or AGREEMENT)."
eran
signed in 1558 by the orthodox Luthand the Philippists
princesled by Flacius (q.vfl)
(q.v.),led by Melanchthon.
They agreed on the
doctrinesof justification
by faith,the necessityof
and the real presence
good works in the justified,
of Christ in the Lord's Supper. Some
theologians
objected to the settlement of church doctrines by
secular princes,so the aim of the agreement was
FRANKFORT
A document

not

A
Catholic order
Roman
named
after St. Francis of Assisi. The penitents
who
joined Francis of Assisi in a Ufe of complete
of preaching and
poverty and a religiouswork
became
the ecclesiastical Order of
reUef of suffering
Brothers
Minor
by the rule imposed in 1223 by
III. The
members, barefoot and
Pope Honorius
clad in a coarse
("Grey Friars"),lived
grey
gown
labor and
order had
alms.
The
a
by manual
democratic
somewhat
government, the local leaders
("guardians")electingthe provincialminister and
the Minister General being limited to a tenure
of
twelve years.
With the papal rule of 1223 began
gradual assimilation to the older monastic orders,
but the Testament
of Saint
Francis
occasionea
divisions into the rigorist
or
Spirituals
Observants,
ventuals
and the Conshelters,
livinghermit-like in mean
livingwith a laxer rule in large convents.
In the 14th. century the rigorists
revolted against
the papal policy of hostilityto their complete
died at the stake.
A branch
poverty and many
became
the rigoristCapuchins
of the Observants
(1526), an order definitelyseparate in 1619. In
in
of rigorists
1897 Leo XIII. united minor groups
order and in 1907 Pius X. classed Observants,
one
Conventuals,Capuchins as aU ahke branches of the
The second order is the women's
Brothers Minor.
order of Poor Clares (SaintClara of Assisi,1216).
of laymen Uving the
The third order is a fraternity
world's hfe with the ideals of Franciscan
piety.
for missions in the
The order has been distinguished
lands.
Orient
and
American
In
the
Spanish
eminence
scholastic universities it had
through
Alexander
of Hales, Bonaventura, Duns
Scotus,
order
counts
about
The
now
Roger Bacon.
Those
in North
members.
and
thirty thousand
Germans.
South America
are chiefly

FRANCISCANS."

ETHICS

German
became

system

Englishmen.

AND

attained.

FRANKFORT
RESPITE."
An
tween
agreement bethe Protestants
Catholics
of
and Roman
Germany, signed in 1539 at Frankfort, whereby
a

temporary

peace

was

agreed

upon.

FRATICELLI."
In the beginning of the Franciscan
order (q.v.)there were
bornly
stubfriars who
some
insisted on strivingafter the ideal poverty
of St. Francis.
Persecutions,
portrayedallegorically
in his Liher Septem Tribulaby Angelo Clareno
tionum, drove the "Spiritual"friars to seek refuge
found
it
wherever
they might find it. Some
with Louis IV. of Bavaria; some
with the banditti
in the mountains.
called "Fraticelli"
They were
of Fratti, Italian for Friars).
(the diminutive
also given to other,heretical,
The name
was
groups
in the later Middle
Ages.
FRAVASHI.
immortal part
The
pre-existent,
of human
personalityaccording to Zoroastrianism,
similar to the Roman
genius and the Greek agathos
for
The fravashi stimulates birth and cares
daimon.
the babe during growth. At death it unites with
life. When
the soul in the immortal
thought of
the Di Manes
plurallythey are similar to the pitris,
of other Indo-European groups.
and ancestor spirits
"

An organiENGLAND."
CHURCH
OF
zation
effected in 1844 as a reaction against the
Movement
Romeward
tendencies
of the Oxford
(q.v.). Episcopal in government and in doctrinal
unison with the Low-Church
wing of Anghcanism
it insists upon
being regarded as an integralpart of
Church.
the Estabhshed
Holding itself free to
preach in all parishes,using a revised edition of the
the laityin its
Book of Common
Prayer,associating
fraternal
church government and work, and fostering
relations with other evangelicalbodies,it has not
FREE

Free

Church

of ScoUand

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

co-operation and good will of the

Church.
With
a
largely of
message
this
particularist,
negations and a spiritsomewhat
ing
body has failed to enlist a largefollowing,numberG. Mode
Peter
not over
1,500 members.

enjoyed

the

EstabUshed

AND

ETHICS

174

In 1841 Uhlich formed

of Pommelte.
tion
associaan
shared his rationalistic view.
of pastors, who
the center
Halle became
of the movement
under
G. A. Wislicemus, who
for his pantheisticideas
disbelief in the historicity
and
of the
gospels,
suffered deposition from his charge in 1846, and
became
head
of a
free congregation. Another
evangeUcal pastor, J. Rupp of Konigsburg, was
deposed for similar views in 1845. The revolution
of 1848 gave
freedom
and free
to the movement
congregationsappeared in various parts of Germany.
With the reaction of the fifties,
a
they encountered
severe
policy of repressionbased on the charge of
In 1859 the free Protestant
poUtical radicahsm.
federated with some
of the so-called "German
groups
who
represented similar tendencies in
Catholics,"
is
Catholicism. The later historyof the movement
unimportant, but it has survived with a present
membership of over
20,000. As an organization
it is a loose federation of congregationsheld together
through biennial conventions.
John T. McNeill
See Liberty.
FREEDOM."

A
bodv
CHURCH
OF
SCOTLAND."
FREE
Church
that in 1843 seceded from the EstabUshed
of Scotland as a protest againstpolitical
meddling
of the church.
in the government
which
settlement
Contrary to the Revolution
in the
Confession
incorporatedthe Westminster
statute law of Scotland,thereby placingthe government
of the church in the hands of church officers
act
was
the civil magistrate, an
distinct from
passed (1712) restoring patronage in Scotland,
thereby placing ministers in dependence upon
the
aristocracy. After years of agitation the
General
Assembly in 1834 passed a "Veto Law"
declaringit to be "a fundamental law of the church
that no pastor shall be intruded on any congregation
contrary to the will of the people." In the
litigationthat followed the court disallowed the
contention of the church to freedom and legislative
FREEMASONRY."
The
is the
"art" or "mystery"
and announced
that Parliament
initiative,
Free and Accepted Masons,
of the Freemasons
or
temporalhead of the church from which it derives
and benevolent
a universal rehgious,moral, charitable,
In protest the General
aU its power.
Assembly
fraternal organization.
of Right." A final
(1842) drew up a "Claim
It is religiousin requiring belief in God
a
as
appeal to the House of Cojnmons (March, 1843),
of initiation and
such
of redress,induced
insistingon
prerequisite
having received no assurance
belief as one
of its unalterable fundamental
points.
the
General Assembly to proceed to organize
Its
of Scotland.
Beyond this and belief in immortality it has no
under the titleof the Free Church
reUgiousdogmas but expectsthe brother to adhere
leaders were
Chalmers, Candhsh,
outstanding men
to some
religionand obligateshim upon the sacred
Cunningham, Buchanan, Guthrie, Dunlop, Hugh
oath of the religionhe professes. For the rest it
Its experiment in voluntary support of
Miller.
seeks to promote
morals by ceremonies, symbols
church
was
the
marvelously successful. Its zeal
and lectures,inculcatinglife measured
As early
by reason
for foreignmissions proved phenomenal.
and
launched looking toward
performance of duties toward
God, one's
1863 proposals were
as
with
the United Presbyterian Church.
imion
country, one's neighbor and oneself. It relieves
a
endowments
lawfulness
of state
needy brothers,cares for their dependents, educates
The
proved a
duties of charity and
stumbling block for years but in October, 1900, orphans, and insists upon
benevolence.
G. Mode
effected.
Peter
the union was
There is no authentic evidence as to its origin.
the oldest
An organizaFEDERATION."
CHURCH
FREE
Manuscript "old charges," of which
tion
of the dissentingchurches of Britain to procertainlydates from the end of the 14th. century,
mote
that it was
then an
established institution
and practical show
interdenominational
fellowship
craft
with a long past. Apparently the medieval
church unity.
of masons
at an
a
religious,
early date combined
Feeling the need of counsel and inspirationfor
the Free
lative"
moral, and philosophical,
the defense of their distinctive interests,
say, "specuor, as masons
mitted
leaders called a series of Congresses (1892Church
element, with the operative art, and adaccepted
clergymen as
gentlemen and
95) at Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham, which
interested in
free of the guild,who
were
successful as to suggest the organization
was
so
masons,
in the
the speculative side only. In Scotland
at Nottingham
(1896) of the National Council of
16th. and in England in the 17th. century, the
Churches.
the
According to
Evangelical Free
the objects of this federation are
speculativeelement developed with the decay of
the constitution,
the operative craft and it became
the
customary and
to facilitate intercourse and co-operationamong
fashionable for nobilityand gentry to become
cate
even
Free Churches, to organize local councils,to advoinitiates. The
doctrine of the church, to
present organization dates from
Testament
the New
St. John's Day, 1717,
the so-called "revival" on
defend the rights of the associated churches, and
formed
four lodges in London
the Grand
when
of the law of Christ to
to promote the application
tration
life. The tactful adminisrelation of human
Lodge of England, from which directlyor indirectly
every
About
of its officers has eliminated and prevented all organized freemasonry of today derives.
church
jealousies the middle of the 18th. century the "higherdegrees"
wasteful
overlapping, removed
local churches, and exercised
began to develop, particularlyon the Continent,
and suspicionsamong
to be many
there came
and
as
the interests of non-conformity.
a
over
care
a watchful
consequence,
based upon
the three degrees of
"rites." All are
important
Its national assemblies have played an
mentary the "Ancient Craft": Entered Apprentice, Fellowpart in endorsing or resistingcontemplated parliaand in stimulatingthe morale
craft,and Master Mason, representingthe original
legislation,
of 1717.
The Ancient
two
It issues a monthly magazine,
parts of the ceremony
of the Free Church.
and Accepted or Scottish Rite of 33 degrees is the
and
has pubhshed the Free
The Free Churchman
most
and The EvangelicalFree Church
widespread. In the United States it co-exists
Handbook
Church
York Rite of nine degrees on
PeterG.
Mode
with the American
or
Catechism.
which is superposeda Christian order,the Knights
Rite masons
are
IN GERMANY."
Templars, to which only York
CONGREGATIONS
FREE
eligible. These higher degrees develop, illustrate
A name
given to groups of Friends of Light, a midand add force to the teachingsof the Ancient Craft.
many.
in Gernineteenth
century rationalistic movement
"

Its

originalleader

was

L. Uhlich, pastor

RoscoE

Pound

175

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

authority.

THOUGHT."
AND
FREE
in thinking by any religious
Originally applied to Deists, the

terms

generally employed

FREETHINKERS
Refusal

be bound

to

are

to

A term
used to affirm a real
WILL.
man's part to choose between
alternate
on
power
so that the decision liesin his own
hands,
possibilities,
without
compulsion of circumstances
necessary
or motives.
man's acts are due to his
The question whether
own
they are
independent choice, or whether
of existing motives
inevitable consequences
has
been debated
at
length by moral philosophers
At one
extreme
without any decisive agreement.
find Determinism, the theory that the existing
we
facts of temperament,
psychic habits,and external
behavior
solicitation absolutelycondition a man's
At
the opposite extreme
is
moment.
at
any
lable
Indeterminism,which picturesthe will as an incalcuof defying
factor,capable at any given moment
the power of the strongest motive.
Psychological
intent on discoveringcausal relations
investigation,
between
psychic facts,tends toward determinism.
Moral trainingproceeds on the theory that behavior
be controlled by definitely
planned influences.
may
to testify
On the other hand, consciousness seems
tives,
of freedom in the face of possiblealternato a sense
moral
and
it seems
absurd
attribute
to
to a person
unless he is free to choose.
responsibility
into
discussion
The
of_free-will often runs
abstractions if "wiU" is assumed to be a definite
with inherent power.
life is a
But our
"faculty"
unity m which the act of willing is inevitably
ideation.
Action
with
emotions
and
bound
up
of an organism to stimulus.
When
is the response
action is automatic
or
emotionally instinctive,
When
action is delayed
"free wiU."
there is no
while the stimulus is subjectedto mental valuation,
of
becomes
conduct
"deliberate"; i.e.,a sense
which
arises. The freedom
personalresponsibility
is due to the relatingof a given stimulus
here occurs
values of total experience which
to the various
brings forward for comparison with the
memory
value to be gained by yieldingto the stimulus.
and one
One's total experiencecan
thus be utilized,
of the singlestimulus.
is not at the mercy
In Christian theology the doctrine of free-will
of many
controversies.
been
the occasion
has
Those
who, like Augustine, Luther, and Calvin,
exalted the sovereignty of God
salvation by
and
denied human
freedom in
or
grace alone,minimized
On
divine foreordination.
the interests of specific
tain
the other hand, those who were
concerned to mainmoral responsibility,
like Pelagiusand Arminiman's
real power
to accept or to
us, insisted on
Gerald
Smith
Birney
rejectdivine grace.
FREE

"

brother or a member
of one
of the
orders of which the chief are the
Austin
or
Augustinians or
Friars, Carmelites
white
or
Gray Friars and
Friars, Franciscans
Friars.
Dominicans or Black
FRIAR.

"

R.C. mendicant

The
of the order
FRIARS
MINOR."
name
estabUshed
in the beginning of the 13th. century
See
by Francis of Assisi,also called Minorites.
Franciscans.
FRIENDLY

SOCIETIES."

Mutual

ETHICS

Friends, Societyof

do not seem
to antedate the late 17th. century,
is there any direct connection with the earher
Britain friendly societies
guilds, but in Great
became
important agencies for the encouragement
of industry and thrift. Poor financial management
resulted in the loss of large sums
of money,
and
thousands
of persons
failed to keep up their payments
to the common
fund, so that waste
was
but
British legislationproviding for
enormous,
the registration
of societies helped to secure
more
scientific management.
Friendly societies include locals with special
ends in view, and central organizations. The latter
have no social features,but are stronger and have
become more
popular. Within recent years societies
have joined together to influence legislation,
and
have co-operated in investment
associations and
medical associations for the sake of economy.
In
1911 Great Britain linked up the societies with the
national insurance
new
system, greatly to their

ties

characterize

anti-Christian rationalism.

AND

benefit

organizations,mainly of working people, for help

in times of sickness and death.
of making
Their purpose
in the custom
appears
and to their
in case of illness,
payments to members
and sometimes
for small
families for burial expenses
pensions. Aside from a singleinstance these socie-

nor

advantage.
From England this kind of organizationextended
British colonies and elsewhere.
On
the
the national governments
grant special
tions
privileges.In the United States fraternal associawith
various
benefits have
proved very
societies have
insurance
popular, and assessment
made
unions
of their experiments. Trade
use
have
incorporatedthe benefit idea. Mercantile
mutual
aid societies among
corporationsencourage
their employees.
Under
of these organizations
good management
many
valuable
are
sociallyand pecuniarily,in
failures. Success is dependent
spite of numerous
the observance
of finance,
of sound principles
upon
of administration,
and on the faithful
on
economy
H. K. Rowe
practiceof thrift.
to

the

Continent

SOCIETY
OF
FRIENDS,
(QUAKERS)." A
small,mystically inclined branch of the Christian
Church, which originatedin England during the
ship
Commonwealth
Period
(1648), under the leaderof George Fox
(1624-1691). Fox and his
children
followers often called themselves
"the
of the Light," though they gradually adopted the
"Friends."
name
Through a casual remark they
received the nickname
"Quakers,"which has persisted.
of the
convinced many
other small sects and the movement
rapidly. It was
organized into a Society
grew
under Fox's direction,
with local monthly meetings,
district quarterlymeetings, and a national yearly
chusetts
Massato
meeting. Itinerant ministers came
in 1657 and in a short time in spite of
intense persecution,the movement
spread in most
of the colonies.
In 1862 William
Penn, who was
convinced
Pennsylvaniaas "a
by Fox, founded
holy experiment" of a state governed by all the
people and dispensingwith all militaryforce. At
the time of Fox's death six American
yearlymeetings
had
been estabhshed.
of
The
most
important early interpretation
The

preaching of Fox

"Seekers" and

Quakerism is given in Robert Barclay's Apology

edition,1676).
for the True Christian Divinity(first
Its central principleis the belief in a divine Light
implanted in the soul of man, which convicts him
he disobeys it, ajid
when
him
of sin, condemns
which as he obeysand follows it leads him to Christ,
the living,spiritual,
present Saviour, who guides,
Friends
sanctifies him.
and
inspires,empowers
and insist upon a
dispensewith outward sacraments
They
positiveinward baptism and communion.
hold their meetings for worship on a basis of silence,
maintaining that the soul can find God in the hush
and that He reveals His word and will to responsive,

obedient

persons.

Quaker ministryis,thus, ia

the

theory,of

DICTIONARY

Friends of God

prophetictype, the

OF

RELIGION

of a
distinction
is
made
between
the sexes
in matters
of reUgion.
Friends have, throughout their history,refused
to take oaths,dechned
to bear arms
or take part in
live
to
military operations. They endeavor
sincerely,honestly, and simply. They often use
the singularform of speech and, until modern
times,
they wore
a
pecuUar garb. They have taken an
and
important part in great reform movements,
have
for less
always shown
strong sympathy
favored
classes and
In
for undeveloped races.
America
they have had two separations and are
divided
into three groups:
Orthodox, Hicksite
(with liberal views), and Wilburite
(extremely
pimctilious).They have in America a membership
of about
125,000, in England 20,000, in Ireland
less than
3,000, and in AustraUa
1,000. They
maintain in America
and a largenumber
ten colleges
of schools and academies.
They carry on extensive
M. Jones
Rufus
foreignmission work.

divinely revealed

utterance

No

message.

FRIENDS

OF

GOD."

An

association of

pietisticmystical type originating(ca. 1340) in

Basle and
expanding through Germany and the
Netherlands.
Most of the leaders were
Dominicans,
but the membership included some
laymen. Henry
Suso (ca.1300-1365) was
the most
eminent
leader
of the movement,
14th. century.
FRIENDS
which
called Fbee

OF

which

LIGHT."

disappearedafter the
Rationalistic associations
Also
in 1845.

originatedin Germany
Congregations

(q.v.)

FRIENDS
OF THE
TEMPLE."
A sect organized
in Germany in 1861 by ChristophHoffmann.
Colonies were
founded
in Germany
and Palestine
with
view
to
a
estabhshing Christ's kingdom
with
Jerusalem as capital. The
has
movement
dwindled since the death of Hoffmann
in 1885.
The
FRIGG.
most
important goddess of the
Teutons, probably identical with Freyja. She
"

was

the wife of Odin

and

home-making.
FUNDAMENTAL

beKefs which

and patroness of

ARTICLES."

love,marriage,
Doctrines and

regarded as essential to a rehgion,

without which that reUgionwould lose its characteristic
In the case
nature.
of Christianity,those
have been variously
stated,but are not to be confoimded
either with the ecumenical
creeds,which
do
include
not
articles dealing with
morality
and
the atonement,
with
doctrines
or
peculiar
to
OP

church
a
Faith.

are

or

denomination.

FUNG-SHUI."

See Confessions?

The
science by which
Chmese
orientation
to
the
orderly
of the
forces
of nature.
Correct
movements
location of graves, homes, temples or other structures
assures
good fortune.
Proper selection of
is importantnot only for the happiness
grave-sites
of the dead but that they may
secure
prosperity
and honor for their livingdescendants.
To change
a natural environment
in any way
by cuttingdown
hills or erectingloftybuildingsmay
interfere with
the smooth
working of the nature forces and bring
disaster. The
is a
difficultyof locating graves
of great expense
and worry to the people,
source
while the aversion to interference m any way
with
the order of nature
has been a serious obstacle to
Chinese economic
development. The doctors of
the science exercise a tyrannous power
the
over
life. The philosophic
common
theory is that the
universe is aa organism everywheremoving under
one

secures

happy

AND

ETHICS

176

the control of a cosnuc

order or Too.
The content
of the science is a mixture of astrology,
geomancy,
and magic.
FUTURE
OF."
LIFE, CONCEPTIONS
The
element in these conceptionsis the expectation
of the continuance
of life after death:
I. The
Chief
Elements
These
ceptions.
Conop
'The origin of the behef that life survives
death
is hidden in the obscurities of prehistoric
first
humanity. When
primitive men
reached the confines of history they seem
to have
In the lightof anthropopossessedthis conviction.
logical
research it may
be safely said that the
belief in some
of post-mortem existence
sort
is
universal.
The content
of such expectation varies
markedly,however. In generalit may be said that
the future life is conceived
of as either better or
than the present. Death ushers in conditions
worse
which serve
to intensifydominant
tendencies of the
lifeof the deceased.^
As civilization grows, the conceptions
of future lifealso develop until among
the
reflective peoples it becomes
more
essential
an
view of the world.
part of a philosophical
1. Among
primitivepeoples the belief that a
dead person
continues
in some
of active
sort
existence is general but there is a great difference
of view regarding his status.
In most
extremely
primitive civilizationsthe dead are supposed to
renaain in the vicinity of the grave.
Therefore
it is of the utmost
importance that bodies be
properly buried and not exposed to the mutilation
of enemies
of wild beasts.
Food
and
drink
or
for the refreshment
of the
are placed at the grave
dead person
form of magical transformation
through some
food.
of the material
Closely allied
burial
the
of
the implements of war
practicesare
of agriculture,
or
household utensils and sometimes
retainers of chiefs.
It is difficult to say at just what point such
The
conceptionspassed over in those of animism.
experienceof dreams and of the sightof the breath in
cold weather
fact
together with the observed
that the dead do not breathe,naturallysuggested
inner element
of the personality which
an
was
different from the body and could leave it. See
became
Spirit. It
customary
among
many
tribes to regard death as a sort of passage
of the
of the
spiritor shade from the body through some
physical apertures. It was
by no means
mon
uncomfor the livingto fear these spiritswho
were
liable to do injury;therefore the apertures of the
body would be stopped up so that the spiritcould
not return, and various sacrifices would
be made
to
it. The
is doubtless closely
worship of ancestors
connected with the belief that the spiritsof the
dead can
into contact
with the living and
come
be paid the honor which
must
possessed
persons
of power
received.
The
further
expected and
practiceof sittingup with the corpse (seeWake)
connected
with the belief that the spirit
was
closely
of
remained
of the body for a number
in the vicinity
beUeved
hours before passing to whatever
was
to
be its destination.
tribe whose
As would
be expected,every
toms
cusistic
characterhave been studied,possesses some
of their dead
conception as to the treatment
after death.
See
members
and
their condition
Death
Funeral
Practices.
and
certain gen2. In the highlydevelopedreligions,
eral
be discovered although all
characteristicscan
of them are not found in any singlereligion.
living
(a) Transmigration of the soul to some
unusual in ancient religions.
being is by no means
primitive
Probably this is a survival of the more
belief that the spiritof the dead has the power to
common

"

enter

into

other

bodies.

In

Brahmanism

and

177

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

this conception is made

basis of an
Hinduism
a
elaborate world-process
in which
the souls of the
dead
of life in
into higher or lower forms
enter
with
their
accordance
general characteristics.
There is no general belief,
however, regarding the
time of such
religions
transmigration. In some
apparently it would be shortly after death and in
others it would be the end of ages or cycles. See
Cycle; Eschatology.
migration
(b) More general than the expectationof transis the belief that the spirits
of the dead
nations (e.g.,
migrate to a definite
locality.In some
and
Teutonic
the Egyptians) this
some
races,
world is the west, beyond the limits of the land.
With other nations the spirits
world
go to a great underlike a huge cave
which
is beneath
the flat
This is the more
belief. Pictures
earth.
common
of this underworld
the
markedly. With
vary
Semitic peoples,including the Hebrew, the underworld
been a place of inactivity.
to have
seems
Among the Assyrians and Babylonians there was
difference of condition determined
some
by sentence
Divisions
passed upon the character of the dead.
of the abode of the dead are to be found in practically
all of the more
certain
developed religions,
for
intended
the
places
righteous being enjoyable
while others intended
for the wicked
are
places
ness
of suffering. Such
distinctions varied in distinctaccording to the development of the idea of
retribution and the dualistic view of the world.
idea
of
and
(c) Rewards
punishments. The
is generallyassociated
the abode of departed spirits
with the adjustment of post-mortem existence in
and
of
character
accordance with the conduct
the
religion,
departed. Although the Hebrew
until affected by Persian and other religions
seems
associated morality with the thought
not to have
of future rewards
and punishment, in the vast
whether primitiveor developed,
majority of religions
idea of retribution is present. In the more
some
simple types of religionthis consists in a naive
adjustment or reversal of conditions,or punishment
for sins in kind.
In the more
highlydeveloped
religions,
however, the idea of retribution was closely
associated with an expected judgment, the details of
which varied.
In some
cases, as in the Egyptian,
there was
elaborate trial of the dead who could
an
be instructed as to the proper
defense (see Egypt,
Religion
of). In the Greek and Roman
religion
(q.v.)there is also a judgment which is similar to
that which can be found in a conventional
tribunal.
In other religionsthe decision is less judicialand
more
mechanical, e.g., the dead being compelled to
walk a narrow
bridge, off from which the wicked
fall. See Judgment.
But
whatever
its dramatic
figuresmight be,
developed religionshave generally regarded life
after death as a time for purification
or punishment
either through elaborate reincarnations in lower or
with contemporary
higher form, or in accordance
feudal practices. Judaism
appropriatedmost of the
tenable elements
of the great religionswith
more
which it was
associated during the last four centuries
before Christ. During this period the old hope of
the restoration of the nation was
supplemented by
the belief in the
post-mortem punishment of its
enemies both nationallyand individuallyexpanded
into
elaborate
eschatologicalexpectations. See
Eschatology.
By the time of Jesus these pictures
of the future had
vivid and
were
grown
taken
becoming systematized. They were
over
into Christianity
and
later were
markedly
very
affected by the practiceof the Middle Ages.
Speaking generally,the joys of the righteous
and the sufferings
of the wicked after death reflect
people'sview of the pleasuresand their methods of
dealingwith criminals. UsuaUy the blessed dead
"

are

AND

ETHICS

representedin

Heaven

being cleansed,as
of bliss

Life

definiteplace. Paradise or
enter immediately or, after
successive stages of bliss. See

some

into which

Intermediate

Future

they

tures
PicState; Paradise; Heaven.
sometimes
highlyphysical as in

are

and in parts of the apocalyptic

Mohammedanism
literature of the Jews.
Christian portrayalsof the
bliss of the future are almost all in figuresof speech,
feasts,
singingand other forms of joyous celebration.
Similarly,
picturesof the treatment of the wicked
reflect the torture and punishment of various
ages.
The
wicked
dead
than the condemned
no
more
criminal in a contemporary law court had rights
which needed
to be respected. The
vivid
more
into Christianity
picturesof hell came
during the
2nd. century from the writings of Plato, through
the Apocalypse of Peter but already the idea of the
abyss of fire for the devil,his angels,the giants,
the wicked dead
and
in Christianity.
The
was
brutalityof the Middle Ages is reflected in the
descriptionsof sufferingafter death on the part of
the wicked, many
of which are quite indescribable.
In several religions,
tianity,
notably the R.C. form of Chrisdeath is followed by a purgatorialperiod in
which those who have not committed
unpardonable
sins are
cleansed
fit for
by sufferingand made
Paradise.
ishments.
PunSee Purgatory;
Rewards
and

In early Semitic and Greek

expectation that the body will
be restored to a spirit;in the last few centuries,
b.c,
however, the Oriental mystery rehgionswere reflected
in the Jewish expectation that some
sort of bodies
would be given the dead, ^any rate the righteous.
to vary
to the nature
of these
as
Opinions seem
bodies. In some
cases
they are obviously physical
and
the righteous are
families of four
to have

(d) Resurrection.

thought there

hundred

is

"

no

children.
idea obtained

In other cases
such materialistic
no
and views were
held similar to
those expressed by Paul.
In any case
this giving
of a new
body is something distinct from the early
belief of the Greeks
that the shades of the dead
could be given a certain element of substantiability
by the shedding of blood, and the later Greek
expectation of immortality as inherentlypossessed
by humanity. The giftof this new
body was in
Jewish thought associated with the work
of the
deliverance of the Jewish nation by the expected
Messiah and so was
either at the
expected to occur
beginning or the end of the messianic reign.
In Christianity,
these ideas of the resurrection
carried forward but are given certain definiteness
are
of form by the accounts
of the resurrection of Jesus.
These accounts
and seem
not easilyharmonized
are
to imply three views of the resurrection of the body:
(1) It was
composed of bones and flesh and could
eat material food.
(2)It had the appearance of the
not subject to the laws of
physical body but was
ordinary bodies and finallydisappearedin the sky.
(3) It was
a
spiritualbody similar to that which
Paul describes in I Cor., ch. 15. The
Christian
church has generallycombined
(1)and (2),holding
that the body of Jesus was
at first material but in
the fortydays preceding his Ascension took on new
in the opinion
and
characteristics which
powers
tian
made
of some
it capable of ubiquity. The Chrisdoctrine of resurrection early shifted from the
in the
as
raisingof the shade from the underworld
Jewish
and
doubtless
the early Christian
belief,
of flesh from the grave
to the raisingof the particles
and their recombination
in the originalbody which
of the spirit
to share
as a partner in the conduct
was
in its post-mortem fate.
(e) Eternity of conditions set by a judgment
is usually held by those religionswhich
do not
of successive cycles.
think of the future in terms
Just what the dead will do is left by all religions
to

Future

Life

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

Its

ETHICS

This has
(d) Attempted scientific
investigation.
been carried on for a number
of years, especially
by
those who are associated in the various societies for
research
method
involves
Their
psychical
(q.v.).
the effort to get into touch with the dead through
medium
who
becomes clairvoyant. While
some
psychologists and other scientists would
many
admit the theoretical legitimacy
of experimentation
in such field,trickeryand
self-deceptionare so
likelyand experiments are so incapable of control
corroboration
and
that such method
of proving
immortalityhas not received any generalacceptance
ever,
psychologists. Since the great war, howamong
body passes out of existence nothing individual
it has gained widespread favor among
survives.
There are three general classes of views
people
at large and
has undoubtedly served to increase
follow this general premise: (1) the view
which
the general belief in life aft^er
death.
It is to be
of the thoroughgoing materialist who claims that
noticed that the conceptions of that life reached
and disappears in the
the individual disintegrates
appears through mediums
are
of death as certainlyas a pieceof wood distive
very similar to those of primiprocess
The dead seem
to have about the same
man.
in the fire; (2) the view of those who
existence
and
universal
hold that the individual is absorbed in a
enjoyments as they had upon earth.
See Spiritualism.
being and so disappears although continuing to
mately
(e) Christian faith in immortalityrests ultiexist without individuality;(3) the hope for an imthe Christian religious
view of the world.
imphes,
upon
mortaUty of influence which, as the name
If we
believe in a livingGod and in the finality
of
the continuation after death only of individuals'
sees
A similar
affairs before death.
influence in human
personality,although we may not be able to have
full cognitiveassurance
to immortality,
as
we
can
conception is that of the immortality of the race.
life must
accept it by faith and test it as a working hypothesis
ultimatelybecome
Since,however, human
of conduct.
From
this point of view such elements
be regarded as
extinct upon a dead earth,this cannot
of value as there are
in other arguments
be
can
fimdamentally different from the second view above.
and belief in the historical resurrection
Death.
It is
II. Akguments
Life after
appropriated
for
of Jesus can
add
to such
Christian hope. It is
natural that objectionsto immortality should have
been expressedfrom the very earliest time in which
impossible not to feel that a belief in a theistic
universe is inconsistent with a belief in the utter
undertook
to think about the great mystery
man
annihilation
of personalitieslike those of man.
natural desire to
which
confronted
all hfe. The
one's friends and loved ones after death rather
meet
Immortality thus gains a religiousrather than a
scientific ground of assurance.
than
philosophicalinterest doubtless led to the
Shailer
of the belief
Mathews
study of arguments in justification
FUTURE
PUNISHMENT."
These
that death did not end conscious existence.
The
punishment
inflicted upon
sinners after death.
be classified brieflyas follows:
arguments may
Most fullydeveloped religions
Platonic
contain teachings
(a) The argument from human nature.
relative to sufferingto be borne by evil doers in
corporeal
existence
of inbelief in the
thought made
the future
hfe.
of these teachings are
realities relativelyeasy.
The
human
Many
highly developed, e.g., in the Egyptian religion.
spiritwas
regarded by Socrates and his followers
as
existingprior to birth. The a prioriobjection The Hindu idea of punishment is closely allied
with the doctrine of successive reincarnations
therefore
of bodiless spirits
in
to the continuance
was
could
and the argument
for life after death
met
higher or lower forms of hfe. In Greco-Roman
behef in punishment after death was
foundations
unaffected
rest
mon
comreligion,
on
by materialistic
and sins brought their appropriate suffering
objections. Immortahty was a property of human
and
often torture.
These
views
into the
nature.
came
Christian religion
life is so
through the [Apocalypseof Peter.
(b) The moral argument. Human
full of misfortune, injustice,and
See Apocalyptic
Literature.
uncompleted
Hebraism, while
lives that a belief in a moral order compelled the
recognizingthe future life,did not contain any
belief in a period after lifein which such inequalities clear teaching as to the post-mortem
of
outcome
moral actions.
could be adjusted and
Judaism, however, developed the
righteousnessbe triumph
idea of future punishment and laid especial
evil. This argument
is very widespread and
over
emphasis
carries weight in proportion to the confidence one
that dealt out to those who
had committed
upon
has in the religious
heinous crimes,and especially
view of the world.
upon those who had
is an
(c) The
oppressed the Jewish people.
evolutionary argument. This
extension
In Christianity,
the punishment of the wicked
of the generalpositionof evolution as
after death was
not so greatlyemphasized in the
involving the survival of the fittest to survive
and also as viewing life as constantlyassuming more
Eastern
church as in the Western, where the universal
doctrine
this
of the resurrection
of the flesh
In some
cases
completely personal forms.
involves
doctrine
of conditional
a
immortality was expanded by the thought that,since the flesh
had participatedin sin,it should participatealso
although this view is held independentlyof the
in the consequent penalty. The growing tendency
acceptance of the evolutionary hypothesis. In
such a view,immortality is not regarded as belongunder
and man
to set forth the relations of God
ing
the general categoriesof poHtics led to emphasis
essentiallyto humanity but to be reached
through a process by those who are capable of
punishment in hell. This punishment was
upon
Such
meeting the conditions of that process.
commonly thought of as consisting of terrible
conditions
will vary
according to philosophical forms of physical torture which lasted through
views but speaking generallyit is held that such
eternity. Sufferingin purgatory was
not, strictly
of
of the nature
from the evolutionaryprocess
immortalityas ensues
speaking,punishment, but more
which
include those elements
those
must
of life which
who
ultimatelywere
through
possess
penance
timeless values rather than those which are dependcleansed from sin. See Purgatory.
to be saved
were
ent
A crude form of this
on
physicalconditions.
In Protestant thought, the eternityof suffering
belief,
although not avowedly evolutionary,is that
is explicitly
of the aauibilation of the wicked.
taught in the Lutheran and Reformed
of the believer.
the imagination and intelligence
other
and
In Brahmanism
some
religions,the
state of the dead is an unconscious
absorptioninto
the Absolute Being and therefore there is need of a
incarnation or creation of the individual whose
new
condition is determined
by the transmigrationin
character.
accordance
with his pre-existing
(J)Impersonal immortalityhas been urged by
writers in place of the conceptionsdescribed
many
above.
According to such views the individuality
with the body and its
is so immediately connected
mechanical
and chemical operationsthat when that

"

"

"

"

"

179

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Gambling

future probation or second

to
there has always been opposition
probation have also
There are two tendencies
conception of its endlessness and particularly at times been common.
As social experience at the present time in Protestantism,
to the conception of torture.
the one
has modified
the infliction of penalties by the
seeking to maintain the inherited views as to
future
siderably
punishment has been conState,the idea of
punishment and the other holdingforth the "larger
modified
and the retributive element
hope" that sufferingin the future world will lead
made
less prominent, while in more
intelligent to repentance on the part of the sinner. A third
circles the thought of physical torture
view expressedin the belief in conditional immorhas been
tality
would destroy all conceptionof eternal punishreplaced by that of spiritualsufferingimpliedin
ment
the nature
of sin. Certain groups,
hke the Uniby holding that the wicked are annihilated at
versalists (q.v.),
have protestedagainst the thought
death or in the course
of long spiritualattrition.
that punishment can
be endless and without power
See Eschatology; Future
Life, Conception
op.
Discussions
to lead to repentance.
concerning a
Shailer Mathews

churches but
the

GABARS

in its extreme
(sometimes spelledGhebers, Guebres;
form. The
present
Turkish
Reformed
Church
of France
Giaur). The name
derogain 1872 re-afllirmed
its confidence in this confession,which,
to the followers of
torilyapplied by Mohammedans
however,
the ancient faith of Zoroaster in Persia as "infidels."
has lost much
of its authorityamong
the more
The etymology of the name
is uncertain.
hberal French Protestants.
In Moslem
literature the term
Atash-parast,
GALLICANISM."
A term applied to the long
or
"Fire-worshiper,"
Majus, "Magian," is also
used to designatethem.
call
themselves
Zarstruggle of the French Church, especially
in the
They
17th. and 18th. centuries,to preserve
its ancient
tushllan,"Zoroastrians,"Parsl or Farsi, from the
hberties against the encroachments
historic province of Pars or Fars in Persia, and
of Ultraalso Bah-Dlndn,
of the
"those
Good
(q.v.).
Faith," montanism
French
the religionof Ormazd.
bishopsasserted that the papal power
limited by that of the episcopate and the
was
This
faithful band
of Iranian
adherents to
General
Council. French
Zoroastrianism corresponds to the Parsis (q.v.)in
kings protested the
interference of the papacy
in temporal affairs.
India.
Through centuries of persecutionby their
In 1687 Bossuet (q.v.)summed
Mohammedan
conversions
to Islam,
up both protests in
conquerors,
and the sufferingscaused by various vicissitudes, the "Declaration of the Clergy," asserting the
independence of the State,the superiority
these Iranian devotees to their ancient faith were
of the
General
Council, the inviolabihtyof Gallican
gradually reduced in numbers
till,
by the middle
and
the infallibility
liberties,
of the pope
of the 19th. century, there were
and
far less than 10,000
bishops. The conflict continued tillthe abrogation
of them
left in Persia.
Thanks
to the aid of the
of
the
Concordat (q.v.),
1905,
H. H. Walker
Parsis in India,who founded, in 1854,
prosperous
of the Zoroastrians
a Society for the Amelioration
GAMBLING.
The riskingof money
in Persia,and in response to the growth of more
or
some
valuable possessionon an uncertain event, so that
hberal and
tolerant conditions
in Persia, their
numbers
gain or loss is determined by chance.
in 1903 were
over
11,000. Their growth
Gamliling, as
since that time has been steady,especially
distinguished from
after the
betting,
less organized form of
Persian Constitution was
usually indicates a more
or
adopted in 1906, which
staking money
them greater religious
on
an
The
freedom in their homeunpredictable event.
land,
gave
natural curiosity
of peopleto "see what will happen"
and largercivil rights. Most
of the Zoroasin case
of an
in Persia are engaged in trade,but a goodly
if
uncertainty is greatly enhanced
^trians
the gain or loss of money
number
of them
hangs on the outcome.
are
gardeners,thus keeping up a
tenet in their ancient creed which
inculcates agriculture Gambling organizes this financial interest in such
as
a religious
duty. Their general behefs, a way as to make it primary, and developsa method
of money-making far more
and customs
ous
excitingand less laborimanners,
agree in the main with those
than
the usual process
of earning reward.
of the Indian
Parsis,as followers of Zoroaster's
The experience of a winning a large sum
creed, and they are noted for their honesty and
brings
an
A. V. Williams
extraordinary elation. The
Jackson
probity.
losers,in hope
eventuallyof attaininga Uke experience,continue to
risk their possessions. So powerful is the excitement
GABIROL
(IBN GABIROL)
(1020-1070 a.d)."
that it often overrules all other considerations,
An influential Jewish writer on ethics and religious
to impoverish themselves
and even
leading men
Platonic
philosophywho mediated
mysticism to
to incur crushing debts
in order to pursue
the
Christian
and
Jewish
scholastics. He
taught
fickle goddess of chance.
that the physicaland spiritual
different phases
are
Gambling is found in connection with many
of one
identical universal reaUty which itself is an
kinds of games
and with unpredictableresults of
emanation
from God.
He is perhapsmore
widely normal social and
poUticalactions. Horse-racing,
known
as a writer of hymns.
baseball and
football,prize-fights,
elections,and
the movement
of markets
furnish opportunities
GAD.
A god of the earlySemitic peoples of
in all wellon
a large scale.
Stringentlegislation
northern
Arabia whose
"fortune" or
name
means
governed states puts a check on gambhng, but it
"luck."
continues* to flourish in private and ilhcit ways.
Its evils are evident.
It creates a way
of acquif^
GALLICAN
CONFESSION
or
CONFESSION,
ing money without any creative labor. The excite^
OF
LA ROCHELLE,"
A confession drawn up by
ment
attending such a quest makes
ordinary
the Reformed
Church
of France in 1559.
It was
The
lure of the practise
tame.
industryseem
shaped under the influence of John Calvin and
is peculiarly insidious,
leading often to what
contains four parts and forty articles. In content
is virtuaUya monomania.
For these reasons
it is
it follows the usual Unes of the reformed confessions, almost
universally condemned
by ethics and
although not
presenting the doctrine of prerestrained by lawGerald
Birney
Smith

Pers.

destina

Gahr,

"

"

DICTIONARY

Games

GAMES.

Divine musicians
of Indra's
in Vedic religion.They are supposed
"

court

to have

earthlywomen.
the Apsarases who,

strange power

over

Their heavenly mistresses are

and
in their turn, tempt men
leaders.
of renowned
human

become

the mothers

GANESHA."
A Hindu god, son
of Parvati the
of
wife of Shiva.
He was
the creator
known
as
him into
obstacles but his worship has transformed
of difficulties,
the remover
the god of learning,and
the protector of the open road.
He is represented
as
an
elephant-headed fat figureriding on a rat.
He leads the demonic
retinue of Shiva.

title of the
and Pumbelasted
ditha,Babylonia. The period of the Geonim
for about four hundred
and fiftyyears, ending in
The
Geonim
the highest judges and
1038.
were
They
recognizedheads of the Jewish communities.
and
their schools made
important contributions
of the Talmud.
to the interpretation
GAG

N."

(Plural: Geonim.)

head-masters of the academies

GATHAS.
Zoroastrian
and
prayers,

"

One

of the

The

at Sura

oldest sections

of the

Scriptures,consistingof hymns, songs

of the
thought to contain much
himself.
See
genuine teachings of Zarathustra
ScRiPTUREa.
Persia, Religions
op; Sacked
founder
of
GAUTAMA
(560-477 b.c.)."The
Buddhism, called also Sakyamuni, Tathagata,
"the
enlightened."
Buddha,
Siddhartha, and
The historic figureof the great teacher was
early
obscured
by mythology, stories of miracles,and
to rescue
philosophicspeculation,yet it is possible
the main outlines of his lifefrom the early sources.
He was
born in the family of the ruling(kshatriya)
caste of the Sakya clan of the Magadha
coimtry
near
a
farming community
Kapilavastu. It was
influence
to
removed
Brahmin
from
sufficiently
allow an independent religious
development. As a
boy he probably received the usual Hindu training
in

the

sacred

sciences

AND

ETHICS

180

for the saintly,ascetic seeker

after
all part of his world view.
The
new
that he abandoned
the old authoritative
thing was
sacrifices,
priests and scriptures scorning
ways
futile all metaphysical theories regarding cosmic
as
ultimates,all speculationsconcerning the nature
of the soul as an entity. He was
agnosticrather
than
himself
atheist.
He
had
found
the great
and joy of emancipation without any need of
peace
solvingthe problems of theology. His gospel was a
of moral
action, available to
practicalprogram
of every
men
class,and set forth in the four noble
truths,the noble eight-foldpath and the doctrine
of the ten fetters. See Buddhism.
It was
a
i
way
of self-salvationfor the individual.
Gautama
was
He taught, "All existence is
not a social reformer.
all existence is sorrow, allthe constituents
transitory,
of being are lacking in an ego." Hence
he imdertook an
exposition of the way of forming that
aggregate of habits,by a practicalway of living,
which
would achieve for the individual the great
this a character
nirvana (q.v.). To secure
peace
be formed
in which the three fires of lust,
must
This is
and delusion can
no
longer burn.
anger
release,peace, salvation.
His success
immediate.
Judged by the
was
number
of human
beings who, during the centuries,
be given high
have claimed to follow him he must
rank
the greatest religiousleaders of the
among
be attributed to his
world. His early success
may
personality, his
large sympathy^ his winsome
his practical
confidence and joy in his message,
mind.
and his understanding of the Hindu
program
lost in
The earlysimplicityof his religionwas
soon
the milieu of Hindu
fantasy and speculation. The
later story belongs to the long and difficult history
of Buddhism.
A. Eustace
Haydon
admiration
hoUness
are

See Amusements.

"

GANDHARVAS.

heavenly

RELIGION

OF

and

then

married.

"

"

"

GAYATRI.

The

"

sacred

most

verse

of

the

of Hindu
Vedas, thought to embody the essence
It reads, "We
Scripture and of all the Gods.
meditate on
that desirable light of the divine
who
our
holy rites."
Savitri,the sun
governs
is used
The name
Vedic hymns.

also for

one

of the metres

of the

The

of
GEB.
The earth-godof ancient Egypt, father
life with its ceaseless round
tragedy of human
of Osiris (q.v.).
disease,cruelty,sorrow, old age
passion,suffering,
him.
At
and
29
deathjweighed heavily upon
GEHENNA.
^A fieryplaceof punishment of the
he determmed
to leave the householder
life,to
wicked in the after-hfe accordingto the eschatology
abandon
his wife and infant child,and take up the
the valley of
hermit
life which
of Israel and of Islam.
Originally,
was
normally reserved for the
Gehinnom
in.the neighborhood of Jerusalem where
aged. His quest for truth led him to renowned
offered to a pagan
sacrifices in fire were
teachers but he quickly discovered that there was
god and
no
solution of the problem of actual human
suffering where later the refuse of the citywas burned.
physical
metain their endless psychologicaltheories and
The name
of two popes.
he
tried
GELASIUS.
extreme
speculations. Next
of its futility.
Gelasius /."Pope, 492^96.
asceticism
only to be convinced
he gave up the ascetic life,
Gelasius 11."Pope, 1118-1119.
With a rare courage
losing
himself to
his only remaining friends,and devoted
GEMARA."
The
lonian
Uterary work of the Babysolitarymeditation. In this he did not abandon
and Palestinian rabbis of the 3rd. to 6th. cenhinaself to a sleepy mysticism but undertook
turies.
a
called
of the Gemara
The
authors
critical diagnosis of life and life's sufferingwhich
are
Amoraim.
See
Amora.
resulted in his enlightenment the discovery of the
amplified and
They
articles of the
of eliminatinghuman
the
Mishna,
sufferingby uprooting commented
upon
way
its laws and teachings.
its cause.
Moved
by his love for his fellowman explainingand illustrating
of traditional lore thus
undertook
the task of preachinghis gospel The collection of the mass
he now
tioned,
accumulated
of emancipation. For the following 45 years he
through the centuries above-menthe Gemara
is called the Gemara, and
was
continuously,except during the rainy seasons,
ever-growing band of along with the Mishna, on which it is based, is
a wandering preacher with
an
and women.
is
followers of all castes and conditions,
called the Talmud.
The
men
Babylonian Talmud
aim,
the collection of the work of the Babylonian AmorHis was
a
genuine religiousexperience and he
and the Palestinian Talmud, of the Palestinian.
spoke with the authority of one who has seen the
The former is by far the fuller and the more
truth.
His message
is set in a thoroughly Hindu
popular.
as it does,the crystallization
background. The weariness of life,the crushing The Talmud, representing,
wheel
of
of
of
intense
burden
the
the
of
centuries
of
ceaseless
transmigration,
scholarship many
and
Jewish
the quest for release,the belief in karma
thought, affords a storehouse of literary
"

"

"

"

181

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

of the

wealth, combining legalminutiae with philosophic

ETHICS

Ghazali, Al-

inspiredinfallibility
of the Bible

trine

and
scientific discussions,folk-lore,historical
and
biographical notes, homilies, stories,and
It is the embodiment
of the oral tradition
mottoes.
of the Jews, and is now, as it has always been, one
of the main branches of Jewish study.
Harold
F. Reinhart
GENERAL
ASSEMBLY."
The
highest legislative
gathering of the official representativesof
the Presbyterianchurch, which
annually
convenes
and is composed of the ruling elders,ministers,
and appointed delegatesof the presbyteries. Similar
bodies are
convened
by the French Reformed
and other churches.
GENERAL
CONFESSION."
fession
(1) A pubhc conof sins made
by congregationand minister
or
by the minister on behalf of the congregation,a
in AngUcan
and
certain other
practice common
churches.
(2) In the R.C. church a confession in
which
the penitent sums
up his past sins, even
though previouslyconfessed.
GENERATIONISM."

Same

as

traducianism

(q.v.).
GENEVA

CATECHISM."

See

Catechism.

doctrine of

an

Protestant
answer
infaUible church.

GERHARDT,

greatest of German

he
Cathohc

PAULUS
(1607-1676)."The
hymn-writers. More than thirty

hymns have become

of his

the

to

classics.

GERMAN
EVANGELICAL
PROTESTANT
CHURCH
OF
NORTH
AMERICA."
liberal
A
body of German-speaking Protestants,mainly in
Ohio, Indiana,and Pennsylvania. 17,962 members

(1919).
GERMAN
EVANGELICAL
SYNOD
OF
NORTH
AMERICA."
A denomination
of German
Protestants
in the
U.S.A.
formed
in 1850 by a
fusion of the
German
Evangelical Association
(organized 1840) and the German
Evangehcal
Church Association of Ohio, and to which other
similar bodies
Docwere
subsequently added.
the church holds to the common
elements
trinally
in the Lutheran
and Reformed
creeds,and leaves
pointsof difference to the individuals. They have a
mission
work
in India.
The
Synod comprises
some
1,300churches and has 352,644 communicants

(1919).

SAINT
ess
GENEVIEVE,
(ca.422-512)." Patronsaint of Paris, venerated
Jan. 3rd. for her
on

benevolence,and

furnished

services she rendered to

Paris by her prophetic giftand her holy influence
when
attacked by Attila,the Him.
the city was
the

CHARLIER
DE
GERSON,
JEAN
(13631429). French ecclesiastic and chancellor of the
tried
of
scholastic
to supplant
University
Paris,
speculation by
evangelicaUsm in
imiversity
"

studies.
His
effort was
the endeavor
supreme
to end the papal schism through the councils of Pisa,
1409, and Constance, 1418. At the council of
of John Huss.
Constance, Gerson was the accusor

GENIUS.
In Roman
mythology, the tutelary
who
attends
mortals
deity of a person
through
or protects placesor other objects. E.g.,genius
life,
FRIEDRICH
WILHEINRICH
familiae,a household patron deioy,or genius loci,
GESENIUS,
HELM
Semitic scholar and
a local guardian genius.
(1786-1842)." German
bibKcal
critic,the first scholar to introduce the
GENIZAH.
A small chamber
other reposiscientificmethod
into the study of Semitic philology
or
tory
"

"

in connection
with many
for the
synagogues
storingof sacred reUcs and damaged manuscripts.
Oriental genizahshave yieldedmany
texts valuable
for bibUcal criticism.
GENTILE.

"

which
gentilis,

A
means

word

adapted from

belonging to the

the
same

Latin,
clan;

later used in the sense

of a nation or race, hence a
In the English Bible the term
is
foreignnation.
used for the non- Jewish peoples.
CHRISTIANITY."
This expression,
with Jewish Christianity
is commonly
(q.v.),
outside
applied to the Christian movement
Palestine,especiallyduring the early years of the
ship
new
religion's
history. At the outset the memberof the gentile Christian
communities
often
included Jewish as well as pagan
dently
Eviconverts.
in most
this was
the case
of the PauUne
churches,although the apostleregarded himself as
called to preach more
especiallyto the gentiles.
of a few generations,with the
But in the course
exceptionof certain inconspicuousChristian groups
drew itsadherents excluin Palestine,
the new
sively
religion
from pagan
and thus "Christianity"
and
circles,
"Gentile Christianity"
became synonymous
terms.
S. J. Case
The bending of the knee as a
GENUFLEXION."
and humiUty in worship. The
gesture of reverence
dates from
and in the
custom
the early church
more
hturgicalsects rules are prescribed for its
observance.
GENTILE
in contrast

GERHARD,
theologian,the

(1582-1637)."Lutheran
JOHANN
complete scholastic expositor
of earlyLutheran
dogmatics. By his detailed docmost

and

hterature.

logian
AL-(1058-1111)." The greatest theoof Mohammedanism
and the most advanced
world during the
philosopherof the Mediterranean
Middle
Ages.
Brilliant and
diligent study at the famous
imiversityof Naysabur led to his appointment by
the great vizier Nizam
al Mulk
(patron of Omar
Khayyam) to a chair in the newly founded Nizamiyspeedily
ya University at Bagdad (1091). He was
of the cleverest expounders of
recognized as one
the Scholastic
prudence
theology and the casuistic jurisEast
which
characterized
the Moslem
well as the Christian West
in his day.
as
and the
nature
In 1095 the depth of his own

GHAZALI,

influence of his great teacher.Imam

al-Haramain,
asserted
themselves; he resigned his post and
except for a brief period of enforced teaching at
his life to private research,
Naysabur devoted
is
lifework
His
writing, and mystic devotion.
in two
summed
great works, the Collapseof
up
the Philosophers(known in Mediaeval
Europe as
Abu Hamid,
Destructio philosophorumof Abuhamet
of Algazel)and the Revivification
of the Sciences
or
tion
of Religion. In the former his critiqueof the funcand the brain reaches heightsnot
of the senses
and Kant.
See
attained in Europe before Hume
In the latter and in many
Philosophy.
Arabic
for Sufic mysticism,
smaller writingshe makes
room
which
itself had just made
an
approach through
orthodoxy, in the
Qushairi(in 1045) to intelligent
he emphasizes simple
Mohammedan
religion;i.e.,
practical
formulation, individual devotion, and
ethics
as
against hair-splittingScholasticism.
for a spiritof
Accordinglyhe stood steadfastly
=

Ghebers

DICTIONARY

OP

ETHICS

AND

RELIGION

182

find men
of unusual
toleration.
we
Among the Hebrew
stories,
Having limited the sciences to
and
The
earliest mentioned
stature
he beUeved
to be their sphere he respected
are
power.
the Nephilim, an antediluvian
there.
race
(Gen. 6:4) of
Holding that the layman need and
the
be troubled
semi-human
with
should not
were
questions of the
origin,whose descendants
The
Rephaim were
schools,he recognized a time and place for these, "heroes" of story and fame.
who
lived among
the Canaanite
also. He himself was
gigantic men
great enough to be able to
write for the layman as well as for the professional population of Palestine both east and west of the
from
various
theologian. Attacked
quarters, Jordan, prior to Israel's conquest under Joshua.
To
the same
general class belong the Ana kirn
nothing inconsistent with the best in orthodox
about Hebron
in his
doctrine has yet been discovered
(Deut. 9:2) and in Philistia. On the
Moslem
east
of the Jordan, the shades
He
ences
(Deut. 2:10-12,
pubUshed works.
hints, however, at experito have
and opinions which he seems
never
20-22) of the Zuzim, the Emim
( Zamzummim)
in writing. What
this inexorable agnostic, lingeredin the traditions of the Israehte population.
set down
who
logical
mythoby mystic intuition
Among the Greeks the Gigantes were
yet found himself bound
beUeved
in his
to his infinite God, thought and
beings, closely associated with the gods,
whom
these gods could not slay except by the
heart of hearts,is stilla mystery.
M. SPRENGLINa
of a mortal.
The Titans and the Centaurs
presence
See Gabers.
also mighty monsters
in Greek
GHEBERS."
are
mythology,
and they furnish a whole realm of stories to stimulate
life. These
and entertain Greek
GHETTO.
cannon-factory,
(From Italian gieito,
early semiexerted an ineffaceableinfluence
which the first ghetto was
located.) human personalities
at Venice, near
the everyday life,
the literature and the art
Street or
on
on
neighborhood within which the Jews
lished
estabof the Greeks, the Romans
and
all subsequent
were
compelled to live. The ghettos were
Ira M. Price
civihzation.
in many
European cities,
beginning in the
11th. century; and only the end of the 19th. century
is
LUDWIG
The term
KARL
the last ghetto-gatetorn down.
(1792GIESELER,
JOHANN
saw
used also to designatea neighborhoodin which
now
1854). 'German theologianand church historian.
of Jews live close together.
a great number
GILGAMESH."
The hero of the great religious
These party
and
GUELF."
GHIBELLINE
epic of ancient Babylonia. The epic is a mixture
semi-historical
of
names
are
nature-myth and
tradition,
clearlyItahan forms derived from the
role.
The princesof the
German
Gilgamesh playing a divine-human
Waiblingen and Welf.
to the royal
house of Welf were
a party of opponents
GLASSITES."
A small Christian sect, founded
of the Hohenstauffen
whose originalfeudal
power
first
Itahan
terms
in Waiblingen. The
seat was
by John Glas, a Scottish Presbyterian minister
in America
in 1215
to distinguish the
and
in Florence
(1695-1773); called Sandemanians
appear
England, after Robert Sandeman, Glas' son-in-law
partisansand opponents of the Emperor. Ghibeladherence
and co-laborator.
the party of feudal nobility whose
line meant
They teach a legalistic
inherited interests raUied them to the miUtarist and
to the teachings of Jesus and practicea modified
included
all
commimism.
Guelf
autocratic Emperor, while
because
hostile to the Emperor whether
who were
An
GLORIA.
the independence of the
ascription of praise, sung or
they wished to secure
churches.
recited in the services of many
The
from imperialcontrol,or, more
commonly,
papacy
famihar glorias
the Gloria Patri,"Glory be
industrial elements of the
most
are
as
representingthe new
democratic
rule.
desire for more
to the Father, the Gloria in Excelsis,
cities with
"Glory be to
a
God
the cities in
on
high," and the Gloria Tibi, "Glory be to
Especiallyin Lombardy Guelf meant
where the nobles
Thee, O God," the latter being used in the Eastern
league with Milan and Cremona
to the risingtrade guilds. hturgy.
had had to yield power
These partiesdeveloped into the anarchy of local
GLORY.
Dante
made
factions against which
a
passionate
Brightnessor luster,
originally
physical
the glory of the sun, but appliedfiguratively
F. A. Christie
as
protest.
to fame or honor acquired by men
or paid to them.
GHOST.
Religiouslythe conception of God associated
(1) A phantom or apparition of a
deceased person, regarded among
primitivepeoples itself with the lightin contrast with the darkness.
related the writer hesitated
disembodied soul possessed of supernatural When
a theophany was
as
a
See Demons;
to say that God
appeared in person, and preferred
or
frequently as a demon.
power
In the revelation at
Spirits.
principle to say that his glorywas seen.
(2) The soul or the immortal
down
Sinai the glory of Yahweh
the
came
in the phrase "to give up the ghost."
of man
as
upon
burned
with fire. The
as
The Holy Ghost is thus used of the Spiritof God.
mount, and the mount
unusual phenomena of the thunderstorm
with its
A ceremonial dance of certain
GHOST-DANCE."
blinding lightning confirmed the impression that
himself known
makes
American
Indian tribes in which the participants Yahweh
by bright light.
his dwelling by
cate
He
white
was
supposed to consecrate
wear
cloaks, and believe they communiThe ceremony
with the spiritsof the dead.
coming to it in a bright cloud, and the future
believed to be efficacious in freeingIndians from
kingdom of God will be illuminated by his presence
was
not to need the lightof the sun.
This condominion of the whites.
as
ception
so
into Christianitywhere
has passed over
is
of
of
heaven
GIANTS.
A behef in the existence of giantsin
as a place
thought
supernaturalhght,
where the saint will dwell "in glory."
early times is almost universal. Interest in this
of fame or reputation the
In the derived sense
behef is stimulated
of a few
(1) by the presence
word is apphed to God in religious
such individuals today; (2) by the bones of such
thinking. His
and strata of soil stretching glory was
seen
by the Jews in overcoming his
figuresfound in caves
of praise glorifyGod, that is,
enemies.
back to earUer ages; (3) by traditions and stories
Hymns
spread the knowledge of his excellence. Calvinistic
prevalent in the literaryremains brought down
from the earHest records of civilizatioh. In Babygood,
lonia
theology made the glory of God the supreme
and
and Jesuit ethics judges all actions with reference to
Assyria the giant Engidu stirred the
H. P. Smith
imagination with his might and victorious conflicts. the "greaterglory of God."

broad

what
them

"

"

"

"

"

"

OF

DICTIONARY

183

RELIGION

inserted
Interpretativecomments
in the margin of ancient manuscripts
by copyists desirous of correctingthe text
the manuscript
or
making its meaning clear. When
to be recopied
containing such notes came
sometimes
be copied
such scribal additions would
as
part of the originaltext, from which they thus
became
indistinguishable except by criticism.
7:196
Mark
Possible examples are
("making all
meats
clean") and John 1:15, which simply duplicates
GLOSSES.
in the text or

"

added

Edgar

1:30.

See

GLOSSOLALIA."

J. Goodspked

Tongues,

Speaking

WITH.

GNOME.
In mediaeval
of a
folk-lore,one
of tiny earth or mountain
conceived
spirits,
and
to be the guardians of mines
miners.
The
males are
dwarfs
with
pictures as ugly bearded
hoods, and the females (gnomides) as very beautiful.
"

race

GNOSTICISM.

for a type of religious

name
ranean
prominent in the MediterWorld in the early Christian centuries.
The
from which the term Gnosticism is
Greek word gnosis,
derived,means
knowledge. But in this connection
to be, not
much
so
knowledge was understood
a
mental acquisitionarrived at through the exercise
of observation and reason, as a mystical enlightenment
mediated
of
by the supernatural process

activity that

"

AND

ETHICS

God

Syria and

Cerinthus in Asia. About

the year
in Alexandria
the movement
assumed
serious proportions under
more
the leadership of
Basilides.
By the middle of this century it found a
still more
influential champion
in Valentinus,
who
carried the propaganda from
Alexandria to
here also that Marcion
Rome.
It was
ducted
(q.v.)conhis work.
From
this center
Gnosticism
spread especiallyeastward, its latest representative
of distinction being Bardesanes
of Syriawhose
death probably should be placed about the year 240.
The
of Gnosticism's
causes
rapid decline are
easilyperceived. Its lack of formal organization,
the elements of diversitywithin itself,
its Oriental
type of speculationin contrast with the interests of
Greek thinking,all placed it at a great disadvantage
before a more
powerful orthodoxy alreadybeginning
the character of a unified movement
to take on
in
which the Roman
genius for organizationand the
Greek
taste
for metaphysical speculation were
dominant
S. J. Case
factors.
130

A.D.

became

GOBLIN.

ugly

creature

inhabit

caves

"

In mediaeval
of malignant
or woods.

an
folk-lore,
imaginary

supposed
influence,

to

GOD.
The Supreme Being, the highestobject
of the existing
worship, the creator and source
universe,and the upholder of absolute justice.
I. God
Gods.
The
and
conception of one
God is a product of considerable maturity
supreme
of thought. In the earlier stages of religious
with
thinking a multitude of spiritsconfront man
their demands
for various kinds of propitiation.
See
Primitive
Gods;
Peoples, Religion
op;
Animism.
Even
in connection
with
polytheism
there is usually some
gradation of spiritsso that
than
certain gods possess
extensive
more
power
"

of

revelation.
chief tenets
The
of Gnosticism are:
(1) The
world of matter
is intrinsically
evil,the creation of
evil deity. (2) The physicalbody of man
also
an
belongs to the world of evil matter, but his soul is
world of purity where
a spark of lightfrom
an
upper
the good deity resides.
unfortunate
(3) In some
variouslyexplained, originally pure souls
way,
have become entangled in evil matter
from which
world are
others.
all the forces of man's
When
their deliverance can
be secured only through some
to one
regarded as subordinate
control,
form of divine intervention on the part of the good
supreme
the conception of God as distinct from the conception
god. (4) A way of deliverance has been provided
of a pluralistic
realm emerges.
spiritual
through the coming of a specialemissary of lightinto
II. Typical
Interests
Leading
theism.
Monoto
the world of darkness.
This mediator
is pictured
The pathway along which this unification
in various mythical forms, but in Christian Gnosticism
the
he is regularlyidentified with Christ.
vation of religiousthinking takes place depends on
(5) Salkind of culture existingand the dominant
interests
is secured
for the individual
by rites of
of life. In general, the following considerations
initiation and worship through which
the soul is
increment
of light have been active in the creation of monotheism:
mystically reinforced by a new
One people may
1 The idea ofconquest
from the upper
world and taught certain magical
conquer
the
another.
If the war
has been waged under
passwords that insure the safe transit of the soul
stationed
specialsanction of some
deity,the conquest greatly
at the various
past the demons
gates
He may
not only displacethe
enlargeshis power.
barring the road to heaven.
not
god of the conquered people, but the victory may
Originally Gnosticism
was
a
single and
all possiblefoes.
suggest his supreme
over
but a syncretism
organized movement,
definitely
power
of
realm
Sometimes
is depicted in the
warfare
of kindred
tendencies
emanating from different
mythology, where one God conquers his right to
sources.
Formerly it was
thought to have arisen
in the pantheon.
first in the Christian Era and to have resulted from
supremacy
social unity
the applicationof Greek speculationto Christianity.
2. The interest in the political
or
But
the more
of primitive and
recent
For men
investigationshave shown
of a tribe or nation.
is to aU
that the movement
not only pre-Christianin
was
provincialhabits of thought, the group
the actual world.
Among
origin but also Oriental rather than distinctivelyintents and purposes
interest
Greek in character.
It had not a littlein common
find this political
the Semitic peoples we
with the Oriental Mystery reUgions (q.v.),
and its
especiallystrong. The unification of men's loyalty
fundamental
notion of sharp conflict between
the
was
tives
accomplished by the exaltation of the prerogaevil world of darkness and the good world of light,
of the god of the tribe. In the process of
and
their respectivechampions, is apparently a
accentuatingthis loyalty,the exclusive claims of the
to be so emphasized
came
heritagefrom Persia.
deity of the political
group
absolute
The
fusion
between
Gnostic
and
Christian
as to constitute a descriptionof an
in the 1st.
extent
of Israel,the great prophets
ruler. In the case
conceptions occurred to some
Christian Gnostic moveable to interpret the righteous demands
century, but distinctively
ments
were
the political
do not emerge
until toward
the end of the
of Yahweh
so
vigorously that even
the position
1st. century.
The
2nd. century witnessed
their
downfall of the nation did not weaken
of righteousgreatest prosperity, but
of its God.
ness,
they rapidly declined
By emphasizing the cause
for the
during the first half of the 3rd. century. Among
the prophets laid the foundations
the shadowy figuresin the 1st. century who
of righteousnesswhich
God
belief in one
are
supreme
accused of Gnostic leanings are Simon Magus in
has been characteristic of western religiousbelief.
"

"

"

"

God

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

3. The
belief in the ultimate sovereigntyof
in
human
righteotisness.
Strongly entrenched
experience is the conviction that justiceought to
Amid
the
apparent
miscarriages of
prevail.^
look to some
justicein human
affairs,
men
human
superto rightthe wrongs
under which they
power
suffer. Only thus can
If
moral unity be affirmed.
some
specific
deitybe regarded as entrusted with the
defense of justicethis deitycomes
to be exalted with
attributes of disinterested righteousness. In the
of the Hebrew
case
nation,the identification of the
national interests with the demands
of justicegave
rise to so commanding
divine figure that the
a
"

foundations
Mohammedan
of Christian and
as
well as Jewish theology are found in the prophetic
The
conception of God.
ness
conception of righteousis universal,transcending the interests of any
Hence
the possibility
individual or group.
one
of a genuine^
monotheism, in which all other gods
with specialinterests disappear.
4. The problem of the originof the universe."
While
the origin of things is often explained in
of mythoterms
of a complicated interrelationship
logical
beings,it may also be ascribed to the purpose
and creative power
ception
conof a single agent. The
of Ahura
in Zoroastrianism
Mazda
presents
a
majestic picture of an all-powerfulcreator. By
virtue of this supreme
such a God
creative power,
is also able to control the course
of cosmic events.
A strong religious
faith thus becomes
possible.
to
this conception, but less
5. Closely akin
anthropomorphic in character is the conceptionof
rational organizationin the universe.
This
ception
conmay

never

assume

personalform.
distinctly

AND

ETHICS

184

that this conception is not naturally translated

to exclude it from
this
by the word "God" seems
discussion.
III. God
Personaij
Lawgiver
Ruler.
as
and
^The relation between the Israelitish nation and
God
conceived
in terms
of personal loyalty.
was
Yahweh
He demanded
sive
excluwas
a "jealous"God.
worship as the condition of his favor. Only
under
his leadership could armies be victorious.
Only by his guidance could judges and rulers exercise
Disasters were
preted
interrighteous government.
marks
of his displeasure. Prosperity
as
could come
only as a mark of his favor. Yahweh was
with all the doings of his
personally concerned
people. He purposed their good, but withheld his
disobedient.
blessingswhen they were
Commands,
tions
promises of reward, threats of punishment, exhibiof wrath or of love were
the ways
in which he
expressed himself.
While Yahweh
for a time considered as the
was
exclusive God
of Israel the great prophets kept
faith alive through the period of national disaster
by so exalting and magnifying the conception of
God that his power
increased as the prestigeof the
nation waned.
Instead of disappearing when
his
national
a tribal or
people were
conquered, as many
discovered to be so supremely
was
god had, Yahweh
all the earth.
great that his power extends over
Isaiah declared that the armies of the Assyrians
Ezekiel
Yahweh's
control.
under
were
trayed
porthe surpassing splendorof God's dominion
in a transcendent
realm from which he directs history
toward
of his purposes.
the consummation
admitting
Later Judaism
became
a missionary religion,
others than native Jews to the privilegesof
God's
reign. The so-called gods of the Gentiles
have no
real existence.
There
is only one
God,
all the earth.
and he is supreme
over
The attributes of God, as thus conceived, are
the traits emphasized by
obtained by universalizing
eignty.
the Hebrew
is his Soverprophets. Fundamental
for any
His will is the ultimate
reason
regulationor law. But of equal importance is his
Righteousness. All of his laws and his deeds are
dictated by his purpose
to establish righteousness.
This insistence on righteousnessleads him to punish
the wicked and to reward
the righteous. But the
God
due to sheer vengeance.
punishment is never
imdeserved
in
and
them
loves men,
shows
mercy
"

Chinese idea of T'ien,or "Heaven"

indicates a
rational order, worthy of worship and
supreme
constitutingthe basis of religiousliving,but not
personalized. In Greek philosophy the conception
is
is more
its nature
nearly personal, because
reached
reason
an
by taking human
as
analogy.
Under
the influence of Christian
thinking, this
Greek
ideal
was
distinctly personalized. The
of Christian theology is distinctlyperProvidence
sonal,
whereas
the so-called providence of Stoic
philosophy is by comparison impersonal.
6. The
conception of ultimate, immutable
Being in contrast to the vicissitudes of realityas we
experienceit. -This conception of God is reached
only where the mystical or speculativedesire for an
absolute unity is strong. It finds its most complete
many
ways.
fested
The exercise of the divine sovereignty is maniexpressionin the philosophy of the Vedanta, but
in creation.
influence
The universe exists because of
the
of
Neo-Platonism
has
been
an
through
influential factor in the development of western
the divine fiat. God established the laws according
of nature
take place. Since
to which
the processes
as the desire to define ultimate
theology. Inasmuch
of a logicallyconsistent concept
creation is due solely to God's will,the arbitrary
realityin terms
for beneficent
of nature
is a strong motive
where
the spiritof reflection is
alteration of the course
sophical purposes is entirelyin keeping with God's character.
developed, this conception of God finds philoHence
miracles are
occasionallywrought either to
reinforcement,and is thus given a prominent
secure
some
blessingfor God's people or to attest
place where intellectual interpretationsare
tative
An authorithe genuineness of a prophet's word.
vigorouslypromoted.
revelation of the divine will has been given
For the specific
conceptions of God which have
that men
have no excuse
for going contrary
obtained in the various
so
religionsthe reader is
may
His
wrath against evildoers
referred to the articlesdealing with those religions. to God's
purposes.
the three
is expressed in the punishment which awaits them;
The
present discussion will consider
is even
but his mercy
more
conspicuouslydisplayed
important conceptions which are found in the rehfor sins may
by the provisionwhereby atonement
gions of today. These are (a) the conception of
be accomplished and the sinner restored to divine
God as a transcendent
personal sovereign,whose
is primarily a
of God's righteous
favor.
relation to the world and to men
The absolute perfection
character is secured by his abode in Heaven, where
matter of his Will; (b) the conception of God as
the ultimate
metaphysicalBeing, defined largely all is ordered in complete harmony with his will.
of history and
by contrast with the finite characteristics of reality From heaven he rules the course
he
Into heaven
of
administers the salvation of men.
we
as
experience it; and (c) the combination
will welcome
the righteous after death to enjoy
personal and metaphysicalinterests expressed in
in Christian theology. A
the conception of God
perfectbliss forever.
fourth conception might perhaps be included,viz.,
This picture of a distinctlypersonalrighteous
combined
divine sovereign has frequently been
the idea of "Heaven"
so
important in Chinese
with traits drawn
from philosophical
speculation;
religiousand moral thinking. But the very fact
The

"

185

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

God

popular religionin Judaism, in Christianity, Being. But instead of being defined, as in the
and in Mohammedanism
almos-t exclusively Vedanta
moves
system, by negatives, God's
activity
finds expression in the creation of the existing
within the limits of this personalconception.
universe.
Metaphysical
Ultimate.
IV. God
Neo-Platonism
the
as
(q.v.)furnished a richly
The
of this relationship by
most
ception
dynamic interpretation
thorough-going elaboration of this conof God is found in the reUgious thought of
expounding a doctrine of emanations, according
with the more
militant religious to which the very existence of thingsdepends on the
India.
In contrast
immanent
divine activity,
attitude of the west, which found expressionin the
althoughGod-in-himself
imposing his exists in such perfectpurity of spiritual
conception of an all-powerful God
being that
he can be defined only by contrast
plative
with the material
on
humanity, Indian thought was contempurpose
world.
Modern
idealistic philosophy likewise
and mystical. In the Vedas
the gods are
forces rather
tribal
than
but affirms
depictsGod as the self-existent Absolute,
expressions of nature
deities. In the Brahmanas
there is a groping after
that it belongs to the very nature
of this Absolute,
unified conception of divine Being which shall
to reahze
himself in and
one
through the evolving
of any
under ly the character
Unlike the
god. Prajapati is nature of things. See Hegelianism.
Indian form of theological
called the "lord of creatures.
In the Upanishads
speculation,this western
there is developed the conceptionof Brahman, who
type makes possiblea mysticism which finds expression
in a religiousappreciation of the activityof
is the ultimate self-existent reality,the unchangeable,
God
In the place of
indissoluble Being, the highest existence that
throughout the universe.
Brahman
is the unseen,
tangible
inoriental pessimism, western
be conceived.
can
philosophydeveloped
which brings into existence all that
an
optimisticview of the world.
enthusiastically
power
Christian
their existence,but is itself
V. The
Doctrine
is and which maintains
1. The
op God.
eternallydistinct from all phenomenal reality. fatherlinessof God. ^Jesus employed the famiUar
spection Hebrew
is found
Its true nature
by that mystical introconception of God as a sovereign person,
ultimate
whose
will was
the ultimate
which
discovers the Atman, or
explanation of all
Brahman
soul.
is
inner reality of the human
things. But he portrayed the divine will as the
God desires
identical with Atman.
the eternal divine is a
Thus
expressionof a fatherlylove for men.
into intimate
with
spiritualmetaphysical something discoverable only to come
spiritual
relationship
the surface appearHis creative and
men.
as
redemptive work are all
one
penetrates far beneath
ance
subordinated
This emphasis on
to this purpose.
of human
experience and apprehends the
is one
of the most
ultimate, all-pervasive,all-inclusive,God's intimate interest in men
indefinable,
of Christian doctrine.
ever
WhatIn the Vedanta
self-existent power.
philosophy distinctive marks
be the doctrinal content
of the idea of
this metaphysical conception of God is characterized
may
of
the nature
enters
by a systematic contrast between
God, the attitude of loving care for men
of the world of our experiinto every form of Christian theology.
Brahman
and the nature
ence.
2. The doctrine of the Trinity. This Christian
The nearest approach to a true description
of Brahman
is attained by saying that it is not like
emphasis has been technicallyexpressed in the
contrast
is
world.
This
doctrine of the Trinity. During the earlyperiod of
anything found in our
the missionary preaching made
use
Christianity
pushed so far that the reUgiousman, in affirmingthe
cerning
largely of popular and unsystematized ideas conreahty of Brahman, must also affirm that the world
God.
of his empiricalknowledge is illusion (maya).
By the end of the 2nd. century,
In
this logically complete philosophy, the
however, attempts were
being made to organize a
should
be equal in
Christian philosophy which
absolute perfectionof God is secured at the expense
God
of any
definite positiverelationshipbetween
diginity to the philosophies of the Hellenistic
this philosophical organization, the
world.
In
and the world of our common
experience. From the
point of view of speculativerefinement, all finite Greek conception of God as ultimate metaphysical
formed
the framework.
and
essence
Origen defined
anthropomorphic traits are eliminated from
this very
nature.
But
the divine
metaphysical God as the absolutelyperfectself-existent spiritual
seemed
to
thus defined, God
Being. But when
completeness of God relegateshim to a realm of
human
existence and makes
non-human
tion
participabelong to a realm of existence far removed from the
est
ciplineworld of human
in his being possibleonly by a rigorous disexperience. The Christian interin maintaining an active loving attitude of God
of mystical knowledge which
necessarily
quently, toward men
found expressionin the use of the hellenabandons
the world
of every-day life. Conseistic term
the religionof ordinary people consists of
Logos. The Logos was a form of divine
deities.
trust in the efficacyof popularly conceived
activityactuallypresent in the organizationof the
of
world.
Thus
Modern
Hinduism
has so far been influenced by the
by asserting the essential unity_
tion
of God's communicathat it includes Vishnu,
the Logos with God, a medium
demands
of practicalreligion
at hand.
Brahma
the triniof himself to the world and to men
was
as
Shiva, and the personalized
See Brahmanidentified with Christ, the
of Brahman.
When
this Logos was
tarian manifestation
Christian character of God's creative and redemptive
of.
ism
: India, Religions
instance
established.
The relation of the
Greek
activitywas
philosophy furnished another
the logical
but in terms
was
of metaphysicaldefinition,
which permitted Holy Spirit to the divine Father
doctrine of the
The
God
more
completion of this process.
a
practicalrelationshipbetween
the means
of human
and the world
by which the Greek
experience. The Greek
Trinity thus was
abides amid all changes. metaphysicalconception of God
satisfactorily
was
for that which
quest was
seen
Christianized so that the supreme
Being was
The first crude attempts to derive everything from
to hold a creative and redemptive attitude toward
ception
fire,air,or water, gave way eventually to the conSince the 4th. century this doctrine has been
of an
men.
intelligentorder. Plato elaborated
Christian
his doctrine of a hierarchy of ideas all subordinate
officially
regarded as the distinctively
"idea of ideas." Aristotle furnished
to a supreme
conception of God.
Scholastic theology
entered into Christian doctrine.
the conception which
3. The attributes of God.
"matter"
mere
proceeded to analyzethe metaphysicalconception
Distinguishing between
physical of perfect Being, thus deriving a long list of the
and "form," he asserted that " form" is the metaof God.
Beginning with
of any particularkind of organized so-called "attributes"
cause
God
is "pure form," the uncreated
the "aseity" (underived existence,from the Latin
existence.
but

"

"

"

"

"

"

creator

God

of a universe with intelligent

organization.
is thus a self-existent,
perfect transcendent

se) of God, his immutability, omnipotence,

omniscience, omnipresence, eternity, immensity,
a

God

DICTIONARY

carefullyand

unity, etc., were

OF

RELIGION

minutely defined.

These metaphysical attributes were

supplemented
by others derived from analysis of the Christian
of
such
as
loving personahty,
conception
hoUness,
etc. In depictingthe activity
love,truth, mercy,
of God, the influence of the biblical presentation
dominant.
The sovereignwill of God was
the
was
for his creative and his redemptive
ultimate reason
But this will is the expressionof his loving
work.
character.
The
Middle
Ages, on the basis of this
logical
analysis,worked out a remarkably complete theoof all realms of thought,
interpretation
4. The influenceof modern
'philosophyon ike
God, as defined by scholastic
conceptionof God.
being, existing
philosophy,is a transcendent
His essential
in complete self-perfection.
originally
being thus lies in a realm above that of human
experience. Modern
philosophy since the days of
Locke and Kant
has undertaken
a radical criticism
this critical
of our
of knowing. Under
powers
scrutiny the traditional "attributes" of God are
formal analysisof human
to be due to a mere
seen
these concepts to the
concepts. To pass from
affirmation of a correspondingreality
transcendently
existing,involves a leap of faith. Kant left open
the possibihtyof such a leap, but could see
no
rational bridge by which to pass from the reahn of
realm.
verifiable experience to the transcendent
has
The
unknowableness
of a transcendent
God
today become a philosophicalcommonplace.
to
ReUgious philosophy, then, undertakes
analyze actual experience,and to suggest tenable
this analysis. God
is thus coninferences from
ceived
in experience father
as a realityimmanent
than as a being existingin a realm beyond experience.
Hegel defined the Absolute in terms of an
immanent
organizingprocess rather than in terms of
the older immutable, self-sufficient transcendent
metaphysics creates new
Being. This new
lems.
probof traditional theology
Since the content
ent
of the transcendwas
developed as an interpretation
be taken over
without
change
God, it cannot
with the idea of immanence.
There
in connection
has been a generalperiod of attempted adjustment
doctrinal
of the older
technique to the newer
situation; but there is a growing recognitionof
the fact that the familiar hst of "attributes" must
give way to a mode of analysisappropriate to the
and evolutionaryconceptionof ultimate
immanent
"

reality.

AND

ETHICS

186

of the ruler is the supreme

good. This
ideal is quite in accord with Jesus' representation
of ministry as the ultimate test of greatness. In
accordance
with
this social mind, arbitrariness
has
been
theology.
disappearingfrom modern
God's relation to the universe is depictedin terms
of the orderhness
of law rather than in terms
of
incalculable interventions.
is
His relation to men
of ilUmitable helpfulness
rather than that of an
one
the
combined
with
injured sovereign. When
mentioned
philosophicalemphasis on immanence
above, this new social mood providesa conceptionof
God
less official,
but more
intimate.
is an
There
increasingwillingnessto think of God's activity
rather
as
being olended with the activities of men
than
The
as
standing out distinct from them.
of God includes the coworking out of the purpose
operation
of men
The
as
part of that purpose.
most
satisfactoryevidence of the realityof God
is found
in the experience of a co-operatingand
uplifting
"power not ourselves making for righteousness."
Christian
The
is
interpretationof God
and more
more
taking the form of a discoveryof
what
is implied in such a personal relationship
to
God as that which Jesus exemplifies
and into which
his disciples
be initiated through faith in him.
may
Smith
Gerald
Birney
The man
GOD-MOTHER."
GOD-FATHER,
or
who
acts as sponsor for a child at baptism
woman
and
undertakes
the child's religious education;
who givesa name.
so popularly,the one
power

GODLINESS.
^A term
describingthe quality
of a life entirelydominated
for God.
by reverence
In the New
it is commended
of
Testament
as
one
the supreme
traits of religion;and in Christian
thinkinggenerallyis recognizedas a prime essential
of rehgious leadership.
"

GODS.

of the
be any
may
power
with which a group
of men
may
into social relations and which is greater than
come
of
The
to
master
and
man
man.
helpful
man,
rank of godhead is often only a slightgrade above
the status
of the fetish (q.v.),of ancestors, of
demons
of hving human
or
even
beings. It is
difficult to distinguish between
the worship of
addressed
gods and the adoration and reverence
"

god

environing world

ancestors
to feared,dangeror
even
kings,chiefs,
ous
The gods have one
distinction
they
powers.
are
always at the center of interest of the social
On this account
it frequently
whole.
as
a
group
happens that the chief or king and the common
ancestors
reallyrank as divine.
of accoimting
There is no simple and singleway
for the origin of gods. That
they emerged at a
comparatively late stage in the evolution of human
social life is certain.
and
ceptual
conMany emotional
factors may
have converged to form any
of the early gods. The chief sources
be
one
may
emotional
life of early groups
noted.
(1) The
to

"

The fact that under the influence of the physical

is frequently
the evolutionary process
sciences
expounded in purely physicalterms leads naturally
is heartless,
and
to the feelingthat the universe
demands
the
therefore godless. To satisfyreligious
that the sympathetic
suggestion is being made
God of Christian faith is not involved in the cosmic
He is said to be a "finite" being,struggling
process.
Such
with
the refractory cosmos.
a
conception
indicates the bankruptcy of the conception of a
God
unrelated to the universe.
Perhaps the
most
important task of theology in the near future
instead of
is frankly to face the situation,and
formally defending the traditional attributes which
reconstruct
the
belong to an outgrown philosophy,
fundamental
conception of God in terms of modem
philosophicaldemands.
5. The influenceof changing social ideals on the
As has been said,the popular
conceptionof God.
conception of God was derived from the political
The will of God was
idea of a sovereign person.
for any activity.
considered the all-sufficientreason
ideals
During the past two centuries democratic
been
have
steadily displacing the sovereigns of
human
history. The unlimited will of a ruler is no
longer admitted as the final arbiter. The welfare
and
of humanity rather than the officialpomp
"

about
the great interests of food
and
protection. The objects which
furnished the satisfactions of these deepest needs of
sacred, most
loved
most
life would tend to become
and most
(2) The ever-present
highly reverenced.
which called
of mystery, the great unknown
sense
out the feelingof awe
expressed in such terms as
(qq.v.). (3) The projection
kami, wakonda
mana,
of human
feeling and will to the great nature
(4) The unusual exaltation of emotion in
powers.
ceremonies
giving rise to the concept of a
group
(5)The concept of creator,
super-soulof the group.
idealized
first cause,
maker
of things. (6) The
picture of the priestor hero, e.g., Brahmanaspati
of the two
concepts
(q.v.). (7) The convergence
of these
of spiritand hero-soul.
Any combination
would

center

supply,

sex

187

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

factors may
into the concept of gods in the
enter
historyof religions.
The
be
types of gods actually found
may
The
nature
roughly classified: 1. The
powers.
heavenly gods of light 'Dawn, Heaven, Sun, Moon.
See
Aryan
Religion,
Air
Religion; Vedic
gods (q.v.);and the earth gods,gods of vegetation.
Gods
2. Fertility
closely alUed to the vegetation
Great
Mother.
See Mothek
powers,
e.g., the
Religions.
Goddesses; Mystery
3. Functional
or
Departmental Gods, e.g., creators, gods of the
four quarters, war
gods, gods of healing and of the
arts.
4. Mediating Gods, functioning between
a
high god and the earth, e.g., aeons
(q.v.),or, in
human-divine
more
form, as savior or revealing
gods, e.g., avatars of Vishnu, Mithra, etc. 5. High
Gods of cosmic scope who are the result of theological
These
or philosophicthought.
of three main
are
types: (a) The ultimate cosmic order such as the
Chinese Ti'en or the Fate of the Aryan groups.
(b)The spiritual
realitybehind the phenomenal and
life such as the Hindu
illusoryworld of common
Brahman
Dharma(q.v.),the absolute Buddha
or
kaya (q.v.)of Mahayana Buddhism, the ultimate
of the Yomei
of China
and
system
Japan. A
transitional stage between
(a)and (b)is represented
by the Tao of China, the Great Ultimate of the
system of Chucius
(q.v.)and the Stoic Logos. All
of these gods are thought of in generalas impersonal.
(c)The Supreme Cosmic Ruler conceived in terms
of personalitysuch as Allah in Islam, and Ormazd,
the
For
the
battling god of Zoroastrianism.
Christian God, see God.
The historyof gods is to be sought in the development
of the social life of their worshipers. This
social life is always reflected in the concept of god.
He
is also shaped by the natural
environment.
Tribal gods are often suppressed by conquest and
useless gods disappear. Often
rival gods are
transformed
into devils.
Gods
moral as the
grow
moral
standards
of their people develop. As
nations form and are
consolidated
under
a
great
ruler,the earthly order is reflected in the heavenly
With
court.
the entrance
of philosophy and the
or
quest for ultimate reality,
unity,or a cosmic law
the personal, anthropomorphic elements
tend to
the god-idea. It is a question
disappear from
whether
the impersonal ultimate of most
phies
philosocan
reallytake the r61e of the god of religion.
The constant return
from philosophy to theism in
the orient indicates the strength of the ancient
emotional
appeal of the personal gods. Modern
science is slowly organizing cosmic realities under
set of categoriesfor all the peoples of the
a
new
world and religiousemotions, detached
from this
new
conceptual interpretationof the world, in
most
religions,
today, are findingtheir outlet in a
mysticism which retains the emotional values
vague
of the devotion to god of the ages of human
history.
A. Eustace
Haydon
WOLFGANG
VON
GOETHE,
JOHANN
(1749-1832). German
poet and
philosopher,a
of great versatihty and genius. In literary
man
his greatest achievement
Faust which
circles,
was
has been called "the divine comedy of 18th. century
human."
In philosophy, he was
considered
by
the Romanticists
the father of their movement.
as
Yet he claims discipleship
to Spinoza who
taught
him
to revere
"the Uving garment
nature
as
of
God."
He exercised a profound influence on the
moral lifeof Germany.

AND

ETHICS

Good

and

Evil

they denote the last great world-power, hostile

to God's
kingdom. The imagery is also carried
over

into Mohammedan

eschatology.

"

"

"

GpG

AND

MAGOG."

Scythian peoples, according

designation of the

scholars.
many
Their invasions of Palestine led Ezekiel (chaps.38
and 39) to identifythem
with the final enemy
to
assault the Kingdom
of God.
So also in Rev. 20
to

GOHEI.
end
upper

Rods with shavingspendant from the

used in the Ainu reUgion as protective
fetishes;in Japanese Shintoism,where they are
often made
of paper,
they are sold at shrines as
amulets
to guard against evil.
"

GOLDEN
AGE.
^An imagined period marked
by universal innocence,happiness,and peace usually
placed at the beginning of human
history.
"

GOLDEN
ROSE."
An ornament
made
of gold
and decked with gems, usuallysapphires,
blessed by
the pope
the fourth Sunday of Lent and given
on
to a person,
a community, or
of
a town
as
a token
his favor; a custom
datingfrom the 11th. century.
GONGS
AND
USE
OF."
BELLS, RELIGIOUS
Drums
and
rattles are
the most
primitive and
universal of musical instruments;from the former
are
developed gongs, from the latter bells, a gong
being a resonant metal of disk or other form sounded
with a stick of some
sort, a bell being a hollow
instrument, usually metal, with an attached or
enclosed clapper. Both types of instruments have
been used in connection
with religious
celebrations
from remote
times.
They are doubtless primarily
devices
for stimulating emotion
through noise,
and are especiallyassociated with the dance ; but
definite ideas are also associated with their use, as
evil influences,
(1) to expel or frightenaway
(2) to
attract
the attention
of divinities,(3) to give
pleasure to the gods and their worshipers. The
of bells in connection
use
with religionin the
Occident
dates from classical times, Greek
and
marked
feature of
RoHian, and it has become
a
Christian churches.
In the ancient East, Egypt
and Assyria, such use
was
rare
or
unknown, and
the Mohammedan
world dishkes both gongs
and
bells in
connection
with
religion. Buddhists,
and the use of gongs in
however, emplov bells freely,
connection
with temples is very
ancient
in the
In America
both gongs
Mongolian Orient.
and
bells are
and
Central
pre-Columbian in Mexico
America, and sporadicallyelsewhere.
H. B. Alexander
GOOD
AND
EVIL."
The
desirable and the
undesirable.
The terms are used in wide variety
of applications,within which
the following distinctions
evil as
are
and
significant:(a) Good
expressing(1) what men
actuallydesire,(2) what
they ought to desire. The nature of this distinction
depends on one's theory of the moral ideal. An
ideal conceived
absolute or external requires
as
a
the actually desired
sharp distinction between
and the ideallydesirable.
An ideal conceived
as
a
growing insightwithin experiencerequiresclose
correlation of the standards of good and evil with
actual desires,includingdeveloping tendencies in
the latter,
their increasingorganization,and their
and evil (1) as
potentialenrichment.
(6) Good
conduct
characterizingour
or
emerging from it:
well- or iU-doing(seeGoodness) ; (2)as a condition
befallingus: well- or ill-being.Good or evil in an
ethical sense
appliesprimarily to conduct as purposive.
It appUes to condition only in view of the
possiblecontrol of conditioin by human
purpose,
and institutions
in the fashioningof environment
(naturaUsm) or in view of a divine purpose directing
conditions (theism), (c) The effort to harmonize
theism
with the existence of evil in the world,
whether
of condition
^sufferingor of conduct
sin
gives rise to the "problem of evil." The
alternatives ai"e sometimes
either (1)that
presented,
"

"

"

"

"

Good

Friday

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

good,or (2)that He is not omnipotent, or

it seems.
evil is not real, or not what
alternative seems
with
to be consistent
Neither
ethical theories.
usually accepted theistic and
be humanly insoluble.
There
The
problem may
is logically
a correspondingproblem of the place of
good in the universe,but it is not usuallyfelt to be
See Evil.
J. F. Crawford
acute.
so
God

is not

(3) that

GOOD
FRIDAY."
The Friday precedingEaster,
commemorated
the anniversary
as
by Christendom
Friday
of the death of Jesus; called Great
by the
Greek Church.
GOOD

WORKS."

See Merit.

AND

ETHICS

188

c) Christ brings to a sinful world the revelation

of transforgivinglove of God, the power
forming
the ideals for Life,
the assurance
life,
of an
individual immortality and the ultimate
triumph
of social righteousness.
d) By virtue of faith in Jesus, the individual
of the

into

comes

new

relations with God

and

is aided both

to attain individual

righteousnessand to co-operate
in social regeneration.
2. There
four gospels that have
become
are
canonical,but a large number
of others were
in
existence in the early church.
See Apocrypha.
The literary
relation of these four gospelshas been
of very great discussion,
a matter
but in generalthe

results of investigation
be stated something
can
follows:
as
merits
That
which
GOODNESS."
unqualified
a) There are no written gospels contemporary
approval because of its inherent value.
with Jesus.
The
of his fife circulated as
account
enhances
the satisfactions of life
Whatever
of traditions,
a
group
being shaped up in different
is valued
personal
as
a
as
"good." Goodness
localities.
trait indicates a solicitude for the promotion of
b) In broad terms, the followinggroups
of
expression of
good things. It is thus a supreme
material appear in the synopticgospels:
signifieshis
morality. The
goodness of God
(1) The gospel of Mark, which apparently was
welfare.
See Good
bountiful provisionfor human
in Rome
and was
beUeved
shaped
to represent the
Evil.
and
Petrine teaching. Mark's
gospel is apparently the
basis of Matthew
and Luke.
Greek
GORGON."
In
reUgion the horrible
which
is common
to
Matthew
(2) Material
to
which had power
to turn men
head of Medusa
and Luke and not found in Mark.
of the
form
with terror is the best known
stone
(3) Material which is peculiarto Matthew.
is of that class of
the gorgon
Historically
gorgon.
(4) Material which is pecuhar to Luke.
fear-producing
symbols used by primitivepeoples
Another
classificationregards the material as
off evil,to protect from unknown
to ward
dangers
falhngroughlyinto two main groups, Mark and the
and to frightenenemies.
source
(Q.). In addition to this would be incidental
The
material.
GOSALA.
most
important leader of a
atheistic sect,the Ajivikas(q.v.).
Hindu
c) The fourth gospel is commonly regarded as of
Johannine origin and organized in what might be
of
Good
the coming of the
GOSPEL.
news
called a Johannine
school.
See Gospels, The.
Shailer
Ivingdom of God and of the way of salvation through
Mathews
Jesus Christ.
Also, one of the four records of the
APOCRYPHAL."
See Apocrypha;
GOSPELS,
ment.
Testalifeof Christ which are contained in the New
Apocalyptic
Literature.
"

"

he
first used by Jesus when
1. The
word was
the people to believe in the coming of
called upon
of God.
As later used in the New
the Kingdom
mented
Testament, this thought persistsbut is suppleof the events
of Christ's
with an account
the Kingdom was
life as the one
to
through whom
be estabUshed.
Thus, Paul spoke of his gospel
therein the death and
and included
resurrection
reference to the virgin
He
makes
of Christ.
no
to be the Messianic
birth.
The fact that Jesus was
also considered
as
a
part of his gospel.
judge was
The primitiveChristians regarded the Jews as the
sole gainersby this good news, but in the spread of
the
Christianitythrough the Gentile churches
gospelbecame the property of others than the Jews.
effort on the part of
to have been no
There seems
these early Christians,however, to compel the
Jews to believe the gospelor to give up their Jewish
culture.
To beUeve in Jesus and the coming Kingdom
ent
was
very different from acceptingan independreUgion,yet from this assured confidence in the
sprang Christianity.
sianic
The fact that the gospel thus expressed a Messiderable
expectation has given rise to a very condiscussion as to its permanent and essential
there has been
elements.
In all such discussions,
particularworld view
a tendency to identifysome
or
philosophy with such permanent value. A true
method
of understanding it would be to realize
to its day and
what the Messianic
message meant
endeavor, if possible,to discover the equivalentin
other periods. In such
an
effort,the following
elements
plain.
seem
a) The God of nature is the God of love.
h) He has been revealed as a saviour in and

good

news

through Jesus Christ,a genuinelyhistoricalperson.

GOSPELS,
2nd.

THE."

century to written

name

accounts

appliedsince

the
of Jesus' life or
four gospels of

ministry, and especiallyto the

Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
The primitivechurch possesseda compact oral
account
of Jesus' ministry and
teaching which
through most of the 1st. century at least served the
of a
gospel record. As Christianity
purposes
from Palestine and began
spread to places remote
through the letters of Paul to find written expression,
informal partialnarratives came
to be written.
The most
notable of these was
the gospel of Mark,
which
with
early 2nd. century tradition connects
the recollections of Peter.
It is probable that
Mark was
as
Papias says, in Peter's later years the
of his Aramaic
discourses to the Roman
interpreter
Christians and that after Peter's death, he committed
to writing such portionsof them
related
as
to

and

the life and

death
of
often obscure character

Jesus.
informal
The
of Mark
makes
such

originvery probable.
The
describes Jesus as the
Gospel of Mark
Messiah,possessedfrom his baptism by the Spiritof
of the reign of
God, proclaiming the good news
God on earth,easilymastering the demons
he met,
and performing wonders
of healing the sick and
lem
feedingthe hungry. He predictsthe fall of Jerusaan

and his own

Messianic
tells
He also forereturn.
his resurrection
and
his
to
reappearance
disciplesin Galilee,but the concluding lines of
the gospel in which
such a GaUlean
reappearance
must have been recorded were
earlylost,probably
by accidental mutilation.
written
The
probably at
Gospel of Matthew
Antioch
after the Fall of Jerusalem
sought
soon
Christians of the Messiahship
to reassure
Jewish

189

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Grail, The

Holy

makes
that the destruction of the
of Jesus,and to show
Actual
possible growth in grace.
grace
beloved
Jewish nation for which
prophets is granted in specified
many
ways for definite purposes, as,
Messianic
had predictedso splendid a
destiny, e.g., regeneratinggrace throughbaptism or priestly
its just punishment for rejecting its own
efficacythrough ordination. The sacraments, as
was
vehicles of actual grace, are of primary importance.
the MessiahThe writer thus harmonized
Messiah.
The endowment
thus secured is defined as a metaphysical
ship of Jesus the fate of the Jewish nation,and the
rise of the Greek
Mission, with the Messianic
potency, actually infused into man.
Habitual or sanctifyinggrace is a constant
Son of God
oracles of the prophets. Jesus was
natural
superhis baptism but from his birth.
not simply from
quality,making men
holy,friends of God,
in his infancywas divinely heirs of Heaven, and entitling
them to actual graces.
His every movement
even
Sufficient
directed,in accordance with prophecy. In a series
by
grace is the objectiveprovisionmade
of great discourses like some
prophetic law-giver, God which is accessible to all,though it may be resisted
and
individuals.
standards
of
true
the
is
he declares
the actual
by
Efficacious
righteousness
grace
fulfilment in man's hfe of the redemptive purpose
of
the nature
and apocalypticfuture of the kingdom
to death
For further details,
Driven
of heaven.
eration.
see
by Jewish hostiUty God.
Sacraments; Regenhe nevertheless rejoins his disciplesin their old
In
is conceived
Protestantism
free
haunts in Galilee,to remain with them, a spiritual
as
grace
from ecclesiastical control and the Catholic doctrine
presence, to the end.
written probably by
of a potency infused through the sacraments
is
The Gospel of Luke
was
Luther
the
Luke
place denied.
companion of Paul, at some
regarded grace as the merciful
not long after Matthew,
about
the Aegean, and
grant of free forgivenessto the penitentand behevand uses
three of Matthew's
for the writer knows
ing sinner. This is mediated
or
by the Word
Promise
of God.
the Gospel of
The
but does not know
sacraments
chief sources,
are
divinely
is
aim of Luke
is to unite what
The
Matthew.
appointed signs which reinforce the promise of
God and hence make
The
best in the partial narratives and oral accoimts
assurance
doubly sure.
reinforcement
then current, into a trustworthy historical record, importance of this sacramental
was
so
Christians.
He
of inteUigent Greek
for the use
stronglyemphasized in Lutheran doctrine that the
of
followed Mark's
order of events even
more
closely sacraments
are
virtuallyadditional channels
had
than the writer of Matthew
done, and used
Anghcanism unequivocally retained the
grace.
sacramental
his Galilean
and in a more
conception alongside the evangelical.
developed form his
vation
with less freedom of arrangement.
Perean
Protestantism,hke CathoUcism, has attributed salsource
to Matthew,
Besides these three sources
common
solely to grace, denying the "natural"
to please God.
Recent
had other sources
Luke
peculiar to himself. He
capacity of man
ments
developin
in theology,based on
finds the beginnings of the universal mission
a
psychologicaland
interest in
historical study of reUgion,tend to ascribe to man
an
Jesus' own
ministry, and shows
the earUer evangehsts. a larger "natural"
dates and ages, quite unUke
capacity for reUgion. Grace
is thus less sharply differentiated
from the native
The Gospel of John belongs to a time probably
it had
become
tance
aspirationsof human
experience,and the imporearly in the 2nd. century, when
is minimized
in hberal
of "actual"
clear that the future of Christianitylay not in the
grace
is conceived
immanent
God
but in the Greco-Roman
Jewish
as
world, and the
theology. When
rather than transcendent,the conception of grace
felt of restating the gospel in Greek
need
was
is correspondinglyaffected.
It represents a bold recast,from the point of
terms.
Certain
view of spiritual
experienceand in terms intelligible
important theological controversies
of
have been concerned
with the doctrine of grace.
to Greek
thought, of the reUgious significance
Is salvation solely and
exclusivelydue to grace
Jesus, of his return, of salvation,sin, judgment,
force
(Augustine); or does grace merely aid and reinbaptism, the Christian ministry,the Lord's Supper
at least of
It presupposes
natural human
virtue (Pelagius)? Is grace
and the church.
some
infused
the earUer gospels,and is written in part to supple(Catholicism);
ment,
an
potency
metaphysical
is it a purely spiritual
In order to
or
personalrelationshipof
interpret and correct them.
God
to men
(Protestantism)? Is grace offered
expeditethis process it was later (probably about
A.D.
only to the elect (high Calvinism) or is it freely
125) put forth along with Matthew, Mark,
all men
available
to
and Luke, Mark's lost conclusion being replacedby
(Arminianism)? Is grace
the present Long
Conclusion,and an epilogue irresistible (Jansenism); or is it possibleto "fall

being added

from

harmonize

and
to reinforce its message
to John
it in certain respects with its new
panions.
comThis
four-fold gospel, combining the
credited with
several values of each, and
soon
displacedthe various
authority,gradually
apostolic
local gospels(Hebrews, Egyptians,etc.)in Christian
Edgab
J. Goodspeed
esteem.

Smith
Gerald
Birney
AT
MEALS."
A prayer offered either
GRACE
before or after meals either as a thanksgivingor an
for which
invocation
of divine blessing,a custom
there is evidence as earlyas the 3rd. century.

grace" (Catholicorthodoxy)?

Psalms
Fifteen
PSALMS."
gate
(Vul119-133, R.V. 120-134) bearing in the Hebrew
text
inscriptionwhich the Vulgate translates
an
The meaning is uncertain,but
Graduum.
Canticum
chanted on pUgrimages
probably the psalms were
to the Temple.
They formerly formed part of the
GRADUAL

A
theologicalterm
indicating the
without
of divine favor and inner power
giftto man
which he could not attain salvation.
that man
The conception of grace presupposes
is hopelesslycorrupt. To
in a "state of nature"
into a
be transformed
he must
become
a Christian
The
"state of grace" by supernatural power.
apostlePaul, Augustine, and Luther are the classic
expositorsof salvation by grace.
the Christian
Catholic theology
Roman
interprets
of grace, and
hfe from
start to finish in terms
emphasizes its entirely supernatural character.
in his impotence and by
to fallen man
God
comes

GRACE.

"

prevenientgrace
which

God

creates

regenerate disposition

seeks the good. Through co-operating

grace
assists the regeneratewill in its choices and thus

R.C.

canonical

office.

GRADUALE.
In R.C. liturgy,
a psalm, or verse,
at the be^nningof Mass, one
with Alleluia,
sung
is
of the oldest parts of the liturgy. Its name
the cantor sang,
the place where
doubtless
from
the steps (gradus)of the ambo
(q.v.).
"

The
HOLY.
THE
legendarychalice,
in which Joseph of Arimathea
caught some
of the crucified
of the blood flowingfrom the wounds

GRAIL,

or

cup,

"

Granth

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Christ.
It is also said to have been the cup used
by Our Lord at his Last Supper.
The legends concerning the Grail are doubtless
British in origin, as most
of them
in scene;
are
but their first known
in literature is in
appearance
both
Brittany, in certain Old French romances,
and verse, of the 12th. and followingcenturies,
Map, Robert de Borron, Chretien de
y Walter
Troyes, and other writers. Sir Thomas
Malory's
well-known
Morle
d' Arthur, an
English version
of selections from these French
tales,first printed
in 1485 by Caxton, is the main
channel
through
which, with Tennyson's poems, certain forms of the
legends have become estabhshed in modern EngUsh
literarytradition. The early French romances
by
their variations,
and contradictions,
inconsistencies,
offer extremely perplexing problems to students
of their dates, sources,
and
interrelations.
The
apparently most primitivetales speak of the Grail
as
a
mysterious taUsman, possessedof magic
properties. It provides food, or sustains life
and restores health and youthful vigourby the sight
of it. But they do not describe its shape,material,
or
the stories that conearly history. Later come
nect
it as a dish or chahce with the Passion and with
Joseph of Arimathea.
According to certain of
these narratives Joseph in some
mysterious way
and
brought the Grail to England (Glastonbury?)
cherished it until his death, when
it was
carried
believed to be still
by angels. But it was
away
earth under holy guardianpreserved somewhere
on
ship,
and the subject of many
of the romances
mentioned
above is the adventurous
search after it
by certain knights, the "Quest of the Grail,"
in which
Galahad
Gawain, Perceval, and
are
chief actors, perhaps in chronologicaloriginin this
succession.
Other forms of the tradition bring in as
guardians of the Grail a quasi-monastic order of
it in a
knights,who keep watch and ward over
castle on
a
mountain-top (cf.Wagner's Parsifal).
A maimed
Fisher-King plays a prominent part as
chief custodian in a variant version.
It appears
yet uncertain whether
an
original
Christian myth has here become
enriched by, or
smothered
under, accretions of Celtic folklore,or
Celtic tales have had rudely injectedinto
whether
them
Christian element.
a not
It
very
congruous
is also disputed whether
the Arthurian
and Grail
stories vanished
bodily from England by being
transported in oral form to Brittany when many
Celtic inhabitants fled to the continent under the
of the Anglo-Saxon invasions,or whether
pressure
their existence among
the Celtic
they continued
remnant
in Wales
until the Norman
Conquest,
when
known
to the continental
they first became

two

AND

ETHICS

VEHICLE."
GREAT
great divisions of

Mahay"

190
The

name

of

one

developedBuddhism.

of the
See

ANA.

GREEK

ORTHODOX
CHURCH
"The
eastern
ancient church originally
known
Catholic
Church."
"The
as
It is distinguished
from
"The
Latin Church"
in its repudiation of
the papacy
and
its separation from
the Roman
Communion.
The
"Greek"
name
popularly
attached to its titlein the west is due to the fact that
it had its origin in the Greek-speaking parts of
Europe, Western Asia, and Egypt. Most of its
in the Greek languageand
wrote
great theologians
their theology is specifically
Greek
in thought,
with
affinities to the Greek
philosophy current
in their day. Thus while it is the national church
of modern
Greece, it is also the Russian national
church,the church of most of the Balkan nations,
and that of a considerable number
of Christians in
Asia
Minor, Syria, Egypt, and other oriental
regions. It described itselfas "The Holy Orthodox
Church."
As the defender of the orthodoxy determined
by its councils in patristictimes, it stands
separated from the churches it holds to be heretical,
stilllingeringin Mesopotamia,
e.g., the Nestorians
the Jacobites who comprise the majority of Syrian
the Copts in Egypt, as
well as
the
Christians,
Roman
Catholics and Protestants who
represent
western
types of religionimported into the East.
See Nestorians; Jacobites; Coptic Church.
1. Origin and
History.
1 The age of Catholic
unity. This church is the direct descendant of all
the churches known
to have been founded
by the
to have been visited by the
Apostles or known
Apostleswith the solitaryexceptionof the primitive
church
at Rome.
it belonged all the great
To
oriental Fathers
from Polycarp and Ignatius to
John of Damascus
in the 8th. century, from whom
Rome
itself accepted the bulk of its theology. All
the ecumenical
councils correctlyso denominated,
of the great body of Cfiristians in
i.e.,
representative
the Empire, were
held in its region and led and
constituted
by its bishops. The Nicene
mainly^
Creed is its fundamental
contribution to Catholic
orthodoxy, and its great theologians,especially
Clement
of Alexandria, Origen, Basil, the two
Gregories,and Chrysostom have shaped and
of
stamped the generally recognized doctrine
Christendom.
On
the other hand
most
of the
in this church, the theology of
great heresies arose
which was
mainly developed polemicallyin opposition
to them.
2. Separation
At first
from the Western Church.
in full communion
with Rome
and the West, the
Greek
Church
was
gradually alienated from the
poets through Anglo-Norman sources.
Church
E. T. Merrill
CathoHc,"
subsequentlyknown as "Roman
but
the final and
absolute
did
not
GRANTH."
severance
(^di Granth.) The sacred Scriptures
about
till the year
doubt
No
corne
1054.
a.d.
of the Sikh Rehgion (q.v.).
racial
differences
predisposing causes,
were
habits of thought and
action
GRATITUDE.
The sentiment
of appreciation Greek
differing
for kindness received and of admiration
and love for
widely from the Latin. Then the founding of
Rome"
caused jealousy
as
a "New
Constantinople
the benefactor.
In religion
it expresses
the appreciation
between the patriarch of that city and the pope.
of men
for favors conferred by the grace
On the other hand the growing claims of the papacy
of God.
to dominate
all Christendom
resented and
were
of the East.
The
repudiated by the churches
GREAT
FRIDAY."
See Good
Friday.
actual breach was
consummated
by a fine point of
theology ^the "filioqueclause,"which the western
GREAT
MOTHER."
The name
most
commonly
church added to the Nicene Creed in its definition of
used to refer to Cybele (q.v.).
the "processionof the Holy Ghost," so as to say,
"who
proceedeth from the Father and the Son;"
GREAT
SYNAGOGUE."
dition, while the Greek
church would not admit the addition
According to trathe body of 120 scribes who formed the Jewish
and denounced any attempt to alter the venerable
council subsequent to the Babylonian captivity.
creed.
Whether
it was
of a
actual council or the name
II. Charactsristics.
1. Relation to the state.
an
school of rabbis is disputed.
While the papacy
has claimed sovereign rights

branch of the main

Erose

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

191

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Greek

Religion

and
Character. Greek religion
independence, though accepting national
represents a blending
and using the civil government
establishment
for
of pre-hellenic
elements witli the beUefs and practices
the
Church
its own
of
the
Greek
of
the
Hellemc
patriarchs
ends,
peoples who descended into Greece
under the power of the Emperor,
from the north long before written historybegan.
were
always more
until the faU of Byzantium.
To
the
end
In Russia the patriof paganism it contained such primitive
archate
elements as the worship of stones and other inanito be superseded altogetherby the
came
mate
Holy Synod as a department of the government,
objects,of sacred animals to a Umited extent,
2. Organization.
The organizationof the Greek
and
most
notably the worship of the altar fire
the center of the family and of society.
Church, hke that of the Roman, is episcopaland
(Hestia),
Certain divinities had their origin,no doubt, in the
sacerdotal,restingon the doctrine of ApostoUcal
Succession.
In ancient times the patriarchatesof
worship of natural phenomena; ancestor worship
also furnished its part. While all these practices,
Constantinople,
Antioch,Alexandria,and Jerusalem
like that of Rome
and many
which
others, contributed to the total,it is
developed into the
helped to maintain its unity and discipline,impossibletoday to trace all the elements which
lut the
ent^ered into the Greek
break-up of the Roman
Empire, the
religionof historic times.
invasion and subsequent despotisms,
Mohammedan
It is sufficient to say that the Greeks worshiped a
and the establishment
multitude of super-human beings, who
of national churches greatly
occupied
interfered with the positionof the patriarchsand
and filledthe world,so that
every field of activity,
their influence.
The
was
man
organization of the church
always conscious of being in a social
relation to divinities of different ranks, whose favor
by provincial synods and
ancientlymaintained
he must
win and whose
general councils has been affected by the same
maUgnity he must avert
influences.
and prayer.
political
tains
Nevertheless,the church mainby offerings
its unity in doctrine,
Homer.
and style of
In the Homeric poems
find a circle
discipline,
we
ritual throughout all its several branches.
of great gods whose home
is placed on
Olympus,
3. Discipline,life and
similar to that
worship. One
great organized into a societysomewhat
of the Homeric
difference between
the Greek
and the Roman
state. At the head is Zeus, whose
is the rejectionof the papal claim of
churches
on
Olympus is like that of Agamemnon
on
power
Rome
earth.
Athena
and
With him
by the Eastern Church, and this is the most
Apollo hold the
formidable obstacle to reunion.
Hera, the wife and sister of Zeus,
Celibacy is required highest rank.
is in the second place,with Poseidon
the god of the
only of bishopswho have been taken from monastic
orders.
Priests and |deaconsare not bound
Below
them
stand
bacy
sea.
and
to celiAres
Aphrodite,
if they married before receivingthe diaconate.
who represent respectively
two passions,the former
Therefore the episcopateis drawn from the monasthat of rage for slaughter,and the other that of
teries
and is not maintained
love.
by promotion from the
Artemis, the sister of Apollo, Hephestus,
the god of fire,Hermes, an
Church
the cereof the
servant
parish clergy. As in the Roman
monies
upper
of worshipcenter in the Eucharist,in which
stand on
lower plane; and
greater divinities,
a
there are
the doctrine of transubstantiation
is accepted, but
others of still lower rank.
On
many
without the western
scholastic definitions of substance occasions Zeus may
all the gods from land
summon
and accident as metaphysicalexplanationsof
and sea to a generalassembly on Olympus, but those
it. While
that we
have named
introduced
into the
have their permanent
statues
not
homes
are
Demeter
and Dionysus,
churches,picturesare much in evidence there and
there,and are supreme.
also in_private houses, where
who
the icon in the
are
so
important in later Greece, are not
is saluted
members
of the Olympic circle. These
who
enters
corner
room.
a
by one
gods are
The ritual is more
in that they have immortality.
superiorto men
lengthy, varied,and elaborate
chiefly
in the Roman
quent.
Church, and preaching is less freAlthough they are
stronger, wiser, and
Monasticism
is still maintained, the most
largerthan mortal beings,they are equallysubject
celebrated
with tljiemto the passions of body and of mind;
monks
Athos.
being those of Mount
The later theology of the Greek
Church
is mainly
they are neither omnipotent nor omniscient, but
lished
are
apologeticand polemical,in defence of the estabsimply super-human. Exactly this Olympic
circle was
ing
never
orthodoxy. The Greek Church favors readworshipedanywhere in the Greek
of the Bible by the laity and
welcomes
from
the
world; it was formed by the poet by selecting
efforts of Bible Societies to circulate the Scriptures. local cults certain features,
eUminating others,and
In Russia there are bodies of dissenters,
the largest making a divine state which suited his poeticpurpose
and would
of which
consists of the "Old
But through the
please his audience.
BeUevers," whose
universal
influence of the Homeric
this
ground of dissidence is adhesion to the ancient ritual
poems
and rejectionof later alterations in it. The Moloconcept of the Olympic gods prevailedin most of the
kans and Doukhobors
are
puritansrejectingepiscopacy
greater centers,so that artists and poets represented
and sacramentarianism.
them as Homer
The
Stundists
had described them.
are
of Western
Protestantism
Hesiod.
of the Baptist
In the Iliad and
disciples
Odyssey there is
almost no
W. F. Adeney
to trace the genealogies
persuasion.
attempt made
of the gods or
But
to account
for the world.
GREEK
RELIGION."
The
earliest glimpse
Hesiod, who wrote about 700 B.C., in his Theogony
endeavored
of Greek religionshows it as an anthropomorphic
to bring the various
myths into a
containingrude and primitiveelements, harmonious
whole; and he discloses to us certain
polytheism,
well as highly developed concepts of divinity. elements
such as the worship of the dead and of
as
have
Like other religions
of its kind, it formed a marked
the Homeric
heroes, about which
poems
contrast to Christianity. It had no body of revealed
Hesiodic
The
practicallynothing to say.
poems
also show
dogma or fixed ritual of
teachings,no common
us
higher ideas concerning justiceand
universal or binding validity; and while many
to
reflection on the relation of man
moraUty, more
such
and divinities were
the gods, and disclose certain social divinities,
to
myths, practices,
common
the whole Greek area, each localitymight have its
in the earlier works.
which do not appear
as Justice,
and each individual
district
and divinity,
own
Local divinities. In substantially
myth, ritual,
every
could DeUeve
had risen to
of Greece there was
what
he pleased with regard to the
one
divinitywno
of divinitiesthat
the
gods, so long as he did not openly oppose
great importance above the mass
the Greeks were
the
accepted divinities. Furthermore
peopled the general area, so that at Athens
never
subjectto a priestlyorder,but their reUgious goddess Athena, after a considerable period of
practiceswere
determined by tradition.
rivalrywith Poseidon for the chief place, became
"

"

"

Sapacy
"

"

"

"

"

Green,

Thomas

HiU

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

the patron goddess of the land. In Argos a female

known
as
Hera, held sway
divinity,historically
Zeus
from a very remote
period. In Uke manner
pre-eminent at Olympia, Apollo at Delphi and
was
Yet these important divinities did not
at Delos.
expel the other gods, and the Greek continued to
think of his local god as his patron divinitylargely
other god called by the same
distinct from
any
of cults
There was
a certain concentration
in the large cities,
these developed. But the
as
at his ancient
local god continued to have his home
recognized
shrine,and often the city shrine was
of the old one.
Gradually certain
as only a branch
divinities acquired significance
for all Greek people,
shrine all the
the Zeus of Olympia, at whose
as
Greek world assembled
four years, or Apollo,
every
who at Delos was
the god for all the lonians,while
Apolloat Delphi spoke in oracles to all Greeks.
be seen
Social character mysteries. Thus it may
that the family,the clan, the tribe and the state
of which had its
were
religiousunits, each one
that Greek
reUgion was
so
particulardivinities,
largely social and local. Such a religionalways
tends to stabihze society and make
the worship
of the gods the common
and permanent concern
of all. But these conditions do not foster that which
the
understand
we
by personal reUgion. With
development of individualism in the 8th. to the
6th. centuries men
began to endeavor to secure
such personalrelations with the gods as could give
them individual religious
satisfaction. Their efforts
found an outlet chiefly
in the cults of Dionysus, and
of Demeter
and
Orphic sect
Persephone. The
in the 6th. century, through the mystic worship
of Dionysus and by a fixed method
of Ufe, gained
desires and the warrant
outlet for their religious
an
of happiness hereafter.
The
goddess Demeter
of whose
was
one
a goddess of vegetation,
originally
There
centers
was
Eleusis,northwest of Athens.
festival had been celebrated in the
an
agricultural
honor of this goddess and her daughter Persephone
from a remote
fertihty
period,intended to secure
and
admitted to it.
prosperity to all who were
As earlyas the 7th. century, and possiblystillearUer,
this festival had
into an
eschatological
grown
mystery through which the initiate was assured of
These Eleusinian Mysteries
a happy Hfe hereafter.
the chief,but only one
of many
were
mysteries
celebrated throughout the Greek world, all aimed to
until
the same
end.
And
secure
they remained
of religious
the end of antiquitythe greatest source
satisfaction which the ordinary Greek knew.
They
did not, however, check the ancient cults,which
also lasted to the very end of paganism, even
though
the educated world had lost much
of its earlier beUef
in their efficacy.
Morality and philosophy. Moralitywas united
with religionin the minds
of the better Greeks,
era.
certainly from the 5 th. century before our
From
the days of Socrates and Plato philosophy
also concerned
itself with the higher aspects of
reUgion and morality. The Stoics also in their
and although they
turn made
philosophy a religion,
admitted
of gods, practicallyfostered
multitude
a
the concept of one
singledivinity. In fact, for
after the 4th. century philosophy had
thinking men
taken
the place of traditional religion,although
The ancient
there was
the two.
break between
no
ritualscontinued even
in the part of the world that
had lost its substantial faith in them
long before
the coming of Christianity.
Clifford H. Moore
THOMAS
HILL
GREEN,
(1836-1882)." English
so-called
founder
of the
philosopher and
Neo-Hegelian school,occupied the chair of moral
Oxford.
Green's
epoch-niaking
philosophy at
the Prolegomena to Ethics,in which he
work
was
name.

"

"

AND

ETHICS

192

moral
conduct
in terms
interpreted
perfectionattained only through

of ideal selfsocial relationships.

GREENLAND,

RELIGION
OF
AND
SIONS
MISTO.
A large island in great part lying
within the arctic circle and belonging to Denmark.
The populationis small, and the majority of the
Eskimos
people are
(q.v.). Christianitywas
introduced
by Leif Ericsson, a Norwegian, about
1000 A.D., and for 500 years the Norwegian colonies
had
ecclesiastical estabhshment.
In
1721
an
Hans
Egede, a Norwegian, began missionary work
and the tribes about Godthaab
have been entirely
"

Christianized.
GREGORY.

"

The

name

of sixteen

popes

and

antipope.
Gregory I. Pope, 590-604; also called Gregory
the Great; one of the firstfour Latin doctors of the
one

"

The firstmonk
church.
to become
ized
pope, he organthe papal court like a monastery, insisting
on
the ceUbacy ot the pope,
urging priestlycehbacy,
vanced
adand vigorously opposing lax practises. He
the papalpower,
being the first pope to take
a
prominent part in pohtics, and advocating a
of ecclesiastical courts
to
larger use
try cases
involving clerics. He has been called the "father
of mediaeval
papacy." He organized missionary
activity,his interest in the conversion of the
Angles being especiallynoteworthy. The music
modified by him.
and liturgyof the church
were
He is venerated by the R.C. church as a saint.
sionary
Gregory II. Pope, 715-731; promoted miseffort in Germany,
especially that of
he consecrated as bishop, 722.
Boniface whom
Gregory 1 11."Pope, 731-741.
Gregory /F." Pope, 827-844.
Gregory F." Pope, 996-999; estabhshed the
papal authority in France over
against local and
"

national attempts

at independence.
Gregory F/." Pope, 1045-1046.
Hildebrand,
Gregory F//." Pope, 1073-1085.
of humble
monk
birth,shared the exile of the
a
death
reforming pope Gregory VI. after whose
monk
in Cluny until he accoma
panied
(1047) he was
IX.
He
the
Leo
was
(1049) to Rome.
administrative
aid of sucand
cessive
powerful mentor
resolute champion of the Cluny
a
popes,
in 1073 he aimed
reform principles. Made
pope
where
the warring world
to reform
might was
cratic
right by securing for a reformed papacy a theoboth priestand layman.
Batthng
power over
first with simony and clerical marriage as worldly
entanglements he tried next to emancipate the
church from lay control by putting a bann on lay
installation
(investiture)of prelate or
priest.
The German
king, Henry IV., declared thQ pope
in turn
and
excommunicated
deposed and was
deposed by Gregory (1076). Subrjiittingand
at Carrossa, the
restoringhis power by penance
the conflict,besieged Roftie and
king resumed
rival pope.
rescued
set up
Gregory was
a
by

and withdrew
where
to Salerno
Normans
he died.
Though maligned by passionatepartisans,
unselfish reformer and
he looms in history as an
F. A. CHrtisTiE
of the greatestof the popes.
one
(2)
Gregory VIII." (l) Antipope, 1118-1121.
Pope, Oct. 21-Dec. 17, 1187.
of strong
GregoryIX.
Pope, 1227-1241 ; a man
character and erudition;entered into pohticallife
resulted in conflicts with Frederick II. of
which
systematized the Inquisition; took
Germany;
steps for a reunion with the Greek church; issued
a new
compilationof decretals.
the
Pope, 1271-1276; summoned
Gregory X.
council of Lyons, 1274; with the aid of Bonavassal

"

"

193

DICTIONARY

Ventura, persuadedthe Eastern

church

OF

RELIGION

to consent

temporarily to reunion with Rome.

Gregory XL"
Pope, 1370-1378; reformed the
endeavored
monastic
to
orders, and
suppress
heresy, as, e.g., Wyclyffe'sdoctrines; transferred
the papal see from Avignon back to Rome.
Pope, 1406-1415; during his
Gregory XII.
other rival claimants
two
pontificatethere were
to the papacy.
Gregory resigned at the council
"

of Constance.
Gregory XIII." Pope, 1572-1585; He reformed
the calendar,and founded
new
colleges.
many
Gregory XIV "Pope, 1590-1591.
Pope, 1621-1623.
Gregory ZF."
Gregory XVI."
Pope, 1831-1846; expended
prises
architectural and engineeringenteron
large sums
which
the papal
financiallyembarrassed
States.
During his pontificate Ultramontanism

(q.v.)developed steadily.
GREGORY
THE
ILLUMINATOR
(ca. 257333). The traditional founder of the Armenian
church.
Probably he found Christianity
already
form and
in Adoptionist or Ebionite
in Armenia
"

undertook

the Christians

to convert

AND

ETHICS

Guilds

who
educated
in Paris,
(q.v.);a Dutchman
was
after a profound religiousexperience labored
as
a
missionary preacher in Holland, inveighing
against the sins of the mendicant monks, clergy
and laity.
and

HUGO
Dutch jurist,
GROTIUS,
(1583-1645)."
of great erudition
theologianand publicist,
a man
and versatility.He occupied prominent pohtical
posts, and applied his juridical
trainingto pohtical
problems. His great treatise (The Rights of War
and Peace) was
for
significantas the foundation
international law.
basis of his thought was
The
the unalterable divinelyconstituted law of nature
and
all subject. In
to which
nations
are
men
theology,he originatedthe "governmental theory"
of the atonement
which
that the death
asserts
of Christ satisfiesGod as a penal example, showing
what
the penalty for sin is,thus maintaining the
His desire to mediate between
sovereigntyof law.
CathoUcs and Protestants made him unpopular with
both.
GROVES."

See

Trees, Sacred

to CathoUcism.

GREGORY
OF
NAZIANZUS
(329-390)."
One of the great theologiansof the Eastern church.
and Gregory of Nyssa, he
With
Basil the Great
of "the three Cappadocians."
is classed as one
called "the Theologian" by the Greeks, his
He was
writingsbeing chieflyin the form of orations and
head
Godletters. Doctrinally he held that the one
is distinguishable
Substance
in
Nature
or
or
Father
three Persons
or
was
hypostases. The
unbegotten, the Son begotten and the Holy Spirit
substance.
sent forth,but all three have one

NIKOLAI
FREDERIK
GRUNDTVIG,
SEVERIN
(1783-1872)."Danish
poet and preacher,
called "the Danish
Carlyle";a popular preacher,
compelled to be silent for some
owing to
years
his radical views; best known
as a writer of hymns
and other sacred poetry of a rich,bold style.
GUARDIAN-ANGEL."
An
angel considered
the task of keeping guard over
or
warding
oflfevil from a particularperson;
analogously, a
consecrated to the welfare of another.
person
to have

GUDEA.
^A reforming ruler of Lagash, one of
the divisions of Babylonia, in the 24th. century b.c.
"

nent
NYSSA
GREGORY
OF
(ca. 332-398)." EmiGreek
theologian,one of "the three Cappadocians"
brother of Basil the Great.
and younger
As bishop of Nyssa he supported the Homoousian
party, thus incurring;the opposition of the court
being
party. Later he rose to a place of influence,
tinople
of the council of Constana
prominent member
381.
Doctrinally,he helped to formulate
consistent
of the Trinity in more
the doctrine
terms
declaringGod to be one essence
philosophical
or "persons."
existingin three "hypostases"

See Gabers.

GUEBRES."
GUELF.

See Ghibelline

"

GUEST-RIGHT."
to

THAUMATURGUS
GREGORY
(d. ca. 270)."
in Pontus
and author of
Bishop of Neo-Caesarea
enthusiastic
was
an
theological writings. He
and theology. His
follower of Origen in philosophy
crowned
with much
in the
success
ministry was
to
of
conversion
Many
Christianity.
pagans
attributed to him, hence the name
miracles were
'Thaumaturgus' (wonder-worker)
'

'

SCHOOL."

GRONINGEN

group

of Dutch

ing
theologiansso named from the town where the leadrepresentativesresided. Most of them were
Heusde
(d. 1839).
disciplesof Phihp Willem van
in spirit,
but
The school was
ferventlyevangelistic
introduced
moderately Uberal ideas in doctrine,
emphasizing education rather than regeneration,
the substitutionary
and adverselycriticizing
theory
of

the atonement.

GROOT,
"

founder

or GERHARD
of the
Brethren

GERRIT,
of the

(1330-1384).
Common

Life

obligations of
the

for
GUILDS.
'Voluntary associations formed
aid and protection,especiallyof business
mutual
interests in the Middle Ages.
is identified
The term guildin its broadest sense
associations
and
with
various
brotherhoods in
tions
associatimes.
There were
ancient and mediaeval
for social and
Among
rehgious purposes.
tions
the ancients poor people formed local burial associaof a decent burial.
to provide the means
to
of a god organized a brotherhood
Devotees
had
athletic
Greeks
support his worship. The
local associations
societies. In Italy there were
trade.
of workingmen
belonging to a common
Some
have even
supposedthat the early Christian
brotherhoods
belonged to the type of rehgious
guilds. But it IS difficult to find a connection
the ancient and the mediaeval
guilds.
between
The guildflourished in the Middle Ages. There
individuals
then no such independence among
was
vidual
not the indiThe unit of social hfe was
as
now.
Those who had interests in
but the group.
Uved and worked
together. Serfs toiled
common
labored and prayed
the manorial estates,monks
on
versities,
in their convents, scholars studied in their uniall under the rule of their social organization.
associations for the furtherance
Economic
became
of industry sprang
up in the towns, and
important with the extension of trade. When
"

SAINT, OF TOURS
(538-594)."
GREGORY,
His
writings include seven
Bishop of Tours.
books of miracles,twenty biographies of bishops
the
and monasteries, and notably ten books
on
for the
History of the Franks, one of the sources
historyoi the early Frankish church.

had

Gtjelp.

host
a
various religions
divergence of beliefs. See

The

guest concerning which

and sects have

Hospitality.

and

DICTIONARY

Guilt

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

hardship in non-Protestant

found
it
trade
became
stimulated, merchants
useful to associate in a guild for the protectionof
When
artisans drifted into the
their interests.
from
the country, they tended
to
growing towns
and
their
fellow-craftsmen
get together with
protection. This helps to
organize for mutual
and
merchant
explain the origin of the famous
craft guildsof mediaeval
Europe
confused with trade unions,
Guilds are sometimes
but they were
different because they included the
the
employed. Master,
employers as well as
journeyman, and apprentice,all lived and worked

194

lands,8oas

to encourage

influence.
association was
The
named
Protestant
from
Gustavus
in 1832
Adolphus, being founded
the second centennial of his death.
It has disbursed
on
than $12,000,000since its foundation.
more
THOMAS
(1803-1873)." Minister
church of Scotland,and ardent Presbyterian
of total
Free-churchman, an advocate
abstinence,of missions and of union with the United
Presbyterianchurch; a noted preacher and a man
of literarydistinction.

GUTHRIE,

of the Free
and

cherished their interests in common.

the
MARIE
BOUVIER
DE
LA
of the guild was
to maintain
GUYON,
JEANNE
MOTHE
(1648-1717)." French quietistand myshigh standards of the business,and to monopolize
tical
far as possibleits opportunities. As the guild
author; exerted a wide influence throughout
as
ing.
became
powerful, it received special privileges, Europe, Fenelon (q.v.)being affected by her teachShe
advocated
tion.
"internal"
and exerted an influence upon
an
rehgion of
municipal administrathe
conflicts between
Sometimes
there were
purity and renunciation.
prayer, resignation,
craft guilds and the aristocracy.
RELIGIOUS
AND
ETHICAL
the first to become
The
merchant
GYPSIES,
guild was
IDEAS
The Gypsies (alsoknown
OF.
as
Romani,
powerful,and in the days when productionand
tute
distribution were
Zigani,and by other names) are a race numbering
so
closelyconnected as to consticould belong to
business the craftsman
altogether toward
three-quarters of a milhon
one
found
for the
also in
the merchant
spread throughout Europe, and
guild,but the tendency was
artisans of each trade to organize their own
guilds, Armenia, the Levant, North Africa,America, and
AustraUa.
The name
the merchant
"Gypsy" is a corruption of
and with their increasingprosperity
ing
flourishmost
The craft guilds
were
"Egyptian," due to the belief formerlyprevalentand
guilddecUned.
of Egypin the 14th. and 15th. centuries.
encouraged by the Gypsies that they were
tian
For a long time the apprentice looked forward
origin. Study of their dialects,however, has
that they must
have
originated in India,
to becoming a journeyman after he had proved his
proven
via Persia and
whence
Armenia
into
they came
abihty, and the journeyman expected to become
Europe and Africa. Their spread into western
a
craftsman, but later their interests did not so
of the employed forrned
Europe occurred in the 14th. and 15th. centuries,
closelycoincide,and many
like
of Turkish
more
probably as a consequence
were
conquests of
journeymen's associations which
the Near East, and in European countries,
from that
The
trade union.
the modern
prosperityof the
discoveries and
time,they have been alternatelyprotectedand persedestroyed by modem
cuted
guilds was
whom
the 19th. century brought
trade expansion, and
by the peoples among
they have dwelt.
The
in western
H. K. Rowb
of them to an end.
Gypsies, as known
Europe, have
most
less
generallyclaimed to be Christians,and are doubtin Christian countries,
to be regarded as such
^The state of deserving condemnation
GUILT.
while in Mohammedan
countries they are
Muslim.
of being liable to punishment because of having
or
violated a law or a moral requirement.
They have, however, from time to time been persecuted
heathen,and revolting rites have been
as
plead
In legalpractice,an accused person
may
evidence.
ascribed
little
to
or
no
them, upon
guiltyor not guilty. Guilt may be allegedmerely
Prejudice against them has been aroused because
the ground of actual violation of law, but the
on
of their foreignlanguage, or dialect;their nomadic,
is determined
by an inquiry into
degree of guiltiness
and frequently vagabond life; their lax morality,
the intent which
preceded the act. An innocent
both sexual and in regard to property; and also
intent mitigatesor annuls guilt.
claims to occult knowledge. In
of
their superstitious
the condemnation
In theology guilt means
certain
The doctrine of originalsin (q.v.)declared
districts,especially in eastern
Europe,
God.
the Gypsy population is,or is becoming, settled;
all men
inherentlysinful,hence every individual
but during the whole
period of their sojourn in
was
a
"guilty rebel" in God's sight,and could be
most
western
restored only by the divine pardon. See
Europe the Gypsies have been engaged alreligiously
Smith
Gerald
Birney
wholly in occupations suitable to wanderers:
Sin; Forgiveness,
musicians,mountebanks, smiths or tinkers,peddlers,
animal trainers,
balladThe title appliedto a spiritual
GURU.
horse-traders,
guide in
fortune-tellers,
to be the
is usually considered
quack-doctors,etc.,with the consequence
Hinduism.
He
mongers,
and they
that their morals have reflected their life,
representativeor earthlyincarnation of God for his
for themselves
have won
a reputation for thievery
be given absolute obedience in all
follower and must
is certainly more
than
and
deceit which
they
thingsthroughout life.
the Gypsies
deserve, for in the majority of cases
tion
if ignorant
An associaGUSTAVE-ADOLPH-VEREIN."
are
peaceable and inoffensive,even
of the communities
within
which
members
they
of German
Protestants
aiming to assist needy
H. B. Alexander
Protestant
churches, especially those suffering live.

together and
The

purpose

"

"

"

H
of activitydevelopHABIT.
An acquiredmode
ing
(Hebrew distinction.) Jewish
or
the conclusion of Sabbath
festival,
by repetitionrelativelyfixed form, efficiency,
and facility.
consisting of a series of blessings,emphasizing
Instincts
Habit
to instinct.
the holy day and the prothe distinction between
IS closely related
fane.
with the blessing,wine
In connection
(or are inherited; habits are acquired. Habits are
Modern
of spices, developed in the service of the instincts.
any other drink except water),a small box
much
used as symbols.
light
and a candle-light
experimental psychology has thrown
are
HABDALAH.

ceremony

at

"

"

195

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

Hamilton,

Sir William

RELIGIOUS
SIGNIFICANCE
OF."
these phenomena by a comparative study of
HAIR,
behavior.
results are
and
human
The
Hairdressing is practicedby all men
excepting the
crudest of savages,
and in nearly every societythe
in general education and in the
being appropriated
mode
of hairdressingis of considerable,often of
reUgioustrainingof children. Character is defined
It is
in terms of the individual's system of habits.
of hairdressing
great, social significance.Specialmodes
for priesthoods
and responsiand sacerdotal classes is
well formed habits which givestability
time habits offer resistance to
characteristic of most
societies where these classes
bUity. At the same
marked.
of thought and action.
modes
are
Shaving of the head, and indeed of
new
the whole body, was
Custom
be viewed
social habit. The
as
required of Egyptian priests;
may
Buddhist
priests also shave the head; and the
tendency is for the child to form habits of speech
of his
and conduct
in harmony with the customs
tonsure,in its various Christian forms,represents a
similar custom.
and
On the other hand, the Semitic
Habit tends to be conservative
social group.
to established
peoples have immemorially possessed a reverence
by a kind of inertia holds man
forbade shaving. Ideas
and conduct.
This has been particularly for hair and beard which
manners
associated with the hair are various: it is shaved or
true in the sphere of religion. Here the felt importance
the theory that the hair is unclean or as a
cut on
of accepted forms and beUefs is so great that
influence is brought to bear in the plastic sign of renunciation
or of servitude; it is allowed
every
of strength
and youth "to train the child
the theory that it is the source
to grow
on
years of childhood
the outward
he should go." All ritualistic,
in the way
or again as
liturgical or virility,
sign of a vow
the image of wisdom; in the mourning for
or
as
religionsutilize this principle.More rationalistic
the
stress the danger of bondage to routine
movements
dead, it is dishevelled and torn, etc. See
H. B. Alexander
and
habit or
seek to cultivate religious Tonsure.
custom
that will promote greater
education
in a manner
HA JJ." See Hadj.
flexibihtyand adaptation in a growing experience.
The relation between dogmatic opinionsor prejudice
HAKAM.
and one's habits is so vital that one's arguments
(Hebrew=a wise man.) An official
times and of the Rabbi
often merely the expressionof one's professional titlein Palestine in Talmudic
are
Edward
S. Ames
Sephardim (q.v.).
or cultural standpoint.
among
upon

animal

"

HACHIMAN.
A member
house of the 3rd. century a.d.
of war.
"

of the Japanese royal

deified as the god

now

See Adad.

HADAD."

That portionof the

HALAKHA
or HALACHA."
Midrash
which deals with minute
legalprecepts of
tradition in contrast with the Haggada (q.v.).
Hebrew
BEN
SAMUEL
(ca.1085HALEVI, JEHUDAH
1143). Jewish poet and philosopher,whose chief
in
a
philosophicalargument
work, Kuzari, was
defence of the Jewish religionagainst the Karaite
the
heresy, Islam, and Christianity. Halevi was
greatest hymn-writer of the Synagogue, and an
ardent lover of the Holy Land.
"

Greek
(1) The
equivalentof the
Hebrew, Sheol (q.v.),designating the place of
incorrectlyused as an
departed spirits;sometimes
equivalent of hell. (2) In Greek mythology, the
and of the dead; also the
king of the underworld
divided into Elysium,
underworld
which was
itself,
abode
of the blest,and Tartarus, abode of the
HADES."

HALF-WAY

COVENANT."

device

of New

in the latter
Congregational churches
half of the 18th. century, according to which the^
HADITH.
authoritative
members
in full standing
hammed children of the church
The
sayings of Modown
entitled to baptism, on the ground that they
handed
were
by trustworthy persons
Une from the companions of the
unbroken
members
of the church, but on
in an
were
becoming
to
prophet.
adults,if unregenerate, they could neither come
vote in ecclesiastical affairs;
the Lord's Supper nor
and were
HAD
the covenant"
J or HA JJ. The pilgrimage to Mecca,
if,however, they "owned
of upright life,they might in turn present their
at least once
expected of every true Mohammedan
for them the
in his life-time.
children for baptism and thus secure
in the church which they themselves
same
privileges
C. A. Beckwith
HAFTARAH"
(Hebrew= conclusion.) Biblical
enjoyed.
selection read in the Synagogues after the reading
The passage
is chosen from the
from the Pentateuch.
mystic of
HALLAJ.
(Al-Hallaj.)A Moslem
the 10th. century who was
put to death at Bagdad
part of the Bible designated in the originalHebrew
His most
for teaching the essential deity of man.
"the Prophets," which
as
part includes Joshua,
Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah,Jeremiah, Ezekiel, often quoted saying is,"I am Reahty."
and the twelve minor prophets. A certain portion,
used
term
which bears in some
the subject-matter
HALLEL."
(Hebrew praise.) A
way
upon
of the -parasha(q.v.)is assigned for each Sabbath
the Jews to designatePsalms 113
specifically
among
to 1 18,which form an important part of the festival
and holiday.
liturgy.
HAGGADA.
A form of Jewish interpretation
is hterary, poetical
of the Old Testament, which
(Hebrew Praise ye Jehovah.)
HALLELUJAH.
and allegorical
in contrast with the Halakha
(q.v.). Originallyfound at the end of certain Psalms from
doxology in the
as
a
which
it came
to be used
wicked.

England

"

"

"

"

"

HAGIOGRAPHA."
of Old
Testament
books except the "Law"

of

the

three

sions
divi-

synagogue,

including all
literature,
and the "Prophets."

Christian

One

and then
churches.

MARY.

"

Same

as

Ave

Maria

(q.v.).

of praisein
ascription

classical mythology, a
hving in a tree, and

nymph
(q.v.)portrayedas
dying with the tree.
HAMILTON,

HAIL

an

In

HAMADRYAD."
HAGIOLOGY."
That branch of Uterature which
treats of the lives of the saints.
For the hagiological
cf. Acta
Acta Sanctorum.
literature,
Martybum;

as

SIR

WILLIAM

who
Scottish philosopher,

(1788-1856)."

attemptedto uphold a

of

Code

Hammurabi,

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

with
reahsm
in connection
speciesof philosophical
affirmed
He
critical analysis of consciousness.
a
that there is an Absolute
Being who is the source
of all finite existence,but that knowledge of this
human
transcends
Faith, accordingly,is
power.
"the organ by which we apprehend what is beyond
cism
our
knowledge." Hamilton's metaphysicalagnostithe basis of Herbert Spencer'sdoctrine of
was
the Unknowable.
A legalcode preCODE
OF."
HAMMURABI,
pared
by order of Hammurabi, sixth king of the
2123
from
of
who
First Dynasty
reigned
Babylon,
to 2081

B.C.

Under
Hammurabi, Babylon for the first time
murabi
became
the supreme
city in Babylonia. Hamjustice
words, "to cause
sought, in his own
to prevailin the land,to destroythe wicked and the
evil,to prevent the strong from oppressing the
weak, to go forth like the Sun over the race of men,
to further the welfare
to enUghten the land and
of the people." As a means
to this end, he had
this great Code
prepared and publishedas the
not a body of wholly
law of his kingdom. It was
but rather a revision,expansion
new
legislation,
and harmonization of previously
existingcodes.
In Dec. 1901 and Jan. 1902 a.d., the French
the broken
excavators
at ancient Susa discovered
this Code
which
was
fragments of a pillarupon
Almost
the
inscribed
characters.
in cuneiform
entire code is thus preserved. The originalis now
in the Louvre, in Paris.
The Code
a very
highlydeveloped
presupposes
and complex civilization in Babylonia, much
more
whose oldest legislation
so than that of the Hebrews
did not appear
tillapproximately a thousand
years
later. The Code remained
in force throughout the
Babylonian Empire for many centuries. It was thus
the
when
in all probabihty the law of Canaan
able
Hebrews
entered.
This accounts
for the remarkand
amount
degree of similaritybetween
Hammurabi's
Code
and the Hebrew
law.
In the
Covenant
Code
for example (see Law, Hebrew),
with
35 out of 55 laws have close points of contact
Hammurabi's
Code
and half are
almost identical.
of justicecharacterizes the 282 laws
A high sense
and
of the Code
Hammurabi
declares that his
organizationof it was inspiredby Shamash, the
J. M. Powis
Smith
god of justice.

ETHICS

AND

196

staff in the hope that it would revive the dead boy,

Testament
and by the New
that handkerchiefs
statement
and aprons
were
brought from contact with
Paul's bodj^
to heal the sick (Acts 19 : 12). HeaUng
documents
both
by touch is attested in many
and Christian. On the other hand
heathen
guilt
be transferred in the same
The scriptural
may
way.
example is the scapegoat on which the high
priestlaid his hands when confessingthe sins of the
people. In the late Jewish period ordination or
authority to teach was
given by the laying on of
been
set
hands, and Christian ministers have
apart to their office by this rite from the earliest
See Order, Holy.
times.
In the Hebrew
code layingon of hands
is enjoined
the man
who
brings a victim to the
upon
altar. This has usually been interpretedas similar
to the rite described above, that is,a conveyance
of
the sin of the offerer to the victim.
But this is
not clear,for the infection of the animal with guilt
would
it unfit for sacrifice,
make
in the
as
we
see
of the scapegoat; which was
not sacrificed but
case
sent off into the desert for the demon
Azazel.
As the
sacrificial animal
was
already sacred,a transfer of
sanctityfrom the victim to the offerer might have
been effected by the laying on of hands.
H. P. Smith
HANIFA."
(Abu Hanifa, 8th. century.) The
founder of one
of the four orthodox schools of Moslem
law.
HANUKKAH."
(Hebrew dedication.) Jew sh
festival celebrated
for eight days beginning the
25th
day of Kislev
(the month
corresponding
approximately to December) commemorating the
Maccabean
the
victory over
Syrians, and the
rededication of the Temple in 165 B.C., and celebrated
with joy in the Jewish home
and synagogue.
Lighting the Hanukkah
lights,the chief symbol of
the day, has given the hohday the additional name
of "the Feast of Lights."
=

The
HAOMA.
made
plant from which
was
the sacred drink used in religiousceremonies
in
ancient Persia; then the name
of the ceremony
and of the liquor itself. It is probably identical
with the Hindu Soma
(q.v.).
"

^The god of the river Nile representedas

HAPI.
male
breasts.
figure with female
Although
Egypt "is the giftof the Nile" this god has no great
prominence in the developed religion probably
owing to the ascendencyof Osiris as a fertility
figure.
"

COURT

CONFERENCE."
A
I. of England at
settle differences
between
to
most
Puritans and the High church
party. The
of the conference
the
was
noteworthy outcome
"King James version" of the Bible,a new translation
made
on
request of the Puritan representatives.
HAMPTON

meeting summoned
Court
Hampton

by James

of the Chinese
name
dynasty
is
to 220 a.d.
To them
206 b.c.
credited the restoration of the sacred books.
In
took root in China and
this period also Buddhism
ism
the two native religious
developments, Confucianand Taoism, assumed
their distinctive forms.
HAN.

"

ruling from

The

ca.

HANBAL."
founder
of one
Moslem
law.

(Ibn Hanbal, 9th. century.) The

of

the

four

orthodox

schools

of

LAYING
ON
OF."
A rite of consecration
observed
in many
religionsincluding the
Christian.
tain
The underljang
idea is that of contagion. Cerbeing possessedof supernatural
persons
power
it by touch, not only to
(mana) may communicate
other persons
but to material
objects. This is
indicated by the story of EUsha who sent his
plainly

HANDS,

-The primary meaning is good

HAPPINESS.
fortune, but with greatly divergent secondary
meanings. The principalare as follows :
(a) A formal designationof the good (q.v.)or
its content
whatever
be.
desirable,
may
of desirable external conditions.
(6) The possession
"

(c) The

fulfilment of distinctively
human
tion.
funcof eudaimonia
Aristotle's doctrine
begins
with (a),but extends to (6) and (c). The human
fulfilment constitutes happiness is
function whose
contrasted
with the animals; but
as
intellectual,
httle attention is given by Aristotle,as by succeeding
Greek and Roman
ethics,to the analysisof
function in relation to social diversities and needs.
(d) This aloofness of ethical attitude led, on
one
hand, to the conception of happiness as an
other-worldly
blessedness,and, on the other, to
the rejection
of happinessas identified with pleasure,
the feeling
of momentary
satisfaction;
e.g., Stoicism
is often thus
ethics the term
(q.v.). In modern
used, both by those who defend and by those who
rejecthedonism
(q.v.).

197

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

narrowly, happiness designates the

(e) More
"higher" pleasures(J. S. Mill,q.v.),or the systematic
the feelingcorreorganizationof pleasures,
lated
or
with

virtue.

Idealistic ethics

denies

that

in this higher sense, can

be a moral
happiness,even
end, though it is a duty to foster it in others,and
is a postulateof moral conthough its possibility
sciousness
(Kant, q.v.).
the influence of the rejectionof
(/) Under
hedonistic
the
fuller analysis
psychology, and
of motive
and social processes,
(q.v.),value (q.v.),
with the recognitionthat interests are
capable of
objectivedevelopment and social organization,the
its synonym
term happiness,or in this sense
welfare,
isoften used to designatethe maximum
systematization of actual and potentialinterests.
J. F. Crawford
HARA-KIRI.
Ceremonial
suicide performed in
obedience
ideal of duty and loyalty
to the austere
at the basis of the feudal,military ethics of old
"

Japan.
HARMONY

OF

THE
work
GOSPELS."
A
of the gospels arranged in
to exhibit their agreements
so
as
and
differences.
The
undertake
harmonist
may
to relate in this
way the four gospels,as in the
of Robinson, Broadus, StevensEnglish harmonies
limit himself to the Synoptic
Burton, or he may
selves
Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) which lend themmuch
in
as
more
fullyto such parallelization,
the Enghsh harmonies
of Burton-Goodspeed and
Sharman, and the Greek harmonies of Huck, Rushmaterial
brooke, and
Burton-Goodspeed. The
be exhibited paragraph by paragraphor more
may
catches
minutely equated so that the eye at once
similarities or contrasts.
Such
works
by putting
the various parallelaccounts
together before the
eye, greatly facilitate the critical study of them
and provide a foundation
for a study of the life of
Jesus.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed

exhibiting the
parallelcolumns

text

WILLIAM
HARPER,
RAINEY(
1856-1906)."
American
Baptist educator, Semitic scholar,and
first presidentof the Universityof Chicago, under
whose leadershipit expanded rapidly. He was
an
editor,author,and scholar as well as a great organizer,
and did much
to promote interest in the study
of Hebrew
and the Old Testament.

AND

ETHICS

Hatred

whence
the gathering of the harvest
corn-spirit,
somewhat
a
periloustask; this being particularly
true
to the last sheaf, regarded as
as
the
final refuge of the spirit. When
this sheaf is
the
garnered,
corn-spiritis either supposed to
be expelled,or to be killed,
to be captured,or to
or
is

enter

into the

In

reaper.

either of the first two

hypotheses,there is obvious ground for rejoicingat

from perilcaused by the corn-spirit,
escape
angered
at invasion
of its domain; in either of the latter
that
two, joy is enhanced
the cornby knowledge
spiritis held ready for the next harvest. Accordingly,
at the banquet, the corn-spirit
is sometimes
representedby a doll,regarded as the embodiment
of the corn-spirit,
the reaper of the last sheaf
or
sits in the place of honor, for a like reason.
sionally,
Occaa
period of licence succeeds the feast,
the intention being so to confuse the corn-spirit
that it may

be unable

to

those
identify

who

have

infringedupon its rights.

In the primitiveharvest festival,
there seems
to
be little,
if any, thought of gratitudeto a divinity
for the garnering of a good harvest.
With
the
rise of special divinities of agriculture,however,
and with a higherdevelopment of religious
thought,
the festival changes its character,and becomes
a
feast of gratitude,in which the divinityis praised
for his goodness to his worshippers; although this
sentiment
is apt, in its turn, to be weakened, so
that the feast becomes
seasonal banquet
a
mere
devoid of signification
to those who
observe it.
Louis H. Gray
HASIDIM
("pious")."A party
turies
developed in Palestine in the 3rd. and 2nd. cenunder
scribal leadership, including
B.C.
those pious Jews who identified religion
with literal
obedience
Law.
to the Jewish
In their zeal for
it they joined though somewhat
intermittently,
with Mattathias
and his sons
Judas
Maccabaeus,
Jonathan, and Simon, to resist the efforts of the
Antiochus
and
his sucSyrian king
cessors
Epiphanes
crush
to
Judaism.
The
Hasidim
out
broke up toward
the end of the 2nd. century B.C.
into the Essenes
and the Pharisees.
Their pious
of the later
hopes and aspirationscolored much
literature of Judaism.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed

HASIDAEANS,

HASINA."

See Mana.

HASMONEANS
A
(or ASMONEANS)."
good and
family of Jewish patriotswho led a revolt in the
IV. Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.),
Usually
reign of Antiochus
in gaining a brief period of freedom
maleficent,they are represented as winged figiu-es and succeeded
for the Jews.
bringingpollution,pestilenceand death.
Mattathias, the head of the
family with his five sons, John, Simon, Judas
KARL
ROBERT
the
EDUARD
HARTMANN,
(Maccabeus), Eleazor, and Jonathan, were
VON
known
afterwards
leaders of the movement;
as
(1842-1906)." German
philosopher, whose
The Philosophy of the UnMaccabees.
conscious,
outstanding work was
HARPIES.
Personifications of the
evil winds in the thought of early Greece.
"

in

which

he

reflects the

influence

of

Unconscious
is a
Schopenhauer
(q.v.). The
lute
by which he describes the Absomysterious name
idealistic metaphysics. This
(q.v.)of German
Unconscious
has will and reason, the will being
dominant.
Salvation is possible only when
the

logian,
EDWIN
(1835-1889)."English theoof broad
scholarship,especiallyin
the field of early Christian
history. His chief
tian
The Organizationof the Early Chrisworks
were
The
Churches
and
Influenceof Greek Ideas
and
Usages upon the Christian Churches.

HATCH,
a

man

will becomes
diffused with reason.
His view of the
world
of history is pessimistic.
and
the course
We
strive for a salvation which
is unattainA
must
able
HATHOR.
composite mother-goddess of
which is
ancient Egypt. She is the sky-mother, "eye of
save
by elimination of consciousness,
the source
of human
dissatisfaction.
Re," the goddess of love, nourisher of the world,
watcher
the birth and destiny of men,
helper
over
She appears
as
HARVEST
a woman
FESTIVALS."
The
of the souls of the dead.
importance of
later blended with Isis.
the harvest involves,
the holding
with a cow's head and was
as a natural result,
of a festival when
the crop has been successfully
An intense feehng of revulsion or
ing
HATRED.
garnered,though the originalmeaning of the feasthas largelybeen forgotten. From
the primitive aversion, usually accompanied by the desire to
thetical
point of view, the grain,especiallythe last sheaf, harm or destroy the object of hatred; the antiIt releases malignant
ia indwelt
of love.
embodiment
emotion
an
by, or is even
of,the
"

"

Hawaii,Missions

to

human
passions and is
and rehgiousteaching.

DICTIONARY

OF

opposed by both

ethical

mous
Marquesas. The Hawaiian church became autonofrom 1863, under the Hawaiian
Evangelical
gational
Association,an organizationcomposed of Congre-

ministers (American and Hawaiian) and lay

delegates. Asiatic immigration, increasingrapidly
efforts
after 1876, inspiredsuccessful evangelizing
(1st.Chinese church, 1878; 1st. Japanese church,
1888). Mormons
began work, 1850; EpiscoMethodists labor
paUans, 1862; Y.M.C.A., 1869.
Roman
Catholics,
Japanese and Koreans.
among
beginning in 1839, have steadilyincreased until their
numbers
approximate those of the Protestants.
facts in Hawaii is
of the most
One
significant
the phenomenal change in population. Contact
nations and western diseases,
with western
together
moral
with inherent
weakness, has reduced the
native race
from an estimated 200,000 to ca. 26,000
_^

were

out

ca.

of

they led

ETHICS

vague

198

existence under

Milu, the god of

the dead.

Discovered
TO."
in 1778
HAWAII, MISSIONS
Islands became
by Captain Cook, the Hawaiian
field in 1820.
The coming of Obookiah
a mission
in 1810, his conversion, education,
to America
and passion for the evangeUzation of his people
in 1819-20,
inspired the first mission to Hawaii
Board
under the American
(Congregational). The
missionaries
(Bingham; Thurston) found taboos
broken,temples destroyedand priesthoodabolished,
without a religion.The language
a people literally
reduced
and the Bible translated.
to writing,^
was
Stations were
established on
the principalislands
(Hawaii, Maui, Kauai, Oahu) and schools were
emphasized.
was
opened. Industrial education
Oahu
the
leading educational
College became
The revival of 1836-39
institution.
(Titus Coan)
tion)
brought 20,000 (ca.one-sixth per cent of the populainto the church.
By 1852-53 the native church
and
the
was
sending missionaries to Micronesia

in the past century and

AND

RELIGION

quarter.

In

1918

there

102,000 Japanese, and ca. 20,000 Chinese

total population of ca. 220,000.
Henry

H. Walker

Louis

H. Ghay

HEALING,

HEALING
The
tion
restoraGODS."
of health by supernatural means,
and
the
divinities who mediate healing.
Primitive
peoples have usually believed that
sickness is caused
by supernatural agencies and
that consequently cures
be effected by occult
can
This notion inspiresthe magical practices
means.
of exorcism and the performances of the medicineman
which
still in evidence
in some
ethnic
are
faiths. Similar practices were
in the
common
ancient world.
For example, while medical science
made
the Babylonians, the
some
progress
among
physiciannever
supplanted the exorcist. Similarly
in Egypt healing by the use
of natural remedies
was
ment
practicedat an early date, but such advancemade
in scientific therapeuticsdid
as
was
not seriously
impair the popularityof the magician.
The Persians traced the art of healing to a supernatural
and assignedto specialdivinities the
source
task of curing diseases.
Even when
the efficacy
of
to be recognized,prayer
surgery and drugs came
still called
properly, conjuration was
or, more
the "physicianof physicians."
Hebrews
The
seem
to have regarded disease as
a
punishment from
their god and so to be alleviated by divine action.
Asa was
mistake
a
thought to have made
grave
when in his sickness he sought not Jehovah
but the
circles of
physicians (II Chron. 16:12). In some
the
Jewish thinking Raphael was
looked upon
as
kindly angel who was set over all the diseases and
wounds
of men.
The
supernaturalistic
theory of
disease also prevailedamong
the Greeks and various
divinities were
credited with special therapeutic
functions.
Asklepios enjoyed unique fame as a
healer and by the beginning of the Christian Era
his sanctuaries
were
widely scattered about the
Another
Mediterranean.
favorite healing divinity
of this period was
the Egyptian goddess Isis,and
other names
of less distinction could be
many
the
added to the list of therapeuticgods to whom
of mankind
in that day looked for either
great mass
the prevention or the cure
of diseases.
The early
Christians were
of
following the familiar custom
the times when
they stressed heahng as a function
of their religion. The
of Jesus
reputed success
in casting out demons
aftd in healing other forms
of sickness,
and the cures
performed by the disciples
in his name,
described in the gospels and Acts
as
cannot
have
failed to appeal powerfully to the
interests of the ancients,particularlyin gentile
circles. Within
Christianity the ascription of
shrines of the
to relics and
therapeutic powers
saints is often largely a perpetuation of a more
local
primitivebehef in the healing power of some
"

"

RELIGIONS
OF."
The religion of
HAWAII,
the aborigines of Hawaii, like that of the other
essentiallya primitive naturePolynesians, was
The real divinities
tabus.
cult,characterized by many
those of the family,and
as among
were
many
other primitive peoples were
represented by, or
believed to dwell in, a stone, tree, or other natural
object. There were, indeed, great gods, but in
minor
life they played a relatively
actual religious
part, with the exception of the shark-god, Ukupanipo, who controlled the fisheries on which the
the
volcanoislanders
largely depended; and
goddess, Pele, who, in view of the ever-present
the object of an especially
perilof eruptions,was
active cult. Cosmic
divinity.
deities,such as Algaloa, the
retical
theoSupernaturalheahng
god of the sky, received a recognitionmore
"

"

than

real.
places of

worship (heiau)could, with few

for the cult of any deity. They
of the usual Poljoiesiantype: roofless enclosures,
were
usuallyoblong, and containing a place of
house for the priest,and an anu,
a small
sacrifice,
the will of the god was
or place where
proclaimedin
oracle.
The
services of the priestsof the heiau were
folk were
for the aristocracyalone; the common
compelled to be content with the ministrations of
and shamans
(kahuna).
typical sorcerers
The
spiritsof chiefs,kahunas, and human
victims to the gods remained
earth after death,
on
often causing harm
to the liAdng; the souls of the
the
common
people,passing to Kaui, traditionally
earliest home
of the Hawaiian
race, leaped into
the sea on their way to the imder-world, where
The

exceptions,serve

effected in a varietyof
was
characteristic method
of the magician
of conjuration;sometimes
to repeat a formula
was
the patient while sleeping in the sanctuary was
how to proceed to secure
told in a dream
heaUng;
at other
times
oracle disclosed
the proper
an
still other
to be followed; while
treatment
on
occasions the cure
accomphshed suddenlyand
was
the intervention of mediating
directly,without
instruments
S. J. Case
or
agents.
ways.

The

HEART.
Far
back
in primitive behef the
heart supplanted the hver as the most
important
vital organ.
Among the earlyEgyptians ab was in
of
restricted
the
seat
a
desire,will
sense, the heart,
and wisdom
and valor,and the center of life and
the Old Testament
Hebrews
its activities. Among
of life.
it was
regarded as the symbol and source
for out of it are
"Keep thy heart with all diligence,
"

199

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Heber, Reginald

the issues of life" (Prov. 4:23). Paul spoke of

(heaven) and of punishment for the wicked (hell).
of belief (Rom. 10:10).
the underworld was
the heart as the organ
Among some
regarded as divided
into
different regions as
this same
Greek
the
Among the Greeks and Romans
Elysium
organ
for the blessed (Pindar,however, placed this on
the seat of life,soul, intellect and emotion.
was
earth in the extreme
In most
higher religionsthe heart is the center
West) and Tartarus for the
damned.
This involved in the great religions
of religious
and
experience. In the cult of the "sacred
belief.
of the lesser a parting of the ways
in many
heart" we have an expressionof the same
for the
uncivilized peoples today there is
The
good and the wicked at death.
means
was
Among some
has several souls,and that each is
a belief that man
usuallya judgment (explicitor implicit)or an
blessed passed to an
ordeal.
The
abode
which
assigned to some
organ of the body as its abode.
the
But among
all tribes that cherish such a belief,
less closelyto our
"heaven"
or
corresponded more
heart is regarded as the vital center.
So persistent ("Paradise"), conceived
appropriately to the
is this belief that the heart of a slain enemy
is eaten
dominant
state of culture as material and sensual
in order thereby to take over
his valorous qualities.or sensuous,
or
demned
conspiritual.The wicked were
The hearts of some
animals
devoured
for the
to a place
are
or automaticallypassed ("fell")
In making sacrifices,
attention
The
of torment.
special
very same
purpose.
passage of the soul from earth
ispaid to the heart,
whet her human
or animal.
might itself be the ordeal or judgment hke the
In the magical arts the heart occupies a promitree-trunk of the American
Indian or the narrow
nent
which the good crossed
place. Amulets in the shape of the heart are
bridgeof Mohammedanism,
used to ward off evil influences of various kinds.
fell
with safety,
from which, however, the wicked
This custom
is prevalenttoday in Portugal,Spain
to have
into hell. In Egypt the alternative seems
and Italy. In Scotland
been a happy continuance
of the soul after judgment
they are called "witchbrooches."
The
heart of a slain animal is used
destruction.
In some
its extinction by punitive
or
barbarous
some
obtained
the conception of Purgatory (q.v.)
today among
peoples to combat
religions
diseases and to bar the approach of witches.
a
expiation for the less
place of post-mortem
Ira M. Price
to the company
wicked,whence they passedpurified
HEARTH
HEARTH
GODS."
AND
The hearth
of the good.
is the natural altar for the worship of household
the abode
In earlier Old Testament heaven was
gods. In Roman
of God and his angels,entered by no humans
houses,images of the Lares and
except
and
Penates,the Manes of ancestors, were
placed above
(constructively)Enoch
Elijah. Sheol was
the fireplace
and worshipped along with the Vesta,
(with possible exceptional representations)the
hearth
out
or
goddess. Similar practices prevailed melancholyabode of the dead (Isa.38 : 18-19),withother ancient peoples,and are to be found
moral distinction (even as late as Ecclus. 41 : 4).
among
in many
The American
Indian
The
later Old Testament
parts of the world.
and inter-Testamental
literature introduced the idea of resurrection of the
prophet Keokuk, for example, made devotion to the
hearth-fire a prime tenet in the religiontaught by
righteousto enter the Messianic kingdom (through
him.
See Fire, Fire- worshippers
Fire-GtOds.
and
judgment at the kingdom's advent), and the
a
doctrine of a new
earth and a heaven as the abode
HEATHEN."
(Anglo-Saxon,heath, country.) of God and the righteous(Enoch 103-104).
In
biblical usage,
non-Jew
or
a
gentile. In
By the time of Jesus heaven
(lifeeternal,
later usage, one
whose religion
neither Judaism
was
Abraham's
bosom, Paradise)and hell or Gehenna
of
nor
with
Christianity.Mohammedans,
as
to full expression,
worshipers
punishment) had come
(final
the true God, are often excluded from the category
them
an
impassable gulf between
^Luke 16:26),
of heathen.
The
has been
term
entered
frequently one
immediately at death (Luke 16:19 ff.;
opprobrium, signifyingone whose religionis false. 23:43), or through a judgment at the Son of Man's
Strictly
speaking it means
one
holdingto a primitive coming (Matt. chap. 25).
national or tribal rehgion.
The later New
Testament
conception regarded
heaven as the abode of God, Christ,and the angels,
HEAVEN
AND
In rehgion and comHELL."
whence
Christ would make
mon
his second advent, after
which the judgment, when
the righteouswould live
spee(^h,respectivelythe placas or states of
reward and punishment after death for deeds done
with God and Christ,according to Revelation,in a
in this life.
heaven and a new
new
earth,God's holy citybeing
In earlycosmology heaven and hell connote
the
earth.
on
highestand lowest divisions of a tripartite
The Church's teachinghas ever
aimed essentially
universe,
with the earth as the central plane. Heaven
and hell,
at spiritualizing
was
the doctrine of heaven
of the bright and beneficent
the sky, the abode
but has been handicapped by the symbohsm, which
often personalizedas itself a deity
idea of
is necessarily
dominant
material.
The
(Japan); was
(India,Greece, China, etc.). The Greek heaven
heaven
is of a holy place ("up") where sin is not
held only gods and deified heroes.
Hell was
the
and cannot
enter, where the soul rests,or indulges
underworld with its deities,
usually of forbidding in praise; or develops its powers, companying witli
God
and Christ (they "see God"), the will being
aspect, the abode of the dead.
In primitiveman's imagination,the future life
is a
will. Subdominant
in accord with
God's
was
thought to reproducecloselythe present life, strugglefor the idea of a state rather than a place,
"shadowy" as befits "ghosts." with continual progress of the soul. Similarly
except that it was
But this conception implied place. To this place
"hell" still connotes
of place ("down") and
much
if not
most
early religionsconsigned all of material torment
many
etc). And difference still
(fire,
into heaven
departed spirits.Hell in this sense finds its equivaexists as to the time of entrance
lent
(or of
in the Hebrew
Sheol (often
"the grave"),
consignment to hell) immediately after death (or
Greek
of No-Return."
after a long sleep?) and subsequent to a future
Hades, Babylonian "Land
This phase of thinking embodied
a "Spiritism(that
coming. Hope of
judgment after the second
and for
the masses
who
was) an expressionof fear. In large areas
heaven
and fear of hell are, among
the land of shades was
less materially,
long periods
still regard them as more
or
potent
not a placeof fulfilmentof joy,but of feebleness and
See Future
factors in conduct.
ethical and religious
darkness."
GeO. W. GiLMORE
LlFE,CONCEPTIONS OP THE.
This was
of ethical
prior to the carryingover
distinctionsto the future Ufe. Where this occurred
REGINALD
(1783-1826)."Anglican
HEBER,
felt for a placeof bliss for the good
was
necessity
bishopof the diocese of Calcutta which comprised
"

"

"

....

"

....

Hebrews

DICTIONARY

all India, 1823-1826; the author

best known
English hymns.
See

HEBREWS."

of many

GOSPELACCORDINGTOTHE."

HEBREWS,

RELIGION

of the

HEDONISM.
criterion of

"

KARL

HEFELE,

JOSEPH

ETHICS

200

have
been
Hegelians who insisted
tianity,
philosophy does away with Chriswell as those who, with Hegel, declared
as
that it is the perfect religioussystem towards
which previous ages had been imperfectlystriving.
In England and
America
HegeUanism, with
the thinking of
modifications,dominated
some
1'. H.
Green, John and Edward
Caird, F. H.
Bradley, B. Bosanquet, John Watson, and Josiah
Royce, to mention a few outstanding names.
influence of Hegelianism has waned
The
in
because
recent
of the growing currency
of
years
of study. When
empiricaland historical methods
the facts of history and of nature
are
accurately
observed
to be too
varied to fit
they are seen
into the neatly preciseHegelian formulas.

quently

The
theory that pleasure is
moral
conduct
(from the Greek
be an explanation
hedoni,pleasure). Hedonism
may
seeks pleasureas the
of observed fact,that man
of an
end of behavior; or it may
be the statement
of pleasure is the ultimate
ideal,that attainment
ideal may
take the form of
good. Hedonism
as
an
with the
sentient pleasure of the individual
as
which culminates
a life guided by reason
Cyrenaics,
"the
in happiness as
with
the Epicureans, or
greatest good of the greatestnumber" as in Utihtarianism (q.v.).
the

AND

there

that

Israel; Judaism.

See Apocrypha,

OF

(1809-1893)."

the

new

Gerald
Smith
Birney
2nd.
century writer who
Christianityin opposition to
heresy, especiallyGnosticism. His writings,the
chief of which
known
the Hypomnemata,
was
as
known
are
only in fragmentsquoted by Eusebius.
HEGESIPPUS."
defended orthodox

torian,
hischurch
as
a
scholar,eminent
HEGIRA."
The withdrawal of Mohammed
from
through his Historyofthe Councils.
especially
After the death of the prophet
Mecca to Medina.
At the Vatican Council,he was
an
opponent of the
and
all documents
events
dated
from
this
were
doctrine of papal infallibility
but his devotion to
event
in the year
622
and
a.d.
Mohammedan
to submit
to
the unity of the church led him finally
historyis dated a.h., that is,"year of the Hegira."
the will of the majority.

German

R.C.

HEIDELBERG

FRIEDRICH
WILHELM
GEORG
HEGEL,
philosopher,pro(1730-1831). Influential German
fessor
at
Heidelberg and Berlin, noted for his

CATECHISM."

catechism

prepared by order of the elector,Frederick III.,in

order to give correct answers
all matters
of faith.
on
It appeared in 1563,and contains 129 questionsand
of Absolute Idealism.
exposition
Because
of its irenic spiritit has found
answers.
Hegel's great contribution to philosophywas
schema
the logical
by which all finiteforms of reaUty acceptance among the Reformed churches of Europe
and
in the Presbyterian church
of U.S.A. It
conceived
were
vitallyinterrelated factors in a
as
teaches the usual Calvinistic views, with a sharp
In ancient metaphysics universal
dynamic whole.
liberal
a
ideas were
arrived at by a process of abstraction, polemic against Catholicism,but with
in regardto minor Protestant disputes.
spirit
individual
traits
of
the
an
thing
particular
whereby
were
ehminated, leaving in the universal idea only
A god of light in the legends
HEIMDALLR."
those characteristics common
to all individuals.
of Iceland and Norway suggestiveof the old Indothus defined
The highest universal idea, God, was
of lightand fertility.
European sky-god the source
by contrastingthe Absolute with the finite. The
With
marvelous
of sight and hearing he is
powers
(q.v.), the watcher of the
was
a doctrine of transcendence
consequence
universe; his horn will summon
of bringing
the abstract
with the insoluble problem
the gods to their tragic battle with the powers
of
Absolute
into vital relation with its opposite,the
evil at the end of the age.
world of finite particulars.Hegel introduced in the
place of the ancient abstract universal the conception
Hell.
HELL.
See Heaven
and
should posiof a "concrete universal" which
tively
A designation for the type of
HELLENISM.
embrace
all particulars
instead of excluding
culture produced by the Greeks.
them.
Strictlyspeaking
the term appliesto the civihzation of Greece proper,
The
key to this philosophyis the process of
in contrast
with that later form of Greek
culture
active thinking. All thinking proceeds by comparison
which
followed
spread about the eastern Mediterranean
as
and contrast
by a unification.
the Great.
a result of the
conquests of Alexander
Contrasting ideas are essential to definition and
called Hellenistic
The latter type is commonly
place in the
comprehension. Both have a positive
Hellenic.
and the former
sponding
However, the correhighersynthesisof knowledge. Each is an essential
distinction between
"Hellenicism" and
in the evolution of thought. Employing
movement
is not commonly drawn, and the latter
Hellenism
this conceptionin the reahn of metaphysics,
Hegel
both topics.
term
as
popularlyused covers
regarded the particularsof the finite world as
"

"

"

"

in the evolution of Absolute thought.

moments
More concretely,
God, the Absolute,realizes himself
includes all
in an
eternal thought-process which
essential phases of
realities of time and space
as
the divine self-realization.
This philosophy has been widely influential.
It created a characteristic type of theology which
nence
could make
of the conception of divine immause

(q.v.)without faUing into pantheism (q.v.)

(as a metaphysicsof substance is bound to do).
Man, as a finite being, needs to be taken up into
the divine activityin order to be "saved"; but his
possessionof conscious power of thought enables
him
inwardly to share the thought-p"rocessof
realize eternal fife. It is evident
that
of traditional doctrines will be
content
Consemodified by Hegehan treatment.
radically

God

and
the

so

S. J. Case
Two confessions
church.
of faith of the Swiss Reformed
(1) The
First Helvetic Confession,
1536, was
put forth by
of the Swiss cities in an effort
the representatives
toward harmony with the Lutherans, removing the
ans.
distinctive Zwinglian doctrines offensive to LutherThe doctrinal formulas were
given a Scriptural
of detail.
basis and
expounded with minuteness
(2) The Second Helvetic Confession,1566, was the
the union
work of Heinrich BuUinger, and marked
encies
of Zwinghanism and Calvinism.
Speculativetendabsent and toleration in minor matters
were

HELVETIC

was

CONFESSIONS."

urged.

to

HELVETIC
up

CONSENSUS."

by the Swiss Reformed

church

A formula drawn
in 1675 in opposi-

201
tion to

the

DICTIONARY

tendencies
liberalizing

RELIGION

OF
French

of the

It is strictlyCalvinistic
academy of Saumur.
and in harmony with the declarations of the Synod of
churches
and English Reformed
Dort.
The German
ests
urged the Swiss to abolish the symbol in the interof the unity of Protestantism.
Although not
formallyabolished,it slowly fell into disuse.

ETHICS

AND

Heresy

vahd.
as
argument
teleological
realism."
a
"pluralistic

His

metaphysics

was

GEORGE
HERBERT,
(1593-1633)."EngUsh
devotional
have
been
classic
poet whose
poems
expressionsof rehgionsince his day.
HERBERT

ERNST
WILHELM
(1802HENGSTENBERG,
of the strongest
theologian,one
1869). German
champions in his day of evangelicalrehgion,and of
orthodox Lutheranism
as expressedin the Augsburg
"

Confession.

OF CHERBURY,
EDWARD
BERT
HERand
(1583-1648)."English baron, historian,
rehgious philosopher. He attempted to account
for the originof religion
naturally,and formulated
the five tenets which
were
subsequentlyregarded
doctrines of Deism (q.v.).
as the fundamental

HERCULES.
A semi-divine figureof classical
The
HENOTHEISM."
coined by Max
name,
certain polytheistic mythology who
for the tendency among
performed twelve vast labors in
Miiller,
the interest of mankind
and
to a certain one
establishingjusticepeoples to ascribe supreme
power
earth.
He is sometimes
identified as a
on
of several gods in turn, as is done in the hymns of
peace
the Rig Veda.
sun-god. His cult was established in many places
the Mediterranean.
around
Later, the Stoics used
"

HENOTICON."

"The

decree

of union"

mulgatedhim
pro-

by Emperor Zeno in 482 with a view to

settlingthe monophysite controversy, and which
failed because it did not satisfy
either side.
IV.

HENRY

(1589-1610)."King of France;

playedan important part along with CoHgny (q.v.)

as

head

of

the

Protestant
Cathohc

party

in the

wars

of

promulgated the
Edict
of Nantes
(q.v.),1598, granting religious
libertyto his Protestant subjects.
religion; became

and

HENRY
VIII. (1509-1547)."King of England.
in defence of
Because
of a book on the sacraments
the Catholic
position against Luther, received
of the
from
Pope Leo X. the title,"Defender
Faith."
In
1529
desiring to divorce his wife,
Catherine, he sought papal sanction. FaiUng
this he renounced
to secure
to Rome
allegiance
head
the English sovereign
and established
as
national
church.
He
of the
required of all
subjectsassent to the Ten Articles (1536) and the
Six Articles (1539),the first confessional documents
His
of the Anglican church.
a
reign embodied
of despotism and statesmancombination
ship.
perplexing

The
HEPATOSCOPY."
practice of examining
the liver of a sacrificialanimal in order to discover
the will of the god, to predictthe future and so to
an
secure
guidance for the affairs of life. It was
important phase of ancient Babylonian and Assyrian
whence it spread to the Mediterranean
state religions
world.
A Greek
goddess, wife of Zeus (q.v.).
in one
probably the goddess of fertility
of the regionsconquered by the Aryan invaders and
adopted into their pantheon. She functions as
of fertilizing
water, of cattle
goddess of agriculture,
HERA.

"

She

was

and

is the patroness of

as

divine type of virtue.

ity
The experimental
HEREDITY."
study of heredwhich has had
is called "genetics,"
a fieldof work
remarkable
development during the last fifteen
The method
is to select plantsand animals
years.
under
of short generations and breed them
rigid
control through as many
generationsas possible.
In order to discover the contribution of each parent
individuals with sharplycontrasting
to the offspring,
selected
for mating. Work
in
characters
are
geneticsbegan with the breedingexperiments of
Mendel, an Austrian monk, whose results led to the
formulation
of "Mendel's
law," which has been the
basis of all work in geneticsever since.
Mendel's
results were
published in 1865 in such an obscure
publicationthat they attracted no attention until
discovered
simultaneously
they were
1900, when
terial
maby three scientific plant-breeders. Mendel's
the common
was
garden pea, whose strains
are
sharply contrasted in color of flowers,appearance
When
stature.
of seeds, and
hybrid is
a
its progeny
spUts
produced by crossingtwo strains,
which resemble the two grandparents,
up into two groups,
This ratio isaccounted
the ratio being 3:1.
of two contrasting
for by the fact that in the case
of them
is "dominant"
the
over
characters,one
modified
Mendel's
law has been very much
other.
and extended by the study of more
complex material
but the factors involved in
than the garden pea;
inheritance
are
recognized by the definite ratios
The factors of inheritance
shown
by the progeny.
and
and the higher animals are so numerous
in man
that no exact
in such complex combinations
occur
predictionof inheritance is possible,as in the case
of the simpler plants and animals.
Furthermore,
the more
complex forms are beyond the reach of
experimental control, so that their behavior in
strated.
be inferred rather than demoninheritance must
John
M. Coulter

women.

Doctrine
HERESY.
claiming to be Christian
but opposed to the dogmas of the church.
losopher,
(ca.535-475 b.c.)."Greek phiwho
Heresy differs from schism in that schismatics,
taught that all existence springs
while outside the Catholic church,do not necessarily
that everything is in a state of
from a primal fire,
hold views opposed to orthodoxy (althoughfrom the
perpetualflux,and that the universe is pervaded
CathoUc
Roman
point of view it is heresy not to
or
Logos (q.v.).
by reason
acknowledge the headship of the Pope); and
"

HERACLITUS

Herbarand HERBARTIANISM."
HERBART
tianism is the name
given to the philosophicsystem
Friedrich Herbart, German
of Johann
philosopher
and
rejected the
pedagogue^ (1776-1841). He
current
faculty'
psychology and substituted an
explanationof mental phenomena as the result of
the conflicting
experience. He
aspects of human
defined the aim of pedagogy as the development
of moral character; and in theology held to the

apostasy in that it does not involve

ment
abandoninfidels
of the faith. Heretics differ from
tians.
in that the latter do not profess to be Chrisfrom

Heresy

may

concern

one

or

more

mas
dog-

in degree from exphcit opposition

of some
trine
docdefined dogma to exposition
to a clearly
contrary to that commonly held by the church.
Technically,heresy may be either material,i.e.,
of ignorance,mistaken thinking,
or
because
when
and

vary

Hermas,

Shepherd of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

202

On the other
it is not definitely
similar causes
chosen; or formal, interests of a growing monotheism.
rich in heroic
it adds the choice of views not
when to their content
hand, Babylonian legend remained
had
Catholic church.
evolved
into genuine deities.
sanctioned
figures who
by the Roman
the terra
has less explicit Egyptian mythology also had itsheroes who through
In Protestantism
Catholicism and often
distinguishedservice upon earth had acquired the
meaning than in Roman
of gods. In Greek
denominational
status
denotes only difference from some
religion,as also among
the Romans, the hero was
ration
It may
therefore be a much
less grave abertenet.
a figureof outstanding
than in the case of oppositionto fundamental
importance. Many people in that ancient world
faith. Protestants
and
modernists
tal Christian
were
already pecuHarly susceptibleto the heroic
element in religion
when the early Christian preach(q.v.)are all regardedas heretics by the Roman
ers
first picturedfor Gentiles the earthly life of
Shailer
Mathews
Catholic church.
Jesus as one
of humble
service followed
by the
reward of exaltation in heaven to a positionsecond
SHEPHERD
OF."
A 2nd. century
HERMAS,
the Christians,espeonly to that of the supreme
apocalypse written to rouse
deity (Phil.2:5-11).
cially
of Rome, to repentance, and to correct the
Usually the hero's claim to popularity rested
of distinction.
idea that sin after baptism could not be forgiven. upon
an
alleged earthly career
ments,
The work consists of five visions,
twelve commandFrequently he was credited with having taught
extended.
the various arts of civilization. Sometimes
and
ten
men
parables, some
very
the traditional founder
the longestwork of Christian literature he was
It is much
of a city,a local
national warrior of fame, or even
or
religious
a
produced up to its time and is probably the result
benefactor. In further justification
of editorial expansions at the hands
of his uniqueof a number
ness,
both his wonderful
is said to
deeds and his
of its author, ca. 120-140
Hermas
as explaining
a.d.
exaltation to the positionof a divinity,theories of
been the brother of Pius, bishop of Rome
have
his miraculous
ential
influsemi-divine
birth and
140-1.55 A.D.
The Shepherd was
ca.
parentage
widely;
districts
often advanced.
See Deification; Virgin
were
in the early church, and in some
Birth.
S. J. Case
was
long regarded as Scripture.
J. Goodspeed
Edgar
HERRNHUTTERS."
Same
Moravian
See Exegesis.
HERMENEUTICS."
as
Brethren
(q.v.).
HERMES."
(1) Greek god, identified by the
HESTIA.
Oreek
of
with Mercury; regardedas the messenger
goddess, personification
Romans
of the gods, and as the god of commerce,
invention, the family and community hearth-fire. She grew
from the attitude of appreciationof the home
athletics and travel.
fire,
(2)The Egyptian god, Thoth,
the place of security and warmth.
In the early
identified with
Hermes, under the title Hermes
there
the
hearth-fire
of
was
no
period
personification;
as the originator
Trismegistus (thrice-greatest),
itself was
the centre
of reverence
and cult. See
reUgion,magic, art, alchemy, and science in Egypt.
(3) A pseudonym for certain 3rd. century writings Vesta and see Hearth-Gods.
which
tried to combine
Neo-Platonic
speculation,
The holding of a behef conHETERODOXY."
of Philo,and theosophy as a rival for
the Judaism
trary
what
has been ecclesiastically
to or divergent from
Christianity.
determined
orthodox.
as
HERMESIANISM."
The
dox
Heterodoxy simply indicates the fact of unorthosystem of theology
belief,while Heresy (q.v.)indicates habihty
(1775-1831), a
emanating from
Georg Hermes
R.C. theologianwho
under the influence
German
to ecclesiastical
discipline.
was
and
insisted that the
of Kant
Fichte.
He
HETERONOMY."
A term
used by the phiviction
losopher
primary grounds of belief should be rational conecclesiastical decree.
than
Herrather
Kant, and contrasted with autonomy, to
indicate
of
in
which
condemned
in
and
1847
the
end
1835
mesianism was
a conception
morality
by
of ethical conduct is suppliedfrom a
the content
or
papal bulls.
other than one's own
free rational approval
source
the abdicaHERMIT.
has abandoned
tion
One
who
society and choice. Since heteronomy means
of freedom, Kant
and adopted the life of solitariness and asceticism
regarded it as an impossible
basis for ethics.
communion
with God.
conducive
to piety and
as
See Anchorite; Monasticism.
HEU
T'U." "Empress Earth," the deity next
HERO-WORSHIP."
in importance to Shang-ti (q.v.)in the state religion
A term
nally
origiHEROES,
employed by the Greeks to designatebeings of the Chinese empire. Previous to the rise of the
but inferior to gods, and the cults
annually offered a great
Republic the emperor
superiorto men
sacrifice to Earth at the time of the summer
solstice.
established in their honor.
Heroes
play a part in various religions,
particularly
HEXATEUCH."
A recentlydevised
for
in
name
primitive stages of development.
the first six books of the Old Testament, viz.,
the
Sometimes
they are the spiritsof dead ancestors,
and Joshua.
Pentateuch
but more
frequently they are pictured as unique
of
time in the shadowy past
The Hexateuch
traces the originand history
individuals who at some
the Hebrew
pletion
people from the Creation up to the commortals, accomplished certain
appeared among
themselves
of their conquest and settlement of Canaan.
wonderful feats,and thereby showed
Jewish
In Japanese
tradition,as recorded in the Talmud
worthy of the worship of mankind.
and
accepted by the Church, held that Moses
religion the deification of heroes is a famiUar
and Joshua
the book
the Pentateuch
that
wrote
paid
feature which still survives in the reverence
deified
bears his name.
This tradition was
Chinese
also have
The
to the emperor.
very earlycalled
that Jean
in question,but it was
not till1753 a.d.
certain traditional figureswith whom
they associate
India
that
Astruc began the task of critical examination
the beginnings of the civilization and arts.
of
In
the complete abandonment
has brought about
has both
its epic heroes.
its ancestral and
Mosaic authorship by modern
scholarship.
Zoroastrianism the older Persian religion
was
purged
fused with
treats it as a
The modern
view of the Hexateuch
of its hero-divinities,
else they were
or
in the followingway.
the
the Hebrews
the framshis. Similarly among
composite work which arose
centuries
Somewhere
cults of heroes was
during the two
prior to
gradually suppressed in the
"

"

203

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

of ancient traditions
B.C., two separate groups
edited as two continuous
finally
up which were
ments
narratives.
These are known
the J and E docuas
and were
prepared by prophetie writers.
Later these were
combined into one narrative,now
designatedby JE, In 621 b.c. the Deuteronomic
law was
later this
publicly adopted. Somewhat
law was
combined
with JE by editors dominated
bination
by the spiritof Deuteronomy; the resultingcomis designated as JED.
During the Exile,
the priestsand scribes began to collect,
revise and
codifythe existingritual and law. The result of
their labor was
known
a
priestlynarrative,now
This document
in some
as the P document.
stage
the basis of Ezra's reform.
of its development was
added
to the previously existing
FinallyP was
See
JED, thus forming the present Hexateuch.
Law, Hebrew.
The precise date when
this singlecomposite
divided into the six books we
book was
know
now
cannot be determined, but it seems
to have
dated
antethe translation of the Old Testament
into
Greek.
J. M. Powis Smith

Friends,Society

PLACE."
The
HIGH
designation of places of
certain Semitic peoples, as
the
worship among
Assyrians and Canaanites, from the fact that such
hill tops. The
on
holy placeswere
prophets of
Israel complained that the Israeliteshad adopted
the practicewith its attendant
corruptions,as in
Isa. chap. 1,Amos
forming
chap. 5, and Hosea chap. 4. Rethe high places.
kings,Uke Josiah,destroyed

of.

HIERARCHY."

PRIEST."
HIGH
(1)The sacerdotal head of the
Israehtes whose functions were
originallythe care

The totaUtyof rulingpowers

in
prelaticalinstitution a church, temple, or
religion;the government itself of that institution.
Also a general
for the clergy,a government by
name

any

"

of the people before

of the temple and representation
of worship and
Jehovah
in the principalceremonies
but which in the post-exiUc
periodincluded
sacrifice,
president of the
pohtical leadership. (2) The
of priests in the
order
higher or Melchizedek
church.
Mormon

priests.
Its occasion

is

growth of

sacred

institution

leadingto organizationof the clergyfor effectiveness.

In ethnic
different

religionshierarchies

attached

were

Hinduism

features from the ritual and formula of the

church.
A later exponent was
Archbishop Laud,
whose doctrine of the church made much
of cathohcityand historical continuity. During the 17th.
and 18th. centuries the progress of the High Church
retarded by its staunch support of the
party was
Stuart dynasty, the criticalattitude of rationahsm
and utiHtarianism,
the Wesley awakening, and the
Uberal tendencies of the French Revolution.
With
the Oxford
movement
(q.v.) its disintegration
arrested. Despite the scientificspirit
of recent
was
policyof the Free Churches,
years and the aggressive
have increased their following,
men
High Church
men,
statesproduced notable preachersand ecclesiastical
substantial contributions to theoand made
logical
Peter
G. Mode
scholarship.

grew

See

ETHICS

Romish

750

HICKSITES."

AND

to

superior and inferior orders of

deities,
priestsbeing subordinated to chiefs. One of these

HIGHEST

hierarchies might exercise a superiorinfluence over

the rest, possessing national supereminence (the
of Asshur in Assyria).
priesthood
In
Israel the Aaronic
priesthood with the
Levitea constituted
exercised
a
hierarchy which

GOOD."

See Summtjm

Bonum.

mLARIUS
(or HILARY)." Pope, 461-468;
checked
certain ecclesiastical abuses and advanced
toward
the claims of the bishop of Rome
politan
metro-

jurisdiction.

political
power.

See Theocracy.
tianity
In ChrisHILARY
SAINT
OF POITIERS,
hierarchies
confined
to the Roman,
are
(ca.300-367).
and Anglican churches.
The first (monOriental,
archical) Bishop of Poitiers,and influential theological
educated
of order and
as
a
Neoplatonist, but
writer; was
recognizestwo hierarchies
converted
and in 353
of jurisdiction.
about
The hierarchy of order (a "divine
350 to Christianity,
elected bishop. He was
and
was
a
institution")has three grades ^bishops,
vigorous opponent
priests,
of Arianism
he suffered nearly four
for which
has two grades (the
deacons; that of jurisdiction
and
the
episcopate), or many
(pope, years of exile.
papacy
bishops,
patriarchs,exarchs,metropolitans,archcardinals,
HILDEBRAND."
Gregory
Pope, under the title,
bishops).
Oriental and Anglican hierarchies
VII. (q.v.).
The (oUgarchic)
combine
the ideas of order and jurisdiction,
the
Hashem.
HILLUL
HASHEM."
See Kiddush
Oriental with patriarchs or metropolitans (or a
"Procurator") at the top, the Anglican headed by
Little Vehicle.")
HINAYANA."
(Pali, "The
archbishops (also "primates") at the top. The
The
of Southern
different grades are not necessarilyexclusive,
name
Buddhism, being the first
e.g.,
in which salvation
individual is both archbishop and primate.
the same
stage in the historyof Buddhism
See
and
Nirvana
restricted to the few.
Geo. W. Gilmore
are
An
influential
HIERONYMITES."
religious Buddhism.
order
16th. and
centuries.
in the
17th.
The
HINDUISM.
Hinduism can be defined only as
Emperor Charles V. after his abdication entered the
the sum
total of the acts and beUefs of 217,000,000
at Yuste,
monastery of St. Jerome
It is not a
of the 315,000,000 people of India.
social as
ALTAR.
The principal
altar in a church
HIGH
religiousorganization,for it is as much
or
religious.If any organization,any unity, is to be
cathedral,so designated because of its elevation
found it must
be sought on the social rather than
and because it is the chief place for the celebration
reflects the entire
of the Mass.
the reUgious side. Hinduism
on
lifeof the whole peoplecalled Hindus.
HIGH
CHURCH."
Caste (q.v.)and all that is impliedby the term
A section of the Church of
is the only thinguniversally
recognizedin Hinduism.
England that inculcates priestly views of the
and emphasizes the unbroken
connection
If a man
conforms to the usages of his caste he may
sacraments
of the Estabhshed
Church
with
the primitive believe in any god or gods,and may
worship them
in any way he pleases. There is no bond of common
Church.
confession of faith,no
The
of the party extend back to the
belief or creed,no common
roots
Elizabethan regime, when
Archbishop Bancroft
worship, no central administrative
congregational
assailed the Purituns in their efforts to eliminate
body. The expressionof personalreUgiousfeeling
even

"

"

"

"

"

Hinduism

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

204

Religion.
of the
Levels
The religion
op
consists almost entirelyof animism, magic,
around
local
and
demonology. Worship centers
freaks of nature, trees and
godlings and spirits,
things which have mysterious
stones, inanimate
of motion such as sun, fire,
wind, and storm,
powers
animals which are feared like the snake or which are
useful like the cow, and spirits
of the dead.
There
is a constant
terror of evil spirits.Religioncenters
in the propitiationor the driving away
of them.
of India are Uterate.
Most of them dwell in small
Sacrifice to the souls of the dead plays a largepart.
villages,are directlydependent on the labor of
Old animistic ideas survive in spiteof the develophands
their own
in tilling
the soil,and have no
ment
of karma
and transmigration. Pilgrimages
agricultural,
largerpoUticalinterests. Such static,
of
to sacred rivers and mountains
in order
villagelifetends everywhere to the maintenance
are_made
to imbibe some
of the potency of the spirits
there.
old ideas and
does not
develop the leisure and
From
this,Hinduism, by a deeper and deeper
comparative comfort of livingwhich alone can produce
rises from one
culture and a deeper morality.
level of religion
to another
synthesis,
The
I. Relation
term
abstract
local godUngs with the more
Brahmanism.
by identifying
to
and beneficent gods; and finallyseeks a unity
Hinduism is often appliedto the whole social and
behind aU of these and finds in the universe the
rehgious Kfe of India from the time of the RigVeda to the present. Brahmanism
manifestation of one god or one power.
is the elaborated
V. The
Great
Gods.
On
the higher levels
priestlyaspect, Hinduism the basic popular aspect
the chief gods are Vishnu and Qiva, each formed
of one
social and religious
and the same
ment.
developof the
different local deities.
Brahmanism
It is convenient
to use
by the amalgamation of many
older period when
the priestlyritual was
widely
Brahma, who is often joinedwith them, is of small
importance. He was
practiced,Hinduism of the later periodwhen the
originallya personification
of the neuter
Brahman
took
ritual fell into abeyance and popularelements preand
the place of
dominated.
No
definite line of demarcation
can
Prajapati. This so-called trinity,contrary to
centered
be drawn
is of no importance and is in no
date given. Brahmanism
popular exposition,
or
around the performance of an elaborate ritual. Its
comparable with the Christian tripity. In the
way
act itself and on the
philosophical attempts at synthesis the three
emphasis was on the religious
to
The only way
of the one
are
knowledge of the sacred texts.
merely individual manifestations
Brahman.
salvation was
through the sacrifice. In Hinduism
Vishnu
the emphasis is on a personalgod. A fervent love
was
a
sun-god, the kindly
originally
maintainer
of the universe.
and devotion
takes the place of formalism
a
He
is a personal
as
This impassioned love (bhakti) anthropomorphic god who
of salvation.
reveals himself to men
means
be best described in the words of Augustine,
by avatars
(incarnations).The most
important
may
is it to have faith in God?
avatars
"What
those of Rama
and Krishna.
Krishna
are
By faith to
love Him, by faith to be devoted to Him, by faith
erotic elements.
worship has developed many
tmion to become
Rama
to enter into Him, and by personal
worship is less frenzied m its devotion,and
with Him."
has not lost its grip on practicalhving.
one
Texts.
the
In
II. Sacred
abstract and impersonal.
background of
Civa (Shiva) is more
He represents Nature
Hinduism
there is not the personaUty of any
in all its aspects, largely
the
one
is no
There
founder.
universally recognized destructive elements, but also the creative ones.
of diverse texts such as the
In India is found,not an expressionof the harmony
Scripture;only a mass
of Nature
and its adaptabilityto human
two
great epics,the eighteen Purdruis with their
needs,
appendages, the
Taniras, philosophical but of its ruthlessness and endless change. The
many
different schools,and a mass
of
most
diverse elements have gone into Qiva worship,
texts from
many
taken from the religion
of the rude Dra vidian
pared
popular hymns and lyrics. These texts are commany
The
tribes.
to a vast ocean.
votary has only to
(1) As an impersonation of the dissolving
forces of Nature he is fierce and cruel,dwells in
churn them
to obtain the nectar of truth which is
in him.
cemeteries,is attended by imps and goblins,and
Concepts.
carries a skull.
III. EjiHiCAL
Permeating every
(2) As an impersonation of the
the concepts of karma
is the
are
(q.v.) reproductive forces of Nature his emblem
phase of Hinduism
is no
inherent
the male organ
and transmigration (q.v.). There
of reproduction. (3) He is a
liiiga,
oped
learned
and
reason
why these concepts should not have develcontemplative philosopher.
sage
into an
optimistic view of life. In India
(4) He is the typicalyogi (ascetic),
sittingin profound
meditation,naked, with ash-smeared
they have resulted in a negative ethical ideal.
body
ideal is that of the limitation of desires, and matted
locks.
The Hindu
(5) He is a wild,jovialmountaineer,
from Nature rather
addicted to drinking and dancing.
the yieldingto and withdrawal
orgiastic,
Thus
than a progressiveadaptation to and mastery of
Civaappeals on the one hand to the higher
If material things are
environment.
transient,if
philosophicalelements in Hinduism, on the other
hand to the animistic popular elements.
only God and the soul endure,why waste effort on
is filledwith a passion
is found an image in
material things? The Hindu
In the temples of Vishnu
which the divine essence
and for the soul,and disregardsworldly
is supposed to have taken
for God
The image is worshiped as a symbol
comfort and social development. "Is it the function
up its abode.
here?"
of religion
of thedeity. In the temples of Civa is found only
to produce happiness and success
do not have in India the close
the Uiiga as a symbol of the god, no image. See
Morality and religion
connection that they have in the West where
Temples.
rality
mois the center of rehgion. The Hindu
The worship of both gods marks the spread of
gropes
the Aryans through India, the influence of the
magical) for the
vaguely by experiment (largely
wiU of God.
Brahman
Morahty tends rather to innocence
priests on the aboriginaltribes,their
is good
of what
than to a strong pragmatic sense
tion
acquisitionof sanctity,and the gradual amalgamaof Aryan beUefs and social customs
with those
(forthe individual or for society)arisingfrom an
life
of
In
the
West
of
is the
active
the
less civihzed
tribes. Hinduism
conceptions
struggle.
of practicalgood dominate
ideals and popular
rehgious scruples; resultant of conservative priestly
over
behef and custom.
This elevation of the prieststo
in India they yieldto them.

entirelyvoluntary and optional. Caste is by

It is a growing organism
means
a rigidsystem.
which has modified itself greatly,and is slowly but
tions
surely modifying itself at present as social condiof
change. Reflectingthe ideals and practices
has in itself a place for
the whole people Hinduism
diverse religious
beliefs from the superthe most
stitions
moral
of the masses
to the higher and more
synthesisof the few. Only one-tenth of the people
is

no

IV.

"

masses

"

"

"

"

205

to

DICTIONARY

positionof social pre-eminencewas

assumption on their part.
an

and

to
quaUfication

gods and

men

was

act

RELIGION

due merely

Their

sanctity

intermediators between

tacitlyrecognizedby the people,

than
in India more
for all holy men

who

reverence

as

not

OF

filled with
elsewhere
are
for all who
and ascetics,

to possess superhuman
in any way
seem
powers,
the gods. In the West
the priestsor
to be near
been able to win
ministers of religionhave never
and maintain
a dominant
place in the social lifeof
the people.
In the villages
will be found templesto Vishnu
and Qiva, but also shrines to the local godlings.
There is a nominal
belief in the greater elevation
of the two
great gods, but in times of stress the
tendency is to turn to the local deities as a present
help in trouble. They are closer to villageneeds.
Vishnu
universal point
and Civa involve a more
of view.
Brahmans
act as officiating
priestsat the
temples of Vishnu and C'^a, and minister to the
needs of the villagers.Their presence
is necessary
at births,
and allceremonial
deaths,marriages,
feasts,
occasions.
The
temple priests are looked down
castes.
upon by the higherBrahman
VI. Asceticism,Eroticism, and
ship.
Qakti WorThe
of austerities and detachment
power
from the world as a means
of attainingsuperhuman
for reaching ecstatic communion
with
or
powers
is a convention
God
of Hindu
thought. More
than
five milhon
sddhus
(holymen), revered for
their spirituahty
feared for their superhuman
or
wander
about the cotmtry, supported
powers,

AND

ETHICS

Hittites,
ReUgioa of the

communion
with
the mysterious superhuman
has raised the intensity
of individual or
powers,
has not tried to socializeitself.
group life,
W. E. Clark
mPPOLYTUS."
Early church writer in the
first half of the 3rd. century. He was
bishopof
Rome, but his fame rests on his numerous
writings,
the best known
of which is a Refutation
of all Heresies

(Phiiosophumena)

HIRANYAGARBHA."

The
"golden germ"
chaotic
waste
of primeval
to
waters
Vedic
creation
stories. From
according
the
this came
divine executive who
created the
Later Hindu thinkers teach that the
world order.
created the waste of waters by
impersonal Brahman
the germ
of gold and
a thought,implanted in them
through it assumed
personal godhead to perform
See also Prajapati.
the task of world evolution.
which

arose

in

the

RELIGION
OF
THE."
HITTITES,
Under
the term
Hittites it is customary at the present
time to include the various racial groups which in
antiquity occupied the central highlandsof Asia
differences and
Minor, where, in spite of linguistic
lack of pohtical
geneous
homounity,they developed a fairly
civilization. Our scant knowledge of the
religionof these peoplesis based to a small extent
but in the main upon archaeological
literary
sources
upon
The
sculptural remains.
former
'largely
the most
while
give us only^
general information,
such inscriptions
the latter are in the
as accompany
entirelyby alms.
as
pels
yet undeciphered Hittite hieroglyphs.This comThe
impassionedreligiousfervor Q)hakti)may
us to depend largely
our
upon
knowledge of
for the interpretation
the later cults of Asia Minor
degenerate into sexual excitation. This is true
of the Krishna
ofsome
of our main body of evidence.
sects and of some
of the
The
The
sexual
union
best known
the
becomes
ment
docu^akta sects. The
literarysources.
nearest
is the Egyptian copy of the treaty between
with
approach to ecstatic communion
God.
In both cases, however, the sexual element is
II. and
the
Hittites
Rameses
(1271 B.C.). A
worked over
the higherlevelsinto a philosophical thousand gods and goddessesof the land of the
on
Hittites togetherwith a thousand gods and goddesses
symbolism.
Cakta
worship is directed to the wife of Qiva of the land of Egypt are invoked as witnesses to
the treaty. In detail we heal of the "sun-god, lord
feminine
(Kali, Durga, etc.). The
principle is
reverenced
as
(evidentlythe Egyptian
gdkti (creativepower, cosmic force) of the heavens, Sutekh
translation of a Hittite word
lord
as distinguished
from the absolute Being of the male.
meaning 'lord'),
In its lower forms erotic rites and bloody sacrifices of the heavens" ; Sutekhs and goddessesof different
the cjueen of the heavens^
the mistress of the
cities,
play a largepart.
Aspects.
^There
and the rivers of
the mistress of the mountains
Philosophical
soil,
yil. Higher
the land of Kheta.
On the silver tablet on which
is,in general,in the higher levels of Hinduism
a
of the treatywas written were
the original
foimd "the
tendencytoward a theism in which the world is not
likeness of Sutekh
constructed
and
regarded as a machine
set in
embracing the likeness of the
motion
and "the likeness of (some
by a God who remains apart from it as a
great chief of Kheta"
soul alone
is
The
embracing the figure of the
goddess) of Kheta
responsiblemoral governor.
princessof Kheta."
fate,moulding it
determiningits own
responsible,
karma.
The trend of thought is panSimilar listsof Hittite deities are found on the
by its own
theistic.
God
is immanent
in the universe as well
copies of the treatiesdrawn up between the great
Hittite king Subbiluliuma
as
transcendent; the personalmelts away into the
(ca. 1375 B.C.) and
the rulers of smaller and dependent Hittite states.
impersonal. The power at work in the universe is
the sarne
treaties are
his soul.
These
at work in man,
as the power
as
part of the extensive Hittite
There
is a sameness
or
an
archives,recentlyfound at Boghaz-Keui,the site
identityof the two.
be a complete identityin which
There
of the ancient capitalof the Hittites,which also
the
may
world fades away
into a mysticalimreality;or God,
contain rehgious texts,hymns and prayers, omen
the offerings
to
immanent
in a
although transcendent, remains
texts, and a ritual text prescribing
real world.
be made on stated occasions.
The sculpturalremains.
Of the numerous
and
Many reformers have founded sects seekingto
raise the popular levels of rehgion,but invariably widelyscattered rock-cut sculpturesof the Hittites
has spent itself when
the force of the reformation
by far the most important are the rehefs of YasiU
the forceful personalityof the founder
(and his
Kaya, near Boghaz-Keui, probably dating from the
removed.
immediate
The tendency
On the walls of the firstof two
14th. century b.c.
was
successors)
natural galleries
in the hillside are depicted two
of Hinduism
is toward diversityrather than toward
processionsof some
sixty figuresmeeting at the
unity. This will always be so imtil there is a
life. India has
unified social and
far end of the gallery. The first group is led by a
more
political
and a i)racsense
Followingthese
male,the second by a female
largelylacked a strong p"olitical
the lesser gods togetherwith divine and human
ticalintellectual sense, and has been deeplyreUgious. come
the scene
attendants.
In all probability
India has not had a firm social and intellectual
represents
the yearlyspringtimemarriage of the great mother
nucleus
to
hold reUgion together and
prevent
in the later,
of the gods,called M4 or Ammas
The
excesses.
mystical experience,which, by
Greek,
"

"

"

"

"

"

deity,
^

Hobbes,

Thomas

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

tation,
sources, and her lover Attis or Papas, god of vegebut also god of the sky. His Hittite name
the
find
In
second
scene
Teshub.
w
e
a
gallery
was
carved upon the silver tablet on
recaUiag the figures
the
Ramses
II. and
which
the treaty between
cing
written.
It represents a god embraHittites was
the king.
sive
extenThese and other Hittite sculpturesshow
borrowing of Egyptian and Babylonian religious
mine
symbols,but we are not yet in a positionto detertions
of the older civilizato what extent the religions
the Nile and Euphrates affected the cults
on
D. D. Ltjckbnbill
of the Hittite peoples.

AND
to

ETHICS

206

another.

The

dead

are

sacred,but

congeni

THOMAS
(1588-1679)." English
HOBBES,
philosopher; the outstanding English thinker
His political
philosophy
between Bacon and Locke.
was
as

He conceived
expressedin his Leviathan.
aggressive individuals,seeking each his

creature,

as

in

powers.

development of moral ideas can be traced

gradual change in the meaning of the word

own

holy. At firstit was

clumsy+ goblin.)A

(Hob,

HOBGOBLIN."
grotesque

demonic

men

versal
order to avert a condition of unito control men
the State is organized
warfare,
held that religion
and
prescribelaws. Hobbes
is an
springs from fear,and its publicregulation
affair of the State.

maUgnant

are

The
in the

In

interests.

also unclean.
This means
that persons
in contact with a dead body, or who have been in its
unfit for the sanctuary until their
are
presence,
taboo has been removed.
Among the Greeks the
of a dead man) could not
worshiper of a hero (spirit
enter the temple of a God until he had been purified.
Similarlyin the Hebrew code everj^thingconnected
is unclean.
with the dead
in this
Other
taboos
code are doubtless based on this oppositionbetween
different divinities. Unclean
those
meats
are
connected with other religions.The uncleanness
of the sexual fife (childbirth,
menstruation) is due to
the idea that this hfe is under the control of,or at
least is hkely to be influenced by, a distinct set of

they

mediaeval

mythology.
CHARLES
(1797-1878)." American
HODGE,
Presbyterian theologian; one of the outstanding
scholars of the Old School division of the Presbyterian
on
church, and author of several works
Calvinistic
dogmatics. His Systemaiic Theology
for a long time the best known
expositionof
was

almost material conception,

A man
might be holy, that
and therefore possessed
is consecrated to a divinity
of sacredness, without
reference
to
his moral
In some
character.
parts of the earth it may still
is reverenced
be true that a man
as
priest no
what
of man
he may
be.
But commatter
paratively
sort_
early in the historyof religiontaboos
were
mon
appHed to acts that were harmful to the comfind the soul brought
weal. In Egypt we
before Osiris for judgment and protestingthat he
sin against his neighbors as well
has not committed
that he has not violated the taboos connected
as
with worship. The process is well illustrated in
Israel where eating with the blood (violationof a
the things prohibited,
but along
taboo) is among
with it we find theft,adultery,and murder.
HoUincludes
moral
now
ness
perfectionand is the
crowning attribute of God himself. At first he
was
holy because he was separate from all common
things. His holiness we may say was only another
for his divinity. Its chief manifestation
name
his power.
But in later Jewish literatureit is
was
asserted that "the Holy One is made
holy by
The
book
of Job
shows
the
righteousness."
went
men
struggle which reflecting
through in
H. P. Smith
reaching this conception.
not
certainly

an

ethical.

American

Calvinism.

MELCHIOR
(or HOFFMANN),
Anabaptist and
1544). German
mystic. His teachings included a denial of the
in the Lord's Supper, although he
real presence
benefit (LikeZwingh) in paraffirmed a spiritual
taking

HOFMANN

(ca. 1498-ca.

"

of it. He also held detailed and fantastic

views in regardto the second coming of Christ.
HOLINESS."
this word

has two

The state of being,holy, and

It designates
distinct connotations.

crated)
persons or things which are set apart (conseis appUed
for rehgiousservice,
or, secondly,
to moral character when
pure or sinless.
The fundamental
conceptionis that by which two
the sacred and
classes of things are distinguished,
is sacred has a mvsterious
which
That
common.
be exercisedfor the
or
power which may
uncanny
work
Since it may
of men.
benefit or the harm
by contact, it
harm, and since it is communicated
be treated with
precautions.Any
must
special
be
extraordinary manifestation of strength may
due to it. The king, the magician, the stranger
degree the
endowed with io,and in stillhigher
are
divinities. These, their belongings and the places
they inhabit,possess it or perhapswe should say
the sanctuary
are infected with it. For this reason
The
must
not be entered with the shoes on.
hand the shoes
danger is twofold on^ the one
to
might bring in something unclean (displeasing
the divinity)and thus arouse
anger; on the other
they might contract the sanctityof the placeand
for ordinary use.
this would imfit them
Where these ideas are current elaborate prohibitions
in force to prevent the sacred and the
are
These
are
from coming into contact.
common
Since they are imposed both
known
as taboos.
now
how the
see
we
the sacred and on the common
on
idea of taboo may
sometimes be equivalentto
to uncleanness.
sacredness,sometimes be equivalent
Moreover what is sacred to one divinitymay be un_

"

HOLOCAUST."

sacrifice wholly destroyed

A
"whole
described in the Old

such
by fire,

burnt offering"
of the Jews
Testament.

as

ALLIANCE.
^An agreement or declaration
of Russia and
1815 by the emperors
Austria and the king of Prussia, in which these
purportedto form a fraternal and pohtical
powers
alliance of nations observing in politics
the principles
of the Alliance
of the Christian religion. The spirit
hostile to Kberal political
ideas.
The signawas
tures
of other European monarchs were
later added.
the alliance was
As a diplomaticagency
a failure.

HOLY

"

signedin

HOLY

COMMUNION."

HOLY

DAYS.

rehgious offices
or

person

of

"

or

See Lord's Supper.

Days set apart by the church for

in commemoration
of an event

rehgioussignificance.

HOLY
:OLY FAMILY.-j-Joseph,
Maiy and the infant
Jesus , a frequent subjectin Christian art.
HOLY

GRAIL."

See Grail, Holy.

HOLY
OF HOLIES."
(1) The inner apartment
tabernacle
of the Jewish
where the ark of the
covenant
reposed,and into which the high priest
alone could enter, and that only on
the day of
atonement.
in the
(2) The sanctuary or bema
eastern
churches. In the church of the Nestorians

DICTIONARY

207

it contains

cross

only and

none

is

OP

RELIGION

to
permitted

ORDERS."

See

Order, Holt.

PLACE."
HOLY
(1) A place considered as
sanctified by the presence
of a religious
or
activity
leader (as Jerusalem
or
Mecca), by the death or
of martyrs, or
tombs
by holy relics. (2) The
outer apartment of the ancient tabernacle of the Jews.
ROLLERS."
The name
HOLY
given to widely
scattered and relativelysmall groups
throughout
from
the United States and Canada, drawn largely
the ranks of Methodism, who in their zeal for the
of the Holy Spirit,
high emotional
filling
encourage
often accompanied by repeated jumpexcitement
ing
and down
(hence "Jumpers"), death-like
up
of the body.
or
rolling
prostration,
HOLY
ROMAN
EMPIRE."
The
idealistic
into an
unification of Christendom
empire during
the Middle Ages by the perpetuationof the Roman
Empire under the jointcontrol of the Pope and an

Emperor.
The beginning of this conception may
be
fairly
traced to the coronation
of Charlemagne (Dec. 25,
ecclesiastical,
800) as Emperor. This act was not strictly
for Charlemagne regarded himself not only
of the Emperors of the West
the successor
as
(if
indeed he ever
thus limited his position)but also
as a divinelyappointed head of the earthlykingdom

ETHICS

Holy Spirit

loss of its northern

while the Protestant

possessions,
with
the spiritualover-lordship of
the Pope. The
imperial office passed to Austria
and the Empire continued in name
but without its
mediaeval importance or honor.
It was
finally
ended by Napoleon, Aug. 6, 1806.
Despite its political
complications and consequent
the Holy Roman
be
Empire must
wars,
regarded as a notable attempt to produce peace and
it must
order in Europe. To
be credited such
unity as prevented the complete disintegration
of civilizationduring the early Middle
Ages and
the maintenance
of many of the unifyingforces in
government and culture oequeathed by the Roman
That
it should fail of its supreme
civilization.^
inevitable not alone from the rivalry
ideal was
of its two supreme
heads but also from the
earthly
nationahties and
ever
increasingpower of the cities,
intellectualindependence.
Shailer Mathews
states

enter.

HOLY

AND

broke

HOLY

SEE."

The jurisdiction
of the Pope (q.v.).

HOLY
The
SEPULCHRE."
rock-cut tomb
in Jerusalem where the body of Jesus is supposed to
have lain between his burial and resurrection,
and
which a church has been built. There are two
over
sites claimingrecognition:the traditionaltomb in
the Church of the Holy Sepulchreand a cave
near
the so-called Gordon
Calvary outside the present
walls of Jerusalem.

SPIRIT."
A specialmanifestation of
in Christian theology defined as the
third person of the Trinity,
ascribed
to whom
are
Pope. The Empire
such as the inspiration
of Scripin point of peoples
specific
activities,
ture
its former capacity
writers,and the influencingof individuals
in the direction of the divine purpose.
or groups
successors, but the
The Hebrew
antecedent
to the conceptionof the
king, received his
imperialstatus only by coronation by the Pope in
Holy Spirit is the_"Spirit of Yahweh," which
chosen
endowed
individuals with
exceptional
Italy.
such as physical power
Both the imperial honor and theory suffered
(Samson), procapacities,
phetic
under
but were
ecstasy (Saul), capacity for leadership
Charlemagne'ssuccessors
eclipse
again revived by Otto I (the Great) in 962. His
(Jephthah,Gideon), or abiUty to proclaim the
mind of God
the
bold
establishment
of the
(Micaiah and other prophets).
plans included
The
German
early Christians,after the experience at
kingdom on the foundation of the church.
the unity of Christendom
In consequence,
in the
Pentecost, coveted and experienced the messianic
of the church was
West and especially
guaranteed. giftsof the Spirit. To be able,through the power
of the Spirit,to speak with tongues, to prophesy,
Otto II. and particularly
Otto III. developed the
tion
meant
idealisticconceptionof the Empire as the joint to work miracles,or to heal,
a presentrealizaand
of that messianic reignwhich should soon
rule of Pope
come
Emperor. This
conception
of these
involved the recognition
in perfection. The extravagances of some
of both officesas representative
of Christ who had established the power
zealous Christians led the apostlePaul and others
of the
normal
and ethical ideal
to emphasize the more
two swords
(Luke 22 : 37, 38) The one sword, that
of spiritual
the Pope's and
the
authority, was
expressedin I Cor. 13. The conception of the
inclusive of Christian
other, that of temporal power, the Emperor's. indwellingChrist was more
to be wielded in harmony.
values.
In these early Christian
experiences of
They were
it is the
The
the Spirit,as in the Hebrew
politicalstrugglesof successive German
conception,
is emphasized
which
supernatural endowment
kings with the nobles and the Italian cities,
were
complicatedby this imperialideal,the Pope siding rather than any definite doctrine of the personality
with the nobles and cities and now
with the
now
of the Spirit.
With
the formation of the Catholic church,
king in an effort to maintain the independence of the
church
from the state (see Investiture
officialcontrol of religiousfife was
encoiu'agedin
versy)
Controzeal. Consequently the
in the Empire.
contrast
to individual
as well as his own
supremacy
The unity of the idea was thus threatened by historiof the Spirit was
work
cal
virtuallylimited to the
circumstances.
Both Germany and Italywere
ance
inspirationof the officialScriptures,and the guidSo far as individual
of the official church.
torn asunder
by long strugglebetween the Guelphs
GhibelUne
the
(papal) and
parties. Christians were concerned the doctrine of the Holy
(imperial)^
retired in favor of the doctrine of grace (q.v.).
successivelyvictorious, Spirit
Pope and Emperors were
and the emancipation of
Boniface
VIII.
in a moment
of triumph finally
With
the reformation
the individual from the control of the church came
claiming to be both Pope and Emperor, but was
the activityof the Holy
defeated before any permanent results could follow
a renewal of emphasis on
such a claim.
Spirit. Again extravagances occurred, and again
With
the rise of the Hapsburg dynasty, the
of religiousexperience was
sought in
regularity
manifestations
of ecstasy.
the unifying institution of Europe
to the irregular
contrast
Empire became
Charles
in close affiliation with the papacy.
V.
The appeal to the Scriptures
strengthenedthe formal
and Calvin set forth the
and PhillipII. possessed the Empire at its height, doctrine of inspiration,
of the 16th. century resulted in the
but the wars
supplementary doctrine of the "inner testimonyof
of God.

such he did not

the part of the
on
supremacy
German
which he revived was
but universal in theory. In
it could
be inherited by his
Emperor, though a German
As

admit

any

absolute

HOLY

divine power,

Holy Synod

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

the Spirit,"
which
accordingto which the same Spirit
the
inspired the original of Scripture assures
believer that it is God's word, and guides him in
the understanding of it. The Quakers placed the
authorityof the "inner Ught" foremost,holdingthat
or
no
activitycould be truly reUgious
experience
not directlyguided by the Holy Spirit.
which was
In the Wssleyan revival the experience of special
sanctification by the Spiritwas
urged as essential
to full Christianity.

AND

ETHICS

208

1. Fields
of
Home
Mission
Activity.
1. New
settlements. In the
United
States
the
main spur to Home
both in the imorganMissions,
ized and in the earlier organicdevelopment, was the
caU for plantingChristianity
everywhere along with
the rapidlyadvancing occupation of a great new
The
coimtry.
comparative poverty of a majority
of new
settlers and the necessityof initiating
all
phases of civUized life at once, required help from
the
older, well-estabhshed communities.
This
Missions
continues
far into the
aspect of Home
20th. century. While the spectacularadvances
in
continental occupation were
largely achieved in
the 19th. century, vast areas
remain to be settled.
and drainage open great new
territories.
Irrigation
The
two-fifths of the United
western
States is
capableof sustaining
twenty-fivetimes the population
it has in 1920.
2. Foreign-speaking
inhabitants.
^The enormous
gration
immigrationfrom Europe and the starthng immifrom Asia, most
of that in later years from
lands without
an
Bible, necessitates large
open
is to be truly
evangelizing
activityif America
"

"

The theologicaldoctrine of the Holy Spiritis

natural
interpretationof the activities above
Christ was
When
mentioned.
defined in terms of
essential deity, the
Messianic
he
Spirit which
fashion.
sent
inevitably defined in the same
was
The speculativeproblem of estabhshingthe mutual
of the three "persons" of the Godhead,
relationships
the Holy Spirit
e.g., the question as to whether
doxy),
"proceeds" from the Father alone (Eastern Orthofrom the Father and the Son (Western
or
Orthodoxy) has engaged the minds of theologians
rather than the interest of Christians
generally.
While
certain specificfunctions are
theoretically
Christian.
yet Christian thought
assigned to the Holy Spirit,
3. Negroes. ^By forced immigration the continent
generallyhas reflected Augustine's conviction that
of any
of Africa made
is present in the work
the entire Godhead
a
large contribution to our
modem
of the Trinity. In much
member
thought, population.Physicalemancipation opened a way
for the much
and necessity
God
difl^icult
where
is conceived as immanent, the Holy
longerand more
God
in
of spiritual emancipation. The
chief
Spirit is scarcely distinguishablefrom
process
Birney
Smith
See Trinity.
Gerald
action.
activity has been in providing schools for the
trainingof Negro leaders.
Indians.
A prime motive
4. American
SYNOD."
in the
HOLY
(1)The governingbody of the
first settlement
of America
Russian
in
exphcitly named
church, composed of the archbishops of
colonial charters, was
the evangelizationof the
and Kief,the exarch of Georgia,
Petrograd,Moscow
It was
the dominant
certain bishops and archimandrites and the prointerest of one
or
curator,natives.
resides the real
two
notably Roger Wilhams.
earlyState builders,
a civil officer in whom
absorbed
But less altruistic motives
of the
most
authorityof the synod. (2) The permanent board
called the
of the patriarchateof Constantinople,
peopleand churches,so that the early20th. century
finds one-third of the Indians in the United States
Holy GoverningSynod. (3) The governing body
without
church
of the Roumanian
gospel privileges.
consistingof all the
council of the
Americans.
The Spanish con5. Latin North
querors
bishops in council. (4) The supreme
talked constantly of their business as the
Greek national church,comprisingfive bishops.
Christianization of the heathen.
As it turned out,
Cathohc
THURSDAY."
Roman
HOLY
(1) Ascension day. (2) however^according to eminent
in the end came
the process
also called Maundy
to
nearer
authorities,
Thursday of Holy Week*
being the heathenization of Christianity.
Thursday.
isolated
6. Backward
neighborhoods. Many
in the most progressivesections of the
which
has been conWATER."
Water
HOLY
secrated communities
country have been left to degenerate in backward
by a priestand is used for baptism and
In other sections large areas, sequestered
eddies.
lustrations,and by w'orshippersin making the
have receded spiritually
by mountains or otherwise,
sign of the cross on enteringor leavingchurch.
rather than advanced.
Cities and manufacturing
The week precedingEaster,
the
WEEK.
7. Congested areas.
HOLY
See City Missions.
centers.
religiousobservance of which is alluded to in the
Lumber
8. Temporary
communities.
ApostoUc Constitutions (q.v.)in the 3rd. century.
camps,
construction
mining camps,
and, at times,
camps
Missions
create
Christian
MISSIONS."
in
HOME
military camps,
intenselyneedy Home
denominations
Mission fields.
with
North
America, or
many
Home
II. Organization
Missions.
op
encies.
simply missions in the United States and its depend1. Denominational.
When
the personal and spolishing
It includes not only preaching and estabradic
but also the promotion of the
churches
began to develop into organicHome
Missions,
first through the
ecclesiastical
it was
smaller
efficiencyof churches, the trainingof leaders for
and the Uke.
backward
groupings,associations,
presbyteries,
peoples,and the providingof buildingsfor
Then
ment
larger aggregates took it up, conferences,
church,educational,medical,and community betterwhole denominations
work.
sjmods,state conventions. Finally
The historyof Home
Missions is the historyof
engaged in it. The two chief forms are (a)
ever,
Boards and (b)Societies. In actual working, howthe spread of Christianityafter it has been planted
technical than vital
that distinction is more
in a country.
a sponAt first the work is donein
taneous,
ever
Whatand arises from the church poUty favored.
and imofficialway
by individuals
sporadic,
of selection and
nomenclature
the method
and churches.
Later, groups of churches join in
board of considerable
there is (1) a committee
or
the imdertaking,either through societies formed for
between
the annual
size which has all responsibiUty
the purpose
or through their general ecclesiastical
or
Home
sions
Missocietyand which
meetings of its denomination
organizations. Commonly, the term
itself meets
cases
once
a
is used to designate this later development.
frequently, in many
This
month.
formal stage was
body shapes pohcies,authorizes
In the United States this more
about the beginexpenditures and selects (2) a staff of executives.
reached in a wide-spreadingway
ning
chief executives are commonly called secreThe
of the 19th. century.
a

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

209

taries.

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

needed action,
pubhc and direct the work
of the missionaries under
the board.
The
larger
boards have permanent
departments of work and
committees
with
looking after them
especially
Various
assigned executives.
phases of the work
distinct
boards
conducted
societies in
are
by
or
differ considerably
some
denominations, which

They suggest

present the

as

cause

to division of work

organization for

to the boards

to the

but most

of which

Sunday-school and

have distinct

pubUshing

AND

ETHICS

Homiletics

Church

Building Society; Congregational Home

Missionary Society; CongregationalSunday School
and PublishingSociety; American
Christian Missionary
of Church
Society; Board
Extension,
American
Christian MissionarySociety; Missionary
ated
Societyof the EvangeUcal Association;AssociExecutive

Committee

of Friends

on

Indian

Affairs;EvangeUstic and Church Extension Board

of the Friends' Five
Years
of
Meeting; Board
Home

Missions

and

Church

Extension,General
Church
in the United
actual administration
The
the field is conon
States; Board of English Home
ducted
Missions,General
Church in North
commonly in co-operationwith territorial Council,Evangehcal Lutheran
bodies which
and functions
Missions
and
Church
greatly in area
America; Board of Home
vary
according to the poUty of the denominations.
Extensions,Methodist Episcopal Church; General
In some
denominations the State organizationis
Missionary Board of the Free Methodist Church in
North America; Missionary Society of the Methodist
a
growingly largefactor in the whole business of
Home
Missions.
An exceedinglyimportant aspect
dist
Church, Canada; Board of Missions,Methoof Home
Missions is City Missions
Episcopal Church, South; Board of Church
(q.v.).
One of the great arms
of the service in many
Extension, Methodist
Episcopal Church, South;
denominations is an organization of women.
Board
of Home
Protestant
In
Missions, Methodist
this is quite independent of and
of Church
sorne
cases
Extension, American
ordinate Church; Board
cowith the Church
Moravian
Commission
society,in others it is
Church; Country Church
strictlyauxiUary. By use of local church organiChurch; Board of Home
zations of the Moravian
Missions,
and
United
States
interest is
in the
of
study classes remarkable
Presbyterian Church
created.
Erection
of the Church
Fund
America; Board
2. Interdenominational. (a) The Home
of the
Missions
General
Assembly of the Presbyterian
Council. This body was
Church in the United States of America; Executive
teen
organized in 1907. Thirdenominations
Committee of Home
now
co-operate in it. It is
Missions,PresbyterianChurch
and executive
in the United
Committee
of
composed of all the board members
States; Executive
officerswhose field is co-extensive with the territory Publication,Presbyterian Church
in the United
of the board.
In the nature
of the case
the chief
States;Board of Home
Missions,United Presbyterian
functions of the Council are
gative
Church of North America; Board of Church
consultative,investiand advisory.It has standing committees
Extension
of the United
Presbyterian Church of
North America; Domestic
operation;
on:
and Foreign Missionary
Spanish-speakingPeople; Comity and CoImmigrant Work; City Work; Rural
Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the
United
States of America; Board
of Domestic
Felds; Promotion; Indian Missions; Church
Missions
Mission
of the Reformed
Church
Building; Recruiting the Home
in America;
Force;
Board
of Home
Church
Exceptional Groups; and Home
in
Negro Work;
Missions, Reformed
Mission
Statistics. It has sent joint deputations the United
Missions of
States; Board of Heathen
visit western
to
States,enUsting the regional the Christian Reformed
Church; Home Missionary
forces in co-operativestudy of conditions and in
Brethren
in Christ; Church
Society, United
endeavor
to provide for neglected fields and to
Erection Society,
an
United Brethren in Christ.
eliminate
wasteful
C. Barnes
Lemuel
competition. In Utah, for
The science that studies and
articulated
HOMILETICS."
example, there has resulted carefully
interdenominational
formulates
the principlesof the preparation and
planningand a joint sununer
instituteof workers.
deliveryof effective sermons.
1. Formal
homiletics.
the sermon
(b) The Council of Women for Home Missions.
Historically,
This was
has been a unique type of discourse.
tion
organized in 1907. Its functions in relaIt has been
to Women's
Home
concerned
Mission Boards are kindred
with the indoctrination of the people
to those of the Home
Missions Council in relation
in the truth revealed in the Bible.
The theory of
to the church
boards. One marked
of the
has involved the view that all Scripture
inspiration
activity
has been the issuingof a series
Council of Women
is of equal validityand therefore is available as a
of inission study text-books which
vehicle of doctrine. The preacher's
have had wide
chief business
in the churches of all denominations.
use
the selection and use
of the text and a large
was
with the
on
concerned
(c) The Committee
Co-operationin Latin
part of homiletical trainingwas
America.
This Committee
represents both Home
problem of the text. The main divisions of the sermon
and
The
boards
home
which
the introduction,
the proposition,the
Foreign Missions.
were
in Latin North America
take an active
attention
are at work
Great
was
argument, the conclusion.
share in the work of the Committee.
This included
given to the matter of illustration and apphcation.
the caUing and conduct of the notable Congress on
Sermons
have
been divided into (1) Textual, in
Christian Work
in Latin America held at Panama
which the divisions of the sermon
found in the
are
in
and
the holding of regionalconferences
City
divisions of the text; (2) Topical,
grammatical
1916,
afterwards in Cuba, Porto Rico and Mexico.
in which the divisions of the sermon
the logical
are
In all these regionsthere is now
decided co-operation divisions of the proposition; (3) Expository,
in
in evangelization,
education
and
the publication which a considerable portion of Scriptureis interpreted
and distribution of literature.
and practicalconclusions drawn
therefrom;
Movement.
from the Scriptures
(d) The
Missionary Education
(4)Descriptive,in which scenes
This Movement
is in the interest of all missions.
are
portrayed with a view to enforce some suggested
It issues important text-books
for use
in Home
lesson;(5)Occasional,in which a timelysubject is
Mission
of ordinaryspeechbut
Study and other vital literature and its dealt with after the manner
school trains leaders.
sxunmer
with the text as a kind of startingpoint.
III. Organizations
Composing
Home
2. The
modern
The
still
the
sermon.
sermon
Missions
Council.
retains very largelyits formal character but it has
American
Mission
and more
to the styleof
Baptist Home
Society, become assimilated more
Home
Mission
Board
of the Christian
Church;
ordinarypublicdiscourse. The distinctionbetween
American
is not felt. The text
Missionary Society; Congregational the textual and topicalsermon
work.

Synod, EvangelicalLutheran

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Homiliarium

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

form
is thought of as expressing in literary
an
experience rather than as containing a doctrine.
much
the sermon
not
are
so
the speakernaturallyindicates
the progress of his thought. The
applicationis
not
formally introduced but is present in the
practicalcharacter of his discourse. Homiletics is
a
becoming quite as much
psychological as a
rhetorical study.
G. Scares
Theodore
divisions

The

of

emphasizedexcept

as

Collections
of homiUes
or
and homilies,introduced
the clergy
among
of the Middle
Ages as an aid to those incapable of
addresses.
preparingtheir own

HOMILIARIUM."

sermons

HOMILY.
intended to

^A
simple expository discourse,
explain and interpret a passage of
of
ethical topic. The
custom
Scripture or an
deUvering informal expositorydiscourses began
in the Christian church at least as early as Justin
was
Martyr. By the 6th. century the custom
"

established of reading the

homiUes of celebrated
collections of
8th. century
homilies
Books
were
of Homilies
being made.
were
arranged for the use of uneducated clergy in
England from the 16th. century.
the

preachers. By

The

AND
"honor of

ETHICS

210

gentleman" expressed (1) the conviction

his rank by any
must
not demean
compromisingrelations with those not belonging to
the gentleman class. To work for a living was
that

dishonorable.
not

one

Personal injurymust be dealt with

a defense
of "honor" in a duel.

by law, but by

honor is an anti-social attitude toward

In this sense
democratic
has
been
ideals, and
progressively
But
discountenanced.
to
(2) honor required one
exercise virtues which
could
be externally
not
to one's impUcit
compelled. In particular,
fidelity
these might be,
or
explicitobligations,whatever
is expected.
and whatever the danger or loss involved,
In this sense
honor is an exalted social virtue.
To
his honor" is to appeal to the highest
on
"put a man
form
of moral
self-direction. In the Japanese
doctrine of Bushido, honor is exalted.
Wlien freed
from
provincial applications (as "honor
among
thieves")it is one of the most potent forms of moral
education.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
_

HONORIUS.

The

"

name

of fdur popes

and

one

antipope.
I. Pope, 625-638; continued
Honorius
the
work begun by Gregory the Great for the church in
the British Isles;especiallyremembered
for supporting
the MonotheUte
doctrine for which he was
anathematized, a piece of evidence
subsequently
used in 1870 by the opponents of the doctrine of
"

HOMOIOS.
lar")
A term (literally
meaning "simiArianism
used by the party which
defended
in the post-Nicene Christological
papalinfallibility.
controversy. It
involved an exaltation of the Son to a divine position,
Honorius II.
claim to
(1) Antipope, whose
but denied his complete metaphysical deity.
the throne was
from
1061-1072.
(2) Pope, 11241130: sanctioned the orders of Praemonstratensians
HOMOIOUSIOS."
A Greek adjective,
and Knights Templars.
meaning
of "similar essence"
Honorius
III.
"like substance."
The
or
Pope, 1216-1227; sanctioned
word
became
the watchword
and Franciscan
orders.
the Dominican
of the mediating
Honorius
IV.
party in the Arian controversy. They claimed
Pope, 1285-1286; sanctioned
that Father and Son were
and
distinct as regardshyposAugustinian Eremites; the
tasis, the Carmelite
and hence the word like was
the banks of N. Italy to collect
first pope
to use
a truer description
than the same
in regard to their essence,
the controlling
papal taxes.
motive
ordination
being the eastern idea of the subof the Son.
HOOD.
A
flexible, conical-shaped headSee Arianism.
covering,sometimes forming part of a cloak. In the
A Greek adjective,
HOMOOUSIOS."
by clerics and laymen
usually Middle Ages it was worn
translated "consubstantial,"
the hat came
to be commonly
alike,but, when
meaning "of the same
essence." In the Christological
controversies of the
used as a head-covering,the hood became a part
4th century, the party which advocated
of the religioushabit of monks.
the consubHoods
also
are
of the Son with the Father triumphed
of higher University
stantiability
worn
by recipients
degrees.
at Nicaea in 325 and at Constantinople
At
in 381.
Chalcedon
in 451 the doctrine was
RICHARD
adopted that
HOOKER,
(1533-1600)."English
Christ
"consubstantial with
the
was
Father, clergyman and author of the Laws of Ecclesiastical
the
according to
Godhead, and consubstantial with
Polity.His great work voiced the English reaction
Puritanism
us
and
defended
according to the manhood."
the
against a narrow
episcopacy againstthe attacks of Presbyterianism.
HONEN
ential
influThe
(1133-1212 a.d.)."The most
basis of his argument
is the
fundamental
in
figurein the history of Amida-Buddhism
harmony and divinity of law. God speaks in
well as in Scripture.
law and through reason
as
Japan. He preached a gospel of salvation by faith
of Amida
in the free grace
His political
through which the
philosophythat government
reposes
believer gains at death eternal happiness in the
of the governed anticipated
the consent
later
on
embraces
western
in
paradise. This
one
religion
developments
English thinking.
third of the populationof modern
Japan.
HOPE.
An expectation that a desired event
HONESTY."
The disposition
to deal uprightly
situation may
be reahzed,although certainty
or
is
and justly,having especialregard for the rights impossible.
and property of others; a virtue based on a recogHope is an optimisticattitude where the future
nition
of the social order.
is unknown.
It enables one
to order life so as to
for better rather than worse
alternatives,
prepare
HONOR.
A dignityor position
which renders
and thus introduces factors making for the desired
a person
Because
of this positivevalue,hope has
outcome.
worthy of esteem and which obligateshim
to high-minded conduct.
been reckoned among
the virtues.
In Christian ethics hope has been one
Popularly,an honor is a publicrecognitionof
of the
three theologicalvirtues added
some
achievement, or an election to a place of
the basis of
on
I Cor.
to
the four Greek
13:13
See
virtues.
responsibility.
In ethics the word denotes an inner consciousness
Virtues
Vices.
In early Christianity
and
hope
of worth which requiresthe observance
of a certain
esteemed
couragement
was
as
a corrective of the disespecially
"code of honor."
It has been historically
connected
appointed
engendered by persecutionsand diswith aristocratic conceptionsof class superiority.
expectations.Thomas Aquinasassigned
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

to

DICTIONARY

211

OP

RELIGION

emotional power for

hope the function of furnishing

is
times the word
steadfast faith. In modern
often employed to indicate an optimisticexpectation
of lifeafter death, in the face of the discouraging
verdict of physicaland physiological
science; e.g.,
Gerald
Smith
Birney
"the largerhope."
a

AND

ETHICS

Hospitality

Jewish
and adopted as a recognition of
lituTffi/^,
the Messiahshipof Jesus on
his triumphal entry
into Jerusalem
(Mark 11:9 seq.),and since then
used in the Christian church in praiseof Jesus.

HOSHA'NA

RABBAH."
(Aramaic the great
Special term for the seventh day of the
Jewish Feast of Tabernacles, so-called because of
the frequentrepetition
of the expression"Hoshana"
(save)in the ritual of the day.
=

"Save.")

HOPKINSIANISM."

form of the New

from
Theology (q.v.) named
Samuel
Hopkins (1721-1803).
HORMISDAS."

consummating

Western
churches
since 484.

land
Engadvocate,

its

in
Pope, 514-523, succeeded
reunion
of the
Eastern
and
in 518 which had been separated

See Ormazd.

HORMUZD."

HORNS.
Primitive
thought assigns horns
important role in rehgious symbohsm, cult and
magic. The gods and genii of Babylonia appear
decorated with horns, not of an offensive kind, but
The
rather
ornamental.
early Hittite deities
"

HOSIUS
in the 4th.

OSIUS."
Bishop of Cordova,early
of
century, prominent at the court

or

Constantine,being

the

emperor's messenger

to

Alexandria in seeking a reconciliation of Arius and

Alexander.
He
later became
of the most
one
vigorous defendents of orthodoxy against Ajianism
and had great influence in the adoption of the word
"consubstantial" by the Council of Nicaea, 325.

an

HOSPICE."
the
travelers,

shelter provided for the care

of
the sick,the aged, or orphans.
in connection
with churches
can
to the 5th. century.
The
most
in the Alps,as those of St. Bernard,
entertained.
are

poor,

Their existence
be traced back
horns.
The
whose
ornaments
were
famous are those
of Tyre had two
short
Phoenician
god Melkarth
wise
likehorns on
The
his head.
where travelers
Syrian god Hadad
Ashtaroth-Karnaim
horns.
wore
(Gen. 14:5),
A
member
HOSPITALER."
where the Rephaim dwelt east of the Jordan, was
of one
of the
horns.
Hathor
of Egypt
Ashtaroth
of two
is
in the Middle
rehgious orders estabUshed
Ages
both sexes.
A Hospitaler took a vow
to
represented as a cow's head with horns
^perhaps among
for the sick and poor, in addition to the regular
care
a relic of animal
worship.
of chastity,poverty, and obedience, under
The
horn is a well-known
symbol of strength. vows
the Rule of St. Augustine. From
It is celebrated in early religiouspoetry (I Sam.
the Hospitalers,
certain militaryorders were
evolved as the Knight
2:10). Mythology and art frequently compare
Hospitalersof St. John of Jerusalem.
gods and heroes with great horned animals. SemiThe
fauns
divine beings are described as horned.
HOSPITALITY."
The
and satyrs of the Old Testament
(Lev. 17:7 and
friendly reception and
entertainment
those
of those not belonging to a household
II Chron. 11: 15) are practicallythe same
as
or intimate
mythology.
so picturesquelydescribed in Greek
group.
The
Another use of horns picturedon the monuments
practice of hospitahty is an
important
is that of men
horned
who
of obligation
aspect of social hfe. The
wore
headgear. The
sense
like those of Osiris.
horns
was
originallytempered by a feelingof suspicion
king of Egypt wore
towards
has horns in painting and statuary. Chiefs
Moses
strangers, cordial treatment
being due
of savage
quite as much to fear of the powers
protectingthe
peoples appear with headdress decorated
but there were
with horns.
stranger as to generosity;
rehgious
Horns
to the custom
possessed a magical or superstitioussanctions that compelled fidelity
of kindly entertainment, even
value when
doors of houses, or on the
though the host
placed over
the
of altars. Their protectivevalue made
might plan an attack upon his guest the moment
corners
he ceased to be imder the protectionof the law of
A relic
universal.
of using them
almost
custom
of this thought is seen
to ofi'era
was
today in hotels and public hospitahty. The prevailingcustom
the horned
of
of a
heads
the entrance
and
present, usually of food, upon
private places where
stranger to tent or hut, to give him accommodations
moose, deer,buck or buffalo are used as decorations.
for the night,and to speed him on his way.
bar
amulets
In the
to
likewise are
Horns
as
worn
became
of
evil influences.
The
East, before travel by caravan
general,
cornucopia, the horn
it would
and
have
been
impossible for an
plenty, is closelyassociated with the power
virtuallj^
individual to journey alone in safety or comfort
The
ram's
horn
influence of the horn.
trumpet
without
hospitahty.There is abundant evidence
(Josh. 6:5) to sound an alarm, or a call to an
that hospitalitywas
general in that part of the
assembly,marks the practicaluse of this animal
social
also made
based not only on
Musical instruments
out
were
world,and that it was
weapon.
but on
Ira M. Price
need
of this useful implement.
religiousteaching. In the ancient
world
Mediterranean
much-prized articles were
chart indicating
An astrological
HOROSCOPE.
exchanged as gifts of hospitahty, and by this
tion
of exchange the products of early civilizathe position of the planets at any
specific method
found their way
to distant lands.
time, but especiallyat the time of the birth of a
his or
In America
the Indians
and
used as a basis for foretelling
practisedhospitahty
person
of the arrival of
themselves
at the time
her future.
among
Iroquois custom, if a
an
Europeans. It was
tribesman
HORUS.
A
or
stranger entered a house, that the
complex god of ancient Egypt
should set food before him, and the guest
women
who appears
(1) in falcon form as the sun-god of
must
the northern kingdom, (2)as Horus the elder hawkat least taste the food, unless he would give
found
it embarrassing
(q.v.),(3) as son of Osiris, offense. Europeans sometimes
headed, son of Hathor
in times
of his father and champion of man
to be offered food at every house regardless
avenger
to
in the
of the time of day, but they felt it necessary
of danger and death, (4) as the child Horus
Isis.
of his mother
arms
respectthe custom.
Christianity spurred its followers to take
of
the teachingsof Jesus and Paul concerning
A
HOSANNA.
shout
praise, Uterally hterally
Out of the custom
kindness to those in need.
of
(Ps. 48:25) used in the
meaning "save now"
wore

caps

"

"

"

"

Hospitals

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

212

and Luther; participated

the hospitalfor the sick and
in the Peasants' Revolt
came
burned at the stake for his Anabaptist
the hospice for the
traveler.
in 1525; was
Throughout the
Middle
views.
Ages the monasteries were refuges for the
Where
sick and
most
nature
pitable,
inhoswas
poor.
HUGO
traveler.
OF
ST. VICTOR
a hospicegreeted the weary
(OR HUGH)
(ca.
times the art of private hospitahty
In modem
active in the
1078-1141). Mystic and philosopher,
has given way
abbeys of St. Victor at Marseilles and Paris. More
graduallyas pubhc accommodations
have
increased.
concerned with mystic satisfaction than with critical
Railway travel and numerous
hotels have made it imnecessary.
With the change
scholarship,he was widely influential in promoting
of custom
the spiritof goodwill has not lapsed.
arhetorial and emotional type of rehgiousliterature.
Rehef of the needy has taken the placeof the more
French Protestants of the 16th.
HUGUENOTS."
general hospitahtyto all comers.
Philanthropists
and
17th. centuries, a nickname
and women
began to open houses of refuge for men
given by the
Catholics from their meeting place near
Roman
the
needing asylum. Especiallyin citiesthere increased
class of homeless
When
the Protestant Reformation
a
gate of King Hugo.
ones, and in the country were
those in France
who
went
vagrants needing shelter. Almshouses, workhouses,
began, there were
homes
to the reformed
for convalescents
over
and the aged, orphanages,
faith,but in 1535 an edict
ordered the extermination
and asylums are the various forms that hospitahty
of heretics,whereupon
has taken for those in need.
1500 refugeesfled,including John Calvin.
cution
PerseThe Salvation Army
has been conspicuous among
did not kiU the movement,
but it grew
such agencies,
and
enhsted
church
noble
some
rapidly and
Frenchmen,
organizations have imitated it in social
service. Not least among
In 1562
and others.
institutions
such modern
including CoUgny, Marot
edict was
the Associations for young men
who
an
and women
are
passed promising religiousliberty,
but it was
Peace
throng to the cities. The Young Men's Christian
only a prelude to civil war.
the royalistCathohc
Association
seemed to be in sight when
methods
of hospitahty in peace
and
of
the most striking
war
of social phenomena,
are
party treacherously instigated the Massacre
among
and one
of the best evidences
that Christianity St. Bartholomew's
day (q.v.),1572. The struggle
finds increasing
continued until in 1598 by the terms of the Edict of
expressionin service.
Nantes
Henry
K. Rowb
(q.v.)a charter of rehgious and poUtical
HOSPITALS.
ing
feeltinued
hberty was granted. But the Cathohc
party conReligiousand humanitarian
its policy of opposition and
persecution,
provided care for the sick in ancient China, in
revoked
and finally
in 1685 Louis XIV.
the Edict
India (Buddhist convents), in Greece
(temples of
of Nantes, as a result of which 400,000 Huguenots
and
Asklepios),in Imperial Rome, in Jewish life,
Christ's compassionate work
it a
and word made
emigrated to other European countries and to
rather than
be apostatesto the faith.
Christian interest. When
America
the church
distinguishing
the struggle,
became
estabhshed
and
commanded
state
large The remaining Protestants renewed
and at length in 1787 civil,and in 1789 rehgious
wealth, the bishops created specialhomes for the
and
hberty was restored,while in 1801 the legalrights
long shown to travelers and pilgrims
hospitality
of the
church
in these as well as in separate hospitals
Protestant
were
recognized. A
(Greek:
des
received.
schism occurred in 1848 whereby the Union
Nosocomia) the poor and the sick were
Basil opened a hospitalfor lepersin Caesarea in 368,
"glises
Evangeliques de France separated from the
Reformed
Synod, and thus the old Huguenot
Chrysostom and Augustine were conspicuous in the
church was
and the infirmaries of monasprovisionof hospitals,
teries
perpetuatedin two divisions,
of pubhc utihty. The
were
nurses
(paraboHUITZILOPOCHTLI."
The
lower grade of the clergy. The
a
greatest god of
lani) formed
the Aztecs to whom
victims
earhest specialfraternity
vast numbers
of human
for nursing the sick was
offered yearly. He is a combination
of warfounded by St. Sorore in Siena in the 9th. century.
were
Stimulated in part by the discoveryof Mohammedan
god and god of vegetation.
oped
philanthropiccare of the sick,the crusaders develHUMAN
SACRIFICE."
The
monial
dehberate, cerehospitalbrotherhoods which became mihtary
orders like that of the Hospitalers (Knights of
killingof a human
being. The practicehas
been found among
St. John) Order of Lazarus and Teutonic iSiights.
practicallyevery race that has
The
advanced
Hospitals of these orders and fraternities were
beyond the stage of savagery.
explanationof the act must be sought in the nature
independentof diocesan control but the Council of
of the gods, in the feelingof communal
Trent
restored Episcopal visitation and
responsivision.
superThe
lands
bihty and in the idea of magical power.
However, in Germany and the Netherchief reasons
the removal
of pollution from
are
hospitalshad already begun to fall under
individual (ifthe
the mimicipal administration and
the preference the group by the sacrifice of one
individual is the culpritthis is equivalent to group
in Protestantism
has been for hospitalsconducted
or penal "justice");to satisfya god whose
by lay boards under state inspection,
endowments,
revenge
the favor of a god
is feared or to secure
and contributions
continuing to be an expression revenge
of the Christian brotherlylove fostered in the
an
epidemic
by offeringthe choicest gift;to remove
with the god by
churches.
F. A. Christie
or
public calamity; to commune
ment
flesh which, as a sacrificial embodieating human
of the god, is divine (Mexico); to send a
HOST.
In the Greek, Roman
Catholic,and
to the
to the gods; to give servants
Lutheran churches the consecrated bread or wafer
messenger
the body of
used in the Lord's Supper, in which
gods or to the dead; to acquire supernatural
control over
the souls of the slain;
to secure
Christ is substantiallypresent, and
is therefore
power;
tress;
in time of disreceived from the hand of the minister,either at
to compel the gods to grant a boon
to be
to help the gods when
the altar,
of the sick.
they seem
or elsewhere as in the case
other individual;
enfeebled;to save the lifeof some
tility.
such as ferSee
Canonical
to acquire some
CANONICAL."
or
quality or power
HOURS,
Hours.
there
hospitality

"

"

BALTHASAR
(1480-1528)."
HUBMAIER,
abihty as
Anabaptist, possessed of much
theological
controversialist,
opposingboth Zwingli

German
a

cally
historiHUMANISTS."
A term
HUMANISM,
in western
Europe
applied to the movement
during the 14th. and 15th. centuries that broke

^13

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

traditions of philosophy
mediaeval
from
away
and theology and gave itself to the study of the
ancient classics.
wrote
numerous
Petrarch, who
epistlesand
dissertations;Boccaccio, who translated into the
Latin the Iliad and Odyssey; Salutato,who founded
chair at Florence; and Chrysoloras,who
Greek
a
began instruction in this chair; NiccoU,who spent
in buying manuscripts; BraccioUni,
his fortune
who rescued from a prisonand translated QuintiUan;
de Medici, prince, musician, theologian,
Cosimo
connoisseur in painting,sculpture,
and architecture,
who founded
a platonicacademy;
the
Guicciardini,
historian
-these are
representativeof the many
Its exalted
pursuits and interests of Humanism.
is expressed in the words ascribed
estimate of man
to God
in addressingAdam:
"I
by Mirandella
created thee a being neither heavenlynor earthly,
mortal
neither
nor
immortal, only that thou
mightest be free to shape andfovercome
thyself.
Thou
to
mayest sink into a beast and be born anew
divine hkeness.
The
brutes bring from
a
their
mother's
body what they will carry with them as
The higher spirits
from the
long as they hve.
are
beginning or soon after what they will be forever.
To thee alone is given a growth and a development
free will. Thou
bearest
depending on thine own
of universal life."
in thee the germs
Though cultured and ambitious for knowledge,
the Humanist
in Italy was
conspicuous for moral
aberration.
Flattered in youth, living in an
atmosphere of excitement, the victim of fortune
that one
and the next poverty,
day gave abundance
ist
compelled to court the favor of princes,the Humanworldlialmost invariably
represents superficial
of Italy,
and
untamed
ness
passions. Outside
Typical
however, he representeda finer moral tone.
"

representatives are
Erasmus, Reuchlin, Colet,
More, and Zwingli. See Renaissance.

AND

ETHICS

Hus, John

defensible attitude.

This positioninvolved agnosticism

concerningGod and the sotd,hence aroused the

of theologians.
opposition
Hume
wrote
Natural
a
Historyof Religion,
in which he attempted to show how religious
ideas
arise in human
experience. The omission of the
supernaturalseemed to discredit religion.Personally
Hume
admitted that the conception of a rational
author of the universe is philosophically
defensible,
but he made no use of positive
reUgion.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
HUMERAL
A veil,
VEIL."
of silk,
now
formerly
of linen,worn
by the subdeacou, formerly by the
at certain parts of the Mass.
acolythe,

HUMILIATI."

A R.C. religiousorder of men

Several
noblemen
of
Lombardy,
taken captive
unsuccessful rebellion,
an
were
by Emperor Henry V. to Germany, where they
devoted
themselves
to the service of the poor.
On being allowed to return
to Italy,they founded
the order, later adopting the rule of St. Benedict
active in social work, greatly
(q.v.),and were
in the comadvancement
munity
promoting economic
wherever
Growing wealthy
they were.
and
suppressed in 1571. The
lax, they were
of
to the care
order of women
devoted
themselves
lepers. Five houses stillexist in Italy.
and
after

women.

OP
CHRIST."
A theological
and
Umitations
sufferingsto
Christ
of his
which
submitted
in consequence
with his exaltation
humanity, in contrast
(q.v.)
such events
or
as
gave evidence of his deity. See
Kenosis.
HUMILIATION

denoting the

term

HUMILITY.

"

An

pride in
forbidding

attitude of personalmodesty
ments.
achieveone's attainments
or

anity.
HumiUty is a virtue much emphasized in Christiness
Religiouslyit indicates a sense of un worthiin God's
human
values supreme.
sight, and involves a constant
pensable
It is thus indisdependence upon divine grace.
the definition of the character
1. Theologically,
to salvation.
It is especially
emphasized
of human
of Christ entirelym terms
nature.
Any
mental
in monastic discipUne,being involved in the fundadoctrine which denies the deityof Christ.
It figures
of
of poverty and obedience.
vows
2. An optimisticbeUef in the perfectibility
without
prominently in discussions of Christian virtues in
human
to supernatural
recourse
nature
sincere
both Catholic and Protestant ethics. When
it was
aid.
In this sense
appliedto the theories of
it is a beautiful trait,
tion.
of the social philosopherSaint-Simon.
leadingto unselfish consecrathe disciples
Its exaltation as a Christian
virtue leads
3. A moral and social program
aiming at the
to a hypocritical
needs
a famous
occasionally
profession,
complete satisfaction of all worthy human
Uriah
caricature of which
is given in Dickens'
and aspirationsby removing harsh conditions of
Smith
Gerald
Birney
emotional
it stands
for an
life. In this sense
Heep.
Peter

HTJMANITARIANISM."
doctrine which makes

Any

G. Mode

philosophyor

It includes such movements

abolition of slavery,the removal
of
the
social and poUticalrestrictions from
women,
of poverty, the creation
of better
elimination
conditions of life for working people, the better
reform of penology,
and education of children,
care
While
the prevention of cruelty to animals, etc.
often used to depreciate a supposed impractical
is increasinglycoming
emotionahsm, the word
for the broadest
to stand
spiritof constructive
Gerald
Birney
Smith
socialsympathy.
devotion

as

to social reform.

the

NEXION."
COUNTESS
OF, CONMethodists
of
Calvinistic
A
sect
founded
of Huntingdon (1707by the Countess
1791),who was a friend of Whitqfield and utiUzed
of chapels for
in the establishment
her income
evangelicalpreaching throughout England. The
Connexion
has a coUege at Cambridge and a small

HUNTINGDON'S,

number

of churches

and

ministers.

HUPPAH."
(Hebrew.) A
portable canopy,
supported by four sticks,under which the Jewish
mony
stand during the marriage cerebride and groom
DAVID
(1711-1776)."EngUsh philosopher
HUME,
and writer,noted for his thorough-going
symboUc of the union of the two under one
Jews,
roof.
Its use has been discontmued by many
expositionof empiricism (q.v.).
of flowers.
substitute a canopy
carried
the
who sometimes
Following Locke
(q.v.),Hume
oppositionto innate ideas so far that he retained
(ca. 1370-1415)." Bohemian
only a time-sequenceof experiencesas material for
JOHN
HUS,
our
reformer; taught in the University,and preached
philosophy. "Impressions" are made
upon
in Bethlehem
Chapel, Prague. His sympathy
minds, which, if repeatedfrequentlyenough, lead to
the expectationon
with the teachingsof John WycUffe (q.v.)aroused
our
part that experienceswill
in certain ways.
continue to occur
the animosity of the CathoUc
church, and in 1411
Beyond these
disregarded
he was
cannot
experiences and
expectations we
placed under its ban. He defiantly
pass.
all papal denunciations,and insisted on
Skepticism in the realm of metaphysics is the only
"

Hussites

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

and testingthe church by the authority

criticizing
of Scripture. At the council of Constance, 1414rcondemned
to the stake.
Although
1415 Hus was
less radical in doctrine than Wycliffe,he was
a great
between
popular agitator and stands historically
Wychffe and Luther as the spiritualteacher who
paved the way on the continent for the Protestant
Reformation.
See Bohemian

HUSSITES."

Brethren.

can
ANNE
(1600-1643)." AmeriHUTCHINSON,
rehgiouszealot,who led a protestingmovement
Puritanism,
against the legahsm of Massachusetts
of grace" as
claiming to be under a "covenant
opposed to the "covenant of works" of the orthodox.
In the pohticalstrugglewhich ensued, the orthodox
and
Mrs.
Hutchinson
banished,
was
party won,
Long
being subsequently killed by Indians on

Hebrew

AND

214

ETHICS

psalms, recited in mortuary,

perhaps

(Hindu) Rigveda, giving a

temple, ritual. The
picture of early Aryan hfe, is a collection of 1028
like our
hymns of praise and prayer, in stanzas
nearly all for recitingor chanting at the
own;
sacrifices. Babylonianhymns praise,or propitiate,
life. They
that
bless or
threaten
the powers
include penitential
htanies, introspectivewith a
of guilt,and often responsive in form;
deep sense
and pubUc lamentations wailed in troubled times,
the
In
"Lamentations."
anticipating Hebrew
of
Iranian
Avesta the hymn
becomes
medium
a
Zoroastriau instruction and

exhortation.

composition, invoking
hymns, of priestly
and celebratingthe gods in direct address,description
gion.
or narrative,represent the higher side of reliSometimes
risingto pure worship and poetry,
is disclosed as an
the ancient motif of the hymn
the gods, and sharing the proofferinggratifying
pitiatory
efficacyof the sacrifice. Hymns must be
Island.
from
metrical charms
or
spells of
distinguished
incantation
HENRY
THOMAS
(1825-1875)."
(see Magic), even
though developed
HUXLEY,
from or serving as charms.
EngUsh biologist; took a Uvely interest in the
less of
Japanese and Chinese reUgions made
problems of philosophy and theology, his general
duced
introBuddhism
has its own.
of theological agnosticism. hymns, but Taoism
attitude
being one
the cosmic process had no relationship
He beheved
hymns into both countries,though its ethical
characteristic. Hinduism and Islamorigin. verse is more
to moral ends, moral purpose being of human
ism make
Uttle of the hymn.
The priestlychants
A
have perished,
but melie poetry
of early Greece
FATHER
(1827-1912)."
HYACINTHE,
Of
chorals.
and sacrificial
monk
French
(Charles Loyson) of unusual power
developedprocessional
less.
of Celtic
little survives:
of his Uberal views was
discipUned Roman
who on account
hymns
Hebrew
he organizeda
and excommunicated; after which
hymns stand apart for their confident
free Cathohc church in Paris.
proclamation of the one God, their true rehgiousness, high poeticlevel and universahty. Canonized
tion
The Book of Psalms they constitute the foundaA Greek word meaning the insolent
HYBRIS.
as
of both Jewish and Christian praise.
overstepping of the rights belonging to one's
II. Christian
Hymns.
1. Before the Reformation."
place in the cosmic order. As a detestable moral
the Church's first hymn
T\yq Psalter was
fault it is set over
againstsophrosune,the attitude
Christian
book.
Other Scripture songs and new
of the man
who
avoids excess, followingthe way
of wisdom, the "golden mean."
Psalms) inevitably
hymns (prose,like the LXX
followed. Recited, with congregational
refrains,
like
and
their introduction
HYGINUS."
was
Bishop of Rome, 137-140, eighth
easy,
passages
The circulation
II Tim. 2: 11-13 may
in the officialUst of popes.
quote them.
of heretical hymns, Greek
and Syriac, created
but
this
HYKSOS."
opposition to extra-Biblical hymns;
"Shepherd Kings"; the earUest
failed to exclude them from the developing Liturgy.
invaders of Egypt whom
Josephus identified with
others
with
the Israelites,
the Arabs, and still
Hymn writing in the decaying quantitativemetres
others with the Syrians. They
worshipers began with Clement of Alexandria,but the hymnody
were
used in worship, developed through the 8th. and
of Seth, an
Egyptian deity who represented for
in the Greek service
and estabhshed
them an Asiatic deity
9th. centuries,
books (11th.century) was
on
an accentual system,
The theory that so-called "matter"
HYLOZOISM."
reading like rhjrthmicalprose.
metrical
Latin
has certain vital or psychicalquahties and is
hymnody
began with Hilary
thus competent to produce all reahty.
(4th. century), but Ambrose
(d. 397) introduced
The
doctrine provides for a kind of monism
simple iambic hymns at Milan, widely popular
both
and
material
shall include
while Latin continued a livingtongue, which won
a
(q.v.) which
immaterial
breviaries,eventually in the
reality. It appeared in early Greek
place in monastic
times in
philosophy,and finds expressionin modem
Roman, as features of the Daily Office. Hymn
school tended, with
Haeckel's monism.
writing of the Ambrosian
reversions,from quantitative to accentual verse,
HYMNS.
festival culminating by the 12th. century in a wealth of
In old Greek hymnos was
a
of St.
The LXX
(Ps.72:20)
rhythmical hymnody modelled on Notker
song to the gods or heroes.
furnished
Gall (d.912). His "sequences"
originally
appHed it to the psalms of Israel; Paul to social
of Christians (with "psalms" and "spiritual words for a run of meaningless notes in the liturgy.
songs
Stabat Mater) hymns won
With the sequence
(e.g.,
songs"; e.g., Eph. 6:19). In the Latin Vulgate
admission to the Mass.
and
Christian writings from
Augustine hymnus
Now
covered
all "song with
2. After the Reformation. Hus revived,Luther
praise to God."
and
Calvin re-established,vernacular
of the Breviary. In
a hymn
tional
congregahymnus is technically
Luther
with differingmethods.
Enghsh hymn, implying praise,is appUed (1) genervided
proally
song,
to any
hymns (1524),the first of an uninterrupted
composition suitable for singing or
to
series of German
hymn writers,Lutheran, pietistic,
chanting in rehgious service; (2) specifically
for congregational Moravian, modern.
metrical compositions in stanzas
Calvin, zealous that God's
Word
should dominate
worship, excluded "hymns
singing;(3)narrowly to those humanly composed as
of human
composure,"substitutingversified Psalms
againstinspiredScripturesongs.
followed in part by German,
Religions.
I. Hymns
NATioNAii
the
(1538-62). He was
in
antedates
The
Their use
aU records.
Egyptian
wholly by Dutch, Enghsh, Scottish and lesser
Reformed
Churches,whose exclusive addiction to
"Pyramid Texts" contain hymns in couplets like
These

"

"

"

"

"

215

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

centuries postponed
two
psalm-singing for over
the writingof Protestant hymns, outside of Lutheranism, tilla modern period. English hymn writing
began late in the 17th. century, but Isaac Watts^
Hymns and SpiritualSongs (1707) was the wedge
of the old psalmody, and
that spUt the stolid mass
form as well as favor to the English hymn:
gave
the Wesleys followed with their Methodist
hymns.
With these and its own
evangelicalhymns the fervor
of the 18th. century revival established
hymn
The experiential
singingin England and America.
homiletical tone
and
content
of the evangeUcal
modified by the literary
influences of
hymn were
the Romantic
ideals of the
Movement, the liturgical
Oxford
and
Movement,
recently*by the social

awakening.

Lotjis F. Benson

HYPOCRISY."

Pretendingto be what

one

is

not; particularlyinsincere profession of virtue

of some
ulterior motive,
or
religionin concealment
or in feignedcompliance with a custom
or standard.
A Greek word, literally
ing
meanstands under
or
supports as the
physics,
support of a theory or fact. In metathe ascriptionof individual,substantial
existence to any
reality. In theology, the word
at first used to
mean
was
substance, essential
nature
or
modality, being applied to the Father,
Son and Holy Ghost.
The Cappadocians used it in

HYPOSTASIS."

that
basis or

which

IB AS (d.457). Bishopof Edessa and theologian

of the Antiochan school.
He was
condemned
by
nople
by Justinian I. and the Fifth Synod of Constantiviews to which
he gave
for his Nestorian
expression in a letter to Maris the Persian. See
Controversy.
Chapter
Three
"

IBLIS.

"

The

devil

of

Mohammedanism,

an

AND

ETHICS

Idea

the

of individual reality,
sense
and spoke of three
hypostasesin one ousia. Later it came
to be used
as equivalentto the Latin persona
in the formulation
of the doctrine of the

two

Trinity.

HYPOSTATICAL
UNITY."
The
unity of the
natures, divine and human, in the one hypostasis
(q.v.)or person of Christ. See Chiustoi/)gy.

HYPOTHESIS."
A
tentative
supposition
offered as an explanationof a phenomenon or fact,
and used as a basis for observation and investigation
with a view to obtaining a true explanation.
Hence a hypothesishas reference to an end beyond
as
a
itself,
hypothetical imperative in ethics in
with a categorical
contrast
imperative (q.v.).
HYSTERIA.

psychopathic

"

^A

special form

The
instability.

of

neurotic

symptoms

or
are

liabilityto
impressionability,

extreme

intense
excitation through sUght stimulation
and
undue
attention
self. There
to
are
great
differences of degree in the phenomena.
The
of hysteriaare emotional shock, over-fatigue,
causes
and
various
and
disorders.
A
motor
sensory
of disease
frequent characteristic is the appearance
in hystericalpatients for which
symptoms
expert
discovers no true causes.
(fiagnosis
Ames
Edwabd
S.
HYTASPES."
See Vishtaspa.

emotional

Theodora
in the synod of 842 had the
decree
of. 787 confirmed. Charlemagne's Libri
Carolini repudiated image worship but it grew
in
the
Latin
church.
Another
the
protest with
destruction of church art marked
the Reformation,
in Wittenberg under Carlstadt,
in Switzerland,
and
notably in the Netherlands
(1566).
F. A. Christib
regent

of God
for refusingto
ICONOCLASTIC
CONTROVERSY"
A
troversy
conHe now
has the
prostrate himself before Adam.
respectingthe use of images in Christian
and adversary
of the
function of tempter of men
worship, occasioned by the desire of Emperor Leo
good. He is the captain of the hosts of evil spirits. (718-741) and his son to establish
with the

angel smitten

by the

curse

peace

SOLOMON
(1021-1058)."
also as Avicebron.
Spanish Jewish poet and
philosopher.His chief philosophic work, Fons
Vitae,written in Arabic and translated into Latin,
Neo-Platonism
to
restored
Europe and exerted
medieval
scholasticism.
considerable influence on
and many
Gabirol wrote also valuable ethical treatises,
beautiful poems, the finest of which are liturgical.

GABIROL,

IBN
Known

Saracens.
The
papal defense of miage worship
developed strained relations in which papal revenues
cut off by the emperor
and the lUyrian churches
were
attached
to the patriarchate of Constantinople.
At the second Council of Nicaea (787)a compromise
effected by distinguishing
between bowing to an
was
image and worshiping it. Image worship was finally
restored in the East (842).

ICONOSTASIS."

RELIGIONS
OF."
The
ICELAND,
original
that of the primitive Teutons
who
religionwas
settled there, and the sagas of the 11th. century
of their mythology and
much
record
magical
introduced by the
practises. Christianity was
and
within
centuries
two
Norwegians ca. 1000 a.d.,
Iceland

was

A picturescreen
stretching
the apse of a Greek Church, separatingthe
from
the
It
is
the
most
nave.
sanctuary
ous
conspicudistinction between Roman
and Greek Churches,
the pictureson
it taking the place of images, not
allowed in Greek Churches since the time of Iconoclasm (q.v.).
across

converted to the Christian faith.

of the Greek
^The earliest significance
what the eye recognizedin the object,
toward
scene
or
the form.
Hence in common
the
person
usage it signified
See Iconoclasm.
is devoted.
reverence
type. In the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle it
the universal,
which had a real existence of its
was
ICO NOCLASM."
(Literally:
image breaking.) own and constituted the realityof particular
objects
of images to protest against superof sensuous
Destruction
experience. By way of medieval Platonstitious
ism it passed into the psychological
worship of Christ or the saints led to actual
usage of modem
that of the
warfare in the Byzantine empire in the 8th. century.
thought, carrying both significations,
\form and that of the nature of the thing known, as
ecumenical
council (787) had
After the seventh
Vtheseappeared in the mind of the Jtnower
Thus
sanctioned the worship by a verbal distinction
for the immediate object
used it indifferently
from the adoration given to God, Leo the Armenian
\Locke
the mind, whether this was
sensation or concept,
m
(813-820) renewed the iconoclastic war, but the
IDEA.

ICON.

"

painted image of a
which reUgious worship or

sculpturedor

"

originalwas

Ideal

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

216

1. Personal idealism is closelyakin to religious

faith. Unseen imperativesof goodness or of beauty
held to be of supreme
are
importance, and the
of human
world of nature
or
societyis to be shaped
men
as
accordingly. Such
Carlyle and Ruskin
ideaUsts may
idealists in this sense.
While
were
and
often be "impractical," the moral
rehgious
have
been largelyshaped by
conceptions of men
them.
idealism represents a method
2. Philosophically,
meaning,
representation,
image, presentation,
and concept.
In German
philosophy Kant revived of explanation which starts with the undeniable
fact that we know immediately only the ideas in our
the objectivesignification
of the term, in the "ideas
consciousness.
The
directive
of the reason;"in his system these were
problem of philosophy is to
show what these ideas point to as ultimate reality.
the existence
principlesof thought that assumed
which were
never
can
of eternal realities,
get
Subjectiveidealism holds that we
independent of our
of our
consciousness.
tic
Every
beyond the contents
phenomenal experience. In the systems of Romaneffort to affirm something other than an idea turns
Idealism,that succeeded Kant's Transcendental
idea.
to be simply the assertion of another
out
Idealism the object of rational thought was
given
and the idea in Hegel'sdoctrine
in thought itself,
Berkeley is the classic representativeof this view.
stood for the complete expression of aU reality Transcendental,or critical idealism,as represented
idealism
gories
in the Absolute.
The influence of German
by Kant, asserts that certain ideal forms or catefurnished
this significarried over
in England and America
a
are
priori in consciousness
cance
mining
of the word
into the terminology of the
prescribinglaws to experienceof realityand deterhow it shall become
an
object of knowledge.
neo-HegeUans in English and American Universities.
All realityis thus conditioned by these a prioriprinH. Mead
George
ciples,
be known
in any
other form.
be used simply as the
and cannot
The term
IDEAL.
may
of idea noted
as expounded by Hegel,
or absolute idealism,
Objective,
adjectiveof idea,in the various senses
above.
Its more
tive
represents realityin all its aspects as expressions
customary usage both as adjecof the Absolute Intelligencewhich
and noun
refers to a 1perfected
dynamically
realitythat is
unifies the manifold nature
of finite existences.
not given in actual experience,though the perfection
cies,
would be but the realization of natures, tendenSee Hegel; Monism.
of idealism liesin the
The religious
and forms which are found in actual experienc^
significance
fact that it furnishes a philosophical
with
Such an ideal in aesthetics the Plato nist conceives as
weapon
the perfectbeauty of which
which
thus gives the
to refute materialism, and
and offering
self-existing
all beautiful objectsare but copies. The aesthetic
to spiritualconceptions. Absolute
right of way
be the expressionof the characteristics idealism
At the same
ideal may
easily reinforces theism.
in an individual or the creation of an
of a race
time,idealism is as damaging to realism in theology
be the exact
Catholicism repudiates
artist. It may
expression of what
as in philosophy. Roman
in the sciences, it because it bases all argument
appeal to
on
an
a
conceptualdefinition demands
be that which
it may
ideal elasticity,
excludes the thought of
or
experience and logically
e.g., an
of an artist
doctrines delivered by authority. For the same
would
satisfythe aesthetic demands
The
of taste.
In ethics the ideal has been
Protestant
or
man
a
orthodoxy is wary.
reasons,
become
too
conceived
the essential good in the Platonic
danger in idealism is that it may
as
conduct, whether this
easilysubjective,and neglect to take full account
sense, as the end of moral
be the satisfaction of the hedonist, or the seKof the hard facts of the world.
realization of the Hegelian. On
the other hand
Gerald
Birney Smith
The
IDOLATRY."
it may
be regarded as the expressionof the standard
worship of a physical
of moral conduct, where the actual end is one which
held that
object as a god. It has been sometimes
is beyond our knowledge or adequate comprehenfrom a worship
sion.
represents a fallingaway
idolatry
in
of moral
conduct
of the infinite God
in an effort to make
In that wide
that God
range
real to the worshiper. Such a view, however,
which there is uncertaintyin regard to the ultimate
more
the moral
order
is not borne out by archaeology or anthropology,
assume
good toward which we
of the degeneracy of developed
we
guide ourselves by ideal standards of
except in cases
moves,
has not always marked
those of authoritative
the
religions.Yet idolatry
character,especially
personof freedom, and of humanity. It is
the early Vedic). See
early stages of religion(e.g.,
ahties,of justice,
Images.
Idols and
such standards that we have in mind when we speak
reference
of high ideals. They have especial
of a man
actual
AND
IMAGES."
The two words
IDOLS
were
to men's conceptions of institutions whose
but idol is now
originally
operationsleave much to be desired. Thus our judiapphed to an
synonymous,
and religious
institutions
educational,
image which is an object of worship.
cial,
governmental,
of
at an
all fall short of the standards which
Men
men
early stage of civihzation attribute
what we should call supernaturalpowers
to certain
high ideals entertain. On the other hand such
standards are abstract just because we do not know
physicalobjects. It is thought for example that a
should be
end toward
which conduct
stone of unusual
When
the concrete
shape will bring good luck.
find that
the distinction between
of high ideals may
matter
and spiritis drawn
directed,and a man
these powers
are
they interfere with the unprejudiced search for
supposed to be exercised by a
It is evident
is best under
actual conditions.
Reverence
is shown
what
spiritdwelling in the stone.
tested by our
ideals are
to the physicalobject to secure
that our
the favor of the
abilityto
ends in the presence
into concrete
translate them
spirit. Hence the adoration paid to sacred stones
in doubt
and sacred trees,one
of those moral problems in which we
of the most
are
widespread forms
George
H. Mead
of reUgious worship. Thinking anthropomorphiis the good.
as to what
the spiritin human
cally as he did, man
pictured
dence
IDEALISM.
1. A personalattitude of confiform, and to indicate its residence in the stone he
ideals.
features or
members
in the supremacy
of moral or spiritual
the stone
human
by
gave
could be appliedto
2. A philosophicalpositionholding that reaUty is
carving it. The same
process
rather
the sacred tree or the wood
which
retained its
ultimatelyconstituted of ideas or of reason
sacredness after the lifeof the tree was gone.
This
than of material forces.
which was
a double
quite sympatheticto the
usage
of Berkeley. Hume
nominalism
confines idea to the
mental image of the sensation.
In current
usage
it has come
to answer
very generallyto the concept
of a thing,though it is stillhaunted
by the ghost of
the image of the thing. It is no longer a sharply
defined technical term in current English philosophy
of idea
and psychology. The various significations
tion,
are
now
assignedto different terras,such as sensa-

"

"

217

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

originof image-worship. There was

idea that the spiritsare
subject to the
magician, and could therefore be conjured into
objectswhich otherwise they might not choose for
A man
their habitation.
a
might therefore carve
statue and have the spiritinvited into it,in this
procuringfor his household a guardian and
way
to be the

seems

also

an

AND

ETHICS

Illusion

ship. Ignatius probably suffered martyrdom

the

Colosseum

at Rome.

Edgar

in

J. Goodspeed

IGNORANCE."
of knowledge. Some
Lack
ethical teachers,as, e.g., Socrates,
have identified
virtue with knowledge and
vice with ignorance.
But
knowledge does not always induce moral
be
activity;and ignorance may
unavoidable,
be considered blameworthy.
in which case it cannot
Invincible Ignorance is,in R.C. doctrine,ignorance
due to inherent limitations
of the Church's demands
or wrong
environment, involvingno guilt;whereas
Vincible Ignorance implies a consciousness
of and
a lack of knowledge,which is sin.
neglectto remove
^

protector.
The
image need not necessarilybe of human
form,for the animals were supposedto be possessed
of superhuman power,
and the image of an animal
would be as appropriatefor a divinityas a human
figure. In Egypt where animal worship was more
fully developed than elsewhere we find animals
carved in stone, and
also all sorts of composite
bodies with animal heads being the
figures human
most
although animal bodies with human
common,
heads
(the sphinx is an example) are not rare.
Portrait statues might of course
become
idols,and
this would occur
most
naturallyin those cases where
the originalwas
regarded with specialreverence.
in some
divine
Kings and great warriors were
sense
before their death, and
would
continue
to be
So
worshiped as though stilllivingin their statues.
much basis there may
be in the theory of Euhemerus
that the gods in all cases
deified men.
The
are
Greeks however, whom
he had especially
in mind,
always drew a sharp line of distinction between the
ship.
gods and the heroes, though both received wor-

I H

"

Since the idol is inhabited by

there
spirit

is

why it should not give manifest tokens of

being alive,and the pious worshiper often thought
he discovered
such tokens.
Many are the stories
no

reason

of images which
responded to the prayer of the
devotee
by turning the head, winking the eye,
moving the hands or bursting into perspiration.
Such wonders
have found a place in the legends of
Christian saints.
It is outside the scope of this articleto discuss
the influence of idolatry
however
We may
art.
on
notice that the reaction against images was
led by
the Jewish
viduals
people or rather by enlightened indifrom
that
At
race.
a
comparatively
early date their law forbade them to make gods of
silver or of gold. It was only in the exile,
however,
when
into touch
with the elaborate
they came
that
idolatry of their oppressors,
they began
to realize the
force of this prohibition.
Then
their eyes were
ers
opened and their religiousteachstocks
the
scorn
poured unmeasured
on
and stones
the gentiles bowed
down.
to which
Possiblythey are not always justin their criticisms,
for the more
thoughtfulof the heathen knew that the
idol was
only a symbol and that they were
really
to the spiritual
paying reverence
being that was
symbolized. The Jewish polemic was
necessary,
however, to prepare the way for worship in spirit
and in truth.
H. P. Smith

IGIGI.

"

^A group

name

for the secondarygods of

Babylon often associated with

group

of

similar

"

"

meaning Jesus Christ,

monogram

from
erroneous
Latinizing
an
of the first three letters in the Greek
word for
Christian
symbolism. It has
Jesus, and used in
been
meaning lesus
wrongly interpreted as
Salvator (Jesus,^
Savior of Men), and
Hominum
Salits (In this [cross]
In Ha^ [cruce]
safety).

IJMA.

of
principle

^The Mohanamedan

"

ment.
agree-

Mohammed
said,"My religious
community
be unanimous
in error."
On this basis
will never
of Islam or of scholars of recognized
the consensus
authoritative for the Moslem
standing becomes
world.
Ruler
of the Egyptian empire
IKHNATON."
He
during the latter part of the 14th. century B.C.
is notable for his attempt to found a religionof
He
old
set
aside the
mystical monotheism.
the established cult and
traditions,
priesthood,
and chiselled even
the names
of the gods of the
His

past from the monuments.

hymns

are

beautiful

devotion.
Though he gave
expressionsof religious
of the empire to his faith he
his lifeand the resources
remained
in reahty a solitary
individual,for at his
death
the old Egypt, the old gods, and the old

priesthoodreturned

and

ILLEGITIMACY."

swallowed

The

up

condition

his work.
or

character

of

being born out of lawful wedlock, involvingnot

only legaldisabilities but also social and reUgious
often
disapproval, which
deprives a person of
desirable opportunities. Statistics show a decline
in illegitimacy
in proportion to the practiseof
Christianity. The tendency in civilized nations
_

is toward

of
of the rights
ethical recognition

more

children.
illegitimate

(1) In the earlychurch, baptized

received a lighted taper as
symbolic of spiritualenlightenment. (2) Certain
endowment,
reUgiousgroups laying claim to special
such as the Hesychasts (14th.century),Alumbrados
(16th.century),the Rosicrucians (16th.century),
Guerinets
(17th. century), and Belgian Mystics
(18th.century).
ILLUMINATL"

who

persons

supernatural

the Annunaki.
earth-spirits,

IGNATIUS.

S.

originallyderived

Bishop of Antioch, condemned

ILLUMINATION."
to

the wild beasts about a.d. 107-17. While being taken

through Asia Minor to Rome for execution,he wrote
of
letters: from Smyrna to the churches
seven
and Rome; from Troas
Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles,
of Philadelphia and
to those
Smyrna; and to
bishop of Smyrna. These remarkable
Polycarp,
letters m
most
cases
acknowledge the kindness
him on
shown
his journey by those to whom
he
writes,stronglyurge upon them harmony with their
to the three-fold ministry
bishop and adherence
them
(bishop, presbyters, deacons), and
warn
againstfantastic docetic views of Jesus' messiah-

See Enlightenment,

The.

inference
from
real
ILLUSION.
Mistaken
reference to the nature
or action of the
objects presented. Examples are mistaking the
sound
of the telephonefor the door bell; seeing
deceived into
"men
as
trees, walking." Isaac was
giving Jacob his blessingby the illusion of touch
hands of
mist^ingthe goat-skinfor the hairy^
in normal
Esau.
Illusions
common
are
very
but are apt to be dominant in delirium and
persons
in extreme
preoccupation.Mystics and ascetics
eagerlylookingfor signsof divine presence are easily
sions.
are
frequently illusubject to illusions. Dreams
"

data with

Hallucination

is

mental

constructioA

Image of God

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

with much less or no actual data. Both dreams

in all religions
and are
hallucinations abound

ETHICS

AND

218

awaiting the time to establish the

era

of

ness.
righteous-

and

prominent, without intention of fraud, in many

and so-called
phenomena of spiritism,
clairvoyancy
Edward
S. Ames
divine healing.
IMAGE
man

was

OF
A term setting
GOD."
forth that
created in the image of God, as stated in

The
likeness has been variously
Gen. 1:26, 27.
rational and
interpreted as referring to man's
voluntary powers, his moral state and his entire
and physicalcharacter.
Most
spiritual
supporters
of the doctrine believe in
was

fall whereby the likeness

lost.
partiallyor entirely

IMITATION.

"

IN

The
consciousness of objectsnot present to the senses.
In one
the reproductionof images in the
form, i.e.,
of past experience,
it is the same
as memory.
manner
But the term is more
structive
often identifiedwith the concombinations
function of creating new
from the images of experience.
It is not always recognizedthat the mind is
of old material but
Kmited to new
combinations
is to identify
is the case.
such
Another
error
imagination with fancy and therefore with the
chimerical
association of ideas. It is important
to realize that all scientificexperimentation, all
progressivesocial leadershipinvolves imagination.
In no sphere is imagination more
in evidence than
in religion. It framed
the
myths and dream
pictures,the gods and demons, the underworld
of the shades and the upper
reahns of the blest.
This power
worked
always with the material at
hand.
ous
Shepherds imagined their deityas a marveltians
sheep,mysterious and Ufe-giving. The Egypconceived the sim as a hving being,capableof
marvelous
human
beings exalted
exploits. When
their own
members
to kinglypower
they ascribed
and imaged the
to the king superhuman qualities
The idealizmg
gods as men.
impulse springsfrom
the will,
from desire,
but the form which the ideal
takes is determined by the activity of the constructive
"

or

unconscious

"

doubtful whether
the imitative character of his
act stands out prominently in his mind.
Such an
act of conscious

GION.
RELITO
RELATION
usual definitionof imagination is the

IMAGINATION

^The conscious

repetitionof the act, thought or general form of

behavior of another,or, more
loosely,the reproduction
of an example or model of any
sort, as in
music, art or architecture.
General nature of imitation.
^When the imitator
is conscious of his act he usuallycopiesfor the sake
of incorporating
into his own
experience some
value felt to exist in the thing copied. It is

differentfrom

is not essentially
imitation,
so-called,
tation
Imiordinary voluntary process.

an

of this sort is an
important but not an
the
elementary social category. It presupposes
essential social quality
of the human
mind whereby
we
are
conscious of and appreciativeor
especially

criticalof other persons

and their behavior.

and religious
education.
The view of imitation as a method
of learninghas
led to its over-emphasis in education.
It does,
in the formation
however, have much significance
of character.
The child readilyadopts, as his own,
those modes of behavior that are daily presented to
he is interested
him, especiallyby those in whom
he admires.
whom
or
He thus absorbs with httle
conscious effort the prevaihnghabits and ideas of
hig^associates. His early religious ideas and
notions of rightand wrong are thus built up.
He is
in this way accustomed
devotional
to religious
rites,
attitudes and
to ideals of Christian
helpfulness.
This earlyconformityof behavior plays an important
part in the later conscious appreciationsof
moral and religious
values.
In fact it is doubtful
if deep religiousconsciousness
later be more
can
readilyacquired than on the basis of this early
half -conscious absorption by imitation of the vital
ideals of one's admired
associates.
Irving
King
in moral
Significance

IMMACULATE

"

CONCEPTION."
Church
CathoHc

A dogma of
(pronounced by
and refining Pius IX., Dec. 8, 1854) that the Virgin Mary in the
imagination working over
the actual experiencesof life.
firstinstant of her conception,
by a singularprivilege
in view of the merits of
and grace granted bjHStKl
Psychology gives no stipport to the notion
that it is possibleby "concentration"
other
Jesus Christ, the Savior of the human
or
race, was
of originalsin".
to attain other forms of insightor knowledge
means
preserved exempt from all ^^
than that which
This dogma is defined as applyingto tnepSrson
comes
by the use of the normal
At the same
time the progress which
of Mary from the first moment
of animation, that
processes.
the race has made
in invention and in social organization
is,when her soul was created and infused in the
has been by the gradual,progressive
extension
originalsin was excluded
body; at which moment
of imaginativeideals and plans. This suggests the
from her soul and original
sinlessness was
given her.
relation which the arts have to religious
ceremonial.
That is,as the new
Eve, the mother of the new
vital and
They aid in presenting in ever more
Adam, she was, through Christ's merits,withdrawn
appealing expressions the ideals which religion from the generallaw of originalsin.
seeks.
These arts succeed at times in embodying
times
Although not made a dogma until modem
the ideals in such vivid forms that they create the
and long the subject of discussion,the doctrine
illusion of reaUty. Without
doubt this
sin has been
that Mary
conceived without
was
exhilarating
function of religious commonly held and taught in the R.C. Church
is an impressiveand elevating
ceremonials
the
to enable
strugglingsoul to
is often helped to
enjoy in anticipation.Man
better by being stimulated to imagine himself
become
having achieved his ideal. On the
as already
other hand
it is by the imaginative dramatic
of his misdeeds
rehearsal of the consequences
that
he is restrained and purifiedfrom evil tendencies.
It is in this inner drama
of the imaginationthat the
of the moral and
reUgious
highest achievements
Edwaed
S. Ames
character are wrought.
"

IMAM.
^InShi 'iteIslam the beliefis maintained
that there exists in the world in each age an infalUble
who is
and perfectspiritual
of Mohammed
successor
the reUgioushead of Islam by divine right. He is
the Imam, in most sects thought to be concealed
"

the

Roman

since the 13th. century, and from an

earlier date
celebrated the Feast of the Conception
there was
doctrine of the Immaculate
ception
Conof Mary.
The
should not be confused
(as is popularly
the case) with that of the Virgin Birth of Jesus.
Shailer
Mathews
The
IMMANENCE."
mately,
quahty of being intivitallyor structurallyidentified with the
law of a thing. That
which
is
inner nature
or
intrinsic or operates from within.
Immanence
is an identification so complete and
inward thatit is of the very essence
or
being of a
is
law of growth in biology
thing. An immanent
which
a law
expresses the characteristic unfolding
unfolds
or
development of the life;e.g., an acorn
law.
Immanent
into an oak tree by an immanent

219

is the

reason

stamped

upon

DICTIONARY

that is
the rational
of a thing.

rational nature

thing, or

OF

RELIGION

indelibly-

AND

usage

ETHICS

impediments

Incarnation

to

matrimony

are

those

astical

principle prescribedin

the nature
which expresses
In ethical philosophy,thoroughgoing empiricism
as
acquired from without
regards ethical principles
race
through cumulative
experience; subjective
ethics regards ethical principlesas fundamentally
laws of mind, forms
of insight and
immanent
arise were
not
they not
judgment that would
immanent, or native aspects of mind.
immanence
is broadlycontrasted with
In religion,
transcendence,which conceives the divine power as
operating from above, and apart from the world.
conceives Him
The doctrine of the divine immanence
as the dynamic power
energizingwithin the world's
the principleof intelligence
and causation and
life,
Immanence
from
as such is discriminated
purpose.
God
and
pantheism in that it does not make
and the
the world identical. Pantheism
says, God
dwells in his
immanence
world are one:
says, God
world and identifies himself with it. The difference
and wiU
is in the clear postulatingof intelligence
by the doctrine of Immanence.
The implicationsof the divine immanence
are
best understood
against the background of the
ceived
doctrines of Supernaturalism in which God is confrom without the natural order of
as operating
In this view, "nature"
and the "superthe world.
natural"
This
are mutually external to each other.
of
earlier
f
orm
the
world
is the prevailing
religious
nates
elimiviews.
The doctrine of the divine Immanence
this mutual externality,
conceivingnature as
form of the divine life,
the mode
the law-expressing
realizes
in which the indweUingenergy and purpose
itself. The dynamic, creative fact in all the world
of nature and the world of persons is the immanent
of the natural.
God, the true Creative Source
in expounding
This modern
emphasis of Immanence
the theistic world-view
destroys the old antithesis
natural
and
between
supernatural and has farethical
reaching implications for religious and
Herbert
A. Youtz
and social doctrines.

the

and church
Levitical legislation
regulations. Impediments to Holy orders are

called

(q.v.).
irregularities

IMPLICIT
FAITH."
The loyalacceptance of all
that the church affirms as divinelytrue, even
though
be ignorant of the details;a conception
one
may
provided in the Middle Ages for the uneducated
Faith.
laityand lower clergy. See Explicit

IMPRIMATUR."
(Latin,"let it be printed.")
officialpermissiongiven by a Roman
Catholic
Bishop or other authorized person for the publishing
of a book
dealing with religioussubjects. The
permission indicates that the contents of the book
have been examined
and found to
by the censor
contain nothing derogatory to true CathoUc faith.
The

IMPUTATION."
A theological
term
borrowed
from judicial
practicesby which God is represented,
because
of certain conditions,as
attributingto
men
adequate grounds for the assignment of pimishment
or reward.
Thus imputation is considered a real action on
God's part, but as not affecting
the moral character
of the recipientof whatever
is imputed. Adam's
guiltis said to have been imputed to his descendants
by virtue of the fact that he is the head of the race,
its representative. This is in addition to the
or
corruptionof nature which he bequeathed to the
race.

Paul teaches that God imputes the faith of the

logians
theobeliever to him as righteousness. Various
hold that God imputes to the beUever
the merits
the righteousness of
of Christ, or
Christ. On the basis of this imputation,which

wholly by grace, and is made ethicallypossible

by the atonement
wrought by Christ,God is free to
justifythe behever.
The objectiveand inherent worth of that which
istaken into consideration as a basis of such imputation
also varies in different theologies. In the
IMMERSION."
subview of one
Baptism (q.v.)by entire mersion
school,the only conceivable basis of
is the inherent worth of the death of
in water, the mode
practisedin the early justification
Christ.
church and certain modern
According to another school,God chooses
religious
bodies,as the
of Christ as meeting moral
to regard the death
Baptists.
make
which
conditions
justificationpossible.
IMMORTALITY."
The
Shailer
Mathews
imperishabilityof life, See Acceptilation.
involving personal survival of death, a belief in
in various forms in all religions.See
INARI.
The food or rice goddess of Japanese
which occurs
animal.
In
Shintoism.
fox is her sacred
The
Future
of
the.
Life, Conceptions
Shinto the fox-cult is more
modern
important than
from
IMMUNITY.
Exemption
diction.the cult of the goddess.
legal jurisInternational
provides for the
usage
of
INCANTATION."
of a
The singing or repeating
immunity of public ministers and members
magical phrases or formulas for the purpose of comdiplomatic mission from the jurisdictionof the
Certain immunities
nation to which they are sent.
peUing mysterious power to act, as in bewitching a
or
are
exorcizinga demon, a practisecommon
usuallygranted to ministers of religionsuch as
person
from
and
freedom
military service. Churches
primitive peoples. The magical formulas
among
rites so used are also called incantations.
other sacred places enjoy certain immunities
or
as,
is

"

"

e.g., from

secular

taxation.

Until the 17th.

A devil of inferior rank.
century a scion or child; hence "imp of Satan"
that usage the present
"child of evil." From
meant
IMP.

one

"

INCARDINATION."
In the R.C. church:
(1)
elevation to the rank of cardinal;(2)installation of
diocese or
deacon in a specific
a principalpriestor
church.

developed.

IMPANATION."
The
doctrine that the body
and blood of Christ are reallypresent in the bread
and wine of the Eucharist
after consecration,
but
without
transubstantiation
garded
(q.v.). It is hence reby the R.C. church as heretical.
IMPEDIMENT.

"

hindrance
obstruction
or
from fulfilling
certain
act or state.
In ecclesi-

legally
preventing the agent
conditions requisiteto

an

The assuming of a body of

INCARNATION."
human
flesh by a divine being.
the one
Incarnation
is to be distinguishedon
hand
from transmigration
(q.v.),in which not a
deity but a soul enters a fleshlybody, and on the
other from possessionas apphed to the temporary
indwellingof a demon or a god in a human
person.
of incarnations
and reality
Belief in the possibility
has had a wide vogue in the past,the chief motive
to
for the belief apparentlybeing the desire of man

Incense

procure

DICTIONARY

OF

for himself the assistance of deities that

RELIGION

are

in their sympathies and interests.

truly human
Among primitivepeoples there are approximations
to the idea of incarnation in the reverence
paid
to sacred animals
and holy men,
although these
of
objects worship may have been regarded more
as
actual deities than
religionVishnu was

was
gentiles,
early appropriated as a means
impressing gentiles with the superior significance
of Jesus.
The Gospels of Matthew
and Luke
tell of Grod's intervention to bring about the birth
of Jesus
(see Virgin Birth), and the Gospel of
John presents him as an outrightincarnation
"the
flesh"
Logos became
(John 1:14). Just how
Jesus could be both deity and man
in one
person
aroused
much
controversy among
theologians in
ancient times.
pioned
chamOccasionally his deity was
so
vigorously that the genuineness of his
humanity seemed in jeopardy, while at other times
his true deityseemed to be threatened by stress upon
his humanity.
Ultimately the problem was solved,
or, perhaps better,shelved,by laying hold of both

among

of

"

horns of the dilemma.

The creed put forth at the
council of Chalcedon
(451) is typicalof the trend
since followed
ever
by popular Christian belief.
and
In this creed two
natures
one
were
person
attributed to Jesus Christ but no
explanation of
bow the two natures
united was
were
given. See
Christology.
S. J. Case
INCENSE.

"

An

and Romans,
Incense
was

though
in the

aromatic

substance

exuded

article of
an
by certain trees and early made
general use in worship.
for perfumes naturally
The
fondness
of men
be gratifiedby
suggested that the deity would
also
offeringsof this kind.
Probably there was
the idea that the fragrance was
evidence of some
the incense the
supernatural quality which made
evil odors
property of the god. As it overcomes
it might drive away
the demons.
Its use
in
so

worshipis attested among

Babylonians,
Egyptians,

ETHICS
well

220

in the rehgion of Israel.

into Christian
worship,
at a very
early date, and is still used
ritualistic Churches.
H. P. Smith

not

more

as

as

introduced

INDEPENDENCY."
The
ecclesiastical
that each separate congregation is an

incarnations.

In the Hindu
credited with a series of successive
incarnations,
or
avataras, beginning with
Krishna
and eventually including
not only Buddha
but religiousteachers in general. In the case
of
the Egyptians, gods were
believed to be incarnate
both in sacred animals
and in reigning Pharaohs.
Similar ideas were
current, though less pervasively,
in Babylonia. Among the Persians there were
no
real incarnations,
but the king was
thought to
of glory or light
a supernaturalendowment
possess
which
to
incarnation.
practicallyamounted
an
In early times the Hebrews
apparently thought
that their deity occasionallytook upon
himself
human
he appeared to Abraham
form, as when
(Gen. 18:1 ff.)or, again, to Gideon (Judg. 6:14);
but as time passed this realistic imagery was
placed
disby so rigida notion of divine transcendence
that the notion of an
actual incarnation
became
unthinkable
for the Jews.
On
the other hand,
the Greeks and the Romans
the idea flourished.
among
form on
Temporary assumption of human
the part of different deities was
and in
common,
later times incarnations of a more
acter
enduring charin the persons
of distinguished
were
seen
viduals
indisuch as Alexander
the Great, Demetrius,
others who
believed to
Augustus, and many
were
have rendered unique service to mankind.
The
notion of incarnation received its fullest
developrnentwithin Christianity, where it was
used to interpretthe person
of Jesus.
Among the
earUest Christians the distinctively
Jewish category
of messianism
to have
been
(see Messiah) seems
thought an adequate imagery for estimating the
uniqueness of Jesus,but as the new
reUgion pressed
its way
tion,
beyond Palestine the conception of incarnaalready so familiar and highly esteemed
as

AND

body, owning

ciple
prinpendent
inde-

superiorauthority other
than Jesus Christ;especiallythe doctrine of the
Independents or English Congregationahsts. See
no

CONGREGATIONAUSM.
INDEX."
Ust issued by the R.C.
A
church,
enumerating books
prohibited (Index librorum
books
and
from which
certain parts
prohibitorum)
be expurgated before being read.
must
(Index
librorum
expurgandorum.) The
Congregation of
the index

prepares

such

Usts.

See Censorship.

MISSIONS
TO."
At the time of
INDIA,
writing of the apocryphal Acts of Thomas
(3rd.
century) there was already a Christian community
the

in N.

W.

descended

India.
These
Christians claimed to be
from
converts
made
by the apostle
Data are lackingto confirm the tradition

Thomas.
of Thomas'
Madras.
At

and
missionary journey to Malabar
the Nicene Council, 325, Bishop John
A Syrian
represented "Persia and Great India."
mission went south to the Malabar
coast in the 4th.
century, where the Syrian Christians still have a
considerable community.
Gregory of Tours (538ity
594) has quite a descriptionof Nestorian Christianit then existed in the vicinityof Madras.
as
During the century from 750 to 850 Nestorian
missions
were
prosecuted with great vigor and
made
considerable
that time
progress, but from
their energy was
abated.
The first Roman
Catholic missionary to India
John de Monte
was
Corvino, a Franciscan,who was
sent from
Rome
to the orient,and labored in the
neighborhood of Madras, beginning ca. 1291-92.
But the first serious efforts made
by the Roman
Catholics began with the advent of the Portuguese
traders.
In
1500
and
eight Franciscans
eight
secular priests,
and in 1503 a group
of Dominicans
arrived to begin work
the west
on
coast, which
work soon
extended
both northward
and eastward.
In 1541 the Society of Jesus began to work in the
Indian
mission field. The
renowned
of its
most
missionaries was
St. Francis Xavier (q.v.). During
the 16th. and
17th. centuries CathoUc
missions
made
that by 1700 there were
so
great progress,
between
But
1,500,000 and 2,500,000 converts.
after that came
a
period of persecution and trial,
that a hundred
later there were
so
not more
years
than 500,000 converts
living. With the toleration
under
the British government
CathoKc
missions
have flourished again. They are
represented by
several missionary societies,
well as
as
by the
Jesuits and Capuchins, and today their converts
number
nearly 2,000,000.
The
missions were
beginnings of Protestant
made
The
Danish-Halle
Mission
by the Danes.
did noble work in the 18th. century.
The names
of B. Ziegenbalg, C. F. Schwartz
and B. Schultze
will always be remembered.
Schultze
translated
the Bible into Tamil, the first complete translation
into an
Indian vernacular.
In the 18th. century
there was
a
beginning made also by two English
the Society for the Promotion
of Christian
societies,
Ejiowledge and the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel, their work being more
especiallyas
producers and distributers of Christian literature.
With
the 19th. century Protestant missions began
in
The
earnest.
Baptist Missionary Society
sent William
Carey in 1793. He, with Marshrnan
and
Ward
(the Serampore trio),gave Christian

221

literature its real impetus.

DICTIONARY
There

OF

RELIGION

followed the

Missionary Society (1798), the American

of Commissioners
for Foreign Missions
(1813), the American
Baptist Missionary Union
Judson,
(1814) whose first appointee was Adoniram
the Church
Missionary Society (1814), and the
Mission
Church
of Scotland
(1823) under whom
London
Board

Duflf labored.
Alexander
These
still among
are
the leading missionarysocieties both in the extent
of their missionaries,
of their plants, the number
and the size of their Indian Christian communities.
The
societies operating
catalogue of Protestant
in 1912 in India included
136 different societies,
_

British,European, American, Canadian, Austrahan,

and
at that time
over
indigenous. There were
5200 foreign missionaries and over
38,000 Indian
in the employ of these societies,
workers
and the
work
had
extended
to every
part of the Indian
empire. The Bible has been translated into all
the greater languages, and is being circulated as a
whole or in parts in 85 different Indian vernaculars.
of evangelizationis being supplemented
The work
by largeeducational,medical,industrial and literary
missions.
Elementary education as conducted
by
has done
missions
much
to reduce
the various
of living.
illiteracyand to raise the standard
Christian College is the largestof the
The Madras
institutions under
Christian
higher educational
auspices. The outstanding agencies for the production
and
distribution
of Christian
literature
Literature
the Christian
are
Society for India,
and
the Society for the Promotion
of Christian
Knowledge, as well as the Bible societies.
than
There
to
are
more
4,000,000 adherents
the Christian reUgion. Of the Indian Christians
about 80 per cent are to be found in South
India
where
the work
was
begun earlier and the progress
has
The
been best maintained.
majority
of converts
have
been
from
the non-caste
munities
comthe Telugus) who
also
are
(especially

susceptible to mass
have been
large ingatherings

more

movements.

Other

AND

ETHICS

India, Religions of

in
exclusively

the Punjab. The

Jains (cj.v.)
are
the
Bombay
Presidency,Rajputana,
and
the
Central
Provinces.
The
Gujarat,
Parsis,
who are found in and around Bombay, are wealthy
and vastlymore
influential than their numbers
would
indicate.
They migrated to India when persecution
broke up Zoroastrianism in Persia.
Of,.the-Christians slightlymore
than
one-half belong to the
Catholic,one-twelfth to the Syrian church. The
gfeat majority is found in southern India. Most
from the outcastes
from the very lowest
or
come
which
castes
are
regarded as degraded by the
Hindus.
found

in

Indian

philosophy originated in speculations

and the soul,and in symbolistic
interpretationof the ritual. It is attached closely
to the Vedas, each system claiming to be the true
phy
interpretationof the revealed Scripture. Philosotore itself completely away
from reUgion.
never
about

The

cosmogony

fundamental

works

of the systems

are

called

Sutras, texts of almost algebraic brevity,around

which grew
up commentaries, super-commentaries,
and commentaries
these.
This systematization,
on
which used to be placed in the 3rd. and 2nd. centuries
dated with better reason
between
B.C., is now
and
200
500
Six systems
are
a.d.
especially
famous
consistent with the Vedas,
as being most
and meeting higher Brahman
approval.
Fedawto fallsinto two divisions.
Firstly,
form which can
be traced with certainty,
to only about 500 a.d.
as
a developed system, back
Its roots, however, go back to the Upanishads.
Brahman, the spiritual
principle,alone is real;
the material world
is illusion (maya); the individual
soul is absolutely identical with the world
soul, Brahman.
Secondly, a pantheistic form
teaches that Brahman
is endowed
with all quaUties
and powers,
is real and
that the material world
from Brahman, that the individual soul
emanates
in essence) is as distinct from
(although the same
Brahman
the spark from
fire. Other
forms
as
combine
closelywith the Sdmkhya into a sort of
dualism.
a

1. The
monistic

from the hill tribes.

is much
The influence of Christianity
larger than
of converts.
cational
Eduis indicated
by the number
2. The
is a rationalization of the
Mimdnsd
have had
and medical missions especially
ritual. It attempts to prove the eternityof the Veda ;
broadening cultural effect,as is evidenced by
a
discusses Dharma
"duty," its originand the nature
within the Indian religions
the Reform
movements
of its rewards.
and the indigenous movements
such as the Brahma3. The
There
two
Sdmkhya is duahstic.
are
with a generous
Samaj (q.v.),
adoption of Christian
(spirit)and
entirelydistinct principles,Purusa
A. S. Woodbukne
ideas.
Prakjii (unevolved matter). All activity,
thought,
in Prakrti.
pleasure, and pain are
Puru"a is
RELIGIONS
AND
PHILOSOPHIES
INDIA,
merely a self-illuminingconsciousness
reflecting
India is the only Aryan country which
has
OF.
in itself the activity of Prakfti and erroneously
develop"edenduring religions.Every other Aryan
consideringthat the activityof Prakrti is connected
countryhas adopted a religionof foreign origin; with itself.Soul has no necessary connection
live on only in folklore.
the old religions
itself from matter
with matter
detach
and may
of the different religions
In 1911 the adherents
permanently.
of India were
(in round numbers): Hindus
(217,4. The
sophical
Yoga takes the Sdmkhya as a philoBuddhists
000,000), Mohammedans
(67,000,000),
background. It differs in its process
(11,000,000), Animists
(10,000,000),Christians
of release. It works over
the ideas of asceticism into
(3,800,000),Sikhs (3,000,000),Jains (1,250,000),
of mental concentration
by postures a,nd
a system
is
Parsis (100,000), Jews
(20,000). Hinduism
control of the breath,seeking to produce imion
by
the whole
the
lower
forms
found over
country,
with God
(Purv^a) by ecstatic trance states.
shading off into the demonology and magic of
5. The Nydya is a system of formal logic and
tribes (many of which have
animistic Dravidian
epistemology. It works out an elaborate syllogism
The Mohammedans
been received into Hinduism).
very similar to the Aristotelian one.
(found mostly in the northwest) fall into two
"

of invaders from
(1) The descendants
groups:
Afghanistan and Central Asia,who, after 1200 a.d.,
in increasingnumbers, conquered India, and
came
of whom
settled there.
(2) Hindu converts, many
differ little in practicalrehgion from the Hindus
Buddhism
from
whom
they sprang.
(q.v.) has
extinct in India since about 1200 a.d.; the
listed above
are
nearly all found in
combine
Sikhs
Burma.
The
Hindu
(q.v.),who
and
Mohammedan
elements, are found almost

been

Buddhists

6. The Vdice"ika is an atomic theory.

The
materialistic Charvdkas
(who deny the
soul and recognize only permutations of matter,
of yeast)
consciousness being hke the fermentation
and Jain systems are
and the various Buddhist
heretical. Many
Vaishnava
and
regarded as
Caiva sects have developed elaborate systems as the
tried to work
out
theistic sides of Hinduism
a
beUef
philosophicalbasis of religious
W. E. Clark
.

Indiction

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

INDICTION.
A period of fifteen years
used
by the popes in their system of calculation,
beginning
25.
In
January 1, December
25, or March
ber
calculatingan indiction three is added to the num"

of the year in the Christian era, and the result

of
is divided by fifteen. The quotientis the number
and the remainder
is the positionof
the indiction,
the year in that indiction.

ETHICS

AND

222

remission was
offered to those who would make
a
financial contribution to the Third Crusade.
proper
Further
steps are the theory of the treasury of
merits (q.v.),
of Hales;
championed by Alexander
the Jubilee indulgence of 1300; and
the official
adoption of the beUef that the livingcould through
the transfer of
secure
suffragii)
prayer {per modum
their own
acquiredindulgencesto souls in purgatory.
2. Misconceptions. ^An indulgence is not
a
license to sin,nor
is it a promise to pardon future
sins. Since 1562 the sale of indulgences has been
forbidden (Councilof Trent, sess. xxi de ref, c. 9),as
the traffic,
of income, had
though a great source
been
the
occasion
of many
attacks (Luther).
This prohibition has not, however, stopped the
and in
sale,in Spanish and Portuguese dominions
South America, of indulgences based on the Bulla
Cruciatae or Bull of the Crusade.
Indulgences have
been aboUshed; they stilloperate as valued
never
acts of
premiums for the performance of numerous
CathoUc
Roman
devotion.
W. W. Rockwell
"

trine
(1) In ethics,the docthings are neither helps nor

INDIFFERENTISM."
that certain
hindrances
to moral

conduct.

The

Stoics included

health, wealth, strength, etc., in this category.

(2)In theology,the doctrine that certain differences
not
of rehgious beUef are
significant.See AdiaPHORA.

In Roman
religion,
pprof the pontificalbooks, originating with
and
Pompilius, containing the names
King Numa
occasions
epithetsof the deities,and the specific
for invoking them.

INDIGITAMENTA.

"

tions

INDULT.
A papal privilege(not to be confounded
with indulgence) granted to a specified
individual for himself or others,for a definite time
number
of cases, of doing what is not permitted
or
Law of the Church.
It dates from
by the Common
the latter part of the 4th. century.
"

and
ethics the term
impUes a community in which the
summation
of the
good of the whole is the mere
and in which the spring
goods of all the individuals,
be found
in individual
must
for social conduct
initiative. It is generallyopposed to socialism.
Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill and Herbert
its most
distinguished exponents,
Spencer are
it has
doctrine and attitude of mind
and as
a
characterized the 18th. and 19th. centuries in the
itself at first by
world. It maintained
western
feudal institutions of
to the outworn
its hostility
Europe, and later by combatting an equallyabstract
The theoretical inadequacy
doctrine of socialism.
of the doctrine lies in the abstract conceptionof the
has
been
the
individual,an abstractness which
of
of both the strength and the weakness
source
Like other
it has served.
movements
the practical
less fixed institutions,
or
abstractions which define more
it is waiting for a competent psychology to
put a vaUd working content into what has been a
George
H. Mead
rigidconcept.
In

INDIVIDUALISM."

political
theory

INFALLIBILITY.

"

^A sanction

or

an

authority

residingin an utterance, a person, or an institution,

rendering it incapableof error.
The idea of infalUbiUtyis a particularinstance
of a dogmatic conception of divine guidance. God,
of course, cannot
of
err.
Any decree or utterance
God's therefore must
be infalhble.
Any institution
authorized
to proclaim God's
or
specifically
will;
literature dictated by God
be infalhble.
must
any
"The king cannot
err" is an expressionof this ideal
in connection with the doctrine of divine right(q.v.).

The
doctrines of an
infalhble church
and of an
infalhble Bible are analogous interpretations
in the
realm of rehgion.
Catholic doctrine emphasizes the divine authority
of both
In practice,
Scripture and church.
the infalhbihtyof the church is put to the front;
One
for it alone is divinely authorized
of the most importantgods of
to determine
INDRA.
the preciseUst of inspiredbooks, and it alone can
the Vedic period of Indian religion. As a heavenly
he battles with the
hurler of the thunder-bolt
infalhbly declare the true meaning of Scripture.
he slays
the conception of an
While
inerrant church
has
enemies of his people; as giver of fertifity
the
been steadilymaintained, disputes and
of drought, pouring over
the Vritra demon
ments
disagreeA very anthropohave arisen in Catholicism as to what is to
lands the life-givingwaters.
morphic
god, he drinks and boasts,yet is easily be regarded as an authoritative decision of the
Coimcils of bishops are often not unanimous.
in return for the intoxicating
soma
giving church.
placable,
Is a
his worshipers wealth, crops, cows, horses,children
majority opinion surely correct?
Might not a minority more
and protection.
accuratelyapprehend
truth?
God's
The
necessity for an unequivocal
is now
location of the voice of the church led to the dogma
An indulgence
defined
INDULGENCE.
of papal infalhbihty.The Vatican Council (1870)
"the remission of the temporal punishment due to
as
Pontiff when
he speaks
declared "that the Roman
sins,the guiltof which has already been remitted."
Catholic
that is when
in dischargeof the office of
ex cathedra,
Indulgences supplement the Roman
of penance, and therefore presuppose
Pastor and Doctor of aU Christians,
by virtue of his
sacrament
the guilt supreme
apostohc authorityhe defines the doctrine
confession and absolution which removes
of eternal punishment.
versal
of mortal sin and the sentence
regarding faith and morals to be held by the unistill requiresa
the divine assistance promised
After absolution the divine justice
church,
bihty
to him in Blessed Peter is possessedof that infalhsatisfaction to be made either on earth or in purgatory.
with which the Divine Redeemer
willed that
By securingindulgence one may make this
for definingdoctrine
the church should be endowed
satisfactionon earth.
stitution
1. History. Indulgences grew out of the subregardingfaith and morals."
In the
Protestantism
of one
rejected the doctrine of the
(q.v.)for another.
penance
of the church, restricting
the idea to
11th. century he who went
on
a pilgrimageor
infalhbihty
gave
reinforced
to a hospitalmight be rewarded
by a reduction of
Scripture alone. This conception was
to
otherwise
bound
he was
perform. by the doctrine of verbal, or at least plenary,
penances
bovmties
also used as enUstment
(q.v.)in order to obviate any human
inspiration
Indulgences were
II.
The usual formula
In 1095 Urban
in wars
frailtyin the bibhcal message.
against the Saracens.
of Protestant
to those who
offered the remission of all penance
orthodoxy is that the Bible is "the
In 1188 plenary infalliblerule of faith and practice."Difficulties,
would
the First Crusade.
go on
"

"

by

"

223

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Initiation

pretationthe
however,arise from the privilegeof privateinter-

other.
This Hegel called the true infinity
and
of Scripture. It is open to any Protestant
illustrated it by the circle as contrasted to the
indefinite straight
with the infalMble Word
to identifyhis own
line. But it cannot
position
be said that
all who differ from him.
of God, and to denounce
in philosophy or elsewhere in thought Hegel's
of
thus
The doctrine
too often ministers
undertaking has solved any problems. So far as a
infaUibiUty
to bigotry and
in our
dogmatism. In recent years the
positive character appears
thought of the
historical study of the Bible and a comparison of
it is emotional
infinite,
not
discursive. Ancient
Greek thought found the highest perfectionin the
its teachings with scientifically
verified facts have
the defined. It remained for the latest phase of
be
shown
conclusively that inerrancy cannot
finite,
Greek speculationand modern theologyand philosoThe
affirmed of all biblical statements.
doctrine
phy
is thus being abandoned
to identifyperfectionand
of infallibility
the highest reality
by many
with the infinite.
Protestant scholars and ministers.
George H. Mead
Gerald
Birney
Smith
Loss
INFAMY.
of good name
INFRALAPSARIANISM."
The modified Calvinistic
by notorious
moral
or
delinquency publicly known
position which places the decrees of prejuridically
destination
for certain social positions
and election subsequentto that of the
one
unfitting
established,
fall of man.
See Decrees.
or
public trust.
"

ARABIC

INFANCY,

GOSPEL

OF

THE."

See

Apocrypha.
SALVATION."
The
INFANT
question as to
the salvation of infants has been much
debated
when
salvation has
in the history of Christianity,
been conceived to depend on
some
specificmeans
R.C.
of regeneration such
baptism. The
as
while
church
regarding baptism as
normally
assigns unbaptized infants to a place
necessary,
where
their discipline
is not
called limbus
(q.v.),
Zwingli broke with the idea of
unduly severe.
and asserted the salvation
sacramental regeneration,
whether baptized or not.
Calvin
of all elect infants,
and the Calvinistic churches
taught the salvation
The
of elect infants.
present tendency is to
include in the electionallwho are in infancy.
The practiseof destroying
INFANTICIDE."
a
foetus.
Among
newly-born child or the matured
sophisticatedpeoples,it is a criminal act. But less
cultured peoples have practisedit sometimes
as
a
religiousrite where the belief is that the gods
requirehuman sacrifice; sometimes as a cannibahstic
for economic
and sometimes
reasons;
the
the poUticalor social norm
requires
defective.
of the physically

act; sometimes
where
destruction

INFIDELITY."
(1) The disavowal or repudiation
used
of the tenets of any rehgion; especially
of Christianity. Since
of denial of the tenets
assumed
of authorized doctrine was
to be
rejection
evil attitude,the word
implies a dishonorable
an
stand.
(2) Lack of fideUty with respect to any
breach of the marriage
a
obHgation; specifically,
vow

by adultery.

INFINITY.
infinite as a

"

Mathematicians

have defined

the

quantity which is always greater than

assignablequantity,and the infinitesimal as a
any
quantity that is always smaller than any assignable
quantity,and have used these conceptions to deal
with quantities which
continuously. More
vary
mathematical
recent
thought has defined the
infinite number
by certain characters which are
and have in this
not possessed by finite numbers
been able to formulate the conception of compactness,
way
mathematician
enables
the
to
which
of the discrete.
in terms
conceive of the continuum
In practicethe infinite has been a conception by
of which
have been able to deal with
means
men
and the discrete,
certain problemsof the continuum
such as that of a continuously changing velocity,
the relation of curves
to inscribed and circumscribed
ous
the relations of pointsand instants to continulines,
In a manner
others.
space and time and many
to state
not logically
unlike this Hegel undertook
the positivecharacter of the infinite as the reference
of being that binds it to itself when
passinginto

INHIBITION."
(1) The
prevention of one
mental process by the conflicting
interest of another.
The
inhibition of impulses that are
harmful
is a
condition in the formation of good habits,
(2)The
official denial to a priestof the right to perform
the functions of his office.
INITIATION.

The
of admission into
process
office or order.
As used by anthropologists,
the term refers especially
to the procedure by which
of both sexes
are
persons
formally mvested
young
with
the
privileges of maturity. The
present
articleis confined to boys'initiationrites,
which
on
the correspondingrites for girls
to be modeled.
seem
1. Nature
Initiation
Rites.
op
Among the
great majority of savage and barbarous peoples the
is marked
transition from childhood to manhood
transfer the youth
by secret ceremonies, which
from association with the women
and children and
introduce him to the societyof men.
The
monies
cereusuallytake place at the age of puberty and
with
probably originatedin the superstitious
concern
which the savage views this great functional crisis
of human
Kfe. See Taboo.
In their existingform
they have both a civil and a rehgious character,
being designed at once to prepare the candidate for
the duties of tribal citizenship
and to admit him to
the mysteries of the tribal rehgion. See Secret
Societies.
They are
organized and conducted
the "elders"
the
who
by the older men
are
Initiation
responsibleguardians of the community.
is practicallycompulsory,since failure to imdergo
the rites means
disgrace for fife. It is,moreover,
for ahens and half-castes
a tribal privilege,
strictly
are
The
gatherings for
rigorously excluded.
form large assemblies attended
initiatorypurposes
of a tribe or of several related
by all the members
tribes. On such occasions there will be numerous
and
festivities,
months,
even
lasting for weeks
and
accompanied by much
friendly intercourse,
transaction
of public business.
bartering, and
In short,the initiation ceremonies may
be described,
without exaggeration,as the most important of all
primitive social institutions.
SeclurII. Features
Initiation
of
Rites.-^1.
sion and ordeals. Boys undergoing initiation are,
carefullyremoved, often for a lengthy period
from the society of women
and children.
During
the initiatory
to
to submit
seclusion they have
ance
ordeals,which are primarily tests of endurmany
include flagellation,
and self-control. These
long fasts,deprivationof sleep,compulsory silence,
of fear and pain.
and, in general, concealment
to ruin the
Sometimes
as
the ordeals are so severe
health and even
the death of the weaker
to cause
novices.
are
Those who succumb
thought unfit for
manhood, and for them there are few regrets.
2. Mutilations.
Serving partly as ordeals and
partly as permanent evidences of initiation are
"

some

"

"

"

"

"

Initiation

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

various mutilations,ofteil extremely repulsive in

character.
These
include extracting teeth, sacrification,tattooing,depUation, perforation of the
cision
septum, and the wide-spread practice of circum-

AND

ETHICS

224

INNER
LIGHT."
According to the Quakers,
religiouscertaintyis based on the direct presence
of the Divine
Spirit in the consciousness of the
individual.

Assurance
^

is

thus

an

experience instead of being dependent

(q.v.).

immediate
external

on

initiation
3. The new
life. Almost universally
authority.See Friends,Society of.
rites present a simulation
of the death and resurrection
of the novices.
its
INNER
The ceremony,
whatever
MISSION."
(German, Innere Mission.)
A
in the evangehcal church of Gerremote
movement
many,
origin,clearlyexpresses the idea that they
and
have now
"died"
whose
to their old childish ways
object, as stated by Wichem, its
have entered upon
the new
hfe of manhood, with
"to renew,
within and without, the
organizer,was
aU
its attendant
of those
multitudes
in Christendom
privilegesand responsibiUties. condition
and
whom
has fallen the power
At the close of the ceremony
of manifold external
they receive new
upon
the
and internal evils,
which springdirectly
secret names,
or indirectly
by which they are known
among
from sin,so far as they are not reached by the usual
and may
learn an esoteric language.
even
initiated,
Christian offices with the means
At some
4. Exhibition of the sacra.
period of
necessary for their
the initiation rites the elders show
renewal."
the novices
In the evangelicalchurch of Germany toward
certain mysterious and sacred objects,which
are
of the
most
the end of the 18th. and earlyin the 19th. centuries,
never
by uninitiates. Among
seen
Australian tribes,
number
of earnest
Christian men
for instance,the revelation of the
devoted
selves
thema
bull-roarer (q.v.)and the explanationof the manner
to the service of the masses.
Most notable
Theodor
Fhedner
was
by which its sounds are produced, is the chief
(1800-1864) who founded
the firstsociety for prison reform in Germany
hideous
in
disclosed. The
masks, worn
mystery
1826,in 1833 a refugefor dischargedfemale prisoners
by the directors of the rites to represent deities or
at Kaiserswerth
of the dead, may
also be shown to the boys at
where he was
spirits
pastor, and in 1836
be
the deaconess
this time.
Fhedner
is
movement.
Instead of sacred objects there may
By some,
and other performances
dances
esoteric dramatic
regardedas the originatorof the Inner Mission.
Wichern
calculated to impress the novices with the signifiJohann
Heinrich
cance
(1808-1881) of
of the proceedings.
Hamburg gave to the unrelated Christian impulses
seclusion
and activities of the time, an
5. Instruction.
During their initiatory
organizationand a
introduced
He
the Sunday
School
the candidates receive careful trainingin everything name.
into
learn
life. They
the Rauhes
that pertains to their future
Hamburg, and in 1833 had founded
various practicalarts,the native songs, dances, and
Haus, an institution for the education and traming
of neglected children.
the traditions and taboos, and the customs
Through his efforts the
games,
Protestant Sjmod at Wittenberg in 1848 appointed
relatingto marriage. The moral code imparted at
for Innere Mission.
this time is of surprisingexcellence,though, of
Since that
a central committee
date the Inner Mission
has been one
it relates only to fellow-tribesmen (foreignof the most
ers
course,
and philannot
important features of German
being considered). The
neophytes are
religious
thropic
life. It is independent of but not antagoalso told the legends concerning the deity who
nistic
the ceremonies;
and
still watches
to the church and asks nothing of the state but
founded
over
the privilege of free association and
work.
sometimes
Its
they are shown an image of him; and
and deepen
object is twofold:
First,to awaken
they are allowed to utter his real and secret name,
and
children
know.
The
which
the reUgiouslifeof those who have lapsed from their
never
women
with the
baptismal vows, and second, to stimulate Christian
initiatoryrites form, in short,a covenant
between
character and hving. It is thus both reHgious and
tribal god and a sacred bond of brotherhood
all who participatein them.
himianitarian.
that the effect
While similar to the Home
Mission movement
6. Restrictions. It is obvious
of the initiation rites is to heighten the respect felt
in America, it has no direct relations with the church,
latter
for their elders. The
and devotes itself more
men
largelyto Christian charity.
by the young
In pursuing these objectsit employs preachers and
make good use of the supernaturalmachinery which
of trained women
and lay workers.
a great number
they control to impose various restrictions upon the
It seeks to reach neglectedchildren through schools
novices,especiallyas regards the food supply and
the
full privileges of
and orphan houses, to aid dischargedprisonersand
In many
cases
women.
conferred only after a long period of
fallen women
of refuges and homes, to
manhood
by means
are
several initiatory improve working conditions
at
especially those of
probation and attendance
to provide protectionand help for working
gatherings.
women,
Initiation
Rites.
to ameUorate
the hard conditions
III. Development
op
girlsin the cities,
of the sailors both in home
and foreignparts. In
Ceremonies of the kind described are found among
other ways
it seeks to exemphfy
these and many
the lowest of existingpeoples. In later stages of
Christian principlesin the service of the immoral,
semi-civilized hfe the tribe,with its allor
savage
become
divided the neglected,the suffering
suband the unfortunate.
to
inclusive initiation rites,tends
each
W. J. McGlothlin
of secret societies (q.v.),
into a number
INNOCENCE."
with its initiatoryritual,secret lodge, and system
(1) The condition of freedom
members
from corruption,taint or evil. Christian theology
of grades or degrees through which
may
has denied this attitude to allmankind
except Adam
Melanesia, Polynesia,Africa,and North
progress.
before their fall. In a less theological
and
Eve
America
examples. What httle is
present many
of an
is used in the case
infant
and
the word
known
of the mysteries (q.v.) of Oriental
sense
sort of connection
before reaching the period of accountability for
classical antiquity suggests some
from guiltof a particular
between
and
these earUer magico-rehgious conduct.
them
(2) Freedom
Christian Church, which, as a
associations.
The
crime,or from habiUty to legalpimishment.
ultimatelytook the place of
voluntary association,
of thirteen popes and
^The name
INNOCENT.
the ancient mysteries,retained the reUgiousaspect
"

"

"

"

"

"

confirmational
of initiation in its baptismal and
initiation among
rites. As
civic ceremony
a
domestic
into a mere
civilized peoples has dechned
celebration of youth'scoming to age.
Webster
Hutton

one

antipope.

Innocent I. Pope, 402-417.

During his pontificate
active
sacked by Alaric.
He was
Rome
was
and
extended
the
in the Pelegian controversy
"

papal authority.

225

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Inspiration

Punishnient took the form of fasts,

prayers,
flagellations,
to one's
crosses
sewn
pilgrimages,
Brescia.
and
of
apparel,fines,
imprisonment. The last sometimes
III." {I) Antipope, 1179-1180.
extended over a life time in most unsanitary
(2)
of the most
A small proportion of the accused,
outstanding conditions.
Pope, 1198-1216; one
of
surrendered to the secular arm
was
mostly relapsed,
potentates in the history of the papacy, a man
and burnt.
unusual abilityas a ruler and diplomat as well as of
The houses of such were
destroyed and
attainments.
He made
this
confiscated. Through
a political
reality their property was
scholarly
of the theory of the supremacy
of the spiritual confiscation court expenses
were
largelyfinanced.
the temporal power, his greatest victorybeing
It proved profitable
to prosecute the dead, whose
over
the subjugationof King John of England. He
estates lay in legaljeopardy for at least fortyyears.
The
twelfth Lateran
The
the
most
3. Results.
organized several Crusades.
significantwas
council was convened
effectivecheck administered to the spreadof heresy.
by him.
Innocent IV.
Like Innocent
It also operated against economic
The
Pope, 1243-1254.
stability.
he carried on the strugglefor the supremacy
of
of torture was
revived in certain areas, notably
use
III.,
the Roman
See over
the temporal power,
his long
in the Papal States. Court procedurein France
strife with Frederick II. being a significant
feature.
became
P. G. Mode
more
summary.
Innocent
V.
Pope, Jan. 21 to June 22, 1276.
Innocent
F/." Pope, 1352-1362; one
of the
INSANITY.
A
condition
deranged mental
caused by a disease or defect of the brain.
From
reducing court
strongest of the Avignon popes,
extravagance, obliginghis clergy to reside at their
early times there has been legal recognition of
for criminal
taking a prominent part in European insanity
as excusing from responsibility
sees, and
and
from
conduct
poUtics.
capacity for civil obUgations.
Innocent VII." Pope, 1404-1406.
Before
the days of medical knowledge, insane
Innocent VIII."
generallyregarded as "possessed" by
Fope, 1484-1492.
persons were
Innocent /X."
classed with criminals.
evil spirits,
or
were
Today
Pope, Oct. 29-Dec. 30, 1591.
Innocent Z." Pope, 1644-1655.
of the insane is recognizedas a problem of
the care
Innocent XI.
social obhgation,and is assumed
of
Pope, 1676-1689; a man
by the state.
blameless life,
who
strove
sincerelyto elevate the
moral and spirituallife of the church; played an
INSPIRATION."
The
munication
breathing in or comliterature.
of divine wisdom
to men
or
important part in European poUtics,checking the
ambition of Louis XIV. and sharing in the relief of
1. Inspirationof persons.
Psychologicallythis
II.

Innocent
of Bernard
and Arnold
Innocent

Pope, 1130-1143, was

"

of Clairvaux

in

supporter

tions.

oppositionto Abelard

"

"

"

"

"

"

Vienna,1683.
his
used
Innocent XII.
Pope, 1691-1700;
officeto accomplish reforms and repress the heresy
"

of Jansenism.
Innocent XIII."

Pope, 1721-1724.

DAY."
A
festival in
memoration
comof the slaughter of the children by
church
Dec. 28,
on
Herod, kept by the Roman
Also called
Dec.
and
the Greek
church
29.
on

INNOCENTS'

Childermas.
An ecclesiasticaltribunal for
INQUISITION."
suppressionof heresy.
1. Origin. To stay the progress of heresy which
had
been
by bishops
unsuccessfully combated
and
secular rulers conforming to the decrees of
councils
church
(Toulouse, 1119; Tours, 1163;
Verona, 1184; Lateran, 1123,1139,1179,1215),and
checkmate
Frederick
to
legislation
II., whose
astical
againstheretics had been encroaching upon ecclesirights,Gregory IX. delegated to judges
lished
and in harmony with the estabacting in his name
rules of canonical
procedure, the task of
Because
dealing with offenses against the Faith.
of their zeal and theological
training,these judges
from the Dominican
chosen almost exclusively
were
tions
Order.^From Lombardy they carried their operainto all sections of Western
Europe save
Northern
England and Scandinavia.
Italy and
the

"

Southern

France

visited with

were

particular

thoroughness.
"period of grace" during
by a
lightpenance, especiallyif they furnished depositions
this court proceeded
against fellow citizens,
to summon
"suspects." Into a court conducted
in secret,the defendant
could bring no legaladviser
2. Procedure.

"

After

which the self-confessed could clear themselves

or

witnesses.

He

was

not

permittedto confront

his

who
to know
they were.
incriminators,or even
allowed only to name
such as cherished illHe was
will against him.
Torture
by lay
applied once
outside the court
officials

was

administered

to such

prevaricated or proved obstinate.

Appeal to
the Pope was hedged about with hopelesscomplica-

as

be described as the state in which the human

mind is particularly
susceptibleto divine influence,
it interprets human
of which
in consequence
experience both individual and social so as to
indicate the values which
believed to be in
are
accordance with the divine will.
belief in such divine action is common
The
it takes
the
cases
religions.In some
among
form of possession(q.v.),
in other cases the extension
of divine will by word of mouth, and in still
others some
written form.
The claim to inspiration
of the
has generallybeen granted by the members
but this
the inspiredperson comes,
to whom
group
tions
is by no means
the same
as
saying that his direcfollowed.
have always been beUeved
In
or
of the Hebrew
the case
prophets, the claim to
not always believed,
speak the word of God was
and
the prophets were
sometimes
subjected to
death.
indignity,even
Inspiration,
however, of individuals was by no
limited to teaching purposes.
The
spirit
means
of Yahweh
for different purposes,
came
men
upon
such as carpentering,war, music.
The coming of
the spirit
of Yahweh
the usual
was
a
upon
person
explanation of anything unique in his experience.
used in theology,
But as the term
is commonly
is limited in usage to the experienceof
inspiration
to set forth in
certain persons
which enable them
unique fashion the will of God.
this applica2. Inspirationof literature. From
tion
extended
to persons, the usage of the term
was
of these persons with
the utterances
to include
God
particularreference to their hterary form.
to the
"spake in partialforms and in many
ways
fathers by the prophets." When
a piece of hterature
became
regarded as possessed of prophetic
it very naturally
origineither directly
or indirectly,
came
to share in the authority which the prophet
himself
quite
gradually and
possessed.Thus
of being traced historically,
beyond the possibility
there grew up the conviction that certain writings
nation possessed
of the Hebrew
a divine value
not
to have
possessed by others. This beUef seems
served as a basis for authoritative teaching in the
Philo held to the mechauic"l
1st. century of our era.
may

"

Inspiration

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

226

it possiblefor
basis for Protestant
made
stress of
orthodoxy. The
him
in the Scripture. controversy tended to elaborate this authority,
to feel that all truth was
and
the doctrine of inspirationwas
to discover the method
extended
The only difficulty
to cover
was
by
but also the words of the two
not only the content
which it might be obtained.
Out from this general
The
conception of the worth of the Hebrew
theory of verbal inspiration,
Scriptures Testaments.
the allegorical
and other extravagant methods
the "pen of
came
accordingto which the writer became
led to the consequent
of interpretation.Any sort of ingenuityin arriving the Holy Ghost"
doctrine
of literalinerrancy,
and this was
to include
made
at a conclusion was
regarded as legitimateso long
it was
associated with the manipulation of the
the vowel points of the text introduced
as
even
by
of years
after the
scripturaltext. Josephus, while not
hesitating Hebrew
copyists hundreds
to extend inspiration
to himself and others {Jewish
scripture.
writingof the Hebrew
War i. 2. 8; iii.8. 3; iv. 10. 8) makes
As a basis of doctrinal development such a
tinction
a sharp disbetween
view of the Bible reached its chmax with the Protesthe writings which
he regards
tant
scholastic theologians of the 17th. century.
valuable for
as
inspired and others which
are
Assent to it became the
instruction.
very shibboleth of orthodoxy.
Since inspiration
Thus
there was
covered words
established a normative conception
they could be
of inspired,and so authoritative literature
detached from their context
and used as a basis
which was
tianity. for theologicalconclusion wholly apart from their
ready at hand for a developingChristheir sucThe
cessors, historicalorigin. Authorship of the various books
early Christians,imhke
doctrine of inspiration
had at the start only the Hebrew
Scriptures. was covered by the same
In consequence
so that the Protestant
a
sisted
conlarge part of their program
theologybecame confessedly
of infallible truth in aU realms conin their use of these Scripturesto legitimatize the exposition
tained
of the church
been
had
in a literature which
claims of the new
faith. Many
verbally
fathers spoke of the prophecies
as oracles of Grod
inspired.
Such a doctrine soon, however, fell by its own
that were
being fulfilledin Jesus.
As the literature of the new
religiongrew, the
weight. The various discrepanciesin the scriptural
had
The
text could not be avoided.
distinction which
study of newly
previouslybeen made in
While the
discovered manuscripts showed
of thousands
hterature was perp"etuated.
the Hebrew
scores
not
issue of inspirationwas
discussed, of variations with the accepted text of the New
explicitly
between the writings Testament,and the study of the various versions of
made
a sharp distinction was
the Old Testament
former
of apostolicorigin and others.
The
it impossible
to assert
also made
were
laasis as the Hterature of the
with finalitythe possessionof an infaUible Bible.
regarded on the same
In consequence
driven to assert that
authoritative in
Old Testament
and so became
men
were
while the existingcopies of the Bible had been
of the Catholic doctrine. See
the formulation
distinct
Canon.
time there was
At the same
in copying, the originalwas
subjected to errors
no
inspired both in word and letter. Practically,
theory as to verbal accuracy, neither was there any
sensitiveness as
to precision in quotation from
however, no attempt is made to separate between
the Christian writings. They were
these lost autographsand the Bible as known
to
regarded as the
authoritative
of CathoUc
the theologians.
doctrine, but
source
of
At the present time there are
number
was
particularteaching as to their inspiration
a
described
which may
be briefly
theories of inspiration
lacking. The developmentof the Cathohc church
described above;
dition as
as
was
accompanied by the rise of ecclesiastical tra(1) the verbal,hteralistic,
regarded as possessed of equal authorityto
(2)the dynamic, to the effect that the biblical writers,
and other peculiarities,
that of the Scripture,while the church itself as the
while retainingtheir stylistic
the authority of the keys
moved
by the spiritof God to discover truth.
body of Christ possessing
were
was
regarded as being divinely led both into the
Opinion as to the extent to which this inspiration
of the Scripture and
tradition, enabled writers to discover scientific and ethical
interpretation^
and the enunciation of truth.
truth in advance of their age varies ; (3)the historicalchurch extended the conception
The medieval
which leads to the recognition
of the supreme
critical,
of inspirationin a modified sense
of
and religious
to the saints to
worth
authority of the contents
tions.
vouchsafed
visions and certain revelaand interpretationof an
whom
the Bible as a product^
were
Such
experience. Such a view of the
material, however, never
acquired historical religious
of inspiration
of
Bible does not deny the possibility
authorityas the basis of dogma, and even the most
treasured writingsof the fathers were
the writers,but emphasizes the originalpsychonever
placed
logical
the Holy
rather than the later literary
the same
on
plane of authority as were
aspects of the
Shailer
Mathews
term.
Scriptures.
developed in
Secondary Christianitywhich
INSTALLATION."
not the product of the scripwestern
tural
(1) In churches of episcopal
Europe was
the ceremony
of inducting a canon
teaching, but rather a legitimatizingof
government,
available.
into his stall or seat in the choir of a cathedral or
custom
by the use of Scripture when
It tended,however, to develop greatlythe authority
(2) In non-episcopal churches
collegiatechurch.
of the ecclesiastical
organization,and thus to place the induction of a minister into the pastorate of a
church.
the decisions of the councils and of the popes, and
specific
the opinions of the fathers as well as tradition,
INSTINCT.
An inherent activity or impulse
less co-ordinate authority with that of
in more
or
restricted
constitution of a
to activityexistingin the physical
the Bible.
The
reformation movement
fare
and welhving being,serving for the preservation
inspiration to the Bible, denied ecclesiastical
of the species. In animals, behavior is largely
it to secondary importance.
authority or relegated
education
transform
instinctive. In man,
From
one
point of view the strugglebetween the
may
tive
instincts and introduce rational control. Instincstate churches of the reformers and the Roman
new
is subject matter
for psychological
behavior
Catholic church centered itself around the Scripture.
authorityto the
investigation.A scientific understanding of the
Having denied supreme
of instinctive action precludes the acceptnature
ance
church, the reformers located authority wholly
of the theory of specificmoral and reUgious
in the Bible.
Although "The Word of God" was
the
instincts. It is possible,however, to trace
used by Luther at the beginning with reference to
to be extended
the gospel,it subsequently came
genesis of the moral and religiousattitudes to
to the entire Scripture and thus gave
theological instinctive dispositionsand behavior, which tends
which
theory of inspiration

"

OF

DICTIONARY

227

RELIGION

to establish the biologicaltheory of the originof

ethics and religion. See Behavior;
Habit.

INSTITUTION."
(1) The official authorization
functions.
of a minister to perform spiritual
(2)The
establishing
by Christ of an ordinance or sacrament,
as the institution of the Lord's Supper.
INSTITUTIONAL

CHURCH."

given to a church, generallylocated in

has
district,which
incorporated into
varied forms of social ministry.

The name
crowded
its work

The type of church

which
is conventionaUzed
in American
life is that which was
developed while
Uving in the country and in the smaller
people were
The meeting house, the pastor, the sermon,
town.
the Sunday school,the prayer
meeting, are much as
hundred
Yet industrial
one
they were
years
ago.
communities
have grown
up with vastly different
problems from any that belonged to that early life.
Foreign peoples congregate in great groups in the
cities. CommerciaUzed
amusement,
running out
into open
tions
vice,is a most serious problem. Condiof unemployment, the necessity of relief,
the opportunities of helping people to keep an
independent status or to rehabilitate themselves
after misfortune,call for a much
varied service
more
than the church has been accustomed
to undertake.
The social settlement is an attempt to meet
these
conditions in certain aspects. The rescue
mission
after they have fallen
is an attempt to save
men
and to help them
their feet. The
to get upon
institutional church
is an
attempt to adapt the
great central religiousorganization to the actual
needs and, as far as possible,
to all the needs of the

community.
is the
1. The
religioustheory. Fundamental
idea that the gospel of Christ is the hope of salvation
in the present human
for the whole man
society
If then the church
as well as in the lifeafter death.
is to preach the gospelit must do its utmost
to make
effective its message.
Men
and women,
old and
live a rich lifeunless they are intelligent,
cannot
young,
therefore educational classes,
lectures,
reading
opportunitiesare organized; they need recreation
therefore
vital element of complete living,
as a very
the fullest possibleopportunitiesfor play, sport,
are
a
amusement,
provided; they need to make
be an
employment
Uving, therefore there may
perhaps a bank, and certainlyvocational
agency,
guidance and instruction. All of these are sanctified
by reUgion, and therefore appropriatereUgious
classes,meetings, talks,services are held.
2. The physicalplant. The institutional church
is distinguished
by its building. Neither the Gothic
cathedral nor
the New
England meeting house is
above
described.
adapted to the kind of work
be a distinct house of worship if desired,
There may
but there must
be a commodious
with large
building
for lectures, debates, forum
rooms
meetings,
dramatic
performances, moving pictures,smaller
for classes and social purposes, a gymnasium,
rooms
a bowhng
alley,if possiblea swimming pool. A
is very important, as these
biUiard and pool room
almost always associated with
are
interesting
games
vicious influences in the publicpool rooms.
3. The ministry. Such
a
vigorous and varied
leaders.
work requiresa corps of professional
Large
ship
be made
of volunteer services in the leaderuse
may
of boys' and girls'
of classes,
clubs,of athletic
be a minister over
But there must
etc.
activities,
the institution who
understands
the genius of the
enterprise. He must have several assistants trained
for the direction of the various branches
of the
work.
Such an organization is to be found very
well worked out in St. George'sparishin New York.
G. Soabes
Theodore
"

"

"

AND

ETHICS

Interchurch

Movement

INTELLECTUALISM."
The
doctrine of the
intellectin human
life. AppUed

of the
supremacy
to ethics,it means

the belief that

knowledgeis the

sole and sufficient criterionfor moral behavior,as in

the ethics of Socrates. Applied to reUgion, it
the conception that correct
means
theological doctrine is considered

formulation

of

religion.
pure
In philosophy,
it is the interpretation
of realityas
The defect
ultimately intellect or pure reason.
of intellectuahsm
is its failure to realize the unity
of life,including the emotional
and conative, as
well as the cognitiveelements.
INTEMPERANCE."
Excessive
indulgence of
the appetites; especiallyimmoderate
of alcouse
hoUc beverages. See Temperance
Movements.
INTENTION."
of the
(1) The fixed purpose
mind to accomplish a particularend.
ing
In determinthe moral character of an act intention is important
as
indicatingthe bearing of the will on the
of the priest
act.
(2) In R.C. usage, the purpose
the requirements of the church essential to
to fulfil
the validityof a sacrament.
INTERCESSION."
behalf of another

to

Pleading
mitigate or

or

praying

remove

on

adverse

penalty.
examples of intercession are famiUar.
there is a vivid sense
of judgIn religionwherever
ment
and penalty to be inflicted by God, prayer for a
merciful attitude is an inevitable expressionof love

judgment

or

Human

Official intercession
stand in closer relation
offer the
Priests may
intercession of the church on behalf of those in the
of the church.
care
Intercessoryprayer is the name
in which the needs of the
given to the pastoral
prayer
congregationare voiced.
In the Roman
Catholic and Greek Catholic
churches, intercession by angels and saints is held
to be possible. The Council of Trent declares that
"the saints who
reign together with Christ offer
The tenderness
for men."
to God
up their prayers
it especiallyappropriate to
of the Virgin makes
seek her intercession.
In Protestant theologyit has usually been held
to be wrong
to seek the intercession of the saints,
Christ
being affirmed to be the sole mediator
Smith
Gerald
between
and God.
Birney
man
for

the

condemned

person.

be made
by those who
may
to God than do ordinary men.

WORLD
MOVEMENT."
INTERCHURCH
A co-operativeeffort of the evangelicalchurches in
the necessary
to secure
the United States and Canada
for
and inspiration
of men,
resources
money,
the tasks at home and abroad.
had prepared
Believing that the world war
men's
minds
for religiousimpressions, removed
created an
barriers to missionary advance, and
trial,
atmosphere favorable to the readjustment of indus-

tives
representasocial,and international relations,
of the evangeUcal
boards
dentially
regardedthe time as proviopportune for organizinga co-operative

of
churches

the various
of America

movement.

While

in

no

sense

an

ecclesiastical

organizationnor an effort at organicChristian union

wfich might disturb the autonomy of any church
rary
or
board, this was projectedto perform the tempomission of securingcomprehensive surveys of all
the fields at home and abroad lyingwithin the range
with a view to obtaining from
of Christian interest,
to efficiently
the churches
the money
necessary
The
spectus
prograpple with the problems involved.
called for a united study of the world field,
cultivation of the home
a united budget, a united
gram
church, a united financial appeal,and a united proof

work.

Underwritten

by

enthusiastic

Interdict

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

228

of expertswas
set to work to
(4) That there is no intermediate state,but that
the bibhcal
The united financial appeal of
references are
the surveys.
the survivals of early
disclosed a. lack of confidence in a movement
and that the dead immediatelyenter
eschatologies,
bureaucratic
in its methods,
of development which
as
a
course
is determined
regarded by some
upon
by their moral attitudes and tendencies.
extravagant in its use of funds, and subversive of
denominationalism.
Shailer
Mathews
Lacking moral and financial
its program, leavingas its
INTERNATIONAL
support, it has abandoned
BIBLE
STUDENTS'
of valuable
substantial contribution
most
mass
a
ASSOCIATION."
See Millennial
Dawn.
in its incompletedsurveys.
data embodied
G. Mode
Peter
INTERNUNCIO."
(1) A representativeof the
INTERDICT.
A prohibitivedecree restraining Pope at smaller courts
in contrast to the nuncio
in a
of the R.C. church or the members
a member
(q.v.). (2) One who acts in the interval between
of the
certain territory
from enjoying the privileges
the recall of one
nuncio and arrival of another.
employed by the
church; a device sometimes
for
in
of
its
the days
temporal power
papacy
INTERPOLATION."
A statement
inserted in a
coercingprincesto submission.
manuscript or document
by a later copyistor editor
of interpreting
the document
usually with the purpose
INTEREST.
The
spontaneous direction of
in some
indicated in the
not
specificsense
attention toward
objects or ends of action.
identification of interpolationsis
original. The
All objectswhich call out emotion
are
likelyto
important in the critical study of rehgiousliterature
be interesting;that is, all objects and activities such as the Bible and Koran.
which
and
a
satisfythe instincts. Thus
arouse
in ner
is interested in food, a mother
hungry man
INTERPRETATION."
The art of unfoldingthe
in his trade.' 'Spontaneous
children,a workman
of spoken or written words.
It involves three
sense
natural
action
lines of
conversation
and the overt,
main branches
of knowledge
psychology,
history,
is called a
interests. What
reveal in individuals,
and philology.
natural bent, such as a zest for music or mechanical
pretation
Broadlyspeaking,the historyof biblical interof interest in the things peroperationsis a source
taining
the Church
be divided into two
m
may
to those fields. Acquired habits,as those
parts, the first extending from the composition of
become
also the basis of genuine
of one's profession,
the N.T. to the Reformation, and the second from
attention
of interest where
interests. The nature
the Reformation
to the present. In the first of
is non-voluntary is brought out
by comparing
these periodsinterpretation,
ive
being seriouslydefectit with experiencesin which attention is voluntary
times
in knowledge of the history of bibUcal
and is only held to the subject in hand
by effort.
and of the languages in which
the bibUcal books
with which
school boy remembers
the
The ease
a
were
written,was dominated by the behef that the
records of athletes in various sports as contrasted
text was
to be allegorized.In the second
period,
and dates of
to recall the events
with his inability
characterized increasingly
by investigationof the
is due to his interest in the former.
his historycourse
bibhcal
history, interpretation,
languages and
interest
Such
effective,spontaneous
gives the
of allegorizing,
having escaped from the burden
quality of play to the most serious tasks. Social
has been dominated
and more
more
by a scientific
and
have
much
with
do
the
to
sympathy
approval
In the first period Origen of Alexandria
spirit.
and
of
interest
in
one's
field.
depth
persistence
any
of
a thorough allegorist
(t254),was the interpreter
Edward
S. Ames
and
the
influence;
Syrians,
Diodore,
greatest
The name
INTERIM.
given to certain proposed
bishop of Antioch from 378,Theodore of Mopsuestia
Protestants
and
adjustments between the German
(t428),and John, bishop of Constantinople (t407),
the church of Rome
during the Reformation, e.g.,
the chief men
who vainly sought to stem the
were
that of Augsburg 1548.
tide of allegory
rational exegesis.
by a more

laymen,a largecorps
make
1920

"

"

"

"

INTERMEDIATE
STATE."
The
condition
of
death and the resurrection.
the dead between
condition
of the dead
The
immediately after
death has always interested humanity.
See Future
Men
have been concerned
of.
Life, Conceptions
with the possibilityof consciousness
and
moral
purification.The less speculativereligionshave
but have seen
the dead
not felt these difficulties,
proceed immediately to their eternal status, which
determined
in many
cases
by a divine judgment.
was
Christian
been
eschatology, however, has
estopped from such views by its expectation of a
in the future.
The
general resurrection sometime
questionof the state of the dead priorto that time
which
the Scripturesgive no distinct
is one
upon
information.
At least four views are more
or less
generallyheld:
entrance on the part of the
(1) The immediate
righteous into Paradise, while the wicked enter
the prehminary sufferingwhich will be completed
upon
when
they are given back their bodies.
(2) The sleep of the dead, which as the name
ness
that the dead are without consciousimphes, means
until summoned
from the grave by the resurrection.
have not
who
their salvation impossible,
into
preparationfor entrance

(3) Purgatory, in which

committed
are

Paradise.

sins which
cleansed in

make

persons

the 5th. century to the 15th. the reign

broken,
unallegorical
type of interpretationwas
and knowledge of the Bible sank to the
lowest level. Independent study of the text was
wholly lacking.
The second or modern
period of interpretation
ushered in by the enthusiastic study of Hebrew
was
From
of the

to
and Greek
contribution
of the Renaissance
a
bibhcal interpretation.
of the Reformation
The
age
had
in Calvin
(tl564) the first thorough
of allegorical
interpretation.But the
opponent
tyranny of ecclesiastical tradition still warped all
Calvin's included.
The tyranny was
what
someexegesis,
lessened in the 17th. century by RationaHsm,
and in the next two centuries by the development of
textual,hterary and historical criticism.
"

in the entire
era
been the last hundred
In this period the work has been stimulated
years.
enriched
coveries,
and
important archaeologicaldisDy
view of Nature, and by comparative
by the new
criticism has restored
reUgion. Lower
of the Scriptures,
text
the earliest ascertainable
and highercriticism has done much
for the historical
setting of the various bibhcal writings. During
has enjoyed a greater freedom
this era
interpretation
from ecclesiastical rule than ever
before.
As a result of this modern
investigationmany
of the older views of the Bible have been radically

By

far the

most

important

has
historyof interpretation

22"

DICTIONARY

its historical

modified, and

RELIGION

OP

for

meaning has been

and inspiringly
unfolded.
clearly

the first time

George
Gilbert
Holley
In the R.C. church the interval
INTERSTICE."
law between promotions
of time requiredby canon
from one order to a higher.
INTICHIUMA.
by certain

"

Elaborate

ceremonies

designed to
animals, in this instance the totem
and

tribes.

See

ducted
con-

primitive tribes of AustraUa,

increase the supply of edible
animals of the

Totemism.

INTOLERANCE."
Refusal or unwillingnessto
hold to beUefs at
endure or bear with others who
It arises from an exagvariance with one's own.
gerated
of loyaltyto ideas and a lack of social
sense
sympathy. It inevitablyturns reUgious devotion
into anti-socialcharmels.
That
INTROIT."
portion of R.C. Mass sung
the ministrant and clerics,
entering the church,
approach the altar;or a similar introductoryportion
of the service in any church.

AND

ETHICS

Ishtar

Although to the more

advanced thought the
Deity is everywhere present yet it is thought
invite his specialpresence

to

at the opening
the thought
omnipresence is not yet grasped,he must of
be called to the feast prepared for him.
course
In the stories of the Patriarchs in the book of Genesis
the building
of an altar is accompanied by a "calling
the name
of Yahweh"
upon
(Gen. 12:8, etc.).
Naaman
of
expected Elisha to call upon the name
Yahweh
in order to induce him to heal the leprosy
the Romans
it was
(II Kings 5:11). Among
thought necessary to call the divinityby his true
otherwise a prayer would be without effect.
name,
In Christian worship an
invocation properly
introduces the pubUc service. In the hturgical
Churches
a
special invocation is pronounced in
in order to induce the
consecratingthe Eucharist
Real Presence.
An invocation also accompanies the
laying on of handa at baptism and confirmation,
rites which impart the Holy Spirit.H. P. Smith
proper
of any
of his

solemn

act of

worship. Where

"

as

The examination of one's

own
thoughts, desires,ideals and other contents
used both in psychoof consciousness; a method
logical
analysisand reUgious self-discipline.

INTROSPECTION."

The

INTRUSION."
the property
encroachment
the Scottish
functions by

of encroachingupon

act

law, the illegal

ecclesiastical benefice; in
church, the assumption of pastoral
minister undesired
a
by the congregation.
of

on

others; in

canon

an

The philosophical
theory
principlesare immediately
apprehended as true independent of experience or
demonstration.
Applied to ethics it involves the
immediate
apprehensionof right and wrong, and
the a prioriability of conscience, viewed
a
as
specialfaculty,to apprehend the moral bearing of
action. The
apparent lack of intuitional
any
ethics among
primitivepeoples, and the
many
divergence of ethical standards at various periods
and
various
peoples argue
against the
among
INTIHTIONALISM."
that certain universal

IRAN.

See Persia, Religions

"

IRENAEUS."
Christian leader

op.

Bishop of Lyons, influential

of the 2nd. century and

most
the heretical sects.
important ancient writer upon
Born in Asia (ca. 135-42) he was
in his youth a
hearer and perhaps a pupil of Polycarp of Smyrna.
Soon after the persecutionof the Galhcan churches
in A.D. 177-78,Irenaeus became bishop of Lyons, and
between
181 and 189 he wrote his important work,
Against Heresies,aimed especiallyagainst Valentinus and his Gnostic school.
He died about a.d.
The only other complete work of his extant
200.
is that In Proof of the Apostolic Preaching, discovered
in 1904.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
IRENICS.
^An exposition of theology which
seeks to unify Christendom
by emphasizing the
common
beUefs,and minimizing differences.
"

IRISH
ARTICLES."
A statement
of Calvinistic
faith comprising 104 articles adopted by the Irish
in 1615, and apparentlya
Episcopalian Church
Confession.
forerunner of the Westminster

IRISH, RELIGION

OF."

See Celtic Religion.

theory.
issue
between
Pope Gregory VII. and Henry IV. of
Germany involvingthe problem of the relation of
Church
and State.
Involved
in the feudal system
servants of the
by landed possessions,
bishops were
king and almost as much a caste of warriors as the
nobles.
In revolt againstfeudal conditions Gregory
aimed
church
to rescue
patronage from worldUng
hands and (1075) laid the penalty of the bann on
lay bestowal of clerical office. The vast
any
of feudal
financial and
bishops
miUtary power
if they became
would
be lost to the crown
only
The king
ensued.
and war
officers of the papacy
banned, deposed, humiliated but restored by
and
at Canossa, drove Gregory from Rome
penance
The
promised
comdispute was
appointed a rival pope.
in 1122 (Concordat of Worms) after which
the pope
religiousfunctions,and the king
gave
politicaland property rights to one canonically
F. A. Christib
elected in the king'spresence.

INVESTITURE

The

INVITATORIUM."

ritual invitation to

participatein Divine Worship.

frequentlythus used.
INVOCATION."

divinity.

An

CONTROVERSY."

The

act

The

95th

Psalm

of callingupon

is

the

In the Anglican and Roman

IRREGULARITY."
churches,an impediment to assuming the officesof
larities
holy orders,arisingfrom crime or defect. Irreguobstructingpromotionfrom
may be partial,
to a higherorder or the performance of a
a lower
specffic
i.e.,
office;or total,
preventingthe takingof
_

orders at all.

(1792-1834)."A vigorous
IRVING, EDWARD
preacher,at firstin the church of Scotland,then in
doctrines,
London, where his introduction of new
religiousactivities and church officersled to his
expulsionfrom the church in 1833. The apocalyptic
ecstatic
millenarianism
of the N.T., and eventually
such as speaking with tongues and
giftsof the Spirit,
See Catholic
healings,were
approved by him.
Apostolic

Church.

OF." An
ASCENSION
apocalyptic
of early Christianity (ca. 200) doubtless
derived from Jewish sources.

ISAIAH,

book

MARTYRDOM
ISAIAH,
graphic work of Judaism
of the prophet Isaiah.
ISHTAR.

"

The

Babylonian and

OF." A
pseudepidescriptiveof the death

of the
goddess, par excellence,

Assyrianpantheon.

She

is the

Isiivara

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

290

ETHICS

of lifein the fertility

cult,the goddess of
In astrologyshe was identified with
love and war.
A primitive Semitic
the planet Venus.
goddess,
in all the
various names
she finds a place under
rehgionsof western Asia. See Mother-Goddesses.

againstwhich they fended themselves by

witchcraft,
all this primitivesupercharms and speUs. Nor was
stition
of Moses;
left behind with the appearance
of the struggle of the
it died hard; and much
with
due to the tenacity^
advancing religionwas
in the
which these hoary institutions held their own

The general term

for the supreme
ISHVARA.
God
of religiousworship in India as contrasted
with the philosophicaland
quahtylessBrahman,
is specifically
The word
the impersonal Supreme.
causal reaUty
the immanent
to mean
used sometimes
Ishvara
In the sectarian religions
of the cosmos.
is the supreme
personalGod.

social fabric of the Hebrews.

mother

"

ISIDORE
OF
SEVILLE
(ca.560-636)."
efficient
an
Spanish ecclesiastic and encyclopaedist,
His Encycloand
erudite author.
administrator
paedia
of the Sciences was one of the ablest and
most
influentialworks of the Middle Ages.

ISIS. ^The most

outstanding goddess of the
rehgion of the ancient Egyptians, wife of Osiris
of Horus, symboHzing fertihty.See
and Mother
Egypt, Religion
op; Mother-Goddesses.
"

ISLAM.
The
of the religionof
correct name
is
Mohammed.
root
The
meaning of the word
"submission"
and impUes complete resignationto
fore
the wiU of God on the part of the believer who thereis called a Moslem.
See Mohammedanism.
"

^A remarkable division of Shi'ite

ISMA'ILlS.
ibn Maymun
early
Islam established by Abdallah
largelyNeoin the 9th. century. In theologyit was
an
In avowed
Platonism.
attempt
purpose it was
Iman
to prepare for the revelation of the concealed
mine
(q V. ) of the house of Ali. Its method was to underto its
men
the existingreligions
by initiating
after destroying their faith by
secret organization
doubts.
There
seven
were
(or nine) grades of
bound to secrecy
initiation and all members
were
The result for individual
and absolute obedience.
to have been a complete emancipation
religionseems
bonds and scruplesand entire
from old religious
"

devotion to a great religio-political

conspiracy.
Karmatian
The
tamia
uprising in southern Mesopowhich
spreadto Arabia and threatened the
of the Abbasids was
supported by the
supremacy
the power behind the Fatimid
Isma'ilis. They were
dynasty of Africa. Two sects remained after the
the Fatimids
the
breaking of their hold over
Druses (q.v.)who stillworship Al-Hakim, the sixth
ized
Fatimid kahf , as divine and the Assassins who terrorEurope from the
Asia, Africa and eastern
fortresses of Persia until the Mongol
mountain
out.
invasion stamped them
Groups of Isma'ilis
stillexist in India,Arabia and Egypt.
"

OF."
faith and
The
RELIGION
ISRAEL,
people from the time of
worship of the Hebrew
Moses
to the days of the Maccabees.
longed
beHebrews
The
Religion.
I. Pre-Mosaic
to the great Semitic family. Prior to their
organizationwithin that group into a separateunit
with its own
characteristicreligion,
they shared the
Semitic reUgiousideas and practices. See
common
op.
Nothing that was common
Semites, Religion
But they were
to them.
to the Semites was
foreign
at this stage primitive
Semites, and must not be
in religionand
credited with all the attainments
"

^The Hebrews
Religion.
II. Pre-Prophetic
to have entered into and possessed Canaan
Amarna
the
different periods. From
at
two
letters which tell us of invading Habiri and from
traditions
the
regarding Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob we infer that there were Hebrews in Canaan
It seems
probable
as earlyas the 15th. century b.c.
that these held their residence there continuously
in from
until joined by a second group that came
The entry into
the South in the time of Moses.
Canaan involved a great change in the reUgion of
Israel. The nomads
from the desert had to learn
civiUzation.
the arts and sciences of an agricultural
But reUgion is a part of civilization and changes in
Nomadic
the latter bring changes in the former.
to agricultural
religion.
religionhad to give way
But the teachers of agriculture
worshipers of
were
the BaaUm
and their whole
practice
agricultural
ites
the IsraelHence
shot through with Baalism.
was
"

seem

inevitably learned agriculture

,and Baalism
together. During this period of initiation Israel
took up many

institutionswhich

to be permanent.

came

Among these were such things as the local

of the
and many
the agricultural
feasts,
sanctuaries,
in the
social customs
and laws later embodied
Code
The
Code
Covenant
(see Law, Hebrew).
of Hammurabi
layat the basis of the economic
(q.v.)
and thus contributed to the
and social lifeof Canaan
law.
foundations of Hebrew
The Mosaic
movement
brought to the Hebrews
ethical reinforcement
(see
an
alreadyin Canaan
accession of enthusiasm
Decalogue) and a new
is
this
for and
loyaltyto the god Yahweh.^ It
and
his significance
contribution that gives Moses
of him as the
the traditional recognition
justifies
law and reUgion. There
real founder
of Hebrew
the worship
between
now
set in a conscious struggle
Yahweh
and that of the Canaanite
of the Hebrew
BaaUm.
It was
life-or-death conflict settled
a
only after centuries of combat
by the total defeat
Yahweh
of the BaaUm.
finallytook unto himself
Two
all the functions of the BaaUm.
tributed
things conto the expansion of Yahweh's
much
power.
the hard-fought battles which gave Israel
One was
the reign of
made
her foes and
over
supremacy
David
glorious.Yahweh thus proved himself the
The other was
the disruption of
God of battles.
This created
the kingdom after Solomon's death.
^

Yahweh
situation in that two peoplesclaiming
God
were
now
independentlyorganized as
as
nations and were
arrayed in battle one againstthe
of two nations,
could be God
If Yahweh
other.
why not of many? This situation gave food for
toward
thought and helped along the movement
a

new

monotheism.
The periodduring
Religion.
III. Prophetic
which prophetic
activitywas the dominant influence
in the Hebrew
tury
reUgion lasted from the 8th. cenand the end of the
B.C. to the fallof Jerusalem
Under
the leadershipof
state in 586 b.c.
Hebrew
and the
the prophets the conflict between Yahweh
BaaUm
carried to a successful issue. Not only
was
sort was
opposed by the
so, but idolatryof every
"

possessedby contemi"orary
prophets and an uncompromising monotheism was
One factor that
reached by the time of Jeremiah.
already far advanced in the
aided greatlyin the furtherance of the monotheistic
gods;
They worshiped many
in Western
Asia of the
and
ancestor-worship idea was the appearance
they practiced necromancy
a
in bondage to taboo (q.v.);they
great unifying
(q.v.);they were
Assyrian Empire. This was
familiar with
followed after blood-revenge; they feared demons
force,and it made the minds of men
the idea of a singleworld-ruler. The
victims of sorcery and
great task
and they were
and devils,
civiUzation which were
Babylonians,who were
scale of civiUzation.

231

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Israel,Religion of

the activityof
to interpret
This emphasis upon
law and ritual was shared
prophetswas
Assyria in world-historyfrom the point of view of
by succeeding prophets,e.g., Isa. 56-66, Haggai
Yahweh.
did
this by
Malachi.
They
making Assyria and
Zechariah, and
But
naturally
Yahweh's
other leading exponents of the importance and
agent for the punishment of Israel's sins.
This was
necessityof right ritual were
a long step toward
as
the priests,
regarding Yahweh
who now
into their own.
and only God.
the supreme
came
Some time during the exile
A second aspect of the religionof the prophets the Holiness Code
(Lev. chaps. 17-26) was
lated
formuits emphasis upon the ethical element in reUgion.
was
along the fines laid down by Ezekiel. This
This was brought out in contrast to and conflict with
was
expanded and modified from time to time
until the full PriestlyCode was
the rituahstic conception of reUgion representedby
produced. When
this development was
the priesthood. The
prophets did not wish to
nearing completion, Ezra
but they insisted that ritual apart
eliminate ritual,
from Babylon with a copyofthe law as it then
came
could
avail nothing. This
from
stood and
secured
its adoption by the Jews
right morals
of
The
intended
positiongives imperishable glory to the prophets Jerusalem.
to
PriestlyCode was
Whereas
to Jeremiah.
from Amos
the popular mind
safeguard the conduct of Jewry so adequately that
the
of Israel,
there might be no
as firstof all God
thought of Yahweh
loophole for the entry of sin.
prophets held that he was primarilyGod of righteousnessOnly by the full observance of the whole law could
the favor of God
be guaranteed. This
(cf.Amos
5:23-25; Isa. 1:10-17; Mic.
heavy
not regarded by its devotees as
load of ritual was
Israel, his chosen people, must
6:6-8). Even
fallif they failin recognizingtheir moral obligations oppressively burdensome; on
the contrary they
But
ethics knows
to their fellows.
national
no
delightedin its observance,as is witnessed by many
the prophets' emphasis upon
limitations.
Hence
psalms (e.g.,Pss. 119; 19:8-15). Indeed, under
much
to
the attainment
ethics contributed
of
the ruthless hand of Antiochus Epiphanes, law-

of the

monotheism.

lovingJews

the prophets were

forward
carrying religion
with such giant strides,
the priestswere
not
wholly idle. They furnished to a considerable
the party of opposition to the prophets'
extent
and thus by their conservatism tempered
progress
the zeal of the prophets with discretion.
But more
than this,they were
interests.
busy with their own
The erection of Solomon's
temple had given Jemsalem and its priesthoodthe leadingplace among
the
shrines of Yahweh.
Here inevitablyafter the fall
of the northern
kingdom in 721 b.c. the worship
its richest and
of Israel found
most
adequate
here preserved and
expression. The ritual was
from
time to time and
enriched
the priesthood
here came
to exercise great influence upon
public
of
thought and royal policy. After the escape
Jerusalem in 701 b.c. from the destruction wrought
by Sennacherib upon the rest of Judah, the prestige
of the temple was
This
immeasurably enhanced.
the only shrine not desecrated by the Assyrian
was
Thus naturallythe way
hordes.
was
prepared for
the great reform in the days of Josiah (621 B.C.).
By this movement, based upon the Deuteronomic
Code, the temple was made the exclusive shrine of
Yahweh
and thus the Hebrew
was
religion
put in a
to free itselffrom the BaaUstic corruption
fair way
that always attended
the worship at the local
shrines. This reform
nomic
represents in the Deuterolaw a priestlyrehgion that had learned
onomy
much
from the prophets. The spiritof Deuteris genuinelyphilanthropicand humanitarian.
ritualism and
But in its apparent triumph over
legaHsm, prophecy has lost its birth-right.For
with the adoption of Deuteronomy as the law-book
of Judah, the_
put in the
religionof the spiritwas
of becoming the religion
of the book.
way
Judaism
The term
is here used
IV. Judaism.
the reUgion of the Jews from the Exile to
to connote
It will here be treated
the Maccabaean
Kingdom.
ing
from the point of view of three of its most outstandviz.,(1)Legalism,(2)Messianism and
interests,
(3) Universalism.
Apocalypticism,
weU
been
called
has
1. Legalism. Ezekiel
"the Father of Judaism."
He marked
out clearly
leaders traveled.
the lines along which later religious
He gave the individual due recognition
as responsible
in the sight of God
only for himself and as not
involved hopelesslyin the sins of his progenitors.
He aided mightily in stamping the consciousness of
sinfulness upon
the mind of Judaism.
He formulated
definite Messianic
a
involving a
program
gious
complete system of law for the control of the relilifeof the Messianic community.

precepts of the Law.

While

"

"

went

2. Messianism

to death

and

rather than

violate the

Apocalypticism. The
"

term

Messianism is here used to designate Israel's hope

for a blessed and gloriousnational future.
Ezekiel,
have seen, confidentlylooked forward to and
we
planned for a Jewish state to be re-established in
Palestine,but on a thoroughlyecclesiastical basis
(Ezek. chaps. 40-48). As a preparation for this
as

state,he foresees the total destruction of the foes of

Israel and of Yahweh
in the valley of Ungiddo.
This victory is accomplished wholly by Yahweh
himself; Israel has only to bury the slain foe.
With the appearance
of Cyrus, a new
voice sounded
the exiles confidently
annoimcing deliverance
among
and return
(Isa.chaps. 40-55). Here too Israel
has only to receive the blessings
wrought out for her
who through her is revealinghis power
by Yahweh
and glory to the world
at large. Through
this
revelation the nations will be brought humbly and
gratefully to accept the leadership of Israel
and
Yahweh.
But
the
relativelyfew embraced
opportunity to return, and conditions of life in
of
Palestine were
hard.
Then
after the death
Cambyses, King of Persia, the Persian Empire
seemed
in danger of dissolution.
Again did the
to preparation for the
prophetic voice summon
coming of the Messianic age
Haggai and Zechariah
united in urging the building of the temple as the
weh's
indispensableprerequisiteto the bestowal of Yahfavor and in pointingto Zerubbabel,governor
of Judah and builder of the temple, as the Messianic
King. Similar hopes perhaps centered in Nehemiah
outlook the
(Neh. 6:6,7). The darker the political
God was
equal to
brighterdid these hopes burn.
him.
His
demands
that might be made
upon
any
needed not the puny
strengthof his people.
power
So apocalypticand messianic expectationsflourished
in such
in successive generationsand found utterance
writingsas Joel,Zech. chaps.9-14, Enoch, and Daniel.
ism
3. Universality.The legalistic
aspect of Judawas
essentiallyand intenselyparticularistic.
to keep Judaism
Its aim and effort were
unspotted
not lacking
world.
But there were
from the pagan
The
in Judaism
those who had a broader outlook.
prophecies in Isa. 56-66 distinctlyrecognize loyal
reUgiously equal to
proselytes as in every way
native Jews.
The book of Ruth
protests against
exclusivism
narrow
by pointing to the beautiful
the
character of Ruth, the Moabitess,
grandmother
himself.
Jonah
of the greatest of kings, David
pleads with Jewry to recognize its obfigationas
Yahweh's
missionary to the world at large which
literature knows
loves. The Wisdom
Yahweh
no
"

"

Israfil

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

national borders but deals with man

and not
as man
Yet the later Wisdom
as Jew and Gentile.
writings,
of Solomon, fell imder
the sway
of
e.g., Wisdom
with
the law of
legalism and identified wisdom
Moses.
The outcome
of legalismwas
Pharisaism.
The spirit
of universality
found expressionagain in
J. M. Powis
Smith
Christianity.
ISRAFIL.
One of the four archangelsof Islam.
His chief function is to transmit the commands
of
God.
At the end of the world he will blow the
trumpet-blastsof destruction and of resurrection.
"

the symbolfor the oldest

J. In O.T. criticism,
"

document
Yahweh

the name
Hexateuch
in which
See Biblical
Jehovah) is used for God.
Hexateuch.

of

(
Criticism;
=

the

The Syrian Monophysite church,

JACOBITES."
named
from
Jacobus Baradacus
(d. 578), the
The
who
fathered the movement.
Syrian monk
also formerly Jacobites.
Egjrptian Monophysites were
There is bitter animosity between
them
and
the Nestorians.
so

AND

ETHICS

ITINERARIUM."

232

In

R.C.

usage

prepared for the use of clergy and

departing for a journey.

prayer

when

See

IZADS."

form
of
monks

Yazatas.

IZANAGI
female creator

IZANAML"
and
The
male
and
deities of Shinto who
by physical
generation produced the islands of Japan. In
various ways
they then created the gods to whom
they gave the control of the world.

III. Ethics.
Suppressionof karma is brought
about
by a hard disciphneof the body, by the
control of the senses
and
thoughts. Salvation
makes the soul eternallyfree,conscious,and intelligent.
The ascetic must
take the five great vows
of
"

non-kilhng,truthfulness,non-steaUng, complete
chastity, and rehnquishment of all possessions.
The

twelve

of the layman are strict,

vows
but not
The former lead to release in less time.
In Jainism there is a much
closer relation between
the monks
and laymen than in Buddhism.
IV. Ritual.
The
ritual (which has approximated
to the idolatryof Hinduism) is based on
for the founder
reverence
and his twenty-three
(mythical?) predecessors. Images of these are
found in the temples.
V. Sects.
Jainism splitinto the two
sects of
Digambaras (who go naked) and Qvetambras (who
white garments). The
wear
former are
closer to
the originalpracticeof the founder.
One branch
of the latter (Sthanakavasis) is non-idolatrous;
has no temples or images.
The literature in its present form is not earlier
than the 5th. century a.d., though much
of it may
be based on older traditions.
W. E. Clark
so

severe.

"

At Puri in Orissa there is a

JAGANNATH."
famous temple guarding a rude image of Krishnacalled Jagannath, "lord of the world."
Vishnu
festival the image is drawn
At a great annual
of worshippers.
through the streets by thousands
stories of the voluntary death of devotees
Western
under the wheels of the car are overdrawn.
Many
accidental deaths may
have occurred in such crowding
multitudes but self-destruction has no reUgious
value in Vaisnaivism.
See Yahweh.

JAHWEH."

The rehgion of a sect founded

JAINISM.
by
Vardhamana
"Great
Hero
(latercalled Mahavira
Jina "or Conqueror"), an
older contemporary
of
Buddha.
born
According to tradition he was
of the chief of a warrior clan,
the son
599 B.C.
as
renounced
the world when
about thirty years old,
spent fourteen years in the practiceof asceticism
and of meditation on the misery of the world, and
returned
to preach salvation as he had
found
it.
Thp present membership of the sect is about
"

1,250,000.
Jainism used to be regarded
researches have
Recent

of dhism.
Budclearlyproved its

as

sect

complete independence.
I. Relation

Buddhism.

to

"

Jainism

Uke

dhism
Bud-

ritual and
sacred
rejected the Brahman
books, and laid emphasis on ethics,but unlike
Buddhism
of
emphasized asceticism as a means
salvation,and carried the doctrine of ahinsd (nonto an extreme
it
killing)
degree. Unhke Buddhism
was
philosophical,
and, keeping its grip on Ufe by a
firm conviction of the realityof the world,did not
become
so mystical in practice.
The universe is made
of
up
There
souls in animals,
are
The
plants,air,fire,water, earth, and minerals.
essential quahty of souls is consciousness. Nonsoul consists of the independent substances matter,
time, space, the principlesof action and inaction.
There is no creator god. Gods in immense
numbers
graded) exist,but men
(elaborately
through good
deeds may
become
gods, and the gods are subject
to transmigration. The world of matter
is eternal,
elements
developing by the power of its own
(the
the bondage of
atoms). Karma
(action) causes
souls to matter.
is himself responsiblefor all
Man
the good and bad of life.
II. Philosophy.
soul and
non-soul.

"

"

of two of the apostles

JAMES.
(1) The name
of Jesus, often called "James
the Greater," and
"James
the Less."
lem,
(2) The first bishop of Jerusaidentified with
James
the Less.
by some
(3) One of the brothers of Jesus.
(4) One of the
New
Testament
epistles,
traditionally
regarded as
written by James
the Less.
"

JAMES, WILLIAM
(1842-1910)." Son of Henry
James, the Swedenborgiantheologian,and brother
of Henry James, the novelist.
He
was
early a
teacher of physiology,
and later professorof philosophy
and psychology at Harvard
University. A
voluminous
his
is
r
eadable
writer,
style delightfully
and his expositionclear and skillful. His fame rests
his great work, Principles of Psychology
upon
and upon
(1890),which has become
his
a
classic,
he called
championship in philosophy of what
"radical
empiricism" and
"pragmatism." His
most
important writingson the latter subjectsare
The
Will to Believe (1897), Pragmatism (1907),
A
Pluralistic Universe
(1909), The Meaning of
Truth (1909),Some
Problems of Philosophy (1911),
Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912) He imparted
to the psychologicalstudy of religion
a new
vitality
by his The Varieties of ReligiousExperience (1902).
His philosophicalwritings are
suggestive rather
than systematic, his chief note
being a vigorous
.

anti-intellectualism.

A. Clinton

Watson

A
reform
based
JANSENISM.
movement,
an
attempted revival of the teaching of
Augustine, which seriouslythreatened the unity of
"

upon

the

French

Church

in the

17th.

and

18th.

turies.
cen-

DICTIONARY

233

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Japan, Religions of

order in which missionary

Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638),Dutch theologian
was
begun :
activity
Protestant
of America, 1859
Episcopal Church
(Louvain), having early interested himself with
of
and
Rev.
John
missionaries
the
having
(first
study
Augustine,
Duvergier ia
Ligginsand Rev. CM.
Jesuit
WilUams); PresbyterianChurch North, U.S.A.,
subsequentlyreacted from the dominant
1859
(firstmissionary J. C. Hepburn, M.D.);
Semi-Pelagianism (q.v.), wrote
his^Augustinus
Dutch Reformed
of America, 1859 (Drs.
Church
cipitated
(pubhshed posthumously,1640). This work prelowers S. R.
conflict between
his folG. F.
Brown, D. B. Simmons, and
a century-long
Cathohc
Persistent efforts (Jesuits: Verbeck); Roman
and the Jesuits.
Church, 1859 (the
made
scriptionfirst priestswere
sent out nominally to minister to
to force Jansenist subPapacy: Court) were
Union
to five propositions
purportingto represent European CathoUcs in Japan); Woman's
from his Augustinus
Jansen's heresies,
gational),
MissionarySociety,1871; American Board (Congreaa extracted
1869 (Dr. D. C. Green); EngUsh Church
and formulated
by his critics. The followers of
the
to condemn
Missionary Society,1865; PresbyterianChurch of
Jansen, while expressingwillingness
involved in these propositions, England (operatingin Formosa), 1869; Russian
heretical implications
wards
that such imphcations could properlybe
Orthodox Church, 1870 (NicolaiKasatkin,afterdenied
from Jansen's work.^The long and bitter
drawn
Archbishop of Japan); American Baptist
Brown) ;
controversy resolves itself into an interpretationForeign Mission Society,1872 (Dr. Nathan
Canadian
Involved
(operating in
first of Augustine and second of Jansen.
Presbyterian Mission
in it also is the divergent attitude toward religion Formosa), 1872; Society for the Propagationof
Church
of
hand
the one
conceived on
by the Jesuits, the Gospel, 1873; Methodist Episcopal
as

logical
^

under
and on the other by those minds which were
the influence of the mysticaltendencies involved in
Augustine,tendencies which led on, ultimately,to
H. Walker
Henry
the Reformation.

the U. S. and Methodist

Japan Book and Tract

Church

of

Canada,

1873

"

Society,1874; Evangelical
Association,1876; Reformed Church in the U.S.,
Methodist
Protestant
Church,
1880;
1879;
Churches of Christ Mission, 1883; Presbyterian
in the U.S. (South), 1885; American
A Roman
origi- Church
nally
god of beginnings,
JANUS.
Church
Christian Convention, 1887; Canadian
the doorway of the house or the gateway of the
acter
Mission
Baptist
(Anglican), 1888; Southern
city. The door and gate acquired a sacred charConvention, 1889; Unitarian Church, 1889; Unim
earlyAryan times securingthose within an
versaHst Mission, 1890; Scandinavian
The
god is repreJapan AlUsented
opening out to the unknown.
with two faces. He was
appealed to at the
Church, 1892;
1891; EvangeUcal Lutheran
ance,
United Brethren in Christ,1895; Salvation Army,
and year and on imderbeginning of day, month
1895; Y.M.C.A., 1896; Seventh Day Adventist
taking important projects. The first month of the
Church, 1896; Oriental Missionary Society,1901;
year bears his name.
Band, 1905;
Y.W.C.A., 1905; Japan Evangelistic
I. The
lic
Christian
of the
Literature Society (an organ
TO."
Old CathoJAPAN, MISSIONS
Federated Missions of Japan), 1912; Australian
Mission
(1549-1640). Foreign intercourse
Church Mission, 1914.
with Japan began with the arrival of Portuguese
of the different Protestant Missionary
Most
merchant ships in 1542, during the reign of Goof
bodies are organically
related in "The Conference of
Nara
Tenno
(1526-57). Close in the wake
Federated Missions of Japan," a body that exercises
the three Jesuits,Xavier, Torres,
came
commerce
and indispensableinfluence in co-ordinating
a wide
and Fernandez, who landed at Kagoshima, August
and unifying Christian missions in Japan.
15, 1549, to be followed shortly by Dominican,
The early part of the modern
missionaries. The
period between
Augustinian and Franciscan
1859 and the removal of the anti-Christian edicts
early reception on the part of the Japanese was
in 1873 was
Japan
naturally one of slow and difficult
favorable and by the year 1582 southwest
The
two hundred churches.
expansion. The firstJapanese convert was baptized
dotted with some
was
The firstProtestant Japanese church was
at the time of greatest in 1864.
of communicants
number
tianity
After 1872 Chrisin 1872.
ures organizedat Yokohama
development has been variouslyestimated in figto
passed through a periodof popularity,
ranging between 300,000 and 1,500,000.
the
reaction.
become
to
about
be followed immediately by an anti-foreign
Christianity seemed
A steady and
suddenly the
dominant
essentiallysound development has
reUgion of Japan when
the suspicion of the Shogun,
continued since the opening of the 20th. century.
fell under
Mission
Present church
membership, both Protestant and
Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1585-1598) and Tokugawa
Cathohc,isin round numbers 240,000. Government
cution
perseleyasu (1603-1605),and a periodof severe
This officialattack on Christianity attitude has changed greatly since prior to 1873,
set in.
as is evidenced by the fact that in March, 1912,the
continued
with increased severityunder the second
(1605- government called a national conference of reprethird Tokugawa
and
Shogun, Hidetada
sentatives
of Christianity,
Buddhism and Shinto and
1623) and lemitsu (1623-1650),and by the year 1640
"

"

of
official recognition
extinction of the Christian
what
amounts
to an
had led to the practical
gave
reUgions.
Church
on
a par with these other two
a
Christianity
as
pubHc force in Japan. The causes
D. C. HOLTOM
(1) the fear
mainly pohtical,
of persecutionwere
centuries
OF." For many
merelv the enteringwedge
JAPAN, RELIGIONS
that Christianity
was
(Shin,Ju,
of a foreigndomination, and (2) the effect of the
Shinto, Confucianism and Buddhism
Buisu),have been considered the chief rehgionsof
poHcy of centralization adopted under the Tokugawa
of
Japan, the main fountain heads of moral teaching
regime, which aimed to prevent the recurrence
rebellion (1637for the people. Of these,however, Confucianism
such disturbances as the Amakusa
attained the position of
{Jukyo) in Japan never
38) in which Christianitywas made the instrument
a true rehgion; but remained a moral code especially
of political
protestagainstthe Shogunate.
came for the scholars and the hterary class. Shinto and
Missions
(1859-1921). Japan beII. Modern
less mutual
absorption,
or
again a field of Christian missionaryactivity Buddhism, in more
immediately after the opening of the land to foreignformed the dual rehgionof Japan, uncontested by
intercourse subsequent to the visit of Perry m
any until the coming of Christianity.Christianity's
of treaties of trade and
first entrance
to the coimtry, in the 16th. century,
1853 and the establishment
but short-hved; its later coming, at
dramatic
in 1859.
was
commerce
The_ various denominations
ing
intercourse in
societiesmaintainthe opening of the Empire to foreign
and the most important religious
work in Japan are grouped below in the chrono1858, has continued until today so that the dual
"

Japan, ReGgions
of
religion

of

the land is

now

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

clearly
beingsuperseded

by what has been called a triplegroup:

Shinto,
Exclusive of Christian
Buddhism, and Christianity.
communities
all Japanese are nominallyBuddhist
time they are adherents of Shinto.
and at the same
I. Shinto
is indigenous to Japan, a natural
growth of the primitive faith. Under
the name
of cults for the worship
are grouped a great variety
of Kami
or
Chief
gods countless in number.
these is the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu, the
among
of the Imp"erial
ancestress
Family, enshrined at Ise.
of her relatives and descendAmong others are many
ants,
great national patriots,
generalsand others of
_

and
distinction,

number
large

of various natural
objects,animate and inanimate.
There are in the
whole
Empire 180,815 Shinto shrines. They are
classifiedas state, national,prefectural,
district,
villageshrines,
etc.,and are supportedby their
units.
respective
government
In 1868,Shinto shrines,
as distinctfrom Buddhist
temples,were placed under the supervisionof the
central government, and have been held distinct
from popular Shinto as institutionsfor the cultivation
of patriotismand the maintenance
of historic
reKcs

rather

to

the

Temple

ETHICS

AND

234

populace.The

head-quartersis Chionin

Kyoto. Temples,8,352. JPriests6,417.

4. Rinzai Shu, Sodo Shu, and Obaku
Shu.
These
three sects are
of Zen
order, which put
emphasis up"on the enlightenment of mind
and
stoicism of character. It was
the reUgion of the
miUtary class,and thus contributed not a little to
the development of Bushido.
The sect was
duced
introfrom China by Dogen in 1227 a.d.
Rinzai:
Temples, 6,082. Priests 4,369; Sodo: Temples,
14,226. Priests 11,024; Obaku: Temples, 525.
m

"

"

333.
Priests,
5. Shin Shu.
Founded
by Shinran,a disciple
of Honen
in the first part of the 13th. century.
He proclaimedthat the beUevers can
attain salvation
by faith or by simple repetitionof the holy
It is the most
of Amida.
name
popularand widely
spread of all Buddhist sects in Japan. A special
characteristicof the Shin sect is its abolition of the
practiceof ceUbacy among
priestsand of the ban
the clergy's
upon
eating flesh. Its head-quarters
are the two greattemples.East and West
Hongwanji
in Kyoto. The
sect supports foreign missions
in
"

America

and

China.

Temples,

19,642. Priests,

than

for truly reUgious purposes.

14,874.
Shinto is divided into thirteen
6. Nichiren Shu.
Popularor religious
^Alsocalled Hokki, the holy
with
number
of churches or guilds. These
sects
for it proclaims salvation through the praisa
flower,
ing
and chantingthe name
supported by the voluntary contributionsof
are
of the Sacred Scripture
their adherents.
the Sutra of the Lotus of the True Law.
Next to the
These sects,with the number of their preachers, Shin sect Nichiren is the most
democratic
of all
76,635 in all,are as follows: (1) Shindo, 8,659; Buddhist sects. The founder is Nichiren, who
"

"

(2) Kurozumi, 4,089; (3)Shusei,8,380; (4) Taisha,

5,251; (5)Fuso, 2,910; (6)Jikko,2,797;(7) Taisei,
3,310; (8) Shinju,3,744; (9) Ontake, 9,068; (10)
Shinn, 2,098; (11) Misoffi,806; (12) Kmktoo,
1,181; (13) Tenn, 21,342.
II. Buddhism

died in 1282. Temples, 5,022. Priests,

3,871.
7. Yudsu-nembutsu
The
Shu
Shu.
Ji
and
former was
founded by Ry5nin in 1124 a.d.
and
the latter by Ippen in 1275, being the latest sect
in Japan. Yudsu- Nembutsu. Temples, 361. Priests,
"

first introduced to Japan in

117.
Ji. Temples, 495.
Priests,335.
8. Hosso Shu and Kegon Shu.
Kinmei, 552 a.d., when the
Two
of the six
King of Kudara, Korea, sent as presents to the
sects introduced in the Nara
Period from China,
smallest
Emperor of Japan Buddhist images and scriptures the oldest and
at
Hosso:
present.
with a letter in which he recommended
Buddhism
14.
Temples, 43. Priests,
Kegon: Temples, 32.
excellent of all teachings."
as "the most
Priests,17.
A fierce struggle followed between
the party
III. Christianity.
Francis
the
Xavier was
first preacher of Christianity
opposed to the worship of alien deities and the
in Japan. Roman
with
CathoUcism
party favoring the adoption of the new faith,
spread rapidlyin the southern part
not a little bloodshed which
of the Empire numbering at one time hundreds
finallyended in the
of
Its most
and
victory of Buddhism.
earnest
thousands of converts, including
not a few Daimyo
adherent
found in Shotoku Taishi
powerful
and others of rank.
was
The
movement,
however,
had
control of the government
because of pohticalcomphcations was
(573-621), who
soon
stamped
out by severe
during the reign of Emperor Suiko. He prepared
persecution,its last struggle being
constitution for the Empire in seventeen
a
articles
the rebelUon of^believers in Shimabara
which was
in which Buddhism
was
proclaimed the foundation
put down in 1637.
of the state and the highestreligion
in the universe.
1. Roman
Catholic Church." ^With the modern
There
at
are
present twelve
sionaries
CathoUc misleading sects, opening of Japan in 1858 Roman
divided into fifty-six
sub-sects. There are 71,375
their activities. The firstchurch
renewed
Buddhist
in charge of
built at Yokohama
temples and 50,983 priests
in 1862 and another was
was
these temples.
erected at Nagasaki in 1865.
The Roman
Catholic
1. Tendai Shu, introduced from China in 805
Communion
today includes 352 foreignmissionaries,
The
first
Buddhist
A.D. by Deng;y^o.
179 Japanese workers, and 75,983 members.
sect in Japan
that based its doctrines on
the
2. Greek Orthodox Church.
Dates its origin
from
Mahayana
or
"Great
Vehicle" Scriptures,and the mother
of
the arrival of Father Nicolai to be chaplain of the
several sects.
Russian Consulate in Hakodate
Enryakujion Mt. Hiei near Kyoto
in^ 1861. Its
is the head-quarters
of the sect.
includes 1 foreign missionary,159
Temples, 4,570. Communion
Priests,
2,755.
Japanese workers,36,262 members.
2. Shingon Shu, introduced by Kobo
from
3. Protestant Churches.
In 1859 the Protestant
China in 806 a.d.
Kobo
aimed to harmonize
EpiscopalChurch, the PresbyterianChurch and the
with
the
national
consciousness
Buddhism
of
Reformed
Church, all of the United States of
Japan, and advocated Ryobu or Twofold Shinto,a
America, began work
through missionaries in
the old reUgion of
with
blending of Buddhism
Japan. These were the pioneersof the Protestant
missions in Japan which at present number
Japan. A conspicuous feature of this sect is its
fortyexcessive use of mystic rites. Its head-quartersare
five societies,
represented by 1,084 missionaries
Toji in Kyoto and the temple on Mt. Koya in the
in Japan and Formosa.
There are
1,128 Japanese
province of Kii. Temples, 12,244. Priests,6,715. churches of which 324 are self-supporting,
2,861
3. Jodo Shu.
This is the first Japanese Buddhist
workers of whom
790 are ordained men, and 96,827
In Korea
communicants.
there are
sect,founded by Honen in the latter part of the
306 foreign
12th. century. He proclaimed salvation by faith
workers and
missionaries,1,292 Korean
82,922
in Amida,
and made Buddhism
Tasuka
Harada
easilyaccessible Communicants.
was

the reign of Emperor

"

"

"

"

235

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Jesus Christ

^A collection of Buddhist literature, isentitled the "Shield of Orthodoxy,"and reiterates

the ecumenical
the sacred scriptures,
Catholic doctrines,
supposed to be
as held by the
Eastern church.
narratives of the acts and sayings of the Buddha
in his hundreds of former births. They are really
See Jesus, Society
JESUITS.
collectionsof folklore adapted by the Buddhists.
of.

JATAKAS.

appended

"

to

"

J E. In O.T. critieism,the symbol for that

portionof the Hexateuch which shows traces of both
Yahwistic and Elohistic authorship. See Biblical
Criticism; Hexateuch.

A designationin which
the
JESUS CHRIST."
Messianic title becomes
part of the personal name.
It isfirstfound in the writingsof Paul, and expresses
the assurance
that the exalted Lord, who
is the
object of Christian faith and worship, is one with
the historical Jesus.
Suspicious apprehension of
JEALOUSY
ship,
coveted relationAttempts have often been made to resolve the
being supplantedby a rival in some
hfe of Jesus into myth or allegory,
and it has been
wife,or husband.
as in the affection of a friend,
attitude and lead
of the chief services of modern
criticism to
one
It may
engender an ungenerous
to unethical behavior.
place the main facts beyond reasonable question.
It can be proved, by strict enquiry into the evidence,
A corruptionof the Hebrew
not only that Jesus was
name
a historical person, but that
JEHOVAH.
of the name
based on
records of his life are
for Lord, compounded of the consonants
our
trustworthy
At the same
Yahweh
sources.
time, criticism has made it
(q.v.)and the vowel points of the
name
nately.
somewhere
in the 14th.
clear that these records cannot be used indiscrimiAdonai ; the form arose
name
There can
be no doubt that the genuine
century a.d.
tradition was
overlaid,almost from the first,by
theological reflection. The
(Hieronymus) (ca. a.d. 340-420)."
popular legend and
JEROME
Christian scholar and traveler of the 4th.
Eminent
problem of modern investigationis to get behind
this
these accretions to the actual history, and
century, editor of the Latin Vulgate,and one of the
of the Gospels.
Born
in Dalcan
four doctors of the Latin church.
only be done by hteraryanalysis
See Gospels.
matia, and educated at Rome, he traveled in Gaul
No
"Life of Jesus" is p)ossible,
for the earUer
and the east, and for a few years lived as a hermit
records dealt solelywith the period of his ministry,
in Syria. He became
Antioch
a presbyter in
near
called to Rome
and there comand of this gave
missioned
bearing for the
merely episodes,
379 and in 382 was
Luke is the one
with the revision of the
most
part on his Messianic claim.
by Pope Damasus
His
his great work.
became
evangehst who attempts something likea biography,
Latin Bible, which
has
and it is doubtful whether his additional matter
later years were
spent as head of a convent at
fore,
of conireal historical value.
It has to be admitted, thereBethlehem, where he produced a number
to his ministry
others his
that of the hfe of Jesus previous
learned works, among
and
mentaries
to
tian
Chrisknow
almost
we
nothing. His birth appears
a dictionaryof ancient
De
Viris Illustribus,
the
controversies of
have taken place in the closingyear of Herod
biography. In the numerous
and Luke
ness,
bitterGreat (4b.c.); and accordingto Matthew
with unfortunate
his time, he participated
descent.
born at Bethlehem, of Davidic
he was
but his services to Christian learning were
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
But we have here to reckon with the anxiety of the
very great.
early church to bring his life at aU points into
Messianic
with
The
prophecy. It cannot
harmony
capitalof the United
JERUSALEM."
be too stronglyemphasized that the openingchapters
Kingdom of Israel from the time of David until
and Luke
are
on
a different historical
(933 B.C.),the capital of Matthew
the accession of Rehoboam
level from the rest of the Gospels. To treat them
from that date till the downfall of the
of Judah
of equalvalue with
without further examination
of later
as
Jewish state in 586 B.C., and the home
the Gospel story as a whole is to make no distinction
Judaism.
between
is
popular traditions in the second or third
first information
regarding Jerusalem
Our
temporary
Abdiletters in which
generation and authentic documents, almost conobtained from the Amarna
with the events.
hipa,King of UrusaUm, asks the Pharaoh of Egypt
set
narrative we
With the beginning of Mark's
The Israehtes
for aid against invading Bedouins.
find Jesus hving at
till the reign of
solid ground. We
teet on
the town
our
did not
fully conquer
Nazareth, one of a family which included a number
Since that time it has been held in turn
David.
and followingthe occupation
of brothers and sisters,
by Hebrews, Persians, Greeks, Jews (under the
from his retirement
drawn
pendent of a carpenter. He was
who
succeeded in maintainingan indeMaccabees
by the appearance of John the Baptist,and offered
for a brief period), Romans,
Kingdom
Arabs, Turks, Crusaders, and again by the Turks, himself for baptism by John in the waters of Jordan.
conscious of a divine
At his baptism he became
whose
desecratingtenure of the Holy City is now
call,but before entering on the vocation which he
ended.
At the present, the cityhas a polyglotpopulation
him sojournedfor a short
felt to be laid on
than half being Jewish,
now
of about 80,000,more
The story of the Temptation
time in the wilderness.
Moslems
furnishingmost of
with Christians and
his own
Smith
J. M. Powis
the remainder.
may
preserve, in vivid imaginative form,
account
of the inward strugglethrough which he then
OF."
passed. Returning from the wilderness he began
PATRIARCH
Bishop of
JERUSALEM,
falls into
his publicwork, and his hfe henceforth
Tradition traces
the Eastern church in Jerusalem.
three main
periods: (1) the ministry in Gahlee;
of the succession to James, the
the foimdation
had
(3) the journey to
church
Roman
The
a
of Jesus.
(2) an interval of wandermg;
brother
it was
Jerusalem, followed by his arrest and crucifixion.
there until 1291, after which
patriarchate
The duration of the ministry as a whole has been
The
titular until restored by Pius IX. in 1847.
to
also have patriarchates much disputed. In the Fourth Gospel it seems
Melchites
and Armenians
be reckoned at something over three years, but the
there.
the Synoptic
certain. From
far from
data are
A synod of the
OF."
Gospels we know that it included one harvest season
SYNOD
JERUSALEM,
vened
(Mark 2 : 23) before the closingPassover,from which
representativesof the Eastern church which coninfer that it covered a periodof about a year
in Jerusalem
we
in 1672 to offset tendencies
may
"

"

"

toward

Calvinism. The

declaration drawn

up

and

half.

Jesus Christ

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

First period. During the

Galilean ministryJesus made his abode in Capernaum, at the house of
Simon
He gathered around him a group
of
Peter.
and proclaimed the advent of the
twelve disciples,
the new
alone
Kingdom of God
age, in which God
would reign. He called on men
to prepare
for this
new
age, not merely by a change of conduct, but
in the
by a change of heart and will Sometimes
often to informal
more
gatherings in
synagogue,
fields or privatehouses,he taught the new
ness
righteouswhich would
prevailin the Kingdom of God.
The people,accustomed
to the dreary casuistryof
the Rabbis, gave an eager welcome
to his teaching
so vital in its substance,and illustrated by countless
from nature and life. They were
the more
parables
impressed as the teachingwas
accompanied by
of the new
wonderful works,attestingthe nearness
all evU would be overcome.
That Jesus
age, when
famed
of miracles can
was
as a worker
hardly be
doubted,in view of the evidence afforded by the
to believe that
Gospels. But there seems
reason
his miracles were
confined to acts of heaUng, exercised
on
nervous
diseases,and that a
particularly
tendency began at an early date to heighten this
side of has activity. It can be gathered,too, that he
exerted his power sparingly,afraid that his reputation
wonder-worker
tion
as a mere
might distract attenfrom
his message.
From
Capernaum as a
his work into the surrounding
center Jesus extended
the
sent out his disciples
over
region,and latterly
for a
whole country,apparently to prepare
the way
far wider mission.
But at this point the Gahlaean
off. This
ruption
intersuddenly broken
ministry was
of a work which
had been growinglysuccessful
is one of the problems of the history; but
indications that it was
due to Herod
there are
Antipas,who had latelyput John to death, and was
now
plottingagainst his successor.
Second
now
commences
an
period. There
interval in which Jesus hved the life of an exile,
and of which we
only have passing gUmpses. He
northward
from
went
Gahlee, and sojourned for
Then
he journeyed
a while near
Tyre and Sidon.
south,and in the neighborhood of Caesarea PhiUppi
elicited from his disciples
the momentous
confession
It is clear that until now
the Messiah.
that he was
he had never
openly declared himself
returninga
to the urgent enquiries of
even
guarded answer
John the Baptist. The motive of this reserve
can
only be conjectured,but most probably there was
in his own
Even
mind.
still a lingeringdoubt
after Caesarea Philippibe continued,almost to the
very end, to keep his Messianic claim a secret within
band
of his disciples.From
the
the immediate
firstit was bound up for him with the conviction that
he would accomplish his Messianic work by suffering
that his
and death. Perhaps it was the growing sense
resolved his doubts.
death was inevitable which finally
his sojourn in the north
Third period. From
his
Jesus returned to Gahlee, but did not resume
with
his
After a brief stay he set out
work.
for the Passover feast at Jerusalem,taking
disciples
the route that passed along the eastern side of the
observed
with
had
he
reticence
Jordan.
The
regard to his Messiahship was now thrown aside,and
quently
solemn entry into the city,and subsehe made
a
cleansed
the
temple, in fulfilment of
Messianic prophecy. He had long been suspected
who
felt that his teaching was
by the Pharisees,
subversive of the Law, and his avowal of Messiaharoused the fears of the chief priests. In
ship now
order to avoid a pubhc commotion, Judas, one of his
induced to betray him
secretly.
disciples,was
Jesus was
fullyconscious of his peril,and bade
the
farewell to his disciples
at a Supper, which
Fourth
Evangelistis probablyright in placing on
meal. After the
the night before the Passover
"

"

"

"

"

"

AND

ETHICS

236

he retired to the garden of Gethsemane,

reconcile himself by prayer to the divine will,
there arrested by a band of the temple
and was
He
poUce, guided to the secluded spot by Judas.
taken before a midnight meeting of the Sanwas
hedrin and put on
trial for blasphemy, on
which
-to death.
But since the
charge he was condemned
Jewish court had no right to inflict capitalpunishment,
he was
transferred at day-break to Pilate,
the Roman
and the charge of treason
governor,
substituted for that of blasphemy. That he
was
now
condemned
Messianic agitatoris certain
was
a
as
from the inscription,
"The King of the Jews," which
was
the
placed,according to Roman
custom, over
The whole proceedingsof the trialwere
hurried
cross.
and secret,and the crowd which clamoured for Jesus'
death may
have consisted of the hired retinue of
his accusers; but when
he was
deUvered for
once
execution no effort was
made to rescue
him.
After,
six,or, according to the Johannine account, three
hours of agony
he died, with the cry on his hps,
"My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?"
form the opening of the 22nd
The words
Psalm,
in which a sufferer,
in the depths of anguish,throws
himself upon
God, as his one help and stay.
The accounts
of the Resurrection,
with which
our
Gospels close,are confused, and it is certain
that the greater part of Mark's
account
has been
lost. (The best manuscripts all end abruptly at
Mark
16 : 8.) From the outset,however, the church!
believed that Jesus arose
the third day, and
on
appeared to Peter and other disciples.For this
have the evidence
of Paul in I Cor. 15:4-8,
we
the fundamental
which all discussion
passage on
of the subject ought to be based.
From
Paul's
is supported by indications in
statement, which
than probable that the appearmore
Mark, it seems
ances
took place in Galilee,
and were
similar to that
which was
vouchsafed
to Paul himself on
the way
Damascus.
It may
be regarded as
to
certain
that the discipleshad some
experience,whatever
have been its nature, which
convinced
them
may
that Jesus had survived death and was
the
now
exalted Lord.
As a result of this conviction the
into being.
church came
Almost
from the beginning the idea of Jesus as
the glorifiedMessiah
took full possession of his
The memory
followers.
of his actual fifewas
partly
obscured by the mysticalpietyand theological
speculation
of which
he became
the center.
But the
faith that recognizedinhim
a divine being had its
he had made
ultimate ground in the impression
by
his historical personality. To those who had been
nearest
him the hfe which he had lived on
earth
had
revelation of God.
In the
brought a new
Gospel records that Kfe is only preserved to us in
imperfectouthne, but it has made the same
sion
impresall generations of the church
the
on
as
on
firstdisciples.See Messiah.
E. F. Scott

Supper

to

OF." A
famous
JESUS, SOCIETY
reUgious
order,called also the Company of Jesus or Jesuits,
organizedby IgnatiusLoyola (q.v.)at Montmartre,
Paris,in 1534.
The societyreceived papal approbation in 1540.
Suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773 at the
instance of the Bourbon
revived by
courts, it was
Pius VII. in 1814.
At the outbreak of the European
War in 1914 regularsettlements of the Jesuits were
countries: Russia
stillforbidden in many
(1820),
Switzerland (1847),Germany (1872),France (1901),
and Portugal (1910). In the British Empire and
The
in the United States they enjoy_
freedom.
in 1710 (19,978,
of members
was
highest number
of whom
bered
priests). In 1908 they num9,957 were
and the
15,930, of whom
7,564 were
priests,
rest

scholasticsor

coadjutors.

237

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

1. Organization.Loyola, originallya soldier,

principles:gradations of rank
adopted military
"

emotional
drill
function, intellectual and
Exercises),an information service from
(Spirittial
the generalis exempt, and
not even
whose vigilance
full members
the requirement that
(professes)
and

absolute obedience.
The complete
in the
be passivelyobedient
Jesuit must
of his superior. The
hands
general is chosen by
this
the professesin general congregation; and
body limits the tendency toward autocracy which
inheres in the system.
earliest dominant purpose was
The
2. Aims.
blocked the Near East, so
War
foreignmissions.
missions; and they
the Jesuits turned to home
found their major opportunity in education.
soon
tantism,
ProtesThough not founded expresslyto combat
Catholic agency
Roman
save
perhaps
no
effective in that
has been
more
the Inquisition

render to the pope

Francis Xavier
(q.v.)led
East.
Jesuits were
among
and
the pioneers in Canada, Mexico, Central
ored
South America, and the Philippines.They endeavin
succeeded
to control early Maryland and
In
state in Paraguay.
erectinga unique missionary
Protestant countries
disguisethey penetratedmany
at times when
secrecy made them doubly feared and
when
discovery meant death.
even
4. Education.
Desiringto train the leaders of
Jesuits
specializedin
aristocratic Europe, the
They still
secondary and university education.
are
emphasize Latin and reUgion. Their methods
with a strong appeal to rivalry.They
authoritarian,
aim to produceobedience rather than independence.
revised in
In the 19th. century their curriculum was

Foreign missions.

3.

"

to the Far

the advance

"

conservative fashion.
5. Authorship. No
of Jesus in the number
"

order outshines the Society

of its pubhcations,signed,

pseudonymous.
and others have attacked
Pascal (q.v.)
Jesuit moralists
Jesuit casuistry (q.v.). Many
have permittedprobabiUsm and mental reservation
(qq.w.). It must be borne in mind, however,
children of the
are
that casuistryand probabilism
of the positions
confessional (q.v.);and that many
attacked they had taken
for which the Jesuits were
or
anonymous
6. Ethics.

ETHICS

Jodo

influential in the historyof the new

reUgion during
the firstgeneration. In Paul's day they were
nized
recogand
the originatorsof the movement,
as
Paul and Barnabas
felt the necessity of visiting
Jerusalem
to win the approval of the Palestinian
for the Gentile mission.
In the succeeding
group
in
generations Jewish
Christianitydiminished
importance as Gentile Christianity
increased,and
by the middle of the 2nd. century Christianity
in Palestine as a distinctly
Jewish movement
became
extinct.
S. J. Case
practically

JEWS.

"

direction (seeCounter-Reformation).

AND

See

"

Israel, Religion

The
JIHAD.
"holy war"
religiousduty by Moslems
"

op;

Judaism.

of Islam, waged as
against unbelievers.

The world is divided into two parts, the realm of

and
the "abode
of war."
Islam
Theoretically
to sacrificethemselves,
it is the duty of beUevers
when
called upon,
in order to bring the whole
world
the true
faith. In Shi'ite Islam
the
to
Jihad is postponed until the return of the Hidden
Imam
(q.v.).
forces of nature,
Spirits; personified
understood
and
not
not
controlled;
like Irish fairies and goblins. Accepted by
very
Mohammed
as
part of the thought of his day,
sUghtly modified in the interest of monotheism.
Distinct from angels. Assume
forms, often
many
animal
(serpents);are both good and bad; go to
paradise or hell,as they accept or reject Islam.
Believed
in by most
Moslems, learned and lay,
today. "Genii" of Arabian Nights.

JINN.

which

"

were

M.

JIZO.

"

from China
he is known

especiallyas
children,though at times

soldiers and

Sprengling

god imported
long history. In Japan

Buddhist

A
Japanese
where he had

the protector of little

he appears
god of
as

of travellers.

"

from

over

Franciscan

and

Dominican

Summae

con-

be proved that any

it cannot
fessorum. Moreover
the
Jesuit ever formallytaught that the end justifies
of action
have approved modes
though some
means,
said to be reducible to that principle.
joyous
7. Piety. Jesuit piety aims to secure
vicar on
the side of Christ whose
enlistment
on
It favors good music, cheerful
earth is the pope.
appeals (Sacred Heart), and
churches, concrete
vivid impressions (images,trainingof imagination
with its concomitant
in Exercises),
frequent communion
and retreats for laityas well as
confession,
fully
for clergy. The presentideal Jesuit priestis powerdepictedin the biographyof Father Pardow.
W. W. Rockwell
The author
OF SIRACH."
SON
JESUS, THE
an
of the book of Ecclesiasticus,
apocryphalbook
of the same
type as the canonical book of the

for ways
The generalname
JNANA-MARGA.
of salvation
religions.
by knowledge in Hindu
The
knowledge which gives salvation is different
in the various systems.
See articles Brahmanism;
Vedanta; Sankhya; Buddhism; Yoga.
"

The followers of Joachim of

JOACHIMITES."
Fiore,an Italian Cistercian monk and mystic of the
13th. century, who taught that a new
dispensation
would be
of love,the Kingdom of the Holy Spirit,
inaugurated in 1260.

"

Proverbs.

JEWISH

CHRISTIANITY."

This

expression,

Gentile
with
Christianity (q.v.),is
it
as
applied to the early Christian movement
these early
At the outset
existed in Palestine.
who
felt
of Jews
Christians constituted
a
group
their Jewish
themselves
to be differentiated from
kinsmen
chieflyby the fact that they believed the
crucified and risen Jesus to be the promisedJewish
Palestine
of
Christians
were
These
Messiah.
in

contrast

never

very

numerous,

although they

were

very

JOAN.
between

fabulous female pope

usually dated
HI.
IV.
(847-855) and Benedict
The myth first appeared in the 13th.
A

"

Leo

(855-858).
century.

OF ARC
(1411-1431)."French patriot,
JOAN
known
Maid
of Orleans"; laid claim to
"The
as
divine inspirationand
guidance and successfully
ion.
aroused the French to throw off the English dominof the English who
She fell into the hands
turned her over
to the Inquisition
by which she was
revoked
by the pope
burnt for heresy, a sentence
in 1456.
During the latter part of the 19th.
of
of venerating the Maid
century the custom
in 1909 she was
in France, and
Orleans
arose
beatified and

canonized in 1920.

foimded
^A sect of Japanese Buddhism
JODO.
by Honen in the later 12th. century. He abandoned
sary
philosophy and elaborate cult practicesas unnecesto be attained
and taught that salvation was
"

through

the

Happy Land

free grace

Isyall who

in the Western
of Amita
would accepthim in simple

Johanan

Ben

faith. Iij this form

appealto

Zakkai

the

masses.

DICTIONARY

Buddhism
made
See Honen.

OF

RELIGION

convincing

Rabbi
BEN
Greatest
ZAKKAI."
JOHANAN
He founded
the academy
of the 1st. century a.d.
than
at
Jabne, thereby contributing more
any
of his time to the perpetuationof Judaism
other man
when the Temple fell. His work along with that of
is foimd in the Mishna
the other Tannaim
(q.v.).
as
a
JOHN.
(1) One of the apostles,known
Jesus
of Zebedee, and as "the disciplewhom
loved."
(2) Father of Peter the Apostle. Cf John
Cf. Col. 4: 10.
1:42.
(4)A
(3) Surname of Mark.
presbyter or elder mentioned by Papias as an
"

son

authoritative

source

of information

about

Jesus.

The name
of twenty popes, two antiJOHN.
mythical pope.
popes and one
John /" Pope, 523-526; imprisoned by Theodoric,ho died in prison and was enrolled a martyr.

ETHICS

AND

238

SISTERS
OF
SAINT."
A
JOSEPH,
R.C.
female rehgious community, founded
in 1650 by
Jean-Paul
Medaille,a French Jesuit. The order is
found in many
countries,and the members
engage
in hospital,educational and mission enterprises.

JOSEPHUS
(ca.37-100 a.d.)."Greatest ancient
historian and apologistof the Jewish people. Born
and educated
at Jerusalem, prominent in public
affairs. After 70 a.d. he lived and wrote
at Rome
under imperialpatronage until his death.
tent
Compeand
trustworthy historian,especially for
Jewish hfe of his own
century, he aimed to make
the Greco-Roman
world appreciate the Jews and
their type of civiUzation. War of the Jews ca. 75 a.d..
Antiquitiesof the Jews 93(4) a.d., Ldfe,and Against
C. W. Votaw
Avion (93-100 a.d.).

"

"

John //."Pope, 533-535.

John ///."Pope, 561-574.
John /F." Pope, 640-642.
John F." Pope, 685-686.
John F/." Pope, 701-705.
John F//." Pope, 705-707.
John VIII." Pope, 872-882;
engaged in a
state and
constant struggleto defend the Roman
the papal authority against the Saracens and the
encroachments of the Italian feudal dukes.
John IX."
Pope, 898-900.
John X.
Pope, 914-928; severelydefeated the
Saracens.
John XL"
Pope, 931-935.
of scandalous
John XII.
Pope, 955-964; a man
tions
lifeand a ruler of intriguingpoUcy whose machinainvolved him in a strugglewith Otto the Great.
John XIII."
PoDe, 965-972.
Jo/in Z/F."
Pope, 983-984.
John XV.
(1) Some Usts include a John who
reignedfour months after the death of Boniface VII.
His
existence
is fictitious. (2) Pope,
in 985.

of the race
of giants in
^The name
JOTUNN.
mythology. They are the earhest existing
beings sometimes helping and at other times opposing
the gods. Their
home
is called Jotunheim.
Many of their names
signifyfrost,ice,and snow
which may
give a clue to their origin.
"

Norse

JOWETT, BENJAMIN
(1817-1893)." EngUsh
to
educationahst, theologian and author; came
Oxford when

the Tractarian
movement
in its
was
tended
for a time toward
the High
liberal views eventually
position;but more
prevailed,making him the object of petty persecutions.
His
the
great literary achievement
was
translation of Plato.
zenith
Church

and

"

"

JUBILATE."
(1)The 100th. Psahn and the music
from the opening word in the
thereto,so named
Latin.
In the Vulgate and
Douai
versions the
of
99.
psalm is number
Popularly, any
hymn
3rd. Sunday
after Easter, so
praise. (2) The
from the opening word
named
of the 66th. Psalm
in Latin, sung on that day.
set

"

985-996.
ZF/."
John
Antipope, 997-998, during the
of Gregory V.
pontificate
John
John
John

^Popefor

XVII.
XVIII."
XIX."
"

five months

OF."
The name
appUed in the
50th. year (the close of seven
periods) observed by the Hebrews
as
seven-year
a
by certain ritualistic
year of rest, and marked
social
and
customs.
to

every

in 1003.

Pope, 1003-1009; abdicated.

Pope, 1024-1033.
1276-1277.
John XXI. "Pope,
(Through an
owing to the insertion of an antipope,there is
error
John XX. in the officialhst of popes.)
no
John XXII.
Pope, 1316-1334; was noted as a
jurist,defending papal absolution with legalistic
logic. His papalrule was marked by two struggles,
a
poUticalconflict with Louis of Bavaria, and a
strugglein which he was opposed by the
theological
contending against
SpiritualFranciscans, John
"

the

JUBILEE, YEAR

Hexateuch

OF."
An apocryphal book of
JUBILEES, BOOK
Pharisaic origin,giving a historyof the world from
the creation to the givingof the law on Sinai.
HA-LEVI
(ca. 1085-1140)." Spanish
JUDAH
Jewish
both
poet and philosopher. His poems,
sacred and secular,written in Hebrew
(many are
translated into modern
now
languages) are among
the loftiest in hterature. His philosophy finds its
best expressionin his "Ha-kuzari," which is a philosophic
apology of Judaism.

of evangelical
poverty.
principle

XXIII.
Antipope, 1410-1415; in opposition
other claimants of the papal office,
one
of
at Avignon, the representative
and one
at Rome
the Pisan party, and recognizedby England, France
the
and parts of Germany and Italy. He summoned
in 1414
which
council of Constance
eventually
deposed him, in which judgment he acquiesced.
John

to two

"

The
word
"Judaism"
to signify
religionis first met with in the rypha
Apoc(II Mace. 2:21, 8:1, 14:38; IV Mace. 4:26,

JUDAISM."
the Jewish

Gal. 1:13-14) and

Testament
in the New
in the
works of the early church fathers like Ignatius. In
rabbinic hterature the first instance of the use
of
the word Yekuduth, which would |be the equivalent
in Midrash
of Judaism, is found
Rabba, Esther,
DAMASCUS
ad 3, 7. This work is of uncertain originand in its
OF
(ca. 700-754)." The
JOHN
last of the Greek
fathers,is venerated as a saint, present shape not older than the 9th. century.
Principles
I. Fundamental
Rabbinic
in
by the Eastern church on Dec. 4th. and by the
His chief dogmatic
Literature.
-While the rabbis did not coin a word
Western
church on May 6th.
The Fount of Knoivledgewhich speaks the
for Judaism, they often attempted to present the
work was
church
in
essentials of the Jewish religion
in a systematicform.
final word
in doctrine for the Eastern
In this respect the maxim
of Hillel isthe most concise
to
most
matters, and apphes the scholastic method
expression. He said in reply to a heathen who
theology. John was also the best esteemed of the
I wished to learn "the whole Torah," while he was
hymn-writersof the Greek church.
"

239

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OP

is hateful to thee do
standing on one foot: "What
not unto thy neighbor. This is the whole Torah, all
the rest is its explanation. Go and study." (Talm.
tain,
Sabbath, 31a.) The chronology of Hillel is uncerbut he lived in the last decades before or in
the firstdecades after the Christian era, and, as the
this
parallelpassages in the New Testament
prove,
ideas of Judaism
conception of the fundamental
the view held by the prominent teachers of
was
the age.
and with
The conflict with growing Christianity
Greek
philosophy created in the 2nd. century a
more
frequent attempt at presenting Judaism as a
theory. The nature of this motive is responsible
for the negative presentationof the subject which
the rule. The Mishnah, comis almost invariably
piled
about
200, gives the following summary:
Those who
deny the resurrection of the body (the
"as taught by Scripture"),
present text adds:
the revelation of Scripture and the Epicurean are
excluded from future life (Sanhedrin,90a). R. Akiba
reads non-canonical books
"also he who
adds:
(gospelsor apocrypha) and who whispers on a
temporary
wound"
(TherapeiUae). Eleazar of Modin, a conof Akiba
(ca. 100-135), gives also a
negative definition of the essential of Judaism,
likewise showing the
antagonism to Christian,
especiallyto Pauline, ideas. He excludes from
the bhss of the future world those who
despise
sacrifices and holy days, who neglectcircumcision,
and interpret the law allegorically
(Abot, 3:15).
that the antagonism to the
We may
safelypresume
Christian teachings which oppose the maintenance
and its corollary,
the
of Israel'sseparate nationality,
of the ceremonial
literal observance
law, underlies
the development of the liturgy of the synagog.
the "Shema,"
Instead of the Ten Commandments,
consistingof Deut. 6:4-9, 11:13-21, and Num.
made
the daily confession of faith
15:37-41, was
"because of the oppositionof the Minim"
(Judaeois
meaning of this statement
Christians). The
the belief in
of Judaism
The essence
obvious.
was
God in oppositionto the divinityof Jesus,the
one
practiceof the Mosaic law and the belief in Israel's
national existence.
Ideaxs.
Ritualistic
and
II. Latitudinarian
in dealingwith a definition of
The greatestdifficulty
is the lack of all ecclesiastical authority,
Judaism
intensified by the uncertainty about the biography
broad humanitarian
So we see occasionally
of its leaders.
side by side with strict ritualistic
principles
requirementspresented as the essentials of Judaism.
characterized by kindness,
The true IsraeHte is once
modesty and charity (Yebamot, 79a, Yer, Kiddushin,IV, 1),and again by observance of the law of
the doorpost
on
fringes,the Mezuzah
phylacteries,
and the like (Peshaim, 113b). In the same
passage
meekness, temperate habits and willingness to
yield to others are presented as cardinal virtues.
incumbent
upon
Against the 613 Commandments,
bent
incumcommandments
the Israelite and the seven
all mankind, we find in anotiier placethe
upon
that
definition
latitudinarian
abstaining from
"

a Jew
(Megillah,13a, Nedarim, 28a).
of the ritualistic with
combination
A remarkable
the ethical definition of Judaism is found in a homily
ascribed to R. Simlai (probably 3rd. cent.) who
reduced byDavid
were
says the 613 commandments
to eleven
(Ps. 15) by Isaiah to six (33:15-16),by
Micah
(6:8) to three,by Isaiah to two (56:1),by
Amos
(Makkot,
(2:4) to one
(5:4) and Habakuk
ment
23b to 24a). In all these passages the ethical eleof religionis accentuated,while the two last
of
named
to present the two
principalsources
are
and faith.
conviction,reason
religious
The later TalIII. Philosophic
Apologists.
mudic
period and the subsequent centuries even

idolatrymakes

"

AND

ETHICS

Judaism

after the rise of Islam furnished no opportunityfor

conception of Judaism other than in the definition
of legalpracticesand in homiletical explanationsof
Scripture. When
through the influence of the
Arabic
interpretersof Aristotle and Plato and
through the schism of the Karaites a literatureof
and
since
Philo
apologetics,entirely dormant
Josephus,arose, these studies beginningwith Saadya
in the 10th. century necessitated
a
systematic
authors Judah Ha-Levi
theology. Of the numerous
for his
(12th.cent.) deserves particular mention
national presentationof Judaism
{Kuzari, II, 32)
which Graetz declares to be the only possibleinterpretation
of Judaism.
The most popular presentation
from a strictly
of Judaism
dogmatic point of
Maimonides
view is given by Moses
(1135-1204)
13
cardinal
who
dogmas, namely:
lays down
God
as
creator, God's unity, incorporealityand
life,
prophecy, Moses'
guidance of human
eternity,
absolute superiority,
revelation,unchangeableness
of the law, providence, reward
and punishment,
These dogmas,
Messiah, and bodily resurrection.
in Maimonides'
Commentary
originaUyembodied
in a somewhat
different
the Mishnah, were
on
ritual
of the
intruded
into the daily
formulation
and when versified became the most popular
synagog
It will be noticed that some
hymn of the synagog.
ences
of the dogmas are so framed as to define the differbetween Judaism on one hand and Christianity
evident
This is especially
and Islam on the other.
in the proclamation of Moses' absolute superiority
all prophets, in the prohibitionto address a
over
to anybody except God, and in the unchangeableness
prayer
None
of the later attempts to
of the law.
had a similar
summarize
the doctrine of Judaism
Crescas'
did
(14th. cent.)
popularity. Neither
six dogmas
tence
omniscience,providence and omnipoof God, prophecy, free will and divine purpose
Albo's (15th. cent.) simplifiedpresentation
nor
whom
he is largely
of the theology of Maimonides
on
dependent and whose dogmas he reduced to three
(beliefin God, revelation,and future life)obtain
a

"

"

generalrecognition.
The development of Jewish theology after the
almost exclusively
15th. century was
along the lines
of strict legalismand vague
mysticism, neither of
which was
adapted to stimulate dogmatic definiteWith the entry of the Jews into the cultural
ness.
lifeof their environment, chieflyunder the influence
condition occurred
of Moses Mendelssohn, the same
and Hellenism
the meeting of Judaism
when
as
thousand
created Philo's philosophy, or
a
years
later when the Spanish-Arabic school again brought
Greek
thought home to Israel in its Arabic garb.
It is noteworthy, however, that the publication
Catholic
catechism
of the Roman
by the Jesuit
Canisius, 1554, suggested to the Italian Jew,
Abraham
Jagel, the publicationof a similar work
Mendelssohn
was
again
in
1587.
in Hebrew
entirelyguided by the then popular Leibnitz-WoK
he declared in his
school of philosophy, when
und Judentum
Macht
Jerusalem oder iiber religiose
had no
dogma at all,for it
(1783),that Judaism
either taught belief in God and immortality which
self-evident truths,or facts like revelationwhich
are
his time on
From
based on historic evidence.
are
attempts have been made to summarize
numerous
the teachingsof Judaism from both the traditionalist
The former usually
and the Uberal points of view.
to occasional remarks, avoiding
themselves
of their views. As
comprehensive statement
of Samson
such an expressionthe blunt statement
Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888)may be quoted, who
disprove a doctrine of
never
said that science can

Umit
a

the
very

Talmud.

similar

remark

is foimd

in the

book
popular, often edited and translated,handof reUgious ethics,compiled by the oriental

Judaizing, Judaizers
rabbi

DICTIONARY

OF

Eliezer

Papo who defines a Jew as one who

rejectsany statement made in the Taknud.
The same
view is expressed by Solomon
Ibn Adret
of Barcelona
(13th.cent.)and on his authorityon a
similar occasion
is repeated by David
of
Pardo
this view
Spalato (18th. cent.). Both
express
a
merely in an occasional remark while discussing
is quoted to
question of dietary law. This case
show the difficulty
of presentinga view of Judaism,
when the material is scattered in such a widespread
literature of many
and when only
ages and countries,
decide which
subjective historical criticism can
author
be considered
authoritative,since
may
defined positionin
none
occupies an ecclesiastically
never

liis own
It is therefore proper to add that
age.
Solomon
Luria of Lubhn
(16th.cent.)boldlyrejects
Talmudic
Ibn Adret's remark
or rather qualifies
on
authority. The views of the hberal school which
restrict the authority of both Bible and Talmud
Judaism.
stillmore
diversified. See Reform
are
Names
apphed
JUDAIZING,
JUDAIZERS."
church
those members
of the early Christian
must
who maintained
that gentileconverts
accept
at least of the
circumcision
and undertake
some
Jewish
Law
in
observances
the
order
prescribedby
of Christian churches.
The
to become
members
letter to the Galatians is directed againsttheir views.
to

The
of two
of Jesus,
name
JUDAS.
disciples
who betrayed him, called Iscariot.
"

one

the
MACCABAEUS."
A leader m
successful revolt of the Jewish
people against
IV. (Epiphanes).
Antiochus
Judas the Hammer
the third son of Mattawas
thias who
precipitatedthe uprising against the
Syrians when they in 167 b.c. attempted to destroy
the Jewish religion. On
the death of his father
in 166 B.C. Judas aided by the Hasidim
Pious
or
(q.v.)maintained a guerrillawarfare and although
defeated the Syrian generals.
greatlyoutnumbered
In 165 B.C. he restored the Temple worship,an act
tion,
celebrated by the Jews in the Feast of the DedicaFeast
of Lights. Thereafter
he made
or
After
the
military expeditions beyond Jordan.
had
Jews
been
granted religiousliberty by the
Syrians he was deserted by the Chasidim,but was
rejoined by them when it was
again threatened.
Judas won
to
a decisive victorybut as he continued
fightfor independence he was again abandoned
by
the religiousparty and
defeated
killed
and
was
The
in 161 B.C.
continued
struggle was
by his
and Simon, the latter of whom
brothers Jonathan
won
independence for the nation.
Shailer
Mathews
ECCLESIASTICAL."
One
who
JUDGE,
law
(q.v.) has_authority to
according to canon
presideover an ecclesiastical coiurt of justice.

240

Among the Jews ideas of judgment grew out

Yahweh
would
conception of a day when
of Israel and
punish the enemies
unrighteous
Hebrews.
The rehgiousleaders of Judaism
centered
of the

attention upon the observance of law for the purpose

of avoiding punishment which
would
result from
of the Day
violatingits provisions. The outcome
of Judgment took more
form in the figures
of
specific
The entire
and rabbinism.
apocalypticMessianism
world was
to be judged on the basis of its observance
of the law of Yahweh.
From
the point of view of
Jewish teachers acquittalwas
assured if the
some
majority of a man's deeds had been in accordance
with the law.
From
Judaism
the expectation of a
to
Day of Judgment passed over
Christianity.
Jesus Christ was
to be the judge and behevers alone
to be acquitted.
were
in
It is difficultto determine the preciseUmits withwhich these portrayalsof the Day of Judgment
intended
to be hteral.
are
Figurative elements
entered into the conceptionas refiected in the hterature.
More
important, however, than this question
is that of the grounds upon
which judgment
to be passed. These vary
from the observance
was
of rites to the meeting of social obUgations,as e.g., in
the Christian portrayal of the Day of Judgment.
stantly
During the Middle Ages the church appealed conand reahstically
to the Day of Judgment as
of building up church
a
means
loyalty and indiShailer
Mathews
viduaUstic moraUty.
BOOK
OF."
A book of the Apocrypha
JUDITH,
(q.v.) narrating the exploits of Judith,

JUDAS

OF." A
DAY
which
day on
JUDGMENT,
assize for the
God is representedas establishing
an
and
the determination
trial of aU men
of their
eternal conditions.
Almost
universallythe gods of tribes are supposed
to have
given certain regulationsand to
and punish or forgive any
violations
watch
over
thereof.
In the more
this concept
developed religions
carried on to elaborate picturesof a post
was
trial. The
elaborate form
of this
mortem
most
behef to be found among
the ancient peoples is that
of Egypt. According to the Egyptian view, the
dead
would
before judges and
would
be
pass
acquitted or condemned
according to certain wellInstructions for passing this
regulated standards.
trial successfully
constitute the Egyptian Book
of
See Egypt, Religion
the Dead.
op.

ETHICS

AND

RELIGION

Jewess

who

saved

her

countrymen

from

their general Holof

Assyriansby assassinating

the
ernes.

ADONIRAM
(1788-1850)." Pioneer
JUDSON,
American
missionary to Burma
1812, sent out by
board
the American
(Congregational)but became
Suffered
converted to Baptist views on the voyage.
years' imprisohment in
greatly through a two
between
Burma
and the East India Company;
the war
translated
and
the Bible into Burmese
Burmese
compiled a Burmese
dictionary
grammar,
three times
and PaU dictionary. He was
married
and his wives successivelyplayed important r61es
in Burma.
in advancing missionary work

JUGGERNAUT."

See Jagannath.

APOSTATE
THE
(331-363)." Roman
He
nephew of Constantine the Great.
reared in the Christian faith but was
early

JULIAN
emperor,
was

converted

ideahzed
and
Neo-Platonism.
He
moribund
paganism and used his
Christianitywithin the empire,
suppress
he ordered no direct persecution.
to

championed
office to

although

OF
The
ECLANUM."
most
worthy
noteleader of Pelagianism (q.v.)who
hved for
of the 4th. century.
two
the last decade
He
or
contended
against Augustine, that sin is a matter
inherent trait of human
of the will,and not an
He was
nature.
expelledfrom his see at Eclanum
for his views.

JULIAN

of three popes.
The name
JULIUS.
Julius /."Pope, 337-352.
astic
Julius II.
Pope, 1503-1513; a zealous ecclesiconsohdated
He
and strong administrator.
end to the
the papal states in Italy putting an
from
dominion
of Venice and expelhng the French
Italy. He condemned
nepotism, simony in papal
and duelhng ; reformed the monastic orders ;
elections,
encouraged missionary efforts;patronized hterathe Fifth Lateran Council.
ture and art; convened
Julius III." Fope, 1550-1555.
"

"

241

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

An appellation of contempt
merly
forJUMPERS.
applied to the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists
due to their emotional
practisesof leaping for joy,
"

custom

which

later ceased.

The principal
Roman
and Latin goddess,
the wife of Jupiter,regarded as the especial
and representative
of the female
protector of women
the correspondinggoddess
principleof life. Hera was
in Greek mythology.

JUNO.

"

JTJPITER." The chief god of the old Roman

religion. He was
undoubtedly, in origin,the sky
"the striker,"
he was
god. As Jupiter,
represented
oak or a meteoric
at Rome
by the lightning-riven
stone.
Corresponding to the changes in Roman
social lifehe appears
as JupiterOptimus
successively
Maximus, head of the Latin League with a temple
the Capitoline Hill,as Jupiter,Genius
of the
on
Roman
the
People, and as a Stoic world-essence,

Logos-Jupiter.

AND

ETHICS

Justification

should take into account

the inequalities
thus caused
and endeavor to give all a fair chance.
In particular
it is conceived
that societyowes
something to the
less fortunate classes. The conceptionsof
(6) were
worked
out
largelyby middle class
the

society;

industrial revolution has made

the conditions of
the wage
worker and of the poor a more
ous
conspicubecause of the great
problem, principally
wealth given by the present system to the few.
From
this point of view,the justiceof the whole
economic
system under which business and industry
are
carried on is challenged.
James H. Tufts

JUSTIFICATION."
a

remission

by

of

penalty,or

forensic word
a

indicating

declaration of acquittal

official. In religionsthis
his representative.
or
Justification is one
of a large group
of words
which religionhas appropriated from jurisprudence
and politics,
and given new
applicationand content.
See Judgment, Day
In looking forward
of.
to
the Day of Judgment there was
natural desire
a
for acquittalor justification.
In some
this
religions
was
justification
expected on the basis of a correct
observance of ritual,
in others on the keepingof the
law which
had been given by the god by whom
men
to be judged,and in stillothers by virtue
were
of the propitiation
of the god through some
form of
sacrifice. In the extent
to which
this acquittal
implied actual righteousness on the part of its
recipientsthere is some
variation,with a distinct
the
tendency in the Jewish religionto rely upon
of Yahweh, who
had
mercy
graciouslygiven his
people his law. In general,however, it may be said
that justification
not so much
the acquiringof
was
state as it was
a moral
of non-liability
to
a status
a

court

or

acquittalis by

some

some

god

What
is right or due or fair. The
for this is found either in those formulated
and statutes of a people which are enforced
customs
by public authority as in legaljustice,or in those
and ideals which are rather a matter of feeling,
mores
in the broad use of the term.
or reason,
or conscience
In the actual shaping of standards of justice,
and religious
conditions
social,economic, political,
and ideas have had important r61es. Several types
be distinguished.
(1) Justice in the early
may
Sharing in the products of the
kinship group.
other
hunt, and a similar solidarityas to many
goods, is typical. "Kind"-ness, or the treatment
due
one's kin, is not distinguished as in later
other
toward
society from justice. Blood revenge
punishment.
Paul's position emerges
(2) Emphasis upon
from that of his contemporaries
groups is also characteristic.
strict equivalenceis also found early an eye for
whom
he had been educated.
among
in both
an
legal and general conceptions. He too thought of justification
as a state of acquittal
eye
the conception
of non-liabiHty to punishment. He
or
did not,
(3) With aristocratic society came
that each has his proper place or station,and must
man's
to estimate
however, undertake
status
a
murabi's in the courts of heaven in terms of good or evil deeds.
and
be treated accordingly; thus in Hamact
To his mind the law was
code and in early EngUsh law it is a far
violated when one failed to
less serious offense for a master to kiU a slave,or for
keep any of its precepts. There was, therefore,
than
of gentle birth to kill a common
no
hope of acquittalthrough the keepingof the law.
a man
man,
AU persons were
to kill master
for a slave or common
under condemnation.
An assurman
or gentle.
ance
to his justification
in the coming day of
as
(4) With a shift from differences based on birth
and
Plato
to differencesbased on capacity
function,
judgment was reached when one accepted Jesus as
Christ. That
is to say, the man
who
projected an ideal of justiceas performing one's
accepted
Jesus as Christ had ah-eadypassed potentially
function in society. Aristotle pointedout that two
into
the Messianic
ality
principlesof justice viz.,equalityand proportionkingdom, and from death to life.
honors and goods in 'proportion While he might fail to follow the moral impulses
(distributing
democratic
and aristocratic born of the Holy Spirit,
to abiUty or birth) underHe
the question of his justification
was
no
societyrespectively.(5)In the development
longer raised. Although the
of Greek philosophyand Roman
law, and similarly Judgment Day had not come, he had, so to speak,
law in England,
in the development of the common
of this
already been acquitted. The assurance
equality before the Iaw_increasinglysuperseded blessingPaul argues is born of the inner experience
of status, for citizens at least. Natural
of sonship when the believer accepts God as father.
inequality
the Roman
With the development of the Catholic Church,
et honum, was
law, jvs aequum
tion;
concepthe English
with its emphasis on forensic practices,
"the reasonable" or equitable
was
the idea of
tion
became
justification
increasinglyprominent,especonception for the broader justice. (6) In conneccially
in the western
with the modern
of
strugglesfor civil and religious
part of Europe. The men
be
the Middle Ages lived in a constant
to
the conception of rights came
of impendsense
ing
liberty,
doom.
ness,
Convinced as they were
of their sinfulemphasized. Rights to life, liberty, property
the medieval churchmen
were
regardedas natural and absolute. "Thefirstand
adopted every means
laws is to naaintain and reguof forgivenessin the
themselves
possibleto assure
primary end of human
late
those absolute rightsof individuals." (BlackTo this end they looked to the
Day of Wrath.
law had included "giving to each
atoning work of Christ (seeAtonement), to the perstone.) Roman
formance
his own"
of its maxims, but the English,
and to the
of certain acts of penance,
one
as
French
revolutions
to
and
of
the
the
of
brought
a
successors
American,
Keys possessedby
power
climax the shift by which the individual's rights St. Peter.
In fact as the penitential
system of the
taken as primary. church
instead of the social order were
was
developed, justification
supplemented
loose term used to
is a somewhat
if not
It followed that
obscured
(7) Social Justice
by penance.
individual's oppornot accomplished wholly by faith,
cover
a conception that since an
was
justification
tunities
but by faith and works done in accordance
with
depend so greatlyupon the institutions of
societyinto which he is born, it is justthat society the directions of the church.

JUSTICE."

standard

"

"

"

Justin Martyr

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

242

The reformers separatedsharplybetween sanctistates, defined delinquencyand dependency and

fication and
The
latter was
God's
justification.
contributingto either; forbade the detention of
children (males 16 years and under, females 18 year
sovereignact and was not a matter of experiencein
It was
the present age.
wi'oughtthrough faith, and under) in jailsor in any place where adult
criminals were
but faith was
not regarded as a work.
As justiconfined,thus making necessary
fication
the
detention
of
in
a remission of punishment at the Day
was
youthful misdemeanants
that
of Judgment, the basis of a person'sassurance
properly equipped detention homes
or
allowing
of vital moment.
them to remain in their own
he should enjoy this blessingwas
homes imtil the time
Luther insistedthat one was
justified
by faith alone, of hearing. Not only in the matter of detention
but in the conduct of the hearingdecided improvethis in
and that when one was conscious of the faith,
ment
to be
itself was
ordered by removing all such cases
the assurance
that justification
was
from
was
of justificathe lower courts and establishing
his. The
Calvinists based assurance
tion
a tribunal for them
in the Circuit Court in the large cities and in the
effective calling of God.
election and
upon
of salvation (which included
Procedure
Coimty Court in less populous areas.
Wesley based assurance
made
was
more
justification)
simple and informal,the whole
upon the witness of the Holy Spiritin
the behever.
The
Roman
Catholic positionwas
objectbeing not to prove the child "guilty"or "not
one's
that assurance
does not rest merely upon
guilty"but to get an understanding of the case
and of the conditions surrounding the child's life
faith that he had been justified,
for this might
cussions
in the disdeceive him.
The
term
so that he might be duly protected and
that he
justification
therefore not used in exactlythe same
might under "the conditions of a normal family
was
home"
Catholic theologiansused the
attain satisfactory
social behavior.
sense, as the Roman
Juvenile Probation Officers were
what the reformers called justification
term to cover
attached to the
court
and sanctification.
to make
of cases
a preUminary investigation
for the enlightenment of the court, to befriend the
Une of thought to justificaA somewhat
tion
parallel
of
is to be seen
in the more
endangeredor offendingchild,to assist parents in the
personalterms
better discharge of their duties and
reconciKation and forgiveness.
if possible,
Shailer
Mathews
without the removal
of the child from his home, to
MARTYR."
Christian apologeticand
JUSTIN
carry out the purpose of the court for his restoration
In cases
to good conduct.
was
where
the child could
polemic writer of the 2nd. century. He
not
born at Flavia NeapoHs (the modern
thus be properly protected, controlled and
Nablus), in
after a.d.
100 and
after various
reclaimed he might be placed
Samaria, soon
on
probation in some
other suitable home
studies became
a Christian about
a.d.
or in the Industrial School,
philosophical
or,
about
Rome
150 he
in cases of truancy,in the Parental School.
133 at Ephesus. At
a.d.
Antoninus
addressed
the
of
the
home
to
conditions
an
of Juvenile
Emperor
Apology
Study
to wMch
for Christianity,
offenders revealed the fact that the loss of the
he afterward added an
bread winner of the family resulted in throwingsuch
Toward
Appendix (theso-called (Second .Apoiogry).
the mother
160 he produced his Dialogue with Trypho, the
A.D.
a burden
that, in having to go
upon
best example of the Christian Anti-Jewish apologetic out to work
home
with low
or
filling
a crowded
class roomers,
appeared.
of the 2nd. century. Justin's other works have disshe must
necessarilyneglect the
suffered martyrdom
He
at
Rome,
children,thus endangering their health,
education,
and
the
Fund-toprobably about a.d. 165.
morality. Hence
numerous
Parent
Acts
were
passed in order to subsidize
I (483-565)." Roman
needy mothers and in every
JUSTINIAN
worthy instance to
emperor,
retain them for their primary work in the care and
who
took great interest in the church, strivingto
nurture
the monophysite party to orthodoxy, and
of their children.
win
Appropriations of this
nature
He
assumed
have rapidly
persecuting Montanists, Arians and pagans.
largeproprotions,and,
closed the schools of Greek
along with expert supervisionof families so aided,
philosophyat Athens
are
generallyregarded as a worthwhile use of county
(529) thus eUminating the last center of Pagan
tion
fimds for constructive and preventivepurposes.
teaching. Justinian is most noted for his codificalaw.
of Roman
The aim of protection of children in industry
has been in the direction of eliminating
night work
In law Juvenile
and street trades, raising the age of compulsory
JUVENILE PROTECTION."
interference of the
Protection represents the humane
education to sixteen years and providing vocational
education and guidance,bringingabout co-operation
state with the traditionalrightsof parents as being
From
the time of the
between
for the child's
of their children.
owners
employer and educator
Industrial Revolution it became painfullyevident
training,
shorteninghours and increasingwages and
in providing social faciUtiesand moral supervision
that under the pressure of economic
hardship,with
in many
demoralization
its attendant
within the plants.
cases, it
that parents would always,
In the field of recreation it has been found
could not be assumed
to restrain proprietors
of pubhc dance
by virtue of natural affection,
properlyprotect the
necessary
halls and amusement
ment
health and morals of their children. Legal enactparks, vendors of obscene
in order to protect the
became
of cheap theaters and cinemas,
pictures,managers
necessary
refreshment
child's inherent right as a human
being and the
parlors,cafes,hotels,excursion boats,
state's interest in the child as a prospectivecitizen.
arcades, gambling machines
pool rooms,
penny
not.
While the prosecutionof offenders
In the United States of America
and what
neglect was
is necessary
it is equallyclear that, with countless
made
Hkely by the ignorance and strangeness
more
had
of immigrants who
of great numbers
homes
come
lacking normal social facilitiesand parental
rural Europe to establish themselves
and
the community itself must
from
provide and
efficiency,
their large families in the most
supervisepublic recreation on a scale capableof
congested and
cities. Agitation
forms
if they
undesirable sections of American
exterminating the commercialized
lookingto the protectionof children againstparental violate the laws enacted to protect their youthful
ignorance and vice and also against employers of
patrons.
and productivephases
child labor,saloon keepersand proprietorsof comOne of the most scientific
mercialized
of Juvenile Protection is to be found in the work
amusements
produced its most definite
ance
in the State of Illinois in 1899.
of the psychopathic clinics. Making all due allowbody of legislation
of
external causes
which was
for the social and
The firstJuvenile Court Law
more
passed
at that time, and
delinquency these clinicstook up the search for prerapidlycopied by the other

243

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

within the organism of the child

disposingcauses
the

of
became

ETHICS

Kant, Immanuei

formerlyunrecognizedimbeciles

and

morons

tion

of family history,school
by skilful tests to determine
especially
system the physicianany impairment of the nervous
able to make
was
a
diagnosison the
psychologist
the child's abihty to maintain
basis of which
while
social behavior
normal
remaining a free
could be somewhat
agent in his ordinary environment
accuratelydiscovered.
the patent necesof this work was
sity
The outcome
to the subnormals
of giving specialtreatment
formed
a
and incompetents who
large percentage
of juvenile recidivists. Segregation and colonizahimself.
On
records and

AND

basis

imperative for these unfortunates

selves
themand for the safety of the society in which

they lived.

Thus the trend of Juvenile Protection has been

from
the old legal responsibility,
formerly
imposed upon children as upon adults,and in the
direction of fostering
and subsidizing
normal family
hfe, suppressing vicious social agencies,punishing
contributors,and penetrating to the individual
for the purpose
of removing the
physical causes
same
or
artificially
controUing the constitutionally
unfit.
Allan
Hobbn
away

of disputed meaning.
in these regions. Outside of Poland
An Egyptian term
KA..
representatives
in Italy many
followers.
It has been defined as the double of the individual; mysticism found
In
the individual modern
times
of Leghorn
Elijah Benamozegh
a
totem; the life principlewhence
draws his life nourishment; the genius of the race;
(1823-1900) was its ardent and giftedadvocate.
GOTTHARD
and
DeUTSCH
a
supernatural being guarding
pre-existing,
KADDISH."
the individual during life and joininghim at death,
(Hebrew,"holy.") In the Jewish
not to be
like the Persian fravashi(q.v.). It seems
ritual,
a praiseof God, recited at different occasions,
hence the term
personahty but a supernatural but chieflyby mourners;
part of a man's
usually
interested
refers to the mourners'
kaddish.
being intimatelyrelated to the individual,
in his destiny,who joinshim at death and exercises
his soul.
See Egypt,
a
KAFIR.
protecting control over
The Moslem
for an vmbeliever.
name
Religion
of.
"

"

KALAM.
at Mecca
KAABA.
An ancient Arab structure
in which the chief reUgiousobjectwas
a sacred black
After the conquest of
stone, probablya meteorite.
the one
it became
Mecca
holy
by Mohammed
made
sanctuary of Islam to which pilgrimageswere

"

The

scholastic

theology of Islam.

"

as

rehgiousduty.

receive.)
(Neo-Hebraic Kabbal,
is supposed to
Mysticism or theosophy which
received
have
been
by oral teaching through
Its origin is to be found in the
select persons.
school of Alexandria
with which, as
neo-Platonic
in close
of Philo shows, the Jews were
the case
hterature gives no
Talmudic
contact.
system of
mysticism, but shows traces of acquaintance with
KABBALA.

"

to

It speaksof the chariot in Ezekiel's

its doctrines.
It gives to the name
vision as a mystic doctrine.
of God
by the pronunciation of
a
mystic power
which, e.g., Moses killed the Egyptian and speaks
able by
of Faust were
of rabbis who as precursors
animals
their knowledge of mysticism to create

and

KALEYALA.
-An epic poem
of Finland brought
togetherin final form in 1849 by Elias Lonnrot after
years of laborious collection of hero stories,
legends,
folk-songsand magic spellshanded down for centuries
"

the Finns.
The present arrangement
among
of materials is entirelydue to the genius of the
collector. The poem
contains cosmologicalmj'lhs,
legends of culture origins,glimpses of rivalry
between
the Finns and Lapps and much
material
for the student of magic. Longfellow's Hiawatha
drew largely from the Kalevala and has the same
metrical form.

KALI.
A Hindu
She
goddess, wife of Shiva.
acter,
fierce,
malignant, cruel and destructive in charperhaps the most terrible symbol of human
"

is

dread

in the presence

of ruthless nature

to be found

anywhere in the world.

KIALPA.
The period of time between
the creation
of the world and its destruction.
The length
of this period varies in the different Hindu systems
sands
but is invariablyof vast extent, reaching to thouof milhons of years.
"

men.

first systematicattempt to present the

teachings of Jewish mysticism is found in Sefer
Yazirah
(the Book of Creation) which gives the
of
doctrine of the essential nature
neo-Platonic
and letters. The date of its originis uncernumbers
tain,
of Zunz that it was
but the hypothesis
composed
in the 9th. century is highly probable (cf.Jewish
authoritative
Encyc. XII, 606-608). The most
be
book of Jewish theosophy is Zohar which may
characterized as a cabbalistic Midrash on the
briefly
written in
It claims to have been
Pentateuch.
the 2nd. century by R. Simeon Ben Yohay under the
of the prophetEhjah, but it is the work
inspiration
de Leon, an
of the Spaniard, Moses
impostor,
written about 1290.
with thaumaturgy took
Mysticism, combined
the Jewish people in connection
on
a strong hold
Zebi
of Shabbetai
movement
with the Messianic
Poland,
in 1666, and
spread very rapidly over
especiallyYolhynia and PodoUa, where during the
first part of the 18th. century Hasidism
originated
which added
to the mystic theories the belief in
of divinelyfavored individuals.
miraculous
powers
Israel Besht
founder
of this movement
was
The
(ca. 1695-1760). This view has still numerous
The

KAMA.
Desire, one
broken
by the Buddhist
god of love.
"

of the

ten

fetters to

disciple:in Hinduism,

be
a

used originallyfor
KAMI.
A Japanese word
anything supremely beautiful, lofty,awe-inspiring
the general
It is now
or
powerful. See Mana.
for god.
term
"

German
IMMANUEL
(1724-1804)."
KANT,
philosopherwhose critical analysisof the character
in
of knowledge opened a new
era
and Umitations
thinking.
philosophical
Kant's
entire hfe was
spent in Konigsberg,
Prussia,where he devoted himself to writing and
an
lecturing in the university. Beginning as
to see
(q.v.)he came
expounder of rationaUsm
the necessityfor a criticalanalysisof the processes
of human
thinking. The results of his inquiry he
Reason
set forth in the Critiqueof Pure
(1781).

Karaites

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

the form of
of knowledge.
of
The form is furnished by the a prioristructure
the mind, and
gives to knowledge its universal
character,so that the reUable laws of science are
possible. Space and time are the a priorifactors
Thus
in sensation.
all particularexperiences are
systematized in space of three dimensions, and in
time series. The
a
percepts thus organized are
further systematized into concepts by the a priori
"categoriesof understanding," such as causation,

sharply between
distinguished
knowledge and the empiricalcontent
He

AND

ETHICS

244

KARENS.
One of the chief races, supposedly
Chinese
in origin,composed of 15 tribes,which
inhabit the Pegu Yoma
hills of Burma.
About
three-fourths
of a million are
in British territory
while others inhabit China.
Their
reUgion
was
their mythology
originally animistic, and
contained
traditions
strikingly parallel
many
to Biblical stories,
result of which
the white
as
a
Karens
have
responded heartilyto missionary
About
work.
tian
100,000 or two thirds of the ChrisKarens.
See Burma.
population of Burma
are
"

etc.
dependence, limitation,
KARMA.
A
The outcome
of this analysiswas
to establish
Sanskrit word
meaning act.
Since every
the
of reality-as-we-know-it.
act
in motion
sets
certain forces,
orderly character
But since our
limited
Karma
to experience,
(as a rigorous application of the law of
knowledge is
it is vain to seek knowledge of things-in-themselves. cause
and effect to the moral sphere) came
to mean
the result of these forces,the sum
total of a man's
Metaphysical agnosticism,so far as transcendent
realityis concerned, is inevitable. Theologically acts, as determining his future life. See Transmigration.
of the traditional
This does not necessarily
this meant
the abandonment
imply an
"

doctrine

that God

is knowable.

Faith

rather than

man.
satisfythe religious
In a second
study, the Critiqueof Practical
Reason, Kant subjected our moral consciousness to
of moral
will he
form
similar analysis. The
a

knowledge must

declared

to

absolute

be

obedience

to

an

priori

ence
"categoricalimperative." In this absolute obediacts
of morality. Human
lies the essence
be fitted into universal moral laws, of which
must
of thy action
"Act as if the maxim
the chief are:
to become
were
by thy will the universal law of
action";and "So act as to treat humanity, whether
in thine own
or in that of any
other,in every
person
only."
as an
as a means
case
end, and never
further
Kant
argued that if this absolute
morality is rational (as it is by hypothesis)we
believe in real human
must
freedom, in God as the
able to make
cosmic power
virtue lead ultimately
to happiness,and in immortality as an opportunity
to pass
beyond the moral imperfections of this
life. In his treatise,Religion within the Ldmits
as a rational
of Mere Reason he set forth Christianity
devotion to the moral good.
Gerald

KARMA-MARGA."

The

Hindu

way

of salvation

by works which consisted of sacrifice,

study of
the scriptures,
austerities,
pilgrimages,and faithful
performance of duty. It is the way of the common
people who have not attained to the higher salvation
hy jndna-mdrga or bhakti-marga (qq.v.).
KARMATIANS.^ee

KEBLE,

JOHN

and divine; renowned

IsMA'iiJa.

(1792-1866)." English poet

the author of the Christian

of four of the pamphlets
with the Oxford Movement
(q.v.).
as

Year; the author

connected

THOMAS
A (1380-1471)." Thomas
KEMPIS,
Hemerken
born
in Kempen,
educated in the
Deventer
of Mount
School,entered the convent
St. Agnes at ZwoUe
(1399) where he became subprior (1425). He wrote chronicles of his convent,
lives of'Groot and others (Englishby J. P. Arthur,
London, 1905) but has permanent fame as author of
The Imitation of Christ,
in almost as many
a work
F. A. Christie
editions as the Bible.

Smith
Mikra
sect
in
ben David
in Babyexistence,founded by Anan
lonia
about 750 as a protest against rabbinism
on
the basis of the principle that the Bible alone
While
in
authority for the Jews.
possesses
respects repeatingthe views of the Sadducees,
many
there is no
KENOSIS."
The
proof for the assumption that this
(Greek, "emptying.")
nunciation
relatter sect continued
distinct element within
as
a
by Christ of the divine mode of being
incarnate in Jesus; an expression
when
he became
Judaism after the 2nd. century. The movement
of Ajian arose in oppositionto the legalhair-splitting used by Paul in Phil. 2 : 8, and employed by certain
in modem
and the homiletic eccentricities found in the Talmud
Protestantism. See Christheologians
and
bUndly accepted by the rabbinic schools
TOLOGY.
flourishingin Mesopotamia from the 3rd. to the
The
movement
KESHUB
11th. centuries.
CHUNDER
SEN
spread rapidly
(1838-1884)."
Indian reUgious reformer and leader of the Brahma
Babylonia, Persia,Palestine and Eg3T"t,and
over
even
gained a foothold in Spain. Its greatest Samaj (q.v.). His desire for reform led to a breach
in the Brahma
Samaj, he becoming the leader of the
development was attained in the 12th. century.
There are at present about 12,000 Karaites in the
"Brahma
Samaj of India," a sect holding to high
of whom
live in southern
Russia, ethical and mysticalprinciplesand findingmuch in
world, most
in the Crimea, though congregationsare
with Unitarianism.
common
especially
nople.
found in Lithuania,Galicia,Egypt, and ConstantiTheir literature is a monotonous
KESWICK
CONFERENCE."
An annual sumcatalog
mer
few
of textbooks of law, comnjentaries, and
conference held in Keswick, England, since 1875
a
much
and
for the promotion of religious
devotion.
It is undenominational,
works, very
ent
dependapologetic
hturgical
pretation
the rabbinic literature. Their strict interon
though the evangelicalsection of the
law which, among
other
of the Mosaic
is largely represented. It has
Anglican church
intense ideal of holiness,
and
regulations,prohibits the keeping of light and
promoted a somewhat
fire in their houses on the Sabbath, their increasing an interest in missions.
small
communities, their
dispersion into very
aloofness from
who
KETUBAH.
the rabbinitic Jews
largely
(Hebrew: "Jewish marriage contract.")
of intermarriage,
The old styleketubah,stillused by orthodox
reciprocatethis feeUng by the prohibition
of dowry and
the
to forbode their speedy disappearance.
Jews, states the amount
seems
DeUTSCH
of settlement made
GOTTHARD
amount
by the groom upou the
KARAITES.
"son of the

Birney

absolute fatahsm.
"Fate can no more
go forward
without human
effort than a chariot can move
on
wheel."
As
the past has determined
one
the
present, so the present helps determine the future.
doctrine
The
miUtates
against a theory of the
W. E. Clark
forgivenessof sins.

Bene
or
(Hebrew Karaim
Bible".) The only Jewish
"

"

245

bride.
in

Jews

Reform

use

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

cate
simple marriage certifi-

place of the ketubah.

POWER
OF
THE."
The authority
KEYS,
Catholic Church to administer
by the Roman
claimed
for
and especiallythat power
discipline,
of St.
the popes, regarded as tJhe spiritual
successors
Peter,to grant or refuse absolution (q.v.)from sins,
claimed

the basis of the

Matt. 16:19.

on

words

of Jesus

to

Peter.

Cf.

AND

ETHICS

Kingdom

of God

the total pohtical(king,subjects,

i.e.,
laws,
territory,
of kingship? (2) Does
etc.) elements
it mean
heaven ? (3)Is it eschatological
?
social
or
(4)Does
it conae
completely by gift of God or by social
evo.lution? The answers
to these questions can
best be reached by a study of the
group of ideas
centering about the conception as held by the
Jews rather than by philology
or
lexicography.
1. The
divine Kingdom
in Hebrew
thought is

obviouslythe

nation

of Israel.

Yahweh

was

monly
com-

presented by the prophets in monarchical

KHALIF
sor
analogies. Thus, as a king he directed the affairs
(or CALIPH)." Arab. KMlifa, succesof his chosen people,
the successor
to or representaor representative;
and
prescribingnational policies
tive
the pohticaland reUgious
of Mohammed
as
determining the national fate. The Hebrew king
In the Koran
the title
His appointee and servant.
leader of Mohammedanism.
was
the
on
Disloyalty
and David
is ascribed to Adam
as
representatives part of nation or monarch
brought divine punishment.
The
ultimate purpose
In Islamic historyit is the titleof (1) Abu
of God.
of His rule was
the
establishment
and 'Ali called the four
of a righteousnation and the defeat
Bekr, 'Umar, 'Uthman
of its enemies.
In course
Khahfs
of the
of time the kingshipof
"perfect" Khahfs; (2) Thirteen
Yahweh
all the
was
regarded as extended
over
Umayyad dynasty; (3)Thirty-sevenKhalifs of the
ish
Abbasid dynasty, whose reignended with the Turknations,but his relation to Israel alone was that of
in Egypt
Involved
in this sovereignty there was
a Father.
conquest in 1258. Titular Khahfs
the power
1258 till 1517 when
I
to act as supreme
Sehm
held the office from
judge. At the awful
all sinners,national as well as
Day of Yahweh
captured the last one, from which time the title has
to punishment.
been claimed by the sultans of Tiirkey.
individual,would be condemned
_

"

'

2. In

Jewish

literalure this idea of a divine

(although the term Kingdom of
God is never
used except in a few instances)
expanded
into a messianic
A
universal
divine
program.
rule was expected but the domain
of Yahweh
to
was
be the Jewish people. There was
also among
the
Mohammedanism,
belief in a transcendental
state
a
apocalyptists
An
KHNUM.
already existingin the heavens which was to be
god who
Egyptian creator
The
two
some
day revealed to men.
concepts
shaped the cosmic egg and, like a potter, moulded
often joinedin the belief either that the heavhead.
enly
were
from clay. He wears
a ram's
man
kingdom would be set up in the earth with
Jerusalem
its capitalor that the Jewish people
^The Moslem
as
KIBLA.
term for the place toward
would
be established by divine power
In
and angehc
which
a
worshiper turns his face in prayer.
assistance as
all other kingdoms.
of Islam it is Mecca.
the case
over
supreme
Probably the apocalyptic writers never
sharply
ish
KIDDUSH."
distinguishedbetween the two shades of meaning.
(Hebrew, "sanctification.")JewHowever
lished
portrayed the Kingdom was to be estabproclaiming the sanctityof a Sabbath
ceremony
of
by God through his Messiah
(q.v.)and to
a
or
holy day consistingof a blessingover
cup
be subject. The
law of the
wine (orother food)and the blessingof the day itself. it all peoples would
jects
new
kingdom would be that of Yahweh, its subbe Jews and proselytes,including the
HASHEM.
would
and HILLUL
HASHEM
KIDDUSH
and
righteous dead who would be raised from Sheol
(Hebrew: "sanctification of God's name"
used by the
cases
(and in some
"desecration of God's name.") Terms
angels as well),and its King
To these conceptionswere
acts
would be the Messiah.
and wicked
to indicate their virtuous
Jews
"this
added
the expectation of the passage
from
in that Jewish conduct is thought of as
respectively,
to its virtue
age" to the "coming age." See Eschatolggy.
glory to God in proportion
reflecting
be estabhshed
At that time the judgment would
The
KINDNESS."
(an expansion of the expectation of the Day of
quality of goodwill or
would
tenderness
expressed in behavior of a thoughtful, Yahweh) by the Mes.siah,when its members
of God
into the Kingdom
or
friendly type. Many psychologistsbe given full entrance
merciful,generous
and super-human,
and its enemies, both human
tive
to be instincbelieve the tender emotion
culties
would be thrown
into the abyss of fire. The diffito his child.
of a savage
as, e.g., the kindness
involved in a consistent unification of these,
stress
The higher rehgions,especiallyChristianity,
not to
to ethical Uving as a member
pohticaland transcendental elements seems
kindness as necessary
that
be remembered
it must
with
the
have been felt. And
and
in harmony
of the social group,
the apocalyptists
never
were
keenly sensitive to
character and will of God.
earth to
the passing of their imagination from
The reign of God
OF GOD."
over
KINGDOM
heaven, and from historical personages to heavenly
revolutionary
of both temporally
ideal social order conceived
portents and figures. In the more
an
not
like the Zealots the divine kingdom was
and transcendentally.
groups
but the Jewish nation made
Testament
The
term
is characteristicof New
supreme
eschatological
in large measure
was
by God's assistance in war.
Christianitybut its content
From
this point of view it is easy to appreciate
state and the messianic
furnished by the Hebrew
of
behef that the Kingdom
Jewish
the current
Jesus gave the term new
expectationsof the Jews.
Satan stood over
elements
moral
but did not altogether abandon
against the Kingdom of God as
the Kingof the sufferingand disaster which had
the source
dom
concepts. Its synonym,
contemporary
nation.
the Jewish
Only with its
of Heaven
(or of the Heavens), found only in
come
upon
but by
Matthew
does not differ from it radically,
complete destruction would the heavenlykingdom
the use of a cosmologicalconception emphasizes its
and the new
Age be estabhshed.
3. The Kingdom of God in the teachingof Jesus
super-earthlycharacter.
and
accords
with the
Certain exegeticalquestionspresent themselves:
is obviously"not
political
rather than
Pharisaic behef in being eschatological
(1)Does the term indicate God's authorityor domain:
An Arabic Muslim
sect, which
KHARIJITES."
with reference
opposed the Shi' ites (q.v.)especially
officefilled
to the Khaliphate, claiming it to be an
family. See
by election from any Arabic Mushm

"

"

"

King and Kingdom

of God

Kingdom

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

246

6. In modem
scholars find a present
thoughtthe Kingdom of God has
and a few other pasin Luke
17:20-22
the
variously identified with
church, a
sages). been
redeemed
the imporBut it is easy to overestimate
society, and a heavenly social order
tance
similar to that of the N.T.
Christians.
of eschatologicalelements
It has
in his teaching
served of late years as the incentive to the social
is made
for the results of
unless due allowance
the earliest forms of his teaching
criticism. When
apphcation of the Gospel (see Social Gospel) on
the part both of those who
found by the simple process of comparing the
are
clusively
regard it from the exsocial pointof view and of many
of those who
in the synopticgospels,it will appear that
parallels
find in its usage in the N.T. wholly eschatological
Jesus (a)presents God as a Father rather than as a
it represents the religious
ventional
hope. In both cases
King; (6)uses the term Kingdom of God as a conview of history as the sphere of divine influence.
good to be enjoyed
symbol of the supreme
For whether
God be viewed as strictly
transcendent
by humanity; (c)lays the chief emphasis upon the
the goal of social evolution is seen
moral conditions of sharing in the joys of a society or as immanent
to be the fulfillment of His will in the estabhshment,
in which God is supreme
and love is the dominating
with His aid, of an ideal social order on
earth in
and (d) represents it as opposed to
characteristic;
which justiceand fraternityshall reign,and of a
of evil.
and by the Kingdom
of Satan, the source
of the details of the
In such a comparison most
perfectsocial order in the spiritualworld in which
current
eschatology disappear from Jesus' sayings those who have the mind of Christ shall reahze the
ideals for which they have striven in their earthly
and those that remain
are
secondary to his moral
Ufe.
Shailer
Mathews
and
religiousteachings. Paradoxical as it may
is central in his
of God
the Kingdom
not
seem,
KINGDOM
of
OF HEAVEN
ENS).
HEAV(or OF THE
thought, but the God-like character demanded
See Kingdom
God.
those who seek it as the supreme
of
good. The term
of
of the elements
thus be said to be one
may
DIVINE
RIGHT
OF."
doctrine
current
The
belief which, after reconceiving, Jesus
KINGS,
that a king holds his office by divine appointment
utilized as his pedagogical apparatus.
and is therefore not responsibleto his subjects.
The reallycontrolling
analogy in the thought of
Constitutional government
is therefore
Jesus is that of a familycomposed of those who posregarded
sess
moral likeness to the Father in heaven.
The
in so far as it is
as dangerous to king and
religion
not a concession
the part of the king. Such a
on
Kingdom of God in his teaching may be defined as
view maintains
much
that social order already existingin heaven
the same
estimate of royal
(but to
to its
to men) in which
the relation of God
come
as
belonged to ancient states where the
powers
king was
subjectsis that of Father and the relation of its
regarded as established by some
god if
indeed not a god himself.
See Emperor
Worship.
subjects to each other is consequently that of
brothers.
Love or brotherliness is an indispensable The historyof the Hebrew
monarchy contained in
condition of membership in it,and is to characterize
the Bible laid a theologicalbasis for divine rights
all those who seek to join it and share in its joys.
of a royal house, but the Stuarts in England based
How
far Jesus taught that its coming would
their claims to such rightslargelyupon
the arguments
be catastrophic
is a matter
of dispute,but there can
of Sir Robert
Filmer who made
government
be no
doubt
that he regarded its appearance
established
as
a
patriarchal despotism
by God.
God's
That
action.
is to say,
Coronation rituals doubtless served to preserve the
dependent upon
it was
beUef in the divine originof royal power.
element
of Jesus' religiousworld view
ism
Absolutan
rather than a strictly
ideal.
whether theoretically
justifiedor practically
sociological
As an element in modern
exercised has generally grounded itself in divine
hopes his use of the
term
is subjectto the influence of modern
sanctions.
See Divine
views of
Right.
God and His relations to human
Shailer
Mathews
history,and should
not be so used as to obscure
CHARLES
the central religious
KINGSLEY,
(1819-1875)." EngUsh
and moral teachingswhich it connoted.
of broad
divine,poet, novehst and teacher; a man
4. The
liberal tendencies, sympathetic with
Christian
of
apostolicthought of the Kingdom
God, though not often expressed explicitly,
was
socialism,and opposed to Oxford Tractarianism;
novelist whose
Ho
closelyakin to the views of contemporary Judaism.
a
Hypatia and Westward
are
It was
the coming reignof Christ over
the best of English prose writings; a poet
his people and
among
in accord with the Jewish
Saint's Tragedy is his best known
to be estabUshed
whose
bution
contriwas
to Englishverse.
eschatological
hope. Its members, however, were
Jews or Gentiles.
to be all believers whether
It
scribed.
KINSHIP."
See Family.
was
something to be hoped for but not to be deIt existed
already in heaven, would
descend to earth (orat least to the air)where those
KISMET.
A word
usually associated in the
who
had already accepted Jesus as the Messiah
mind with the fatalism of Islam.
It means
western
would join it after having been given bodies of the
fate or what is decreed by fate.
Paul always refers to it as a conresurrection.
crete
KNEELING.
reaction
realitythough not yet apparent to the physical
Kneeling is a normal
stimulated by feehngs of dependence and supplication.
senses, but his chief interest is in the conditions
giftof the
governingmembership in it (e.g.,
Along with bowing and prostration it is
faith,
observable
Spirit,etc.).
primitivepeoples as a mark of
among
of God
5. In the early church,the Kingdom
deference to higher rank, or before the deity in the
ceremonial.
It is a ceremonial
the
gradually loses its earlier prominence and becomes
posture among
heaven conceived
of more
after the Greek
fashion.
Greeks,Romans, Chinese,Hindus, Moslems, and
he
Jews.
Augustine, however, as
contemplates the
Early in Christian historykneehng became
miseries oi a decadent empire, makes it the key to a
the customary posture in privateprayer, especially
when expressing
philosophy of history. In his City of God he sets
penitence. In the Roman, Greek,
forth the two rival kingdoms of God and Satan, and
churches
kneehng is preAngUcan and Lutheran
scribed
in history the record of their struggle. The
brating
sees
in certain parts of the hturgy and in celeless closelyidentified
the Eucharist.
Kingdom of God is more
or
with the church whose development is traced from
of
the earUest stages of bibhcal historyto its triumph
Order
KNIGHTS
COLUMBUS."
An
OF

present

(althoughsome

kingdom

"

"

"

in heaven.

Roman

Cathohc

Men, organizedin 1882 for fraternal

247

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The
and
membership of
beneficiary purposes.
about
400,000 is mainly confined to the North
The order is a zealous proContinent.
American
moter
of the interests of Catholicism.

AND

ETHICS

Korea, Religions of

Korean

and Japanese are more

closelyalhed than
other two
Ethnotongues of the Far East.
logicallythe two peoplesare also more
like each
other than either is like the Chinese.
I. History."
-The earliest annals show that there
RELIGIOUS
USE
OF"
The
in the peninsula among
were
custom
tribes of
the many
KNOTS,
to
of attaching magical and religioussignificance
Aryan and Tartar originthree groups which formed
states in the era
of tying and untying
of the Three Han, or Kingdoms.
the knot and the ceremonies
In time,after much
usual significance
of the knot
localwar and economic struggle,
is widespread. The
these became
It is used in
united under one; a favorite native
is a symbol for binding or inhibiting.
of certain religions,
and as
of Korea
name
the initiation ceremonies
(dominion of Ko, the legendary
in binding sacred texts,
of consolation,
as
founder) even
a source
yet being Dai Han, or the great
state.
The historic eras are:
to the body. Its use
amulets
charms
a
as
or
(1)Old Chosen, 1122
B.C.
to 9 A.D.;
(2) The Three Kingdoms, 9 to
symbol of conjugal union is especiallyancient and
960
(3) Korai
far-reaching. It is also connected with various rites
(Korea) 960-1392
a.d.:
A.D.;
come
and ceremonies,as those of childbirth,
spellsto over(4)Cho-sen,1392-1912.
and counter-magicto remove
Under
the system
of centralized monarchy
a tabu.
sickness,
based on
the Chinese model, the Idngdom's area
Illustrations are obtainable from every continent.
divided into eight provinces,which remained
was
KNOW
in force until in 1912,under Japanese administration,
NOTHING
KNOW
NOTHINGISM,
The name
divided into thirteen provinces.
PARTY.
given to the pohcy of a political the country was
In 1917, in round numbers
the area includes 82,000
party existent in the U.S.A., 1850-1860, which
tried to promote pure Americanism
by using secret
miles, with 4,336 villagesand a native
square
citizens and to
methods
to proscribe naturahzed
population of 15,000,000 souls, besides 250,000
of the Roman
check the poUtical moves
church;
Japanese and 17,000foreigners. By the year 1392,
to profess
so-calledfrom the agreement of members
Buddhism, introduced in the 4th. century, after a
thousand years of brilUant success,
questioned. The opposition was
through its
ignorance when
and
general prevalence, great wealth
againststate aid to CathoUc Schools and
priestly
especially
influence at Court,had become
pohtics.
a pohtical
papal interference in American
power, and
too often associated not only with luxury but
was
former. with
(ca.1514-1572)." Scottish ReKNOX,
JOHN
immortahty and corruption. On the fall
the priesthood before 1540;
of the Mongols and the rise of the Ming, or native
entered
He
Chinese dynasty, which meant
not a pubhc supporter of the
tions
revolubut until 1545 he was
as so
many
he
In
1546
or
Reformation.
accepted a call to
dynastic changes in China have meant
of Confucianism,
took
the Reform
ministryat St. Andrew's, but when the
a re-instatement
a revolution
made
to
The
Buddhist
French fleet captured the Castle,he was
place in Korea.
come,
overparty was
In 1549 he
and Confucianism
the galleysfor 18 months.
became
work
the cult of the
on
and gentlemen generally.
returned to the ministry in England where
(1549- scholars,educated
men
left as sheep without a shepherd.
1554) he did much to lay the foundations of English The people were
he was
exile on
sank
into degraded forms
From
1554-1559
Buddhism
Puritanism.
an
under
the
recrudescence
of the old animistic notions and
the continent, ministering to fellow-exiles. He
beast worship increased.
returned in
visited Scotland,1555-1556, and finally
in Scotland became
II. Religion."
the Reformation
The mental and spiritual
an
1559 when
history
is marked
and
stimulating preaching of the Koreans
by the animism
accomplished fact. His
him an indomitable
leader.
shamanism
of most
and personalzeal made
early forms of religion. It is
of Confucian
culture
He with five others composed the Scotch Confession, probable that the rudiments
in some
time
before
Granite
Buddhism.
the Calvinistic creed of the Scottish church before
came
confession.
and the people expert in chisel-craft,
the Westminster
being plentiful
there still exist scores
of stone colossi,
usually in
In Teutonic
folk-lore,
a
sprite of
KOBOLD.
pairs,representingthe heavenly and earthly,or
male and female,principles
of nature, on which all
the earth,dwellingin caves, mines, etc.,in contrast
Chinese philosophy is founded.
with water-sprites
Not a few of these
(undine),air-sprites
(sylph)and
of early culture are found to-day in the
monuments
(salamander).
fire-sprites
of forests,
midst
the surviving monuments
left
of Ancient
have
after Buddhist
nunneries
monasteries
and
Events," a
KOJIKI." The "Record
had
Chinese philosophy in Korea
native Japanese collection of the earliest source
passed away.
its evolution,
not
material of the originalreligion,
Shinto,made in
supremely in filial piety as in
China nor
in loyalty
in Japan, but mainly along
712 A.D.
as
the line of sociology. The thinking of the Korean
RE."
NID
is largelyinfluenced and conditioned
KOL
(Hebrew, "all vows.") In
by this fact.
Korean
Buddhism
not to have passed through
seems
Jewish liturgy,a selection from the service of the
of Atonement
Day, declaring that all oaths, those doctrinal evolutions which so distinguishthe
eve
which may
be made
during the year (and in which
Japanese from other varieties.
III. Missions.
No
seeds of Christianity
other person is concerned) shall be null,if not
are
no
known
tian
to have been planted by any of those Chrisperformed. The kol nidre is most famous because
soldiers in Hideyoshi'sinvasion in 1492-97,
of the soulful melodies that have adorned it.
and yet the
who are pupils of the Iberian Jesuits,
Literatures.
KORAN.
See Sacred
firstpropagatingagents of Christianity
were
Roman
reached
Catholics.
had
the point
Confucianism
MISSIONS
RELIGIONS
of bigotryand oppression,when, in 1777, a number
OF, AND
KOREA,
of students received from Peking a collection of
TO.
The name
means
Morning Splendor. Chosen.
books on the Christian religion
The land is a peninsulain eastern Asia,and is now
given by the Jesuit
the continental
missionaries.
portion of the Japanese Empire.
By the study of these they were
Until 1912 it had a poUticalexistence and a civilization
and had Chinese priests
converted to Christianity,
it is the Unk
until 1836, when
the first French
them
distinctlyits own.
Historically
among
between
the mainland
and Japan in culture and in
Korea
in
disguise. From
missionarjr entered
and
mamfold
relations. In structure
in China, Rev. Joha Ross, a Scotch
vocabulary Mukden
any

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Korean

A DICTIONARY

Buddhism

missionarytranslated

the

New

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

248

Testament, wrote

to the priesthood and

compelled to devote one
later this was
in three.
made one
Many
royal
monks
and
several
princes became
kings and
abdicated
and
entered the monasteries.
queens
there broke out in the capital
warfare between the
When
the Yi Dynasty was
founded in 1392, the
Chinese
and
Japanese legation guards. The
from
capital was
purposely moved
priest-ridden
of
Dr. H. N. Allen,medical missionary
appearance
Songdo, and all priestsand nuns
forbidden
were
of the American
Methodist
Church gave opportunity
on
pain of death from entering the new
capital.
to show the value of modern
In 1392, there were
thirteen Buddhist
In
sects.
surgery and the healing
sionaries1405, the King commanded
art, which paved the way for the work of the misthat they combine
who
now
into the country in large to make but seven, and, in 1422,again ordered that
came
numbers, in 1917 about 300. A survey of the country
these seven
combine
into but two, which are the
for its strategic
points,the mastery of the language, two nominally existingtoday the "Sun"
templative
Conor
ity,
evangelistic
work, and the propagation of ChristianSect and the "Kyo" or Practical.
There were
accordingto itsmodern forms,were quicklybegun
for
a few times of relative prosperity
and vigorously
carried on, and soon schools,
under
the Yi Dynasty, but, in
churches, the doctrine even
homes
and hygiene began to
improved
hospitals,
peatedly
general,their sun has been in a steady decline. Rere-create
hfe. Happily the missionaries
Korean
monastery lands and property have been
found on their arrival,in the people's
confiscated by the King and restrictions put upon
writing,a
of reaching the masses.
means
With
this facile
the priests. Today there are nominally 1417 but
instrument at hand, the study of the Bible has
in operation, with
actually only 917 monasteries
almost
become
national
habit. The
a
en-mun
nominally6692 priestsand 1274 nuns and 131,887
native script is based
or
on
of the priests
a
purely phonetic
"adherents," but large numbers
alphabet,invented in the 14th. century by the
ordinary avocations and retain only a
pursue
Korean statesman
and
formed
nominal connection with the temples and, as there
according to the
of speech. Almost
stated services,the 131,887 "adherents"
organs
perfectin theory, it is
are
no
easilylearned.
Self-supportand a strong
very
are reckoned only by guess-work.
spiritof brotherhood unite the native Christians
of the multitudinous temples,
Although most
and
the feehng between
the Christian Japanese
pagodas and "universities" of former days are
and Korean is strong and fruitful of good results.
beautiful idols and
largelyin ruins,there are many
Korea
modern
coming late under
Christian
relics in the temples still standing, notably the
influences now
in manifold
enjoys them
forms, wonderful Cave of Sukkoolam near Kyungju; and
educational,evangelical, theological,industrial, the Koreans possess the wooden blocks for printing
of the Mahayana
the finest copy
Canon now
eleemosenary,
medical,etc.,within and without the
churches,while the civilizing
forces and influences
in existence with the possibleexception of the one
introduced by the Japanese,such as banks, good
in Kyoto which was
perhaps secured from them in
roads,publichygiene,
industries,
education,develop- 1421.
rnent of resources, facility
of post and communicais of the "Amita"
tion,
Korean
Buddhism
type,
tend, despite some
trinities
uncongenial regulative though in their temples there are many
ideas and measures
in publicinstruction,to the
such as that of Vairochana, Sakamuni, and others.
upliftof the people and faciUtation of missionary Yaksa Yerai, the Heahng Buddha
(Bhaishajyaraja)
labors.
thousand
Probably,besides one hundred
is widely worshiped, as is Miryuck, the Messiah
church members, a half milhon Koreans
imder
Buddha
are
yet to come, and Kwanseieum, the goddess
the influence of Christian ideals. The
used are
the
Among the books most
principal of mercy.
societies at work, besides the Roman
Catholic
Lotus Gospel {Saddharma Pundarika) , the Kishilon
the American Presb3^erians(North and South),
are
Sutra, the
{Awakening of Faith), the Diamond
Methodist
Episcopal (North and
Amita
South), and
Book, and the Chijang Book
(Chijang
Canadian
and AustraHan,who
in comity district being the Jizo of Japan).
the country without inter lapping,the great denominations
efforts
Since 1902, great
have been made
to
instruction and all in
unitingin theological
revivifythe organizationeither by internal changes
Christian
a
university.
or
amalgamation with Japanese sects, but little
William Elliot Griffis
has been attained.
success
Primary schools have
KOREAN
BUDDHISM."
The course
dhism
of Budbeen established and a few middle schools and a
in Korea may
be representedby a line steadily "College" in Seoul; some
literature has been prepared
and effort made
risingfrom 372 to 935 a.d., through the "Three
to conduct
a monthly magazine;
Kingdom" Age, a plateau during the Golden Age
preachingchapels have been opened in many
of the Koryu Dynasty 935-1392, and a steady fall
towns.
Everything starts nicely but the movements
throughout the Yi Dynasty, 1392 to today.
have little inner vitalityand soon
out.
run
Buddhism
first came
to Kogoryu, the northernmost
Unless a union with the Japanese sects is effected,
of the "Three
it looks as though the organizationwas
Kingdoms," through Soonto, a
doomed
to
Chinese priest,in 372 a.d.; to Paikohei,the S. W.
extinction.
It has no
adequate message for this
Kingdom, through Marananda, an Indian, in 384;
modern
world, and there is nothing for it but to die.
and to Silla,
the S. E. Kingdom through Meukhoja,
Charles A. Clark
black
in
424.
From
a
the beginning,it was
KOREAN
CHUNTOKYO."
A curious religion
man,
under royal patronage in all three kingdoms. Its
founded in 1860 and claiming for itselfas many
as
In 545,
Confucianism.
only real opponent was
three milhons of followers.
Possiblyit has actually
Paikchei
sent
the first missionaries
to take
the
enrolment
of towards a milUon members
a nominal
Law
to Japan, and Silla joined in that propaganda
and an active membership of 100,000,largelymen.
later.
It was
foimded by Choi Chei Oo, who after a wonderful
vision received a sacred formula of twenty-two
Through the "Three Kingdom" Period,hundreds
of pagodas and monasteries
built with public
characters and a magic talisman for curing disease.
were
funds; during the Koryir time, this number
In the movement
was
to exterminate
CathoHcism,in
changed to thousands, and all of the temples were
1866 Choi was
arrested as a suspect and beheaded.
from
largely maintained
the
His nephew Choi Si Hyung, better known
King's treasury.
as
took semirpriestlyvows
Kings and queens
and
Choi Hai
Wul, secretly gathered the Master's
received the arm-burning seal. At one time during
them
writings and bound
into a "Bible" called
the Koryu Age, every family having four sons
the Tong Kyung Tai Chun.
was
Under him the organitracts in
beUevers.

Korean, and baptized the first Protestant

After the American
by
treaty, made
Shufeldt
Commodore
in 1883, came
into force,

"

249

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ful
but in a healthyears secretly
really religiousorganization.
In the
Political complicationsled to his execution.
then
90's the "Tonghak" organization,as it was
used as a nucleus of a popular revolt
called, was
againstofficialoppressionand was nearly destroyed
by the government troops.
The third leader of the Movement, Son Pyung
of
hundreds
Heui, is still living. There are now
denominations
churches.
Two
have already arisen.
There is a largeand rapidlygrowing literature.
As to formal doctrines,it is held that God is
non-personal Essence to which
truth,some
vague,
is no
sin. Men
we
owe
are
allegiance. There
holy. There is an eternal life but no hell or eternal
ad
death.
Religion consists in repeating over
zation grew

for many
as

manner

infinitum the twenty-two

the Founder.

word

formula revealed
Charles
A. Clark

KORESHAN

ECCLESIA
(or CHURCH
A
small
communistic
founded
in 1839 by Cyrus R. Teed, whom
held to be a New
Messiah.

TRIUMPHANT)."

KOSHER."
(Hebrew, "fit.") Pood
accordingto the Jewish ritual law.

to

Labor

Movement

KULTURKAMPF."
A German
word used to
denote the fifteen year strugglewhich
took place
between
the Roman
Church
and
the German
after the establishment
of the empire
government
in 1870, in which the Catholic party maintained
a
stout
resistance to all policieswhich
seemed to
of the Vatican.
weaken
the power
Bismarck
at
first suspected that Catholics might stand in way
of the unification of German
tually
sentiment,but evenin parUament.
sanctioned their participation
See Ultramontanism.

society of

permitted

ETHICS

ABRAHAM
KUENEN,
(1828-1891)." Dutch
Protestant
theologian; a supporter of the hberal
of the
movement
opposed to the Calvinism
as
Dutch
Reformed
of
as
one
church; best known
the leading exponents of criticalhistoricalscholarship
in the O.T. field.

ARCHhis followers

AND

was

A Buddhist goddess
Originallythis deity
Avalokilesvara
(q.v.),a male

KWANYIN."
KWANNON,
of Japan and China.

mercy

the

Buddhist

men.
Bodhisattva,kindly and beneficent toward
of migration through China
In the process
to
transformed, though, as a goddess,
Japan he was
with the
she is closelyassociated,as originally,
Buddha
of boundless
(Amitabha in
grace, Amita
India).

One
of the leading objects of
KRISHNA."
worship in Hinduism, being that incarnation of
KWEI.
The
word is used in China to mean
Vishnu
most
popular throughout northern India,
a
royal chieftain who gradually souls of the dead ("alivea man, dead a kwei") or,
possiblyoriginally
more
the object of a cult. Krishna
commonly, demon.
They haunt the night
became
occupies a
fortunes.
of all kinds of dangers and misprominent positionin the MahabhArata particularly and are the source
The uneducated
populace live in constant
See India, Religions
in the Bhagavad Gita.
of.
dread of these omnipresent malignant spirits.
warrior or ruling class of
KSHATRIYA.
The
ELEISON."
An
KYRIE
the early Indo-Aryans. They, with the Brahmans
Anglicized form of
constituted the original
the Greek
castes of
words
and Vaisyas (q.v.),
meaning "Lord, have mercy,"
used in the Uturgies (q.v.)of the Roman,
The king was
the twice-born.
Greek,
always selected from
"

"

Anglicanand Lutheran

the warrior caste.

LABADISTS.^A

sect

of the followers of Jean de

Jesuit who
joined the
He developed extreme
views, insistingon rigorousdiscipUne,communism
and
separation from worldly connections. As a
la Badie
(1610-1674), a
church.
Reformed
French

France, Switzerland,England,
and Holland
opposition.The
encountering much
little group after several migrations broke up soon
pastor he labored

in

of La Badie.

after the death

In Christian usage the standard

after his conversion. It
Constantine
and
standard
an
adaption of a Roman
military
was
consisted of a spear bearing a purplecloth. On the
the monogram
XP (the first
spear or the cloth was
Christ in Greek) surrovmded
two letters of the word
by a gold wreath.

LABARUM.

"

adopted by

LABOR

CHURCH.

"

An

founded
organization

Manchester, England, in 1891 on socialisticlines,

as
an
expressionof the religiouselement of the
In 1909 the name
changed
was
labor movement.
in

to the

"Socialist Church."

LABOR

MOVEMENT,

ETHICS

OF."

The

ment
consciouslyorganized movemovement
as
a
in
recent and has paralleled
is comparatively
general the development of industry since the
distinctive
Industrial Revolution
(for certain
aspects of this movement, see Capitalism, Ethics
of), a labor class has, of course, existed from
remote
times, but the Industrial Revolution, on
the one
hand, sharpenedthe class division between
in them
of factories and those who worked
owners

labor

churches.

for wages,

and on the other,by gatheringworkmen

it easier
together into largefactory groups, made
for them
to unite and
sciousness.
strengthen their class conis the
chief end of the labor movement
though
Alof laborers.
of the condition
capitaland labor have an ultimate common
interest in the prosperity of the industry, their
interests are sharply opposed as to the division of
labor group
the total income
of industry. The
in the
wishes to obtain as largea share as possible
obtain as
form of wages;
wishesto
the capitalist
much
as
possiblefor profits. In addition to these
obvious
differences of interests,there are
many
points of difference not so generallyrecognized
by the outsider. Improvement in production by
the increased use
of machinery or by subdivision
of processes
is distinctlyto the advantage of the
employer and should be to that of the publicunless
the employer is able to appropriateall the resulting
the workman
effect upon
gain. But the immediate
of introducingmachinery is to displacemen, and the
effect ot feubdividingprocesses is to reduce the
craftsmanship and wages of those who do the less
In meeting these and
skilled parts of the process.
tions,
similar questionsas to wages, hours,working condihas to deal, not
the individual laborer now
as
formerly with an individual employer, but with
The

improvement

of vast
impersonal corporation, frequently
Orgamzationhas
corresponding power.
of
appeared to be the natural and only method
an
approximateequality
placingthe workman
upon
the continent
with employers in bargaining. On
has more
of Europe the labor movement
commonly

an

size and

Labor

Movement

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

250

form in the endeavor to secure

taken a political
not merely wages,
but possibilities
of health comparable
to the health
In England
certain kinds of production by law.
of well-to-do classes,
housing
States unions
conditions
in
and in the United
have
which
depended
decency can be maintained,a
economic
and
have
more
means
preferred shorter day that there may
be opportunity for
upon
their ends by agreements, with the strike
to secure
and
leisure, recreation
education.
Industrial
alternative.
as
a reserved
Democracy is,in the view of the labor movement,
The ethics of the labor movement
has, therefore,as important as political
democracy. Quite apart
from the question whether
been largely the ethics of group
morality and in
the employer might not
of his own
of a group
of the under-dog sort engaged
free will establish as
particular
good working
conditions as any organizationof laborers might be
classes
serious struggle.In Europe where
m
a
able
fixed than in America, class consciousness
to
are
more
insists
conceive^the labor movement
has usually been more
that it shall have an
ment
increasingly
intense,but the labor moveequal share in
grants
in America
has had large recruits from immideterminingall the conditions under which industry
who
It claims this as a matter
frequently speak a different language is to be carried on.
of
from that of the employer,have Uttle education, principle
the ground that freedom
on
and equality
far
cannot
be
live in sharply defined congested areas
removed
otherwise secured.
Jambs
H. Tufts
from the beautiful and healthful homes of employers.
LABYRINTH.
In mediaeval
churches
cate
intriAny group sharply separated,not onlyeconomically
is likelyto
and socially,
but linguistically,
racially,
arranged on the tiled floor j of the
passages,
be suspiciousof groups with which it is in competitive
symbolizing the progress of Jesus from
nave,
Jerusalem to the cross.
relation.
The
devout
traversed
these in prayer on their knees.
The militant character of the labor movement
at times have been kept active in order to
may
strengthen the union, just as poUticalleaders
LACORDAIRE,
HENRI
BAPTISTE
JEAN
the unifyhave always reckoned
more
ing
or less upon
(1802-1861)." French R.C. ecclesiastic and pulpit
nationalism
of
effectof a certain amount
as
over
orator; associated with Lamennais
(q.v.)in the
mihtant
attitude has
The
against other states.
attempt to interpretCatholicism in accordance with
legs"
shown
itselfparticularly
the principlesof Uberty and democracy in opposiagainst"scabs" or "blacktion
who
are
regarded as the worst enemies of
to Ultramontanism
while also opposing
(q.v.),
free thinking. As preacher of rare
organized labor. The psychology here is precisely anti-religious
time.
in war
similar to that of the national group
in Notre
Dame
he exerted great influence
power
The obverse aspect of group
moraHty is the strong over French hfe and thought.
to aU within the group, and
feelingof obligation
to
the
adoption of various means
encourage
LACTANTIUS
(ca.260-ca. 330)." Latin Father;
brotherlyfeehng rather than individual rivalry. teacher of rhetoric in Nicomedia, converted
to
rule"
tends
to
Thus
the "common
which
equalize Christianitylate in hfe. His writings,
while not
not go farther
output and wages, although it may
theologicallyprofound, are
valuable
from
the
for the one
and
in practicethan to set a maximum
hterary and historical viewpoints. His principal
for the other,is an illustration. "Thou
a minimum
work. The Divine Institutes,
attempts a complete
shalt not take thy brother's job" is to the imionist
apologeticpresentationof Christianity.
shalt
based on
a
deeper morality than "Thou
the
interest solely,"as
bargain for thine own
LADY
CHAPEL."
A chapel dedicated to the
ethics of the so-called "open shop" would
suggest. Virgin Mary, in or connected
with many
larger
of seasonal employment, limitation of
In the case
churches
and cathedrals.
had
additional
incentive:
the
has
an
production
has often believed it legitimateto "stretch' '
workman
LADY-DAY."
The
feast of the Annunciation
a job to some
extent, since the only way to provide for
(q.v.)celebrated on Mar. 25th.; but formerlythe
has seemed to be to make today's
for a job tomorrow
of all days in the calendar of the church
designation
job last over until tomorrow.
connected
with events
in the hfe of the Blessed
The
is one
socialist movement
aspect of the
Virgin.
It has laid great stress upon
labor movement.
the
of labor.
Assuming from the older
exploitation
LAITY.
^The non-clerical members
of
the
economists
that the wage of the laborer remains at
church.
At the close of the 1st. century the term
recruit
the
to
the minimum
of
supply
necessary
was
applied to the congregation. The
Roman
labor, it appeared to be the logicalinference that
is composed
Ca,thohc church
of the
hierarchy
all the economic advantage due to the increased
in whom
rests
exclusive
authority and the
to
the
of production goes
methods
capitalist.
laity. In Protestant bodies the laity share with
the socialist has not considered the present
Hence
the clergyin church administration.
of
ethical
"

"

"

"

ownership

property

as

having

sound

basis. The
current
conception of honesty has
the socialist a capitalist^
seemed
to
conception.
The socialistalso emphasizesclass conflict. For the
national grouping and conflicts he would substitute
international alliance of workingmen as over
an
class conflict as
against capitalists.He justifies
to the ultimate abolition
being the necessary means
of class.
and constructive ideals of the
The more
positive
stated by John P. Frey in the
labor movement
are
Journal
International
of Ethics, Vol. XXVIII,
Brotherhood, Education, Standard
pp. 485-98, as:
Industrial
hood
Brotherof Living, and
Democracy.
In the field of
is international in its scope.
Education, the trade unionists maintain that theirs
has been a highly important part in preventing
child labor and securing free public schools and
free text books, A Standard of Living included

LAKSHMI.
A Hindu
wife of Vishnu.
She

acter,
goddess of kindly char-

LAMAISM.

politico-religious
system
being a phase

"

"

The

prevalent in Tibet and

of Mahayana
Buddhism

is also called S'ri.

MongoUa,

its way
found
and
in which
admixture of Shivaism
and Shamanism.
so
designated from the dalai-lama and
tesho-lama,the hierarchical head, and his deputy.
Tibet, Religions
op; Buddhism.

into Tibet
there is an
It is

in

the

7th.

which

century

LAMB.
In earlyChristian symbohsm as preserved
in the catacombs
and on
sarcophagi, the
lamb
used
sometimes
in depictions of the
was
Good
Shepherd bearing the lamb, and again as
representingJesus,the Lamb of God, slain for men.
"

251

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Lapsed

and
were
The
Nine articlesof faith,
given
ARTICLES."
canons
discipline.
LAMBETH
ecumenical status at the council of Chalcedon, 451.
up
embodying high Calvinistic principles,drawn
officially
at Lambeth, England, in 1595 but never
LAO-TSE
of the
(ca.604-524 B.C.)."A Chinese mystical
oppositionof Queen
adopted because
philosopher, founder of the higher Taoism
Elizabeth.
Teh
and the supposed author of the Tao
King.

bishops

have

since 1867

met

ment

Assemblies

CONFERENCES."

LAMBETH

Anghcan

each

once

Palace, London, England

interest
practical

to the

to

of

synods, which

Pan-AngUcan

or

decade at Lambeth
of
matters
discuss

Anglicancommunion.

Four articles
LAMBETH
QUADRILATERAL."
of faith,proposed as a basis for the reunion of

Christendom, adopted by the Protestant

Episcopal

of the U.S.A. in Chicago in 1886 and

Conference
(q.v.)in 1888. The
by the Lambeth
of the Scriptures
articlesaffirmed (1)the sufficiency
to the
the standard of faith; (2) adherence
as
ments
Apostles'and Nicene creeds; (3) the two sacraof baptism and the Lord's Supper; (4) the
historic episcopate"locallyadapted in the methods

Confucius
and, like
for the disorders of the
Feudal strife,
warring
neglect of agriculture,
age.
ambitions
had
destroyed the ancient Chinese
and reduced the people to a condition of
peace
wretchedness
and
poverty. Confucius preached
practicalreform, a return to the good old ways.
the gospel of quietism,
Lao-tse opposed to him
fucius.
abhorring the work of fussy reformers like ConHe

contemporary

was

him, sought

with

solution

Convention

of the administration."
HUGUES
FELICITE
ROBERT
LAMENNAIS,
priest and
(1782-1854)." A briUiant French
politicalphilosopher.At first he was a defender
of ecclesiastical authority and
ultramontanism,
but later he adopted hberal ideas includingfreedom
His
of conscience,of assembly, and of the press.
ardent advocacy of democratic notions brought him
the church
into collision with
resulting in his

DE

severance

from

it.

He had no
theology. As a mystic, he sought
the ultimate
find relationshipwith
spiritual
the
realitywhich is impersonaland all-pervasive,
orders
of all existence which
controllingprinciple
all things by being itself and in quiet surrender to
find peace.
He called this Tao.
which
man
may
of our world the Tao, or Ultimate
In the formation
the
or
Reality, gave rise to the Great Monad
Material Principlewhich differentiated into Yang
further differentiatedinto heaven
Yin which
and
true
and earth and all phenomenal things. The

to

is found by self-abnegation,
life of man
by refusal
of ideals created
intellect,
by inaction,
by human
development of his inner nature
by the normal
This is the way of illumination,
which is one with Tao.
to
It is also the way
of peace.
of power,
and the true securityfor
happy social relationships
the state.

(A.S.L^ommaesse, loaf-mass.)
English festival observed on
thanksgiving for the wheat harvest.

LAMMAS

DAY.
old

"

Originally an
August 1, as
Subsequently it became

the church festivalin honor

of the release of Peter from prison.

of lamps for liturgical

LAMPS.
The
use
is a characteristic of several reUgions.
purposes
The Greeks had a "festival of lamps." The Indian
peoplehave a feast of lamps. So also among
of burning lamps in
vanous
peoplesthe custom
temples at shrines and holy places is common.
of their use for other than
is no
evidence
There
Christians till the 12th.
utihtarian purposes among
in many
burnt
century. At present they are
"

churches.

LANDMARK.

"

See Boundaries.

bury;
LANFRANC
(d. 1089)." Archbishop of Canterand friend of Hildebrand.
a contemporary
He became
noted educator in the monastery at
a
Bee, where he was asked to defend the doctrine
of transubstantiation against Berengar. In 1070
in which position
he assumed the EngHsh primacy,
he aided William the Conqueror in strengtheninghis

rule,unifying the English people and

over
the unity of the English church

maintaining
against the

The
OF."
RELIGION
prise
Lapps comof Arctic tribes,coastal and forest,
and Russia, kindred in speech and
in Scandinavia
They are proprobably in blood to the Finns.
fessed
and
Greek
of the Protestant
Christians
other peoples of low
Churches, but as among
civilization vestiges of their original paganism
Their pagan
like
them.
survive among
religion,
that of the Finns, comprisedtwo strata,the older
navian
native
beliefs and the later influence of Scandiis to be
paganism. To the older stratum
ascribed the very tenacious cult of the dead and the
of which an
animism, or worship of nature spirits,
important feature was the worship of the bear,the
navian
To Scandito the Lapp.
strongest animal known
influence is to be ascribed the importance
windattached
to the sun-god, thunder-god and
god. From early times the Lapps have had among
their Scandinavian and Russian
neighbors a great
reputation as sorcerers, and this is doubtless in
significance
part due to their belief in the religious
and ecstasy and the reputationof their
of trance
with the spirit-world.
intermediaries
shamans
as
In this,as in the importance of the drum employed
to induce trance or ecstasy, the Lapps show strilang
affinityto the Arctic tribes of Siberia and to the
H. B. Alexander
Eskimo.

LAPPS,
a

group

divisive claims of York.

LAPSED.
^A term appliedin the early church
who
Christians
those
abjured Christianity
under the stress of persecution.During the persecutions
so
ous
numerof the 3rd. century these became
of
treatment
them
the
to
that the question as
Many of
occasioned disputes within the church.
the lapsed,after having been relieved from fear of
legalprosecution wished to attend church services
but sought relief from current penitentialrequirements.
of the
considerable number
clergy
A
"

bishop
STEPHEN
(d. 1228)." ArchLANGTON,
of Canterbury and cardinal,whose primacy
In the quarrel
fell in the reign of King John.
between John and Innocent
III.,in which John
when the pope placed England under an
capitulated
the recognition
interdict,the point at issue was
of
encouraged the
primate. He
Langton as
which ultimatelyled to the
barons in their demands
Magna Carta.

to

by Novatian
leniencyand a
led

A synod held in
SYNOD
OF."
LAODICEA,
Laodicea in Phrygia in the 4th. century, adopting

eixtycanons

to
relating

matters

of church govern-

(q.v.),anti-Pope,opposed all

The policy of
resulted.
schism
favored the readmission of the lapsed to the
Rome
After
church after publicconfession and penance.

LaSalle,St. Jean

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

252

ETHICS

of propaganda then in vogue

the forceful methods
lished
estabfinally
with approval today. One of the
would not meet
the Novation
tion
(q.v.). firstacts in founding any new town was the reservapositionbecame a chief element of Donatism
side of the central square or plaza for
of one
The issue finallydisappearedwith the passing of
the government
buildings and another for the
persecution.
church or cathedral; and this was
typicalof the
in the lives of the people;
DE
LA SALLE, ST. JEAN BAPTISTE
(1651- place which reUgion held
built about
their business and their homes
were
of the
reformer
and fovmder
1719). Educational
the church, their afternoon promenades in the
canonized
Christian
Brothers
of
order
(q.v.);
immediate
and
her constant
under
plaza were
The order was
in 1900.
recognizedby the pope in
and
other
scrutiny. The
Jesuits, Franciscans
Schools."
Christian
1725, as the "Brothers of the
orders meanwhile
penetrated into the mountain
valleysand the tropicaljunglesfoundingmissions
Councils of the R.C.
LATERAN
COUNCILS."
But the
the native Indians of the country.
among
church held in the palace of the church of St. John
missionary zeal of the 16th. and 17th. centuries
of
Rome.
cathedral
of
the
Bishop
Lateran, the
routine of a
graduallygave way to the monotonous
Of these,five are coimted as ecumenical by the
colonial lifewhich had been denied freedom of selfIn point of fact, however, they
R.C. church.
herself began to
expression, while the church
have dealt with matters immediately connected with
suffer from the many
perilsand marks of internal
the R.C. church exclusively,
1123; disintegration
e.g., investitures,
which attend a religious
monopoly.
schisms, 1139, 1179; Crusade and heresies,1215;
The pohticalrevolution which took place in the
The
so-called 12th.
Galilean
church, 1512-17.
opening years of the 19th. century, although gaining
Council
Lateran
Fourth
(1215) its
ecumenical
or
inspirationfrom the encyclopaedistsof France,
transubstantiation
authorized the use of the term
did not bring any, correspondingtransformation in
and required an annual confession of all church
the rehgious life of the people. This political
been
councils or synods have
Other
members.
upheaval along with the liberties which it brought
with schisms
held in the Lateran,which dealt chiefly
soon
prepared the way however for other movements
of church administration.
and matters
of the country
which could not but affect the religion
tides of immigration, widening
later. New
or
sooner
HUGH
(ca. 1490-1555)." English
LATIMER,
the clashingof interests
business relationships,
and Cromwell
bishop who collaborated with Cranmer
local governments and the court at Rome,
between
in defense of Henry VIII. in his breach with
ideas and
and the inevitable infiltrationof modern
tremendous
He was
Rome.
a great preacherwith
ing
methods along with a new
passionfor scientificlearnof
His denunciation
the people.^
influence over
mine
and popular education ere long began to underhis zeal for
ecclesiasticism and dogmatism, and
the belated mediaeval faith of colonial days,
and with
righteousnessincurred officialopposition,
and as a result the opening years of the 20th. century
stake.
the
burnt
at
he
was
Ridley
from the
find the educated classes swinging away
and agnosticism
mother
church towards skepticism
MISSIONS
TO."
The
LATIN
of vitahtythat
AMERICA,
and the church herself so robbed
line which divides the Anglo-Saxon civihzation of
she is no longer able to replenishthe ranks of her
the North from the Latin culture of the South must
own
clergy and is being compelledto abandon the
but at the Rio Grande
not at Panama
be drawn
tricts
remote
more
parishes allowingthese isolated diswhich serves
boimdary of Mexico.
as the northern
to lapseinto paganism.
To the south lives a composite population of some
As a part of this generalemancipation the
80,000,000 people" 18,000,000 Whites, 17,000,000 Catholic Church has been deprivedor much of her
Indians, 6,000,000 Negroes, 30,000,000 mixed
authority and prestigeby the persistentpolicy
and
White
and
8,000,000 White
Indian, and
of the various governments to take unto themselves
four
the
last
centuries
the church
Negro. Accordingly for
the specialprerogativeswhich
gained
has been engaged in the difficult
Latin America
for herself during the ages of excessive credulity.
church
experiment of trying to fuse the social and rehgious During the last 75 years much
property
Southern
heritages of three distinct continents
has been
confiscated,the cemeteries have been
Europe, Africa, and primitiveSouth America
to the non-Catholic
thrown
pubMc, the clergy
open
tinctivehave been made amenable
The diskind of a homogeneous whole.
into some
tion
to the civil courts, educaconditions of the continent spring
religious
has ceased to be the monopoly of the church
from this tripleheritage.
function of the statej
and has become
a
religious
of the
The Spanishand Portuguese conquerors
hberty or toleration has been granted m all the
Catholic
faith
the
the
has
been
16th. century forced
civil marriage
on
sanctioned,and
countries,
acterizedin several of the more
relentless energy as charaborigineswith the same
progressiverepublicsdivorce
indicates
their political
laws
autocracy. As a result of
contemplated ^all of which
are
this pohcy what is found in Latin America
today is
conclusivelythe determination of the people in an
of the authority,the organithe super-imposition
zation, ever increasingdegree to take full charge and control
of Mediaeval
the creed
otherwise
rites and
the
hves.
of their
own
Religiously as
is a land of striking contrasts.
plastic Latin America
Christianityupon a vast and but slightly
of native reUgioustradition and custom
of uneducated
substratum
The
populationstiU
great masses
further complicated in Brazil by fetishism and
plod along in the furrow broken for them by their
uninfluenced
imtil quite
and
animism
imported from Africa with the thousands
fathers,untouched
of modern
slaves who
of negro
required to work the
were
days. The
recentlyby the movements
found
intellectuals on the other hand rejoicingin a newplantationsand mines. Because of the remoteness
in search
of the continent itself and in conformity with the
freedom are wandering far and near
settled pohcy both of the court at Madrid and of
of the satisfactions of fife.
the authorities at Rome, until recent years this
nots,
Beginning with the year 1558 French Huguethe Moravians
the Dutch, and
sought to
complex reUgious life has been kept scrupulously
isolated from the rest of the world and has produced
plant the Protestant religionon the east coast in
its own
natural and
connection
with ill-advised colonization schemes,
legitimate results imcontaminated by outside influences.
and each attempt, except that of the Moravians,
smothered
out after twenty or thirtyyears
The earlyyears of conquest and settlement were
was
under the cruel hand of misfortune or persecution.
marked by commendable
apostoUc zeal,although

disturbances this position

was
by a number of synods, but

many

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253

DICTIONARY

OF

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AND

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Law, Canon

of modem
economic
conditions of the Indian. For him a
Coming to the days and methods
full salvation must
undertaken
know
missions as we
them, work was
other things,
include,among
the English speaking residents
freedom
from the mediaeval feudausm
first of all among
of present
cities
tenure
the
coast
the
Methodist
of
and from the equally oppressive
by
Episcopal
day land
larger
enslavenaent
of America
of 20th. century industrial methods.
Church, the Presbyterian Church
A distinct stage in the missionarydevelopment
and the Church
of England. As early as 1820
of Latin America
Thomson
visited the various
James
marked
emerging
was
by the Panama
Conference
held in the cityof Panama
republics as an agent of the British and Foreign
in February,
schools and Bible depots,
1916.
Bible Society establishing
Growing out of the deliberations of this
reaction soon
set in following the
but a decided
body of 500 delegatesthe extensive field has been
and this work
to naught.
came
revolutionarywars
organizedinto eight regional conferences working
in consultation with
Several other preliminary attempts ended hkewise.
central "Committee
a
on
the Spanish
The firstpermanent missions among
Co-operation"in New York with Robert E. Speer
in
chairman
1856
the
and
Samuel
G.
as
begun
Inman
by
terians
Presbyspeaking people were
as
secretary,
in Bogota and by^the Methodist Episcopal all of which agencieshave been devoting themselves
Aires in the year 1867.
About
to the co-ordination of the forces on the field through
Church in Buenos
American
missionaries
entered
time
the
division of territory,
same
a common
advanced
literature,
Mexico encouragedby the liberal poUcy of President
educational programs,
detailed surveys
of local
From
such small beginnings the
Benito
Juarez.
conditions,and to the awakening of a heartier
The
work has grown
to the followingproportions for all
last five years have witnessed
support at home.
distinctive contributions to missionary
of Latin America
some
including the West Indies, as
Conference in 1916 which
pohcies and achievements
reported to the Panama
along the lines indicated
above
and give grounds for hope that a new
There
the latest complete statistics available.
are
era
of combined
eflforthas already begun.
101 societiessupporting work in Latin America,
are
Canadian
distributed
follows:
societies 6,
Archibald
G. Bakeb
as
United States 71, Great Britain 22, New
Zealand 1,
LATIN
CHRISTIANITY."
Those
beUefs and
The Netherlands
1. The total annual expenditure
practisescharacteristic of the Latin church and
of the societies is $2,300,000, supplemented by
the Latin nations,in contradistinction from Greek,
local fields. Foreign
the
$1,136,000 raised on
Teutonic, Anghcan, or American
Christianity.
number
missionaries
2,172; native staff,3,859;
church
organizations,2,654; full communicants,
LATIN
CHURCH."
The
Cathohc
Roman
285,700; Sunday Schools, 3,097; Sunday School
Church (q.v.).
The
American
Societies
membership, 219,000.
Bible
the American
active in the field are
most
LATITUDINARIANS."
A
of English
group
Society,the BaptistConventions, North and South,
churchmen
of the 17th. century who advocated
the
and
the Methodist
South, the
Episcopal, North
union of the non-conformists
with the estabhshed
Presbyterians,North and South, and the Protestant
church
the basis of the doctrines common
on
to
More
recently the Y.M.C.A.
EpiscopalChurch.
both parties,thus abandoning high church contentions.
have entered the larger cities
and the Y.W.C.A.
Cf. England, Church
Church.
of; Low
to meet
the
directingtheir operations esjjecially
needs of students and the industrial classes. The
LATTER-DAY
SAINTS."
The Mormon
Church
have
which
countries
hearty
given the most
the full title of which is the Church
of Jesus Christ
to
the
are
missionary approach
Brazil, of
response
Latter-Day Saints. See Mormonism.
the Argentine, Uruguay, Southern
Chile,Mexico,
Cuba
and Porto Rico.
WILLIAM
LAUD,
(1573-1645)." Archbishop
As is always the case missionarymethods
have
of Canterbury; an
aggressive supporter of High
of
less promptly to the demands
or
respondedmore
church
doctrines,and a rigorous opponent of
The
the situation.
traveUng colporteur of the
Puritanism and non-conformity. He upheld the
Bible Societies has been the pioneer in many
cases.
doctrine of the divine right of kings,supported
Where
an
opening was found a missionary and his
Charles I.,and urged that the church should be
wife took up their residence,and as a first step
active in the affairs of state.
While he advocated
established
school
in
the
to
a
generally
response
the independence of the English from the Roman
education.
Some
demand
for
modem
a
widespread
church, his extreme high church views led to the
of these schools of humble
beginnings have since
suspicionthat he was inclined to favor CathoUcism.
institutions of nation-wide
become
influence,as
This led to his impeachment on the false charge of
Institutes of Bolivia
for example, the American
and to his death by beheading.
popery
and Peru, El Institute Ingles of Chile,MacKenzie
College in Brazil,Los Colegios Internacionales of
LAUDS.
^The second of the offices of the
Cuba and half a dozen high grade schools in Mexico,
first of the canonical hours (q.v.)in the Roman
senators
and men
where the children of presidents,
the three lavxies
breviary, so designated from
have been sent for training under
of large means
tute
or
hymns of praise,viz.,Ps. 148-150, which constiChristian ideals. In so far as pubUc opinion would
part of the service.
held and littlechurches
permit,gospelservices were
of converts won, until today these churches dot the
LAVABO."
The first word of the Psalm
(25)
whole continent and are fast becoming a force for
recited by the priest when
washing his hands at
national righteousness. In some
cities where
the
It occurs
hence the name
of the ceremony.
Mass
door
of approach long remained
closed, trained
in all the older liturgies,
and had acquireda mystic
about from house to house with their
moved
nurses
in the middle of the 4th. century.
significance
quiet ministrations and soon opened a way of access
where other means
had failed. A Hmited
amount
of hospitaland medical work has been undertaken.
^In its widest sense the word
LAW, CANON.
The
the
canon
emancipation of the Indian races
(Greek, kanon, rule)pertainsto every law or
most
constitution of the church, includingthe Scriptures.
neglected of all is being sought by means
of schools,agricultural
The first eight councils,
trainmg, medical attention
however, appUed the word
and
reUgious propaganda. This undertaking is
dogma (q.v.)to decisions governing faith,and the
made
difficult by the complicated intertwining word canon
to decisions touching discipline
especially
(q.v.).
of the distinctive religious,
social and
used
In the 16th century the Council of Trent (q.v.)
"

"

"

"

"

Law,

Canon

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

254

HEBREW."
The
for regulations of the church
LAW,
body of enactments
of faith,and
the word
decretum
(see found in the books of Exodus, Leviticus,Numbers,
and Deuteronomy.
The term is sometimes
Decretals) for statutes of the church referringto
applied
administration.
to the Pentateuch
Present
whole.
See Hexateuch.
as
a
discipline and
usage
the
The
for apostolicconstitutions
Hebrew
law is organized in four main
word canon
reserves
and the regulationsof the church embodied
in one
codes,viz.: (1) the Decalogue (in two recensions,
another
codification of ecclesiastical law, and
and Deut. 5:6-21); (2) the
or
viz.,Exod. 20:2-17
chancellery, Covenant Code (likewisein two recensions,viz.,
employs the terminology of the Roman
Exod. 34 : 17-26 and Exod. 20 : 23"23
hull,brief,motus, proprii,etc., to the rest of the
: 33) ; (3) the
Code (Deut. 12-26); (4)the Priestly,
church's
law.
The
Deuteronomic
term
jus canonicum, while
used in the 6th. century, did not obtain general
or
Levitical,Code
(the laws in Leviticus and
until the 12th.
Numbers, and the remaining legal material in
currency
I. Sources.
of canon
law are the
The sources
Exodus).
These four Codes are accounted for by traditional
Bible,tradition,the opinions of the early church
the
decisions
as
fathers, concihar
having arisen at different times in
scholarship
legislationand
and decrees of the popes.
the career
of Moses, to wit: the Decalogue on
A largeamount
of canon
law is also embodied
in secular legislation,
especially Mt. Sinai,at the beginning of the desert march as
in the Middle Ages, as the capitularies
of the Frank
concise
statement
of fundamental
a
principles;
the Covenant
kings. But modem
legislation,
Code, at Mt. Sinai, as a body of
e.g., the Pragmatic
Sanction of 1439, the revocation of the Edict of
precepts for the people as a whole; the Priestly
of 1801 (q.v.),
is sometimes
Nantes, and the Concordat
Code, at various placeson the march, as a technical
of canon
law for the priests;and the Deuteronomic
law.
an
important source
Code,
II. Codifications.
There
traces
of comare
just before the entry into Canaan, as a revision of
pilations
far
of the church's canons
back
in
the
the Covenant Code, made
the hght of the experias
as
ence
5th. century.
The earliest collection was
of the preceding 40 years and with a view to
made
by,
attributed to, Isidor of Seville (599-636) (q.v.). the needs of the people in Canaan.
or
At about the same
Modern
a
time, in Rome
"Scythian"
scholarship thinks of the Law
as
monk
named
Dionysius Exiguus (the "Little")who
to the growing
gradually developing in response
knew both Greek and Latin, made
another compilaneeds
of the people. Some
of the laws of the
tion,
the distinguishingfeature of which
the
Code
Decalogue and of the Covenant
was
may
go
number
of papal decretals incorporated in it,a
back to the days of Moses,
The main body of the
fact which makes this codification a landmark in the
Covenant
Code arose, however, in Canaan
where
Still another compilalearned the ways
the Hebrews
of agricultureand
development of the papacy.
tion
in Frankish Gaul at about the same
current
into contact
with the Code
came
of Hammurabi
was
time known
the Collectio Quesnelliana. In the
which
as
much.
The
(q.v.) from
they borrowed
Deuteronomic Code was a revision of the Covenant
middle of the 9th. century an enormous
extension
Code from the point of view of the teachingsof the
was
given to the papal prerogativeby the appearance
of the so-called False Decretals (q.v.). With
prophets of the 8th. and 7th. centuries B.C. and
the elevation of the papacy
after its dechne
in the
was
officially
adopted by the Jewish nation in
10th. century, owing to the restoration
of the
The
621 B.C.
not
Priestly Code was
completed
mediaeval
until the time of Ezra or later and was
empire by Otto I. in 962 and the progress
a revision
of the Cluny Reform
scientificcodiand more
fications and expansion of all the ritual law which had been
new
of the canon
law began to be made.
Notable
practicedin the preceding centuries. The purpose
these are the Decretum
of Bishop Burchard
of this elaborate law was
to guard Jewry from all
among
of Worms
sin and so to make
(1012-23), the Decretum of Bishop Ivo
possible the bestowal of the
of Chartres
(d. 1116) and, most important of all, favor of God in full measure.
the Decretum
of Gratian, compiled between
1139
J. M. Powis Smith
1148.
The
and
volumes
of church
OF
NATURAL
LAW
LAW."
A
legislation
NATURE,
law states a uniformity of succession
reached
its
of events.
enormously increased as the papacy
zenith in the 13th. century,a stream
of compilations
If this succession of events is conceived of as determined
and abridgments flowed forth and the names
such as the will of God, of
of the
by prescription,
of Penagreatest canonists appeared, Uke Raymond
or of the community
stituted
earthlyrulers,
through its conforte. The interpretation
the uniformity
of the canon
law at this
of the succession
authorities,
time was
of events is a law in a legalsense.
If the succession
powerfullyinfluenced by the revived study
of the Roman
follows from aesthetic or ethical standards
tained
enterlaw, the philosophy of the schoolmen,
the succession
particularly that of St. Thomas
by individuals or communities
Aquinas (see
order is aesthetic or
moral.
If the uniform
Scholasticism), the rise of the universities,
or
cially
espethat of Paris,and the Dominican Order (q.v.) succession is one
of natural events
under the
not
whose
members
became
control of an
dominant
in the
soon
ordering will nor subject to social
universities and control of the Inquisition(q.v.). standards, it is called a natural law.
The extent
Since the fallof Boniface VIII. in 1303, apart from
these different conceptions of law can
be
to which
papal decreta, the most important accretions of
kept distinct from each other depends evidently
law have been added by the reforming counone's view or philosophyof the world.
A
canon
cils
upon
of the 15th. century (councilsof Constance,
in
see
pietistmay
every succession of physical
the direct will of God.
Aristotelian
events
The
Basel,Ferrara,Florence),the council of Trent and
the Vatican Council of 1870.
A complete codification
will see in such successions the logical
steps in the
of the natures
of things. The Stoic saw
of canon
in force was
law now
begun by Pius X.
expression
which was
1904 and pubhshed by Benedict XV. in 1917.
in the world a nature
rational though
m
In the seventeenth
but parts.
impersonal,and of which our minds were
century, as a part of the
Counter-Reformation
law began
the canon
For the Stoic,being rational was
hving according
(q.v.),
In the medieval
be attentively studied, particularly by the
to
to the laws of nature.
period such
Benedictines
of the
of St. Maur, and the presses
was
responsiblefor the events that
a nature, which
church put forth enormously large series of works
each other, was
succeed
widely recognized as a
of forces working out the
force or organized group
pertaining to the history of the church, as the
This conception is still widely held,
Annates
will of God.
Baronius
edited by Cardinal
Ecclesiastid,
still tend to speak of a
and the Concilia,edited by Mansi
often unconsciously. We
and Labb4.
with law, whether
that works in accordance
nature
Westfall
James
Thompson

the

word

canon

in matters

"

"

255

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Laymen's

Movement

imply that this nature is an essence

of things, system
recognized and
enforced by courts
of
the expression
of an
Natural
national states.
ordering mind.
A. C. McLaughlin
law in the sense
of exact science,is a mere
tion
registraof a imiformity of a succession of events
that
LAY
ABBOT.
A layman who
in recognition
has existed in the past and for the continuance
of
of services has been granted the oversight of an
which uniformity there is a high degree of probability. abbey by a king or one
in authority. Charles
for the assertion of such a
The justification
Martel was
the firstto introduce the custom.
is variously supported and is widely
probability
questioned,but that the probabilityexists for all
LAY
BAPTISM."
Baptism administered by a
Such a probabilitydoes
there is no doubt.
men
layman, in the R.C. church permissiblein an emergency
not carry with it any
implicationof a force or of a
in the absence of a priest.
of things, or of a mind
nature
will
or
or
reason
The
law
LAY
bringing about the ordered succession.
LAY
SISTER."
BROTHER,
One
who
resides in a monastery or nunnery,
merely states the order that has been and probably
monastic
observing
will recur.
George
H. Mead
and assistingin manual
vows
labor or other
secular affairs,
but does not take holy orders,
POLITICAL."
The
and simplest
commonest
LAW,
definition is,a rule of action prescribedby the
LAY
CLERK.
A layman who
leads the services
authority of the state, or, we might add, by the
of the church.
law-giving authority of the state as organized.
While this definition may
possiblybe so expanded
LAY
CONFESSION."
Confession of sins to a
and explainedas to be comprehensive, it is too
layman. In case of dire necessity,when a priest
to be altogether satisfying.It suggests
meager
not
was
available,the R.C. church in the Middle
rather criminal or penal laws than the system of
Ages permitted confession to be made to a layman.
regulations,
orders,and authoritativelyrecognized At present confession islimited to priestswith
proper
which
constitute
the basis of modern
customs
and faculties. See Confessional.
jurisdiction
political
society.( Law is fundamentally a body of
relationships:the law of a politicalsociety at a
Terms
LAY, LAYMAN.
of
denotingmembers
is the whole set of authoritatively
given moment
the Christian Church
who
not ordained
are
as
are
recognizedobUgations,rights,duties and privileges the
clergy.
and associations of men
of men
in the statej To a
large degree, modern
systems of law grew out of
LAY
READER."
A layman officially
granted
primitivecustoms; and established principlesand
the rightin the U.S. for one year to read the prayers
enactment.
practicesantedated positive
in the Episcopal church.
different divisions
Again, there are so many
of
and classifications of the law that accuracy
-LAY
REPRESENTATION."
Participation of
to require extensive treatment.
statement
appears
the laityin the government of the church,a principle
England and the United States have the common
of Protestant
denominations
in contrast
with the
law, that great body of principleswhich had their
CathoUc practiseof complete clerical control.
in
and have
we

or

"

"

"

beginning
earlyEngUsh history
ally
graduto
the
developed and shaped themselves
LAY
TITHES.
Ecclesiastical tithes which were
needs of society. The
law is called the
common
paid by bishops and abbots to laymen,
unwritten law, the lex non
as
distinguished sometimes
scripta,
for servants
and vassals to uphold the
from
of legislative in return
statute
law, the enactment
church in the defence of its civil rights.
bodies.
law is also distinguished
The common
from
the civil law, the latter an inheritance from Rome,
LAYING
ON
OF HANDS."
See Hands, Layand now
ing
existingin considerable portionsof western
Civil law
OF.
ON
Europe as well as Spanish America.
is the prevailing
system in the United States in those
French
and Spanish
LAYMEN'S
MISSIONARY
MOVEMENT."
A
parts, like Louisiana, where
movement
legalmethods were
plantedin early days.
organized in the Fifth Avenue
terian
PresbyThe term publiclaw is also often used,including
York
Church, New
City, November
15th,
national 1906, marking the centennial
administrative law, constitutional law, and intercelebration of the
The firstis the body of principles
law.
as
beginning of foreignmissionary work in America.
well as fixed formulae, in addition to the mandates
munions
Eighty laymen representingall Protestant Comof constitutional law, guiding the administrative
in attendance.
It was
were
inspiredby
officialsin the performance of their duties.
stitutional
Conthe Student
Volunteer
Movement.
law embodies
the forms and modes
of
John B. Sleman, an insurance agent, in Washington,
between
procedure of the state and the relationship
D.C., who attended the Student Volunteer
and
the
citizens or
Movement's
subjects. In
government
quadrennial convention at Nashville,
law would
be one
England an unconstitutional
Tenn., during the Christmas
holidays of 1905,
observed that the devotion of the students of the
passed by Parliament, and hence real law, but
American
particularthe fundamental
contradictingin some
collegesand universities to the world's
or procedure or forms of the constitutional
principles
evangelizationwas not matched by the church as a
In America,
it had hitherto existed.
whole or by the men
structure
and women
bership.
as
comprisingits memis
the written constitution is itself the supreme
The Laymen's Missionary Movement
law,
issuing from the supreme
authority, the people; therefore complementary to the Student Volunteer
and
conventions
is not
Movement
anything contrary to the written document
(q.v.). Conferences
law and will not be so regarded by the courts.
of ministers and laymen have been organized for
If law must have a sanction,that is to say, must
the promotion of an interest in the missionarycause.
These are held in various states,districts,
be supported by compulsive authority,international
counties,
educational
and
and
cities. The
are
eign
law, as far as it is directed to the conduct of soverprograms
and
those
who
have
inspirational.Missionaries
states,cannot be called law; the sanction,if it
exists at all,is moral, not legal; for sovereignties seen missionarywork at firsthand givethe addresses,
gates,
of control over
calculated to impart vision to the delewhich are
acknowledge no external source
mission-board
them.
while laymen, pastors and
But
large portions of international law
which
have
directlyaffect individuals and are a part of the legal secretaries discuss various methods
"

Lazarists

OP

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

256

been known
to increase the missionary eflficiencylectures in Great Britain,and the Ely, Earl and
Bross lectures in America.
It may
be noted, however,
of the church.
that such lectureships
notable contribution of the Laymen's
in the hands of modern
The most
scholars tend to interpretrather than to defend the
towards the adoption of more
Missionary Movement
has been its success
efficient methods
in securing Christian religionas a valuable product of the
human
of this article is to
the official introduction of the Every Member
spirit.The purpose
munions. list only those lectureships
ComCanvass
in practicallyall of the Protestant
devoted to research
in
Within
ten
the contributions
study of religionswithout apologeticconditions.
years
1. The GiffordLectures founded
to foreignmissions
the United States and Canada
by Lord GiGFord
in 1888 to be delivered at brief intervals at the
and it is generallyrecognized
than doubled
more
Scottish Universities. The
ment
lecturers "may be of
that the work of the Laymen's Missionary Moveof thinkingor they may
or way
be of no
was
sible
any religion
very largely,though not wholly, responbe so-called sceptics
increase in so short a
for this remarkable
religion
or they may
or agnostics
and
missions
or free-thinkers" but must
to home
The
contributions
be "specialists
time.
in natural
increased
the local church support have, as a result,
theology and able to deal with it as a strictly
natural science."
These lectures have been useful
even
more
largely.
concerned itselfprimarily for giving a philosophicbackground for the interAt firstthe Movement
pretation
of reUgion.
about
the promotion of the Foreign Missionary
2. The
Hibbert
Lectures founded
in 1878 by
Cause; later on it devoted itself to the promotion
of the
the Trustees of the Hibbert fund have dealt with
of interest in the entire missionary program
the origin and
and abroad.
both at home
Christian Church
development of religionas illustrated
the first generalsecretary.
J. Campbell White
was
by the various religionsof mankind.
This
valuable series has concentrated
The First National
the best of the
Missionary Congress of
world's scholarship on
held in the Auditorium Theater,
the interpretation
the Movement
was
of the
officers of that
The
reUgioushistoryof mankind.
3-6, 1910.
Chicago, May
3. The
American
Lectures on
the History of
Congress were, Henry P. Crowell Chairman, F. J.
R. Forgan,
Religionsfounded in 1892 by a group of American
Secretary, David
Michel, Executive
scholars
The
Moderator.
"to
the intelligentstudy of
Treasurer and Alfred E. MarUng,
encourage
held in Washington, D.C.,
delivered
reUgions" are
Second
from
time
to
time
at
Congress was
various centers
in the United
States by scholars
April 26-30, 1916. The principal offices of the
located at
of
international reputation. They
are
Laymen's Missionary Movement
are
nonpolemical and attempt to do for America what the
1 Madison
York, and 19 S. La Salle
Ave., New
Hibbert
F. J. Michel
Lectures do for Great Britain.
St.,Chicago.
4. The
Haskell
Lectures founded
in 1894 by
See Vincent
LAZARISTS.
de
Paul, Saint.
Mrs.
Carohne
E. Haskell
as
a
lectureshipon
Comparative Religionproviding for a course
of
SOLEMN.
THE
LEAGUE
AND
COVENANT,
six lectures to be dehvered
versity
at the Uniannually
Scotland
arid
which
both
into
An
agreement
of Chicago.
ing
England entered in 1643 with the intent of establish5. The
Barrows
Lectures founded
in 1894 by
reaction
Presbyterianism in both countries,a
Mrs. Caroline E. Haskell and named
in honor of
Land
of Archbishop
measures
against the extreme
Dr. John Henry Barrows
to be dehvered
in India
(q.v.). See Covenanters.
by Christian scholars in interpretationof Christianity
or
by non-Christian scholars in interpretation
A
GERMAN
CATHOLIC"
federacy
conLEAGUE,
of their own
faiths.
A. Eustace
Haydon
of the Catholic princes of the German
"

"

empire, entered into in 1609,for the defence of the

Cathohc
religionin opposition to the Protestant
Union, founded in 1608. The League was a powerful
factor on the Cathohc side in the Thirty Years'
War.
LEAVEN.

"

substance

such
specifically

A
LECTERN.
or
reading desk of wood
to hold the Bible
metal used in various churches
from which the Scripturelessons are read.
"

volume containing
A liturgical
LECTIO
NARY.
tables of lessons to be read in church services.
"

One appointed to read the lessons

LECTOR.
the 2nd.
to
in churches.
office dates back
The
ciently
sufficentury and grew out of the need of persons
hterate to read the lesson at the public
worship. In the R.C. church the lector belongs to
minor order and the office is a preliminary to the
a
"

priesthood.

"

ON
of

THE
the

on
religionwere
lectureships

ANN

(1736-1784)." She
joined the
in England in 1758 and in 1774
with
her followers migrated to America, where
she became the founder of the Shakers (q.v.). She
was
highlyemotional, considered herself a second
incarnation of Christ; taught radical views against
mentation,
ferwhich
induces
substance
used in
marriage,and urged perfectsanctification.
a

associated
The
Hebrews
the making of bread.
defilement
with
fermentation, hence forbade the
of leavened bread for hturgicalpurposes.
use

LECTURES
Most

LEE,

HISTORY

early and

OF
some

GIONS.
RELIrecent

founded with a distinct

devoted to the defense
apologeticinterest and were
and
demonstration
of the
Christian
religion.
Among such foundations are the Croall,Bampton,
Baird, Cuimingham, and Congregational Union

"ShakingQuakers"

LEGALISM.

"

The

morahty consists in

conception that rehgion

exact

obedience

to

or

definite

code of laws.
The most
famihar example of legahsm is insistence
hteral obedience
on
to
the commands
of
Scripture. The scribes represented this ideal in
Judaism.
Mohammedanism
is fundamentally
legalistic.
has always had legalistic
Christianity
sects.
The
conception is found in nearly all rehgions,
whenever
particularacts are required,regardless
of their social utiUty.
The
fundamental
defect of legahsm is that it
substitutes a minute
ments
study of technical commandfor the broader, sympathetic understanding
of fife itself. The
legahst can
conscientiously
"tithe mint, anice, and cummin"
while faihng to
be sensitive to real human
needs.
Moreover, this
idolizingof a fixed code prevents the legahst from
occasions
teach new
duties."
seeing that "new
Legahsm thus creates a type of conscientiousness
tends to become
which
and
severe
reactionary.
Jesus
the
mercilessly criticized legahsm, and
apostle Paul made
legahsm and Christian faith
Gerald
Birney Smith
mutually exclusive.

257

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

PAPAL."
A
AND
NUNCIOS,
ambassador
representingthe pope
in case
of disputesbetween
or
bishops or
title
of metropoHtans. The
at the consecration
belongs as a purely honorary distinction to a few
European archbishops. The sending of cardinals
conflicts with episcopalrights,and
as legatesmade
in the 16th. century diplomatic functions passed to
resident nuncios who had been only
the permanent
fiscal agents. Nuncios
are
papal inspectorsreporting
Cardinal
to
the
Secretary of State. The
ApostolicDelegate sent to the United States is not
of the diplomatic corps.
a member
F. A. Christie
GOTTFRIED
WILHELM
LEIBNIZ,
(16461716). German
jurist, whose
philosopherand
cal
philosophyrepresents a reaction againsta mechaniview
of nature
(represented by Descartes,
Hobbes, and Spinoza), and the effort to reconcile
with teleology. His Monadology makes
mechanism
substance consist of a multitude of elements,as did
atomism.
But nomads
centers
of force,not of
are
This force is to be interpretedafter the
matter.
analogy of the self. Leibniz's system thus becomes
idealistic. The
lower forms
in nature
represent
lower stages of consciousness.
exist in
Monads
all degrees of clearness and darkness; some
only
slumber or dream.
There is,however, an unbroken
series from
lowest to highest; nature
makes
no
organisms
leaps. Leibniz regarded the discoveryof microof the microscope as empirical
by means
confirmation of his theory. The theological
opments
develof his system are
the least satisfactory
he makes
God, the supreme
part. When
monad,
the creator
of the other monads, he
or
source
contradicts
his assertion that
the monads
are
And
ultimate.
when
he unifies the world through
the activity
of God, he falls back into the monism
of Spinoza,from which
he imagined himself free.
His Theodicee treats the problem of evil in answer
to
Bayle, who had asserted a contradiction between
reader
will
and
modern
reb'gion. The
reason
significantare his
hardly find it edifying. More
discussions of ethics and jurisprudence,where his
guiding principle is that of harmony between
individuals in society,an extension of the principle
that constitute the world.
governing all the monads
W. G. Everett
drafted
A
document
LEIPZIG
INTERIM."
embodying a compromise between
by Melancthon
the Protestants of North Germany and the papacy.
Unpopular with both Protestants and the Pope,
made
of conforming to its
only a pretense was
which
called for certain modifications
regulations,
in respect to Friday fastingand the celebration of
After the crushing defeat of the Elector
the mass.
of Saxony by the imperial army,
John
Frederick
it was
entirelyignored.
LEGATES

Legate was
at synods

an

"

The fortydays'fast,observed annually

LENT.
Catholic and other churches
by the Anglican,Roman
day
The fast beginsAsh Wednesantecedent to Easter.
of penitence and self-denial.
and is a season
Also called by the Latin name,
Quadragesima.
"

of thirteen popes.
The name
Called
the
Great; pope,
440-461;
in establishingthe primacy
accomplished much
of the successors
of Peter in ecclesiastical affairs.
Although not present at the council of Chalcedon
in 451, his definition of the person
of Christ was
adopted and has since been the received orthodoxy.
During his pontificate(455) occurred the Vandal
invasion of Italy.
Leo //."Pope, 682-683.
Leo ///."Pope, 795-816.
He crowned
magne
Charlein 800.
Leo
emperor
approved of the
LEO.
Leo

"

I.

"

AND

ETHICS

Liber

Pontificalis

filioqueas

orthodox
but objected to its insertion
in the creed.
Leo /F." Pope, 847-855.
V.
Leo
Pope for two months in 903.
Leo VI.
months
in 928.
Pope for seven
Leo F//." Pope, 936-939.
Leo VIII." Pope, 963-965.
Leo IX."
Pope, 1049-1054.
Leo Z." Pope, 1513-1521.
Son of Lorenzo
deMedici
and a contemporary of Savonarola; was
elected a cardinal at the age of seventeen.
During
his pontificate
Europe was in a turmoil,but he made
the papacy
in Italy and
its
restored
supreme
authority in France, while he gained the support
of
the
VIII.
title
England, granting Henry
of the Faith"
"Defender
and
making Wolsey
He was
ardent humanist
a cardinal.
an
ing
attemptto make
the papal court a center of culture and
magnificence. His need of funds for his ambitious
undertakings led to the sale of indulgences which
theses
occasioned
and
the
provoked Luther's
Protestant revolt.
Leo XL"
Pope for 27 days in 1605.
Leo XII."
Pope, 1823-1829.
Leo XIII."
Pope, 1878-1903.
Although 68
elected pope, he ruled 25 years.
when
His poUcy
of conciliationand
was
one
moderation, and of
which
maintained
social
support of governments
He was
order.
zealous to promote sound
especially
scholarshipin theologicallearning,and to relate
the church to the vital questions of the day. His
encycUcals furnished important expositionsof the
Catholic theory of state, church, industry,liberty,
marriage, and other important subjects.
"

"

GOTTHOLD
EPHRAIM
LESSING,
(1729who emancipated
1781). A poet, dramatist,critic,
German
literature from imitative dependence on
the French, also a leader in the religious
thought of
his age.
As librarian in Wolfenbiittel he published
from
there the rationalist
a
manuscript found
criticism of the gospelsby Reimarus, and in self"

defense

involved
in the debate
of his time
His Education
and revelation.
of the
Human
view of revelaRace (1777) initiated a new
tion
historical education under divine Providence,
as
an
and his Proofof the Spiritand of Power (1777)
pleads that religionshould be based on the soul's
experiencerather than on arguments from prophecy
and miracle.
F. A. Christie

over

was

reason

LEVELLERS.
The name
given to a group of
radicals of the Cromwellian
era.
Deriving
political
their doctrines
from
the ancient
theory of the
EngUsh Constitution as fundamental
law, and the
ecclesiastical polityof the Independents,in common
with
other
of the period, the Levellers
groups
favored a republican form of government, religious
judicialprinciplesof
toleration,the fundamental
trial by jury, the right of a prisoner to counsel,
of indictment, and refusal to incriminate
a
copy
"

their insistence
himself.
More
distinctive was
vaUd
that the laws of the land were
only in so
of the laws of nature
far as they were
a restatement
and reason, that the powers
of government should
be limited by a written constitution of fundamental
law,and that the constitution like other laws should
be subject to enforcement
by the courts. For the
a
propagating of their principlesthey evolved
vives
political
party organization. Their influence surof American
tional
constituin the main
principles
G. Mode
Peter
law.
LEX
LIBER

TALIONIS."

See BLOOD-RBVBNaE.

PONTIFICALIS."

A book

of the popes,

containingbiographiesof the bishopsof Rome

from

Liberal

Theology

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

258

the abridgment of life. Many

of the noblest
moral
and
in history have
spiritualmovements
been
struggles for liberty. A few typical conceptions
of libertymay
LIBERAL
THEOLOGY."
A term
be mentioned.
designating
Personal
of
1.
liberty.Every person should have
a
type of rehgious thinking in which freedom
the rightto choose his own
discussion and the right of dissent from traditional
of life in so far
manner
his choice does
doctrines is encouraged for the sake of a closer
as
not
others.
Slavery
wrong
relation between
prevented this,and emancipation was the recognireUgion and culture.
tion
of the inherent rightof personalhberty. The
The primary aim of liberal theology is to make
enforcement
of majority decisions is often resisted
a
place for the best thinking of the day in the
under the plea of personalliberty,
realm of theology. It is opposed to any authority
when, as in
even
of the anti-temperance movement,
hand"
of the "dead
the thinking of living the case
the
over
be lacking in large
conception of libertymay
Emphasizing, as it does, the intellectual
men.
vision of social welfare.
acting
it is a valuable force in counterAnarchy, as an extreme
aspects of religion,
form of personalliberty,would do away
with all
obscurantism; but this very intellectual
restraint. It is obvious
less
that the freedom
of any
interest almost inevitablyleads to a more
or
complete rationahzing of reUgion, and a neglect individual must be morally hmited by considerations
of social good.
of
sociahzed means
of ritualistic and ecclesiastically
2. Political libertymeans
the
release of a
rehgious expression. Liberalism therefore thrives
aUen
and generally state or poHtical group
from
control. The
best when
it plays the role of critic,
ingly
defective as a force of social organization. right of such groups to self-governmentis increasproves
and
UniversaUsm
are
recognized in modern
Unitarianism
currently
politics.Another
libertyis the full rightof residents
aspectof political
regarded as the liberal churches; but all Protestant
of a state to participatein the government.
and
churches.
The
have liberal persons
denominations
removal
of pohtical disabilities on
hberal
In Catholicism, Modernism
a
grounds of
(q.v.) was
Smith
Gerald
Birney
movement.
rehgiousbehef,occupation,wealth, sex, or race is a
mark
of enhghtened governments
today.
favored
AthaLIBERIUS."
352-366,
Pope,
3. Freedom ofspeechor of teachingis the essential
of
his
the
and
triumph
party
helped secure
nasius,
condition of wholesome criticism of social ideals and
in 361.
practices. It is only as a person may freelyattempt
to persuade others that it is possibleto exercise
ISM.
NECESSITARIANLIBERTARIANISM
AND
This right is guaranteed in
real poUticalfreedom.
Theories of human
will,the latter asserting modern
enlightenednations;but certain restrictions
that the will is brought to action by definitely
often necessary for the public good, as in time
are
determining conditions;the former either rejecting of
aid and comfort to the enemy
might
war, when
that
it
such determination
a
as
fact,or denying
be given by unrestricted freedom
of speech. To
No
essential
human
freedom.
conflicts with
fine
draw
the
between
the interests of personal
been
framed
definitions have
acceptable equally freedom
and
the pubhc welfare is not
an
easy
both sides. The controversy has
to disputants on
task.
As in all cases
of personal freedom, the
assumed
three main forms:
(a) Theological: Does
individual must
not be permitted to injuresociety
leave room
for the will of man?
the will of God
simply to satisfyan unsocial ambition.
Calvinism,
See
(b)
logical:
PsychoPredestination;
4. Religiousliberty. "Liberty of prophesying"
Is the will directed entirelyby motives?
is the assertion that a man's
is
duty to God
method
If so, do motives
analogous
operate by a
or
higher than his obUgations to religiouscustom
istic:
Naturalcausation?
See Motive,
to natural
(c)
law.
While
such
take extravagant
Hberty may
action identical
Are the forces of human
forms so as to bring rehgion into disrepute,the
the physicaland
with or directlydependent on
of faith and
right of personal dissent in matters
chemical forces of the material world, and subject
practice has been
increasingly recognized. In
of the
This form
to the same
"reign of law"?
lands today a person
most
freelychoose his
may
the most
acute
today, due to
problem has become
form of faith or may
decline to professany religious
It is met
the prevailing"scientific point of view."
faith without
incurring penalties. The struggle
realms
of
by such distinctions as that between
of the noblest
for religious
hberty furnishes many
between
and
that
the
spective
retroor
reality,
appearance
chaptersin church history. Involved in this liberty
view
of
events.
and
prospective
Kant,
ent
is the principleof the equal legalrightsof differand
outstanding thinkers
recently Bergson, are
bodies.
Thanks
to the efforts of nonconformists
rehgious
It is to be noted that the more
here.
fully the
and the influence of democracy, the
is actually
conception of natural law in events
privilegedchurches is fast passing.
day of especially
carried through, the more
completely can events be
See ToIjEEAtion; Dissent; Non-Conformity.
J. F. Crawford
will.
controlled by human
Gerald
Birney
Smith
I. (d. 867). It is of composite
Peter to Nicholas
authorship,the earhest part dating from ca. 530.

"

"

"

of the Jewish
(1) Members
probably
Jerusalem, the name
Cf.
liberated
by the Romans.
signifying men
Acts 6 : 9.
(2) A poUticalparty which opposed the
LIBERTINES."

synagogue

at

LICENTIATE.
In Protestant
churches, one
Ucensed
In the
to preach, though not ordained.
R.C. church, a friar authorized
by the Holy See
to perform certain officesindependent of local priests.
"

to reform the morals of Geneva.

Also called Perrinists from Ami
Perrin,the leader.
A statement
LIE.
misrepresentingthe facts so
party of pantheistictendencies
(3) An antinomian
as to benefit the deceiver.
in
the
lands
Netherof the Reformation
appearing
period,
involved
in lying springs
The
moral
wrong
tinction
and
France, who argued against any disresult from deception.
from the injury which may
between
good and evil. (4) In ethics
has a rightto a correct knowledge
(1)Everj^
person
generallyappUed to those who indulge their appetites
restraint or who
without
are
irresponsible of facts in order to promote his welfare. Lying
withholds from him essential information,as, e.g.,
free-thinkers.
when a buyer is misinformed
concerningthe quality
is
confidence
of his purchase. (2) Since mutual
LIBERTY.
^The right to exercise one's powers
indispensableto social co-operation,lying, which
without external restraint.
selfish shrewdness, prevents
distrust and
creates
Whenever
personahty is valued,the free exercise
social virtues.
is essential;for restraint means
of human
powers

attempts of Calvin

"

"

DICTIONARY

259

But

there

are

cases

in

which

OP

RELIGION

deception is

generallyregarded as morally defensible. If good

undoubtedly be promoted through ignorance
can
of certain facts,as, e.g., when
depressing news
ill person,
would
endanger the Ufe of a critically
be ethically
the withholding of information may
required. Again, if a person or a group seeks to
injureothers or to disrupt society,such deception
will prevent the injury is usually considered
as
murderer
justifiable,
as, e.g., to misdirect a would-be
in quest of his victim, or to misinform
an
enemy
in warfare.
other virtue,gainsits
welfare.
promote human
morbid
If this were
concern
remembered, much
cing
would be avoided,and such absurdities as denounlike
Truth-telling,

value from

its power

every
to

fiction because

it consists of "lies" would

time the rightsof mature
At the same
cease.
sons
perand the importance of mutual
to self-direction
trust in social organization are
so
weighty that
deceptionin any given instance should be approved
only after careful and searching criticism. The
"liar"
conventional stigma attached to the word
is a wholesome
recognition of the moral peril
Birnet
Smith
involved in lying.
Gerald

life,from the
obscure problem.
that hfe is a
The earliest theoretical explanationwas
mysteriousforce,entirelydistinct from other forms
This "vital force"
observed
in nature.
of energy
the soto explain things which
called upon
was
With the advance
forces could not.
called physical
in physiologv
in scientificknowledge, esp"ecially
'
and
its alUed
subjects, certain "hfe processes
found to
that had been referred to vital force were
conformed
which
to
be physiological
processes
of chemistry and
laws
known
physics. This
suggestedthe possibilitythat all Ufe phenomena
of the laws of chemistry and physics.
are
expressions
theories of hfe are held: that
two
In consequence,
which assumes
anything
a vital force distinct from
is called "vitahsm"; while that which
be explained bv
olds that all Ufe phenomena can
'
laws is spoken of as the "physico-chemical
physical
stillbelieve in vitaUsm,
theory. Certain biologists
but there is a growingbelief that vitaUsm is siniply
It is certainly
for the undiscovered.
another name
of vitaUsm has been steadily
true that the territory
of
by the encroachment
diminishing in extent
physicallaws, but it is still a matter of opinion
whether it will fimally
entirely.
disappear
The
Uving substance is protoplasm, and it is
only through this substance that Ufe manifests
called it the
this reason,- Huxley
itself. For
basis of Ufe."
The constitution of protoplasm
"physical
to
is extremely complex, but it is known
of numerous
be made
complex compounds
up
whose constitution is known, but whose association
plasm
Protoin protoplasm is only vaguely surmised.
is very
changes
unstable, and its constant
associated with what have been called "vital
are
plasm
processes."Experiments have shown that protois exceedingly sensitive,responding in a
great variety of ways to conditions imposed upon
istic
characterof these responses,
it. In consequence
often formed, whose appearance
structures
are
had been attributed to the mysterious vital force.
For example, in the Ufe historyof most plantsthere
three conspicuous phases: vegetative vigor,
are
and sex organ-formation.Experiment
spore-formation,
has shown that these phases are not periodsin
force,
the Ufe of the plant,determined by an unknown
be induced at any time by imposing
but they can
If such fundamental
certain definite conditions.
things as vegetative activity, spores, and sex
under the control of physicallaws, not
are
organs
LIFE.

"

^The

phenomenon

point of view, is a
biological

Ehysical

of

very

AND

ETHICS

Life,Religious

but also in reference

only in reference to function,
it is natural to raise the question whether
to origin,
aU Ufe phenomena

be referred to the

cannot

same

category.
The present status of the subjectis that
many
of the most
important Ufe phenomena formerly
referred to vital force have been demonstrated
as
coming under the laws of physics and chemistry;
that many
Ufe phenomena remain to be explained;
and that in reference to these latter there are two
views, one holding that they will be explained by
physical laws, and the other holding that there
willalways be some unexplorableterritory
belonging
John M. Coulter
to vitalism.

LIFE, RELIGIOUS

SIGNIFICANCE

OF."
it appears
in religious
and
thinking,involves three meanings,
ethical^
often-times interrelated: (1) animating principle,
of activity; (2) lifetime,
life history;
or
or
source
condition
of being alive. Each
or
(3) manner
of these meanings has numerous
ramifications of

The

conception of Ufe, as

sense

and application.
Ldfe principle. The

distinction between the

its life is one
made
of men,
by all races
of the harsh
probably as the inevitable consequence
between
contrast
the livingbody and the corpse.
The distinction is so prominent even
in the minds of
savages and primitivesthat with virtual universaUty
they personify the life as a specialform or being,
sometimes
conceived
as
a
ghostlyimage of a man,
sometimes
as
a tiny simulacrum, or
again in other
than human
shape; but in every case as that which
mating
gives and maintains
bodily activity. This anilife is usually distinguishedfrom the soul;
the soul is thought of as freed from the body at
death, while the life either disappearsor slowly
dissolves with the body's decay. The notion of a
"vital flame"
"vital spark," in which
the Ufe
or
is Ukened
to the most active of the elements,is but
reflection of this effort to envisage it; while a
one
multitude of other tropes carry the same
thought
of Ufe," the "Ufe-blood."
the "breath
Such
as
the "bread of lifcj"
phrases as the "water of life,"
the "tree of Ufe," hark back to the feeUng that in
food and drink themselves is found, not only bodily,
vital
but
In
sustenance.
more
philosophical
of thought, distinction is made
between
ranges
bodily,conscious,and spirituallife,each of which
is regarded as having its own
principle:the bodily
Ufe is regarded as maintained
by a nutritive,or
growth, principle;the conscious life as due to a
tive;
energjr or faculty superadded to the nutrispecial
the spiritual
Ufe is the life of the soul,separable
from
bodily conditions. In the broadest
the propriety
of these conceptions
ranges of thinking,
is still discussed, gjving rise to three groups
of
problems: (1) What is animate reahty? Is there a
ive
vital principlein nature,giving rise to the distinctis
phenomena of organic creation? (2) What
consciousness?
is conscious Uving related to
How
ent?
mere
bodily existence : is it dependent or independis it cause
effect?
or
(3) Is there spiritual
is it related to physical
being? In what sense
and conscious embodiments?
2. Life history. A second
important conception
of his
is that of the Ufe of a man
the number
as
normal
life
involves
Since
lifetime.
a
days, as a
the
a
regular series of changes, or life-estates,
notion resolves into that of a history,
or
biographic
is a traditional
form.
The
"seven
ages" of man
representationof this idea, which is reflected in
tude
mythology, Uterature,and speculationin a multiThe cycle from birth to maturity,
of ways.
the image within
from maturity to decay, is made
is conceived.
which
nearly the whole of nature
of the sun, the four seasons
of the
The daily course
1.

body

"

and

"

"

"

Life,Religious

DICTIONABY

OF

RELIGION

the evolution
year, the rise and fall of a nation of men,
of an animal or plant species,the development
and dissolution of a solar system, each and all are
to the cycleof a man's
hkened
days, and are given
through this likeness. In fact the
intelligibility
whole philosophy of beginningsand ends
genesis
and
eschatology is made
persuasive because of
form of human
this fundamental
experience. From
rally
natusuch a conception of a lifetime as a unit comes
the notion of repeated or successive lives. The
cessive
primitiveform of this is the conception of the suclives of transmigrating or
reincarnating
souls
^today common
throughout the Buddhist
refined religious
world.
In more
thinking it takes
the form of an idealized "life to come," in a world
after death.
Doubtless, however, it is represented
in part by the conception of a regeneration,
or
in the days of the flesh,
spiritualre-birth,even
which
begun ere
gives rise to a second life-cycle,
its course.
But this
the life of the body has run
notion involves also the third meaning.
The conception of a quality,
3. Life condition.
plane, or character of life is most sharply indicated
by the Christian contrast between the "life of the
and the "life of the spirit."It is a recogworld"
nition
and
not
merely of different environment
interests,but of a different center, or motive, in
and worldliness
the type of character.
Spirituality
alike qualitiesof being,difficult to define save
are
by portraiture,but easilyrecognizablewhen truly
Even the lowest savages
drawn.
recognizea sharp
the vital estate of the inspired
difference between
and the uninspired; the shaman
or
ceived
prophet is conof unusual
not only as a person
powers,
of man.
In organized
but as a different kind
"

"

"

"

ETHICS

AND

260

LIGHT

AND
DARKNESS."
Natural
nomena
pheemployed as basis for myths and to symbolize
the opposing principles
of good and evil.
this subject is usuaUy connected
on
Speculation
usual
with cosmology. As to precedence,the more
statement
is that darkness
existed before light
(Babylonia,Palestine,Australia,Oceanica, Africa,
Arctic regions). But many
scattered tribes hold
the contrary.

The

introduction

of the second

ment
ele-

more
(whichever it be) is accounted for among
primitivepeoples by animistic or fantastic theories*
some
even
regard darkness and light as material
substances. The
more
developed cosmogonies
or
regard darkness as the priorcondition,and assume
affirm a creator who brings lightinto being. By a
natural process, lightis identified or connected with
and
celestial duties, and
darkness with the
sun
both
and
subterranean
and
moon
pairs
powers,
darkness,
(light, sun
see
Sun, Sun- Worship;
be regarded as persons, about whom
moon) may
new
cyclesof myths arise.
In rehgious symbolism the inherent dualism
"

powerfuUy

of ethics.
affects lesults in the realm
with deity (sun-gods),
of the
blessed,
life,abode
powers,

Light is usually connected

beneficent

warmth, comfort, truth,knowledge,order,courage,

purity, health, growth, vigor. Hence
important
public and religiousfunctions are often permissible
only during hght (Rome). Darkness
symbolizes
evil and maleficent powers,
death, cold (orMghtless,
punitive heat
hell),discomfort,fear,error, ignorance,
chaos, sin, weakness, destructiveness. So
"

in

fetishism

and

witchcraft

the

more

horrible

orgies take place at night. Thus light

and darkness are antagonisticand mutuallyhostile,
waging an age-long war.
religionsmany
grades of life-condition are recognized:
On this ground speculationpasses from ethics to
corruption,
innocence, sin, sanctification,
eschatology. Hebrews, Zoroastrians, Christians,
beatitude, damnation, all represent such; and
tianity
like Chrisand
Buddhism
Mohammedanism
Manicheans, and Mandaeans
posit this world and
are
the place and
time
of conflict between
as
in recognizing such
states.
Frequently
age
darkness
and light or the two powers
Testament
the term "life" or "the life"
in the New
they represent.
Yet in some
of these systems a bold monolifeof the redeemed,
theism
designatesdirectlythe spiritual
(deity) as
the idea of redemption itself being that of a lifting
represents the same
agency
creating both lightand darkness or good and evil
out of one state of lifein order to enter into another.
in all
xUv. 5). The
outlook
(Isa.45:7; Yasna
Similarly,in Greek ethics,the conception of "the
of
these systems is optimistic ^the abolishment
natural
good life"isdistinct from the notion of a mere
(and evil) by the eternal (in futurum)
lifting darkness
living:the good life has a quality of its own
of light and
good (cf.
it above the plane of unethical existence. In modern
conquest and endurance
"No
trasted
night there," Rev. 21:23, 25, 27).
thinking the conception of a "life of nature" as conGeorge
W. Gilmore
"moral"
with
or
"enlightened life"
a
BARBER
and has had no
(1828-1889).
is based upon
LIGHTFOOT,
JOSEPH
a similar distinction,
for
ethical
small
influence
EngUsh divine and theologian; best known
religious as upon
upon
his commentaries
certain Pauline epistlesand
on
ideas.
the
and
his translations
of Clement
of Rome
4. Eternal life. A specialconception,related to
he displayed
In these works
the second and third above, is that of the "eternal
ApostoUc Fathers.
Hulsome
life." The phrase, which' occurs
forty times
great learning and religiousinsight. He was
Professor
sean
in the New
(1861), Lady Margaret Professor
Testament, reflects the influence of
(1875) and Bishop of Durham
Greek thinking through Plato and the Gnostics.
(1879).
rights and

"

"

"

In

the

Authorized

Version

it is translated

by

"everlasting" and "eternal life." But that the

idea conveyed by the Greek
phrase is not merely
that of immortality is not only indicated by Romans
of
certain by the general uses
2:7, but is made
aeonian in the literature of the
the temporal conception,
In
estate.
as a being or an
appears that of the aeon
Gnostic thought the rulers of different parts of the
universe are described as aeons, and with the term
associated
the conceptions of kingship and
are
glory and indeed of an essential being different in
from
the physical. Doubtless
character
this, as
well as
Hebrew
ideas, is reflected in the New
means
Testament, which
by the "aeonian" or
"eternal"
of existence
life a state
transcending
human
days not only in time, but also in the
more
spiritualquality of its being.
H. B. Alexander

the words

aeon

and

time, where, along with

MARIA
DI (1696-1787).
ALFONSO
able R.C. priest,missionary,and theologian,
nate
life was
devoted
to ministry to the unfortuand needy. He organizedin 1732 the so-called
Redemptorists, an order devoted to the cultivation
of sincere and
intense piety, expressing itself in
is
He
ministry espeeiaUy to the unfortunate.
the author of a treatise on
as
perhaps best known
morals which
considerable
criticism on
aroused
of questionsof
of the frank
treatment
account
freedom
of adjustment to
casuistry,by which
specialcircumstances was so emphasizedas to seem
to encourage
laxity.

LIGUORI,

An
whose
"

LIMBO."
or
LIMBUS,
place where those

neutral

by

no

fault of their

souls while

own

In R.C.
theology a
excluded from heaven
go

after death.

deprived of the joy of salvation

Such
are

261

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

subject to the pains of hell. The limbus of

the place of detention for the saints
the fatherswas
said
and was
died before Christ's atonement
who
to
ceased to exist with Christ's descent
to have
hell. The limbus of infantsis the detention place
of unbaptized infants.
for the spirits
not

AND

ETHICS

Liturgy

LITURGY."
The rite followed in the Celebration
of the Eucharist (Mass, Holy Communion,
Lord's Supper). In less exact
is
the term
usage
also apphed to the entire body of rites used in the

Church,
Traces

of hturgicalforms

Testament, and

from

the

occur

in the

New

writings of the early

of a developing use

Church
Fathers
statements
phallic emblem, symbol of the
the specialmark
be gleaned,though no fuU account
of the Saivaite
can
is anywhere
It is always present in their temples.
sects of India.
given, doubtless in part, at least,because of the
The Lingayats,numbering about three million peoearUest
disciplinaarcani. The
extant
ple,
complete
the emblem
As in
wear
always on their person.
hturgicalform is contained in the ApostoUc Constitutions
all other religionswhere
the symbol appears, it
of the 4th. century, the so-called "Clementine
fluid hturgicmaterial
fertility
Liturgy." The somewhat
represents life-power,reproduction, and
and
sohdified thereafter
into local types, of which
so
symbolizes one
phase of the character of
Shiva.
four sources
classes may
be recognized,those
or
of Antioch, Alexandria, Rome,
and
Gaul.
Of
LING
CHOS."
The
Antiochian
the form in the Aposmythology of the ancient
source
are
(Syrian)
animistic
See
gions
tohc Constitutions,
the Jerusalem
form ("Liturgy
rehgion of Tibet.
Tibet, Reliof St. James"), now
httle used, the Byzantine,
OP.
with its many
varieties as used in the Orthodox
LINUS.
whose name
Churches
of the East, and
the Armenian.
Of
Bishop of Rome
appears
at the head
of all the Usts,identified by Irenaeus
Alexandrian
origin ("Liturgy of St. Mark") are a
with the Linus
of II Tim.
extinct Greek hturgy, and the present rites of
now
4:21; said to have
suffered martyrdom;
saint of the Gregorian
The
a
Coptic and Ethiopia (Abyssinian)Churches.
calendar venerated
ancient Roman
rite ("Liturgy of St. Peter") is no
on
Sept.23.
longer used, the present (Latin) liturgy being a
LITANY.
A form of devotion of a penitential modification of this with GaUican
additions.
Some
and
intercessorycharacter, consistingessentially variations of mediaeval originin the uses of certain
in a series of brief directive suppUcations by the
dioceses and religious
orders are vanishing,or have
toward
minister,each followed by appropriateejaculatory vanished, under the pressure
uniformity.
Of the GaUican
number
of Latin
mented
by choir or congregation,the whole supplea
family were
responses
collects.
by longer
liturgiesused in Gaul, northern
Italy, Spain,
Traces
of Utany-forms exist from
the earUest
Britain, and apparently in Africa. Their origin
centuries of the Church, and the singing of hymns
is much
discussed and disputed,but Eastern pecuhand
in procession soon
estabhshed
arities are seen
to be an
in them, whence
is somethe source
came
times
called Ephesine, or
the
important element in the service. Mamertus, bishop
"Liturgy of St.
of Vienne
John."
The
(about 460 a.d.),is reputed to have been
family is still represented by the
the first to make
Ambrosian
processionalhtanies,earUer used
rite,used at Milan, and the Mozarabic,
in times of especialdistress,a form
of devotion
of Toledo.
tians
The hturgy of the early Celtic Chrisfor fixed days in the year; and htanies are stillin
in Britain appears
been of GaUican
to have
some
type; as equally might have been expected,that of
parts of the Church sung in procession. The
htanies
Latin
Church
the Anglo-Saxon
officiallyrecognizes two
period is prevailinglyRoman, with
few
and minores), the Anghcan but
which
Galhcan
a
{litaniaemaiores
(or Celtic?) peculiarities,
The
ences
influincreased in number
were
through GaUican
yet other popular forms are in use.
one;
the Norman
following upon
litanywas firstissued in EngUsh by Henry VIII. in
conquest. The
in
one
(Salisbury)use became the dominant
1544, and with minor changes stillholds its place. Sarum
Churches
also retain htanies.
The early
Lutheran
till the Reformation,
so
Britain, and remained
close connection
of htany with eucharistic service
retained or
though other dioceses and churches
is noteworthy.
E. T. Merrill
forms.
The most
developed their own
prominent
of these were
York
and
Hereford.
Uniformity
The Lithuanians,
RELIGION
OF."
in by legal enactment
came
at the Reformation,
LITHUANIANS,
and the
and their kindred,the Letts,form a distinct
along with the revision of the service-books,
branch
In
of the Indo-European family occupying
change in them from Latin to the vernacular.
territories between
those of the Slavs,to whom
the East from early times there have been regarded
they
and those of the Teutons,
essential to the proper,
to the valid,
if not
as
are
linguistically
nearer,
first
whom
performance of the Liturgy three distinct but
they resemble physically. They were
Christianized
in the 13th. century by German
associated
of Consecration
(embodying
prayers;
Crusaders
and missionaries,and are
the words
tion
now
of Institution
mainly
strictlyof Administraadherents
Catholic and Lutheran, with some
Roman
used
by Christ, and accompanied by his
of the Greek
Church, the form of Christianity manual
(or Anamnesis, the
acts), of Oblation
reflectingpoliticalinfluences. The pre-Christian offeringto God of the elements in the memorial
of Invocation
and
religionof the Letts and Lithuanians was a naturesacrifice),
(or Epiklesis,the
of the Holy Spiritthe
that by the power
worship reflected in the folklore still livingamong
prayer
the thunderTheir chief deity was
elements
to the faithful
the peasants.
become, or convey
may
Thor
god Perkunas, akin to the Scandinavian
recipient,the Body and Blood of Christ). This
ball. The
with a hammer
triune form
restored in the Liturgy of the
and like Thor armed
or
was
Scottish Episcopal Church in 1636, and was
adopted
Sun, regarded as feminine,was the foremost of the
from that use
Episcopal Church
goddesses, and with her are associated in legend
by the American
and the Morning-Star, the Moon
in 1789.
of England, although in the
the Moon
In the Church
being
V. (1549)there was
firstprayerbook of King Edward
to the Sun, while the Morning-Star was
consort
The
of the Moon.
worship of trees, in the Liturgy a proper Oblation and an Invocation,
paramour
both were
excluded in the Puritan revision of 1552,
waters, fire,sacred places,etc.,is also reflected in
doubt
The Roman
and have not been restored.
no
Liturgy
folklore,and the ancient religionwas
Oblation
retains after the Consecration a proper
nature- worship, although comparaelaborate
an
tively
but
been
guised
Unde et memores),
little of it has
preserved.
dropped or dis(the prayer
H. B. Alexander
(probablyin the 5th. or 6th. century) the
LINGA.

The

"

god, Shiva, and

"

"

"

"

Liver

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

262

of the
primitive Invocation, of which learned liturgists the accompanying a priorirationalism
have tried in recent days to discover sufficienttraces
philosophyof his day.
ments
in the present rite. Of the numerous
other eleReligiously,Locke urged a rational interpretation
these three,some
that accompany
are
mon
comof Christianity,
in which
the mysteries of
if not to all,of the ancient rites, the incarnation and atonement
to many,
should be considered
duction, incidental,essential Christianity
whether
Western.
Eastern
Such are an introor
being the belief
or introit;
in Jesus as Messiah.
ahtanyform; anthems, hymns,
Locke has often been classed
or
with the Deists; but his rationaUsm
psalms; collect for the day; solemn reading of
was
more
from
Epistles and
Gospels, variously conservative,defendingthe supernaturalin Christianity.
passages
Corda
prefaced and concluded; creed; Sursum
with
following versicles; proper
preface with
In the realm of p"olitical
theory, Locke was an
and
Trisagion (Tersanctus); commemorations
influentialexponent of popular government based on
intercessions for hving and dead; the Lord's Prayer;
of natural rights(q.v.). See Rationala doctrine
ism;
The AngUcan liturgy
thanksgivings; benediction.
Empiricism.
Birney
Smith
Gerald
inserts after an introductorycollect for purity the
with ejacularecitationof the Ten Commandments
L O G I A.
A name
(Greek : 'Sayings.")
applied
Corda
and
before
Sursum
an
tory responses,
lection
by Papias of Hierapolis (ca. a.d.
140) to a colexhortation,confession,and absolution,which in
of Jesus' sayings composed by Matthew:
rite a part of the
less solemn form is in the Roman
"Matthew
composed the Logia in the Aramaic
prefatorymatter.
language" (Eusebius, Church History,III,39:16).
and
in Scotland
The
Episcopal Churches
Some
scholars would
identify this work with a
Ireland have recently revised their service-books,
used by the authors of the Gospels
common
source
Church
in
the
and revision is now
in
(1917) progress
of Matthew
and Luke, and explain the common
in the
of England (the last was
in 1662), and
material of those gospels not found
in Mark
as
American
Episcopal Church (the last was in 1892). drawn from the
Logia. Others with more
probaLutheran
Churches
of Calvinistic and
origin
biUty ascribe to the Logia only those sayings of
The Presbyin their Mturgicalforms.
much
terians
vary
Jesus which are peculiarto the Gospel of Matthew,
of Scotland adopted in 1560 an order drawn
and in this way
explainthe connection of the name
this
in
but
substituted
for
1645
John
by
Knox,
up
of Matthew
with this gospel, which
might very
the Westminster
"Directory for the Public Worship
to be known
ing
naturallycome
as the Gospel accordand
rules
down
of God," which
principles
lays
to Matthew
if it owed its peculiarelement to a
In the United States
rather than complete forms.
document
written by him.
Later Christian writers,
of America
Presbyterianshave adopted a book of
too easily identified the Logia with the
however,
Similar
forms,which, however, is not of obligation.
Gospel according to Matthew, although Papias'
of
conventions
taken
action has been
by some
statement
that it was
composed in Aramaic
and
Churches
of the congregationalorder.
Wesleyans
"each one
translated (or interpreted)it as best he
the Church
in Great Britain have not abandoned
could" shows that it cannot
have been our
Gospel
in the United
of England liturgy,and Methodists
of Matthew.
The
collections of Jesus' sayings
with
follow a revision originating
States of America
found in 1897 and 1903 by Grenfell and Hunt
on
E. T. Merrill
John Wesley.
fragments of the 3rd. century and pubpapyrus
hshed as Oxyrhynchus Papyri no. 1,654,are sometimes
See Divination; Hepatoscopy.
LIVER.
called the Logia. They illustrate the ancient
to make
collectionsof Jesus' sayingsand
disposition
DAVID
cal
(1813-1873)." MediLIVINGSTONE,
include some
not found in the canonical gospels.
tion
missionary and explorer. By birth and educaEdgar
J. Goodspeed
Scottish,he went in 1840 to Africa under the
LOGOS.
^A Greek
term, meaning the divine
he served
London
Missionary Society under whom
word
and
or
dynamic in the
reason, immanent
He was
until 1858.
constantly wanting to push
cosmic
The
term
was
process.
appropriated by
into the interior and do pioneerwork, and everywhere
early Christian thinkers to express for the Greek
he bore with him the Gospel, and a measure
world
their conception of Jesus as
pre-existent
of Christian civiUzation. From
1858 he gave himself
and incarnate Redeemer.
creator
of
servant
the
work
to
geographicalexplorationas a
In Greek
thought, Heraclitus
(540-475 B.C.)
to open
of the British government, doing much
tral
cenidentified the Logos with cosmic process, law, or
Africa to European civilization and Christian
God
that which
gives order and rationalityto
He
died in Africa,and was
missions.
interred in
the universe.
Anaxagoras, Plato and Aristotle
Westminster
Abbey.
recognized this element of rationaUty, caUing it
The
Stoics regarded the
nous.
Logos as the
I^ES."
A
COMMIT
of
LOCI
compendium
activelyoperating,determinative,pervading principle
Lutheran
theology written by Melanchthon.
'

"

"

"

"

of the world.
It is identified on the one
hand
with fire,
the primordialelement, and on the other
A term
used by MeTHEOLOGICL"
lanchthon
hand with the immanent
God.
to indicate basal concepts of theology,
Hebrew
The
which
used in the
was
or basal concepts
memra,
correspondingto the loci communes
of the creative and directive word of Yahweh
sense
of the classic rhetoricians.
manifest in the world, was
translated in the Septuagint by "Logos." So the Logos in Alexandria
losopher
(,1632-1704)."EngUsh phiJOHN
LOCKE,
the "word
of Yahweh"
to mean
which Philo
came
noted
the initiator of empiricism in
as
fused with
Plato's architectonic
the
Grood and
psychology and philosophy.
Stoic Reason.
of the conLocke
led by his observation
fused
was
LOCI

used general concepts to

men
inquiry as to the origin and
ideas.
Assuming that every
meaning of our
human
being starts with no experiencewhatever,
he traced
all our
knowledge ultimately to the
and proxiour
mately
"impressions" made
senses,
upon
reflection on
these impressions.
to
our
ways

undertake

He

thus

in which

an

exact

rejectedthe doctrine

of innate

ideas and

The author of the Fourth

Gospel, writingin an
environment
of Alexandrian
thought, seized upon
the concept and declared the Logos to have become
flesh in the historic Jesus.
Thus the Greek Reason
and the Hebrew
Messianic Redeemer
came
together
in the Logos-Christ who
is portrayed as eternally
the divine creator who became
nate
incarpre-existent,
to

save

men.

263

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

that the Logos, which

Justin Martyr showed
been
in Jesus, had
incarnate
operativein
of the past.
Moses, Socrates,and other great men
and all Logos,"
Irenaeus defined God as "all Mind
both
and regarded the Logos as the agent of God
Clement
of Alexandria
in creation and in salvation.
the Logos central in cosmology, Christology,
made
and
soteriology. The real Christian is the true
gnostic who apprehends God through the gnosis
imparted by the Logos. Origen made the Logos
the hypostatic expression of the divine wisdom
operative in law, philosophy,promise, nature, and
was

AND

ETHICS

Lord's

Supper,

The

Man's duty is to secure

the happiest possible
life.
There are no
representatives in modern
India,
but the system is very old and seems
to have had a
for
centuries.
large following
many

body.

A very puzzlinggod of the Scandinavian

mythology. He is one of the Aesir (q.v.)
gods yet both their friend and enemy.
He
will
guide the ship which carries the enemies of the gods
from the realm of Hel at the day of Ragnarok, the
of the gods. He may be fire,
doom
now
beneficent,
His constant
destructive.
changes of shape
begotten," now
Christ,a distinct personahty,"eternally
that
he
have
is
air
wind
an
or
"a second God."
suggested
god. He
the subterranean fire.
has been identified with
of Nicaea, 325, Eusebius of
At the Council
he takes on
Under the influence of Christianity
Caesarea proposed a creed using the word Logos
In myth he often appears
the character of Satan.
tuted
substias the appellationof Jesus,but the councU
"Son," and the concept of generationbecapae as one of the giants or of the elves. He is always
of motherwit.
tricky,dangerous and the embodiment
of the doctrine
the determinant in the formulation
concerning the second person in the Trinity. From
LOLLARDS.
^The name
(probably an epithet
that time the Logos terminologywas
gradually
of scorn, meaning a "babbler")given to the followers
discarded.
of WycUf.
They stood for simple and genuine
of thought in other
The
following movements
protested
against ecclesiastical corruption
piety,
the
to
in
Logos
some
parallel
respects,
religions
are,
and the doctrine of transubstantiation,
and insisted
development in Greek and Christian thought:
LOKI."

"

Hebrew
1. The
above.
made

of which

memra

mention

was

is the
2. In Indian thought the nearest parallel
which
in its development approximates
Brahman
The
to the Logos in Stoicism.
originalmeaning
the spoken prayer^ or hymn, or
of Brahman
was
it
sacred
as
objective. Then
text, considered
as the inner content
developed a subjectivesense
the
And
of the objective word.
finallyit was
monistic
word,"
world-principle,"the immanent
the power of which is resident in the sacred hymn,
in all things. It is not
in the ceremonial, and
jective
unhke
the Stoic analysis of objectiveword, subword, and seminal word which is the generative
in all things.
immanent
power

upon

the

of
authority
of

the

in
Scriptures,

the

semination
dis-

which

they were
notably zealous.
Around
London, Oxford, and Leicestershire where
Wychf spent many
they were
particularly
years,
aggressive,until in the reign of Henry IV. the
of Heretics" sent several of them
to the
Oldcastle being among
the number.
After his death their followingwas
drawn
largely
from
the common
folk. Persistingthrough the
troublous times of the Wars of the Roses, LoUardy
revived with the opening of the Tudor
regime and
in evidence in the earlier days of Henry
much
was
VIII.,when Lutheran currents of thought began to
It seems, however, to have left its
enter England.
impress in several features distinctive of the EngUsh
Reformation.
Peter
G. Mode
"Statute

stake,Sir John

its philoTaoism
Chinese
Tao:
on
sophical
side is essentiallya Logos philosophy.
LONGSUFFERING."
The disposition
to endure
"the way" of nature
and
a
Tao is the ultimate
injuriesor offence with patience for a long time;
Men
rational principle pervading the universe.
emphasized in Christian ethics both as characteristic
have
within
them
should
let the Tao
supreme
of God
and an
evidence
of Christian character.
The
conception is an
impersonal one,
sway.
Some
of the Church
Fathers
identified it with
like the Stoic Logos.
Aristotle's magnanimity.
Doctrine
of the
Three
Buddhistic
4. The
Buddhism
there has been
Bodies:
In Mahayana
LORD'S
DAY."
A
designation of Sunday
developed a doctrine of the three bodies of Buddha,
(q.v.)as the Christian day of rest and worship.
somewhat
analogous to the Logos thought of
has three bodies:
Buddha
Stoicism.
(a) DharmaLORD'S
PRAYER."
The
which
Jesus
prayer
kaya, that part of the body which is essence, the
in Matt. 6:9-13 and
as recorded
taught his disciples
ultimate,universal or cosmic element, or BuddaLuke
11:2-4; used extensively in all Christian
into
that which is come
hood; (6)Nirmanakaya
liturgies.
and the other Buddhas, a
the world, as Gautama
conception Uke the seminal logoi; (c) SambhogaLORD'S
THE."
The
sacrament
of
SUPPER,
seen
by the saints in
kaya ^the form of the Buddha
bread and wine observed in the Christian church.
vision
of
Krishna
in
their ecstasies,
as
Arjuna's
1. Origin. 'The last meal which Jesus ate with
A. S. Woodburne
the Bhagavat Gita.
his disciples
became
for them soon
after his death the
3. The

"

"

"

"

of a memorial
feast which
they began to
celebrate and which prefiguredthe banquet to be
renewed with him in the coming Messianic kingdom.
and anticipatory
At the outset, a simple commemorative
rite,it gradually assumed a mysterious,
the bread and wine being
even
magical character
charged with sacramental efficacy. The language
with an
of John (chap.6 : 53-55) suggests an affinity
ancient
Semitic
and
primitive
widely observed
sacrificial meal in which
by eating the flesh and
drinking the blood the worshiper identifies himself

type
A Hindu
LOKAYATA.
system of hedonistic
Its adherents are also called Charvamaterialism.
edge
kas.
Beginning with the dogma that true knowlbe given only in perceptionby the senses
can
they refused belief in gods, the soul. Karma,
Moksha
(salvation),
heaven, hell,and the future
of these things can be established on
since none
life,
the
the basis of sense-perception. They scorned
Vedas, the priests,the system of sacrifices and
the rules of caste.
They taught that the whole
of the
complex world results from the combinations
four eternal elements, earth, air, fire and water,
Man's
working accordingto theirown natural law.
of matter
psychic life is part of that combination
form and dissolves with the
which takes the human
"

"

with his god.

Didache
the
the
In
2. The
Early Church.
Lord's Supper is stillin connection with the Agape,
but already the notion of sacrifice is associated with
it. Ignatiusregards it both as a tangiblesymbol
"

and

as

means

of

DICTIONARY

Lord's Supper, The

mysteriousunion

eternal life. Justin

Martyr

with

OF

God

RELIGION

ferring
con-

taught that

Lord's
become
bodies
Supper our
which
Irenaeus
added
that this
due to the union of a heavenly reaUty with the
was
of which
food
elements
by reason
they become
eternal Ufe. According to prevaiUng "mysunto
tery"
be traced back
to New
ideas, which may
Testament
times, a substance could be divinized
without
changing its appearance.
Cyprian gave
ing
accordto the Eucharist
a sacrificialinterpretation,
to which the priestoffers a true sacrifice to God.
Origen saw in the elements a symbol of the Logos as
of Mopuestia held
Theodore
the heavenly Lord.
that while the elements
were
symbols, they yet
communicate
forgivenessand eternal Ufe. Cyril of
Jerusalem approached the idea of transubstantiation
in his teaching,that through hypostatic union the
the visible body and blood
bread and wine become
This
of Christ.
transformation, according to
Ambrose, takes placethrough the efficacyof prayer.
Church.
In the 9th. century
3. The Western
the development of the discussion of the "real
presence" was renewed under Paschasius Radbertus,
Ratramnus, Berengar, and others,which resulted in
This
a completeddefinition of transubstantiation.
Church
of the Roman
at the fourth
became
a dogma
Lateran Council (1215). By force of the words of
institution the true
body and blood of Christ,
togetherwith his divinity,exist under the species
of the "co"of bread and wine; also by reason
the parts of the Lord
are
comitance" by which
linked together the body exists under the species
of wine and the blood under the speciesof bread.
and
entire under
Christ exists,therefore,whole
both species of bread and wine and under
every
part of both species. For the service a wafer is
is mixed
with the
employed, and a Uttle water
ity,
wine symbolizing the union of divinityand humanthe wine
being reserved for the priests.
is infused,temporal
Through this sacrament
grace
punishment remitted, concupiscence checked, and

through the

to
incorruptible,

"

charitystrengthened.
In the 15th. century the
4. The Greek Church.
Greek Church defined the real presence as proposed
tion,"
by the term "transubstantiaby John of Damascus
and in the 17th. century the doctrine received
in correspondence with the Roman
final statement
church.
of
view.
5. Lutheran
Through the words
the means
institution the bread and wine become
although spiritual
by which the real and substantial,
and
glorified,body of Christ is sacramentally
and
wine
the bread
the elements
with
united
"

"

"

whoever, therefore,partakes
receives also the real body
of the elements
and blood of Christ,yet if one
partakes imworthily,

ETHICS

AND

264

their
8. Society of Friends.
-In accord with
of rehgion they
general view of the inwardness
hold that the breaking of bread
instituted by
Christ and practisedby the early church was
only
of the weak, not,
a temporary figurefor the sake
the true
those who
have
however, binding on
life.
spiritual
9. In
general. Personal preparationfor the
communion, frequency and hours of celebratingit,
of leavened or unleavened
use
or
bread, of common
individual cups, postures of the body, and etiquette
"

"

of the ceremony

differ in different church bodies.

C. A. Beckwith
LORD'S
THE."
The
ordinance
of
TABLE,
the Lord's
Supper (q.v.),or the table or altar
bration
which
the elements
on
are
placed for the celeof the Lord's Supper.
LORETO.
A
town
neau'
nowned
Ancona, Italy,refrom the 15th. century as a place of pilgrimage.
there was
The
reported
"Holy House"
to be the house where the Blessed Virgin was
born,
been
to have
transported to Loreto
by angels,
and to have been sanctified by numbers
of miracles
wrought there.
"

LOT.

A
of deciding possession or
means
of the manipufate by the chance outcome
lation
of objects,like castingdice,drawing marked
colored objects from an invisible collection,
etc.
or
of
considered
The
lot has often been
a
means
divination.

duty

"

or

LOTUS
OF
Saddharma-PundarIka.

THE

TRUE

LAW."

See

HERMANN
LOTZE, RUDOLF
(1817-1881)."
An
influential German
lifephilosopher whose
work
in the University of Gottingen. He
was
expounded an ideaUstic system of philosophy, in
which
he attempted to do full justiceto the facts
of physical science by interpretingthe mechanical
order of nature
the means
as
through which selfconscious
Mind
realizes its purposes.
ism
Mechanis thus preserved, but it is subordinated
to
teleology. His chief work is his Mikrokosmos.
A small town
in southern
LOURDES.
France
famous since 1858 as a place of pilgrimage,growing
out of allegedapparitionsof the Virgin Mary to a
Bernadette
Soubirous.
The
girl, Marie
young
of a spring of therapeutic qualitieshas
presence
aided in making it a place where many
miraculous
cures
are
reported to have been accomplished.
"

remaining vmchanged;

The doctrine rests upon

it is to his condemnation.
pecuUar theory of the ubiquity of Christ's human
Idiomatum.
See Communicatio
nature.
Calvin modified the doctrine
6. Reformed doctrine.
of
of the "real presence"; the humanity
his
Christ is indeed in heaven, yet in the sacrament
communicated
to the beUever
flesh and blood are
ceived
by the power of the Holy Spirit. Zwingli conof the supper
memorial, quickening
as
a
Christ.
with
communion
faith, gratitude, and
view in the Lord's Supper
According to the common
the bread and wine symbohze the body and blood
of Christ given in behalf of men,
a
sign and seal
of
of forgivenessof sins and of the communion
believers with Christ and with one
another through
faith.
of the
7. Anglican view.
^Article XXXVIII.
Thirty-nineArticles is interpretedas meaning the
"real presence." At the same
time no attempt is
made
to explain the mystery.
a

"

"

Primarilyan emotional experiencein

is conscious of the value of a person,
to such
or
a
an
institution,
cause
a
degree that
seeks the closest possibleidentification of life
one
with the beloved object.
This desire for identification has two aspects.
On the one
hand, one desires to possess the beloved
to it at any
access
object so as to have unhindered
the other hand, one
time.
On
desires to find in
the beloved object the greatestpossibleperfection.
lead therefore to a jealously2xclusive
Love
may
of altruistic
take the form
attitude; or it may
of the beloved
effort for the betterment
object.
instinctive.
former
and
The
aspect is natural
latter attitude grows into the finest kind of
The
moral service.
sexual love is one
of the most
Romantic
or
powerful emotions in human
experience. It is the
in every
theme of poets and dramatists
age, and is
interest. The
desire for
a
never-failinghuman
exclusive possessionof the loved one
is the natural
foundation
for monogamy
and is the basis of that
LOVE.
which
one

"

265

intimate
peculiarly

social

DICTIONARY

found
relationship

OF

RELIGION

in the

AND

ETHICS

LuUists

no
organized status within the Established
Church, and representative of a temperament, its
numerical strengthis impossibleto estimate.

ing

family. The strengthof the sexual instinct has led

rites and ceremonies
to various religious
centering

The moral control of

around it. See Phalli cism.
this impulseis one of the most serious ethical problems
in human
society.
love is a generous
Parental
solicitude for the
The
welfare of children.
length of time during
children are
which
dependent on the loving care
of the strikingdifferences between
of parents is one
human
development and development of the animal
service which
species. The training in altruistic^
is of immense
in this way
comes
importance for
social ethics. No higher symbol for the attitude of
be found than the conceptowards
God
men
can
tion
Love of children for parentsis
of fatherliness.
more
selfish;but with proper trainingit is the
of enlisting social comost
operation
important means
and loyaltyto group interests.
Love for institutions is represented by patriotism,

loyalty to poUticalparty, or to church, or to

for the
well-established organization of men
promotionof mutual ends. Such love is expressed

any

Peter
G. Mode
The firstSunday after Easter,
probablyso-called in contrast to the high festival
of Easter.
LOW

SUNDAY."

LOYALTY.
in action and
allegiance
^Willing
sentiment to an institution,
a person, or
an
tion.
obligaThe ideal of loyaltywas
most
fullyembodied
in the
institutions of feudaUsm
and
chivalry.
In modern
life the objectsand grades of loyalty
is
are
greatlydiversified. Loyalty
required in the
ethical ideal as a corrective of legaUsm,to which
formal moraUty is Uable, and as a bond
between
the religious
attitude being
morality and religion;
sometimes
identified with loyalty to any
object
above
the individual.
Royce makes
loyaltythe
of the moral
essence
ideal,determining its own
national
object: "loyalty to loyalty." Under
danger loyaltyto the nation tends to become a
J. F. Crawford
dominatingideal.
"

and in the case

of
to the institution,
devotion
itself in supreme
love for country it may
SAINT
LOYOLA,
IGNATIUS,
(1491-1556)."
express
is a similar
dedication of lifeitself. Love for a cause
Spanish R.C. priest; as an officer of the Spanish
tional
sentiment, but exists in relation to relatively army, he became converted through reading devothe devotion
books
which demand
He
during a long convalescence.
unorganizedmovements
in order to succeed.
transferred his militaryardor to the realm of religion
and the labors of men
the founder
and first general of the
While love is a natural sentiment, it is capable and became
One
of being educated.
to love good
come
Society of Jesus. He was beatified in 1609, and in
may
1622 canonized.
His Book
Uterature rather than
to prefer a highor
of Spiritual Exercises
poor,
with material privations
set forth his conception of discipUne of the soul.
life even
minded
to a life
in which
culture is wanting. See Jesuits.
of comparativeease
bidden to love their
In Christianity,men
are
LUCIAN
THE
of natural
MARTYR
(ca. 250-312)."
fellows, regardless of considerations
Such love evidently must
rest on
attractiveness.
Presbyter of Antioch, and so-called foimder of the
other than mere
natural impulse. To
Antiochian
school (q.v.). He
excluded
from
foundations
was
ecclesiastical fellowship for sympathy
of
with Paul
seek to benefit one's neighbor is a certain means
of Samosata
Such
interest in his welfare.
(q.v.),
though his positionwas rather
arousing a warm
often called by the philosophical that "there is one
ethical love
God, revealed to us through
Christ and
isinculcated as the fundamental
inspired in our hearts by the Holy
term, benevolence
the teacher
attitude of Christian ethics. It is interpretedas
Spirit" (Lucian s Apology). He was
of Arius and Eusebius
of God
toward
of Nicomedia, and is somemen.
times
a reflection of the attitude
Smith
Gerald
Birney
regarded as the real founder of Arianism
The
LOVE-FEAST."
(q.v.). His criticalscholarshipis evidenced in his
Agape (q.v.) or social
famous
recension of the Septuagint version of the
meal in which early Christians joined for brotherly
Lucian
suffered martyrdom
commemoration
of Christ's
and
love
by
parting Old Testament.
Paul (I Cor. 11:17-34) describes such a
hunger,refusingto eat food sacrificed to idols.
supper.
the taking of
meal as a specialact in which
was
When
this
LUCIUS.
of three popes.
The name
bread and wine in solemn communion.
Lucius I.
the liturgicaleucharist, the supper
became
act
Pope, for 8 months, 253-254.
Lucius IL
for a while as a non-sacramental exprescontinued
Pope, 1144-1145.
sion
Lucius 7/7." Pope, 1181-1185.
restored
Moravian
Brethren
of brotherhood.
this
the love-feast,
a simple meal with hymns, and on
LUCRETIUS
held meetings for hymns
and
Methodists
model
(ca.98-55 b.c.)."Titus Lucretius
Cams
Roman
confessions of experienceaccompanied by the semexpounded the
blance
was
a
poet who
On the
F. A. Christie
doctrines of Epicureanism (q.v.)in a poem
of a meal.
Nature of Things. The poem
contrasts the truths
A section of the Church of
of nature
the
old
CHURCH."
with
aiming
LOW
superstitions,
to emancipate from
the fear of the gods and of
England disposedto simple ritual and an evangeUcal
death.
The gods exist in the interstices between
presentationof doctrine. Although discernible in
the worlds,
but have nothing to do with men.
of England since its inception,the
the Church
consciousness
Church
had scarcely a group
Low
used
when considerable
LULAB."
earlier than the Wesleyan revival,
(Hebrew: "Pahn.") A term
for the bouquet carried in the Synagog
of churchmen, unwilling to sever
nection
connumbers
specifically
of a palmwith the Established
on the Feast of Tabernacles,consisting
Church, nevertheless
found Wesley's evangehcal fervor and presentation branch with myrtle twigs and willow branches tied
of truth to their liking. The
highly ritualistic to the lower end of it. (See Lev. 23 : 40.)
tendencies of the Oxford
emphasis and Rome-ward
See Lumjsts.
LULL, RAYMOND."
Movement
(q.v.)strengthened the followingof this
With the attraction into the Broad Church
group.
Lull
The
modern
scientific
LULLISTS.
disciplesof Raymond
of those
sympathetic toward
Illunainated Doctor," a philosopher,
theologicalviews, the Low Church has been finding (1236-1315), "The
of
those conservativelyincUned.
martyr
scientist,missionary, and
its following among
to preach to the
non-conformists it has been fraternal. In
Majorca. Lull's ambitions were
Toward
Saracens
it has been aggressive.Havand obtain martyrdom, both of which
missionary enterprise
m

"

"

"

"

"

"

Lupercalia

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

266

He strenuously
realized.
opposed the Averroistic doctrine that what
might be true for faith
might be false for philosophy. The Lullists of
in
today in Majorca still follow Lull's,method

disguised as bandits and taken to the electoral

castle of Wartburg, near Eisenach,where he remained
in seclusion for ten months.
He occupied himself
with studies and writing,
and especially
with making

philosophy.

version of the N.T. in vernacular German.

This
published in September, 1522, followed by the
whole Bible in 1534, and became
of the chief
one
Reformation.
agenciesin promoting the German
Returning to Wittenberg in March, 1523, Luther
took the lead of the reformation
and retained it to
his death.
He
persuaded the princes to set the
churches in order through commissions
and finally
consistories. He prepared Uturgiesand catechisms
and confessions;
he wrote
books
and pamphlets
innumerable.
The principle
of the German
reform,
he stated it, was,
"Whatever
is not against
as
is
for
for
it."
and Scripture
Scripture
Scripture,
His last years were
embittered
with controversies
with Zwinglians and others.
In spite of patent
and
faiUngs, Luther's
greatness of character
achievement
have won
recognitionfrom the whole
world, and he is generallyrecognized as the great
of the Reformation
man
period.
C. Vedder
Henry
LUTHERAN
CHURCH."
That
branch
of
Protestantism
which
has accepted the principles
to
expressedby Martin Luther in contradistmction
the Reformed
Church
in its various ramifications

were

was

LUPERCALIA."
A Roman
festival of February
in which selected individuals,
the "wolf-warders,"
purifiedwith blood and milk and clad in the skins of
sacrificed goats ran
the
laughing around
city
enclosure.
It was
rite dedicated
to Faunus
or
a
Pan, and intended to protect the herds from wolves.
The strikingof women
with stripsof goat skins to
stimulate fertility
was
perhaps a later addition to
the originalritual.
LUST
Inordinate craving or desire or indulgence
attached
of such desire,especiallywhen
to
carnal pleasure; specifically
in N.T.
condemned
ethics as Matt. 5 : 28; considered by the R.C. church
to be a mortal
sin.
"

MARTIN
LUTHER,
religiousreformer, who

(1483-1546)." German
initiated the

Protestant

movement.

of ambitious peasants, Martin

lated
matricuthe university
of Erfurt in 1501, took his
baccalaureate
degree in 1502 and master's in 1505.
His father designed him for the professionof law,
and he began his legalstudies,but suddenly entered
in July, 1505.
the Augustinian monastery,
He
The

son

at

spiritualstruggle,from
passed through a severe
he emerged with a clear idea of salvation by
He was
chieflyinfluenced by
grace through faith.
the fourth gospel, the epistlesof Paul, and
the
writings of Augustine. He was
appointed professor
of philosophy
berg
in the new
universityof Wittenin 1508, and in 1510 or the year followingmade
memorable
a
journey to Rome, on business of his
order,where he saw at firsthand the corruptionsof
which

After
the papacy.
his return
he received
his
doctor's degree in theology,and
lectured on
the
Scriptures,especiallyon the Psalms and Galatians.
He was
already out of sympathy with the current
Catholic theology,but did not suspect his heresy.
The
preaching of indulgences (q.v.)and their
scandalous
sale near
Wittenberg, by a Dominican
friar named
Tetzel, led Luther to protest to his
superiors in the Church
against the abuse; and,
this proving ineffective,to
theses
95
prepare
against indulgences,which he nailed to the church
Oct.
theses were
door
31, 1517. The
printed
and widely circulated and provoked wide discussion.
accused
of heresy and summoned
Luther
was
by
but by intervention
the pope
to Rome
to answer;
of Elector Frederick,he was
given a hearing before
Cardinal Cajetan in Augsburg (October,1518),as a
he appealed to a general council.
result of which
with John Eck
Six months
later,in a disputation
(q.v.)at Leipzig, Luther denied the divine right
maintained
of the papacy,
that
councils
were
faUible and that the Greek church was
not heretical.
In the following year he published three of his
most
tian
important writings: an Appeal to the ChrisNobility of the German
Nation, in which he
of reformation;
the work
urged princes to undertake
the Babylonian Captivityof the Church, in
which he denied the Roman
doctrine of the sacraments;
and
the Liberty of a Christian Man.
It
evident
had
that
he
was
now
so
entirelybroken
with papal authority and
Catholic doctrine that
his
inevitable.
excommunication
became
The
BuU was
published in Germany Sept. 21, 1520, and
Luther
retorted
by burning the Bull publicly,
Dec. 12.
His summons
to the Diet of Worms
for
formal trial followed.
On his return
he was
home
of Elector
"captured" by servants
Frederick,

(Swiss,AngUcan, Presbyterian,etc.).
Church
The
Lutheran
while it
said to begin with Luther's protest
against the mdulgence traffic in 1517, yet dates as
distinct organization
from the year
a separate and
1526, when the recess (decree)of the first Diet of
Speyer, pending the action of a general council,
granted the various states of Germany sovereign
of religion. After some
futile
rights in matters
attempts to heal the rupture with the Reformed
bitter doctrinal controversy in
Church and much
its own
midst (original
sin,synergism, justification,
good works, crypto-Calvinism,etc.),the Lutheran
fixed its confessional
and definitely
Church finally
standards by the adoption of the Form
of Concord
in the year 1580.
Lutheranism
of the following
century is characterized by what has been called
dead
orthodoxy, from which, however, it was
of the 18th.
awakened
by the Pietistic movement
followed a period of RationaUsm,
century. Then
but the tercentenary of the Reformation
in 1817
showed
an
theology. In
awakening of Lutheran
the same
William
Frederick
of
HI.
Kng
year
Prussia carried out a plan of union between
the
Lutheran
Churches
which provoked
and Reformed
vigorous opposition in some
quarters and resulted
Free
finallyin the formation of several Lutheran
Churches.
The
Church
is dominant
Lutheran
in
introduced
It was
Scandinavia and
Denmark.
into the United
and
States by Dutch, Swedish
German
colonists early in the 17th. century, the
first synodical organization being effected
by
of
stream
Muehlenberg in 1748. A constant
immigration has contributed to the rapid growth
of the Lutheran
Church
in America.
At present the four main bodies of the Lutheran
Church in America are: The General Synod, organized
in 1820 by representatives
from the synods in
North
and
ginia:
VirCarohna,
Pennsylvania,
Maryland
the United Synod of the South, organized in
1865 by five southern synods which separated from
the General
Synod; the General Council which
withdrew
from
the General
Synod in 1864 on
doctrinal grounds; the Synodical Conference,the
largestbody of Lutherans which, originatingfrom
of several
the settlement
in Missouri
in 1837
colonies of Saxons, was
ship
organized under the leaderof Walther
in 1872 by representativesof 6
doctrinal and
synods, which insisted on strictly
I. History.

may

"

be
properly

267

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

confessional
standards.
first three became
The
Lutheran
united (1918) in the United
Church in
America.
The
Church
Lutheran
II. Doctrine.
accepts
the Holy Scripture as the inspired and infaUible
life.
The
of faith and
authority in all matters
two
Luther's
official theological standards
are
burg
catechisms, the Schmalkald Articles; the AugsConfession
and the Apology for the same.
Justification,
i.e.,the imputation by God of the
merits of Christ to the sinner,the latter appropriating
of faith,is the keystone of
them by the medium
Christianity. Good works do not enter into this
the fruits and
as
transaction,but are necessary
Church
the Lutheran
is
evidences of faith. Thus
Catholicism which accepts besides
opposed to Roman
the Scriptures the authority of a large body of
churchly traditionand dogma and has expresslyand
doctrine of
anathematized
the Lutheran
repeatedly
with
the Reformed
Bolifidianism. As
compared
Church in its various branches, it differs mainly in
the followingpoints:
(1) It holds that the sacraments, the eucharist
and baptism, are real channels of grace, not mere
symbols and signs. (2) It believes in the real
the
though rejectingtransubstantiation,
presence,
of the union between the visible elements and
nature
the body and blood of Christ being regarded as an
soluble
inscrutable mystery.
(3) It teaches the indisin
nature
union of the divine and human
of Christ.
the person
(4) It accepts the doctrine
of predestinationto eternal life,but rejectsthe
Calvinistic doctrine of eternal reprobation.
III. Worship.
^According to the Lutheran
view worship consists in the acceptance of God's
This is directlyopposed to the Roman
giftto men.
all worship a
makes
Catholic
position which
trinal
to God.
service rendered
Accordingly, the docsermon
setting forth the riches of God's
place in the Lutheran
grace, occupies the foremost
of the Lord's Supper
service. The administration
is preceded by a preparatoryconfessionalservice and
absolution.
Church
of forms the Lutheran
In the matter
accepts the results of history,so far as these do not
Thus
the
fundamental
conflict with
principles.
Church
Year with its appointed Scripture lessons
for the various Sundays and festivals is,as a rule.
"

"

AND

ETHICS

MacLeod,

Norman

retained,no attempt beingmade, however, to make

such things obligatory.
IV. Organization.
In European countries the
mined
organizationof the Lutheran church is largelydeterwith which it is
by the secular government
connected,such connection resultingin all cases in a
certain restriction of congregationalhberties.
In
America
with its separationof church and state,the
enunciated
tion,
principlesof liberty,
by the Reformahave naturally
resulted in what is called the
synodical organization,in which the congregation
is supreme,
the synod itself being only an advisory
"

body.
In the world there are approximately 70,000,000
Lutherans.
The
Lutheran
Church bodies in the
United States are:

A. KuRINQ
OF."
As the chief city
of Gaul and subsequently the seat of an archbishop,
Lyons was
naturally chosen for many
synods and
councils.
The
most
the General
important were
Councils of 1245 and 1274.
is noted
The
former
for its deposition by the Emperor
Frederick
II.
because of charges brought by Pope Innocent
IV.
latter Council
The
convened
was
by Pope Gregory
X.
It unsuccessfully
attempted to provide for a
Crusade, but reached a certain degree of comity
with the Eastern
Emperor, Michael
Palaelogus,
although no important changes in the relations of
the Eastern
and Latin churches
actually followed.
It also attempted certain reforms within the church,
chief of which
the provision that cardinals
was
should not leave the conclave until they had elected
revoked
a
Although this action was
soon
pope.
by John XXI. it subsequently became
permanent.

LYONS,

COUNCILS

M
evening.") A
(Hebrew: "make
by the Jews for the evening prayer, in
contradistinction to shaharit (morning prayer) and
minha
(afternoonprayer).

term

MA-ARIB.
used

MAAT.

"

"

The

daughter of the

sun

goddess of justice and truth,

god. Re, in Egyptian religion.

gain the goodwill of gentiles. IV

Maccabees,
written in Egypt ca. 38 a.d., is Jewish wisdom,
influenced by Greek
ethics and rhetoric; recites
stories of martyrs (from II Maccabees) to inculcate
C. W. Votaw
faithful adherence
to Judaism.
heretical movement
MACEDONIANISM."
A
called from the leader of the party, Macedonius,
bishop of Constantinople in the 4th. century. Its
distinctive tenet was
that the Holy Spiritwas
a
to and
being similar to the angels, subordinate
Hence
the
subservient to the Father and the Son.
also designated Pneumatomachi.
sect was
so

of a family promiThe name

nent
patriotichistoryin the 2nd. century,
the preferabledesignationof which is Hasmoneans
(q.v.).
MACCABEES."
in Jewish

is a
BOOKS
OF." 7 Maccabees
MACCABEES,
of Palestinian
Jews, 175trustworthy account
135
they forced Syrian-Greek rulers
B.C., when
to grant them
politicaland religiousautonomy.
in Palestine in Hebrew
Written
by a Pharisee
and
national
devout
100 B.C., to maintain
in EgjT^t ca.
// Maccabees, written
Judaism.
of Palestinian
100-50 B.C., gives an inferior account
feasts
Jews, 175-161
B.C.; magnifies the Jewish
/// Maccabees,
and Nicanor's Day.
of Dedication
written in Egypt ca. 100 B.C.
(or 38 a.d.),is Jewish
Judaism and to
to promote devout
didactic fiction,

MURDOCH
(1849ALEXANDER
MACKAY,
1890). Scottish Episcopal Missionary to Africa;
tireless efforts Christianity took
through whose
the Uganda people.
strong foothold among
"

ca.

NORMAN
tish
(1812-1872) .--Scotadvocate
of the liberal
church
leader, an
who became
theology and of social reconstruction,
for his broad
famous
sympathy, his journalistic
and his social and educational accompUshability,

MACLEOD,

ments.

ReUgions

Madagascar,

of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

RELIGIONS
OF."
gest
larThe
island in the world, in the Indian Ocean, off
the S.E. coast of Africa; a French
colony since
The
include a primitive
1896.
religiouscustoms

AND

ETHICS

268

irrelevant or
as
inconclusive.
Hundreds
of current
superstitions
which are without doubt survivals
might be mentioned
of primitive magic, for instance "knocking
of excessive
the consequences
to
avert
fetishism,idolatry,witchcraft,sorcery, divination, wood"
ancestor-worship, sacrifice,propiatory offerings,optimism, the belief in the good luck of horseshoes
of charms
and
and
the use
amulets.
There
is, and in the bad luck of the number
thirteen,and
all sorts of superstitions
howevCT, neither an organized reUgious system,
regardingcharms, amulets,
The
to crops.
signs,and the relation of the moon
temples nor a priesthood. There is a belief in a
alhed to magic
most wide spread modern
being called Andriamanitra
(the Fragrant
superstition
supreme
held certainlyby every other woman,
One) and
Ldnahary (the Creator), Christianity is the belief,
that maternal
introduced
in 1820 by the London
was
missionary
impressions influence the unborn
child in profound ways,
of
to the extent
Society,but 1835-1861
was
even
a
reign of terror and
Since then missionary
changes in the physical
persecutionfor Christians.
producing fundamental
work
structure.
The
relation of this superstitionto
along educational and evangelisticlines has
be readily
been very successful,
and today one-third of the
sympathetic and mimetic
magic may
demonstrated.
populationis Christian. The chief missions are
3. The practiceof magic. Among some
British,Norwegian and French.
peoples,
all persons may
others the rites
use
magic, among
MADONNA.
An ItaUan word, meaning "My
the exclusive
are so complex that they have become
Lady," currently appliedto representationsin art
property of a special class, the magicians or
medicine-men.
Such
sometimes
of the Virgin Mary, usually with the child Jesus.
persons, while
The
Sistine Madonna,
benevolent
tribal functionaries
with
intent,are
by Raphael, is the most
often individualistic and malevolent
in their
famous
of these.
more
workings. Among
some
peoples, the dread of
evil magic seems
MAFTIR."
to be the most
(Hebrew.) The reader of the hafpotent factor in
their fives,
the natives of the Niger valley
tarah (q.v.)in the Synagog.
as among
and
other
African
tribes. The
West
primitive
ST. MARY."
ORDERS
OF
man
MAGDALENE,
ever3rwherebelieves that all deaths,other than
lished
those caused obviouslyby violence,
the result of
are
Designation of several R.C. female orders estabtion
evil magic practicedby an enemy.
at various times and places for the reformatwo
of fallen women.
Frazer
classes magical practices under
forrner
mimetic.
The
heads, sympathetic and
refers to that type which works on the assumption
MAGI.
The
priestly class of the ancient
Zoroastrians.
Persians
and
of the
that what
is once
in contact
with another
Medes
and
thing
but later, remains
in some
sort of mystic relation to it so
guardians of sacred utensils,
Originally
that action of the former affects the latter. Mimetic
because
of claims
to secret
learning,magicians
the
and
jugglers. Used
specificallyto denote
magic refers to those practiceswhich seek effects
Bethlehem
in
of the barren
oriental wise men
who
to
came
by imitating them as in the case
woman's
adoration of the babe Jesus.
fondUng the image of a child. Leuba's
classification is perhaps the most
satisfactoryof
MAGIC.
A term
applied to a wide range and
suggested. He distinguishesthree principles,
any
has
first that of repetition. "Something which
complex variety of beliefs and practices found
is hkely to happen again. A sucall primitivepeoples,the object of which is
cessful
happened once
among
and
will meet
with further success,
the accomplishment of certain ends either by the
arrow
of mysterious powers
which has failed with further failure." Second,
or
use
one
by the coercion of
of an effect from
the principleof the transmission
or
spirits. Magic is co-extensive with, but more
less independent of,religion.
one
object to another, or sympathetic magic.
"An
action takmg place upon
1. Magic in
object wiU take
an
antiquity. Magic is commonly
of today
practiced not only by the natural races
place on another object when the two objects are
of the
connected
with
each
other in the mind
but it reached a high state of development among
all ancient peoples, characteristically
the
magician." This is illustrated by the roasting of
among
classic hterature of Greece
and
to kill him.
Chaldeans.
The
Third, the
an
image of an enemy
well as the Old Testament
contain many
Rome
as
includingcases in which the
principleof will-effort,
references to practices of an
essentiallymagical
magician beheves his will is effective through spells,
It is regarded by Frazer as priorto rehgion
incantations and curses
to bring various results to
order.
King
Irving
and as gradually given up in favor of the more
pass.
of satisfyingdesires by means
effective method
of
CIRCLE.
From
and sacrifices to spiritsor gods. But the
MAGIC
primitivetinaes a
considered
has been
covery circle drawn
about
through any disa
person
apse of magic has not occurred
of
Circles
of supernatural defense.
of its futilityper se; it has tended
to
a
means
have been a real defense in early times
disappear merely as an incident of the general fire may
By
against the prowling dangers of the dark.
development of culture in which attention has been
of ideas, rings, girdles, head-bands
to other methods
turned
of
to other things and
convergence
to keep in
action.
and bracelets acquired a magical power
Magic and rehgion represent two diverse
to
or
keep out spirit influences. In medieval
attitudes,the former mainly though crudely practical,
the latter expressingman's appreciationof the
brought into relation
Europe the magic circle was
often
of life. Magic tends
social values
with
the pseudo-science of astrology, inscribed
more
used
of a private and
than rehgion to be the instrument
with a great variety of mysterious signs and
malevolent purpose.
the ground, as a vantage
on
as a talisman
or, drawn
edge
2. Survivals of magic. ^While the modem
man
point from which safelyto call up and wrest knowldoes not have the interest in magic that the primifrom
tive
spirits.
be confessed that he has
man
does, it must
of the
PAL AXIL"
Master
MAGISTER
SACRI
by no means
gotten rid of the behef in magic. In
fact the non-scientific mind's
curia
Sacred
faith in magic is
officer of the Roman
Palace; an
fronted whose
Conduties are
never
head
disturbed by its failure to "work."
chaplain and theological
the
with a hundred instances disproving
adviser to the pope.
The office dates from
some

MADAGASCAR,

he ignores them
pet superstition,

"

"

"

"

"

f)rayers

"

"

269

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

can,
13th. century and is usuallyoccupiedby a Dominihimself being the first incumbent
St. Dominic
according to tradition.
MATER."

MAGNA

See Cybblb;

Motheb-

GODDESSES.
The hymn of praiseascribed
MAGNIFICAT."
in Luke
1:46-55, so-called from the first
Also known
the Canticle
word
in the Latin.
as
of the Blessed Virgin.
to

Mary

of the
MAHABHARATA."
One
great Epics
of Indian Uterature of 18 books containing 100,000
is the strugglesbetween
The main theme
verses.
for the rule of the
of Bharata
the descendants
It affords a basis for much
coimtry about Delhi.
speculation as well as for reUgious
philosophical
cults,both Krishna-Vai^navism and Saivism finding
here.
The
their roots
Bhagavad Gita (q.v.) is
inserted in the sixth book.

AND

ETHICS

Mandeans

Jewish

thought; and its study in wider circles

exerted no small influence on Christian scholasticism,
and general philosophicspeculation.
Harold
F. Reinhart
A
versy
controCONTROVERSY."
MAJORISTIC
of
the German
Lutherans
originatingamong
the 16th. century, because
Greorg Major (1502the 6th. article of the Augsburg
1574) interpreted
Confession
that
the necessary
good works
are
result of faith in such a way
that opponents accused
him
of the R.C.
doctrine of merit making good
works
salvation.
to
His
thesis was
necessary
cord.
rejectedby the 4th article of the Formula of Con-

OF."
RELIGIONS
An archipelago
in
the largestin the
Pacific and Indian oceans,
world; also a peninsula in S. Asia, stretchingfrom
for three
Burma
to Singapore. Migrations account
periods of religioushistory. The originalMalays

MALAY,

the

animists, practising Shamanism, fetishism,

tude
nature-worship,magic, divination,besides a multiwere

About
for various occasions.
emigrated to Malay and
ago Hindus
superimposed their religion,so that in parts of
MAHATMA."
(Sanskrit:"Great-souled one.']) Malay, Hinduism is the predominant reUgion. The
one
In theosophy and esoteric Buddhism
/who is third period is characterized by the dominance
missions beginningin the 12th.
of Islam,Moslem
an
expert of the firstrank in the realm of reUgion.
century, becoming powerfulin Java and Sumatra
in the 15th. century, and being also influential in
One of the most
important
MAHAVASTU.
tian
and Celebes and on the peninsula. ChrisBorneo
necting
hterature,forming the conpieces of Buddhistic
successful in some
missions have been more
the Hlnaydna and Mahdydna.
Unk between
islands than elsewhere; in Java, e.g., the Dutch
missions have 400,000 converts.
The
last great leader of the
MAHAVIRA.

MAHADEVA."
(q.v.).

"The

Great

God,"

of ceremonials

name

1000

of Shiva

years

"

"

He belonged to a Jain family,contemporary

Jains.
life till his
Uved
the householder
with Gautama;
the austerities of Jain
30th year, then undertook
enlightenment after the
asceticism; attained
requisitetwelve years, preached as a wandering
died at the age of
for thirty years, and
monk

seventy-two.
Great
Vehicle.")
MAHAYANA."
(PaU: "The
the
Buddhism
or
The
designation of Northern
This
second
stage in the history of Buddhism.
represents the popular religionwith the worship of
of
and
deities,the use
Buddhas, Bodhisattvas
images and a ceremonial cult. See HInayana;

MALIKITES."

One
law.

schools of Moslem

of

the

four

orthodox

MAMERTINE
An
ancient
PRISON."
prison
still preserved beneath
the church of St. Giuseppe
fied
dei Falegnami in Rome, which tradition has identiwith the imprisonment of Peter and Paul.
MAMMON.
An Aramaic
term, the etymology
of which
is in doubt, signifyingriches. It occurs
Its popular
in Matt.
16:9-13.
6:24, and Luke
identification with a fallen angel is ascribable to
Milton
{Paradise Lost,I, 678).
"

Buddhism,
MAN.
See Anthropology;
Sociology.
The
one
who, according to Islamic
of Polynesian
A word, possibly
MANA.
origin,
tradition,will be the last Imam, will convert the
world to Islam and be its temporal and spiritual used throughout the Pacific Islands,and denoting
in a sense
immaterial
or
influence,
supraan
power
ruler. The figureis similar to that of the Jewish
ing
title has been claimed
mundane, ascribed to persons and to objectsbehavby several
The
Messiah.
in a
peoples use
See Imam.
striking fashion. Other
figuresin the historyof Islam.
similar idea, as the
various words
to express
a
Jewish
for the
Hebrew
term
IroquoianOrenda, the Algonquin Manitu, the Siouan
MAHZOR.
Wakan, the Madagascar Hasina, the Moroccan
hoUday prayer-book.
Manngur.
Baraka, and the Kabi (Queensland)
MAIMON
MOSES
BEN
or
MAIMONIDES,
An Old Testament
OF."
PRAYER
MANASSES,
(1135-1204). Generally regarded as the greatest
born
apocryphal book which the R.C. church has placed
Jewish
philosopherof all times. He was
the other
exiled along with
as
an
appendix to the Vulgate and does not regard
in
"

MAHDI.

"

"

"

"

Cordova, Spain,

in 1160, spent some

of Cordova
Jews
years in
Fez and other places,and finallysettled in Cairo,
Egypt, where he acquired great fame as a physician
left many
works, chief
and
philosopher.He
prehensive
Torah, being a comwhich are the Mishna
among
code of Jewish law, written in Hebrew;
and the More Nehuchim, written in Arabic (and since
translated into Hebrew, Latin, and the modern
languages). The latter work is in the form of a
of
criticism of Aristotehan
philosophy,by means
idealistic system
formulates
an
the author
which
from
strictly monotheistic view-point. The
a

More

NebuckiTn

ha^ beeft a potent stimulus

to

as

See Canon.

canonical.
MANDEANS.

An Oriental sect of Babylonian

an
ancient,
in race, dating from
Great
"The
Book," their
time.
from the 8th.
extant
comes
treatise,
Syrian dialect. Their beUefs are a
"

origin,Semitic
but

unknown
ancient
century in a
syncretism of Christian,Jewish, Parsi,Babylonian
Their cosmologicalspeculations,
elements.
and pagan
including ideas of an originalabyss, primal
underworld with several
aeons, a demiurge, and an
vestibules and hells,resemble Gnostic cosmological
most

The
speculations.

Old

Testament

saints, Jesus,

Manes

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

270

and

Mohammed
are
portrayed as false prophets
acter
Owing to its essentiallycomprehensive charand John
the Baptist as the true prophet. The
and generally
adaptable nature, Manichaeism
cult includes
and
baptism, a eucharistic meal
spread rapidly in the West as well as in the East.
several feasts. They are
also known
as
Sabians, Persecuted under the Roman Emperors and anathematized
and
St. John's Christian. The
Nasoraeans
sect
Fathers
(especiallySt.
by the- Church
about
2000 Arabic
herents.
today numbers
speaking adAugustine,who was for nine years a Manichaean)
it yieldedultimatelyto Christianityin Europe,
while in the East, outside of Persia proper, where
it never
took root,it lasted,
in Chinese
MANES.
particularly
Ancestral ghosts or souls of the dead.
Turkistan
for nearly a thousand
See Shamanism; Pitbis; FRAVAsms.
years, giving
Manichaeism
place finallyto Mohammedanism.
of the world's lost reUgions.
may be counted as one
MANX.
The founder of the religious
movement
In his ecclesiastical organization Mani
tinguished
disknown
Manichaeism
as
(q.v.) He is said to have
two orders of the initiated: first,
the
been born in Mardinu
215 and to have been crucified
followed
the strict
"Perfect,"or "Elect," who
276.
At twelve years
of age^ he is said to have
ordinances of the faith with rigidausterity
of life
received a revelation which he in the course
of time
and
held in the highest sanctity; second,
were
elaborated into a religion.
the "Hearers,"or
for whom
the rules were
novitiates,
lessexacting. The ascetic element in Manichaeism
MANICHAEISM."
A synthetic religion,
based
was
marked; marriage and all sensual indulgence
Persian
combined
dualism
with
on
Christian, were
the
forbidden, certainly to the initiated,
Buddhistic,and other elements, founded in the
partaking of animal food was
prohibited, and
3rd. century of our
era
by ManI, and called after
there
other
were
rigorous injunctions besides.
his name
though it ceased to exist a number of
Probably the ordinary uninitiated person lived
centuries ago.
much as other peopledo.
The Manichaean
worship
Man! (b. ca. 216 a.d.)was
a Persian by blood.
consisted
chieflyin prayers, thanksgivingsand
His father's liberal tendencies in religion
to
appear
giving,
chants, confessions of sins,frequent fasts,almshave influenced the youth in his zealous purpose of
especiallyto the Perfect, and devotional
eclectic faith which
aimed
at
estabUshing an
at the annual
festival of
gatherings,
particularly
becoming a world religion.Soon after he became
the Bema, "Throne,'' when
Mani's
death
was
of age Mani
himself
the
out
as
promised
commemorated.
gave
Paraclete and appeared as a new
prophet on the
The recent remarkable
finds,made in 1903 and
coronation day of the Sasanian
King, Shahpur I., the years following,of a mass
of Manichaean
March
20, 242. Meeting apparently with favor
in Chinese
Turkistan
have
fragments in Turfan
he was
afterwards banished from the country
at first,
contributed
for our
important material
very
of the
of Manichaeism
by Shahpur,doubtless owing to the intrigues
which was
previously
knowledge
derived m
Magian priesthood. While in exile he travelled
medan
most part from Christian and Mohamextensivelyin India,China, Tibet, and elsewhere,
writers.
A. V. Williams
Jackson
preaching his doctrines and absorbingideas acquired
When
during his wanderings for thirty years.
A
MANIPLE.
liturgical
vestment, being a
silken band
nearlysixty,he returned to Persia but was soon put
ornamented
with three crosses
in the
to death
by Shahpur's grandson, Bahram
and one
and worn
I.,who
at either end
the
center
over
ruled 273-276.
In his prophetic claims
Man!
left forearm
by all who have taken orders from
allowed that Zoroaster,Buddha, and Jesus (from
the subdeacon
upwards. It is commonly used in the
all three of whom
he borrowed
in part
ideas)were
Roman, Greek and Armenian
churches, and often
of truth, but
he declared
that
he
in the AngUcan.
messengers
himself was
the last of the prophets and had brought
MANISM.
^The belief that a p"erson'sspirit
into the world the final fulfillment of light.
inhabits the body in such independence that it can
The
was
philosophicbasis of Manichaeism
exist apart from the body as a "shade" or "ghost."
in a
This
Persian
dualism
pronounced form.
This belief is common
in primitive religionsand
the Kingdom
of
doctrine of the strugglebetween
characterizes much
popular reUgiousthinking in
Light and the Kingdom of Darkness, or the primeval
"

"

"

"

day.
principlesof good and evil,was derived ultimately our own
from ancient Zoroastrianism,but with a number
MANITU.
An Algonquin word
cate
used to indiof
marked
amplifications,modifications, and
the possessionof a superioror magical power.
in which mythology and fancy played
differences,
See Mana;
Wakonda.
It is then
applied to
a striking
part. An elaborate cosmogony describes
spiritsand to any superhuman beings such as
into being,
how, before the physicaluniverse came
"

cosmic powers.
or
the realm of light, totems
the powers
of darkness invaded
which was
form,
In the conflict,
waged in a spiritual
A
bodhisattva associated with
MANJUSRI.
the demoniacal forces succeeded in winning portions
the Buddha
Vairochana, of resplendent hght; he
and
evil
became
cably
inextriof the hght. Thus
good
the revealer and so became
the divine embodiment
was
mixed togetherby the time that the material
of wisdom.
this it was
From
only a step to
Man's
existence.
world was
into
brought
destiny
dhism
identify him with the ultimate Reality, in Budis to be worked
out through a compUcated scheme
with the Adibuddha
in Hinduism
with
(q.v.),
and restoring
for recoveringthe lost lightparticles
in China and Tibet
Brahman.
He is better known
them to their original
abode.
A final conflagration,
than in India.
lasting 1468 years, will destroy the earth and
annihilate the powers
of darkness,which will be
See Mana.
MANNGUR."
relegatedforever to its primordial realm.
Mani
HENRY
EDWARD
adopted into his eclectic system elements
MANNING,
(1807-1892).
also from Christianityof a Gnostic type, certain
^Englishcardinal; was educated at Oxford and
features borrowed
from Buddhism
an
(distinguishable served some
as
Anghcan clergyman.
years
in Eastern Manichaeism), as well as some
Through various influences,including the Oxford
especially
would
be natural
old Babylonian beliefs,which
CathoUcism
Movement, he was converted to Roman
from its early home
in Babylonia, and
possible and was active in supporting the doctrine of papal
He was noted for his interestin social
other traits likewise from outside,
infallibility.
"

"

271

reform, his diplomacy, and

economic

and

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

his

writings.
proUfic
ium
MANTIC.
Magical practisesthrough the medof an alien power, such as in divination (q.v.)
;
hence intermediate between
magic andreUgion.
"

and Buddhist
spoken
MANTRAS.
(1) Hindu
charms
or
spellsaddressed to a superhmnan power
to escape
in order, magically,to acquire benefits,
dangers or disease,or to gain securityfrom spirits
of the original
text of the
and demons; (2)the name
"

Vedas.
MANU.

the founder
of the
law book
The
men.
is fabled to have come
Manavas
law-giverand is called the Code

escaped the

who
of the

Noah

Hindu

^The

"

deluge and became

of
priestlyfamily of
from him as the
ofManu.
race

new

Those
BffiLE,"
THE
OF
MANUSCRIPTS
which
written copies of ancient books
preserved
until the invention of printing,and to the
them
down
to us critical
earhest of which that have come
text.
scholars still turn for lighton the original
scientific
O.T.
A
the
of
I. Manuscripts
ancient and
and collation of all known
examination
has
important manuscripts of the Old Testament
not yet been accomplished. There is no uniformly
ments.
accepted set of symbols to designate these docuTestament
The
more
important Old
manuscripts with their usual designations and
symbols are the following:
Bab.-Cod.
Hebrew.
Prophetanim posteriorum
916 a.d.; Or. 4445
codex Babylonicus Pelropolitanus,
undated
Codex
of Pentateuch
(Ginsburglocates
of entire
it 820-850
A.D.); St. Petersburg Codex
Reuchlinianus,
Old Test., 1008-1010
a.d.; Codex

AND

ETHICS

Marcellinus

number
of uncials has proved to be so great however
that only the more
distinguishedof them are now
cited by letters (Latin, Greek
Hebrew
and one
letter)while by a system recently put forth by
C. R. Gregory in consultation with other scholars,
all the uncials are designatedby numbers
preceded
by 0 (01, 02, etc.). The
leading uncials may
therefore be cited either by number
(01, 02, etc.)
or
by letter (N, A, etc.); the less importantones
most
only (047, 048, etc.). The
jjy number
important New Testament
manuscripts with their
symbols in Gregory's system are the following:the
first three containing also the Old Testament
in
version:
i5 (01)= Codex
the
Septuagint Greek
Sinaiticus;A (02) Codex Alexandrinus;B (03)
Codex
Vaticanus; C (04)= Codex Ephraemi ReBezae
(GospelsActs);
scriptus; D (05)= Codex
Claromontanus
Codex
(Paul); E (07)= Codex
Augiensis; G(011)
Laudianus; F (09)= Codex
Codex
Boernerianus
Wolfii A
(gospels); Codex
script
(Paul); I (016)= the Washington or Freer manuof Paul; L (019) Codex
Regius; R (027)
Codex
Nitriensis;W (032) Washington or Freer
=

A (037)= Codex
Sangallensis;e (038)
Koridethi Gospels; S (042) Codex Rossanensis.

Gospels;

Of the cursive manuscripts the most

important
Basle manuscript of the Gospels, Acts,
l=a
and
Paul, closely related to 118, 131, and 209;
has
Paris manuscript of the Gospels, which
13
a
been shown
by the studies of Ferrar and others to
be closelyrelated in text to 69, 124, 230, 346, 543,
the
as
788, 826, 983, 1689, 1709, which are known
Ferrar
Group; 33 a Paris manuscript of the
Gospels,Acts, and Paul, of great textual excellence;
called by Eichhorn
the Queen of the Cursives.
about
There
ments
fragare
twenty-seven
papyrus
of the Greek
New
Testament
(designated
171.
pi p2 etc.) and the other uncials number
cursive manuscripts of the whole or parts of
The
prioreset posteriores.
"prophetae
St. Petersburg
number
Sinaiticus
the Greek
New
Testament
Codex
GS=
G
Greek:
2326, besides
ings
Alexandrinus
1565 Greek lesson-books containingthe church read(Petrograd); G'*- Codex
from the New
These numbers
Testament.
are
Codex
Gb
Vaticanus
Rome;
British Museum;
discoveries.
To these
increased each year by new
Codex
Gc
Ephraemi Cambridge ; G*' Codex
Codex
Sarravianus; should be added the manuscripts of the versions,
Ambrosianus
Florence; Ga
of the Vulgate Syriac,of great
often as in the case
of
Codex
GHeid
Papyrus" Heidelberg; Gq
Codex
Taurmensis;
antiquity,and in the case of the Vulgate Latin much
Codex
Marchalianus; Gv
than are the Greek manuscripts.
numerous
more
Washington or Freer MS of the Psalms.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
Old Latin:
L
Weingarten Codex of Prophets,
of the
MARA.
The
5th. cent.; Codex
Monacensis, Munich, 5th. and
personal embodiment
of evil in later Hindu
and Buddhist
tion.
specula6th. cent.; PaUmpsest of Genesis and hist, books,
powers
and Prophets,
He is hostile to men,
tempting, deceiving,
Vienna; PaUmpsests of Pentateuch
lead deluded
and
that he may
terrifyingthem
Wurzburg; Oesterley,Codex of Minor Prophets.
in the toils of
and keep them
mortals to death
S=Syriac: Palimpsest of part of Isaiah
of
British
dated (459-460) bibUcal MS"
ignorance and desire. He is the great demon
oldest known
brosianus
AmSh
earthly desire and death.
Museum.
Syro-Hexaplartext: Codex
British Museum.
Milan; Codex Rich
MARANO."
Pentateuch; Codex AmiV
(Spanish:"banned.") The term
Vulgate: Ashburnham
appUed to the Spanish Jews who became formally
atmus
Florence; Codex Complutensis Madrid.
of the
the several Greek
converted
to Christianityin consequence
be added
To these should
"

are:

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

translations

Aq

Field's
Hexapla
Theodotion.
Symmachus ; 9
ings
Englishman, collected the readand almost numberless
MSS
Hebrew

of 694

preserved in

as

Aquila ; S
Kennicott, an

"

in
the results in Oxford
in two foUo volumes.
1776-1780
De
Italian, collected the variant
Rossi, an
and
MSS
and 310 editions,
readings of 732 Hebrew
in 1784-88,
issued his results in four quarto volumes
followed by a supplementary volume in 1798.
Biblical manuscript is a
oldest known
The
at Leiden
containinga Hebrew text of the
papyrus
Decalogue from the 2nd. or 3rd. century a.d.
Ira M. Price
New
Testament
or
the
11. Manuscripts
of
its several parts are usually cited by letters for the
uncial or large-letter
manuscripts, and by numbers
fgr the cursive or small-letter manuscripts. The

editions,and

pubUshed

persecutionsof the 14th. century, but most of whom

remained
secretlyJews.
OF." A conference
COLLOQUY
Protestant
theologians called in 1529
at Marburg in the interests of unanimity between
ally
Eventuand ZwingUan movement.
the Lutheran
drawn
the Articles of Marburg were
up which
unanimity,
stated the doctrines on which there was
and while acknowledging disagreement concerning
sensus
the doctrine of the real presence included what conwas
possibleregarding the Lord's Supper.

MARBURG,

of German

including
signed by ten representatives,
They were
Luther, ZwingU and Melanchthon.
Bishop of Rome, 29"-304.
declares that he lapsed in the Diocletian
persecutionbut repentedand suffered martyrdom
MARCELLINUS."

Tradition

Marcellus

DICTIONARY

MARCELLUS."
The name
of two popes.
Marcellus /."Pope, 308-309.
Marcellus II.
Pope, April 9-30, 1555.
"

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

the sacraments
an
asylum for

and

272

salvation.

Her

Kingdom

ing
was

persecuted Protastants

MARINUS.
The name
of two popes.
Marinus
I. Pope, 882-884; also called Martin
II; a friend of Alfred the Great.
Marinus
II.
Pope, 942-946; also called
Martin
III.
"

MARCELLUS
OF
ANCYRA
(d. ca. 374)."
His insistence
Bishop of Ancyra in Asia Minor,
monotheism
resulted in a ChristologyresembUng
on
condemned
as
Sabellianism
(q.v.). His view was
heretical by the Pope in 380 and the council of
Constantinople!381.

"

"

VAN
MARNIX, PHILIP
(1538-1598)." Dutch
Protestant theologian and statesman;
noted
for
his Calvinistic polemics written againstthe Roman
CathoUc church, the Anabaptists,
and fanatics,
and

The founder of a
MARCIONISM."
within Christianityin the 2nd.
is
for his scholarly work
the
in translations from
century, and the name
by which the movement
Bible into Dutch.
He
known
and condemned
was
a
as
vigorous opponent
heresy.
of Spanish dominion
in the Netherlands.
is thought to have been
Marcion
a
wealthy
to
shipowner from Sinope in Pontus who came
MARONITES."
A Syrian group
At that time he was
Rome
about the year 140 a.d.
located originally
tinctive
disand stilllargelyin the Lebanon
region,forming
already a Christian but he entertained some
ideas which
the Roman
Church.
a semi-independent sect within
proved unpopular with the
Its adherents are widely scattered through Syria and
As a result of
church.
majority in the Roman
its name,
first used
beyond. Its origin and even
opposition he established a separatistmovement
churches
which grew in popularity
until Marcionite
by John of Damascus
are
(q.v.),
quite uncertain.
For
centuries
the
Maronites
to be foimd at various placesin both the West
were
professed Monothelitism (q.v.). They retain certain characteristic
and the East.
By the middle of the 3rd. century
features (Syriachturgy; non-cehbate
had
lower clergy)
Marcionism
begun to decline and by the
in spite of the drift toward
7th. century had completely disappeared.
Rome, begun 1182,
his
of Marcion
about 500,000.
consummated
1445.
The outstanding peculiarity
was
They number
within Christianity.
Henry
H. Walker
objectionto the Old Testament
to him to reveal only a god
This Uterature seemed
JACQUES
(1637-1675)."
MARQUETTE,
tianity
French
Jesuit Missionary to America; well known
and war, while the god of Chrisof anger, jealovisy
Therefore
and kind.
as
a
was
forgiving,
missionaryto the Indians, and as one of the
generous
with Joliet.of the Mississippi.
Marcion
an
explorers,
taught that the god of the Jews was
This
he called the Demiurge.
inferior being whom
had
MARRIAGE.
In the natural history sense, a'
world was
the creation of the Demiurge, who
less durable
union
between
himself been ignorantof the existence of the supreme
male
more
or
and
female lasting till after the birth and rearing of
good god revealed himself
deity. The supreme
offspring. In the ethical sense, a physical,legal,
by sending his son Jesus to earth to redeem men.
pendence and moral union between
and woman,
In his attempt to establish Christianity'sindeman
Uving
in complete community of lifefor the establishment
of
assembled
of Judaism, Marcion
a group
of the family.
Christian writings to be used in place of the Old
In the natural historysense
of the word, marriage
This new
in the Christian services.
Testament
be said to exist among
of the animals
Scriptureconsisted of a revised form of the Gospel
may
many
below man.
See Family.
and ten of Paul's letters (omitting the
of Luke
The
function of marriage in human
society is
Pastorals). On the strength of his conflict with
the Judaizers,Paul was
regarded as the true apostle twofold: (1) to regulatethe relations between the
the vahd
of the new
the relation of the
of Christ and
(2) to determine
interpreter
sexes, and
child to the community.
This latter function is
religion.
often overlooked,
but is quite as important in any
Marcionism
is distinct from
As a movement
scientificconsideration of marriage as the former.
in
himself came
Gnosticism
(q.v.),yet Marcion
all forms of marriage are to be found
with Gnostic
contact
Practically
teaching in Rome, and the
human
in the godhead, a conception
consider the whole
notion of a dualism
beings if we
among
fundamental
to Marcionism, is essentially
a Gnostic
species,although the primitive form of marriage
S. J. Case
to have been that of a simple,pairingmonogidea.
seems
amy.
See
Family.
Whether
such
form
a
as
"commimal"
MARCUS."
or
"group" marriage has ever existed
Pope, Jan. 18-Oct. 7,336.
debated
people has been much
by
among
any
ANTONINUS
AURELIUS
MARCUS
nearest
(121-180). anthropologists and
sociologists. The
and
Stoic philosopher,whose
Roman
approach to this form of marriage is found in
emperor
certain aboriginalAustraUan
tribes where
a
man
poUcy was one of enUghtened government and social
who
takes a wife from a certain group
has sexual
reform.
His knowledge of Christianity
was
meager,
to all of the other women
of that group,
but he persecuted it because it opposed the imperial
access
of them.
A
philosophy. His meditations
although he lives only with one
religionand Greek
similar form is to be seen
in the Punaluan
are
a classic expressionof Stoicism.
family
of the Polynesians, the marriage of a group
of
brothers with a group
of the chief deities of the
of sisters,
One
MARDUK,"
though this form
is rare
the
ancient
even
Polynesians. Setting
Babylonian reUgion (q.v.). As patron
among
aside these exceptionalforms of marriage,the main
to be first in
deity of the city of Babylon, he came
the pantheon. Probably a sun
a
god, he became
marriage may be grouped under the
types of human
heads of polygyny, polyandry, monogamy.
and arbiter of all destinies.
creator
god of fertiUty,
form
of marriage in
Polygyny. ^A common
barbarism
and lower civilization is the union of
NAVARRE
MARGARET
OF
(1492-1549)."
tion
with several women,
and patroness of the Reformaknown
one
man
Queen of Navarre
scientifically
in France; studied philosophyand theologyand
as
polygyny, but popularly called polygamy. It
held
is possiblethat this form of marriage existed to some
views
advanced
regarding doctrine. She
in primitive times, as the gorillaamong
extent
rejected indulgences, confession and prayers to
the saints,
and held the Calvinisticdoctrines regard- the anthropoid apes
practices it. In general.

MARCION,

reform

movement

"

"

"

273

however, it

presupposes

OP

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

tion
considerable accumula-

of

wealth, and is, therefore,relativelyrare

strictly
peoples. It is never generally
among
savage
but is largely
practiced by the whole, population,
confined to the wealthy and ruUng classes,owing

AND

ETHICS

Martyr

correlatives.
Thus, in the clan or totemic stage
of social organization,a man
take a wife outside
must
of his clan or totem-km
group, but usuallymust
within his tribe or in related tribes. Similar
marry
rules are
found
regarding forbidden degrees of
civiUeed peoples. The
main
relationshipamong
difference is that in the clan stage of socialorganization
it is not blood relationship
in our
which
sense
counts, but the form of social organizationitself.
See Family; Divorce; Child-Marriage.

of males and females

to the fact that the number
in any
given population under natural conditions
is approximately equal. In polygynous countries
rarely over 5 per cent of the famiUes are of this
of polygyny are complex. Beside
type. The causes
Charles
the animal instincts of the male, we must
A. Ellwood
placethe
MARS.
A deity in the ancient Roman
value of women
economic
(orwives) as laborers,the
rehgion
in importance to
tion
(q.v.) second
Jupiter only.
militaryhonor of wife capture, and the high valuaof
He was
the patron
in patriarchal times of children.
agricultureand of war.
Polygyny
has been wide-spread among
practicallyall peoples
from the stage of barbarism
MARSHMAN,
JOSHUA
(1768-1837)." EngUsh
up, and several religions,
and
Oriental
such as Mohammedanism
Baptist missionary to India; also an
Mormonism, have
did important service in Biblical
all peoples it
scholar
who
given it exphcit sanction; but among
translation and journahsm.
tends to die out with the coming of the higher
phases of civilization.
of one
HANS
LASSEN
with
imion
woman
MARTENSEN,
(1808-1884)."
Polyandry. The
Danish theologian,
influenced by Hegel and Schleierat
form of marriage found
is a rare
several men
of the
macher.
His theologicalwritings were
persuasive
only in Tibet and in some
presentpractically
The ordinary form
mountainous
expositionsof a philosophy of divine immanence set
regions of India.
of Lutherforth as a more
the older brother takes a wife and then
profound interpretation
is where
brothers into partnership with
admits his younger
of India a nonthe Nairs
him, though among
MARTIN.
The name
of polyandry
exists. The
fraternal form
causes
given to five pop"es.
Martin
I. Pope,
convened
the
to be mainly economic, namely, the difficulty
649-655;
seem
firstLateran council which condemned
Monothehtof one
supporting a family,though scarcityof
man
ism (q.v.),
thus incurringthe enmity of Constans,
in some
regions is apparently also a cause.
women
been a wide-spread form of
resultingin Martin's banishment.
Polyandry has never
II.
Martin
Erroneous
designation of Marinus
species,as the instinctive
marriage in the human
I (q.v.).
jealousyof the male works against it.
III.
union
of one
nus
and one
Martin
Erroneous designation of MariThe
man
Monogamy.
II (q.v.).
has been the prevalent form of rnarriage
woman
Martin
/F." Pope, 1281-1285.
It is so by a biological
all peoplesin all ages.
among
results m
Martin V.
an
equal
Pope, 1417-1431;
published a
necessity of nature, which
social conditions
decree on the finalityof the pope in matters
under normal
of
number
of the sexes
human
in every
society. Besides this biological religion
; arranged concordats with France,England,
endeavored
to end the
there are other manifest social superiorities Italy,Spain and Germany;
reason
form of marriage, such as that
and
of the monogamic
papal schism, and to reunite the eastern
and upchurches.
favorable to the superior care
it is more
bringing western
of children,that it produces affectionsand
that it
MARTIN
OF TOURS,
SAINT
altruistic type; and
of a more
emotions
(ca.316-400)."
Bishop of Tours, France; noted for his zeal in
makes the bonds of the family lifestronger. We may
and
that the monogamic
add
family at its best presents uprooting idolatry, extending monasticism
The
feast in his honor, consuch superior unity and harmony that it is
tinuing
opposing Arianism.
old pagan
is celebrated by the
an
festival,
alone fitted of all the forms of marriage to work in
cultures.
R.C. church
Nov.
He is patron saint of
11.
on
harmony with the higher types of human
France.
See Family.
all peoples,
The Marriage ceremony.
Among
MARTINEAU,
JAMES
(ISOS-IOOO)."EngUsh
as well as civihzed,legalmarriage is usually
savage
which
of ceremony,
form
philosopherand theologian;renowned as a preacher
accompanied by some
union.
of
the
the
and
Reared
sanction
religious
a
Unitarian,he
philosopher.
group
upon
expresses the
is usually of a magical or religious was
This ceremony
an
apologist for a liberal interpretationof
he was
an
idealist,
Christianity. Philosophically
character,though in a few peoples it is apparently
and his writings gave eloquent interpretation
to a
merely social.
type of intuitive but rational mysticism which
Marriage hy capture and by purchase. Among
tribes marriage by capture
exercised considerable influence.
predatory and warhke
of the social
is often common.
Indeed, on account
sionary
HENRY
attached to wife capture it
and military honor
(1781-1812)." Enghsh misMARTYN,
to India and
to be the favorite form of marriage.
sometimes
Orientahst, who during his
comes
whom
short lifetranslated the N.T. into Hindustani,Hindi,
of no
know
We
people, however, among
of
and Persian, besides undertaking other works
wives are
regularlycaptured outside of the tribe.
Manifestly such a social state would be practically translation.
the
though wife capture was
impossible, even
MARTYR."
more
Strictly used for the Christian
sociallyfavored form of marriage. Much
who
suffered death
for his faith,the term
at a later stage of cultural development
(like
common
the idea of property in
wife purchase. When
confessor)designatedalso those who havingsuffered
was
wife purchase became
the
honored
in the church as brave
at its height,
imprisonment were
persons was
As martyrdom
in the world.
soldiers are honored
usual and customary form of marriage.
On
valued as a second baptism (Tertullian,
Among many
peoples was
Exogamy and endogamy.
from marrying
find rules which prevent a man
Baptism, 16) renewing hoUness, martyrs had the
we
and from marrying outside
to intercede for penitent apostates,
saint's privilege
within a certain group
the bishop's disciplinary
These are the so-called rules of
often in conflict with
of another group.
They are almost always power
(Cyprian Ep. 16). On the anniversary
and endogamy.
exogamy
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

DICTIONARY

Martyrology

(Natalis) of the martyr's death,worship

at

and

the grave

his relicswere

supernaturalpower.

OP

was

venerated
Menaorial

as

RELIGION

held
taining
con-

ETHICS

AND

274

Ordinal of phrases granting authority to offer the

sacrifice of the

mass.

The

Royal

Commission

Ecclesiastical DiscipUne (1906) recommended

on

that
toleration for the interpolationof the
no
eye
Communion
Office with "the prayers and ceremonies
belongingto the Canon of the Mass," and for the
R.C.*Church
MARTYROLOGY."
"celebration of the Holy Eucharist with the intent
In
the
a
list of martyrs or saints in the sequence
of their
that there shall be no
conamunicant
except the
also biographical
celebrant."
of which
contain
W. W. Rockwell
anniversaries,some
material.
The Roman
martyrology was
first pubUshed in 1583, though local martyrologies
MATERIALISM."
A form of philosophy which
date back as earlyas the 4th. century.
explainsall existence in terms of physicalprocesses.
Materiahsm
ence,
picturesthe entire realm of existMARUTS.
^The lesser storm
both psychic and physical,as a complex of
gods in Vedic
forces such
to Indra
natural science deals with.
The
as
religion. They are always subordinate
best known
materialists are
the so-called Greek
(q.v.). Though often destructive,their nature is
that of kindly, helpfuland health-givingpowers.
Atomists, the Roman
Lucretius, certain French
Encyclopedists in the 18th. century, and some
Mart.
THE
VIRGIN."
scientists in modern
See Virgin
Biichner
whom
MARY,
times, among
was
influential. Materiahsm
perhaps the most
MASORAH.
dition," rests on
A Hebrew
word meaning "trathe assumption that mental
phenomena
laid down
be reduced
used to designatethe principles
to physical processes.
The retort
can
is easy;
for these very
by the Masorites regarding the form and meaning
are
physical processes
This tradition
of the text of the Old Testament.
known to us only in the form of ideas. Thus ideas
in the Palestinian Schools in the 2nd. century
arose
are
primary facts of experience. See Idealism.
tillthe 15th. century a.d.
Since materiahsm
in volume
must
B.C. and grew
deny the reaUty of spirits,
It deals chieflywith external matters, such as the
it.
reUgious faith necessarily
opposes
into
Gerald
Smith
Birney
grouping of the continuously written letters
COTTON
words, the vocalization of the originallyunvocalMATHER,
(1663-1728.)" American
ized text, the division into verses, chapters, and
zen,
CongregationaUst
; a great preacher,writer,and citiThe
minister of North Church, Boston.
primary
books, and the spelUng of words.
ing
Disapprovof the Masorites
the fixation of a
of the hberal views which had become
was
current at
purpose
standard text.
J. M. Powis
Smith
Harvard
instrumental
in securing
College,he was
from Elihu Yale a giftto the collegein Connecticut
MASS.
Yale.
His belief in witchcraft
(Late Latin, missa.) Denotes
marilyafterwards named
prientire
the Latin eucharistic hturgy. The
led him to take an active part in prosecuting
the
service is named
from two
episodes,the dismissal
allegedSalem witches.
of
not
the
catechumens
who
were
{missa)
(q.v.),
of the
allowed to be present at the consecration
INCREASE
can
MATHER,
(1639-1723)." Amerieucharist,and the dismissal of the faithful by the
congregational preacher and scholar, father
formula Ite,missa est (Go, it is the dismissal).
of Cotton
Mather
(q.v.),a splendid preacher
of
1. Varieties. To comprehend the structure
and
ardent
student.
He
an
vigorously opposed
the mass one must study the unabridged form called
the attempted restrictions on
colonial freedom
II. of England.
operation attempted by James
He was
also
(missa solemnis),which requiresthe cohigh mass
of at least three clergy,who
function as
leader in political
and educational affairs,
a
being
for a short time presidentof Harvard.
respectively. When
deacon, and subdeacon
priestj
there is only one clergyman it is possibleto celebrate
GEORGE
merely the shorter and simpler form called low mass.
tish
MATHESON,
(1842-1906)." Scotclassified also by their intention as
Masses
are
theologian and hymn writer; blind from his
20th. year, a hberal and spiritually
minded
logian.
theonuptialmasses, requiem masses, etc.
The
be divided into
2. Divisions.
His best known
mass
may
hymn is "O love that
wilt not let me go."
forty-onerubrics,of which the first eighteen form
the Order of the Mass, and the rest the Canon
of the
Bells mark
Mass.
the
MATIN."
In the R.C.
high points of devotion:
liturgy,one of the
Sanctus
canonical hours of the breviary,originally
said at
(at the close of the Preface),the elevation
of the Host, the elevation of the chahce,the comAlso used to
at dawn.
munion.
midnight, but sometimes
denote
in the AngUcan church.
morning prayers
church teaches that the
3. Effects.The Roman
In the pluralthe word denotes the musical arrangement
is the sacrifice of the body and blood of Jesus
of the service or morning songs.
mass
the
that
of
the
same
as
Christ,substantially
cross,
of that sacrifice
and a representationor renewal
MATTER.
In the Aristotelian sense
is
matter
offered
God
in
to
order to
indeterminate stuff that develops into the individual
yet bloodless. It is
him, and to obtain
It is the
honor, to thank, to propitiate
thing and thus attains form.
It benefits the entire church, but more
tion
underlying or substratum, which in its pure condigraces.
the faithful who
the celebrant and
is without realityand so not knowable.
It is
particularly
"assist" (stand by devoutly), also those for whom
the possibihtyof the object. Aristotle's controUing
the mass
is intended,be they livingor dead.
conceptionwas that of biological
development. The
first precept
The
seed was
4. Compulsory attendance.
the matter
which
developed into the
church requiresthe hearing of mass
of the Roman
plant. The wood or the marble was matter which
took on the form which
the artist gave
it. Thus
on
Sundays and other holy days of obhgation.
Reformers
altered
what
5. Protestant attitvde. The
was
a
developed thing, reaUzed
matter,
the liturgy,abolished private masses,
and attacked
could be regarded as itself matter
to be developed
the doctrine of the sacrificeof the mass
as containing
into another object,the form
the essence
of
was
the thing, the matter
its possibility.The
tinction
disdangerous deceits"
"blasphemous fables and
art, 31). In assailingthe
of the spiritual
soul which was
(Thirty-nine Articles,
a separable
versialists substance
controfrom the body and thus different from
validity of Anglican ordination, Roman
have
its form introduced a serious complicationinto the
pointed to the omission in the
accounts

on
reports of magistrates or
usually enriched by legend.

abound, based
witnesses,but

there be

"

"

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"

275

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Medicine

Men

but the leader eventually

tion
encountered
of this complicasuspicionand
A. V. Williams
was
science of dynamics
Jackson
and the growth of the new
put to death.
in the formulation of Gahleo and his followers arose
MAZ^AH
(plural:
Hebrew
for
term
mazzot).
indifferent matterthat
the conception of an
was
unleavened bread,used especially
by the Jews on
regarded simply from the standpointsof its motion
Passover.
What
had constituted the nature of
and its mass.
form
and
the Aristotelian matter
passed largely
McALL
MISSION
undenominational
."An
into the object of sensation and thought, that was
estabUshed
evangelical mission
French
among
conceived
of as
existing in consciousness,while
free-thinkers by Robert Whitaker
McAll
in Paris in
without lay a matter
occupying space and moving
in Great
1872, and
supported by Protestants
in space
and
responsiblefor the
time, that was
Britain,America, Europe and South Africa.
The
ment
developsensuous
experiences.
philosophic
and the
of this appeared in Cartesianism
ALEXANDER
McLAREN,
(1826-1910)."
English
The
that of DesCartes.
systems which succeeded
and
Baptist pulpit orator
exegete, whose
relation of such a matter
to experience and specially writingsare voluminous.
to man's
knowledge has afforded a central
MEAN.
An
intermediate
between
two
problem of later philosophy. As independent of
Aristotle applied the
and
extremes.
experience Kant called it a "thing-in-itself"
conception to
unknowable
though a postulate of experience. ethics,definingvirtue as moderation
avoiding both
and defects.
In Chinese thought a similat
excesses
In so far as it was
spatialand temporal he called it a
made
appMcation was
by Tzu Ssu (5th. centuiy
synthesisof certain sensuous
experiencesunder the
of the sensibihty and
forms
the understanding.
B.C.) in his "Doctrine of the Mean," virtue consisting
in equiUbrium and
distinction called
the
dhistic
Mill making much
same
harmony. In Budhterature
the
of
sensation.
the
same
matter
emphasis appears in the
permanent possibiUty
considered
Post-Kantian
ideaUsm
matter
an
early noble eightfoldmiddle path.
stage in the development of the idea. The modern
MECCA.
A cityof Arabia, the reUgious capital
physicalsciences uninterested in the philosophical
of Islam.
All moslems
turn toward
it in their
problems they had aroused have continued to regard
and at least once
in their life are
daily prayers
in motion, and
have
matter
sought to
as
mass
to its holyshrine,
expected to make the pilgrimage
explain all material phenomena in terms of these
the Kaaba
(q.v.).
George
H. Mead
two
Scholastic Aristotelianism. Out

"

"

"

conceptions.

MECHANISM.^A
philosophical interpretation
MATTHEW."
One of Jesus' twelve apostles,
of all realityin terms of a system of physically
collector.
also called Levi, described
tax
as
a
determined
thus
real
sequences,
excluding any
is traditionallyassociated with
the
His
name
freedom
divine activity.
or
placefor either human
authorshipof the first Gosf"el.
Mechanism
employs the categoriesof physical
science as all-sufficient,
and attempts to bring the
THURSDAY."
The
MAUNDY
Thursday preceding
of life and
movements
of consciousness
within
Good Friday. Also called Holy Thursday.
of exact
the scope
causation.
Objection to this
philosophy arises on scientific grounds because its
DENISON
FREDERICK
JOHN
MAURICE,
primary assumption tends to substitute reasoning
(1805-1872). ^Enghsh theologian and writer, a
analogy on the basis of physical formulas
of strong character and independent theological from
man
for an
impartial observation of facts; and on
controversies.
He
thinking,which led to many
of its virtual
religiousand moral grounds because
of the leaders of Christian Sociahsm, an
one
was
activities. See Naturalism
tianity ehmination of spiritual
a
appUcation of Chrisattempt to make
practical
;
Law.
Materialism; Natural
to social needs.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
MAURISTS."
A congregation of French BeneMECHITARISTS."
A
dictines,
R.C.
religiousorder of
for their critical editions of the
famed
for the
Armenians, founded in 1712 by Mechitar
of uniting the Armenian
and
writings of church fathers,their contributions to
Roman
purpose
ecclesiastical history and
other
Churches.
hterature; so
They adopted the rule of St. Benedict
designated from Maurus, a discipleof Benedict
(q.v.). Their abbeys at Venice and Vienna have
tradition credits with the introduction of
whom
made
some
contributions to Christian
very scholarly
the Benedictine rule into France.
hterature.
"

MAYA.

literature the word

It later takes
the
on
power.
In
meaning of illusion produced by such power.
the Upanishads it is used to des6ribe the unrealityof
world.
Its meaning was
fixed
the phenomenal
the illusion of the
for India by the
Veddnta
as
realityof the multiform external world caused by
failure to reahze that the only real is the One,
a
Brahman, with which the self is identical.
means

"

In

early Vedic

magical

MEDALS,
R.C.

church

"

See

Pbbsia, Religions

qv,

MAZDAK
(d. 528 or 529 a.d.)."A Persian
heretical leader who
founded, at the beginning of
the 6th. century a.d., a socialistic and communistic
movement
resembhng the modern
sect,somewhat
because marked
of Bolshevism, but differing
by a
The heresy is known
stronglyreligiouscharacter.
and
its followers
called
were
as
Mazdakism,
Mazdakites.
siderable
conRoyal favor gave the movement
be traced
impetus for a while, as can
in the reign of the Sasanian king Kobad,
historically
^

Medals
persons

used in the

(e.g.,the
Virgin Mary, Christ,or the Saints),places (e.g.,
shrines,or places of pilgrimage),historical events
ments
(e.g.,
dedications,miracles,etc.),personal achieve(e.g.,ordination). Christian behefs and
the Lord's Supper),or as symbols of
practises(e.g.,
rehgious associations.
MEDICINE

MAZDAISM.

DEVOTIONAL."
to

commemorate

MEN."

The

term

"Medicine

Man"

is

and
applied most
frequently to the shamans
Indian tribes,especiallyto
priestsof the American
those of North
America.
As a matter
of fact the
character and status of the Medicine
Man
varies
greatly with the tribe and the cultural level of its
people. In the ruder tribes,he is a true shaman, a
conjurer,exerciser,and magician, with no other
to impressgive him.
status than his powers
Among
the more
advanced
Indians,he is commonly either
(1) a doctor,having knowledge of herbs and other
well as supernatural aids,or
natural remedies
as
of a Medicine
(2) a member
Society,having both

Medina

DICTIONARY

OF

physical giftsto offer its members,

he has attained the rank of a leader,
or
(3)a priest,
chargedwith the hereditaryrites-and
of the tribe. In certain cases,
ceremonies
the
Medicine
Men
leaders known
as
by the whites have
the Indian
from
been
point of view religious
prophets,and not infrequently they have done
much for the improvement of their fellow tribesmen,
giving a loftier conception of Ufe and its duties.
of the
called the "medicine"
is commonly
What
Indian is rather in the nature of a fetish or tahsman,
representedby the group of objects carried in the
the "medicine
"medicine
or
bag" of the individual,
of the tribe or society. Such "medicine"
bundle"
is personalproperty, acquired by fasting,vision,
socialproperty,handed down from
or adventure,or
It has no direct relation
one
generationto another.
to the "Medicine
Man," except as he may JDeits
spiritualand
which

within

keeper
of his

or

own.

spellsor

have
(as he
"Medicine

usually does)

songs"are

ceremoniallyused.

songs

AND

RELIGION

"medicine"

in the nature of
As in very many

rituafathe curative and spiritually

ening
strengthinfluences are important ends of the ceremony
to be associated with
the term "medicine" has come
"medicine"
of ways
in a multitude
them
dance,
H. B. Alexajider
"medicine" lodge,etc.

ETHICS

276

Communes, a compendium of Lutheran

theology.
He drew up the Augsburg Confession
(1530),but
his later changes in its text disruptedthe Lutherans.
See
At
Crypto-Calvinism; Synergism.
burg
Augsand
later at Regensburg (1541), he made
unsuccessful
about
union
of
attempts to bring
Lutherans
and the Romanists.
Melanchthon
was
and a man
a great scholar
of many
amiable traits,
of more
cathohc
spiritand milder temper than
but
with less gifts for leadership and
Luther's,
inveterate tendency to compromise that more
an
than once
nearly wrecked the Lutheran party,
Henry
C. Vedder
MELCHIADES."
Pope, 310-314.
MELCHITES."

The

appUed in the 5th.

creeds adopted at
Ephesus and Chalcedon,condemning Nestorianism.
These
creeds were
sanctioned
by the Byzantine
century

emperor,

to

name

supporters of the

whence

the

name

which
Melchites,

mean

royahsts.

Indian

"

in Central Arabia which

Mohammed
fled
into
came
prominence when
he
Here
at Mecca.
the persecution
there from
after
his politicalcapital and
established
even
ate
Islam had become
a world
power under his immedistillthe center of authority.
it was
successors
it lost importance
With
the rise of the Umayyads
and is now
chieflyreverenced by Moslems as the
of the Prophet.
location of the tomb

MEDINA.

"

MELIORISM."

The
beUef that the world is
is actuallygrowing better. This
tenable
than
either optimism or
advocated
James.
It
by WilUam
ethical interpretation
common
of the conception
of evolution.

improvable or
view, as mpre
pessimism, was
is

town

MELITO."
Christian
Bishop of Sardis and
author in the 2nd. century, who defended orthodoxy
and apostohc tradition.
Only a few fragments of
his works
remain, one of which contains the first
Christian Ust of the O.T, books.
ANDREW
MELVILLE,
(1545-1622)." Scottish
Presbyteriandivine and organizerof higher education
in Scotland; struggledin behalf of Presbyteri-

In
a
rehgious sense, contemplation
anism
in Scotland
and
secured the settlement
of
having for its aim the strengtheningof
is still the charter of hberty of the
1592 which
of
correction
moral
or
one's life
an
by
experience
by
Church
of Scotland.
He
endured
persecution,
with God.
For the Christian
closer communion
banishment
incarceration,and
by King James
Devotion.
It
occupies a large because of his
emphasis, see
attitude.
uncompromising
of happiness as dhyana,
place in the Hindu
way
and in the Buddhist
rightpath of hfe as jhana.
MEMENTO.
The name
of two
in the
MEDITATION.

"

prayers

"

MEEKNESS.

"

ing
quahty of enduring suffering
involvdoing, sometimes
wrong
in preferenceto opposing one's
The

in preferenceto
non-resistance
interests to those of others.
own
exalted as a Christian virtue.

It

has

been

term
"scrolls.") A
Song of Songs,
Esther,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes,and
which are read in the Synagog on Passover,Pentaively.
cost. Ninth of Ab, Tabernacles, and Purim respect-

MEGELLOT."
used by the Jews

(Hebrew:

for the five scrolls:

of the mass
in which
livingand the dead.
canon

mention

MEMRA.
^A Hebrew
term
creative and ordering "word"
of
in the Septuagint by the word
"

is made

of the

signifyingthe
lated
transYahweh;
Logos (q.v.).

THE."
The
MEN,
religious leaders of the
Gaehc-speaking Scottish people during the 17th. and
called because they were
18th. centuries,
so
laymen

and

not

ordained ministers.

GOD."
The self-designation
of a sect
who
beUeve
they alone worship God
aright,and who practisea rehgious dance in which
is an incident.
Hence
others call them
flagellation
"Flagellants" or "Khlysti." They also practise
rigorous asceticism and secrecy, and have many
"Christs."
See Russian
Sects.
MEN

OF

of Russians

ME*iR. Influential Jewish rabbi, in the 2nd.

wise sayings and proverbs
whose
a.d.
"

century

gained wide currency.

^A Hebrew
MEKELTA.
book of Exodus, dating from
"

the
commentary on
the 3rd. century a.d.

The breviaryof the later Greek

contains the hymns and prayers for
festivals and short biographies
all church
of the
martyrs and saints.
MENAION."

PHILIP
(1497-1560)."
MELANCHTHON,
versity
(True name, Schwarzerd.) Educated at the Unirefused the
he was
of Heidelberg, where
of his youth,
Master's degree in 15-12,on account
his edition of Terence
he went
to Tiibtngen,where
him a call
(1518) won
(1516) and Greek grammar
of
to the University of Wittenberg as Professor
as
Greek.
a
He
soon
gained European fame
the friend of
Greek scholar and Humanist, became
Luther and married Katherine
Krupp, daughter of
to
the burgomaster. By his writingshe did much
promote the Reformation, especiallyhis Lod.

church which

MENCIUS

MANG-TSZE
(d. 289 b.c.)."
second in importance only
"the philosopher Mang,
as
degree." He insisted that the
sage of the second
right to rule is conditioned on a benevolent and
righteous purpose on the part of the ruler,and
laid down
the essentials of a rightly governed
of.
society. See China, Religions
or

Chinese ethical teacher

to Confucius; known

277

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

MOSES
MENDELSSOHN,
(1729-1786)."
philosopher,a collaborator with Lessing,
of broad
man
sympathy and toleration who
a
worked
ardently for Jewish
emancipation. He
like Lessing attempted a positiveappreciation of
and thus promoted the concepdifferent religions,
tion
Jewish

of tolerance.

AND

ETHICS

Mercy

existence.
confined
They have, however, been
almost wholly to Dutch
and German
nationaUties.
In 1683, at the invitation of WilUam
Penn, some
German
Mennonites
settled at
Germantown,
and German,
Pennsylvania. Others, both Dutch
followed,and since 1871 many
German-speaking
Mennonites
have
from Russia and settled
come
in the Northwest.
But from whatever
source
they
come
German.
they have remained essentially
In
the U.S. there are
16 different Mennonite
bodies,
numbering
(1919) 82,722. The
largest bodies
the Old Mennonite
Church
are
(34,965),and the
Conference
of Mennonites
General
portant
(15,407). Imof denominational
centers
interest are
Scottdale, Pa., and
Elkhart, Ind. They
are
still numerous
in Holland
where
they have been
found in various parts of
most influentialand are
Germany and Switzerland. Through the centuries
and non-resisting;
over,
morethey have been quietistic
since the early years
of their history they
Uttle aggressiveness until recently,
shown
have
when
there has been
decidedly more
missionary
W. J. McGlothlin
and evangelistic
activity.

MENDICANT
MENDICANT
MONKS,
12th. century
ORDERS.
In the
a
passionate
reaction against the wealth and worldliness of the
Church
roused
who
of Brescia
was
by Arnold
preached reform by return to the poverty of ApostoUc days. EvangeUcal Poverty, Apostolic Life
less
or
more
gospel generated movements
as
a new
sacerdotal
church
alien to
the
(Waldensians,
and
St.
HumlUates) and through St. Dominic
the inspiration
of new
Francis of Assisi became
orders controlled by the church.
These
to
were
with the blessingof poverty, having
make
earnest
no
possessionsas individuals or as an order,Uving
cant
Hence
the Mendiby incidental labor or by alms.
Orders of the Dominicans
(1216),Franciscans
(1245), Augustinian Hermits
(1223), CarmeUtes
MENOLOGION."
In the Greek church a book
the
(1256). The history of these orders shows
giving the festivals in honor of martyrs and saints
impossibilityof perpetuating the first ideal of
disinterestedness
regarding the
and
spiritualfreedom
through together with brief information
Calenone
honored; the equivalentof the Roman
The
rule has been relaxed
dependence on alms.
darium and Martyrologium.
or
(Dominicans 1475) aboUshed.
Mendicancy
found entrance
into orders not originally
pledged
MENORAH."
term
("Candlestick.")Hebrew
to it (Trinitarians,
Mercedarians, Servites) and
used by the Jews to designatethe holy candelabra
under other names
feature of groups
which
was
a
ritual.
used in the Synagog and in the home
used the rule of the Augustinian Hermits.
Such
the Order of St. Jerome
were
(1374),the Ordo MiniSee Psychotherapt.
MENTAL
HEALING."
morum
(Minims) founded by Francis of Paola (1460),
and the Fratres Apostolorum, Brothers of Mercy.
MENTAL
RESERVATION."
In casuistry,an
F. A. Christie
unspoken qualificationof a statepaent, which
SIMONS."
See Mennonites.
MENNO
"

alters,partiallyor completely, the' meaning as

grasped
by the hearer, the intention being to
MENNONITES."
A small body of evangelical
ally
occasiondeceive.
Ethically,such deception may
Christians numbering some
250,000 souls found in
be defensible
(as when
complete frankness
Russia, Switzerland, Germany,
Holland, and
might endanger the life of a person); but the
from Menno
Simons.
America, taking their name
moral
Pascal
danger of the practise is evident.
born at Witmarsum,
Menno
(1492-1559) was
of such casuistry.
exposed the excesses
vigorously
Friesland,and received a fairlygood education.
and from 1531 to 1536
He became
a priestin 1516
THEOLOGY."
A school of
MERCERSBURG
officiated in his own
town.
In the latter year he
theology centering about the theologicalseminary
converted
to evangeficalviews by a prolonged
was
Reformed
at Mercersburg,
of the German
church
braced
study of the Bible, and almost immediately emPa., Philip Schaff (q.v.)being one of the leaders.
the Anabaptist position(q.v.). The catastrophe
school attempted to vitalize the somewhat
The
of the Miinster Kingdom had left that body
formal
and
then current
by an
rigid Calvinism
of his
in ruins, and
Menno
spent the remainder
evangelicaluse of a Christocentric ideal in theology,
life in rehabilitatingand
spreading that cause.
of
thus introducinga more
mystical interpretation
and all connection
Repudiating the Anabaptist name
certain important doctrines.
his followers gradually came
with the Miinsterites,
of their
Mennonites
from the name
to be known
as
places
MERCURY.
A Roman
god of roads, marketnotable leader.
most
wealth.
and
When
the secluded
city of
Their
those of their
peculiar doctrines were
Rome
was
opened to the outer world of trade this
in with the
Anabaptist predecessors a
church, god, reallythe Greek Hermes, came
regenerate
the
on
head, new
life interests.
faith-baptismby pouring water
and separation between
freedom
church
religious
and state, rigid church
MERCY.
An attitude of forgivinghelpfulness
disciphne,refusal to take
hold civil office. Church
because of wrong-doing deserves
the oath, bear arms
towards
who
or
one
carried to absurd
disciphne was
extremes, causing rebuke and punishment.
Their pohty was
much
strife and division.
Mercy can be exercised only by one who has
gational,
congreIt thus differs
and
their Christology was
to condemn
to punishment.
pecuhar in power
be felt by every
that it held the body of Christ to be from heaven.
from pity or sympathy, which may
for the punishin which
Menno
the distracts
tinguishing
wrote
ment
numerous
one.
Mercy consists in substituting
of the party were
set forth
demanded
tenets
by strict justicean opportunity
"

"

"

with fulness and

wearisome
reiteration.
Several
confessions of faith were
drawn
up in the latter
part of the 16th. and the early part of the 17th.
centuries in the Dutch, one
of which, composed in
1632,is stillcirculated in EngHsh.
Owing to their radical religiousand social
views they were
bitterlyassailed and sometimes
but managed to maintain their
severelypersecuted,

cordial social relations.

for the offender to resume
It involves forgiveness(q.v.)and either mitigation
aboHtion
of punishment.
or
Mohammedan
ology,
theIn Jewish, Christian, and
is fundanaental.
It
of God
the
mercy
for restoringa sinner to a
makes
divine provision
religiouslife. In Christianity,the divine mercy
and made
effective
is declared
to be revealed

Mercy, Sisters

of

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

through the atoningdeath of Christ,which reconciles

of justicewith the purpose
of
the demands

AND

ETHICS

278

for their ideals.

accounts
misfortune
to depend upon
awaited the
they increasingly'
the representativeand agent

Forced
by political
the aid of Yahweh,
insisted
mercifulness
Jesus
in
on
who should be
men
mercy.
person
of their appreciationof God's mercy.
of the divine deliverance.
as a mark
Since mercy
the ethical superiority
Yet, strictly
speaking,the hope for a Messiah
presupposes
is not to be identifiedwith the general hope of a
of the one
be taken
who
exercises it,care
must
of
divine
deUverance
is frequently called
which
not to permit it to excuse
a pharisaicretention
is not considered
Messianic. It is only in the later prophets that
aristocraticprivilege. If mercy
the individual savior becomes
more,
ethicallyobhgatory,if it is a purely optionalact of
apparent. Furtherhumanized,
must
character of the superior is deone
distinguishbetween the hope held
grace, the moral
in certain periods of Hebrew
and mercy
is scarcely distinguishable
pretation
historyand the interfrom
favoritism.
Calvinistic
Extreme
tations
interpregiven thereto by later biblical writers. It
ness:
is doubtful whether our critical knowledge will ever
to this criticism. See Forgiveare
open
Smith
Atonement.
Gerald Birney
permit us to trace with strict historical accuracy
the hope of the Messiah.
O*"."The designation of
1. In general,
SISTERS
however, it is possibleto see in
MERCY,
Hebrew
various R.C. female congregations,
organizedfor the
historya development of the thotightof
divine intervention. Thus
there seems
and protection of destitute and unfortunate
to be no
care
expectation of a deliverer in the periodof Elijah
orphans, the sick,the poor, and those in
women,
schools.
and Elisha but rather a belief that Yahweh
distress. They also maintain
would
They are
for the nation
active in Great Britain,Ireland,the United States, care
through ordinary historical
The same
AustraUa
and France.
also be said of the later
processes.
may
prophets although national hopes are sometimes
ing
deservtranslated into personal analogies
MERIT.
^A character or achievement
or
even
personal
In religion,
experiences. In these later prophecies reference
good works which
praiseor reward.
entitle
is
the
and
made
to
to
one
the divine approval,
secure
some
occasionally
personality.
Isaiah (7: 10-17) speaks of national punishment
blessingsof salvation.
as
The conception of merit is an emphasis on the
before a
being so imminent that it would come
child about to be conceived should be able to choose
to magical
moral quality of salvation,in contrast
between
It receives especialpromito be
nence
good and evil. But this child was
or sacramental ideas.
named
Immanuel
when
rehgion is conceived as a probation on
("God with us") as evidence that
Yahweh
would
be present as a national savior.
earth with a final judgment to determine one's
to be
was
a
destiny in after Ufe. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, In other prophecies the dehverer
have
well
descendant
of David who should establish Yahweh's
Mohammedanism
and
Christianity,
It is
4:1-3 even
people as his kingdom. Micah
more
developed doctrines of merit and reward.
locates the seat of the new
explicitly
kingdom in
easy to interpretthe idea of merit superficially,
of
Zion.
conventional
that rehgion appears as a
so
system
divine
2. Other elements of the later messianic
which
duties
secure
approval. Against
hope
to be lacking in the Old Testament, except as
such interpretations
seem
Paul, Augustine,and Luther
they are discovered by reading back into certain
protested.
ideas derived from the
salvation is clearly Old Testament
Cathohcism
In
Roman
expressions,
Two
kinds of
defined as a moral reward for merit.
experience of Jesus. "Servant of Yahweh"
may
merit are recognized,merit de condigno,where the
possibly be interpretedas an individual but the
Jewish writers seem
to the achievement;
not to have so held.
reward is exactlyproportioned
According
of the
to the ordinary rabbinical interpretationof Isa.,
and merit de congruo, where the benevolence
in
obhga- chap.53, the Servant represents a nation suffering
tory.
judge grants a largerreward than is strictly
behalf of itselfand the world at large.
in a state of nature
so live as to
No man
can
be given by
Grace
The
merit salvation.
(q.v.)must
expectation of the restoration of the
Davidic
five meritoriously. By
house and the Davidic
to
enable
God
to
man
kingdom appears
vividlyin later Psalms but the expectationis that of
extraordinaryconsecration,a few saints have been
leader.
than was
able to do more
a
required,and their
strictly
righteousking rather than of a religious
tion
surplusvirtue is conserved in a "treasuryof merits," Almost without exception,references to a resurrecthe direction of the church.
in the O.T. refer to the national restoration
to be dispensed under
of the individuals
rather than to the dehverance
Christ's passion and death are viewed as a divinely
from death.
Christians are
efficacious work of supererogation.
Martin
Luther
It should be added that Christian teachers have
saved by the "merits of Christ."
found propheciesof Jesus Christ running with
protestedagainstthe conceptionof earningsalvation
Such
by merit, and Protestant theology,while retaining increasing clearness throughout the O.T.
the phrase "merits of Christ," refuses to ascribe
interpretations,
however, are largely the outcome
efforts.
of the Christian religionand in many
cases
are
saving value to human
any
Gerald
Birney
fanciful. In a true sense, however, Jesus fulfilled
Smith
mentioned
in
the noblest aspirationsof the prophets,although
A mythical mountain
MERU.
nationalist sense.
not in any
the Hindu epicsas the residence of the gods and the
II. The
Messiah
Judaism.
^The hope of
op
central pillarof the earth.
became
a
coming divine deUverer
particularly
nation
after its complete
ManiMESSALIANS.^ee
Euchites; New
strong in the Jewish
subjectionby the Syrian rulers. The persecution
CHAEANS.
of Antiochus
Epiphanes. disclosed the intimate
In Jewish
politicalindependence and
MESSIAH
relationshipbetween
(Greek CHRISTOS)."
the worship of Yahweh.
and
Christian belief,the one
empowered
Especiallyfrom 175 B.C.
anointed, i.e.,
active. Speaking generally,
did such a hope become
by God's resident spirit to deliver his
it found two forms of expression:
people and to establish his kingdom.
foretell saviors
1. Revolutionarymessianists believed that the
While
other religionshave
or
kingdom could be established by the direct action
(q.v.),Messiah is a term properly used only in a
to have had
of revolt and war.
Jewish and Christian sense.
They do not seem
The
in mind
Old Testament.
specificindividual as a leader but
I. The Messiah
the
of
any
would disclose such
doubtless hoped that Yahweh
people to no small degree
historyof the Hebrew
_

"

"

"

"

279

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

Metamorphosis

is to say, in so
That
The influence of these social and political dignityof the Messiah.
one.
far as we
his actual conceptions,his
in the revolt of 66-70 as well
recover
be seen
can
radicals can
rather than the
Hadrian.
approach was from the apocalyptic
as in that under
ance
less
no
revolutionary messianic hope. But the deliver2. The
apocalypticmessianic hope was
he wrought is a deliverance from fear,doubt,
national than that already described,but expressed
ill-wiU and
of the apocalypses. See
itself in the occult terms
immorality. The kingdom which he
to join as that to be established by the
As a result it magniLiterature.
Apocalyptic
urged men
fied
of God
pretation Christ was
a kingdom of sons
possessedof
supernatural elements although a fair interthat is of fraternityand
moral likeness to God
such
would
that
undoubtedly show
its epitome and symbol.
the absence of
justice. He himself was
supernaturalismby no means
argues
for
To induce men
to prepare
militarystruggle. At all events, the apocalyptists See Son of Man.
faith and
the
this kingdom by repentance and
of a definite kingdom and
expectedthe appearance
in most cases
practiceof love might be said to be his own conception
(cf Enoch and the Psalms ofSolomon)
of his messianic mission during his period of
a king (Messiah)
of
those
possessed of
it not for the importance made
of these
Were
teaching. The community
would be the Kingdom of God which
such qualities
analogiesand symbols by the earlychurch, it would
Later he set himself
found upon earth.
he would
be imnecessary
further for
to discuss this matter
who
died in
its Founder
forth more
as
the messianic
explicitly
hope of the apocalypse might be
a

"

behalf of its members.

described as a symbolical expositionof a coming
2. His disciplesand the early church did not
national kingdom to be established by a Divine
in
messianism but saw
Deliverer in which all Jews, even
those which were
adopt this spiritualized
of Jewish
in Sheol, should dwell. These elements,however,
Jesus the messiah
hopes._As such he
fulfilledprophecies
newly recognizedin the lightof
tation
were
capable of other than nationalistic interpreof course
his life,
and
a
death, and resurrection. It was
part of the
subsequentlybecame
The
obvious that he had not established the kingdom
Christian eschatology. See Eschatology.
part the Messiah was to play became increasingly they had expected, for he had jaeencrucified.
tion
this most difficultcontradiction of definiin the
But even
regarded as supernatural. He was to come
and expectationwas
given messianic meaning
clouds, raise the dead from Sheol, establish a
It was
regarded by them as
by the early church.
ment
judgment day for the entire world,mete out punishwould
of the means
all of whom
by which the true deliverance
for the sinners (practically
one
Messiah
The
to be accomplished by God.
be non-Jews) and establish an eternal kingdom of
was
In
had
temporarilyreturned to heaven, whence he
glory,apparently with a capitalat Jerusalem.
exercised authoritythrough his Spirit,and whence
to say just
the nature
of the case
it is impossible
ing
for the purpose of establishliteral rather than
he would speedilycome
where these expressionsbecome
judgment and performingthe other
a messianic
figurativeand it is equally impossibleto say that
the
functions which the current messianic faith included.
messianic hope among
there was
orthodox
an
into
held to be his passage
His resurrection was
times.
Yet although details vary,
Jews of N.T.
send his
the heavenly world where he alreadyheld authority.
would
the hope was
that God
constant
of the historic
messianic
establish
This
to
interpretation
divinely empowered
representative
still further systematized by Paul who
Jesus was
the Jews
in triumphant possession of the entire
as
pre-existent
to have regardedthe Messiah
world
and
a
of all heavenly blessings. Thus
seems
definition of Messiah, though
formally as an individual and to have appeared in the man
never
it is difficult to state
God
whom
this distance
Jesus.
At
One
in realityreached:
given, was
but it is clear
Paul's positionwas
what
precisely
empowered by his resident spiritto be the Savior
that so far from
of his Kingdom.
of his people and the founder
centering about the teaching of
tion
Jesus himself,the apostlegave the messianic definiGod.
See Kingdom
of
cosmic
by the inclusion of ideas
significance
During the rabbinical period of Judaism this
Hellenistic
thought.
well as religious. drawn
from
nationalistic as
contemporary
hope remained
to the Johannine
the transition was
Thus
messianic
movements
In some
recognized a
easy
cases
_

Messiah
(seeBar-Cochba) but rabbinical
in
general emphasized supernatural
is
Judaism
Modern
and
character.
appearance
roughly divided in its messianic interest between
orthodox
expectationsand agnosticismas to, or
the part of
denial of, the coming of a Messiah
on

leader

as

teaching

Judaism
Reform
(q.v.).
the
Conception
of
Christian
III. The
the highest conMessiah.
The
messianic
ception
was
and salvation which
of divine interposition
pared
the contemporaries of Jesus possessed. As comwith the Christ, prophet,king, and priest
were
secondary. So thoroughly socialized had the
that it was
easily attached
conception become
tentativelyto any person who seemed capable of
becoming a successful popular leader. Thus there
number
of pseudo-Messiahsduring the
were
a
See Pseudo-Messiah.
firsttwo centuries of our era.
1 Jesus himself seems
to have used the messianic
hope as including the highest possibleidealism in
the Kingthe possessionof his people. He made
dom
of God
that is,the messianic kingdom,
(q.v.),
the symbol of the highest good and preparation
therefor the great obUgation of men.
Opinions
differ as
far he himself interpreted his
to how
mission as strictly
messianic but all are agreed that
he repudiated the nationalistic idea of the Kingdom
of God
and
the Davidic monarchy as the chief
"

conception of the Logos

as

Hellenisticequivalent

This identification resulted in

of the Messiah.
was
the conception of a deliverer and judge who
also a pre-existent
metaphysical divine being who
became
incarnate in a given historical character.
viewed
Thus the messianic thought strictly
passes
into the christological
conceptions later expressed
in the Nicene and Chalcedonian creeds.
With
the exception of certain sporadicgroups
the church
regarded the work of the
universally
from
and women
Messiah
the salvation of men
as
in this behef
chief elements
The
sin and death.
tion,
resurrechave
his incarnation,death, and
been
pletely
having been comthe nationalisticelements
Within recent years the social
abandoned.
aspects of messianic hope contained in the teaching
and
exemplified in the life of Jesus have been
re-emphasizedin the interests of the social morality
Mathews
and the social gospel(q.v.). Shailer
A
change of form.
vailed
early peoplesin all lands the belief preand animals
men
that gods, demons, some
others at
or
to change themselves
had the power
will into another shape. The wer-wolf and berseker
are
European examples. Shape-shiftingis very

METAMORPHOSIS."

Among

common

in the folklore of the Celts and

It is accomplished by

some

magical

of India.
means"

Metaphysics

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

280

charm, magic wand, spell or potion and, with

of
growing culture,passes into the shadow-realm
and witch.
the shaman, sorcerer

problem of how the mind knows the independent

of science,have
reality. Others, especiallymen
taken
the Kantian
attitude, believing that the
is unknowable, but
thing-in-itself
beUeving also

METAPHYSICS."
The philosophical
tation
interpreof ultimate reality.
The
early Greek thinkers,driven by various
is the
motives
and circumstances
to inquirewhat
world-stuff that takes on the various forms of
one
matter
which appear
and what is the
to the senses
one
world-process which includes aU the changes
that men
experience,made certain shrewd guesses
motives
and
worked
out
generalizations.The
in the period of
underlyingthese inquirieswere
Athenian
decline
sharpened into a somewhat
of the swiftlychanging
tragiceagerness
by reason
serious
leader in this more
social order.
The
asked
such
questions
Socrates, who
quest was
is the good that men
What
reallyseeking
are
as:
when they seek this,that,and the other satisfaction?
and
What
is the substratum, so to speak, of wisdom
in
is the beauty that is found
justice? What
beautiful things,without which they would not be
beautiful?
generally,Socrates put into
Or, more
the foreground of men's thinking the questions of
the
the relationshipbetween
the particular and
this
Aristotle carried on
universal.
Plato
and
task, and so the search for that which is abidingly
real underneath
and
the multiform
evanescent
experiences of the passing hours, passed from
has
a
Cosmology to Metaphysics. This name
sort of accidental fitness for the subjectit stands for,
for as used by Aristotle it referred only to the
his
fact that that part of his writing followed
treatise on
physics. He also called this subject
Ontology, First Philosophy or Theology. But the
Neo-Platonic
mystics in all seriousness and the
later Skeptics,in derision,
referred to such inquiries
as
being truly meta-physical,dealing with that
which is beyond all tangible and concrete
reality.
Metaphysics in modern times has also dealt with
the problem of ReaUty, but has been largely
occupied
with what
has seemed
to be the prior question of
the scope
of knowledge. Kant
and powers
gave
the discussion an
entirelynew
angle he himself
called it "a Corpernican revolution."
The gist of
his conclusion is that in sense
experience,physics
have
and
true
knowledge of
mathematics, we
Reality, but this Reality is phenomenal in the
determined
that it is in its very nature
sense
by the
of the cognizing mind.
nature
For instance we
know
a
world, and it is a real world; but
space
of the
rather space
is one
do not know
we
space,
which
of our
Forms
we
apprehension, without
could apprehend nothing. Ultimate
reality,the
said Kant, lies beyond the scope
"thing-in-itself,"
of human
knowledge. Hence metaphysics, in the
traditional sense
is impossible. But, said Kant,
for
"I have
room
destroyed knowledge to make
faith."
And
in this he pointed to the pecuhar
moral
makes
it
of man's
nature, which
power
imperative to act as if God, freedom, the Soul,
know
cannot
as
immortahty (which we
reaUty),

that it is sufficient and necessary for us to act as if

could and do know
it.
In recent years there has developed what seems
like a genuinely new
attitude in this whole discussion,
the movement
generally called Pragmatism.
This philosophy claims that the Ideahst-Realist
debate is endless,so long as both sides make
the
common
assumption, namely, that there is some
sort of cleft between
and the
the knowing mind
trouble with both, says the
The
object known.
useful
Pragmatist, is that the very
everyday
distinction of mind vs. object is taken to be a sort
of fixed and final distinction.
When
emphasized
and discussed it inevitablybecomes
a metaphysical
chasm, which the Realist seeks in vain to bridge
and the Ideahst
seeks in vain to explain away.
But
for Pragmatism, this mind-and-object distinction
is only a
useful, everyday
practically
ultimate
about
it
with nothing more
distinction,
than there is about the equally useful,everyday
conception that the sun rises and sets. Psychology
is beginning to show
in the one
as
case,
us,
astronomy long ago showed us in the other, that
the real relationship
is very
different from what
in
and things are
sense
common
accepts. Minds
each
dynamic interaction,
inevitably modifying
the other, each being in a real sense
a part of the
other.
be independent of
more
They can
no
each other and stillexist than heart and lungs can
be independent of each other and stillexist. Hence
it is that to the Pragmatist the old debate is now
a
The
meaningless one.
question of truth is not a
question of the similarityof our ideas to independent
entities,but of the results of the interaction
of ideas and things ideas and things both being
entities of a dynamic sort, distinguishable
but not
independent,similar but not identical.
A. Clinton
Watson
METEMPSYCHOSIS."
See Transmigration.

"

we

"

METHODISM."
of the religious
The
name
held by a number
tions.
of Christian denominaIt was
applied primarily in connection
with a group
of Oxford
students
(1729-1735) who
because
of their careful observance
in
of method
study and in the fulfilment of religiousduties
called Methodists.
were
I. Contributory
Conditions.
The
religious
deficit characteristic of England in the first fifty
tunity
years of the 18th. century supplied both the opporand the demand
revival.
for the Methodist
Testimony to the fact of a relative declension in that
period is not scanty. Emphatic words of Bishop
Butler and Archbishop Seeker assure
that the
us
to expressionin the writings
skepticismwhich came
torians
Hisof the Deists flowed with a broad
current.
Green
of the eminence
of Lecky and
use
to
forcible terms
in describing the extent
very
which
the revolt against both reUgious faith and
of
moral
carried at the extremes
restraint was
actuallyare reahty.
the ignorantpoor and the pampered
society among
problems than he
Kant, however, created more
solved.
Foremost
the problem of the "thing- rich alike. For the task of stemming this adverse
was
little compein-itself." In Kant's treatment
both to
showed
it seemed
tide the established Church
tency.
delivered
be and not to be.
Since Kant
there have been
The moral essays, so commonly
and in
three chief lines of discussion.
The IdeaUsts have
from her pulpits,could not grip the masses,
made
clean sweep,
a
holding that the objective- the lack of proper church extension great numbers
It redounds
unchurched.
to
left practically
seeming world is but the creation,continuously were
the honor of the Methodist
evangeliststhat they
renewed, of the Absolute Mind, and that our human
knowing is but a phase of this creative self-expression .saw the situation with open eyes, and responded to
of the absolute.
with quenchless zeal.
There
is therefore,no
thing-in- its demands
The first stage
Stages.
Reahsts
II. Three
Marked
itself. "To
be is to be perceived." The
extended
Uttle beyond the brief interval during
have
reacted strongly against this position,and
at Oxford adhered
have renewed the old attempt to solve the unsolvable
which the group of young
men
"

system

"

"

"

281

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

them the name

dists.
which won
of Methoto the scheme
that they
At this time their pecuharity was
joinedwith views of a high church type a piety
in tone.
ascetic and legaUstic
somewhat
which was
At a later date the representativesof the Oxford
regime had a keen sense of its shortcomings. This
true of their foremost
leader,John
was
especially
Wesley. That regime, however, was not without
It inured
incidental results of considerable value.
its subjects to criticism and scorn, and schooled
them in hardihood.
The
second
history may
stage in Methodist
be dated from the crucial epoch in John Wesley s
reUgious experience. This came
shortly after his
return
from the disappointingmission to Georgia.
On May 24, 1738, partlythrough the good effect of
led into a reaUzation
Moravian
tuition,he was
and
and
felt
of
evangelicalfreedom
power,
as
qualified

an

emancipated

man

to

preach

an

emancipating message.^ A similar spiritualupUft

had already been experienced
by George Whitefield
and

Charles

Wesley.^The

message

of these

men

suit the taste of the Established

Church which they wished to serve
as
loyalsons.
quently
ConseHer
closed against them.
pulpitswere
they betook themselves to the streets and
the
that date till near
the fields (1739). From
close of the century outdoor
evangehsm was the
chosen expedient. In wieldingthis instrumentality
of lay preachers was utilized. To
a growing band
was

too

earnest

to

results the converts

were
gathered into
societies. These
were
supposed to be affiilated
with the Established
Church; but the relation was
movement
was
very loose, since the Methodist
the
In
disowned
by that Church.
practically
enterpriseof forming and directing the societies
the organizingskill of John
Wesley was
very
over
largelyemployed. His headship extended
the societies generally,with the exception of the
the
Calvinistic
two
as
Lady
branches, known
Welsh
Connexion
and
Calvinistic
Huntingdon
held by him to
Methodism.
A Uke relation was
in Ireland
the societies which began to be founded
(1747), in the present territory of the United
States (1766), in Newfoundland
(1765-66), Nova
Scotia (1772),and Canada
(1774-80).
In the third stage Methodism
passed from the
the
of societies nominally affiliated with
estate
independent
of England, and assumed
Church
a distinctly
position. A basis for the independence of
effected in 1784 by the
the Englishsocieties was
Deed
of Declaration, which
provided that after
the death of John Wesley the conference of preachers,
thereof (the so-called
or
designated members
Legal Hundred), should have control. By the
action of the conference
(1795) in granting to the
of
societies the right to claim the administration
the sacraments
representatives
through their own
of
the way
was
opened to a speedy consummation
the Anglican EstabUshment.
disconnection
with
of the Deed
In the same
year with the publication
societies in the United
of Declaration the Methodist
States, by the initiative of John Wesley, were
organizedinto an independent Church, with Thomas
Coke
and Francis Asbury as bishops, the former
only an occasional resident in the country, the
field
latter constantly engaged in the American
from the time of his arrival (1771),and commonly
accounted above aU others the apostleof Methodism
in the New
World.
Some
of the more
III. Main
Achievements.
notable
developments within this period of full
ecclesiastical independence were
the
following:
(1) The pushing of missionary enterpriseinto a
large proportion of the open fields of the world.
(2) A great expansion of educational
facihties,
the organization
of a fulllistof academies, colleges,
conserve

"

AND

ETHICS

Methodism

and theological
schools.
universities,

(3)A twofold
first in the direction of division,and
then toward
union. The former covered the first
half of the 18th. century, the latter became noteworthy
the close of the century. Over half a
near
dozen distinct branches were
formed in England,
the most
important numerically,
after the parent
Church, being the Primitive Methodist.
In the
United
States not less than seventeen
branches
emerged, eight of them being composed of colored
members.
of the divisions occurred
Most
over
questions of poUty and administration. Two
of
those in this country were
precipitatedby the
slaveryagitation. In 1843 the Methodist Wesleyan
Connexion was
formed in protest against slavery,
and in 1844 the great disruptiontook place,
giving
originto the Methodist EpiscopalChurch,South.
The
union
movement
reverse
reached its goal
first of all in Canada, all the Methodist bodies in
that country beingbrought into a single
communion
in 1883.
A hke result was
reached m Australia in
The excess
1902.
of competingbodies in England
was
appreciably reduced m 1907 by the union of
several of them into che United Methodist Church.
In recent
an
years
attempt, so earnest as to give
good promise of success, has been made to bring
about the union of the two leading branches in the
United States
the Methodist
Episcopal Church
and the Methodist
EpiscopalChurch, South.
IV. Polity.
Taken
in its general range Methodism
exhibits
combination of Episcopalian
a
and presbyterian
elements. In the United States
of the branches exhibit both orders of elemost
naents in their pohty, since they are
supplied with
bishops as well as with a series of assemblies.
Elsewhere
the presbyterianphase is in the ascendant.
The
representatives of a congregational
pohty are numerically insignificant.In the higher
assembhes
constituted
the conferences
as
now
having ultimate
legislativepower
^laymen are
conjoinedwith the ministers.
Aside from
the comparatively
y. Doctrine.
hmited branches
which
adopted the Calvinistic
standpoint of Whitefield, organized Methodism
has held with
substantial
unanimity throughout
its history
to the essentials of evangehcal Arminianism as taught by John
Wesley and his saintly
No one
of the schisms
coadjutor,John Fletcher.
which
in
was
precipitatedhad its principalcause
doctrinal convictions.
geneity
Perhaps this relative homoin doctrine may
have been due very largely
to the superioremphasis placed upon
vital rehgious
experience as compared with the championing of
acteristic
dogmatic details. Universally it has been charof Methodism
in the Wesleyan line of
descent to advocate
zealouslyboth a staunch
very
doctrine of the spiritual
and of
dependence of men
their common
tion
opportunity to partake of the salvaized
provided in Christ. It has also been charactermovement,

"

"

"

"

"

generallyby

dispositionto place very

high

the ideal of possiblereligiousattainment

in this
life. This ideal has been
described
imder
such
terms as "perfectlove" and "entire sanctification."
Few
it appropriate to
Methodists
would
count
strive for any
But a real conlesser attainment.
viction
of the legitimacy
of formallyprofessingthe
possessionof the high estate has been practically
rather the property of a school in Methodism
than
of Methodism
In recent decades this
as a whole.
has been very evidentlythe case.
It has often been
VI. Lines
Influence.
op
in
movement
acknowledged that the Methodist
England in the 18th. centurjr so far leavened the
with moral and reUgious principlesas to
masses
afford a valuable safeguardagainstthe transference
to that country of the wildfire of the French Revolution.
the same
movement
That
served in an
"

Methodius

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

282

the great majority of the Aztec

to impart a salutarystimulus
gods and the
Church
contrast
cannot
cruelty of their worship, and in striking
justlybe denied.
to these,appear
added strength to the Nonconforming
a few deities worshipped in a more
Ultimately Methodism
humane
and apparently reflecting
interest in Great Britain.
manner
a higher
In America
of the Aztec prayers
and
its organization
methods
plane of culture,while many
qualifiedit in a
as
are
to meet
preserved by their historians,
specialmeasure
progressivelythe religious and rituals,
for the poetry and fervor of religious
remarkable
geneity
needs of outlying settlements.
Its relative homoand steadiness in"doctrine have enabled it to
feeling.It is doubtful if an equal contradiction
of high and low can
be found in any other religion.
exert a conservinginfluence in behalf of what might
scholars that the finer
be termed
the catholic Christian
(3) It is believed by many
faith,while its
derived from
predominant adhesion to the Arminian
teaching elements in Aztec civilization were
ing
the Maya race, whom
the Spaniardsfound inhabithas wrought to some
extent
to tone down, at least
in pulpitutterance,the expression
Yucatan, in a state of decline after centuries
given to a more
tion
rigoroustheological
type. Finally,remaining fairly duringwhich they had reached the highestcivilizaattained in pre-Columbian America, as evidenced
of antinomianism,
true to John Wesley's abhorrence
cities. Maya
theoretical and practical,
it has continuallyemphaby the ruins of the numerous
sized
faith and
in many
the need of exemphfying religious
religionwas
respects that of the Aztec,
but it was
far more
sacrifices
zeal in temperate,righteous,and brotherlyconduct.
humane, human
VII. Statistics.
The membership of the larger
being relativelyrare, and in art and architecture
it has left to us the most notable of native monuMethodist communions, for the year 1916, has been
ments.
of both the Maya and the
In the religions
reported as follows: Wesleyan Methodist Church
Aztec regions the Spaniards discovered
so
Methodist,
(Great Britain), 494,993, Primitive
many
resemblances to Christian rites that they were
205,323; United Methodist, 183,431; Australian
Indians
that
the
Zealand
must
at
New
some
Methodist,
easily persuaded
Methodist, 149,878;
have
been
missionized.
remote
date
Episcopal (includingmembers
Baptism,
24,730; Methodist
in mission fields)
Episcopal, confession,
4,131,337; Methodist
sacraments, worship of the
penance,
Episcopal, cross, and myths of a firsthuman pair and a worldSouth, 2,145,309; African Methodist
Methodist
Episcopal Zion, flood destroyingmankind, all seemed to point to
620,000; African
Episcopal,240,798; identity with Christian teaching. This notion
568,608; Colored Methodist
fortifiedby the myths of the white,bearded
was
Canadian
Methodist, 372,266. At present the
them
total Methodist
near
membership comes
deity,Quetzalcoatl,who had come
very
among
cludingwith
inof adherents"
number
to
a
religionof peace and purity,departing
10,000,000. The
with a promise to return
connected
with
the waters
besides
those
members
over
bringing
Methodist
Sunday Schools and congregations
againhis millennialrule a myth found far into South
of American
America.
Students
Indian
is computed to be about 30,000,000.
religions
H. C. Sheldon
have, however, been able to explain all of these
church father, elements as of native origin. H. B. Alexander
METHODIUS
(260-312)."Greek
and
influenced strongly by Platonism
Stoicism,
influential theologian writing in oppositionto
MEZUZAH."
(Hebrew: "doorpost.")Jewish
an
ceremonial
of Origen'sdoctrines.
object consistingof a piece of parchsome
ment
inscribedwith,the Biblicalverses, Deut. 6 : 4-9;
The
title given in the
and
METROPOLITAN."
11:13-21, contained in a small case of wood,
Eastern Church to a bishop in the chief city(metropis fastened to the
The
mezuzah
olis)
glass,or metal.
bishop
of a province. In the R.C. church the archdoorpost, in accordance with the BibUcal command
in Deut. 6:9.
holds this position.

appreciabledegree
to the Established

"

"

OF."The
RELIGIONS
MEXICO,
people of
about
twenty per cent are of
Mexico, of whom
white (chiefly
Spanish) blood, while the great body
of the population is composed of Indians and mixed
Catholic in religionsince
bloods, has been Roman
conversions
the
forced
following the Spanish
church, however, is given
Conquest. The Roman
exclusive privileges;aU religionsare free,and
no
small following
in
Protestantism
is not without
a
the country.
Many of the Indians are stillactual
of them
virtual pagans,
are
or
although most
nominal
Christians. The
pre-Spanishreligions
of Mexico
the most
interestingof primitive
are
America; broadly considered,they fall into three
of the
north
(1) That part of Mexico
groups.
mainly peopled by wild
Tropic of Cancer was
religious
cults, whose
tribes,each with its own
ideas and rites differed little from those of other
to
North
American
Indians, although they were
influenced
extent
some
by the peoples to the
south. (2) The Aztec Empire, with its capitalin
most
over
Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) held sway
of the territorybetween
and
the Tropic of Cancer
Yucatan; and in this whole region the Aztecs
nations
the chief among
a series of barbarous
were
resembling one another in culture. Their religion
less
or
was
a
complicated polytheism,with more
nationalized gods and goddesses,numerous
temples,
elaborate festivals,
and rites quite unexampled in
human
annals
for the bloody ferocity of their
of
sacrifices. Along with the hideousness
human

"

MICHAELMAS."
of Michael
and
Christendom
on

The
all

church

festival in honor

angels, observed

Sept.29

and

in the East

by
on

western

Nov.

8.

MIDGARD-SERPENT."
One
of
the
giant
in Teutonic
mythology, offspringof Loki,
who fightswith Thor at Ragnarok.
It is perhaps
a sjmabol of the encircUcg sea.

race

MIDRASH."
A
word, derived from Biblical
Hebrew
to
Darash
investigate. It is applied
in rabbinical Uterature
to the study of the Old
Testament
for the purpose
of defining
law or a
a
dogma, and especiallyfor the purpose of drawing a
moral lesson.
The Midrash sometimes
establishes
law
moral lessons
a
(Halakah)', in other cases
(Haggadah)are derived either from an individual
expression or from a story. An instance of the
is: Everybody must show respect to the
first case
for king David when he addressed the people
people,
and said: (I Chron. 28:2): Hear me, my
arose
brethren
(Sotah,40a). An instance of the second
kind is the lesson: No man
shall show a preference
for one
of his children over
the others,for Jacob's
partiaUty to Joseph brought all the misery of
Israel (Sabbath, 10b). Occasionally
Egypt upon
the Midrash
method is used for dogmatic purposes
in the proof for bodily resurrection from the
as
to give the
(Deut. 11:21): God has sworn
passage
land to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (Sanhedrin,90b,
cf.: Matt. 12:27).

283

These

explanationsare

divided into

OF

DICTIONARY

by

later

RELIGION

authorities

Remez
(literal),
(indicated),
Sod
Derush
(homiletical),and
(mystic). The
in
Talmud
the
Midrash is found scattered
(q.v.).
remarks
Later special compilations of Midrashic
The most popular of these is Midrash
made.
were
the Pentateuch,
Rabba, giving the homilies on
At
still later period
the five Megilott.^
and
a
were
compiled, as the
anthologies of Midrashim
for holy
Pesikta containingselections of Midrashim
days and other specialoccasions,and the Yalkuthy
Simeon
Kara, arranged in the order of the Bibhcal
of Midrashim
extended
to
books.
The lliterature
Peshat

the end of the 12th. century, while later homiletic

the Midrashim
as
literature uses
texts,just as the
Gotthard
Deutsch
used the Bible.
Midrash

AND

ETHICS

Millenarianism

of monastic knightsafter the model of the Templars.

So the brothers of an 1 1th. century hospitalbecame
in the 12th. Knights of St. John (Hospitallers)
; and
brothers of a hospitalfor German
pilgrimsbecame
the Teuton 'c Knights. Recruited only from the
nobihty these aristocraticorders gained great possessions
of land and
lost religiouszeal. When
Palestine was
finally
lost,the Templars, discredited,
The Hospitallers
to a tragicend.
came
kept some
sovereignty in Cyprus, then Rhodes, then Malta,
lost to the French.
which in 1798 was
The Teutonic
of
as
Knights found a new career
conquerors
the pagan
Prussians who after fiftyyears of resistance
received
Christianity at the point of the
orders survive
sword (1283). The
chieflyas a
decorative title conferred by sovereigns.
F. A. Christie
USE
RELIGIOUS
OF."
The
MILK,
phrase
"milk and honey" was
in ancient times a symbol of
plenty not only with the Hebrews, but also with

MIH-TI
original thinker of
(MOH-TI)." An
China
belongingto the period between Confucius
he idealized the
Confucius
Mencius.
Like
and
of
a time
neighboring peoples,
Egyptians,Assyrians,Greeks,
age was
past and lamented that his own
and Romans.
MiUc
in
offered in libations,
was
disorder and strife. He traced the evils of social
with honey, and in the early Christian
lifeto selfishnessand offered as a solution the gospel connection
Church
the newly baptized were
Love would end strife and make
given milk and
of universal love.
honey to taste. It is regarded as probableby some
wars
impossible.If each citizen could be persuaded
authorities that a milk baptism was
practiced by
to sacrifice himself for the good of others all the
the Orphics.
of social life would disappearand a new
sorrows
and
happiness would
society of peace
emerge.
STUART
(1806-1873)." EngUsh
He
MILL, JOHN
wrote
against the extravagance of the day,
counsellingthrift. He has been called socialist,philosopher and pohtical economist, son of the
Mencius
"the Christ of China."
and even
philosopher,James Mill. As an employee of the
pacifist
India
and Chuang-tse opposed him chieflyon the grounds
House, he gained practical acquaintance
with affairs,
which
is reflected in his pohticalphithe
altruism would
break down
losophy.
that unrestrained
and undermine
In psychology he belonged to the Assohistoric family loyaltiesof China
ethics and
In
ciationaUst school.
religion he
the central virtue of the old ethics,fiUal piety.
developed the theory of Utilitarianism (q.v.)
the
which states that "actions are right in prop)ortion
The
MILITARISM."
theory held and
as
as
national
they tend to promote happiness,wrong
they
policy and condition created by those
ing
tend to produce the reverse
of happiness." He
who claim that the war
system is effective in achievmakes
libertyessential to human
virtue,and the
justiceand permanent national advantage and
subservient
His
view
the individual.
state
to
other valid basis.
economic
has a biologic,
or
somewhat
and he
"War
of the universe was
miUtarists consider war inevitable.
Some
pessimistic,
conceived of God as good but Umited in power.
is an element of the order of the world established
has been the chief
(von Moltke); "War
by God"
that
the
MILLENARIANISM."
The
behef
and leadingcondition of human
progress"(LesterF.
Messiah
will visiblyreign over
the whole earth at
for this view are:
Confounding
Ward). Reasons
the end of this present "age" for a thousand
(i.e.,identifying wholesome
years.
struggle with war
Of Jewish origin,it marks
the loss of the procontest
phetic
against the evils with organized,collective,
wholesale homicide
expectationof eternal world dominion under
(seequotationsabove) ; narrow
the direct authorityof Yahweh
and the substitution
patriotism; lack of the internationalmind ;economic
therefor of the hope of a supernatural dominion
trade barriers; desire for rnaterial
illusions and
growth rather than for democracy and justice; under a Messiah sent from heaven and lastingfor
The
time till the creation should pass away.
of rich,undeveloped regions; failure to
a
exploitation
conditions
makes
the
Egyptian-born Enoch
period 1000
perceivethe futihtyof force under modem
to achieve lastinggains.
years, but IV Esdras makes it400 years ( the length
dies at its
of the sojourn in Egypt) and Messiah
not civilization
from civiUzation,
War has sprung
have
The mihtarist nations of antiquity
close. The behef was
from war.
supported by the authority
MiUChina
alone survives.
of a canon
of sacred Scripturesand especially
by an
vanished; unwarUke
of the days of the creation
most
tarism has been
developed in Prussia. It
interpretation
allegorical
and
ia autocratic
discourages free thought and
story combined with Dan. 9, and Ps. 90 : 4. Thus
Millenarianism is a special,but not universal,
speech; it develops under republican governments
feature of Jewish Messianism.
freedom
is suppressed. Common
economic
when
is
Millenarianism as a theory is a distinctively
mihtarist assumptions are that all government
Jewish
losophy
phibased on force instead of on consent of the governed,
of a popular two-world
application
that regardsthe present physical
univerge
industry, etc.; that
courts, legislatures,
money,
of
the outcome
with its mixture of good and e^il
as
war
promotes virility;that questionsof honor can
be settled by force; that justiceand victory are
a conflict between
good and evil beingshigher than
See
Peace
Congresses
and as destined to pass away
through a final
men
inherently connected.
tian
Lucia
A. Mead
conflict in which the evil will be worstejl.ChrisMovements.
AND
Millenarianism
is the Jewish doctrine modified
Rev. 20 : '
The CruRELIGIOUS
ORDERS."
sades
MILITARY
by the behef that Jesus is the Messiah.
1-10
is the only distinctlymillenarian statement
produced the order of Templars (1120),monks
who were
also knights fightingto protect pilgrims
in the N.T. but advocates of the doctrine suppose
N.T. passages referring
The prestigeof this order
it to agree with the many
and the Holy Places.
Samaritan
and Soldier
of Jesus and to his kingdom.
with its two ideals of Good
advent
to a second
of Jerusalem
of Christ led to the transformation
To
the prevaihng Christian expectation,in the
first century, under Jewish influence,of a second
fraternities caring for the sick into companies
_

Millennial Dawn

personaladvent of

Jesus

DICTIONARY

at

the end

OF

RELIGION

of the world

and consign them to their eternal

judge all men
abode, it adds the belief in his millennial reignwith
the risen martyrs, followed
by the resurrection
to

AND

ETHICS

MILLENNIUM.

"

284

An

era

thousand

in

years

length. In Christian theology the thousand years

during which the Kingdom of Christ will be lished
estab-

earth.
See Millenarianism.
on
of all and a universal judgment. Christian millenarians have always based the doctrine .on Jewish
MILLER, WILLIAM
(1782-1849)."The founder
Scripturepredictionsthat in view of their exegesis of the Adventists (q.v.) whose followers took their
with
await real fulfilment.
These
they connect
He reckoned
originaldesignationfrom his name.
stood
the " two thousand, three hundred
sayingsof Jesus and teachingsof his apostlesunderdays " of Dan.
in harmony with the Revelation
of John.
7:14 from
Ezra's coming to Jerusalem, 457 B.C.,
the doctrine,such
thus fixing 1843 as
the date of Christ's second
Many other features accompany
in the appearing of the Anti-Christ and
as behef
C. A. Beckwith
coming.
the return of the Jews to Jerusalem; but on such
HENRY
HART
MILMAN,
(1791-1868)."
pointsthere has been no generalagreement.
apostoUc times the theory found a place AngUcan church historian and poet ; a liberal
3ng Christians as a support againstpersecution, theologian,favoring the abolition of compulsory
by the Roman
Empire. Later the
subscriptionto the Thirty-Nine Articles ; a pioneer
particularly
in genuinely historical depiction of biblical Ufe.
growing recognitionof the church's task to regenerate
His histories of Latin Christianityand of the Jews
societyin this present world supported by the
school
well known.
spiritualizing
are
tendency of the Alexandrian
especially
Clement
and Origen
of thought under such men
as
(1608-1674)."English poet,
JOHN
MILTON,
its
tended to discredit the doctrine or to minimize
Puritan
AngHcan, reared under
influence;
importance. The Eastern Church and its great an
disgusted with the established church under Laud
thinkers mainly follow this trend.^ Although the
and opposed to the policiesof the Presybterians,
with the East generally,held
West, in contrast
his interest in Proteshe nevertheless maintained
tantism.
able
to the canonicityof John's Revelation,it was
He defended the supremacy
of conscience
to repudiate Millenarianism
through Augustine's
and individual liberty. He took a prominent part
of it and his allegorical
spirituahzation
tion
interpretain English poHtics,defending the regicide
of Charles
The seventh
of the Genesis story of creation.
and
the Commonwealth,
and
opposing the retine
periodof a thousand years was identifiedby AugusHis contributions
estabhshment of monarchy.
to
with the new
at the union of
age introduced
but the most monunumerous
religious
mental
poetry were
with the Empire.
the Church
Paradise Lost,the greatest of modern
was
Millenarianism
turies
throughout the Christian cen-

Uln

its representatives.It appeared

has had
church
the
before
sporadically in the Roman
Reformation, as in the case of the Joachimites and

epics.

the
Hussites
before
the
SpiritualFranciscans.
Reformation
and groups
of Anabaptists during the
revived
it for a time.
The
Reformation
strong
has produced
of orthodox
Protestantism
bibhcism
the
of Millenarianism, but
vigorous outbursts
fessions
doctrine has had no recognitionin the great ConFaith.
of
attempted compromise
the result of trying
known as Post-Millenarianism
to unite a recognitionof the authority of John's
Revelation with confidence in the eventual conquest
of the world by the Gospel has been rejectedby
the
seek
revive
to
the
Pre-Millenarians,who
ancient Millenarianism,but they greatlydisagree
in details. The
Irvingites,Millerites,Plymouth
Brethren, Second Adventists and Christadelphians
The Bible Schools
advocates.
the best known
are
States are
at present engaged in
in the United
vigorouspropaganda for the doctrine. See EschaCross
George
Messiah.
tologt;

mosque.

jSn

"

"

MIMBAR.

The

"

pulpit in

Mohammedan

MINERVA.
A
Roman
goddess, patron of
artisans
and
skilled hand-workers, who, later,
under the influence of the Greek
Athene, became
goddess of wisdom.
"

MINHAH."
ish
(Hebrew: "afternoon.") The Jewdaily afternoon ritual,recited in the Synagog
followingthe morning service.
MINIMI.
A small R.C. religious
order of men
in Italy and France, founded
in the 15th. century.
One
of them, Bernard
the first Vicar
Boil, was
Apostolicin America, appointed in 1493.
"

MINISTER
and MINISl'RY."
The name
and
office of the leader of the church considered as the
of Christ to serve
the rehgious needs of
servant
the people. See also Pastor; Pastoral
Theology.
1. The
Minister
Christian
History.
in
of a series
The
necessities of church
DAWN."
1. The Early Church.
MILLENNIAL
The name
of books (1886-1904) by "Pastor Russell" (Charles organization resulted in the development of an
informal
have
it may
which, however
officiary,
Taze Russell,1852-1916).
became
I. The
been in the beginning,very
titles suggest the generalaim:
soon
The
a
rate
sepaclerical class distinguishedfrom the laityby
Is
Divine Plan
of the Ages. II. The Time
Come.
IV.
The
the ceremonial
of ordination.
III. Thy Kingdom
Oratory was held in
at
Hand.
Atonement.
such high esteem
in the Greco-Roman
V.
The
world that
Battle
af
Armageddon.
natural for the church to fashion the training
The
it was
doctrine is that
VI. The
New
Creation.
of the minister upon
that of the rhetorical schools.
although sin brings destruction,yet Christ by
of theologicallearning were
his death and
Important centers
spiritualresurrection provides a
the first and the
developed,the most noted being that of Alexandria.
ransom-pricefrom it. Between
2. The Middle
second
Ages. Clergy and laity were
coming, inauguratedin 1874,
(spiritual)
in the Middle
the
to
those who
Christ gathers from among
are
significantterms
Ages when
men
former monopolized the learning in the cathedral
have part in the chief resurrection and to share in
schools and the monasteries.
The function of the
his reign. "Pastor RusseU"
regarded himself as the
Christ had
minister became
more
"faithful and wise servant"
sacerdotal,
a great deal of his
to whom
of the
has
The Millennium
committed
the harvest work.
trainingbeing concerned with the acquisition
time
all the
thus dawned;
technique of the church service. At the same
during the thousand
years
obedienthe was
the disdead are to be raised and given a fair trial,
requiredto officiate at baptisms, marriages,
and funerals and was
expected to visit the sick and
destroyed,the obedient perfectedto dwell
See
servants.
catechize
C. A. Beckwith
to
the children and
forever on the renewed earth.
"

"

"

285
Gate

chism.

The

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

preachingfunction of the minister

the meager
abilityof the ordinary parish priest. This led to
the founding of the great preaching orders of the
Franciscans and Dominicans.
The
Reformation
Protestant minister.
3. The
the evangeUstic doctrines and
laid emphasis upon
put the minister mto the placeof moral and spiritual
leadership. His remarkable influence in the Scottish
England community is
parish and in the New
He was
a
written in all the Uterature of the time.
of the early American
of learning. Most
man
cated
founded in order to provide an eduwere
colleges
ministry. The minister in the pulpit,in his
visitations in the parish,and in his oversightof the
the dominatingintellectual force in his
schools was
in
The
of the great men
names
community.
Britain and America whose
earlyhomes were the
make
an
imposing roll.
or the parsonage
manse
Minister."
1. His changing
Modern
II. The
The great increase of learninghas brought
status.
of a large
that the minister is only one
it about
Instead of three
educated class in his community.
and an increasing
there are many,
learned professions
of business men
number
are collegegraduates. The
which was
educational profession
formerly entirely
of its
a status
in the hands of the minister has now
survives in only a
and the clerical educator
own,
few collegepresidents.The increase of newspapers,
of
magazines, books, lectures and varied means
developing publicopinion has left the minister a
humbler place in intellectual leadership.
time
functions. At the same
2. His developing
was

not

prominent,largelyowing

to

"

"

"

the minister are becoming more

church requires
and more
complex. A well organized
activities in
to keep its many
a business
manager
harmonious
operation. The development of men's,
of boys' and
women's and young people'ssocieties,
of
clubs,of home and foreignmission societies,
girls'
of the church; in
the recreational responsibiUties

the demands

upon

short,all the great task of rehgiouseducation (q.v.)

time
and
minister's
strength
the
levies upon
until he is often hard bestead to find leisure for
pulpitpreparation.Yet he is expectedto speak to
Sunday, and is called
his congregation twice on
subjects in
for public speeches upon
many
upon
While allthis indicates
the community and abroad.
that the church should have a diversifiedministry
it calls for a higherorder of abiUty to fillthe position
at the present time.
traditional theological
3. His
training. The
seminary is being modified to meet the new demands
with
classical discipline,
the ministry. A
upon
of the Bible from the
in the interpretation
practice
tongues, is no longerenough. The minister
original
will givehim the scientific
must
pursue studies which
the ecoHe must be informed
on
nomic
point of view.
and social problems of the day. He must
the pulpit.
demands
upon
appreciate the new
The broadest universitytraining
See HoMiLETics.
is essential if he is to keep his placeas a spiritual
"

leader of men.
4. His
opportunity.The
of
A man
in the making.
effective in
spiritual
"

modem

minister

is

prophetic insight,of
pubhc speech, has an
power,
opportumty of unsurpassed significancein the
and magazines can
never
world. Books
modern
the lecture take the place
take his place; nor can
If the church shall prove wilUng to
of the sermon.
Uberty to speak and shall provide
give her preachers
workers in church activities
suflBcient professional
that the minister shall have time for his unique
so
be modified
can
functions,if denominationaUsm
of respectable
congregations
to make possible
as
so
so
if the minister be given a fivingwage
the future of
his self-respect,
maintain
this great callingis full of promise.

size,and
that he

can

AND

ETHICS

Miracles

5. Women
in the ministry. The great churches
have never
for
recognizedthe eUgibiUty of wx)men
ordination.
A few bodies have
occasionallyand
rather grudgingly accepted women
in the pulpit.
One
of the interesting
problems in the future is
whether
this calUng for .which women
have many
marked
aptitudes shall be generallyopen to such
manifest the ability
as
to meet the demands
of the
modern
church.
Theodore
G. Scares
"

MINORITIES."

See

Friars, Minor.

MINUCIUS
FELIX, MARCUS."
of Christianity,
who Uved about
2nd. century.
See Apologists.

Latin
the end

gist
apoloof the

MINYAN."
(Hebrew: "count.") A quorum
for
worship in the orthodox Jewish synagog, consisting
of ten men
thirteen years of age)
(or boys over
this being the
minimum
for pubUc
necessary

worship.
MIRACLES.

Events inexplicable
by the operation
forces and
therefore regarded as
manifestations of specialdivine activity.
1. Signs and wonders.
The
rehgious folklore
of all peoples abounds
in stories of wonderful
due
to the activityof demons
occurrences
or
sprites or spirits.Often these occurrences
are
of the spirits.
regarded simply as the play activity
But they may
be of such importance as to take on a
serious rehgioussignificance.Gods
or
spiritsmay
be specially
induced by sacrifices,
tions
prayers or incantato act favorably. This naive
beUef in spiritacts
involves httle or no
conception of an order
of natural
marvels
law; hence such events
are
rather than miracles as above defined.
2. Specialdivine manifestations.The literature
of every
of important
reUgion contains accounts
of the
epochs or crises in which the specialactivity
exercised.
Great
in
god or gods was
personages
the history of a
rehgion have their authority
attested by miracles in connection
with their birth
The bibhcal characters of Ehjah,
or
pubhc career.
Ehsha, and Jesus are strikingexamples. Buddha,
Zoroaster,and St. Francis of Assisi are non-biblical
instances.
The
heahng of disease,casting out of
demons, raisingfrom the dead, summoning supernatural
to discomfit an enemy,
and successful
powers
defiance of the ordinary powers
the
of nature
are
usual
forms
of miracles.
Protestant
theology
usually affirms that the age of miracles is in the
declared
miracles are
past, while in Catholicism,
to be a never-ceasingelement
in rehgion.
3. Miracles as the guarantee of true religion.
When
a
reUgion makes exclusive claim to divine
to discredit the
authority, it becomes
necessary
alleged miracles of false faiths. Christian apologetic
has sometimes
the reahty of nonadmitted
Christian miracles, attributingthem
to demons
the growth of critical
(e.g.,TertuUian). With
however, the tendency has been to
investigation,
deny the historical realityof all except the miracles
faith. (E.g.,
belonging to the apologist'sown
terfeit
Warfield,Counterfeit
Miracles,1918.) With countian
miracles disposed of, the miracles of Chriscited as absolute proof of the
revelation are
divine originand sanction of Christianity.
4. The
relation of miracles to natural law.
Whenever
to hold the idea of an orderly
men
come
miracles can
no
longerbe viewed merely as
cosmos,
to
capriciousacts, but must be related definitely
"natural
order."
the
providentiallyordained
Augustine first raised this problem in Christian
history,and suggested the solution which has been
ral
generallyaccepted by scholastic theology. "Natulaw" covers
only the cosmic forces known to us.
"

of natural

"

"

"

"

"

Miracle

Play

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

But human
knowledge is limited. Events which
the order of nature, as known
transcend
to us,
miracles.
the divine
From
are
point of view
they are part and parcel of the providentialplan.
be subsumed
under
They may
"higher laws"
Miracles are thus "above nature,"
unknown
to us.
but
not
The
"contrary to nature."
question
miracle "suspends" a law of nature
whether
is
a
variously answered
according to the conception
of "law" which is held.
If law be rigidly
conceived,
to be necessary
a
"suspension" of it would seem
if God is to be able to exercise sovereign freedom.
as
a
If, however, a "law" is loosely conceived
convenient
of summarizing habitual
rences,
occurway
there is room
for special activities not
thus catalogued,without interfering
with the law.
5. Modern
estimates
of miracles. In recent
religious
thinkingthe tendency has been to lay
less emphasis on
miracles.
The
development of
of explaining phenomena
strictlyscientific ways
entific
has created a hesitancy about recognizingunsciexplanations of events.
Indeed, it is not
scientific hypothesis to
to suggest some
uncommon
account
for a bibhcal marvel.
Moreover, if the
of
faith
be
content
can
rationally justified,
of appealing to
there is no
need
miracles to
doctrine.
authenticate
Some
theologians(e.g.,
Schleiermacher
and Ritschl) have defined miracle
in a
event
purely religious way,
calling any
miraculous
the believer of the
which convinces
direct activity of God.
Since
natural
events
be
emotionally capable of arousing a
may
of the presence
of God, this definition abandons
sense
the
natural.
traditional notion
altogether. See SuperGerald
Birney
Smith
"

MIRACLE

PLAY."

play dealing

life,particularlythe miracles
of

or

the

with

the

martyrdom,

ETHICS

AND

286

meaning

of the law.
a
repetition,
or compendium
It is used either in the wider sense
for the totaUty
of the rabbinical law literature{Ahot,3,6, Yebamot,
for the work containing
49b) or in the specific
sense
the rabbinical laws which
form the basis of the
Talmud
is composed of six
(q.v.). This work
parts: (1) ZeraHm, chieflylaws of agriculture,
as
and holytithes,
etc.; (2) Mo'ed, laws of Sabbath
days; (3) Nashim, matrimonial
laws; (4) Nezikin,
sacrificial laws;
jurisprudence; (5) Kodashim,
(6) Toharot, laws of levitical purity. Each
of
these parts (Seder) is subdivided
into tractates
into laws
of
(Masekta), (e.g.,Mo'ed
Sabbath,
Passover, New
Year, Day of Atonement, etc.),
and
each of these tractates into chapters (Perek),and
every chapter into paragraphs, each called a Mishnah.
Mishnah
The
contains
both laws derived
from the Biblical text and opinions of the rabbis.
Its compilerevidentlymeant
to preserve
the rabbinic
law as developed up to his time.
Later orthodoxy
made
of it a divinelyrevealed code going back to
Moses who taught these explanationsof the Pentateuch
Mount
on
Sinai,as he had received them
froni God
(Berakot, 5a). The
compilation is
ascribed to Judah Hanasi, the Patriarch (ca. 135have
216); but, while he originatedit,he cannot
written it in the shape in which we
possess it,for
his death is mentioned
there (Sotah, 49a).
even
The
has been often edited,either sepaMishnah
rately
in the Talmud
or with the Gemara
editions,
and has been
translated into various languages.
Its language is good Bibhcal Hebrew
with
an
Aramaic coloring,
such as the Biblical books of Esther,
Ecclesiastes and Chronicles show.
Its laws are
rational in civil cases, apologetically
humanitarian
in criminal cases, and minute
in ritual questions.
It also contains fine moral lessons,drawn
from the
See Talmud.
laws.
Gotthard
Deutsch
_

saint.
At the end of the 11th. century the spread of
MISSAL."
The
R.C.
book in which is prescribed
saints' cults and the embeUishment
of the church
the Uturgy for the Mass throughout the year.
service on saints' days led to the dramatization
in
churches in Germany and France of incidents from
INNER."
See Inner
Mission.
MISSION,
the lives of saints,after the model
of early liturgical
Play.
The vogue
of
MISSIONARY
plays. See Mystery
The
selfMOVEMENT."
miracle
plays spread rapidly through western
propagating activity of Christianityby which
the
and
Europe. Like mysteries,they passed from Latin
the Church
Gospel is communicated
into the vernacular,were
taken over
established in non-Christian countries.
by laymen,and
I. Scope
Objective.
expanded greatly. In 1511 the presentationof one
and
Historically
reviewed
French miracle play required nine days. Scores of
the movement,
in its broadest
is
sense,
these plays are preserved or recorded in France in
identical with the total spread of the Christian
honor
of various
of the Virgin. A
saints and
from its native Palestine in the 1st. century
religion
French
manuscript of the 14th. century contains
A.D. to all regionsof the globe to which, with various
it has subsequently been extended.
forty "miracles" of the Virgin that were
probably
interpretations,
acted by some
trate
aims to
gild for her worship. They illusProspectively considered, the movement
the tendency of miracle plays to appropriate
complete the process of world-evangelization.
secular romantic
themes.
Fewer
names
are
foreignmissions normally embrace the
served Present-day
prein England, but enough to indicate an
efforts and agencies of all Christian communions
extensive vogue
from the 11th. to the 16th. century.
of nominallyChristian countries,directed toward
A play on
acted at Dunstable
St. Katherine
the Christianization of peoples of alien faiths in
was
about
1100.
in Asia,Africa,the pagan
sections
Plays celebratingSt. George were
lands,i.e.,
foreign
have survived.
The
of the Island World and of the Western
extremely popular, but none
Hemisphere.
15th. century St. Paul and Marie
Included among
theirforeignfields by some
Magdalene are
cal
evangeliclose akin to mysteries. The
ment,
Play of the Sacramissionarysocieties are territories regardedas
of another type, exalts the Eucharist.
Like
spirituallydestitute and inadequatelyoccupied
other religious
in Egypt and
plays,miracle plays declined during by the ancient Oriental Churches
the Renaissance, but they survived
till the end
the Near East; also sections of Europe and Latin
of the 19th. century in provincialregions,
America.
Some
Roman
Catholic societies,on
notably
in the Basque and Breton provinces of France.
the other hand, maintain foreigndioceses in nonC. R. Baskervill
pagan parts of predominantlyProtestant countries.
MISERERE."
The fifty-first
Psahn
in
Home
eign
forII. Relation
Missions.
From
(fiftieth
op
the Vulgate), chanted
as
a
missions,as comprehensivelydefined above,
prayer in the hturgies
of both
the Eastern
and
Western
it is still possible
and convenient
to differentiate
churches, so
from the firstword of the Latin version.
named
home
or domestic missions,althoughthere is much
missions is a
confusion in present practice. Home
MISHNAH.
neo-Hebraic
A
term properlyrestricted to the extension,within
word, probably
the confines of a prevaiUnglyChristian area, of
derived from the biblical Mishneh
(Deut. 17 : 18)
a

"

"

"

DICTIONARY

287

OF

RELIGION

usually by a
operationsadministered
board, but emanating from, and
supported by, the church or churches indigenous
Christian

AND

ETHICS

wherever they went.

Missionary Movement
There

was

littleco-ordinated

procedure of propagation, and

no
missionary
other than the church itself.
organization
Home
missions
The
modern
See
Missions.
radiated
that
Early
from strategiccenters.
to
area.
Jerusalem evangelized Palestine. Syrian Antioch,
to conceive
philosophyof missions tends increasingly
whose
Paul
bore
world
whence
as
the
task,
the enterprise a unitary
Gospel to the Gentiles,
became by 320 a Christian metropoliswith a church
ultimate objectiveis to universalize in the life of
of
and
Jesus.
the spirit
principlesof
100,000, superintending
mankind
propaganda from the
Motive."
That
such a worldSyrian seaboard to Mesopotamia and the Caucasus.
III. Basis and
finds its originand authority
Ephesus was
for western
a similar fulcrum
mission for Christianity
Asia
constitutes
Minor.
Cappadocian Caesarea sent Gregory the
in Jesus himself is a conviction which
Illuminator to win
Armenia
the primary incentive to missionary endeavor.
(ca. 300). From
the
Edessa
Syriac-speakingchurch
Ideally the enterpriseis his creation; actually it
spread to
Its basis lies in the inherent
Bactria.
From
Parthia and
andria
has flowed from him.
cosmopolitan Alexand
churches
extended up the Nile, gathering
universalism of his gospelas revealer of God
than a million Christians by 325.
It is distinctlyenjoined in his
of man.
more
The same
redeemer
(Matt. 28:18-20;
capitalsent missionaries to Abyssinia. Carthage,
diversely recorded command
from about 140, was
center
of diffusion over
24:46-49; John 20:21;
a
cf. Mark
16:15; Luke
North Africa. The Rhone
Acts
Valley,with churches of
1:8-10). Historical criticism negates the
concedes that "the universal Graeco- Asiatic origin before 177, was
but straightway
fount of
command
a
missions for Gaul; so, later,were
inevitable issue of the
Tours
mission was
an
(372-}-)
and the islet of Lerins (400+ ). From
Modern
Italy and
religionand spiritof Jesus" (Hamack).
non-Christian
Gaul
the
desire
mediate
to
to
to
whose
and
peoples
Gospel spread
Britain,
early
duty
with its attendant
church gave Patrick to Ireland (432-461). From
the Christian message
thropies
philanmission

home

and

institutions

felt less and less to

are

Arian
Constantinople,

missionaries

followed

Ulfilas

formal injunction,but
Goths.
a
(d. 381), apostle to the Dacian
The
depend primarilyupon
from the whole implicacardinal center for all the West
Rome
with
tion
rather to springirresistibly
was
of the
and impact of Christ's personalityand example,
100,000 Christians
by 312. Estimates
from

the essential nature

total intention

and

of his

teaching in relation to actuallydisclosed conditions

the nations.
Increasingknowledge of the
among
non-Christian world during the past four decades,
through the historico-comparativestudy of its
of
has not "cut the nerve
and social life,
religious
missions."

On

the

it

contrary

has

tended

to

and
strengthen the sense of missionary obligation
of the work.
to augment the volume
Departments.
Missionary
and
IV. Methods
"

have varied with the cultural status of the

in different lands and
church and its environment
During the early centuries the faith was
ages.

number

of Christians in the Empire under

stantino
Confrom
9,000,000 (Schaff) and
range
to 20,000,000 (Keim) and
12,000,000 (Schultze),
30,000,000 (Orr). The period closes with the conversion
of the Franks, which began with the baptism
of King Clovis (496). Among the last missionaries
in the wake of the Gothic migrationswere
Severinus
in Noricum, and
Fridolin in the Black Forest

(ca.500).
2. Middle

period

(500-1500)." The

between the fall of Rome

period,
Reformation, claimed
Europe

and

middle

the eve of the

its principal
as
field. Its achievements were
(1) extension of the
proclamation, church in regionsadjacent to established centers,
disseminated chieflyby evangelistic
whose
earlier Christian
(2) reoccupation of areas
and
the silent contagion of Christian character.
foundations had been obliterated by the barbarian
industrial and
In the Middle
Ages agricultural,
Modern
and
invasions
the conquests of Islam.
developed.
were
educational methods
(3) the
of central,
pioneerpenetration
northern and eastern
lems
missions,grapplingat first hand with social probalso begun.
Europe. Projection into Asia was
of immense
variety and magnitude,are more
Missions here predominantlybecame
officialenterprises
complex. In their social passionand outreach they
of organized ecclesiasticism,
tianity
conducted
exhibit the supreme
experiment in appUed Chrisby
monastic
and
secular clergy. They
should
be
vast and versatile ministry to every
a
ties
studied as a phase of the gigantic
need. Modem
missionary activistrugglebetween
aspect of human
civilization and barbarism.
in the followingmain departments:
Conversion
quently
freclassified
was
are
tribal or national,and, therefore,supertural,
agriculeducational,medical, social,
ficial.
evangeUstic,
At times it was
induced
industrial and Uterary operatingthrough
by politicaland
sions
colleges, even
military compulsion. The outstanding mischurches, chapels,schools of all grades,^
pensaries,
dishospitals,
were
Celtic,JRoman, Greek,and Nestorian.
seminaries,universities,
theological
Celtic Missions were
pioneer enterpriseswhich
orphanages, refuges, leper and blind
from
the abbeys of Ireland
farms, industrial
(550-750).
sprang
asylums, social centers, institutes,
The
translation
Scoto-Irish monks heralded the Gospeland Christian
and
centers
printing presses.
culture from Iceland to the Alps. On the British
and circulation of the Bible is a paramount factor.
Survey.
Missionary history mainland the sea-girtcloisters of lona and LindisV. Historical
periods, farne,founded respectivelyby Columba
be brieflyoutlined in three main
(567) and
may
Aidan
(635), coped victoriouslywith paganism
early,middle and modern.
On the continent
from Pictland to the Thames.
1. Early period (30-500 a.d.). ^The first five
tianity
the monasteries
the initial advance of Chrisof Columbanus
centuries registered
(580-615) and his
for over
the Roman
Empire and contiguous successors
a century diffused the faith and
over
built Christian settlements
Franks, Celts,
among
regions from the Caspian to the Atlantic, from
Africa
and
Burgundians, Alemanni, Swabians, Lombards
Britain to Babylon, from Egypt and North
the
of
This was
The Celtic missions were
sorbed
Germans.
period
and the Rhine.
graduaUy abto Dacia
down
the
to
by the stronger organizationof Rome.
spontaneous diffusion,especially
Roman
Missions
There
were
conspicuous leaders
were
aggressivelyconnected
4th. century.
from
the 6th.
prophets,teachers, with the growth of the papacy
apostles,
from Paul to Patrick
Pope Gregory the Great
century to the 12th.
presbyters, bishops, apologists, martyrs, who
formal missionaries or promoters of expansion; projected a vigorous policy of expansion, whose
were
chief agency
the risingBenedictine Order (q.v.)
chieflydue to
was
but the rapid spread of the faith was
which he imbued
with a missionary impulse. To
of lay evangehsts, unofficial and unnamed,
a host
witnessed
Britain, repaganizedby Teutonic
conquest, he
the rank and file of Christians who

methods

"

"

"

"

"

Missionary

Movement

DICTIONARY

RELIGION"

OF

in 596
dispatched from Rome
mission of Augustine (q.v.). This

the momentous
resulted by 700
in a national English-Roman church, itself the
The
to the heathen.
base of a powerfulmovement
ardent evangelizersof their
Anglo-Saxonsbecame
of the fierce,
seaboard
continental kinsmen; first,
Frisians and
cognate tribes of the Netherlands,
Wilhbrord
foremost
whose
(690-730);
pioneer was
after 716, of Thuringia,
and
more
successfully,
Hesse
and Bavaria, where Winfrith (Boniface)
with papal authority and
clothed
supported by
the Frankish kmgs, was
Germany's premierapostle.
Charlemagne's wars
(772-804)upon the Old Saxons,
of
south
Friesland, conspicuouslyexhibit the
anomaly of Christianization by violence. Their

AND

ETHICS

long since entered, notably in Asia

there

are

vast

sections unreached
milUons who
many

and
Africa,
by Christian

and
ministries,
have not been
feature of present
evangelized. A distinguishing
day missions is their promotion and direction by
within
the home
specialorganizations
churches;
in evangelical communions
through missionary
societiesor boards; in the Roman
Church
through
monastic
orders,seminaries and agencies Like the
French Societe des Missions
Etrangbres all subject
to the generaldirectorate at Rome, of the Congrevides
gatio de Propaganda Fide. The modern period diinto two epochs,the colonial and the universal.
"

Colonial

Missions.

The

"

term

as

here

used

comprises aU efforts to Christianize the natives of

countries in connection
with the colonial
later won
by peaceable oversea
wiUing allegiance was
and commercial
methods.
missionaries,
expansion of Europe, chieflyfrom
English and German
supported
the 16th. century to the 18th. Such attempts at
by royalcrusades,had permanently planted
conversion
fell in a romantic
lands by 1150,
covery
disthe church in the Scandinavian
age of emulous
and racial conflict. They were
three centuries after Ansgar laid the foundations
resplendent
with individual devotion and achievement.
But in
in Denmark
(826-850). Through the coercion
married
Christian Bohemian
general they were
of their kings who
disadvantageouslylimited in
both methods
and results by their relation,
direct
Hungary and Poland received Christian
princesses,
or
teachers
indirect,to territorial conquest, economic
(c. 1000). The last and most difficult
exploitationand mercantile aggression. Of such
conquest of the Latin church was the kingdoms of
there
six cycles,three
Slavs which
were
the northern
clung about the Baltic, colonial missions
of Finland.
In the
to the Gulf
the Elbe
and
ahnost exterminated
were
process the Wends
Lithuania
reduced
the Prussians
by the sword.
until 1386.
The
heathenism
13th.
to
adhered
earliest expeditions to
Rome's
century marked
under
the
Asia
Mongol Empire. A beginning
The
Franciscan
made
in South India in 1290.
was
the Tatars, founded
mission
by Corvino
among
in Peking (1293),flourished till its overthrow
by
from

the

Mings (1386).
Greek

Missions

of

Greek

the

Orthodox

or

the
Byzantine church of Constantinople embraced
eastern
rated
inauguevangelizationwas
Slavs, whose
in Bulgaria(860),Moravia
(863)and Bohemia
invented
His co-worker,Cyril,
(871)by Methodius.
alphabet and translated the Bible and
a Slavonic
became
and Bohemia
the Greek liturgy. Moravia
The Greek
united and adhered to Rome.
politically
in Bulgaria. Its greatesttriumph
Church
prevailed
the winningof Russia during two centuries after
was
_

in 988.
compulsory
Nestorian Missions, emanating from the Syroin
Persian church of Nestorius
(q.v.),paralleled
the East the pioneerexploitsof the Celts in the
at Nisibis,during the
their center
From
West.
6th. century, they broke the first Christian paths
and southern
Asia.
into middle, eastern
By 1050
the Nestorian
patriarchat Bagdad ruled a vast
communion
with missionary sees
extending from
the Tigris to Peking, from Mongolia to Malabar.
The Central Asian missions were
finally
destroyed
by the Tatar invasions of the 14th. century.
and
Moslem
conquests
By 1500 the Mongol
had left Uttle Christianityin Asia.
Europe had
recession and awakenreached the state of combined
revolt.
the Lutheran
ment
which precipitated
3. Modern
period(1500-1921)." It is during the
to the present,
modern
periodfrom the Reformation
of the whole world
extent
when
the geographical
that foreignmissions
has been graduallydisclosed,
world-wide
have
a
on
stage.
actually entered
Almost
hterallythe entire inhabited globe as a
of
within
the
the
mission field lies today
purview
that non-Christian areaswith
church, in the sense

the

mandate

of Vladimir

exceptions(Afghanistan,
comparativelyinsignificant
enclaves of local
Inner Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan; some
and
fanaticism in actual mission lands) are
open
of either the_Protestant
or
Missions
accessible.
the Roman
Catholic church, and, in most
cases,
of both branches of Christendom, exist in practically
countries.
all but forbidden
Yet, within areas

Roman

CathoUc

and

three

Protestant.

The

Catholic cycleswere

(1) the Portuguese,beginning

in 1491 mingled with slave-trade in West Africa,
Indian
Empire
encompassing Portugal's East
(1500-1640) and extending to Brazil in 1549;
the
bound
Spanish, integrally
(2)
up with the whole
of Spain's discoveries
and
period and process
conquests in the New World; and (3) the French,
followingthe flag of France from Acadia up the
St. Lawrence, to the Great
Lakes
and down
the
Mississippito Louisiana (1614-1765). Of these
colonialapostolatesthe earliestexecutants, Dominican
and Franciscan friars,
later reinforced by
were
most
other orders,
by the Jesuits (q.v.),
effectively
whose
leadership became
pre-eminent with the
of Frangois Xavier
career
(q.v.)in India,Ceylon,
and Japan (1542-1549). With
Malacca
the rise
of the Jesuits,Catholic missions date their golden
in
were
prime. Their
greatest achievements
The three Protestant
Brazil,Paraguay and Canada.
cyclesco-operant with state extension issued
from
Denmark.
Holland, England and
They
were
(1) the Dutch government missions in the
Indies
Holland's
East
(after
ejectionof Portugal
in the 17th. century) ^alsoin Formosa
and Brazil;
the Indians
of England's
(2) efforts to convert
North American
colonies begun by Roger Williams
Eliot
(1631), John
(1646) and the Mayhews
mission established
(1650); (3) the Danish-Halle
in 1705 by the King of Denmark
in Danish
India
^

"

(Tranquebar). The latterwas a fruitful movement

the
Pietists,
leadershipof the German
Plutschau
and Schwartz.
Ziegenbalg,
under

Of the present epoch of

Universal Missions.
universal missions the precursors were
the German
Moravians
(q.v.),the first evangelicalcommunion
stirred to action by the claims of heathen humanity
1732
From
apart from colonial considerations.
onward, they went to the crudest and remotest
land
peoples,from Lapland to South Africa,from Greento the Guianas.
The
Wesleyan revival in
England preparedthe way for the largerenterprise
inaugurated by William Carey, whose foundation
of the Baptist Missionary Society (1792),followed
by his colossal work in India (1793-1834),effectively
Here
voiced the call of the world to Christendom,
began the rapid rise of the missionary societies
which continued to be formed throughout the 19th.
century in Great Britain,and her English-speaking
in America, and on the European continent
colonies,
(Germany, Holland, France, Switzerland,Scandi"

28vi

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

navia). Following Carey's organization quickly

the London
arose
Missionary Society (1795),the
Edinburgh and Glasgow Societies (1796), the
Church
Missionary Society (1799) and others.
The first in the United
States were
the American
Board
of Commissioners
(Congregational)(1810),
and the American
Baptist Union
(1814). World
Statistics of Christian Missions
Usts 412 societies
besides 287
now
directingwork in foreignfields,
auxiliaryorganizations. Of these about 100 have
arisen in mission lands.
Woman's
organized work
which began in England in 1837, and in America
on
a
largerscale in 1861 has been a powerful
instrument
of missionarypromotion. Of Protestant
and
there
missionaries,men
are
women,
24,500 (of whom
10,700 proceed from the U.S.) at
work
in 34,793 stations and outstations
in all
mission lands.
The native helpersnumber
111,469.
The
income
of all Protestant
societies for 1920
Catholic missions,which
was
$47,541,859. Roman
suffered echpse in the 18th. century, have revived
since 1822.
They report a foreignforce of 12,000
priests,
6,000 brothers,20,000 sisters. The Russian
maintains
Orthodox
missions
in Russia
Church
Siberia,Japan and Alaska.
(For the
proper,
present scope and status of missions in different
fields see articles on respectivecountries.).
Since the Edinburgh Conference
(1910) and
the Panama
prise
Congress (1916) the Protestant enterhas undergone a process
of survey
and selfresults are
criticism,whose
rapidly developing
into a science of missions.
The
(British)Board
of Studies and the (American) Board of Missionary
Preparation (1912) are
promoting faciUties for
the specialtraining of future missionaries.
The
latest significant
step in the development of a
the approval by
missionary statesmanship was
the Foreign Missions Conference
of North America
(Garden City, 1921) of the International Missionary
Committee.
Chaeles T. Paul
MITER

MITRE."

or

An

official head-dress

designating official ecclesiastical position, worn

by bishops,patriarchs,and some abbots.
MITHRAISM."

See Mystery

Religions, III.

MIXCOATL.
A prehistoric
Mexican
god, called
"cloud serpent,''
who was
credited with the making
of fireand functioned as the patron deityof hunting.
He was
undoubtedly in origina lightninggod.
"

MOABITES."
The
inhabitants
of the land of
which
lay along the eastern shore of the
Dead
Sea, and south of the territoryof Reuben.
See MoABiTE
Stone.
Hebrew
tradition recognizes them
of close
as
kin to Israel,
and as having become
a settled people
The relations
priorto Israel's entry into Canaan.
of the two peoples were
less frequentlyhostile than
the case between
Israel and any other immediate
was
neighbours. This was due in part to the fact that
the Dead
Sea separated them.
The
Moabites
have
to
seem
worshiped one
national god, viz.,Chemosh
(Num.
21:29; Jer.
is called Ashtar-Chemosh
the
48:26), who
on
Moabite
Stone.
This latter name
would
to
seem
indicate that a goddess was
associated with Chemosh.
The same
is reflected in the
type of religion
Baal-Peor
story of
(Num.
25:1-5). Human
sacrifice was
also practiced, at least in critical
situations (II Kings 3:27). They made
no
nent
permacontribution to history. J. M. Powis Smith

Moab,

MOABITE

STONE."
An inscription
of Mesha,
found
in 1868
Dhiban
a.d.
at
by the Rev. F. Klein,an English

King of Moab,
(Dibon) in Moab

AND

ETHICS

Modernism

missionary. It records in ancient Hebrew

acters
charand speech Mesha's
successful revolt from
Israel's sovereignty which
had been
imposed on
Moab
by Omri and Ahab.
The stone which
was
shattered by the natives after Klein's discovery
has been restored
Moabites.

and

is

now

in the

Louvre.

See

MODALISM.
An
trine
interpretationof the docof the Trinity,which regards the three "persons"
"modes"
in which the one
as
God manifests
Himself.
"

MODERATES
and MODERATISM."
A party
in the Scotch church
that during the last half of
the 18th. century advocated a pohcy of accommodation
to the spiritof the time.
With
formal
no
creed it allowed wide
latitude of opinion, and
emphasizedthe ethical requirementsof Christianity.
It sought ministers
whose
teachmg and social
commend
qualitieswould
rehgion to the upper
classes who
had
been
aUenated by traditional
theology. Its failure to raise ministerial standards,
and to attract the educated, and its support of the
arbitrary and increasingly
unpopular system of
patronage, gradually lessened its control in the
General Assembly, until with the secession of the
Church
Free
it passed into eclipse. See Free
Church
Scotland.
op
Peter
G. Mode

MODERATOR."

The
of the presiding
name
Presbyterianbodies,session,presbytery,
synod, and general assembly, and in some

officer in the

other democratic

church

bodies.

MODERNISM."
A critical and Uberal movement
within
the Roman
CathoUc
demned
church, conin 1907.
1. History. During the last two decades of the
19th. century, two brilliant scholars in the Catholic
Institute at
Alfred
and
Paris, Louis Duschene
Loisy,employed radical historical criticism in the
of biblical and
treatment
ecclesiastical material.
As a consequence,
of
modifications
considerable
the traditional Catholic positionsappeared, and the
ultimate decision of certain important questions
found in critical scholarshiprather than in
was
XIII.
ecclesiasticalpronouncements.
Pope Leo
biblical studies to
appointed a commission
on
formulate approved CathoUc
principlesin this
realm, and in other ways
attempted to bring
officialpressure on Catholic teachers.
Pope Pius X.
took
more
vigorous action, bringing about the
condemnation
of five of Loisy's books
in 1903.
On
decree
July 3, 1907 he issued the famous
Lamentabili
sane
exitu, in which 65 propositions
were
proscribedand condemned.
Loisy immediately
acknowledged certain of these as his own
teaching,
and the warfare
was
on.
Sept. 8, 1907, the pope
issued the encyclical
PasceJidi Dominid
regis,
letter,
ings
which in detail expounded and criticized the teachthe
of the hberal group,
and
name
gave
Modernism
to the movement,
characterizingit as
"the synthesisof all heresies."
Vigorous repressive
of a few
taken and in the course
measures
were
either silenced or compelled
were
years modernists
to withdraw
from the church.
In addition to the
French
scholars mentioned
above, Father George
Murri
in Italy
Tyrrell in England, and Romolo
"

were

leadingspirits.

makes
2. Content.
While Modernism
cant
signifimodifications in the doctrines of CathoUcism,
its most important feature is its adoption of critical
scholarshipas the ultimate court of appyeal. This is
gramme
made
clear in the notable
document. The Proof the Modernists, anonymously issued
in reply to the papal encyclical.
Modernism
treats
"

Modernist

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

historical movement,
a
beginning
Jewish,messianic faith attached to the person of
Jesus, subsequentlydevelopingunder Hellenistic
as
Christianity

as

the
influences into the system of doctrine which
administered
Catholic church
through the Middle
science makes
imperative a further
Ages. Modern
in the
development of Christian ideas. Thus
communicated
to the
place of a system originally
that
church in perfection,
the modernist
contends
have a Christian ideal ceaselessly
we
developing in
human
history. The
self-identityof this ideal
under changing forms constitutes the unity of true
Catholicism.
The modernist
thus regards external
doctrines and rites as merely relative. The papal
the end of the
encyclicalinsists that this would mean
authorityof the CathoUc church.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
MODERNIST."
A term
currently applied to
those who
conceive the task of religiousinterpretation
to be that of setting forth the rehgious
significanceof present-day ideals rather than
the
beliefs. See
reproduction of authorized
Modernism.
ROBERT
(1795-1883)." Scottish
MOFFAT,
missionary to South Africa,a pioneer explorerand
the natives.
indefatigableworker among
of
(died 632 a. d.)." Founder
rehgion and civilization which Western
people
after him, Mohammedanism.
name
Trustworthy records of his early days are
wanting. The date of birth usuallygiven,570 a.d.,
is the earhest possible; more
probable is a date
5-15 years later. His own
words (Koran, Sur. 93)
describe him as an
orphan, perhaps a foundling,
lower
middle
adopted into a poverty-stricken
class family of Mecca.
MOHAMMED

the

His

first rise in the social scale

came

with

his

marriage to the well-to-do widow Khadljah. With

affluence and
leisure assured, obscure
of
rays
Christian and Jewish monotheism
began powerfully
few others before
to impress him, as they had
a
him.
His native
ability for leadershipasserted
and he felt these impressionsto be prophetic
itself,
revelations which
he must
impart to others. He
began to do this,after a period of mental anguish,
in his own
family. Outside his family the first
Abu
notable convert
was
Bakr, a clever,steady,
weU-to-do
lower middle class merchant.
The rich banker-lords of Mecca
viewed Mohammed's
actions at firstwith patronizingcomplaisance.
When
'Uthman
of the noble
'Umayyad family
that their social
was
converted, and they saw
and
profitswere
system
threatened,
they tried to
annihilate the reformer by insolent and implacable
opposition. This was
strong enough to make
'Uthman
with
Mohammed
send
number
of
a
to Christian Abyssinia (he
wavering adherents
knew
and his
difference between
no
Christianity
teaching),to seek protectionand perhaps military
conversion
of the fiery
aid against Mecca.
The
lower middle
class 'Umar
and able but distinctly
converts.
The
new
brought new
hopes and some
and

upper

classes,
however, proved too strong, especially

AND

ETHICS

290

A simple,
but very rigidmonotheism, an ill-defined
bit of ritual,kindness
in need, and
to fellowmen
med's
a lurid eschatology
: from firstto last this is MohamIt is revealed in bits from a perfect
message.
heavenly book; system and consistency are not
essential. Freewill and fatalism vary with Mohammed's
moods
and needs.
Former
prophets(among
them Alexander the Great) become
in Mohammed's
mind
of himself,and warning
"Virgilianshadows"
examples of peopleswho opposed them are adduced
in bewildering
confusion in the latter half of this
is a mere
period. Throughout Mohammed
ing
warnbut
in authority,
voice,increasingsomewhat
not
yet on a par with great prophets like Jesus
and Abraham, never
ambassador
as yet God's
potentiary
pleniTo

this

degree he advances

in

Yathrib, presently

called al-Medina, "the city,"namely of the prophet.

Thither he was
called by that city'sArabic overlords,
embroiled in deadly feud amongst themselves,
with none
of their own
able to heal the breach and
stave off ruin.
Three Jewish tribes in their midst
made the quite un- Arabic worldview
and messiapic
less
somewhat
hope proclaimed by Mohammed
The
unacceptable to them.
Hidjra, "emigration"
(notflight!)
to Medina, 622 a.d., sets its imprint on
ism
the rest of Mohammed's
life and on Mohammedanto this day.
positionand
From^the beginningMohammed's
attitude in Medina
different from those of
are
very
Meccan
days. Here he is at the top of the social
influence
other
leader's prestige and
scale, no
munity
greater than his. Called to create a unified comhe naively approached the Jews, about
whose religion
he knew as littlein detail as he knew
of Christianity. He learned and accepted from
and of
them elements of ritual (settimes of prayer
public service,fasting,direction of prayer at first
toward Jerusalem),fragments of Old Testament
history,bits of law and perhaps larger things m
the developing ideal of a theocratic political
organ!
He
zation.
But he found the Jews unassimilable.
could not be Messiah
of the Jews, so he would be
drawn
Messiah
of the Arabs.
Inevitably he was
For this he needed
into the nationalisticcurrent.
Mecca.
He discovered
he thought it revealed to
the
him
since Abraham
through Ishmael was
forefather of the Arabs, that the great Meccan
be of Abrahamic origin and musi
sanctuary must
be restored to Abrahamic
purity. Five greate./
spersed
Intercampaigns subjectedMecca to his command.
ness
of varying harshwith these were
measures
and
which eliminated the Jews from Medina
made
One
really
tributary those of its environs.
bloody battle tamed the surrounding Bedouin and
Mohammed
"king of the
Taitf. He was now
gave
i

"

"

Hidjdz."
He was
master of all Arabia and
by no means
he scarcelydreamed
of actual conquest beyond it.
But his name
was
great throughput the peninsula
felt to its farthest corners.
and his influence was
God's
law to many;
he was
His nod was
to them
Arabs
were
flocking to
plenipotentiary. Many
the banners, bounty, and booty of Islam, rather
would
follow
than to its beliefs and laws, which
in due time.
And thus death overtook Mohammed
in 632, his work
well begun, but roughhewn and
medanism.
MohamSee Koran;
unfinished
all hands.
on
M. Spkengling

after the death

of Khadijah and of his "uncle
and
protector Abu Talib. A gentleman'sagreement
Mohammed
forced
to abstain
was
upon
from further propagandain Mecca.
An
attempt
to gain a footmg in the aristocratic Alpine city of
The
MOHAMMEDANISM."
religionfounded
Taif proved very nearly fatal. A period of hopelessness
It is properly
610-30
ca.
A.D.
ensued, Mohammed
castingabout for a
by Mohammed.
The Meccan
called Islam, "surrender"
of self to God, its promore
promising field outside Mecca.
fessors
Muslims
be best to
period of Islam's beginnings, usuallyplaced by
(Moslems). It may
have
schematic
this
for
at
not
the religionproper, using the
10 years, may
reserve
name
conjecture
total of the
been more
for the sum
No decided doctrinal, term
Mohammedanism
than 3-5 years.
or
organizationaldevelopmentis discernible. civilizationwrought by it or in connection with it.
ritual,

291

I. History.
Koran.
had
made

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

For its beginningssee

med,
MohamAfter Mohammed's
death, for which
he
no
provision, his first successors
Abu Bakr and
(caUphs,i.e.,
lieutenants,
vicegerents),
'Umax
of Mohammed's
(seeMohammed), were men
inner circle. With no desire to conquer
convert
or
the world, they merely attempted to hold together
the reUgio-poUtical
had
organism which Mohammed
left as the realm
of Allah and
Islam. Force of
to hold turbulent Arabs,
arms
was
so
necessary
impatient of any
politicalcontrol. Unexpected
of a very
able general (Khalid, "the
successes
Sword
of God," an
aristocratic Meccan), huge
accretions
to
glory- and
booty-laden Moslem
of neighboringByzantium
armies, the weakness
and Persia after a terrific war
against each other,
necessityof keeping the momentarily unified,
the_
of Arabic
warriors
nationalistically
proud masses
satisfied with ever
new
forays and plunder these
things made
early Islam practically
synonymous
with a conquering Arabic empire.
of
Syria,a largepart
Egypt with Lybiar
Persia,
Cyrenaica, and
conquered,
Mesopotamia were
when
with the third caliph 'Uthman
med)
(see Mohamthis great, growing empire was
taken in hand
by the old patrician family of the 'Umayyads.
Thejrheld sway (except for the brief reign of
inefficient
'Alt,the prophet's son-in-law,656-661
a.d.) for something over
a
century, a period of
marvelous
expansion to the Pyrenees and Sicily,
beyond the Oxus and the Indus, with campaigns to
their
was
Constantinople. Arab world dominion
Islam, religiousabsorption of the great reaches
and
heterogeneous masses
following slowly and
without
official applicationof force.
followed by kin of the prophet,but
They were
not
of 'All's numerous
offspring the 'Abbasids,
who rode to power on the principleof a prophetic
dynasty and on the shoulders of a largely nonArabic army.
At their advent the simple religious
code of Islam and the language of the Arabs was
firmly planted; for the rest the balance began
naturallyto swing in favor of the non-Arab.
Cycles
of centuries siun
the Abbasids:
a
century of
up
energeticrulers (bestknown, not best, Hariin arRashld); a century of Turkish praetorian guard
of the palace;
rule; a century of Persian mayors
Sultans
a
(speedily
century of Seljuk Turkish
absorbed
expansive
by Islam, giving renewed
in Asia Minor); a century of decentralized
power
disorder (Saladin the outstanding figure). Then
ruthless Mongols (Jenghiz Khan, Hulagu) swept
the Abbasid
Caliphs (1258),with much that
away
that
was
great and fine (art,learning)and some
evil (secret
was
societyof Assassins)in the civiUzation of the once
great Abbasid realm.
absorbed
in turn
With
the Mongol invaders
"

"

"

by Islam, the following century once

brief promise of a universal Mohammedan

more

gave

empire

After him Mongol

in hither and central
wanes
rapidly away
power
Asia, but leaves an afterglowin the expansion of
whose
Islam in India under
the Mogul emperors,
rule is brought to an end with Englishsuzerainty.
world first the Mameluke
In the Mediterranean
Turkish
soldier)sultans of Egypt,
(i.e.,
mercenary
and
dynasty,
presently the growing Ottoman
bureaucracy, and armies, not Turkish, but mixed,
of leading
the position
in language,takes over
even
therewith
what
is left
and
Mohammedan
power
of realityin the institution of the Caliphate.
Since ca. 1500 Persia is definitely
separatedfrom
less
world and leads a more
the Mediterranean
or
independent national existence under Shiite (see
broke
below) rulers. Spanish Mohammedanism
times to independence,at
in early Abbassid
away
able 'Umayyad
first glorious under
an
dynasty,
with the conqueror

Tamerlane.

AND

ETHICS

Mohammedanism

presentlyreceding with Berber domination

before
the pressure
of Europe, until it is thrust back to
Africa. Berber and Egyptian North Africa have
histonr of their own
had much
and
have
at all
times proved difficultto control for long by any
outside Mohammedan
Recent
democratic
power.
experiments in Mohammedan
lands
not
have
thus far proved very successful,
partly by reason
of too much
Em-opean interference. At present
all real poUticalindependence for Mohammedan
peoples is imder an eclipse,whether temporal or
permanent remains to be seen.
II. The
Religious
As a religion
Divisions.
Islam claims, and is from the beginningclosely
connected
with, politicalsovereignty. It has,
however,been shown that the two did not always
advance together. At firstsovereigntyoutran
gious
relitime now
expansion;for some
religious
sion
expanhas begun to outstripthe waning boundaries
of sovereignty.If Islam in Russia,China, and the
Malay island world to the Philippinescannot be
said to have taken firm root without military
and
aid, the peacefulpenetration of Islam
political
m
Africa,proceedingapace at the presentmoment,
cannot be gainsaid.
As with the political
unity, so also with the
well.
unity of Islam it has not gone
religious
The firstdivisions of this nature are largelypolitical
in origin. As against the great catholic mass
of
Islam, the Sunnites
(literally"traditionalists";,
the greatest schismatic
body within Islam, itself
the Shiites. Shiites means
are
men
variouslysplit,
of the party {sht'a),
viz.,of 'All (see above). With
this party from
less wild, synthe first more
or
cretistic,
gnostic, apocalyptic and eschatological
in Persia,
religiousideas,and presently,especially
ethnic
and
nationalistic aspirations
peculiarities
had a
the Shiites
From
way of joiningthemselves.
proceeded the great extravagant sects of the
and
the
Babt-Behdis
Druses
(q.v.). Another
is
schismatic
mention
which
deserves
movement
that of the Kh"ridjites(literally
"the forthgoers").
They went forth,protestingagainst any feasible
'All's armies.
form
of external
authority, from
divisions they clung to
Split into innumerable
existence with a tenacityworthy of a better cause.
On the one hand they produced the extravagantsect
of the Yezldts or so-called devil worshippers; on
the other hand they are stillfound in isolated communities,
from
distinguishedin little but name
the surrounding mass
of catholic Sunnite Islam.
ology
III. Religious
Beliefs.
In early Islam theand
few vague
The
was
a
simple matter.
held to
of Mohammed
were
general formulations
with more
suffice for all needs.
Contact
developed
Christian (John of Damascus,
theologies,chiefly
started philosophizbut also Jewish,and others,
ing
etc.),
A period oi illand
theologizingin Islam.
"

"

disciplinedand presentlyfanatical rationalizing

formulation)of the
ensued,the kcddm (philosophical
hold
aloof"
who
Mu'tazilites
(literally"those
from extremes,"those who remain neutral" between
parties). Then
orthodox, catholic Islam began
its own
formulation
{kaldm), which issued in the
scholastic formulae of Ash'arl (theAquinas of Islam,
of Ghazdll.
vital statements
died 932) and the more
See GhazalI, al.
These two are the standards of
orthodox
Islam to this day. For about a century
and a half now
sort of Calvinist-Puritan reform
a
of
the use
movement
(forbidding saintworship,
hold
tobacco,etc.)has gainedand retained a firm footcentral Arabia, spreading thence
in north
Late political
developments
ment
movebeen unfavorable to it. A modernist
in India, Egypt, Constantinople, etc., can
hardly be said to have gainedrecognizedstanding as

especiallyto India.
have

yet.

DICTIONARY

Moksha

OF

RELIGION

Law,
Between
Islam
as
its theological
formulation and Islam
theocratic politicalorganism Mohammedan
as
a
law occupies a sort of middle ground. Mohammed
of laws and that little
had left little in the way
suitable for special problems of the primitive
and Medina
society of early Mecca
only and not
troubles,
systematically organized. With
many
disputes,and quarrels his followers succeeded at
law,
length in creating a usable body of canon
regulatingevery minute of a reallypious Muslim's
about
fictitiousprecedentswoven
Ufe,by usingchiefly
idealized figureof Mohammed,
his sayings and
the_
actions. The debates issued in four great schools,
all accepted
and now
only in nonessentials,
differing
The use of "analogy,"
as
part of catholic Islam.
and the acceptance
i.e.,
remotely similar precedent,
of what
the Mohammedan
community in general
established
an
as
fact, provide in
agrees
upon
for the contingenciesof changing
some
measure
and
conditions.
A
permanent
really tenable
the operations of the civil
modus
Vivendi between
non-Mohammedan
law
of a
Mohammedan
or
law has not yet been
modern
state and this canon
found.
in all their branches
The
now
Mohammedans
number
between
250,000,000.
200,000,000 and
to be
Despite their politicaldecline they appear
growing and expanding. Only in a few isolated
places have Christian missions succeeded in halting
sions
Catholic Christian misor
retardingthis advance.
medans
Mohamsort have been active among
of some
since the days of the Crusades.
Protestant
of greater
of later date, but now
missions
are
and financial strength. American
mission
extent
work has produced two great schools in the Mohammedan
world
(Beyrouth and
Constantinople).
(Church Missionary Society)
English missions
of medical and sanitahave done much
in the way
tional work.
Actual
conversions
to Christianity
neither frequentnor
It has been
are
numerous.
with just enough
said that Islam was
inoculated
to
it immune.
make
Christianity and Judaism
Extravagant hopes of a sudden change based on
be received
recent politicaldevelopments should
with
caution.
For
characteristic
feature
of
a
modern
Mohammedan
piety and religiouslife,see
M. Sprengling
Dervish.
IV.

Mohammedan

and
religion

"

AND

is believed

by

ETHICS
be at the time of

to

worship possessed

deity or spirit.

MONADISM

MONADOLOGY."
or
universe
be
can

theory that
terms

292

the
of ultimate

The

explained in
monads, or self-completeunits,
of fundamental
centers
are
forces, such
the philosophical
systems of Bruno, Leibniz,
and Lotze.
Bruno's system was
pantheism,
monads
eternal and mirrors of deity.
were

which
in
as
Wolff
hence
Leibniz

said that

represent the

the different orders of monads

universe each in its own
way,

same

and all are organizedby

due to the will of God.

pre-established
harmony

MONASTICISM."

A system of religiousdiscipline
intended
to keep the devotee
pure in life
and free from worldly practices.
Christian Monasticism is the resultant of various
ascetic tendencies within
primitive Christianity
itselfor in those circlesof Jewish and Greek thought
with which
into contact.
Christianity
early came
While Jesus himself was
not an
nence
ascetic,his abstifrom marriage, his countenance
of fasting
(Matt. 4:2; 6:16) and his approval of continence
(Matt. 19:22) lent itself unquestionably to an
ascetic
interpretation.These
tendencies
were
marked
in Paul (Gal.5:17; I Cor. 9:27;
even
more
7 : 5,8, 25-40)
They were reinforced by the teaching
by the dualistic
of^the Essenes, and still more
ideas imbedded in both Persian and Greek thought.
All these influences combined
in the 2nd. and 3rd.
centuries in the development of ascetic classes
within the church (Virgins,Widows, Encratites)
and
the conception of a double
standard, those
devoted
to asceticism being regarded as Christians
of a higher order.
From
these ascetic tendencies
Monasticism.
grew
1. Eastern
Monasticism.
1. Eremites. Secularization
in the church of the 3rd. century produced
eremitic or
hermit
monasticism
(Egypt,
Asia Minor). St. Anthony (d. ca. 355),
Palestine,
who
in
spent over
eighty years in retirement
Egypt, was the firstand most noted of these hermit
monks.
2. Cenohites.
Hermit
monasticism
speedily
monasticism.
developed into cenobitic or group
Pachomius
(d. ca. 346) built in Egypt the first
monastery, and formulated a rule involving
solitude,
The
word
for salvation
MOKSHA.
in the
The movement
labor,fastingand prayer.
spread
both East and West.
religioussystems of India.
II. Western
Monasticism.
ing
visit^Athanasius,
The
MOLINISM."
doctrine
of Luis MoUna
Rome
ca.
340, introduced
a
knowledge of
(1535-1600),a Spanish Jesuit and his followers v/ho
rnonasticism to the West,
It caught the iraaginamerit without
attempted to make a place for human
In the early 5th. century Jerome
wrote
tion._
detracting from the doctrine of predestination, glowingly of monastic
ideals, while Ambrose
claiming that God's foreknowledge of how man
of Milan, Martin
of Tours, and
Augustine of
will choose enables him to decree exactlywhat will
Hippo established monasteries.
take place.
1. Benedictines.
Benedict
of
Nursia, early
6th. century, determined the form western monasticism
DE
MIGUEL
The
(1640-1697)."
MOLINOS,
to assume
was
by givingit a Rule in which
of the
founder
of quietism in Spain and author
manual
and intellectuallabor was
combined
with
His
mysticism spread among
Spiritual Guide.
took the threefold
religiousexercises. The monks
and
and
Cathohcs
Protestants
Roman
brought
of poverty, chastityand obedience.
vow
By the
Jesuit opposition,culminating in his condemnation
on
10th. centurythe Benedictine
Rule was
dominant
in
and confinement
by the Inquisition
At the height of its
everywhere in the West.
a Dominican
monastery.
this Order included 37,000 monasteries.
prosperity
gathered,
Learningwas fostered. Libraries were
MOLOCH.
A West-Semitic
deity,probably a
manuscripts copied, and
agriculture developed.
solar deity and symbolized by two pillars
and by a
Theoretically abandoning the world, its monks
human
bull. His cult included fire-worship,
sacrifice,
actuallycame to rule both the world and the church.
cult was
self-mutilations.
and
The
probably of
For the Order furnished
22 popes,
200 cardinals,
Phoenician
origin.
and 4,000bishops. The decline of the Order through
secularization led to the establishment
of various
Sects.
MOLOKANS."
See Russian
reform congregations (Cluniacs,Carthusians, Cistercians)
In
the
MOMENTARY
GODS."
which in turn underwent
the same
history of
process
which
of decay.
an
object,such as a fetish or idol,
reUgions,
.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

293

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Montanism

conceived
as fiUed with
spiritsand powers of all
kinds.
See
Primitive
of.
Peoples, Religion
With the development of a unified culture,religion
being during the Crusades, to protect and care
is similarlyunified. Thus
for pilgrims
the
united
to the holy places. They
higher religions
almost always monotheistic
with chivalric ideals. The
Mendicant
monastic
are
or monistic.
1.
Personal
ethical
ideal
arises from
combined
or
monotheism
Orders
the
(13th. century)
of_a
of the pantheon of gods to a
Ufe of practicalhelpfulnessin the world (Francis- the exaltation of one
and
position. The other gods are more
supreme
cansj with the defense of the faith (Dominicans)
subordinated
until at last they virtuallydisappear.
through preaching and
discipline(Inquisition).more
At just what point in the process a religion
With
the Jesuit Order
(16th.century), established
be called monotheistic
is uncertain;for
can
by Loyola to combat
Protestantism,monasticisra
tant
m
practice subordinate
objects of veneration or
"passed out of the cell forever" to become a miliH. Walker
Henry
force in the world.
worship often continue in a nominally monotheistic
religion. The religionof Israel is the best known
The
doctrine that regeneraMONERGISM."
example of the development of personalmonotheism.
tion
Here the tribal God, Yahweh, ultimately became
is effected exclusivelyby divine gi*ace, with
will.
See Syncontribution
from the human
worshiped as the sole God, although for most of
no
the period of Israelitish historythe reality
of other
taken
for granted. Christianity
and
gods was
Mohammedanism
inherited the theology of Jewish
MONISM.
The
explanationof the universe
monotheism.
Mohammedanism
in contrast
and of Ufe in terms of a singleprinciple,
especiallystresses
the affirmation of one God, and accuses
Pluralism
to DuaUsm
or
Christianity
(qq.v.).
of harboring polytheism in its doctrine
of the
Philosophersand religiousleaders often seek to
the contradictions and conflicts found in
Trinity.
overcome
2. Metaphysical monotheism
is due to the unifying
our
experienceof the world by reducing all the
of philosophical thought. The
ultimate
variety to a singleprincipleor origin. Complete
substance
is
or
principlewhich unifies the cosmos
rationalityand complete religiousloyalty would
by ideaUstic philosophy interpreted in terms of
thus be made possible.
God.
it is identified with
A monistic philosophy is reached
by selecting inteUigence. Hence
The relation of this ultimate unity to the multt="
of the many
one
some
aspects of experience as
of thingsin the world is variouslyinterpreted.
tive.
and treatingall other aspects as derivaplicity
supreme
There
be a large recognitionof personality
thus may
be either optimisticor
Monism
may
in God, in which
materialistic. Typical
have theism or deism;
case
we
or
spiritualistic
pessimistic,
there may
be a stressingof purely logicaland
or
that of neoplatonism,with an
forms of monism
are
all realityemanates;
metaphysical factors,in which case we have pan/ ) indefinable Infinite from which
theism.
In generalthe word monotheism
is appUed
?Ke~ aJtEinStollMZlSubstance of Spinoza, whicTi
^ )
of existence;the
differentiates itself Into "modes"
only to the former type. See God; Monism.
finite
Gerald
Smith
Birney
any
) ganlpgismof Hegel, according to which
MONOTHELITES."
The
in the all-inclusive process of
designation of the
reahty is a moment
that Christ had only one
infinite thought; the pessimistic
party which maintained
conception of
''^'^
will. They opposed ^the advocates
of orthodoxy
viewed alT^existence as the
Schopenhauer, who
declared
that
in Christ
the two
natures
strivingof sheer will; and the quasi- who
unintelligent
wills. The
involved two
Lateran
of Haeckel, who positsa universe
Synod (649)
c!\s"ien.tifii5_monism
^
decided againstMonothelitism; and Dyothehtism
of hylozoisticatoms
capable of producing out of
declared to be orthodoxy by
all the different forms of existence.
themselves
(q.v.)was
officially
the 6th. Ecumenical
makes
Council
at
the religious
From
Constantinople
point of view monism
(680).
possiblean entire surrender of the soul to God, since
in
defects
Evils
are
God is all in all.
regarded as
MONSIGNOR."
A R.C. ecclesiastical title of
tive
our
apprehension of realityrather than as posifactors. Mystical devotion
honor, formerly reserved to Cardinals,now
given
accompanied by
to bishops and
abstruse metaphysical speculationsconstitute the
priestswho have been appointed
astical
ecclesiChristian
in India, and
ideal life. Brahmanism
honorary papal chaplains,and to all higher
world are
Science in the western
dignitariesin general.
thorough-going
in Germany
made
monistic religions.An attempt was
merly
MONSTRANCE."
A
on
to estabhsh a non-theistic monistic religion
transparent vessel forused by the
used to display relics but now
the basis of HaeckePs
R.C. Church
exhibit
the
consecrated host.
to
form of dynamic physfcaHiieoTyand an organization
Also called Ostensorium.
formed
to propacalled the Monistenbund
was
gate
Smith
Gerald
Birney
this faith.
in
MONTANISM.
that arose
A movement
The founders,
the Phrygian church about 156 a.d.
The doctrine that Christ
MONOPHYSITISM."
had
but one
Montanus(whence the name), Prisca,andMaximilla,
nature, a
composite divine-human
claimed to be prophets,receivinga special
revelation
positionpolemicallydeveloped in oppositionto the
beUeved
in a
from
Montanists
the
Paraclete.
decision of the council of Chalcedon
(451),which
distinct
existence of two
held to the unconfused
rigid legaUsm with ascetic tendencies,which led
of
claims of a monopoly
them
and
the divine, in Christ.
to extravagant
natures, the human
tinction
at Constantinople
At the 5th. General Council
Christianity. They first enunciated the dispure
mortal and venial sins,afterwards
condemned.
The
between
(553 A.D.) Monophysitism was
In doctrine they
Monophysites(adherentsof Eutychian Christology) adopted by the Catholic church.
did not differ fundamentally from orthodoxy, save
united in the 6th. century under
a
Syrian
were
for an emphasis on primitiveeschatology. In the
Monk
Jacob, and this sect stillexists as the Jacobite
church.
See Etjtyches.
beginning of the 3rd. century a modified form of
Montanism
appeared in North Africa which was
in the
The belief in one, and only
MONOTHEISM."
primarily a protest against secularism
TertuUian
church.
God.
(q.v.)identified himself with
one,
with polyMonotheism
is usually contrasted
which, however, disappeared in the
theism. the movement
4th. century.
the world is
In early stages of human
life,
2. Later

developments. The
"

(TemplarsjHospitalers,etc.)

Military Orders

were

called into

"

pEITosbphyporsOffie^sIInttar

"

Montgomery,

James

MONTGOMERY,
hymn writer

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

JAMES
(1771-1854)."English
religiouspoet; a member
of the Moravian
himself
renowned
for his
church,
piety and philanthropy; author of several famiUar
hymns.
and

LYMAN
DWIGHT
(1837-1899)."
D.
Ira
evangelist; conducted, with
and
Sankey, evangelisticcampaigns in America
England with marked
organized schools
success;
at Northfield,Mass., and
at Chicago for training
along biblical and practicalUnes, and initiated the

AND

ETHICS

294

moral
sense.
Hutcheson.

The
most
important exponent was
torical
Empirical psychology and the hisdonment
study of morality have led to an abanof the conception. Social sympathy is
taken as the primary source
of moral emotion.
now
See Conscience; Intuitionalism.

MOODY,

American

"Northfield
Conferences"
the religious
Ufe.

held

ening
annuallyfor quick-

MORAL
THEOLOGY."
In general,the ethical
from the doctrinal portionof systemdistinguished
atic
CathoUc
theology. In the Roman
system, it is
elaborated for the guidance of father confessors so
to adjust penance
as
to the sins confessed. See
as

Casuistry.

MORALITY.-^ee
Ethics.
MORAL
for the
ARGUMENT."
The evidence
MORALITY
existence of God
PLAY."
A
derived from the logicalimpUcadramatized
allegory
didactic in purpose.
tions of mora! facts. It is one
of the four so-called
Though allegory was
proofs of the existence of God, the others being
popular throughout the
and the teleological Middle
abstract
the ontological,
the cosmological,
Ages, and
figures sometimes
the earUest
appeared in early mystery plays (q.v.),
arguments.
known
of pure allegoryfor drama
If our
moral convictions are
dates from
use
vaUd, there must
about
be something in the cosmic order to uphold them.
1400.
The
masterpiece of early moralities,
Belief in goodness involves belief in a moral order.
into English
Everyman, translated from Dutch
about 1500, deals with the appraisement of Man's
stressed the moral argument,
Kant
(q.v.)especially
fife at the coming of Death.
The
ates
most
frequent
holding that morality is irrational unless it eventuin happiness,and unless it is capable of being
morality theme, however, especiallyin England,
the conflict between
Virtue and Vice (to be
was
developed to perfection. Our temporal lifedoes not
the reality traced back
through medieval
allegoriesto Pruguarantee these; hence we must assume
dentius' Psychomachia, ca. 400). In The
of another realm in which God rewards virtue and
Castle
moral perfection.Gerald
Genus
Birney
Smith
falls
of Perseverance (ca. 1425) Humanum
secures
into sin through Luxuria, reforms, and withstands
LAW.
MORAL
A
principleof moral right the assaults of the Seven Deadly Sins under the
which it is man's duty to obey.
leadershipof the World, the Flesh, and the Devil.
Moral law is usuallyunderstood
expression But he sins again in age, and is saved at the coming
as an
of the ultimate principles
of the moral order in the
of Death only through the intercession of Mercy and
of
Peace against the demands
of Justice and Truth.
universe,as law of nature expresses the principles
cosmic order.
The
idea presupposes
an
objective Early in the 16th. century the influence of the
Renaissance
and interprets
metaphysical basis for moral distinctions,
frequentlytransferred the conflict from
ethical conduct in terms
the field of religionto that of government, as in
of obedience
to law.
of education, as in a
In legaUsm (q.v.)moral law is traced to the specific Skelton's Magnificence,or
of God.
series of English plays with Wit
and Science as
commands
Philosophicalethics refers it to
chief characters.
the eternal nature
of reality as
constituted
From
the
by
Germany
Prodigal
divine wisdom.
The most
of educational
vigorous interpretation Son theme was introduced into a number
moralities.
of the concepcion is found
in Kant's
ethics. He
the
During the Reformation
defined moralityas obedience to the commands
of the
moralitywas freelyused for church polemics. Later
with personified
sins narrowed
to
categoricalimperative, and insisted on voluntary
rehgiousmoralities,
submission
the
often approximated farce. At
to
requirements of absolutely a few comic figures,
rational moral maxims.
introduced
Popular ethics to a large last a singlefigure,called the Vice,was
tative
in transitional Renaissance
extent picturesmorality as obedience
to an authoriplays to furnish a plot
moral
law.
The
the
conception preserves
through his intriguesand comic interest through
his buffoonery. Of these plays the masterpiece is
dignity and authority of moral principles,but a
historical study of ethics shows
the tragedy Nice Wanton.
that the actual
By 1580 the moraUty
of any particular
moral law is derived from
content
as a type practically
disappeared.
C. R. Baskervill
the exigenciesof human
experience. See Ethics;
MORAVIAN
BRETHREN."
Dissatisfied with
Sense.
Conscience; Law of Nature; Moral
the Utraquists (followers
Gerald
Birney
Smith
of Hus
who
had insisted
OBLIGATION."
MORAL
A requirement laid
granting the sacramental
a
upon
cup to the laity),
reforming group under the leadershipof Peter of
a person
by ethical considerations.
upon
with what
is technicallyor conAs contrasted
ventionally Chilchic and John
Rokycana organized in Moravia
and Bohemia
expected of men, moral obligationrests
independent church groups upon the
the more
searchingrequirements of personal basis of Wycliffe-Waldensian principles.Later
upon
feel under
and social uprightness. E.g.,a man
and
(1467) they broke entirelyfrom the papacy
may
be
moral
accepted the Bible as the sole standard of faith
obligationto pay a debt which cannot
of moral obligationis
and
rather than
practice. Emphasizing conduct
legallycollected. The sense
of discipline,
to
Theories
as
doctrine,a vigorous enforcement
a
indispensableto moral conduct.
sanction
differ. At present great
its origin and
selves
presbyterialpolity,the Brethren (named by themJednota
Bratrska
its social character,the natural
of
stress is laid on
meaning communion
such rapid progress
that by the
for social unity with his fellows and
brethren) made
craving of man
God
for harmony
with
furnishing the primary
beginning of the 17th. century they numbered
about 50 per cent of the Protestant
motive.
See Moral
Sense; Coitscience; Moral
constituency
Gerald
Birney
of Bohemia
and Moravia.
Smith
But the Thirty Years'
Law; Ethics; Duty.
and
War
with its mihtary reverses
persecutions,
and only a few
MORAL
SENSE.
A term denotingan intuitive
brought disastrous consequences,
survived in Moravia
under the leadershipof Bishop
capacity to feel moral distinctions.
Led by Christian David, these perseComenius.
Several influential ethical writers in the 18th.
cuted
folk (1720) crossed into Saxony, and upon
century developed the conceptionof an independent
"

"

"

295

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

his
Count
Zinzendorf, settled on
of
On account
villageof Herrnhut.
the pietistic
state-church
principlesof Zinzendorf,
in a
these Moravians, joiningwith the Lutherans
church ritual,
did not revive their Orders until the
of their colony to Georgia
emigration of some
an
episcopalappointment necessary.
(1735) made
At
Herrnhut
they built Brothers' and Sisters'
Houses, from which as rallyingcenters,they carried
their evangel to all parts of Germany.
Maldng no
efforts,however, to detach their disciplesfrom
the national church, their numerical
strength in
Germany was never proportionedto their evangelical
influence throughout the world.
As proponents of
foreignmissions,they have rendered unique service
in insisting
that the evangelizationof the world is
and more
an
obligationof Christian discipleship,
than a phase of enlightenedcolonial policy. In
the 17th. and
18th. centuries no
religiousbody
in establishing
did such aggressivereligiouswork
mission
stations
throughout widely scattered
portions of the globe. Their church government
provides for deacons, presbyters,
bishops,and a
general synod meeting decennially with delegates
from the various provinces of their constituency.
Each
province enjoys largeindependent functions.
In doctrine
they profess substantial agreement
with the Westminster
and
Anglican confessions
church
of
faith. Recent
negotiations toward
union indicate that while desirous of co-operating
with evangelicalchurches, they wish to preserve
their independentepiscopalfunctions.

and

AND

church

ETHICS

Morrison,

Robert

was
organized April,1830, in Seneca
New
York.
Persecuted
by law suits.
Smith and his friends proceeded to Kirkland,Ohio,
where
ill-reputeand a banking scandal made
their removal in 1839 a necessity. The Missourians
in turn did not take to their new
neighbors,who
invitation of Illinois politicians
who
hoped
upon
their vote in a presidentialelection,
to secure
removed
to a site subsequentlynamed
Nauvoo,
where they established a city with a charter practically
independent of the state government.
Here
erected
in
a
was
magnificent temple
1846.
But
the polygamous practicesof Smith and his lieutenants
and when
arousing growing indignation,
legal
technicalities blocked
the course
of prosecution,
the citizens finallystormed the prison at Carthage
and
shot both
Joseph and his brother Hiram,
Brigham Young, succeeding to the
June, 1844.
of his
a
presidency,executed
masterly march
to Salt Lake City, where
persecuted coreligionists
for several years organized as the state of Deseret,
they defiantlyresisted federal authorityand committed
citizens
outrages againstnon-Mormon
many
and representativesof federal control.
Congress
therefore as early as
1862 took steps to punish
Utah
not
until
polygamous practices,but it was
sands
1887, under the Edmunds-Tucker
Act, that thoumade
to feel the weight of criminal
were
sentence.
Shortly after (1890) Woodruff, the
Mormon
president,issued a manifesto
advising
all Latter Day
Saints to refrain from marriages
forbidden by the law of the land.
Utah's admission
to the Union
in 1896 was
conditioned
its
upon
THOMAS
SIR
Smoot's
dence
eviprohibition of polygamy. Senator
MORE,
(1478-1535)." English
in 1906 maintained
that the large majority
and philosopher. His humanistic
statesman
pathies
symof Mormons
imbibed
from Erasmus,
at that time had become
at Oxford especially
monogamists.
In government
the Mormon
Church
is a hierfound expressionin a consistent activityfor popular
archy,
controlled by a president who
rights. He wrote the Utopia in which he inveighed
possesses
who
counsellors
advise
authority, two
against the abuses of power, and declared for
supreme
the
incurred
tions,
hostility with a president,a patriarchwho performs ordinareUgious toleration. He
twelve apostles who
of Henry VIII. by persistently
form
refusingto approve
a
travelinghigh
his marriage to Anne
Boleyn, and later by refusing council, and seven
presidents who
compile the
He
to recognizeHenry as head of the English church.
annual
is polyreports. In doctrine,Mormonism
theistic,
the place of the supreme
ruler being
was
put to death on a ridiculous charge of treason.
filled by Adam, associated with Christ,Mahomet,
The name
MORMONISM.
The function of
commonly applied Joseph Smith, and his successors.
of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, the god is to propagate souls for bodies begotten
to the Church
revelations attributed
earth.
Saints are
sect founded
on
a religious
glorifiedin proportion to
upon
the number
of their wives and children.
to Joseph Smith.
mous
PolygaJoseph Smith, of neurotic,superstitious
parentage,
marriage makes
possibleenough bodies for
the spiritsthat
claimed
that in September, 1823, the angel
are
ever
awaiting incarnation.
the existence,on a
communicated
to him
Maroni
and a necessary
Marriage is for eternity,
prerequisite
and a
to heavenly bliss. A man
certain hill of golden plates,a breast-plate,
be sealed to any
may
of
These
number
than one
of spectacles
of women,
but no woman
to more
consisting two crystals.
in September, 1827,
A woman
be saved except through
to have unearthed
cannot
man.
e claimed
her husband.
The
believe in prophecy,
Mormons
according to heavenly directions,on his father's
York
State.
From
farm
Manchester, New
miracles,the imminent
near
approach of the end of the
curtain he dictated a translation of the
behind
a
world, their identity with the ruling saints of
This appeared in
plates to certain amanuenses.
apocalypticglory,the resurrection of the body,
1830 as the Book of Mormon
accompanied by the tesbaptism by immersion, and the libertyof private
that they had themselves
With a membership
matters.
timonv of the amanuenses
judgment m religious
the platesof which the book was
a translation.
seen
(census 1916) of approximately 400,000, they have
This book
shown
to give a history of America
remarkable
increase during the preceding
professes
from its first settlement
decennial period.
by a colony of Jaredites
to the
A reorganized church
of Latter Day
dispersed in the confusion of Babel down
Saints,
collected the records compiled
Mormon
formed in 1852,repudiatesthe doctrine of polygamy,
year 5 a.d.
human
by successive priestsand kings, and Maroni, his
the deity of Adam, and Utah
as
sacrifice,
additions and
made
the Zion gathering place of the saints.
It regards
deposited them on the
son,
hillwhere Smith was
directed to make his discovery. Brigham Young as an interloper. Its headquarters
Where
Smith secured the contents
of the book has
in 1881, to
transferred from
were
Piano, Illinois,^
been
it has been
occasions
never
two
On
satisfactorily
explained. Its style is
Lamani, Iowa.
States courts as the legal
Speeches of primitive Indian chiefs
declared bj'-the United
poor.
very
19th.
have
of the church founded
lengthy
successor
by Joseph Smith,
century phraseology, and
from
the Westminster
fession Jr. It has a membership of approximately
Conquotations are made
60,000.
of Faith.
G. Mode
Peter
This book, sustained
his
ROBERT
tish
by
alleged frequent
(1782-1834)." Of ScotMORRISON,
drew
to Smith many
revelations,
soon
followers,
birth, first Protestant missionaryto China.

invitation of
estate

in the

"

Eair

County,

Mortal

Mind

He
translated the Bible
Chinese Grammar, and an
Dictionary; established a
at Malacca.

DICTIONARY

into

OF

Chinese, wrote

AND

RELIGION

complete
extraordinarily
collegeand a dispensary

ETHICS

296

mythology, her connection with the death and

awakening of nature was depicted in terms of her
descent

to

the lower

world

where

she remained

but returned to
prisonerduring the winter season
hfe in the spring. Thus
she served as a
restore
of reproduction
MORTAL
MIND.
See Christian Science,es.
mother-goddess, insuring powers
world.
for both
the vegetable and
the animal
MORTAL
SIN."
in R.C.
A
term
representation of Ishtar's reproductive
theology Another
functions appears
in the myth of Tammuz
a
(q.v.),
denoting a deliberate transgressionof God's law.
Mortal sin alienates the sinner from God, eliminating youthful male deity associated with the goddess.
He is typicalof the awakening life of spring,which
the work
of grace from his soul and so rendering
is thought of as a product of Ishtar's delightin his
him
liable to eternal punishment. The
sinner
the
But
with
the
be forgivenonly as he comes
under the discipline presence.
advancing season
can
is symboUzed by the
decline of nature's vitality
of the sacrament
of penance
(q.v.). See Sin;
Ishtar laments^
death of the young
Venial
until,
Sin.
god, whom
"

as

MORTIFICATION."

The

subjugationof the

appetitesand passionsthrough self-inflictedtorture,

result of his annual

restoration

to

her in the

with a new
she again fillsall nature
display
spring,
of her Ufe-giving
potency. A closelykindred phase

in
of her character
as
a
mother-goddess is seen
penance, etc.,growingout of the view that the flesh
tion
the idea of fructificais naturally evil. Illustrations abound
in the
certainof her ritessymbolizing
ascetic practisesof Christian hermits, Hindu j^ogis,
through sexual union. Naturally she was the
and Buddhist
the subjugamonks.
More generally,
(I. 199) affirms
tion
goddess of love,and Herodotus^
in connection
that in his day sacred prostitution
of all natural suggestionsto the guidanceof the
Ishtar's
with a sanctuary which
Spiritof God; as in Rom. 8:12.
apparentlywas
of
the women
universal
was
custom
a
among
of her
ASSUMPTION
OF."
obscene as some
An apocalyptic Babylonia. Gross and
MOSES,
of later
rites became
work dating from the first part of the 1st. Christian
through the sophistication
the sexual features in her worship
times, originally
century and containing a short historical sketch
for motherhood
doubtless rested upon simplereverence
of Israel from Moses to the Messianic age.
and awe
in the presence of the mystery of
MOSES
NACHMAN
BEN
(1194-1270)."
procreation.
Spanish Jewish physician,scholar,and writer on
Mother-goddessescloselyakin to Ishtar were
devotional
talmudic, homiletic, exegetical and
worshiped at various places in Phoenicia, SjTia
themes.
As a result of the disputation with the
and Asia Minor.
In Phoenicia Ishtar emerges as
banished
of the O.T.
who
the
from
Ashtart
the Ashtoreth
is
apostate Pablo Christiani,he was
Spain and spent his decUning years in Palestine.
Syrian Aphrodite and the Venus of Graeco-Roman
is a complete comChief among
times.
colonized Cyprus,
his many
works
When
the Phoenicians
mentary
the Pentateuch, noteworthy because
on
Sicilyand North Africa they carried thither with
of its attractive
style, its interestingmystical them the cult of their favorite mother-goddess, and
her counterpart Aphrodite enjoyed a similar popuand the spiritof deep piety that
interpretations,
larity.
had
A kindred goddess of Syria, who
a
pervades it.
famous
Atarshrine at Hieropolis,bore the name
LORENZ
VON
(ca. gatis (q.v.). In Phrygia the most
JOHANN
distinguished
MOSHEIM,
Lutheran
was
theologian and
frequently
1694-1755). German
deity was
Cybele (q.v.), who
historian.
Author
of a church
termed
"Great
of the Gods"
Mother
or
history which was
simply
standard
work.
Mother."
chief
at
for a long time a
"Great
shrine was
Her
Pessinus,
but essentiallythe same
goddess was
worshiped
under various names
^The generalterm for a believer in
MOSLEM.
at several different places in
In fact, on
the Hittite monuments
Asia Minor.
Islam.
the prototype of Cybele is clearly discernible.
medanism, Thus
Asia one
^The temple of worship in Mohamthroughout the whole of western
MOSQUE.
of
consistingusually of a buildingwith an
readilydetects,regardlessof the specificnames
which are arcades.
A fountain
the characteristicfeatures of the typiaround
the deities,
court
cal
open
enables
the faithful
in the middle of the court
mother-goddess. She is always essentiallya
Each moscjue
of reproducthe powers
to perform ablutions before prayer.
nature deity personifying
tion.
niche" so located that when
has a "Meccha
Sometimes
facmg
hardly distinguishable from
in his devotions.
mother-earth
of
it a Moslem
is turned toward Mecca
she is alwaysthe great source
itself,
furnish a conspicuous place
been
to have
minarets
life. Indeed
One or more
occasionallyshe seems
calls behevers to prayer.
from which the muezzin
regarded as capable of generating life apart from
association with a male deity, and consequently
A term
But
the
she could be tenned
MOTHER-GODDESSES."
appliedto
"virgin mother."
well-defined
deities of a
tradition as at present available usually provides
type personifyingthe
of all fertility.
of hfe and source
the mother
female principle
with a youthful male
companion
called her son
but often represented
sometimes
The
an
spicuous
especiallyconmother-goddess was
desires
whose
also as the object of her amorous
figure in the religionsof those ancient
of sorrow
annual decease issues in a season
when
peoples who inhabited the lands about the eastern
and
the
basin
Mediterranean
Tigris-Euphrates the goddess allows all life to decline until she is
rejoicedby the resurrection of her companion in
valley. Among the Babyloniansand Assyrians her
sexual in
Ishtar (q.v.). Throughthe spring. Frequently her rites are
was
out
most
common
name
of their religious
to the extent of inculcatingsacred
the whole course
historyshe
character,even
and
revered
the source
protector of life
was
as
prostitution.
function was
Recent
discoveries seem
to show that in the
and fertility.Apparentlyher original
of nature's
ancient
the
maintenance
rehgion of Crete a mother-goddessvery
more
particularljr
fruitfulness. It was
p"osition
through her kindly acti\aty similar to Cybele occupied a dominant
in the cultus.
that vegetationrevived in the springtime, while
Probably she is identical with the
and
Rhea
of Greek
the withering of vegetationin the autumn
mythology. In Greece
proper,
a
as
In
Demeter
winter signified
the figiireof the mother
the withdrawal of her care.
(q.v.),
^

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

297

DICTIONARY

nature deity and

genuine

OF

RELIGION

guardian of vegetation,
well known
to need further comment.
Also
the Egyptians mother-goddesses
not
were
among
trious.
lacking. Of these Isis (q.v.)was the most illusTradition
ascribed to her a great variety
of motherly functions includinga specialcare
for
the fecundity of mankind
and the maintenance
of
natural affection between parents and children.
Probably beUef in a mother-goddess goes back
to that primitive stage of social organization in
which polyandry prevailed, and hence
descent
traced through the mother.
The men
wandered
was
about
from
place to place, while the mother
remained
with her own
kinsfolk and
retained
a
permanent
residence,thus constitutingthe stable
unit of society. Consequently a mother-goddess
and
she alone
could
represent the great lifeof plants and
animals.
But
sustaining power
with
further development in organization by
a
which
the man
became
the controllingfactor in
society,male deities and the conception of divine
fatherhood
graduallyassumed a positionof supremacy.
In the eastern Mediterranean
world,however,
the divine mother
was
never
completely obscured,
and
until the time
of paganism's final collapse
she continued
to hold a largeplace in the affection
of her devotees where she established herself beside
the divine father.
Her youthful associate,whose
became
genesishad formerly been often vague, now
her son.
Even
Christianity was
definitely
very
able in a measure
to satisfy
this age-old quest of
the Mediterranean
peoples for a mother-goddess.
Mary was interpretedas originallya divine virgin
who
mother
bore a divine son
begotten by the
IS

Virgin

father-god.See

Mystery-Religions;

Birth.

S. J. Case

MOTHER

OF

GOD."
(Gr. theotokos, "godapplied to Mary the mother of
Jesus Christ for the purpose
of indicatingthat she

bearer.") A
was

the

term

mother

of his person

and

so

of the two

natures.

of God
had
theotokos and Mother
term
in the 5th. century when
into popular use
Nestorius,Patriarch of Constantinople,opposed it.
Holding,as was charged,the view (latercondemned)
that the incarnation involved two persons as well as
in Jesus Christ (seeNestorianism) he
two natures
taught that Mary gave birth only to the human
which
became
the "temple" of the Second
nature
in realityheld
of the Trinity. Nestorius
Person
to the unity of subjectin Jesus Christ,yet claimed
that the two natures
were
spoken of as two persons.
him and
The Council of Ephesus 431 condemned
the use
of the
theotokos. To
term
sanctioned
"Mother
of God"
has sounded
Protestant
ears
Genetrix
blasphemous, but to the R.C. Church
that the actual incarnation of the Goddel means
accomplished through birth of the Virgin
man
was
In this sense
Mary is spoken of as Mother of
Mary.
God, and not as originatingthe eternal,divine
The Greek theotokos is therefore
of the Son.
nature
more
precisethan its Latin equivalent.
Shailer
Mathews
Parental
the
care
MOTHERHOOD.
was
of family hfe, and family life has been the
source
of social relationship
forms
of the main
source
Back of these,however, Ues
and of social values.
the chief
the fact of motherhood, the first and
until the patriarchal
Not
form of parental care.
reached in the development of human
system was
fatherhood
did
culture
anything hke
assume
social importance. Until that stage,
proportionate
be said to have
what is known
as mother-rightmay
dominated human
society;that is,the mother was
sociallyrecognizedas the center of the family,and
and belonged to her kinchildren took her name
The

ETHICS
See

group.

Mozetta

Family.

Mother-rightpersisted

ship

too

surpeme

AND

through uncounted
generations,and among
peoples down to the present; but it

was

barous
barnever

of Amazonism, or government
by
althoughnaturallyin this stage women
had

system

women,

poUtical rights than later. Even under the

patriarchalsystem the woman
who was
mother
a
had such social respect and prestige
that her influence
in all social matters
was
considerable,even
very
though she had lost her legalrights.See Pateimore

System.

archaIj

On

of the

account

of motherhood

obvious

social importance

reUgioussystems have exalted

Among maternal peoplesthe motherhood
many

motherhood.
of God

rather

than

the fatherhood

of God

is

is probably the
naturally emphasized. This
of the conception of God
source
mother
in
as
advanced
reUgions, such as those of India. It
be

may

also

basis for the

veneration

of

the

Vir^nin Christianity.
ihe

present

tendency in social and

ethical

is undoubtedly to recognizeagain the

in human
primacy of motherhood
relationships.
This is seen
in the eugenics movement,
in the
for the economic
movement
independence of women,
and in the movement
for birth control,though the
latter two are often apparently negative as to the
social value
of motherhood.
best
The
social
thinkers
in the main
stiU support the ideal of
movements

"motherhood

supportedby fatherhood."
Charles

A. Ellwood
element
considered
as
Utihtarians
prompting to a decision. The
distinguishedmotive, as directed to the desired
alone,from intention,as directed to all
consequence
foreseen consequences
of
a
decision, whether
desired or not.
Recent
discussion has emphasized
the close integrationof all the factors enteringinto
conduct; feelingand thinking, deeper instinctive
tendencies and immediate
desires
impulses,specific
and
conduct
whole.
Motives
thus cannot
as
a
be sharplyisolated,
as
of
was
attempted in much
the controversyabout them.
J. F. Crawford

MOTIVE.

"

^Any conscious

come

MOTU
from
the

CathoUcs

PROPRIO."

A papal decree emanating

and
considered
hence
by
to be of absolute ecclesiastical authority.

Pope himself

MOUNTAIN-GODS."

In many
religionsthere
tendency to attribute a sacred character to
logical
mountains, because of their vastness, the meteorophenomena around them, or the mythology
of the people woven
about them.
Some
primitive
peoples regard particularor peculiarlyshaped hills
deities.
Others
associate mountains
with gods as
as
their dwelling places or
places enjoying their
Mt.
favor, as the Indians,Greeks, and Chinese.
Olympus in Greece is the best known
example.
Mountains
are
frequentlyregarded as the haunts
of spiritsboth good and evil. Their sacred character
leads to cults arising in connection
with
their deities,in the erection of shrines thereon,
and the making of pilgrimagesthereto.
is

"

MOZARABIC

divergingsomewhat

An
LITURGY."
from the Latin

ancient liturgy

hturgy used by
Christians of Toledo, Spain, while under
the
pohticaldominion of the Arabs, the name
signifying
non-Arabic peopleswho belong to an Arab community.
the

MOZETTA
A
to
(or MOZZETTA)."
cape
small hood is attached, worn
a
by certain
dignitariesof the R.C. church, the color of the
of the office of
mark
mozetta
being a distinguishing
the dignitary.

which

Mueller,

Friedrich

Georg

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

298

GEORG
FRIEDRICH
of
(1805-1898).
MURRAY,
JOHN
(1741-1815)." Founder
MUELLER,
the
Universalist
denomination
of the Bristol (England) Orphanages.
in U.S.A.; an
Founder
A German
Englishman by birth who received a Calvinistic
by birth and education and a minister of
the
training. In 1770 he emigrated to U.S.A. where
Plymouth Brethren. The orphanage work
stated support, but
had neither endowment
nor
he_began to preach. His main doctrines were
and advertising universal salvation and a modalistic conceptionof
Mueller depyended on prayer, faith,
the Trinity. See Universalism.
for the support of a work which grew to largeproportions.
in
of his work
He
wrote
account
an
The Lord's Dealings with GeorgMueller.
MUSE."
-In ancient
"

mythology,

inhabitingsprings regarded
^A teacher of the canon
law of Islam
who
interpretsthe meaning of the law on any
His decision
question of conduct for the layman.
is called afatwa. A canonist who is the appointed
matters is
advisor of the government in religious
MUFTI.

an

"

official
mufti.

teacher of Moslem
theology
view of his understanding
of the religion,
of the general sense
ent
givesindependjudgments without the necessityof supporting
the authority of the divines and
his decision on
found
canonists of the past. Mujtahids are now
only in Shi'ite Islam.
canon

who, in

law

MUKTL"

nymph

MUSIC

AND
RELIGION."
Throughout the
mankind
find a constant
connection
we
between music and religiousacts and emotions.
In the magical incantations
of primitive peoples
this connection is based on belief in the efficacyof
tone, both vocal and instrumental, as an agent
for obtainingcontrol over
invisible powers.
Out
of these crude rites,as culture develops,
symboUc
ceremonies proceed,which are intended to act upon
the mind of the subjectas well as upon
the object
of the appeal, leadingfinallyto the most refined
expressionsof love and contrition by which the
believer is aided in maintaining a mystical union
with the Infinite Power.
In the developments of
the religiousconsciousness
and its corresponding
manifestation by word and action music has always
held a conspicuous place.

historyof
A

MUJTAHID."

and

possessinginspirational
later,one of the goddesses of song
powers;
and inspiration;
of the female deities
one
finally,
inspiring
poets, artists and scientists.
as

Another

form of the word Moksha.

MULLA.
^An educated moslem
of his higher trainingin the mosque
officialand one of the learned
as an
"

who, by virtue
ranks
schools,
(Ulama).

FRIEDRICH
MAX
MULLER
(1823-1900)."
There are three phases in the historyof religious
professor music.
Comparative philologistand orientalist,
In the first phase are found the beginnings
achieved
He
fame
at Oxford, Eng.
through his
of conscious musical expression,when
music exists
editorship of the Sacred Books of the East, his
not for aesthetic but for utilitarian purposes.
The
share in estabUshing the scientific study of religion, second
phase is that of the civilized nations of
his contributions
and
to the critical study of
antiquity and the great historic religionswhich
Indian philosophy.
arose
them, such as the Hebrew, Greek,
among
Roman,
Japanese, the religions of India, the
and
JULIUS
the Christian
down
MULLER,
to the
(1801-1878)." German
Mohammedan,
Lutheran
These
theologian; a vigorous opponent of the
two
period of the Renaissance.
phases
and an earnest
into one
view of the Tubingen School (q.v.)
another
without
distinct line
merge
any
confession of faith for the
of a common
advocate
branches of the Protestant
and Reformed
Lutheran
His monumental
work is the
church in Germany.
Christian Doctrine of Sin.

MtJNZER,

THOMAS

(ca. 1490-1525)."

of
of the leaders in the Peasant's War; a man
and
revolutionary ideas. He
irregular habits
took a prominent part in the Reformation, but
views on
the Holy Spirit,communion,
taught extreme
With Heinrich Pfeiffer,
he instigated
etc.
the Peasant's Revolt, and on its suppression
was
One

beheaded.

of demarcation.

In neither did music exist as an

The
third phase,
that of the music of the Christian
church
dating
from the later Middle
Ages, has grown under the
impulse of the modern
conception of music as a
free art, released from
its bondage to word
and
action,and has been developed alongside secular
music, subject to artistic laws which apply equally
In this third phase,also,we find survivals
to both.
of the others,especiallyin the forms employed in
the CathoUc
and Greek
churches; but with the
exception of the ecclesiastical chant, the music of
all the hturgicalchurches
has been a part of one
universal musical system.

independent, progressive art.

CANON."
The earliestknown
MURATORIAN
books
Testament
list of New
(discovered by
Muratori in 1740), representingthe usage of the
church about the end of the 2nd. century,
Roman
and perhaps from the hand of Victor, Bishop of
Of our twenty-seven books it includes all
Rome.
except Hebrews, James, I, II Peter, III John, and
written by the friends of Solomon
adds "the Wisdom
in his honor" and the Revelation of Peter.

In this later
connection
with

^An earlygroup of Moslems who

with the Umayyad usurpation of the
must
khalifate by the theory that God
finally
of man.
decide regarding the status
They were
called "Postponers." In theology they taught
the prime essential and that one who
that faith was
to its
professed Islam and outwardljr conformed
requirements should be recognizedas a Moslem.
At the day of judgment God would givethe ultimate

unites in character
and
with the other
purpose
offices of worship. If instrumental,it is primarily
intended for church use.
For instance,an aria such
"It is enough," from
as
Elijah is rehgious,but
it is not church music.

MURJITES.

came

to terms

decision.

"

epoch, also,music is employed in

religiousideas outside of actual
reUgious worship. Such music is religiousconcert
or dramatic
music, and is found in the great majority
of oratorios,
a few operas, such
fal,
as
Wagner's Parsiand a multitude of religioussongs.
Church
music is a department of religiousmusic, but the
not equivalent. The
two
definition of church
are
music is,music that is composed for the church, for
in an
Its text
use
organized religiousceremony.

Religious music

has had a progressivehistory

in Christendom.
church
Then
it became
music
and
passed through three stages, each
moulded
and social ideas and usages
by the religious
of its time:

only

299

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

1. The
liturgicalchant, unharmonized, vinacof the liturgy,
companied, applied to every member

AND

and

ETHICS

tatooingsare

Mystery Play
also

common

forms

tinguishing
of dis-

cations

music from the

the exclusive form of church
foundingof Christianityto about the 11th. century.
and
It still continues: in the Cathohc, Eastern
Anglican churches, as the essential and officialform of
the music of the church in its mediatorial capacity.
both
2. The
involving chorus,
contrapuntal,
based
the
on
a
cappella and accompanied was
scale system, and employed in every
mediaeval
portion of the ritual in which the priestlychant
its completion
not obHgatory. This form reached
was
in the 16th. century.
in the church at
dominant
form
3. The
now
solo and
chorus
music, with
large, viz., mixed
free instrumental accompaniment, employing either
the contrapuntalor the homophonic principleof
the modern
major and
structure, and based on
was

rank

and

to savage

or

of commemorating
family,

ess,
prow-

perhaps also of enhancing beauty according

standards.
See Circumcision; Hair.
H. B. Alexander

MYSTAGOGY.

"

Instruction given

as

part

of initiation into the mysteries. See Mystery

Religions.
In the Greek
church the instruction
to candidates
before the sacraments.
MYSTERY

PLAY."

part of the Story of

the Bible dramatized.

I. Origin.

the 9th. century the dramatic

service shown
in pageantry
and responses
of the service resulted in additions
to the Uturgy called tropes one
of which" -deaUng
with the visit of the Marys to Christ's tomb, sung
for the Introit of the Mass
Easter morning
on
"

About

tendency of the church

"

"

a four-Une dialogue,beginning.Quern quaeritis

minor scales.
was
entered
in sepulcro,O
Christicolae?
This
With
the Reformation
new
a
dialogue was
power
drama
into the service of the church, viz.,congregational rapidlyexpanded, and its use
as
a
spread
western
from
the Catholic
the service at
over
Europe. Similarly,
singing. While not excluded
Christmas
has
and
Eastern
developed in imitation a play on the
churches, the people's hymn
reached its great historic importancein the nurture
shepherds' visit to the infant Christ.
II. Expansion.
brief liturgical
To these two
church.
Its influence has been
of the Protestant
dramas
new
felt not only in stimulatingreligious
were
scenes
emotion, but
added, and the plays
became
detached elements
of the service,while
also in disseminatingand confirmingdoctrinal ideas.
similar plays were
developed for other festival
ReUgious concert and dramatic music is especially
free in style and
days. By about 1 100 a cycleof such scenes existed.
form; church music is
The Christmas group came
the
all
music alone among
to include plays on
For church
conservative.
Visit of the Magi, the FUght into Egypt, the
exists not for
of musical
art theoretically
forms
musical pleasure,but in subordination to an aim
Slaughter of the Innocents, and parts of the Old
Testament
The
the coming of Christ. The
that is not aesthetic.
periods of dechne in
foretelling
Easter
church music have been those in which the church
cycle expanded to include the Visit to
the Disciplesand, somewhat
has yielded to the aesthetic conception proceeding
later,the Passion,the
Edward
Dickinson
Crucifixion,and" in connection with the idea of
froni secular art.
the Harrowing of Hell and the Fall
Redemption
of Man.
A
MUT.
mother-goddessof ancient Egypt
III. Secularization.
and Khensu
in the divine
associated with Amon
Gradually between the
12th. and the 14th. century, the plays passed into
triad of Thebes.
the vernacular; were
transferred to churchyards
and finally
taken over by
to town
^A scholastic theologianof
MUTAKALLIM.
greens; and were
"

"

"

"

"

called "Debaters"
villagegroups, guilds,etc.
because, layactors
They were
IV. Zenith.
in simple faith,
at their zenith
The
instead of accepting the religion
plays were
still prefrom 1350 to 1550.
Single plays were
sented
they tried to give it a rational basis.
in church or castle,
at Christmas,
particularly
church
of
but
the
the
school
A
rationalistic
notably
MU'TAZILITES."
great summer
festivals,
festival of Corpus Christi,became
the
the occasion for
They made
theological thought in Islam.
dramatic
a continuous
first attempt to refine away,
by the use of reason,
presentationof much of the
literalism
the stark anthropomorphism and naive
story of the Bible and of the Apocrypha, from
the Fall of Lucifer to the Judgment.
In France the
creed.
as
of the orthodox
Accepting the Koran
emphasis on the death of Christ gave the mysteries
divine revelation they refused to believe that it was
uncreated and eternal or to take its sayingsliterally. the name
passion plays. Greban's Passion, of over
carded. 35,000 fines,written in the 15th. century, is the
disThe crude eschatology of popular faith was
Of the many
most famous.
English cycles those
They taught that God could have neither
of York
eternal and
(48 plays), Chester,and Wakefield are
form nor
place since he is spiritual,
and
preserved, besides scattering plays and a cycle
infinite;that his attributes are his essence
known
Lvdus
CoveMriae.
from it; that he wills what
as
not in it or separable
Islam.

"

"

the Continent
V. PRESENTATiON.^-On
generally
for his creatures but allows free-will to
and in parts of England the entire performance was
doctrines
Challenging thus the orthodox
characteristic
the Koran, predestingiven on a singlefixed stage. The
ation,
regardingGod, his attributes,
is best
man.

authorityand eschatology,their teachingmet

recovered
with bitter opposition.The school never
from the attack of Al-Ashari in the 10th. century.
MUTILATIONS.

"

Mutilations of the body for

reasons
reUgiousor superstitious

are

common

among
is most

motive
the gashing of the flesh
as
frequentlypropitiatory,
the cuttingoff of a fingerjointto insure success
or
most

savages

and

primitives.The

not only contemporary

in war
among
a practice
sands
thouAmerican
Indians, but apparently practised
Europe. Other
of years ago in palaeoUthic
the
motives lead to ascetic mutilations,as among
and in a
fakirs of India and in certain ancient rites,
Mutilations
in wounding
lesser way
penances.
of the teeth,ears, head-form, and scarifi"

especially

to
English method, especiallyin the north, was
assigna singleplay of a cycle to a certain trade or
pageant
craft guild,who presented it on a movable

passed from one

wagon
to the next, where the play was
to be succeeded
by the next play of the
wagon.
in a town

separate

This

"station"

repeated,

cycleon

wagon.

In the middle of the 16th. century

VI. Decay."
the
Reformation
produced a reaction against
mediaeval
playsof all types. The famous
religious
to present
Paris Confreriede la Passion, hcensed
abohshed.
Enghsh plays died
passion plays, was
There have been some
out under Puritan attacks.
being the
scatteringsurvivals,the most famous
decennial performance at Oberammergau in Bavaria.
C. R. Baskbrvill
^

Mystery Religions

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

300

RELIGIONS."
A name
MYSTERY
originally into divine secrets. He also believed that as the
result of his initiation the future well-beingof his
cults distinguished
for secret
used of certain Greek
This assursoul had been made
rites of initiation. But
ance
eternallysecure.
nowadays the term is
been derived from an
pretation
interto have
also certain similar cults of
extended to cover
seems
of the drama
witnessed in the telesterion.
Asiatic and Egyptian origin.
the
The mystery type of religion
displaysdistinctive The teaching of the cult centered around
features that contrast somewhat
experiences of a mother-goddess,Demeter, and
sharply with those
latter is primarily her daughter Kore
of the usual ethnic cult. The
(Persephone). The daughter
had been
carried off by Hades
the mother
and
affair of a local or national group, whose members
an
refused
had
until Kore
been
entitled to its favors mainly by right of birth.
to be comforted
are
recovered.
This victory over
of the
the power
Its outstanding ceremonies
are
publicsacrifices and
lower world probably was
the theme of the passionand the concern
of the deityor deities
festivals,
and in
play depicted before the eyes of the initiate,
worshiped is first the welfare of the community
this triumph of the goddess over
he not
On
death
and only secondarily
that of the individual.^
future
the other hand, in the mysteries the individual
unnaturally read the promise of his own
certain
rather than the community is the center of interest.
victory. At any rate, nothing is more
than
that
the scenic display, constituting the
Only those can be adherents of the cult who on
central mystery of the cult,in some
their own
initiative obtain
admission by- the
signified
way
tion
satisfacrites. Not public for the devotee a highlyprizedemotional
observance
of specific
initiatory
for his spiritin this hfe and the safety of his
but sacramental
sacrifices and
practices
festivals,
soul in the world beyond the grave.
of which
the
ceremonies
and solemn
of initiation,
2. Dionysiac" Other mystery cults among
the
culminating act is usually a carefullyguarded
not attached
The
to any
chief
attention.
as
one
locality,
resulting Greeks were
secret, attract
the Eleusinian,but were
celebrated in various
benefit is also a distinctlypersonal satisfaction, were
of a present emotional
a
places wherever
uplift and the
properly constituted societyof
consisting
believers existed.
these mysof a blessed immortality for the soul.
Conspicuous among
assurance
teries
is identical
the cult of Dionysus, who
was
By the beginningof the Christian Era several
with Bacchus.
different mystery cults had become
prominent in
Though the worship of Dionysus
from Thrace, it had a wide vogue
life of the Roman
came
the religious
Empire. These can
originally
world
be
described most
conveniently by classifying in Greece and was well known to the Roman
The
at largein imperial times.
monies
Dionysiac cerethem
according to the coimtries from which they
were
emanated.
notoriouslyorgiastic.When
encing
experioriginally
Several
1. Eleusinian.
Mysteries.
so
initiation,individuals became
highly
I. Greek
said to be "possessed"
emotional
that they were
different mystery religionsflourished in Greece.
ancient cult celebrated
and "maddened"
these was
Chief among
by the deity. Drinking the warm
an
at an
blood and eating the raw
flesh of the sacred victim
at Eleusis a few miles frorn Athens, and
realistic means
into the religion were
early date incorporated officially
employedfor attainingunion
official connection
with the god, a union so vividly conceived by the
This
state.
of the Athenian
prevented the Eleusian rites from migrating freely votary that he felt himself "full of god." Union
with Dionysus also insured a blessed future for the
of the cult spread
to foreignlands, but the fame
a
deity who had
soul,for he too, hke Kore, was
so
widely that people from all parts of the Roman
triumphed over death.
themselves,visited Athens
Empire, even emperors
3. Orphic. The
initiation. In early times Greeks
Orphic mysteriesare hardly
to secure
only
the Dionysiac, since
to be distinguished from
could be admitted, but in the Roman
periodany
with a sufficient knowledge of the Greek
Dionysus, often called Zagreus in this connection,
person
is the chief deity of the cult. The Orphic movein the ritual was
ment
intelligently
language to participate
for membership.
appeared in Greece in the 7th. century b.c.
eligible
attended the process of
and, though probably of foreignorigin,exerted a
Elaborate ceremonies
initiation. After
observing certain purificatory powerful influence in subsequent times not only
admitted
the Greeks but throughout the Mediterranean
to the so-called
was
rites the candidate
among
world.
initiation ceremonies
celebrated
in
The
exhibited
were
"Lesser
Mysteries" which
which
the orgiasticfeatures characteristic of the worship
chief
lasted
ceremony,
February. The
of Dionysus, and the devotee
professed to realize
several days, took place in September. At this
vividly,not only union with the god, but his own
time the sacred emblems were_ brought from Eleusis
actual deification. Orphism, however, is especially
the applicants for admission
to
Athens, where
warned
and
assembled
noteworthy for certain distinctive teachings of a
against unworthy
were
in the rites. After further purifications
philosophiccharacter that became widely influential
participation
to Eleusis where the
even
beyond the limits of the cult. The physical
a
processionmoved
called the prison-house of his
oath
of initiation was
was
completed. The
body of man
process
has been kept so well that the precise soul. Only by the aid of purificatoryrites and
of secrecy
obscure at
mystical experiences could this bodily defilement
nature of the ceremonies still remains
be effaced and the soul preparedfor its journeyto
points. Apparently after partaking of a,
many
the happy home
sacred drink and food, the candidates
gathered in
beyond the grave.
Pythagoras
the telesterion,
to which
as
the assembly hall known
Orphic notions for the
(q.v.)drew largely upon
Here
admitted.
of his teaching. Plato
also
content
outsiders were
they listened
(q.v.) was
no
witnessed
indebted
the
to
some
to a discourse by the priest and
Orphics, notwithstandinghis
ridicule of their rites. Even
after
enacted upon
well-known
a
sort of drama
stage in the center
to have been
had long since ceased to
the Orphic brotherhoods
of the hall. This scenic displayseems
The
the central feature of the entire ceremony.
exist,their doctrines frequently inspiredvarious
ascetic
witlun
Mediterranean
movements
the
character and meaning of this performance, as its
times.
explained by the priest, world of Roman
import doubtless was
so
constituted the real mystery that was
4. Andaman,
Samothracian, etc. ^The wide
carefully
popularityof both the Eleusinian and the Dionysiac
guarded from the eyes and ears of the profane.
and
Immediate
thought
lasting benefits were
(Orphic)rites did not prevent the Greeks from
initiation. The
devotee
attend
enjoyed an
to
cherishingseveral other less conspicuous mystery
relation
times local mysteries
cults. From
ancient
elation of feelingin consequence of his new
very
to the deityand his conviction that he had peered had been celebrated at Andania in Messenia,where
"

"

"

"

301

several different deities had

DICTIONARY

thrace

was

also

religion whose

the

seat

to be

come

together in the ceremonies.

The
ot

popularitywas

RELIGION

OF

associated

island of Samodistinct mysterysecond only to

Eleusinian
of
the
and
that
Dionysiac cults.
known
Still other mysteries are
at least by the
of the
name
deity reverenced, e.g., those of
Aglauros at Athens, Ge at Phlye, and Hecate at

AND

ETHICS

of the world.
to be the
was
IV. Syrian

Mystery Religions

Through all of these crises Mithra

unfailing
protector of his disciples.

Babylonian
Mysteries."
and
A mother-goddesssimilar in many
respects to the
Demeter
Greek
and
the Phrygian Cybele was
under
prominent also in Syria. She appears

different names,

Aphrodite,Atargatis,
e.g., Ashtart,
but the cult always exhibits

"Syrian Goddess,"

those mystic orgiasticfeatures that characterize

Mysteries.
The
the worship of Cybele. Frequentlythere is assoworthy
notemost
ciated
with
her also a youthful male
contribution of Phrygia to the religious
divinity,
about
whose
death
and
the cult of the motherresurrection the ceremonies
history of antiquity was
and myths of the cult_
At least in some
center.
of
goddess, Cybele, and her male associate Attis.
their aspectsthese Syrianreligions
As Rheato Greece.
have Babylonian
At an earlydate Cybelecame
antecedents
in the ceremonies
of the well-known
features,and her
Cybele she exhibited Cretan
the former figuringas a weepalso pronoimced. Attis, Ishtar and Tammuz,
likeness to Demeter
was
ing
mother
and the latter as a dying and rising
had migrated to
is the Phrygian Dionysus,^
who
His sufferings
and triumph were
consort.
of Sabazius as early as the
or
Greece under the name
son
celebrated at a yearly festival where
The rites of Cybele, who is
time of Demosthenes.
hymns of
and
lamentation
the Great
Mother
of the
were
as
probably also some
sung,
commonly known
sort of mystic pantomime was
stagedas a feature
simpljr the Great Mother, were
Gods, or more
of the rites.
in 204
her real
established in Rome
B.C., but
The
best-known Syrian counterparts of Ishtar
did not begin until
the Romans
popularityamong
in Graeco-Roman
times were, respecand Tammuz
earlyimperialtimes.
tively,
The chief seats
of
The secret rites of the cult are veiled in much
Aphrodite and Adonis.
their worship wereByblos in Syria and Paphos in
were
obscurity, but its public demonstrations
CjT^rus,but their rites had been carried to various
spectacular and attended by displays of violent
devotees
The
emotion.
places about the eastern end of the Mediterranean
were
taught that Cybele
the death of Attis, centuries before the beginning of the Christian
had raged in wild griefover
his
and had rejoicedat his restoration to life. The
The death of Adonis, lamentation
era.
over
celebrated
death and resurrection of Attis were
demise, rejoicingat his resurrection,and his
aU depictedin the
ceremonies in which the
marriage to the goddess were
every spring with dramatic
form of a passion-play.
deceased
god was representedas a pine tree clad
Mysteries.
In Roman
Wild lamentations
V. Egyptian
times the
a
as
accompanied the
corpse.
Then
followed mystic
mysteriesof Isis and Osiris enjoyeda prestigehardly
celebration of his funeral.
that of the Eleusinian.
less great than
These
performances of a secret nature by which the initiate
known
in the
attained
to the Greeks
to have
a
Egyptian rites were
unique experienceof
seems
of Herodotus, who
union with the deity. Afterwards Mie resurrection
respectedtheir secrecy
time_
hailed with great joy,and apparently but in a veiled way indicated that the outstanding
of Attis was
feature
of the
celebration
was
a
pantomimic
was
regardedby the votaries as a guaranty of their
of the death of Osiris and his recovery
representation
safe immortality in the world beyond the grave.
own
of their
is expressed thus in one
This assurance
by the sorrow-stricken Isis. The usual displaysof
emotion
since the god has
were
a prominent part of the ceremonies
hymns: "Take courage initiates,
and initiationsecured for the individual characteristic
been saved, for you too will have salvation from
satisfactionspertaining
both to this life and
troubles."
the home
Attachment
to
these deities
Persia was
Mysteries.
to the hereafter.
III. Persian
the guaranty of present protection,and for
meant
of a mystery
religionwhich spread rapidly over
those who
the Roman
were
temperamentally capable of the
Empire in the 2nd. and 3rd. centuries
of mysticalunion
Its hero-divinitywas
experience it also gave a sense
Mithra, a very ancient
A.D.
of immortaUty
with the god. The
assurances
god,who had been subordinated to Ahura Mazda in
who
the Zoroastrian theology but
strong, for Osiris was pre-eminently
regained his were particularly
death and was
a victor over
thought able to insure
popularity with the dechne of Zoroastrianism
times the cult of Mithra
beyond question the future blissof all his disciples.
(q.v.). In pre-Christian
VI. Origin and
Nature
Mysteries.
op
established itself at different places in Asia Minor
the
in 67 B.C.
But not until
to have been primitive
the mysteriesseem
carried to Rome
and was
Originally
when
cults in which
nature
the mother-goddess was
the close of the 1st. century a.d.,_
a
toward
of mother-earth, while her dying
personification
Rome
began recruitingher armies from Asia,did
and
the Romans.
In
reviving associate represented the annual
Mithraisra become
popular among
revival of nature's hfe.
at the heightof its popularitjr.decay and
Probably the
the 3rd. century it was
until rites of the cult as originally
observed were
designed
but in the next
century it declined rapidlj^
in the
to insure the return of nature's lifein the springtime
finallyit was
by Christianity
supplanted
abundant
and to persuade mother-earth to give
and Manicheism
West
(q.v.)in the East.
have
been
of secrecy
notion
The
Mithraic
rites of initiation provided for
The
may
crops.
of excluding
derived
from
successive
an
original custom
by the
degrees of attainment
seven
lest enemies
of the
reached
strangers from the ceremonies
devotee, but not until the fourth was
member
of
clan or tribe should acquire this sacred knowledge
did the initiate become
a
full-fledged
similar proshe was
called. The
and thereby obtain for themselves
a
the cult
as
perity.
a
"participant,"
in culture this agrarian
reached by observing
With advancement
various grades of initiation were
character
and sacramental
interest was
rites of a purificatory
pushed into the background and the
of the cult ceremonies to restore and preserve
the oath of secrecy, repeatedablutions, efficacy
including
and immortal
hfe was
connected with the spirit
birth,and participation
symbolic of a new
ceremomes
the
soul of man.
in a religiousmeal.
Conspicuous among
to
the
Christianity
VII. Relation
op
religioussatisfactions offered the worshiperwere
rise
of Christianity's
At the time
between
Mysteries.
mediator
god and
faith in Mithra
as
a
well
knowa among
of a blessed immortality. the mystery type of rehgion was
mortals and the assurance
Attachment to a dying and reviving
the Gentiles.
Mithraism
taught belief in a last judgment, a
resurrection of the dead, and a final conflagration redeemer-god,initiatoryrites includingablutions

Aegina.

II. Phrygian

"

"

"

"

"

"

Mysticism
and

sacred

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

meals, emotional

satisfactions for the

of blessed inunortality
the outstanding features of the mysteries.
were
Christianityalso appealed to the Gentiles as a
religion of redemption to be secured through
to the crucifiedand risen Jesus,memattachment
bership
in the new
in
cult involved
participation
the sacred rites of baptism and the Lord's Supper,
the experienceof initiationproduced an emotional
upHft explained as due to union with Christ,and
blessed immortality was
the confident hope of
a
all Christians. These
one
phenomena force upon
the question of how
extensivelythe development
of early Christianity
on
gentilesoil was affected
by the mystery religionsalready present in the
of
there was
same
measure
a
territory. That
influence from the mysteries upon Christianityand
that this influence increased in volume
and power
the new
into that
as
religiongradually crystallized
ecclesiastical organismknown
as the ancient Catholic
church is now
generally recognizedby historians.
But the precise extent of such influence and the
it began to operate are
date at which
problems
S. J. Case
stillin debate.
and
individual,

assurances

The
of

AND

ETHICS

302

Counter-Reformation

produced a new group

extremely devout, but at the
more
phatically
emrigorous,ascetic,and even
the mystics of the
negative than were
aimed
at
the
century.
They
complete

mystics who

were

time

same

14th

crucifixiondf self,the utter annihilation of selfwiU and the attainment

of total absorption in God.
for the extreme
form
They laid the foundations
of Quietism which succeeded a century later. The
in this group
St. Teresa (1515greatest names
are

1582); St. John of the Cross (1542-1591); St.

Francis
de Sales (156f-1622);
and St. Jeanne
Francoise de Chantal (1572-1B42).
Protestant mysticism has been founded, on the
the New
Testament
whole, more
directly upon
and has moved
from the influence of Neoaway
Platonism.
It has always been profoundlyaffected
by the teachingof the Fourth Gospel and by St.
Paul's Epistles. It is,thus,more
tive
positivelyaffirmathan was
medieval
mysticism, and it insists
the formation of Christ as living,
eternal
upon
Spiritwithin the soul. The great interpretersof
this type of mysticism are Jacob
Boehme
(15751624); George Fox (1624-1691); and WiUiam Law
(1686-1761).

MYSTICISM.
Mysticism is a word used so
nomena
looselyand for such varied experiences and phe"

that definition is possible

only by drastic
obscurantist
and
Occult
hmitation.
phenomena
been included in "mysticism,"
faiths have frequently
than
rather
but that practice brings confusion
and more
to the subject. In the narrower
clarity
of the word, mysticism is a type of
genuine sense
religionwhich puts the emphasis on immediate
ness
experienceof God, a direct and intimate consciousof divine Reahty. It naturally involves
a
reaction against,or even
a revolt from, ecclesiastiabstract theology,and all tendencies
cism,ritualism,
in behalf of the
toward
reUgious crystallization,
It is,thus,
direct testimony of the soul of man.
dynamic, and vitalstage.
reUgionin an acute, intense,
Treated as experience,mysticism is an inrush of
new
energies,which, to the recipient,burst upon
the soul with
unifying, fusing and intensifying
undifferentiated
effect. It is an
state, in which
merged in an undivided,
subject and object seem
organic whole of experience,intenselyjoyous and
marked
by increased depth of insightand greatly
life. Deep-lying, sub-conscious
enhanced
powers
Hberated, and the person feels as
are released and
with realities beyond
in contact
though he were

The

present century has been marked by a profound

revival of interest in mysticism, due to the
immense
present day interest in the inner life of
man
study of the subconscious ;
; to the psychological
to a reaction against "intellectualism,"
and to the
quest for God in fresh ways which the development
of the scientific method
and of historicalcriticism
has aroused.
This revival has produced a large
literature.
Rufus
M. Jones
MYTHS."

Myth

may

be defined

as

the effort of

for the phenomena surto account

primitive man
rounding
him, so that it represents the earliest
phase of scientific thought. Originally all myths
to have been aetiological
seem
as
dealing with the
of things. Thus, a frequent theme
is the
causes
relation between sun
and moon,
the former usually
regarded as masculine, and the latter as feminine.
The sun
is drawn
the sky in a chariot,he
across
casts his darts at those who
offend him; the moon
is his wife or his sister,
he pursues,
whom
she
or
sails the sky in a silver boat; both sun
and moon
who
are
exposed to attacks of malevolent monsters
swallow
them
(thus causing eclipse)and must be
driven away
by man.
Or, the sky is a father and
the earth a mother, and their children are the lesser
and animals.
himself.
gods and the races of men
The originof the universe,including the earth
form of historical mysticism
The most impressive
and its phenomena
is that derived from the Neo-Platonist
movement,
(seas,rivers,trees, etc.),is a
fertile ground for the mythic tendency, as
physics.
with a well-marked
are
type of metaand bound
up
is
In this system of metaphysics, God
important discoveries of early man,
notably the
One
a
conceived as absolute, immutable
findingof fire. The problem of life after death,
reality,
complicated by the perception that the vegetation
beyond and above all multipUcityand variety. He
unknowable
and
and
which seems
to die revives again, is another
can
is,therefore,unknown
of myth; and historical events
and characters,
source
be "found" only in an ecstatic experience which
the siege of Troy or Charlemagne, are
as
transcends
"knowledge." The mystic way thus
of separationfrom
later elaborated
in mythic form.
becomes
Certain myths
a process
a via negativa,
and elevation above all that is temporal and finite, find their origin in attempts to explain rituals
customs
has been forgotten;
whose
true
or
cause
a
mounting upward by distinct steps or grades to
and in later,philosophicperiods purely allegorical
The three great stages of
the One and Only Real.
often called the Mystic
vented.
inthis ascent of the soul
myths, as that of Cupid and Psyche, were
usually called by mystics of this type
are
Way
the purgativestage, the illuminative stage, and the
Similarity of myths in various parts of the
world
must
not be construed
to imply common
xmitive stage. The great exponents of this type of
such
source
or
even
borrowing; and in every
mysticism are Plotinus (205-265),"Dionysius the
instance the problem must
be judged on
its own
Areopagite"who wrote in the 5th. century, John
Heinrich
merits accordingto the evidence
in each specific
Scotus
Erigena (810-880); Meister
Neither can
of interpreEckhart
tation
(1260-1327); John Tauler (1300-1361); case.
any singlemethod
be applied to explain all myths, so that the
Jan
Ruysbroeck (1293-1381); the anonymous
mode
of investigation,
for example, of an historical
author of Theologia Germanica, written about the
Thomas
of the 14th century;
a
middle
Kempis
myth must be entirelydissimilar to that of the
study of a meteorological
(1380-1471),author of The Jmitation of Christ,
myth. Louis H. Grat
"

"

303

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Naturalism

N
NAIAD.

Greek

of the
mythology, one
rivers and lakes.
(q.v.)inhabitingfotintains,

nymphs

In

"

NAME.

primitivethought a

In

"

is not

name

appellative,but is itself an

mately
entity or is intiwith the person
connected
or
thing which it
it is highly important to know
denotes.
Hence
the
mere

real name
exercised

of

over

person

such

or

person

thing if
or

is to

power

be

versely,
thing; while, con-

it is frequently advisable to conceal one's

and to substitute for it a "nickname,"
lest some
knowing or learning the actual
enemy,
its
over
appellative,exercise dangerous dominion
This
carried from
the
owner.
principle is even
human
to the divine sphere,for,in certain stages of
reUgions, the gods themselves are subject to the
"power of the name," so that they seek to conceal
their real names,
tries to discover.
which man
Similarly, the conferring of a name
a
upon
of the qualitiesof
gives him at least some
person
the person or deity after whom
he is named, whence
the person or deity from whom
the name
is derived
is inevitably
with the person
connected
to whom
his name
is given,or in whom
the person
concerned
be re-incarnate;while the deityinterested
even
may
to endow
is not only beheved
the individual with
of his own
distinctive qualities,
but
at least some
is bound, in self-defence,
to protecthim with special
Louis H. Gkay
care.
true

name

NANAK
of the
(1469-1538)." The founder
Sikh religion. He
of mystical temperament
was
which
in the social milieu of India had free play,
but his Moslem
trainingsaved him from pantheism.
His teaching is a curious blend of Moslem
and
See Sikhs.
Hindu
elements.
EDICT

NANTES,
NARAYANA."
modem

OF."

See Edict

op

Nantes.

of the titles of Vishnu

One

in

Hinduism.

NARTHEX.
In church
architecture,the long
arcaded porch where the penitentsand catechumens
the
to
entered, so called from its resemblance
name.
Occasionally there was
plant of the same
inner narthex inside the building.
an
"

"

'

NASI.
(Hebrew : 'prince ) The titleassigned
by the Jews to the president of the Sanhedrin
tinued
during the period of the second Temple, and conthe title of the rehgious head
of the
as
Palestinian community for some
after.
generationsthere"

See Mandbans.

NASORAEANS."
LAW."

NATURAL
NATURAL
The
"

powers

can

See

Law, Natural.

NATURAL
OGY.
THEOLRELIGION,
rehgious beliefs which man's natural
the aid of supernatural
affirm without

revelation.
The great

theologiansof the late Middle Ages,

well-formulated
natural
theology,
based on an adaptation of AristoteUan
metaphysics.
of
conclusions
natural reason
The religious
served
developed

as

foundation

on

which

to build the structure

of

the
Renaissance
supernatural doctrines. With
the desire to employ reason
came
exclusively.
rate
Descartes,Spinoza,and Leibnitz constructed elabo-

systems
theological-philosophical
alone.
During the

which all men

and which should
might subscribe,
supersede the supernaturahstic appeals so fraught
with rehgious warfare.
In content
this natural
rehgion emphasized God as creator and moral lawgiver,
freedom, moral responsibihty,and immortahty with future retribution in accordance
with
one's moral
deserts.
See Deism; Rationalism.
Paley's Natural Theology (1802) was
elaborate
an
displayof evidences of divine purpose in the natural
world.
Historical

it clear that real

study has made
rehgion always includes mysticaland supernatural
elements not recognized by the "natural religion"
of the rationahsts.
Interest has shifted from the
futile attempt to discover a universal religionof
this kind to the investigation
of actual religions.
Natural
Theology, for similar reasons, has given
way to Philosophy of Rehgion (q.v.).
Gerald
Birney
Smith
RIGHTS."
NATURAL
Those
rights inherent
in the requirements of human
fore
nature, which therecannot
justlybe restricted or annulled.
The moral justification
of any code of laws is the
intention to promote human
welfare.
Lying back
of actual legislation,
is this moral demand.
therefore,
Greek ethics set forth the conception of a realm of
eternal justicewhich
should always be normative
for legislation.The
Stoic doctrine of a divinely
authorized "Law of Nature"
(q.v.)was extensively
used in later centuries to determine fundamental
moral relationships.
The principles
of this Law
of
Nature
could be cited in protest against arbitrarj^
of
authority. Grotius, e.g., laid the
exercise_
foundations
of international law by assertingthe
divine authorityof the Law of Nature.
The 18th. century saw
a marked
development
of the belief in natural rights as one
phase of the
consciousness of the Third Estate and democracy.
The
outstanding exponent of the movement
was
Jean
made
Jacques Rousseau
the
(q.v.), who
assumption of such rights inherent in a state of
central in his philosophy. In England and
nature
America the same
view
was
prevalent,although
reached
less by philosophythan by the generalizing
of the rightsof Englishmen.
In the struggle against politicaltyranny in
England and in the American
colonies,demands
made
that the "natural rights"of men
were
should
be inviolate. These
comprised the rights to "hfe,
libertyand the pursuit of happiness," and were
developed into the doctrine of full citizenship.
Popular government, as advocated by John Locke
and by the framers of the Constitution of the United
of securingmen's
States,was conceived as a means
"natural rights" against the exercise of arbitrary
The Declaration of the Rightsof Man
and of
power.
the Citizen set forth the principlesof the French
freedom and justice.
Revolution,designed to secure
The
of natural
rights can
precise content
for
movement
determined.
scarcely be
Any
freedom
is hkely to appeal to the
greater human
sanctityof natural rights. On this ground the right
of suffrage,
the right to hold property, the right to
social
Modern
work, etc., have been defended.
plea in
philosophy,however, uses a humanitarian
the place of the more
abstract conceptionof natural
rights. See Law of Nature; Justice.
Smith
Birney
Gerald
See Natural
ReTHEOLOGY."
NATURAL

restingon

reason

17th. and 18th. centuries attempts

were
frequentlymade to obviate current theological
polemics by setting forth a "natural rehgion to

The
NATURALISM.
attempt to explain all
of
reahty, including psychicalactivity,in terms
"natural" processes, in oppositionto any appealto
occult or supernatural forces.
"

Nature

Naturalism

makes

DICTIONARY

thoroughgoing use

OP
of

RELIGION

the

of natural science to secure

a unified pliiprinciples
lifeis regardedas continuous
losophy Mental or spiritual
is
with physicalphenomena.
"Nature"
of
The
the all-sufficient
source
everjdihing.
lems
probthus
of a
duaUstic metaphysics are
set
.

AND

ETHICS

304

platonism (q.v.)had considered nature to be an

emanation
from God, originatingin the divine and
destined
to be absorbed
again into the divine.
This

influence combined
wdth that of the Stoics to
a
tendency toward pantheism (q.v.);God
and nature were
identified. On the other hand Neoaside.
platonism regarded the present world of nature,
The precisecontent
of Naturalistic philosophy already emanated
and
not
yet re-absorbed,as
will obviously depend upon
the conception of
and
contrary to the divine nature
utterly evil.
This condemnation of nature led to a strongly
"Nature"
which is held.
If Nature is conceived in
ascetic
of physicalforce,NaturaUsm
will be closely attitude.
In the history of Christian
terms
thinking
alhed to Materialism
these three conceptions,
of a transcendent
God
(q.v.). Usually, however,
is
technical interpretationof Nature
some
more
making and using nature, of God and nature
as
kind
ordered reality,
and of nature
a
employed. Haeckel's Monism, e.g., was
aspectsof one rationally
of hylozoism,in which
the embodiment
ultimate
of evil in duaUstic
as
physicalforces
tion
separafrom God, are usuallypresent,in antagonism,
were
pictured as having rudimentary psychic
All
of attraction or repulsion.
attempted
combination,or unstable equiUbrium.
powers
After the powerful effort of Augustine (q.v.)
naturalistic metaphysical
explanations,
however, are
attitude
vulnerable that a characteristic modern
to combine
these tendencies in a coherent theological
so
is to insist on
Christianity fell back in some
Agnosticism (q.v.)beyond the realm
system, medieval
of demonstrable
relationships.Naturalism in this
degree into a crude sort of animism (q.v.). Nature
refusal to indulge in speculation was
viewed
sense
means
a
practicallyas the seat of numberless
evil spirits,
from whom
liable to sustain
men
were
beyond the realm of scientific investigation.
refusal to
denotes
moral and physical
and against
whom
ascetic
a
Religiously,NaturaUsm
injury,
gious
forces. Relipractices and religiousand magical rites were
recognizeany appeal to supernatural
requiredas a safeguard. In this welter of diabolism
experienceis declared to be expUcablein terms
of natural processes.
Here, again, any particular the conception of a world ordered by divine wisdom
is conditioned by
almost lost. In the later Middle Ages, however,
naturaUstic explanationof religion
was
If Nature
be
the scholastic thinkers took up again with great
a
prior conception of "Nature."
intellectual vigor the theistic conception of the
viewed as a purely physicalreaUty, the objects of
natural
world
the object of God's creation,
as
rehgious faith are declared to be figments of the
imagination. If,however, Nature be idealistically providence, and grace.
be regarded as an interpreThe modern age has been marked by interest in
tation
construed,religion
may
of the spiritualaspects of the universe.
for its own
nature
sake,direct study of its processes,
while denying the supernatural, extended formulation of its laws,practicaluse of its
This latter position,
in the universe,and
affirm God as immanent
for nature
as
a
operations,and reverence
whole;
may
these may
be regarded as various phases of naturalism.
religiousknowledge as a natural achievement.
denotes the theory that
In ethics,NaturaUsm
Naturalism
has had but littleeffect upon
the
should be guided in conduct by natural impulses
men
more
rigidlyorthodox theism,for which nature is
instead of being required
vehicle of (jod's grace and providence,and evidence
to obey alien
and interests,
of His existence and
the
authority. Here, too, the term is ambiguous. It
attributes; nor
upon
sheer sensualism,or, at
at one
extreme
adventistic conception of nature
the platform of
mean
as
may
indicate a fine rational selfthe other, it may
It has, however,
a
supernatural age-long drama.
ing
exercised a powerful influence over
much
Christian
control,as in the Stoic precept to "Live accordhere signifying
divine
to Nature," Nature
a
thinking, partly by compelling it to forge ideas
Gerald
Smith
Birney
external foe,
order of things.
with which to meet
naturalism
as
an
and
partly by finding lodgment within avowed
of thingsin tune and
The totality
NATURE."
Christianity and modifying it internally. This
scientific temper is revealed in several tendencies.
space, with all their operations.
less
Christian
Primitive Christianityinherited the Jewish con1. Much
ception
or
thinking is more
the earUer Hebrew
divine transcendence
of nature, based
on
giving place to
pantheistic,
divine immanence
in nature.
Where
earlier panconception,according to which natural objectshad
theism
been created by God s act,and natural events were
was
mystical and ascetic, the modern
of
God's
manifestation
will.
the direct
tendency accepts nature freely,seeks acquaintance
Beyond
nature
with actual laws of nature, and reverences
the necessary
dependence on them for simple agricultural
reflection
thus known,
and industrial uses, there was
no
as
in themselves, no
interest
the
natural processes
this tendency minimizes
2. Specifically
upon
On the contrary the events
of
in natural science.
placeof miracles in the conceptionof nature. When
of
of miracles is not denied, they are
the possibility
nature
were
charged with the moral purposes
God.
There
often explainedaway in fact as due to known
or yet
was
no
sharp distinction between
natural and supernatural events, although special unknown
natural processes,
at least practically
or
tions
were
events or "wonders"
unusually clear manifestaignored as
significantfor Christian thinking.
of God's will. This Hebrew
Nature as one
conception was
great miracle,every process a divine
modified
in Jewish
thinking by emphasis on the
revelation,are naturaUstic conceptions; and so far
nature
moral transcendence
of God, from whom
had
as
they attach to positiveinquiry into concrete
been morally sundered
and whose holiness
modern.
facts of nature, they are entirely
(thefall),
removed
Him
from the world of nature except as
scientific temper is often skeptical of
3. The
it again in an
its
He
realities beyond
nature.
was
expected to over-master
Apart from
any
future (redemption).
extreme
form
of dogmatic materiaUsm
(q.v.),
apocalyptic
This early Jewish and Christian conception was
which has scarcelyfound acceptance in avowedly
Christian minds, and from
the earlier positivism
diversely modified
by Greek influences. These
were
Stoics
of Comte
mainly Stoic and Neoplatonic. The
(q.v.),which set up a rival naturalistic
(q.v.)had developed a theoryof nature as a theory
a tendency toward
cence
religion,
agnosticism,or acquiesable
or system of natural laws, in the operation of which
in religious
uncertainty,has found a considerthe wise man
Aurelius had
acquiesced. Marcus
place in Christian thinking. This appears for
exclaimed, "O Nature, from thee are all things,in
example in surrender of clear religiousconceptions
thee are all things,to thee all thingsreturn."
Neobecause
unattainable, in minimizing the super-

produce

305

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

in definite
the other-worldly, and
attitude from knowledge.
doctrine of evolution has given the con4. The
ception
and
of nature
greater unity, flexibility,
vitality. It has accelerated the tendency toward
within religiousthinking, but has also
naturalism
less mechanical, more
rendered naturalism
table
hospiin terms
of value, more
to interpretations
open to a "religionof science."
J. F. Crawford
NATURE-WORSHIP."
The
worship of all
objects of nature, includingnatural phenomena,
heavenly bodies, plantsand animals.
form or another,nature worship is comIn one
mon
to all primitive religions. There
does not,
to be any
however, appear
tendency toward the
in general, but rather many
worship of nature

natural

and

separationof

different
specialized attitudes varying among
tions.
peoplesaccording to their economic and social relaThe
objects of nature that are worshiped
those aspects of the physical
ment
and socialenvironwith the
which seem
to be vitallyconnected
continuation
of the life process.
Instead, then,
of supposing, as did Max
that it is the
Miiller,
of wonder, or awe,
expressionof a general feeling
experienced by the savage as he views natural
phenomena, it is more
probable that the attitude
the purely practicalone
of maintaining life
was
attracted by and the
and that the attention was
worship evolved about those objects and processes
which
helped or interfered in what the primitive
was
man
trying to do. Thus if the sun is worshiped
him by its burning
it is because it forces itself upon
warmth, or by its relation to
heat, its welcome
plant growth on which he depends. A river or the
a
sea, furnishing subsistence to a tribe,becomes
focus of attention and possiblyof worship. Not all
ever,
economicallyimportant objectsor phenomena, howattract attention but rather those which present
of uncertainty or
of danger. The
elements
objects of nature worship in their relation to man
the abode
as
were
variouslyinterpreted,sometimes
sometimes
of spiritsand
merely as the seat of
are

magic powers.
such an interestin certain objectsand
of nature, together with the primitive
philosophy of animism, and we have the basis for
all sorts of elaborate developments of cult through
and social habits of
the reaction of social structures
the various types of people concerned.
Irving Kino
ing
^The central portionof a church extendNAVE.
from the chancel or choir to the portal. The
word is derived from Latin navis,a ship.
Granted

processes

"

NAZARENES.
(1) A Jewish-Christian sect
writers
in the
identify
early centuries. Some
ing
them with the Ebionites (q.v.). (2)A sect numberin Southern
Hungary,
15,000 members
some
literalism in the use of the New
observing extreme
Testament, refusing to take oaths or to render
militaryservice,and insistingon freedom from all
ing
(3)A sect in the U.S.,holdsecular contamination.
to a literal interpretationof the Bible and
endeavoring to reproduce the Christianityof
"

days.
apostolic
of a
The name
NAZIRITES
or NAZARITES."
ascetics (usuallymen) who, as the
group of Hebrew
to Yahweh, abstained from the
result of their vows
of wine, the cutting of their hair,contact with
use
dead bodies and the use of ceremoniallyunclean food.
been taken for
to have
seem
At first their vows
life,but later were limited to the time required to
Elaborate ceremonies were
required
gain some end.
Nazirites are mentioned
for release from the vows.
The
devotes
times.
Talmud
Testament
in New

AND

entire

an

with

ETHICS

Negroes

tractate to the ceremonies

release from Nazirite

takingand

connected
vows.

AUGUST
WILHELM
NEANDER,
JOHANN
(1789-1850). German church historian and theologian,
professorat Berlin; a pupil of Schleier"

macher

and

Planck.
into

been translated

Several of his works

have

Enghsh.

NECESSITARIANISM."

See Libertarianism.

A state of existence or a relationNECESSITY.

ship
be different from what
which cannot
it is.
A situation which is inevitable.
"

Strictlyspeaking, a necessityis always relative

The necessities
physicalor logicalcondition.
of fife,
e.g., are those items,like food and shelter,
without
life could
not
exist. A
which
logical
to

some

necessityindicates

inevitable conclusion if
affirmed.
Logicians and
have distinguishedand named
various
philosophers
kinds of necessity,such as internal or inherent,
The
external or causal, logical,etc.
ontological
argument (q.v.)for the existence of God asserts the
absolute necessity of an
actual existence of God
the ground of our
idea of a perfect
on
necessary
Being; but Kant's criticism showed that this is a
relative rather than an absolute necessity.
Smith
Gerald
Birney
A
for
NECROLOGY."
register of the dead
whom
to be offered,
or
are
a hst of persons
prayers
who have died in a specific
place or during a specific
period,usuallyaccompanied with obituaries.
certain

premises

NECROMANCY."

an

be

method

of

divination

through conjuring the spiritsof the dead. In the

Middle
Ages, through the misinterpretationof a
taken to
corrupt Latin form of the word, it was
black art and was appUed to allforms of sorcery
evil magic.
The practice,
in the proper sense of the word, is
found among
all primitivepeoples and has persisted
until comparatively modern
ized
times among
the civilin the
condemned
peoples of Europe. It was
Mosaic
law although probably practiced more
or
less secretlyas is witnessed by Saul's invoking the
It
spiritof Samuel
through the witch of Endor.
also known
and
was
practiced by the Homeric
Greeks and is often referred to in the classic hterature of Greece
and Rome.
In the early Christian
centuries,while given credence by the Church, it
condemned
was
as an
unholy practice.
The rites of necromancy
often elaborate and
were
differed according to the prevailingconception of
the nature
and location of the spirits. As many
conceived
gods, we find
as
departed spiritswere
into the rites associated
running over
necromancy
with the oracles of the gods.
Irving King
mean

and

NEED-FIRE."
fire kindled by primitive
A new
of removing injury
methods
used as a magical means
from field or herd and of bringinggood fortune and
The
by contact.
prosperity to the family groups
hearth fires were
extinguished and relit from the
times among
fire. It dates back to prehistoric
new
modern
the Aryans and survives in some
European
folk customs.
EDUCATION
AND
RELIGION
NEGROES,
in 1916 in
There were
AMONG.
I. Statistics.
States 42,281 Negro churches:
the United
6,171
members
of
with
were
656,848 communicants
white
denominations, the Methodist
Episcopal
than half this membership;
Church having more
with
4,231,678 communicants
36,210 churches
of independent Negro denominations;
members
were
of all.
the Baptistsbeing by far the most numerous
"

"

Negroes

Baptistsand

Methodists

DICTIONARY

claim

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

306

the
Church.
In
Independent Methodist
1816
of other independent Negro Methodist
a conference
churches
held and
the African
Methodist
was
founded
with
Richard
was
Episcopal Church
Allen as first bishop.
In 1796
colored members
of the Methodist
Episcopalchurch in New York decided to form a
separate congregation in which they "might have
opportunity to exercise their spiritual
giftsamong
themselves
and
useful to one
thereby be more
another."
This was
is now
the nucleus of what
known
the "Zion" Methodist connection.
From
as
1801 to 1820 this organization,although it had its
under the pastoralsupervision
own
preachers,was
of the
Methodist
In
1820
Episcopal church.
colored Methodist
York,
congregations in New
New
severed
Haven, Long Island,and Philadelphia
their connections
with the Methodist
church
and
United to form the African Methodist
Episcopal
Zion Connection.
the war
118 ordained ministers and 479 unordained
ministers and teachers.
Until after the close of the Civil War
the Negro
The
vention
Negro Baptist ConMethodists of the Southern States remained
within
first organized a foreignmission board in
churches
and
1880.
Mission work is carried on in five countries, the fold of the Methodist
at the
with 51 stations,83 out stations and 43 organizedclose of the war there were
207,742 colored members
of the Methodist
South.
ist
Church
churches. The mission work of the African MethodBy 1866 this
had been reduced to 78,742. In that year
number
Episcopal Zion church was begun in 1892. This
church
the Southern
Methodist
maintains
Church
authorized its
three stations,five out-stations
and eleven organizedchurches in the foreignfield. colored members, at their own
request, to organize
The Negro churches
under their own
support 175 schools,with
preachers,
separate congregations
and in 1870 two bishopswere
appointed to organize
property valued at $2,500,000. The African M.E.
the
raises
about
for
the
colored
conference
into
and
Church
ent
independa separate
$500,000 every year
association which took the name
of the Colored
support of its 20 collegesand normal schools. The
In 1908 representaEpiscopal Church.
altogether 110 colleges Methodist
Negro Baptists maintain
tives
of the A.M.E., the C.M.E., and the A.M.Z.
of them
and academies, so-called,
although many
little more
The
than primary schools.
are
Negro churches met in the First Council of the United
Board of Bishops. The purpose of this council was
denominations
of which
57
publish 68 periodicals,
to establish closer working relations between
the
issued weekly and 11 are issued monthly or
are
important Methodist bodies.
lished three more
quarterly. Of the 57 weeklyjournals29 are pubThe first Negro Baptist association in the United
and 9 by three
by the Baptist denomination
different branches
Church.
of the Methodist
States, the Providence
Baptist Association, was
churches
II. History."
organized in Ohio in 1836 and in 1880 the National
Independent
Negro
established as earlyas 1776.
The most notable
were
Baptist Convention was organized at Montgomery,
Ala.
of the early Negro churches
is the First African
The education
of the Negro
III. Edttcation.
Baptist church. Savannah, Ga., established in 1787
Marshall
was
begun by the first missionaries sent out from
(white) and Rev.
by Rev. Abraham
and
the slaves. The
Jesse Peters (colored). Andrew
Bryan, a slave of England to the Indians
the first preacher. In 1792, Society for the Propagation of the Gospelin Foreign
Jonathan
Bryan, was
Parts established a school for Negroes in Charleston
after serious persecutions,
Bryan began the erection
for colored
in 1745.
The
St. Francis
and it is notable
of a church building of his own,
Academy
in 1829 by
established at Baltimore
that he had by this time so far gained the recognition
people was
the Oblate Sisters of Providence, a colored woman's
of the community, that the city of Savannah
sisterhood of the Catholic Church.
It
gave the congregation a lot for this purpose.
The
in the Negro church that the earliest evidences
Society of Friends
(Quakers) in 1837
was
is now
the Cheyney
established what
manifested
and
consciousness
of Negro race
Training
itself,
School
for Teachers
In 1854
at Cheyney, Pa.
in its religiousorganizationsthat the Negro community
the
first sought and gained independence and
at
Hinsonville,
Presbyterians established
cumstances
Chester County, the Ashmun
Institute,since 1866
recognition. This lends significanceto the cirLincoln University. In 1856 the Ohio
as
under which the first African Baptist known
of the African
Methodist
founded.
Conference
Church in Savannah
was
Episcopal
The
first organization of Negro churches
as
Church, which had opened Union Seminary twelve
of Columbus, united
with the Ohio
miles west
an
independent denomination had its origin when
Church
in establishing
Conference of the Methodist
at St. George's Church,
made
an
attempt was
Xenia.
Wilberforce
In
1863
other
Richard Allen and some
University near
Philadelphia,to move
sold to Bishop Payne and
this institution was
their
of the congregationfrom
Negro members
to the
accustomed
seats in the body of the church
passed wholly into the hands of the African M.E.
church.
out
gallery. The Negroes objected, and walked
of Emancipation
Allen
It was
not until the Proclamation
of the church.
April 17, 1787, Richard
that the work of educating the Negro was
and Absalom
Jones formed the Free African Society,
on
large scale by the churches.
Negro church, undertaken
sort of union
or
community
a
any
established
The first school for the freedmen
"formed
without
was
regard to religioustenets, provided
live an
the persons
Missionary Association at Fortress
orderly and sober life," by the American
but inspired,so far at least as its leaders were
Monroe, September 17, 1861. This school,under
his
S. C. Armstrong and
the direction of Gen.
concerned, by "a love of the people of their own
fame
has since gained international
at that time,
successors,
complexion." But it was not possible
Institute. The
under the title of Hampton
for long a church
more
and for these people,to maintain
tion
established
without
creed.
by the AssociaIn 1790 Allen, with a few fol- important schools
a
after the war
Fisk University at Nashwere
from the fellowshipand started
withdrew
owers,
94

per cent

of the

independent Negro churches,and 97 per cent of the

There
in
were
membership of such churches.
1916, 39,186 Negro Sunday Schools in the United
States with an enrollment
of 2,226,156,5,240 of
tained
mainwhich, with an enrollment of 300,628, were
with white
by Negro churches connected
denominations; and 33,946, with an enrollment of
The
1,915,428,by independent Negro churches.
value of Negro church
property is $85,914,873.
Of this stun, $71,685,347 represents the value of
property of the independent Negro churches.
It is estimated that Negro churches
are
tributing
conannually $300,000 to missions,$200,000 of
which
is for home
for foreign
and the remainder
missions. The African Methodist EpiscopalChurch
began its foreignmission work in 1844 and is now
carryingon work in eight foreign countries. It
maintains two bishops in Africa,
where it had before

"

307

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Neoscholastlcism

God to man,
and had confidence in the efficacy
ville,Tenn., in 1866; Taledega College,Taledega,
of an
ascetic regimen. The
direct apprehension
Ala.,in 1867; Hampton Institute in 1868; Atlanta
versity of the divine was
the prime rehgiouspassion of
University, at Atlanta, Ga., and Straight Uniat

in 1869.

Orleans

New

The

the age.

Institute at

II. Metaphysics
Theology.
by Booker T. Washington,
Metaand
from
derived
its inspiration
physicallvthe problem for Neoplatonism was
Hampton, and has
to
industrial eaucation.
been a pioneer in stressing
explainthe relation of the one to the many
in such a
nominational,
undeAt first the work of Negro education
was
unity of the universe could
way that the spiritual
be shown, and the path to God made clear. This
but eventually most of these schools
task it accomphshed
became
independent and schools established later
by postulating a series of
tions.
under the control of the separate denominagradations, diminishing in perfection, between
were
God and Matter.
total number
of schools maintained
At the head of the series is God,
The
whose
is beyond aU description,
in 1916
nature
was
for he is
by white denominations
354, of which
above
all quaUties,
above
160 are classed as largeand 194 as small or unimportant.
knowledge and reason.
He
absolute
in these schools was
is
The
total enrollment
unity; relativelywe must conceive
him to be pure creative activity,at once
in elementary, 7,188
the first
51,529, of which 43,605 were
of the cosmos
in secondary, and 736 in the college
and its final cause.
cause
Without
grades.
effort God
overflows in emanations,with no
Of the eighteen societies which were
loss
supporting
to himself,exactly as the sun
sends forth its rays.
Negro mission schools in the South in 1916, the
The first grade of emanation
Mission Society supported
is IntelUgence
American
Baptist Home
(nous),
in which are the causes
of $304,861; the
of aU things. The second
24 schools,with a total income
of Missions, 112 schools, with a
Catholic
Board
grade is the World-soul (psyche),which distributes
itself into
of $146,821; the American
total income
individual souls. The
final grade,
Missionary
farthest removed
from the One, is Matter, wMch
Association
is
(Congregational),29 schools, with a
absolute negation of Being and hence evil;therefore
of $235,764; the Board of Missions of
total income
the world of sense
is irrational and evil. When
the Presbyterian Church, 85 schools,with a total
vidual
indiof Freedman's
souls descend from the World-soul into matter
of $200,124; the Board
income
United
of the
Missions
they forgettheir divine origin,even as the sunlight
Presbyterian Church,
is dimmed
lost when
it descends into darkness.
of $88,512; the
or
15 schools, with a total income
The individual soul then must be made to remember
Freedman's
Aid Society of the Methodist
Episcopal
Church, 18 schools,with a total income of $230,160; its divine source, to cease caring for things which
not its concern, and to reverence
are
the things of
Home
the Woman's
Missionary Society of the
the spirit. To accomphsh the soul's return Plotinus
Methodist Episcopal Church, 12 schools, with a
of $42,975; and the American
Church
total income
taught that an ascetic mode of hfe must be adopted.
Institute
Porphyry says that his master so despised his body
(Episcopal), 24 schools, with a total
that he seemed ashamed
E. Park
of its possession,and he
of $118,526.
Robert
income
himself urged men
to regard the flesh as a garment
which burdened and defiled them.
NEMESIS.
In classical mythology,the goddess
III. Virtues.
Plotinus held that the mass
moral
of
who
retribution,seeing
presides over
and punishments are
that rewards
proportioned men could not rise above the senses; a small number

Tuskegee, Ala.,founded

"

"

"

of retributive
event
to conduct.
any
Analogously,
fate due to cosmic or historicalforces rather than
human
to mere
activity.

used to designate
^A term
of the Anglican church with a pronovmced
with the R.C. system.

NEO-CATHOHC.
members

sympathy

"

In the mystery cults,a person

In the early church, a newly baptized
white
robe
who
a
ordinarily wore
person
till the Sunday
Easter eve
for eight days, from
In the R.C.
church, a newly
following Easter.
NEOPHYTE.

"

just initiated.

ordained priest;
a new
and, more
generally,
from another religious
group.

convert

could devote

themselves

to the virtues of the practical

life;a third class could follow the fightfrom

above and rise to the contemplativelife,
in which the
virtues are
related to Intelligence
alone.
Finally
there were
a
few, who in ecstasy, when the soul
and
union
with
to
forgotthought
self,might mount
God
and
to complete knowledge.
This Beatific
Vision Plotinus himseK received four times,according
to his biographer.
IV. Later
History.
^The second
period in
Neoplatonism was
inaugurated by lambUcus
(ca.280-ca. 330) who devoted himself to bringinginto
all the cults of paganism known
to him.
a system
"

Before the end of the 4th. century even

the leaders
reahzed that this had failed,and in the third and
last period -Proclus (410-485) is the greatest name
the school returned to the study of Plato and
Aristotle.
Clifford
H. Moore
"

A type of eclectic ancient

mystical philosophy. Alexandria, the intellectual
of the ancient world after 300 B.C., became
center
eclectic philosophies. When
of many
the home
and
Stoicism, Epicureanism,and the Academic
forms
Schools no
new
longer satisfied,
Peripatetic
evolved
in which
of philosophicdoctrine were
from
with elements drawn
mysticism was combined
The
from Platonism.
the older schools,especially
influential of these was
Neoplatonism, which
most
through Augustine passed into Christian theology.
Tradition makes Ammonius
Saccas,
I. Origin.
at the beginnmg of the 3rd. century, the founder
know
his teachings we
of Neopkitonism. Of
Plotinus
real founder
was
(204nothing. The
269); he and his pupil Porphyry are the chief
representativesof the school in its first period.
with large
Platonism
based
The
on
system was
borrowings from the Stoic,Judeo-Alexandrian,and
other schools; like other schools of the day it held
to a beUef in the possibiUtyof a direct revelation of

NEOPLATONISM.

"

"

late
eclectic
NEOPYTHAGOREANISM."
A
school of Greek philosophy whose best-known
sentative
reprewas
ApoUonius of Tyana (1st.century
monotheistic
a
A.D.). Its distinctive tenets were
theology and a sharp dualism of spiritand matter,
man's body being regarded as a prison from which
the soul could be delivered onlyby the aid of divine
revelation.

"

NEOSCHOLASTICISM."

movement

in

philosophy, beginning in the second half

of the 19th. century, which seeks to further the study
CathoUc

it false
to eliminate from
of scholasticism
(q.v.)j
and useless notions while retainingits fundamental
scientific
principles,to assimilate to it modern
while
historical knowledge, and
and
remaining
strictlyorthodox to apply it to modern conditions.
has been Mgr. (now
Its leading representative

Neptune

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Cardinal) Mercier of the University of Louvain;

its leadingorgan, Revue neoscolastique.The movement
writers and teachers in most
includes CathoUc
countries.
Its best expression in English is the
sophic
Stonyhurst series of textbooks in the several philoJ. F. Crawford
disciplines.
A

NEPTUNE."

water

deity of the early

Romans, later assimilated -to the Greek Poseidon.

He became
the symbol of the sea and searpower.
NEREID.

nymphs

"

In

Greek

(q.v.)of the

mythology

one

of the

sea.

NERGAL.
A
sun-god of Babylonia who
became specialized
to representthe destructive power
of the sun.
As maleficent he was
also the god of
disease,pestilence and death; later he became
realm of the dead,
joint ruler of the underworld
Aralu.
"

NERTHUS."
A mother-goddessof the Teutons
who
was
tangible form and
represented in some
drawn
about in a chariot amid
rejoicingsat the

spring-time festival. She

symbolizes the

life-

of the Garth.
givingfertility
The doctrine that the divine
NESTORIANISM."
and the human
distinct
natxires of Christ were
so
that the latter only was
subjectto human conditions.
call Mary
To
"Mother
of God"
was
{theotokos)
improper,since only the human nature was bom of
her.
The doctrine was
advocated
by Nestorius and
the council of Ephesus
at
declared
(431) was
heretical.
A Christian sect which
NESTORIANS."
arose
in the 5th. century.
Ibas,a presbyterfrom Edessa,
had supported Nestorius at Ephesus. His school
at Edessa
was
suppressed in 489 and its members
views
scattered,carrying Nestorian
everywhere.
In Syria and Persia the Nestorian church expanded
the Mohammedans
overran
very rapidly. When
Persia the Nestorians
removed
to Mesopotamia.
Persecuted
church
and
by the orthodox
by the
driven
eastward.
Byzantine empire, they were
Their missionary
activities carried them to Armenia,
Arabia, Media, China, and India. The Indian
Syrian church, which still exists on the Malabar
founded
coast, was
by the Nestorian missionaries
in the 7th. or 8th. century.
There are evidences of
Nestorian Christianity
in China from the 7th. to the
9th. centuries.
The modern
Nestorians
found
are
in Persia and Asiatic Turkey.
The church has been
comparatively static both as regards cult and
doctrine.
Nestorius is commemorated
and invoked
The Virgin Mary is venerated,but the
as
a saint.
of God"
expression, "Mother
(q.v.) is denied.
The services are highly hturgical. Missions
to the
Nestorians
have
been
conducted
by the R.C.
Dominicans
in Turkey since 1838, the American
Presbyteriansin Persia since 1834, the Church of
England in Assyria since 1886, and the Russian
Orthodox
church in Assyria since 1898.
NESTORIUS."
of
Patriarch
Constantinople,
428-431.
He
opposed the designation "Mother
of God"
of Jesus.
apphed to Mary, the mother
The
council of Ephesus
his
(431), condemned
position. He was banished in 435, and died in 450.
See Nestorianism.

not

of

AND

ETHICS

to interfere with

religionand

to rear

308

the Catholic party's practice

the children in the CathoUc

faith.

NEUCHATEL,

INDEPENDENT
GELICAL
EVANOF."
An independent Evanof
geUcal church, organized 1873 in the canton
The
Neuchatel.
movement
began in the 16th.
century, through' Farel's (q.v.) preaching. Till
1848 it was
controlled by the "Company of Pastors."
The Revolution
of 1848 brought state interference
and reorganization,administration
centering in a
synod (lay and clerical).The efforts of rehgious
hberals in government
to disrupt the movement
pendent
(1865) led to a further reorganization(1873),indeof the state. The church is stillsynodically
controlled.
H. Walker
Henry
CHURCH

NEW
the

APOSTOLIC

CHURCH."

An

offshoot of

CathoUc

Apostolic church (q.v.),having the

doctrinal
same
type of organization,the same
with a singlemodification as to poUty.
basis,
In 1862,owing to a disagreement in the CathoUc

ApostoUc church

in

Germany

over

the selection of

apostles,the New ApostoUc church was organized.

The parent organizationhad been founded
the
on
basis of twelve apostles; the new^body held that,
of the apostlesmight never
although the number
be less,it might be more
than twelve.
The three
great creeds.Apostles',
Nicene, and Athanasian, are
the standard of belief and teaching. The supreme
officers of the church
are
apostleswhose decision
is final on
of doctrine and poUty. The
matters
first church in the United
States was
organized in
thirteen churches,nineteen
1897, and there are now
and about two thousand
members.
ministers,
C. A. Beckwith
ENGLAND
THEOLOGY."
A type of
theology which flourished in the Congregational
churches of America
from about 1750 to 1900.
Arising on the background of the Westminster
Confession (q.v.),it was an attempt to shift the
and
emphasis from divine decrees to human
agency
to harmonize
theologywith experienceand especially
The subjectsof discussion were:
reason.
(1) the
decrees and agency
of God; (2) the will and moral
of man;
of sin;
(3) the nature and source
agency
(4) the divine "permission" of sin; (5) "power to
the contrary"; (6)place of sin in a moral system;
(7) the atonement;
(8) regeneration; (9) the
had
mitted
subTrinity. In the old world the reason
itseK to the established authority,but in the
world
under
the new
new
politicaland reUgious
The rational
master.
freedom, it would call no man
awakening, due to the philosophy of Leibnitz,
Locke, Berkeley,and Reid and to the English
Deists,applied itself to untrammeled
investigation
of the orthodox belief. Attention was
concentrated
whoUy on the experienceof sin and salvation,and
this was
subjected to acute psychologicalanalysis.
Final authority was
allowed
the individual
to
judgment alone. Although the Scriptures were
and prooffreelyused for exposition,illustration,
texts,yet at best they sustained no vital but only
a formal relation to theology. In their controversies
with the UniversaUsts
and Unitarians
(qq.v.)the
New
the
same
England theologians assumed
attitude toward the reason
and the authority of
the Scripturesas their opponents, only they represented
different point of view.
Their radical
a
difference lay in their conception of Christian
NEW

experience.
NE

Pop"

TEMERE."
Pius X. in

decree

promulgated by

1907, declaring that baptized

be validlymarried
Catholics can
only before the
Catholic pastor of the place and two witnesses, A
non-Catholic,
marrying a Catholic,must
promise

essential meaning of the New

England
that it was
the first thorough-going
ittempt completely to rationaUze the evangelical
labeled a modified
faith. The finished product was
[Calvinism,
although it had been shorn of the
^he

theologyis

309

DICTIONARY

After
essential features of Calvinism.
creative forces appeared iu America

RELIGION

OP

AND

ETHICS

New

l^estament

Arabic, Danish, English,French, Hindu, Icelandic,

piii- Italian, Magyar, PoUsh, Russian, Swedish, and
Welsh.
of volumes
losophy of Kant and Hegel, the theory of evolution,
Many hundreds
are
annually
the historical study of the Scriptures,
distributed
without- cost to clergymen in Great
and in general
Britain and
America.
attitude and approach to rehgion. By 1900
There
also the New
a new
are
the New^ England theology had
Church
become
Magazine, New Church Quarterly Review,
only a
tradition in every lecture-room of the denomination.
New
Church
Review, and other periodicals in
It had, however, prepared the way
C. A. Beckwith
for a new
order, various languages.
and the transition was
made
silentlyand without
NEW
loss of any values dear to faith. Chief representaMANICHAEANS."
A generic term
for
tives
certain mediaeval
of the system were
the two Edwardses, father
sects which
indicate a revival
of Manichaeism
and son, Joseph Bellamy, Samuel
(q.v.)in their dualism, asceticism
Hopkins, Stephen
and organization. In the East, Manichaean
trines
docWest, Timothy Dwight, Nathaniel Emmons, Asa
W.
Burton, Leonard
Taylor,
reappeared in the Bogomiles and Euchites,
Woods, Nathaniel
Samuel
and
in
in
the West
the Albigenses,Cathari and
Harris,and Edwards A. Park.
C. A. Beckwith
Bulgari.(qq.v.)
NEW
OF."
The
CHURCH
JERUSALEM,
NEW
TESTAMENT."
An
abbreviation
assumed
name
by those who accept the teachings
"The Books of the New
tian
the ChrisTestament," i.e.,
of Emanuel
Swedenborg as authoritative.
as
distinguishedfrom the ancient Scriptures
1. History. Swedenborg
(1688-1772) appears
identified with the new
covenant
Christianitywas
not to have contemplated founding a church.
Six
foretold in Jer. 31:31,and the Greek word diatheke
after his death, English translations of his
years
"covenant"
had also the meaning of a "testament"
works
influential people
began to appear,
many
lation
or "will."
Owing to this confusion a wrong transadopted his teachings,several clergymen preached
was
given in Latin (and hence in English) to
the doctrines from their pulpits and in missionary
"

1860
the

new

"

Covenant."
the title "The Books of the New
The N.T. (in the West) consists of 27 writings,
varying in length and
were
character, which
composed from about 50-130 a.d. The four Gospels
and the Epistlesof Paul form the nucleus of the
volume.
in the
The
Gospel history is continued
book of Acts, while to Paul's Epistles are added
the Epistle to the Hebrews
and
the so-called
Catholic Epistles(James, I and II Peter,I, II, and
III John, Jude). An apocalypticwork. Revelation,
is appended in the Western
The writings
canon.
the language
are
composed in Greek, which was
generallycurrent in the eastern half of the Roman
empire; but the Greek employed is the spoken as
contrasted with the hterarjrdialect. It is possible
that primitive documents
in Aramaic
Hebrew
or
2. Organization. The officers of the church are
underUe
several of the books
(Matt.,
Mark,
may
ordained
ministers
or
ordaining
general pastors,
Luke, Acts 1-12, Rev.). See Canon; Gospel.
ministers,
leaders,and preachers. In Great Britain
The Bible of the Christian church was originally
the church
ence";
Conferannual
"General
unites in an
the Old Testament, but the sayings of Jesus, preserved
in America
a similar body is designated as
orallyor in short written collections,
seem
the "General Convention."
from the first to have
had scripturalauthority.
characteristic teachings of
3. Teachings. The
They were
incorporatedin various Gospels, of
the church are:
(1) the Scripturesare the word of
which
four were
ultimately selected,and which
and
God; they contain a twofold meaning, literal,
hkewise
ranked
as
Scripture, Paul's Epistles
celestial;(2) Emanuel
Swedenborg, the first one
held in high honor, but for nearly a century
were
whom
this celestial meaning was
to
disclosed, were
The
regarded merely as edifying works.
made
this known
in his writings; (3) according to
idea of a New Testament
to have originated
seems
this revelation
(a)Jesus Christ is the Father in his
about
150 A.D.
with Marcion
(q.v.),who shared
essential divinity,
the Son in his essential humanity;
the Gnostic antipathy to the Old Testament, and
(6) both evil and good spiritsattend man, keeping .sought to
replace it by a purely Christian Bible.
his free will in equilibrium; (c) regeneration is
His N.T.
consisted of the Gospel of Luke
and
progressive,through love and faith;(d) Jesus
ten Epistlesof Paul.
church
took
The orthodox
instituted baptism as signof entrance
to the church,
readilyas many heretical
up Marcion's idea the more
the Lord's Supper as sign and seal of introduction
works
of
in circulation under
the names
were
into heaven; (e) the church is to the world what
revered
authentic
Apostles. Writings with an
heart and lungs are to the body; (/)man
rises from
claim were
placed on a Ust or
singledout, and were
death in substantial,
perfecthuman
form; {g) by
settled tiU about the
"canon," which was not finally
this revelation through Swedenborg the Lord Jesus
tion
middle of the 4th. century. Ostensibly the selecChrist
makes
his second
advent
to the
world,
made
was
according to certain literaryand
thus bringing to pass a new
dispensationof judgment
theological
tests; but the books eventuallyaccepted
of the age.
and a consummation
were
simply those which had proved most valuable
4. Ritual.
This is patterned after the Book
of
in the religious
lifeof the church.
Common
Prayer; all prayers are, however,addressed
their origin
The writingsof the N.T. all owed
to Jesus Christ as the only God.
of the early Christian
needs
to the immediate
5. Education.
Training is provided in a prePaul wrote his Epistlesby way of counsel
paratorymission.
school at Waltham, Mass., in the New
which he could not personally
or warning to churches
Church
University,Urbana, Ohio, the Theological visit. The
addressed
CathoUc
to
Epistles were
School,Cambridge, Mass., and in the New Church
the church
generally,in view of urgent dangers,
College,London.
especiallyfrom false teaching. The Gospels and
for catechetical instruction,
handbooks
6. Publications.
The writings of Swedenborg
Acts were
the
intended
comfort
have
been
translated
into various
to
while
Revelation
was
languages

acquainted largecircles with the new evangel.

In 1787 the first church
was
organized. Several
ministers who
had been Methodist
preachers were
ordained.
The
also
new
teaching found converts
in France, Germany,
As
Russia, and Sweden.
1784
reached
early as
Swedenborg's doctrine
and
Philadelphia. In 1789 Benjamin Franklin
others of note
subscribed
for an
edition of True
Christian Religion. In 1792 a society was
ized
organin Baltimore,and was
followed by others
soon
in Philadelphia,
York.
and New
Boston, Cincinnati,
In 1915 there were
in Great Britain 72 societies,
46 ministers,and, includingIreland,about
10,000
96
members; in the United States and Canada
103 ministers,and 6,363 members.
societies,
tours

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

New

Thought

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

310

NEW
YEAR'S
CELEBRATIONS."
The
New
church
in a crisis of persecution. Ahnost all the
in Jewish ritual (Ezek. 45:18)
books present very difficult problems
theological,Year was marked
and in pagan
occasion for popular
Rome
was
an
exegetical,Uterary, historical which have been
Christians conAs
examined
tinued
masquerades and excesses.
according to sound critical methods only
Chief among
to take part in these, the Church
times.
these problems
in modern
(4th.to
7th.
fast
centuries)vainly tried to make it a
day.
are:
(1) the relation of the first three Gospelato
Since the 6th. century it has been the feast of the
one
another; (2) the authorship and character of
Lord's circumcision.
The pagan
tradition of merrythe Fourth
Gospel; (3) the authenticityof some
making
of the
(especially
persistedin the Middle Ages and from the
Epistles attributed to Paul
11th. to 15th. centuries,in France
and the Rhine
Eph., I and II Tim., Titus); (4) the origin and
and
of Hebrews;
destination
(5) the sources
country. New Year's had a Feast of Fools in which
Of late years much
light the sub-deacons indulged in a parody on the mass.
purport of Revelation.
the N.T.
F. A. Christie
has been thrown
on
by our increasing
HENRY
JOHN
(1801-1890)."
NEWMAN,
knowledge of the general life and history of the
At
first a
than was
1st. century.
Calvinist Evangelicalin sympathy,
To a far greater extent
Newman
of their
under the influence of Keble
and R. H.
men
formerly suspected its authors were
revelation in
Froude
espoused the Catholic conception of the
time, who gave expressionto the new
Enghsh Church and led a reaction againsttheological
contemporary forms of thought and language.
E. F. Scott
liberalism and the parliamentary control of the
The
battle began in 1833 with Tracts
NEW
THOUGHT."
A modern
mistic Church.
type of optibelief and
practiceslike
reUgiousideaUsm which affirms the possibility for the Times justifying
those of Romanism.
Newman's
Tract 90 on
the
of a complete control of all the conditions of Ufa
by rightlydirected thinking,and develops a specific Articles being censured by the University and the
and
physical bishop of Oxford, he withdrew to Littlemore (1841),
disciplineso as to secure
spiritual
Church
welfare.
joinedthe Roman
(1845)and became priest
of
of the Oratory of St. Philip of Neri (1847). He
considerable number
The
covers
term
a
Rector of the Catholic University of Dublin
kindred movements,
was
grouped usually around some
of rightthinking.
(1851-58), after which he lived as teacher and
giftedexponent of the possibilities
While
minor
there are
variations,the following author in the Birmingham
Oratory. His pragmatist apologetic{Grammar of Assent, 1870) and
principlesare generallyemphasized: (1) A vital
and
God's power
his theory of historical Development of Christian
conceptionof divine immanence.
Doctrine (1845) have given him great influence in
activity are as universally accessible as the air
the
Catholicism.
which we breathe.
modernizing party of French
(2) The natural kinship between
become
He was
made
at his best may
and God, whereby man
man
a Cardinal,May
12, 1879.
of the divine life. Opportunity
F. A. Christie
a complete sharer
NICENE
CREED."
See Creeds.
rather than a "state of sin" should be the startingpoint of reUgious thinking. (3) The exaltation of
of appropriating the
NICHIREN
(1222-1282 A.D.)."A saintly
rightthinking as the means
teacher and reformer of Buddhism
in Japan. He
divine life. Thoughts are dynamic entities,
capable
A rightthought
based his message
the "Lotus of the True Law"
of attractingto themselves power.
on
which the
which
he held to be the consummation
of all
bringsto the thinker the divine resources
the
Buddhist
truth and the sole authority. Confident
thinking cuts
thought represents. Wrong
that he was
himself the true apostle of the faith
thinker off from these resources, and may lead from
evil forces.
it attracts
to be the savior of the
because
bad to worse
(4) and divinely commissioned
lowing
new
Spiritualpeace, mental power and physical health
age he gloriedin exile and persecution. Folthe Lotus he taught that the spiritual
reality
("Peace, power, and plenty," R. W. Trine) may
consists in daily
which
in
be secured by discipline,
acting in all existence is the Eternal Buddha
whose life we share when by meditation
become
we
study in which the principlesand applicationsof
conscious of the truth and by moral
action give
accompanied
New
Thought are expounded in detail,
to
law.
often by certain physical exercises intended
or
expressionto the true Dharma
bring muscular relaxation and a calm and expectant
NICHOLA
S.
^The name
of five popes
and one
mental attitude.
The literature of New
Thought has an extensive
antipope.
of
Nicholas I.
His papacy
circulation.
Its unbounded
was
optimism, its use
Pope, 858-867.
with
marked
an
by three struggles:one with Photius, the
psychologicaland philosophical terms
in an effort to restore
air of scientific authority,its daring promise of cure
patriarchof Constantinople
of
the degraded patriarch Ignatius; another
with
for all ills,
its high moral tone, its eclectic method
its skilful
Lothair I.,king of Lorraine in opposition to the
the good in other philosophies,
reaffirming
king'sdivorcing his wife; and a third in which he
preparation of upliftingand practicallessons for
maintained
the rightof bishops to appeal from their
religiousproclamation
daily study, and its warm
it
with the divine make
See.
of a gospel of oneness
metropolitansto the Roman
not
too
Nicholas
1058-1061.
Hildebrand
//."Pope,
especiallyattractive to those who are
dictated the policy of his pontificatetoward
for scientific accuracy,
the
critical in their demand
The "Donation
who
and
dislike the dogmatism of traditional
independent power of the papacy.
Smith
Birney
Gerald
of Constantine"
caUed into service to
(q.v.)was
theology.
that end.
Nicholas ///."Pope, 1277-1280.
YEAR."
holy day
NEW
(Jewish.) Solemn
Nicholas /F.- Pope, 1288-1292.
observed on the first (and by orthodox Jews also on
Nicholas F." (1) Antipope, 1328-1330, during
corresponding
the second) of Tishri (the month
''
the pontificateof John
XXII.
(2) Pope, 1447approximately to October) It is called the Day of
1455.
Judgment" on which God judges the souls of men;
to make
for men
an
and the "Day of Memorial"
SAINT."
in
NICHOLAS,
Bishop of Myra
inventory of their moral Uves. It is distinguished
cletian,
Lycia, who was
persecuted in the reign of Dioby the blowing of the Shofar (q.v.)a distinctive and
stantine,
and incarcerated
until the reign of Contial
inspiring
liturgy. It is followed by the ten penitenand is said to have been present at the
days, which, in turn, are concluded by the Day
Nicene
Council. Almost
of Atonement.
notliing is certainly
"

"

"

"

311

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

by the Greek
6, and is the

about him.
He is venerated
known
church as a saint on Dec.
and Roman
patron saint of Russia.

AND

ETHICS

substitute for

God.

Moreover,

Nominatio

Regia

though

change

the law of things, there was, owing to the

finiteness of the world's forces,
a limit to the possible
varieties of change
that when
the gamut
so
once
of combinations
had been run, the old combinations
would recur
("eternalrecurrence"),the world thus
maintaining a certain identity
despitechange (even
each separate human
life recurring).
William
M. Salter
NIHILIANISM."
The
view
that when
God
became
in Jesus Christ,the human
man
nature
was
real substance.
a
mere
The
vesture, having no
view
in
12th.
the
but
arose
appeared.
dissoon
century,
was

"

GOSPEL
OF."
An apocryphal
NICODEMUS,
gospel consistingof two works, united at an early
date:
The
Acts of Pilate,containing a detailed
of Jesus' trial before
The
account
Pilate, and
Descent of Christ to the Underworld
relates
which
the story of Carinus and Leucius, two men
raised

from the dead.

NICOLAITANS."
An
early heretical sect,
known
only through the condemnatory references
of opponents, apparently extremely free from conventional
restraints in their habits

of life. Also

traditional

practicescurrentlyregarded as sacred.

FRIEDRICH
WILHELM
NIETZSCHE,
(18441900). -Professor of classical philology at Basel,
jects.
1868-79, writer on philosophicaland ethical subDeeply influenced at the start by Greek
studies and by the philosophy of Schopenhauer, he
advanced
the idea of a new
"tragic culture for
world
a counterpart to
Germany and the modem
the old Greek culture (i.e.,
before the age of Socrates
and Euripides,with their rationalizing
tendencies)
^inwhich Dionysiac art,represented,
as he thought,
by Richard Wagner, should vitallyfunction.
Later,
disillusionedas to Wagner, and become
skeptical
of the saving power
of art in general,his thought
was
mainly critical,
though the hope for a new
culture led him
extensive
to
practical
propose
changes in social and poUtical life m, broadly
cluding
speaking, an aristocratic direction. In his conperiod,we find,along with continued and
"

"

"

NIHILISM.

revelation
mediaeval sect which claimed immediate
and abandoned celibacyin the priesthoodand other

"

The

philosophicaldoctrine of

the

and its
negation or denial of any real existence,
counterpart the illusorycharacter of all human
knowledge. Usually employed in a derogatory
its
sense.
Among
religions.Buddhism, with
doctrine
that desire causes
suffering,and rehef
comes
through a negation of desire,tends toward
nihiUsm.
Vedantic
philosophy denies the world
of appearances,

Qunyavadins

and

one

school

of Buddhists

"

the

deny existence.

"

NIHONGL"

collection of "Chronicles" of
A
in 720 a.d.
The work was written
in Chinese
and under
Chinese
influence but preserves
valuable materials for the interpretation
of
the ancient religion
of Japan.

old Japan made

NIMBUS.
A halo or aura
of lightwhich in art
is representedas encircling
the head of holy persons,
and sometimes
royal persons and other dignitaries.
The
the Greek, Roman,
symbol is found among
Brahmanic, Buddhistic, Slavonic, and Christian
reUgions. Among the ancients it was a symbol of
to indicate the appearance
of the
often mordant
criticism of current
philosophical deity,supposed
and ethical views,a glowing faith in the possibility gods on the earth.
of man's risingto practically
superhuman heights.
NINIB.
An
ancient
sungod of Nippur, in
His style is Uterary rather than technical,and
Babylonia who was
replaced at the head of the
bold phrases,such as "superman," "beyond good
pantheon at that place by Enlil (q.v.).
and evil,""immorahst," "blond
beast, "will to
power," easily mislead; he needs to be studied.
NIRMANAKAYA."
See Dharmakaya.
For' example, "beyond good and evil" means
scending,
trannot
reigning
morality, but the now
NIRVANA.
The
of complete salvation
state
Christian type of moraUty, the main antithesis of
set as the goal before the Buddhist
disciple. It was
which is "good and evil"; the antithesis "good and
condition
of peace
and
a
joy achieved by final
bad," which he thinks prevailedin the Greek and
emancipation from the torture of earthly desires.
Roman
a
calUng the one
moralit};^he reasserts
Since man
has no permanent ego it is not described
herd- or slave-morahty,the other a master-morality,
immortal
lifeof bliss yet it is forbidden to call
as an
in accordance
with what he deems
their respective it
from
the
bluntly annihilation. It was
escape
hostiUtyto Christianity endless wheel of transmigration and since the
inspirations.His extreme
because
is
it so takes the side of the weak
and
arahat enjoyed such perfectpeace and poise in this
that the highermaster-type of man
becomes
inferior,
have been an unformulated
earthly life there may
almost
impossible in its atmosphere. "Immoralfaith that the after-life would
be a state of quiet
ist" is primarily the critic (dissectoror analyst)
joy. Here Buddhist
teaching is vague.
of moraUty.
the
By "blond beast" he means
who
down
and
came
on
Aryan
conquered
NIX.
In
Teutonic
folk-lore,a water-spirit,
the dark-haired aborigines of Europe ages
ago,
ordinarilyregarded as evil,but capable of being
of a higher civiUzation.
laying the foundations
conciliated by votive offerings;
supposed to appear
"WiU
to power" is his fundamental
reading of man
in human
half-fish forms.
and
half-human
or
this will having aU shades
and
the world
and
Feminine, nixie or nixy.
the
in
the philosopher
highestbeing reached
degrees,
and saint.
NOCTURN."
(1) In the primitivechurch, a
culture led him to look for
The hope for a new
and
praise service held at midnight or
prayer
united
fold
a
Europe, in which the various clashing daybreak. (2)In the R.C. church,one of the threenationaUstic
aims
be
divisions of the office of matins, consistingof
ruUng at present would
transcended
and Europe take the lead in organizing psalms, lessons and antiphons.
the world, to the end of providing favorable worldwide
for the emergence
conditions
of the higher
NOMINALISM.
See Realism
nalism.
Nomiand
but the highest men,
Not all men,
types of men.
but superman," was
the goal:
not man,
to him
The
he was as anti-democratic
and for
REGIA."
as anti-Christian,
NOMINATIO
royal right to
the same
nominate
reason.
for an ecclesiastical
a rightformerly
Though atheist,this maximal
office,
for him a kind of
evolution of the speciesmade
claimed by the Frankish and German
emperors.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

DICTIONARY

Nomism

NOMISM.
in exact
See Legalism.

"

The

OF

RELIGION

sists
conceptionthat religioncon-

obedience to

NON-CONFORMITY."

definitecode of laws.

neglector

refusal

established belief or
to act in harmony with any
it is applied to religious
More
specifically
usage.
The passage
of the Act of Uniformity in
dissent.
from the English state
1662 led to the withdrawal
church of some
2,000 ministers who refused to use
of Common
the Book
Prayer as required by this
Act.

The

term

Non-Conformists

was

applied to

gradually extended to include

them, and then was
all other dissentingProtestants.
themselves,
Non-Conformists, differingamong
agreed in their opposition to the established
were
Stuarts the attempt
the last two
Under
made to suppress them
altogether,and they
ing
suffered severely. The Act of Uniformity, requirchurch.
was

of the Prayer Book under heavy penalties,

followed by the Corporation,Conventicle,
all
and Test Acts which
completely ehminated
gious,
^relidissenters from the public life of the nation
civil,and military and also suppressed
privateworship. In the interest of the CathoUcs,
both Charles II. and James II. attempted to mitigate
but the effort was without
of dissenters,
the sufferings
overthrown
in the attempt.
and James
was
success
and
WilUam
Under
Mary considerable relief
was
granted in the great Act of Toleration in 1689.
EarKer penal laws were
not repealed but they were
no
longerenforced,while church organizationand
careful
permitted under
pubhc worship were
plete
governmental supervision. The struggle for comand
freedom
equality with the estabUshed
church continued
throughout the whole of the
In 1836
of the 19th. centuries.
18th. and most
the right to solemnize marriages with their own
to dissentingministers,
extended
ceremonies
a
was
national school system alongside the state system
universities without religious
was
established;later new
old
tests have been founded, in 1871 the two
to Non-Conformists
thrown
universities were
open
and in 1880 the rightof burial in consecrated church
yardswas secured.
of the establishment
Thus most of the privileges
but the highest aim of the
have been taken away,
Non-Conformists, the completedisestablishment of
the church, has not been attained.
However, the
Non-Conformists have continued to make progress
social and
furnish leaders in all liberal,
and now
W. J. McGlothlin
movements.
political
the

use

was

"

"

EXPEDIT."
NON
(Latin:''itis not expedient.")
in 1868 in advising
A formula
used by the pope
from
abstain
to
Italian Catholics
using their
franchise in parliamentary elections,as a protest
againstthe policyof the Government.
A group of Anglican ecclesiastics
NONJURORS.
to
who refused to take the oath of allegiance
William and Mary in 1689 because they considered
II.
themselves bound
by their oaths to James
which persisted
They formed separate congregations
until 1805.
"

ETHICS

AND

312

NORITO.
A
Japanese prayer-spell. This
is given to a collection of ancient state rituals
which have the nature
of magic spellsdirected by
the Emperor for the protection and prosperity
of
the land and ruUng house.
"

name

NORNS.
Teutonic

^Three maidens
who, according to
mythology, fix the destinies of men,
bestowing good and evil by inexorable decree and
of death.
determining the day and manner
"

inclusive
NORTH
An
AFRICAN
CHURCH."
for the orthodox
communities
of
Christian
term
North
Africa in the early centuries.
Christianity
to Africa doubtless from Rome, and probably
came
in the
1st. century.
Its rapid spread through
Numidia
Proconsular
and
Africa, Mauretania
due to social and religiouscauses,
was
especially,
and
however, to the outstanding personalities
labors of Tertullian (q.v.),Cyprian (q.v.),and
Augustine (q.v.). The church suffered from false
teaching (Manicheism, q.v.)and schism (Montancrushed by the
ism and Donatism, qq.v.). It was
annihilated by
Vandals
in the 5th.,and practically
Islam in the 7th. and 8th. centuries.
H. Walker
Henry
MISSIONS
NORTH
AMERICAN
INDIANS,
of
TO.
The evangeUzation of the Indians was
one
the prime motives
professedby Spanish,French,
and English in their plans for the colonization of
North
America.
was
spectacular
Spanish success
in Florida,New
Mexico, and CaUfornia. But the
Recollets
French
permanent results were
meager.
and Jesuits served the Indians of the St. Lawrence
notable
Basin
and
the Mississippi Valley with
devotion and won
large niunbers of loyalconverts
to the Roman
faith.
The accomplishment of the Anglican church was
very small during the 17th. century although its
"

leaders in England intended an aggressiveprogram.

The
plan for the founding of the University of
Henrico
abandoned
after the natives had
was
of the colonists. Both
brutally massacred
many
Pilgrimsand Puritans were slow in beginning their
due largelyto economic
work among
the red men,
problems and to the lack of ministers who could
and the five
John
EUot
be spared for the task.
generationsof the Mayhew family stand out as the
the American
pioneersof Protestant missions among
Indians.
The 18th. century saw
a slackening of interest
and
of France
in Indian missions due to the wars
used by both
were
England, in which the red men
sides. Unique was
the undertaking of Eleazar
Wheelock.
His privateschool in which he trained
their own
missionaries among
natives to become
of Dartmouth
people resulted in the estabhshment
College. The
outstanding Presbyterian leaders
David
and John Brainerd and the Mohegan,
were
Samson
Occom.
The efforts of the Quakers were
directed largely to securing peacefulconditions
remarkable
With
for the Indians.
patience the
Local
difficult fields.
Moravians
labored
in
the Baptists
churches and zealous leaders among
One of the
made small beginningsin New England
for the organization of the Society
main
causes
the
was
for Propagatingthe Gospel (Episcopal)
the Indians.
hope of Christianizing
The leadingagency during the first half of the
of Commissioners
Board
the American
19th. century was
This body reprefor Foreign Missions.
sented
and Reformed
Congregational,Presbyterian
took
underdenomination
interest. Practically every
basis during
Indian missions upon an organized
plan
the early years of the century. In 1870 a new
was
inaugurated through the initiative of President
Since this date, the Indian tribes have
Grant.
.

A refusal to employ
physical force in order to enforce one's purposes.
of non-resistance
The
advocates
appeal to the
the Mount
on
teachingof Jesus in the Sermon
("Resist not evil"),and regard war as unjustified
who
Those
refused
under
circumstances.
any
to enter
during the
miUtary service for this reason
Great War were
known
as "conscientious
objectors."

NON-RESISTANCE."

NONES.
The service for the ninth hour in the
Roman
breviary, normally recited at 3 p.m., but
sometimes
earUer.
"

313

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

the denominations
cation
so that dupliis that
The usual situation now
is avoided.
there are the Catholic,Episcopal,and one Protestant
denomination on each reservation.
the beginning, the mission interest was
From
the day
wider
than
mere
evangeUzation. From
to civiUze as well as
of Eliot on, the effort was
Schools
Indians.
the
convert
provided both
industrial training. In general,
intellectual and
it may
be said that there have been four main
all along
difficultieswhich
have been encountered
attention
detracted
the line: intertribal warfare
medicine-man
from religion;the powpow
ducted
conor
bitter campaign against the new
faith;
a
and
vices
introduced
the
white
frontiersman
States governmistreated the Indian; the United
ment
constantlymoved the tribes farther west and
seldom moved
them far enough to insure a settled life.
Practicallyall of the Indians are now within easy
In 1920, there were,
reach of Christian missions.
thousand
natives who were
however, stillfifty
pagans
not
hundred
thousand
who
and
were
more
a
Stock
church.
Harry
Thomas
claimed by any

been divided among

RELIGIONS
NORTH
AMERICAN
INDIANS,
American
OF.
The rehgious beliefs of the North
Indians differ considerablyin various parts of the
the sedentary
continent.
In the southwest
among
tribes a fairlysystematicmythology has developed,
the western
while in the extreme
north and
on
natural
Plateaus,the world is believed to be filledby super"

beings which, however, are not organized

hierarchy of gods. This is a reflection of the
general social status of the Indians, the supernatural
less organized in the
or
beings being more

in

There is
the tribes themselves.
as
are
way
which
often a vague
concept of a great power
identified with
sometimes
has been
a
supreme
be identified with the dayUght or
being. It may
with the sun, but it does not play any very important
part in the religiouslife of the people,except
insofar as moral actions are generallystated to be
"maniThe term
pleasingto the supreme
power.
to be origitou" of the Eastern
nally
Algonquins seems
used for expressingthe idea of supernaturalor
wonderful
residingin any object,animal or
power
in the most
diverse
and which is manifested
man,
also be used to designate the
but it may
ways;
bearer of this quality. The stones which are used in
and are manitou.
thesteambath
have manitou
power
The same
idea of power which isdistinct from the concept
is held by the
of the supernatural
being itself,
Coast Indians.
Iroquois,Sioux and the Northwest
and is probably a
It is also found in the southwest
generalIndian idea.
Most of the Prairie and Eastern Indians have a
puberty ceremonial in which boys after a period of
with
fastinghave a vision in which a being endowed
and becomes
to them
supernatural power appears
be
the
their protector. This
hereditary
may
it may
to his
or
answer
property of his family,
wealth, to
ambitions, enabling him to accumulate
successful warrior or shaman, or to be
become
a
the
successful
in gambling. Sometimes
natural
superbeings are attached to different localities
without being attached to the individual Indian.
Systematic mythology is on the whole, rare.
It is found in the southwest, in CaUfornia and also
locallyelsewhere.
Ordinarily,the story of creation
of disconnected
tion
transformaconsists of a largemass
tales. The
typical underlying idea of origin
is that the phenomena of our world,includingsocial
in a spiritual
world and that
pre-existed
visited the spiritual
hero who
ancestor
or
y an
world, the phenomena of nature and societywere
and water
Thus the sun, fire,
brought to us.
may
have
been
in possession of powerful beings and
same

Ehenomena,

AND

ETHICS

North

American

Indians

stolen for the benefit of mankind.

The idea
of a creation by will power
is very rare in America.
It occurs
in a pronounced form only in California
and to a sUght extent in the southwest.
Animals
play a prominent role in the originstories of most
with the sole exceptionof the Eskimo.
tribes,
The
animal stories are analogous to the short animal
tales of Europe, Asia, and Africa dealing with the
were

originof things.
Shamans
class of individuals who obtain
a
are
tho supernatural powers
the abilityto cure
disease,either by removing from the body physical
sickness,or by capturing the soul which has left
the body of the patient. Shamanism
be
may
acquired by the acquisitionof a guardian spirit.
be innate,or may
It may
be acquiredby a person
who himself has been cured by shamanistic
means.
On
the whole, the methods
of shamanistic
cedure
prodo not differ much
from those found in other
istic
parts of the world, although the theory of shamanis quite varied.
The theory of the
treatment
soul as held by the North
American
Indians does
not seem
to show
pronounced characteristics.
any
of beliefs in multiple souls which
Many cases occur
the memory
the
represent the life,
image,personality,
of free movement
in dreams, etc.
The loss
power
of any
of these entails sickness and death.
After
death the souls,either in their entiretyor in part,
in some
cases
go to the country of the souls,which
is believed to be in the extreme
west, in other cases
under ground or in the sky. We find also concepts
of different lands of the souls according to the
of death of the individual.
manner
Thus, among
the Eskimo
those who die a violent death go to the
sky, while those who die of disease go into the lower
world.
with
An ethical concept is not connected
the locations of these worlds.
Magical procedure plays an important part in
the religious
of it
life of the Indians, though much
might as well be called scientific procedure, being
relation
interpurely rational and based on the assumed
between
that show certain kinds
processes
of similarities. The
most
strikingpeculiarityof
American
magic is the almost complete absence of
the use
of decorative design for magical purposes,
which plays an important part in the magic of the
Mediterranean
and
Asiatic areas.
Locally protective
designs are found, but they are not of
extended
use.
The good will of supernatural
powers is obtained
by prayer and sacrifice. Owing to the absence of
domesticated animals, bloody sacrifices are rare in
North
America.
human
sacrificeshad
In Mexico
been enormously developed, but in North America
the
they are found rarely, for instance, among
Pawnee.
Among the Iroquoisdogs were sacrificed,
consist
but ordinarilygifts
to the supreme
powers
of food thrown
into the fire,or of other property
that is destroyed. In a number
of districtscomthe
in use, as, among
are
pelHng incantations
Californian tribes.
Eskimo and among
some
characteristic features of the
One of the most
Indian is the
religiouslife of the North American
Their ceremonials
high development of ceremonial.
of a most complex character and are participated
are
in by either the whole tribe or by certain religious
the rest of the tribe being merely witnesses
societies,
The existence
of the exoteric part of the ceremony.
viduals,
of an
esoteric teaching in charge of certain indirequires a priestlyclass. On the other
class favors the
hand, the existence of a priestly
it
further development of esoteric teaching. Thus
tribes like the Indians of the
that among
appears
ceremonialism
whom
northwestern
Plateaus,among
is only sUghtly developed, there is also no priestly
the tribes like the southwestern
class,while among
sedentary Indians who have a highly developed

from

Notre

Dame

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The

NOVICE.

well

developed priesthood.
accompanied by
of certain
and
generally require the use
songs
definitely
arranged ceremonial objects which may
of the
be designated as altars,which
account
on
habits of the Plains Indians,can be packed
nomadic
designatedas "Sacred
up in bimdles and are generally
Indians
The
Bundles."
sedentary southwestern
are also in the habit of puttingup their altars only
the best known
Among
during the ceremonial.
ceremonial, there is

ceremonials consist of dances

AND

upon
one

ETHICS

314

An
inexperiencedperson
entering
occupation or mode of hfe; specifically
enters
a
religiouscommunity or house
a periodof probation. See Monasticism.
"

new

who

subjectto

SACRED."
NUMBERS,
Among very many
and are, associated
peoples certain numbers
were,
with peculiar sanctity,
as
three,four, seven, and
their various multiples,
In
e.g., nine, twelve, etc.
their origin is clear. Thus, twelve is
cases
many
of the Plains Indians
ceremonials is the Sun Dance
the number
of the zodiacal signs and of the months
has
of the year; five is the number
of the digitsof one
which, notwithstanding its external similarity,
a
Prime
great variety of forms of religioussignificance. hand; twenty, of the fingers and toes.
be perand it may
be connected
with war
It may
formed numbers, three,five,seven,
eleven, thirteen,
etc.,
ill. In
when
also regarded with special awe,
are
their
by a person who made a vow
as
are
other regionsthe ceremonials are performedduring
multiples,
(3X11), etc.
e.g., nine (3X3), thirty-three
when
the supernatural
certain season
beings are
The
number
a
one
obviously denotes unity; two,
the
In
the duality of life and
supposed to be present in the villages.
death, etc.; three, past,
southwest
there is a complete ceremonial calendar
present, and future,etc.; four,the cardinal points,
in which different ceremonies are performedwhich
and so on.
In general,however, the real originof
with the occupations and religious the sanctity of a given numeral
connected
is forgotten,
are
and
of the year.
events
new
reasons
are
assigned for the later beliefs in
be recognizedthat,owing
its holiness,
On the whole, it may
that it is very
difficult often
so
the ritualistic elements
and diffusion,
to contact
of its
impossible to determine the true source
well as the
as
and external forms of religious
life,
character.
sacrosanct
Lotris H. Gray
mythological concepts, have spread considerably
while on the other hand,
neighboringtribes,
NUMEN.
The
term
Roman
for any
among
vague
and of
the rehgious interpretationof ceremonies
supernaturalpotency which can be recognizedonly
individuaUzed
strongly
more
mj^hology is much
vidual
by its effects and is never clearlydefined as indigious
forms of reliin different tribes,
so that the outer
numina
of
or
personal, e.g., there were
in two neighthe same
be very much
Ufe may
boring trees, rivers,storehouses,fields,etc. Cf. Mana;
and rehgious
tribes,while the interpretation
Kami.
Boas
be quitedifferent. Franz
significance
may
"

"

"

NOTRE
DAME."
(French: "Our Lady.") A
and
French
designation of the Virgin Mary;
cated
of R.C. cathedrals dedithus the popular name
the famous cathedral
to the Virgin; especially
in Paris, begun in 1163, a splendidexample of
Gothic architecture.

or

NOVATIAN.

r.

Apr., 251

wasas

"

who in Mar.,
A Roman
presbyter
elected rival bishop ("the first

CorneUus.
The schism
due to Novatian's
protestagainstthe readmission into
membership in the Catholic church
of Christians who lapsedduring the Decian persecutions.
in Oct.,251, and
excommunicated
He was
He was
the
suffered martyrdom under Valerian.
Christian to write extensivelyin Latin.
firstRoman

antipope")in opposition to

NUN.

member

"

of

community of

women,

bound

of celibacy,poverty and
by religiousvows
Roman
obedience, such as those existing among
Catholics

and

Buddhists.

See Monasticism.

NUNC
DIMITTIS."
The
for
Kturgical name
the song of Simeon
recorded in Luke
2:29-32, so
called from the firstwords of the Latin version.
NUNCIO.

See Legates

"

and

Nuncios, Papal.

was

The
movement
begun by
against the readmission
(q.v.)protesting

NOVATIANISM.
Novatian
into the

NUREMBURG,

RELIGIOUS
PEACE
OF."
concluded
between
Emperor Charles V.
Protestants
at Nuremberg
in Bavaria
in
1532, whereby the legal status of the Protestant
churches was
assured for a time.
A peace
and the

"

who
of Christians
had become
The
persecution.
apostates during the Decian
could not be
party contended that mortal sms
The Council of Nicea made
absolved by the church.
provisionfor the readmission of Novatian clergyinto
the church, but the sect continued in the West until
the 5th.,and in the East until the 7th. century.

NUSKU.

"

The god of firein Babylonian

religion.

church

NOVENA.

"

repeatedon

devotion

days in the form of

blessing.

prayer

for

"

NYMPH.
classical
(Greek: "bride.") In
of a class of half superhuman
mythology, one
maidens, portrayed as takingup their residence in
nine sucthe ocean,
cessive
a
spring,a mountain, or a grove, who
favorites with the greater gods, and guardian
particular were

MORE
OATH
JUDAICA." Special form of
oath required of Jews by European courts during
the Middle
Ages, and down to the 19th. century.
1. Nature of an oath."
OATHS
and VOWS.
According to primitive ideas certain words and
formulas,such as personal names, titles of supernatural
beings, incantations,and blessings and
a
objective thingspossessing potency
curses, are
is this true of the curse,
pf their own.
Especially
"

NUT.
The sky-goddess of ancient Egypt separated
from her husband the earth-god,Geb, by the
air-god,Shu.
"

deities of human

beings.

regarded as a sort of baneful miasma

capable of injuringor destroyinganyone
it cUngs (see Blessing
and
Cursing).
is,in essence, a self-curse,
by which a
evil if what
he
person subjects himself to some
The effect of the oath is purely
says is not true.
mechanical, for the person who swears
falselyin
himself the same
ignorance calls down upon
alty
penthat to which the wilful perjurer exposes
as
which
is
which
is
to whom
An oath

himself.

315

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

methods
oalh. Various
curse-oath with magical
efficacy.The person taking the oath may establish
with some
object which represents the
contact
state referred to in the oath, in order to absorb its
of
qualityif he perjureshimself. Thus the Kandhs
the hzard's skin, whose scaliness
India swear
upon
will be their lot should they speak falsely. Another
to call upon
method
is for the oath-taker
some
Ostiaks of
animal to punish him if he lies. The
of a bear,an animal which
the nose
Siberia swear
on
with
supernatural
they believe to be endowed
also be taken on holy objects:
Oaths may
power.
and the like. The oath
idols,sacred books, relics,
of prayer
or
appeal to God, when
becomes
a form
of faith with
to visit a breach
a deity is invoked
punishment. But Wester marck is doubtless right
of the oath is
the efficacy
in holding that originally
entirelymagical,the penalty consequent on perjury
being supposed to result directlyfrom the power
inherent in the cursingwords.
3. Oath
principal
forms and formulas. The
connected
with the general
forms of the oath are
words.
idea of giving efficacy to the swearer's
is found
of swearing by weapons
custom
The
and other rude peoples,
the Nagas of Assam
among
while it was practiced
by the ancient Scythians and
Invocation
of natural
tribes.
various Germanic
the
or
objects a sacred tree or river,the sun
of many
is illustrated in the
case
heavens
The
classical oaths.
gesture of Ufting the hand
Hebrew
also
heaven
practice,
toward
a
was
and has
established itself in Christendom
which
words
of the
The
times.
lasted on into modern
oath tend to harden into a set formula,which, when
properly pronounced by the swearer, allow him no
of his
loophole of escape from the consequences
2.

are

of
Effectiveness

an

employed to charge

"

"

"

"

action.
A vow
4. Nature of a vow.
may be regarded as
man
a
By a vow
a
variety of the curse-oath.
dedicates himself or something belonging to himself
will punish him if he breaks it. A
to a god, who
consecrated to deity becomes
person or object thus
The
various abstinences
rituaUy holy or sacrosanct.
the
not
to cut
vows
which
accompany
hair,not to eat flesh food, not to drink fermented
liquors,not to shed blood, not to indulge in sexual
must
intercourse, not to touch a dead body, etc.
be explainedas ritual interdictions incident to a
of consecration. In other words, they are
state
of the Nazarite
The
vow
Taboo.
See
tabus.
(Num. 6:1-21), for instance,presents the closest
the
to
rehgico-magical restrictions
resemblance
of tabu.
Even
the
the home
found in Polynesia,
corresponds
mode of terminatingthe Nazarite's vow
methods of breaking a tabu.
to Polynesian
transaction
As a religious
5. Instances of vows.
advanced
to the more
the vow
belongs particularly
in Greek
of it are
numerous
faiths. Instances
and
Roman
paganism, in the Bible (Jephthah's
Judges 11; Paul's vow, Acts 18:18),and in
vow,
of votive
custom
The
Christianity and Islam.
which had a wide prevalence in classical
offerings,
ranean
antiquity,still retains its popularity in MediterMonkish
countries.
vows, especiallythose
survivals of the
of Eastern
monks, contain many
old tabu element, in the ritual of separation from
in the
Crusader's
The
vow
the outside world.
save
by the Pope's
Middle
Ages was indissoluble,
of taking it the Crusader
consent; from the moment
law
In Mohammedan
belonged to the Church.
the resolution to visit a distant shrine is expressly
under
reckoned as a vow, so that pilgrims come
all the restrictionsusuallyimposed on other votaries.
Webster
HuTTON
of the will
The subordination
OBEDIENCE.
to and orderingof conduct accordingto another's
"

AND

ETHICS

Occultism

will.

In certain human
relationshipsas children
to masters, citizens to the law,
parents, servants

to

obedience
is a moral obligation
to the
necessary
social order.
obedience
to the will of
Religiously,
God
is an
evidence
of piety. The
hierarchical
Catholic church makes
organizationof the Roman
obedience
of inferiors to superiors a
demand.
Obedience
is one
part of the threefold monastic
vow.

OBERAMMERGAU."
A
Bavarian
villagein
which the Passion Play has been enacted decennially
from
the 17th. century.
The
play is given in
fulfilment of a vow
in 1633 in gratitudefor
made
the stopping of a deadly plague.
In the R.C. church one dedicated to
OBLATE."
the church but not taking monastic vows, such as a
child handed
to a monastery to be reared as a
over

monk,

who consecrates
his property to
lives therein without
taking the
There
various orders and societies of
vows.
are
oblates among
Roman
Catholics,in which the
life similar to that
in monasteries
community
exists.
a

or

person

and

monastery

OBLATIONS."
In the early church, giftsof
and
wine
for the Lord's
Supper; bence
anything offered in worship. The elements of the
Lord's Supper are
called the lesser oblation when
unconsecrated
and the greater oblation after consecration.

bread

OBLIGATION."
The
of an
binding power
internal moral
external legal compulsion or
an
constraint,or that to which one is bound in either
either the
to mean
respect; in ethics,this comes
objectivefact or the subjectivefeelingof oughtness.
main
Three
problems are involved in moral
of the
obligation:(1) the psychological nature
of oughtness; (2) its geneticdevelopment in
sense
society and in the child; (3) the validityof its
objective claim to authority. See Authority;
J. F. Crawford
Duty; Kant.

"

"

"

"

OBSESSION.

"

persistsin the mind

^A

conception that obstinately

one's thought
controlling

action and unaffected

by criticism or
In Spiritualismit indicates control of
consciousness
by a spirit.

and

opposition.
medium's

WILLIAM
OF
(ca. 1280^1349)."
As
schoolman; leader of nominalism.
a
theologian he declared a scientific verification
of dogma impossible,as theology is not a science
but a mode
of the working of an "infused faith."
was
that biblical authority alone
He
claimed
sufficient,
though in practicehe included the Fathers

OCCAM,

Franciscan

and the Church.

a sufficient cause

He held that God's

for what exists.

sheer will is

The theory that no direct

OCCASIONALISM."
ness
of consciousstates
causal relation exists between
in the physical
and the correspondingevents
world.
Any physicalchange is an occasion for the
change in
production by God of a corresponding
The
theory was a
consciousness,and vice versa.
speculative device for surmounting the logical
affect matter
in supposing that mind can
difficulty

matter,

or

mind.

matter

edge
The claim that reliable knowlOCCULTISM.
be obtained
by mysterious or secret
may
of the
of insight other than the methods
powers
experimental and observational sciences (e.g.,by
edge,
and theosophy) Knowlmagic,alchemy, astrology,
normally unattainable,is declared to be
"

Oceania

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

new

"

OCTAVE."
In R.C.
liturgy, the celebration
of great festivals which
last throughout a whole
week; also the eighth day of such a festival which
is regarded as of greater importance than the others.
Examples are Easter, Pentecost, Corpus Christi
and Christmas.

OECOLAMPADIUS,

JOHANN

(1482-1531)."

OFFERTORY."
sentences
said or
(1) The
music sung when the offerings
are
a custom
collected,
in various churches.
current
(2)In the R.C. Mass,
the offering
of the elements about to be consecrated
them.
or the prayers recited by the priestover
that
service especially
prescribed

OFFICE.
A
for the canonical
"

hours, but also used of any

service,as confirmation or baptism.

gical
litur-

HOLY."
The
Roman
congregation
OFFICE,
established in the 16th. century for the preservation
of the true faith,especiallyfor the detection and
curbing of heretical doctrines. See Inquisition.
OFFICE
OF THE
DEAD."
In the R.C. liturgy,
service consisting
of firstvespers, mass, matins,and
laud, recited as a devotion to the dead by certain
religiousorders, especiallyon All Soul's Day, a
custom
originatingin the 7th. or 8th. century.
a

316

to

OCEANIA.
In the mythology of the ancient
Greeks, a nymph of the sea, of whom
Oceanus, the
ocean
god, was father.

German
being Heussgen.
Reformer, his real name
with ZwingU in introducing reforms in
He worked
of
Swiss worship, and supported his interpretation
He
the Lord's Supper in opposition to Luther.
was
greater as a preacher than as a theologian.

ETHICS

laymen the organization and direction of the

The
leaders
opposition movement.
were
mostly professorsof Bonn, Breslau, Braunsberg,
Munich, Miinster, Prague, Wiirzburg and other
universities. The general policy of the schismatic
movement
determined
in a Congress at Munich,
was
September 22-24, 1871, and the organization of
of the leading
congregations followed in many
cities of Catholic
The
church
new
Germany.
rejected the pope
altogether but retained episcopacy.

possible in occult fashion by an expansion of the

psychical powers,
e.g., by trance, clairvoyance,
clairaudience,
psychometry, or mystic meditation.

ODHIN."
The chief god of the Teutons, called
also Wodan.
He is a god of winds and tempest,
of agricultureand of war.
When
storms
approach
his
he is thought to ride in the Wild
Hunt
on
hat and
heavenly steed clad in broad-brimmed
flowing cloak followed by the souls of the heroic
dead.
His dwellingis in Walhalla, a place of
feastingand happiness.
dailyfighting,

AND

'

Prof. J. H.
Reinkins
of Breslau
was
elected first bishop, and
ordained
was
by the
Jansenist bishop of Deventer
The
in 1872.
copal
epishas been kept up
succession thus obtained
since.
The rejection
of the pope was
followed by modification
of other distinctive Catholic doctrines and
declared
to be the
practices. Jesus Christ was
sole Head
made
of the Church, confession was
voluntary, absolution was
regarded as declaratory
the dogma of
allowed to marry,
only, priestswere
the
immaculate
rejected, and
conception was
the vernacular
was
approved in worship. Laymen
were
granted large infiuence in the affairs
of the local congregationsand of the church as a
whole.
W. J. McGlothlin
OLD

Creed;
OLD

ROMAN
Rule

of

(or SYMBOL)."

CREED
Faith.

See

A collection of 39 books,
now
Scriptures, and
English Bible.
in
books are of various types and arose
These
order to meet various religious
Some
needs.
put on
record the laws that controlled Hebrew
social and
the history and the
religiouslife; others narrate
traditions regardingancient Israel; others record
the sermons
preached to their contemporaries by
the prophets; stillothers discuss the great problems
of life from a practicalor semi-philosophical
standpoint
constituted the great hymn book of
; and one
The
Hebrew
is
O.T.
the Jewish
community.
arranged in three divisions,viz.: the Law, the
Prophets, and the Writings. This arrangement
representsthe order in which these books attained
authority in the minds of the Jewish people, the
law achieving sanctity first of all,after that the
prophets (including the early historical books),
and last of all the "writings" (includingthe Psalms,

TESTAMENT."

constituting the Hebrew

forming the firstpart of our

Job, Chronicles,etc.).
Proverb's,
As the Jewish people scattered

the world
over
other peoples and
languages, largely forgetting their own
tongue,
the sacred books arose.
The
the need of translating
into Greek
first translation was
(the Septuagint),
followed in due time by a Syriac
and this was
in water
washed
into water
then thrown
or
rendering (the Peshitto) and a Latin (theVulgate).
are
*
See Versions
be carried away.
Bible.
of
the
that the contagion may
The process of canonization
was
begun by the
to the
Oil consecrated for sacramental
Jews
themselves. Its origin dates back
OIL, HOLY.
onomy
Deuterin Josiah's day (621 B.C.),when
in anointing
reform
as (a) Oil of catechumens,used
oflSces,
in a
received
official sanction
popular
persons about to be baptized; (b) Oil of chrism,
carried farther in
used at baptism and confirmation; (c) Oil of the
assembly. This tendency was
fulfilled
and
See Anointing.
the times of Ezra-Nehemiah;
was
sick,used in extreme unction.
in the Jewish Council of Jamnia
(ca.100 a.d.),
finally
decided in favor of Ecclesiastes and
which definitely
A
OLD
CATHOLICS."
party of schismatic
The
CathoUc
Canticles as worthy of a place in the Canon.
CathoHcs who separated from the Roman
of
Protestant Canon of the O.T. has adhered to the list
Church
after the proclamationof the dogma
found
in the Hebrew
of books
in 1870.
Bible; but the
papal infallibility
follows
the
Catholic O.T.
Roman
Septuagint
Prior to the Vatican Council papal infallibility,
long earnestlyadvocated by the Jesuits and others, in including the so-called Apocryphal Books.
met
oppositionwithin the Catholic body especially See Canon, Biblical.
The
of the O.T.. made
the
use
by the Christian
laymen. Eventually all objecting
among
made
their
has changed as the interests of the Church
Church
bishops in the Council except two
by submission,thus leaving have changed. 'The early Church
sought to find
peace with the Church

OHOHARAHL"
A Japanese state
O'HARAI,
ritual of purificationperformed normally twice
a
by the Emperor or his representativeto
year
the stain of all offenses committed
remove
by the
consists of a
people or their rulers. The ceremony
transfer of the taint of impurity to objects which

and

came

into

contact

with

"

"

317

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

in the O.T. support for its claims regardingJesus.

Hence

it magnified the predictive element

and
sought to find portrayalsof Jesus and his work in the
O.T. writings. Sine" much
of the O.T. was
not
the face of it,
susceptibleof such interpretation
on
and allegorical
the symbolical
of exegesis
principle
was
brought into free play.
of the ceremonial as symBy regardingmuch
bolical
of him who was
to come, predictions
or typical
found even
in the Law.
of Jesus were
Things
that apparentlyhad nothing to do with the coming
Messiah
made
were
by allegoricalinterpretation
of the coming Christ.
announcements
to be specific
With Luther and the Reformation, the church was
brought to see that the only sound principleof
to accept the language of the
was
interpretation
O.T. according to the natural,grammatical sense
with the historicalsituations out
and in accordance
But while the Reformation
of which the documents
arose.
sound, in
theory of interpretationwas
practicethe O.T. was always made subservient to
obscured.
the N.T. and thus its real significance
was
It is only within the last half-century that the
has been
Reformation
principleof interpretation
called "the
given full applicationin what is now
of interpretation."
historicalmethod
in the fact
The value of the O.T. is today seen
that it is the record of a long period in the history
of the purest religionthat the world knew
priorto
in
the rise of Christianity. It shows us that religion
the making. It reveals to us the faults and virtues
of the Hebrew
of the makers
rehgion and thus
furnishes warning and inspiration
to us in the task
needs
of our
of meeting the religious
own
day.
the N.T.
Further, it throws a brightlight upon
and so contributes greatly to our understandingof
the rise and development of earlyChristianity.
Smith
J. M. Powis
One
monastic
of the minor
OLIVETANS.
Tolomei
in the
R.C. orders founded
by Bernard
14th. century and followingthe Benedictine
rule,
monastery
only with augmented rigor. The original
renamed
Monte
Oliveto
Siena was
at Accona, near
of ohve trees at Accona, and
from the abundance
of devotion to the Passion.
as a mark
"

AND

ETHICS

OMNIPRESENCE."
that the transcendent
in the universe.

al^ issued commentaries

OLYMPUS
home

the Bible.

OLYMPOS."

or

gods of

of the

on

the

Aryan

The

conquerors

mountain
of Greece.

^A mysticsymbol of India used in religious

CM.
to practicallyall the
meditation.
It is common
it is expanded to read AUM
Sometimes
sects.
associated
and so lends itself to all the speculation
of the three
The essence
three.
with the number
the soul of the
worlds, the ultimate divine reality,
of the
sacred Scriptures,the inner magical power
sacrifices are all,by a kind of mental
shorthand,
concentrated in this symbol which has acquired in
through the centuries,the mysterious
consequence,
(q.v.)usuallybegin with
power of a spell. Mantras
it is the last mystic
Meditation
on
the word.
stage before the final state of imion which is ineffable.
"

^A sign in divination
OMEN.
be favorable or otherwise.
"

may

(q.v.)which

doctrine of
The theological
of unlimited and unrestricted
which
for the realization of all possibilities
power
will.
he may

OMNIPOTENCE."

the

possessionby God

The
God

theological conception
is active at all places

OMNISCIENCE."
The theologicaldoctrine of
God's unUmited
knowledgeas a necessary condition
to the doctrine of providence.
ONEIDA
founded

COMMUNITY."

A communistic

ety
soci-

by John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886)

at Oneida, New
York, which coupled industrial
with its reUgiousand social principles.See
success
Perfectionism.

ONTOLOGICAL

ARGUMENT."
The
ontohas various forms, but its goal is
to establish the existence of God
as
a
necessary
implicationof the idea of divine or perfectbeing;
a purely subjective or
logicalform of argument,
aiming to give logicalform to an intuitive conviction
of God.
In Augustine the form of the argument is that of
the
trusting a universal intuition. In Anselm
typicalscholastic syllogismis thus outlined: We
have
the idea of an
absolutely Perfect Being.
But
have
existence.
to be perfecta being must
Therefore
an
absolutelyPerfect Being must exist.
In Descartes
the argument was
assimilated to the
ideas."
God
doctrine
of "innate
is an
innate
originalidea of the mind; onlyGod could be the
of such
idea.
Therefore
he
an
adequate cause
exists.
In Kantian philosophy,
the ontological
argument
shown
to be purely formal,indicatingnothing
was
inevitable
in
than an
the vahdity of
trust
more
philosophy in general
necessary concepts. Modern
Herbert
A. Youtz
lays littlestress upon it.

logical
argument

ONTOLOGISM."

vanced
The
philosophictheory adby Gioberti,the Italian philosopher(1810is possessed of intuitive knowledge
1852) that man
of Absolute
advanced
Being. The
theory was
in opposition to the current
philosophicalmethod
consciousness.
of analyzingsubjective
ONTOLOGY."

(1800-1882)."German
made
Orientalist who
important contributions to
comparative philologyand through his work on the
edge
to the knowlcuneiform
inscriptionsadded much
of Assyrian and Babylonian rehgions. He

JUSTUS

OLSHAUSEN,

Ontology

an

attempt

ing";
Literally,the "Science of Beto

define the nature

of ultimate

reality.
Ancient
and mediaeval
philosophy maintained
the conception of an ultimate realityupon
which
the existence of any specificthing depends. To
determine
the nature
of this ultimate^
to
meant
of any kind of real
state the universal conditions
existence.
The name
"ontology" was first applied
to this metaphysical inquiryby the German
losopher
phiWolff.
Since Kant's searchingcritiqueof rnetaphysics,
the futilityof attempting any
definition of so
generalizeda conception as that of Pure Being
older
the
has
been
generally recognized, and
losophy,
phiontologyhas fallen into disrepute. Modern
our
however, proceeding first to analyze^
and conceptions,
subjectivesensations,
perceptions,
is led to the inquiry as to the character of the
objective stimuli of these subjectiveexperiences.
the object of knowledge from the
To distinguish
of knowing calls for a metaphysical inquiry;
process
and modern
epistemology has sought to solve this
of any
empirical
problem. But the impossibility
with that which is distinct from the knowing
contact
is so evident that no ontology in the older
process
It is rather
of the term is today elaborated.
sense
able
sought to show that there is a definite and dependdetermines
our
so
objective order which
and
of nature
experience that reliable "laws"
logically,
Theowith.
be reckoned
of events
may
sequences
the ontological
problem is that of affirming

Ophites

or

Ophians

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

318

of God as distinguished the 9th. century onward

and
civil
some
popes
rulers sought to discourage ordeals and sometimes
See Ontological
ment.
ArguSmith
Gerald
Birney
prohibited them; but they persisted along with
belief in witchcraft and other superstitions
to the
OPHIANS."
The
nation close of the Middle Ages or later.
or
OPHITES
genericdesigA. H. Newman
for certain sects of Gnostics, the common
HOLY."
The
transmitted
ORDER,
to
tenets of which are uncertain,although all of them
power
ideas.
See Gnosticism.
a
man
through ecclesiasticalauthority to exercise
abounded in pagan
certain spiritual
functions in the Christian Church.
in Milene, in
I. Catholic
Theory
tion
OrdinaPractice."
OPTATUS."
and
Bishop of Numidia
the second half of the 4th. century, and author of
distinguishesthe recipientfrom the laityby
indelible mark
an
character,and is therefore,
or
a book
Against the Donatist Schism in reply to the
like baptism, not to be repeated. It confers grace
treatise of Parmenianus.
(cf.I Tim. 4:14; II Tim. 1:6), and is accordingly
doctrine that
The
OPTIMISM."
a
tinguish
sacrament, though the Anglican Churches disphilosophical
the two
the universe is so ordered that the development of
sacraments
carefully between
authorized
instituted
is designed for the highestgood. Leibnitz
events
or
by Christ personally
(baptism and the eucharist)and those rites which
developed the argument that since God the creator is
good, the universe is the best possible later obtained this title. See Sacraments.
infinitely
In this sacrament
various
or
world.
In optimism evil is either explainedaway
guished
grades are distinof the New
under
of good. Some
the title of Holy Orders.
The
declared to be a means
Latin
Church
ism
at present commonly
England theologianson the basis of Leibnitz'optimrecognizes
of
of these, comprising in succession
declared sin necessary to the manifestation
seven
from
God's goodness and glory. In popular usage, the
higher to lower,priests,deacons, subdeacons, acolytes,
and
indicates the tendency to view events
word
exorcists,readers, and doorkeepers;but
there appears
to be no
authoritative definition of
things from the bright side.
the number.
As here given the priesthoodincludes
used
in R.C.
the
A term
OPUS
OPERATUM."
bishops and
bishopric,probably because
theology to affirm the inherent saving efficacy priestsalike have the highestpower of the Christian
The
of a sacrament.
ministry,that of consecratingthe elements in the
phrase ex opera operatum
'
eucharist (so St. Thomas
sis
Aquinas) ; though the
("through the act performed' ) indicates that empharather than on
office of a bishop,as distinct from his order, is
is to be laid on the sacraments
tion.
universallyheld to be superiorto that of a priest,
subjectivefaith in definingthe conditions of salvaand includes certain functions not permitted to
(Canons of the Council of Trent,Session VII,
priests (confirmation,ordination, mission), and
Canon 8.)
there appears
to be a growing tendency to account
the episcopate a distinct order.
ORACLE.
A
a
god
Of the orders
particular place where
the questions of
or
enumerated, the priesthood (or the bishopricand
goddess is believed to answer
his or her worshipers,or to give occult information; priesthood),diaconate, and
(in recent centuries)
accounted
religion. subdiaconate
are
a feature characteristic of the ancient Greek
major orders, the
associated with the oracle an
others minor.
Each lower order must
In practisethere was
be conferred
tion
to render a candidate
for the next higher,
Delphi wasjthelocaorganized cult of divination.
eligible
of the most
noted oracle. See Divination.
not unknown
though ordinations per saltwn were
in earlier centuries.
The utterance
The minor orders have become
coming from a deity or from a prophetically
in practiceonly formal steps preliminaryto the
inspiredperson is also called an oracle.
the real
from our

existence
objective
of God.

idea

"

major.
of men
ORATORIANS."
A R.C. congregation
founded
in 1564 to
by St. PhiUp Neri in Rome
rated
(q.v.)inaugupromote the "counter reformation"
munity,
by the Council of Trent (q.v.). Each com"Oratory," is independent. The members
leave at any
take no
time, and wear
vows,
may
There
Oratories in most
the clerical cassock.
are
of the countries of Europe, America, and Ceylon.
the EngUsh
Oratorians
Prominent
were
among
and W. Faber.
Cardinal Newman
ORATORIO.
musical
A
composition of a
for chorus, solo
voices
and
sacred
character
orchestra,the text of which is frequentlytaken from
the Bible,and which is performed without costume,
action.
Such
dramatic
or
compositions
scenery
date from those of Carissimi (1604-1674).
"

ancient
ORDEALS.
Methods
employed among
Babylonian, Indian,Greek, Germanic, Hebrew, and
other peoples, and
medieval
Christians,
among
for determining the guilt or innocence
of accused
by appeal to direct and miraculous divine
persons
"

intervention
from
harm
the accused
if
to save
innocent.
the duel, taking
tests
Common
were
of poison, contact
iron or
with red-hot
boiUng
to swallow
consecrated
a
water, or ability
portion
of food. Most
such that apart
of the ordeals were
from divine interposition
(scarcelyto be expected)
or
abilityon the part of the accused to practise
illusion,
From
conviction was
sure.
practically

In the Churches

of the East (Russian, Greek,

not in commimion
with
variation of recogsome
nized
of orders appears
to exist,though

Armenian, etc.) which are

the Churches
of the West,
number
five

commonly so accounted, bishops,priests,

deacons,subdeacons, and readers,to which singers
are

sometimes
added.
The Anghcan Churches
since the Reformation
but three orders,
have recognized and continued
those mentioned
in the New
Testament, bishops,
priests,and deacons, of which bishops are held to
be proper and
hneal successors
of the apostles,
according to primitive Catholic tradition. The
necessityof minor orders is denied,on the ground
that they are
not of the primary constitution of
the Church.
The officeof lay-readers(towhich men
only are admitted), and the order of deaconesses,
both revived in recent years in the Anglican communion,
do not partake of the nature
of Holy
Orders, though both existed in the 1st. or 2nd.
centuries.
QuaUficationsfor Holy Orders differ in different
Churches.
dates
Among the requirementsare that candimust
by canonical tests their possession
prove
of high moral
character, orthodoxy of beUef,
of conformity,and a prescribedamount
of
purpose
learning. Approval by the laity as weU as the
ance
clergyis also scrupulouslyprovided for,in accordwith primitive tradition.
Candidates
must
be of sufficient age.
In the first centuries there
variation of Umit, but 25 years for deacons
was
are

319

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

to be the
priestsand bishops came
stillholds in the East.
For the Latins
the requirement
the council of Trent estabUshed
as
22 years for subdeacons, 23 for deacons, 25 for
priests,30 for bishops; but dispensations are
and the hmit is usually one
year lower
permitted,
the case of the three orders below the episcopate.
m
21
In the AngUcan Churches
years is the agerequirement for the diaconate,24 for the priesthood,
must
30 for the episcopate. Ordinands
possess
also a canonical
"title,"or guaranteed situation
in which to exercise their clerical function,diocesan,
Church
or academic; but in the Latin
consecrated
in recent centuries
ishops are sometimes
extinct see
with the title of some
("titular
bishops," formerly called bishops in partibus
ried
infidelium) In the East a secular priestmay be marbefore ordination,but is not permitted to remarry
in case of the death of his wife. But a bishop
is therefore in practice
be a celibate,and
must
appointed from the membership of a monastic order.
In the Latin Church cehbacy is requiredof all clergyin
obscure exceptions.
major orders,with few relatively
have
since the Reformation
The Anglican Churches
and permit marriage
returned to primitivepractice,
to clergyof all orders.
differ according to the
of ordination
Rites
be vaUd
though
Church, and ordinations may
without canonical qualificaof a man
tions,
irregular(e.g.,
and

30

for

rule,which

Earochial,
.

or

by

suspended, schismatic, or

even

heretical bishop); but essential to validity

(as in
all sacraments) are proper
"intention,""matter,"
"Intention"
requiresthe
"form," and "minister."
serious performance of the rite by the officiant with
the Church
does"
to "do what
the evident purpose
and
(Jacerequod facit Ecclesia). The "matter"
"form" in ordination consist in the imposition of
hands
with appropriate prayer, though there was
commonly held in mediaeval and even later times
discredited theory that
in the Latin Church
a now
in ordination to the priesthoodthe essential matter
hands
of the
the putting into the ordinand's
was
cluded
chalice and paten (theporrectio
instrumentorum, exfrom the AngUcan rite since the Reformation)
The only "minister" of Holy Orders is a bishop
(except by occasional papal delegation in the
in the conferringof minor
Latin Church
orders);
for though in the ordination of a priestthe priests
present join with the bishop in the "laying on of
hands" (cf. I Tim. 4:14), they do not thereby
ordain.
Apostolicsuccession (q.v.)is thus through
the line of bishops only,and from earlycenturies it
and canon
that in each
has been requiredby custom
consecration of a bishop at least three bishopsshould
Since each of
unite in the imposition of hands.
of ordination,the
these acts with the full power
tactual connection back to apostolictimes becomes
complex network, in
not a singlechain but a most
which the casual effect of any unsuspected impairment
in the validityof a single fink is obviated
fabric.
entire
by the coherence of the
conferred by
The actual exercise of the powers
law; but
Holy Orders is controlled by canon
subjectto that legaldirection a priestis empowered
all of the sacraments
to preach, and to administer
and Holy Orders (in the East
except Confirmation
he may confirm as by delegationfrom the bishop,
also
who blesses the oil used in the rite);he may
absolution and benediction in other
pronounce
assist the
A deacon
offices of the Church.
may
priestin the administration of sacraments, in the
absence of a priestmay
baptize,and may preach,
but
if especiallylicensed by his bishop to do so:
nor
he may
not act as celebrant in the eucharist,
benediction
absolution
or
(and it is
pronounce
tered
worthy of note that baptism is valid also if adminisof emergency
in circumstances
by even
a lay
.

AND

ETHICS

Ordinal

whether
man
woman).
or
Ordinary
person,
offices of publicworship m ly be conducted
by any
cleric (subject to limitations mentioned
above),
in emergencies by a layman or
or
laywoman.
lution
absoLay oSiciants may not, however, pronounce
benediction.
From
or
are
Holy Orders
titles indicating
distinguished
merely administrative
functions, such as cardinal, patriarch,primate,

metropolitan,archbishop,dean, archdeacon, canon,

Even
the
Pope is,
qua order,only Bishop of Rome.
rector, vicar, curate, etc.
II. Protestant

Theory

and

Practice.^

Though the catholic theory recognizesin the hood

priestboth a sacerdotal and a ministerial element,
it lays emphasis upon
the former.
Protestant
churches
generally hold to a purely ministerial
and repudiate for their clergy
theory of the office,
all sacerdotal pretensions. These
they
persons
prefer accordingly to call ministers, elders, or
(except certain Methodists) they
pastors, and
reckon
their deacons
as
merely official laymen,
In these
thus holding to a single clerical order.
respects they professto be followingloyallythe New
Of course
Testament
model.
they all (with the
exception of certain Presbyterians) reject the
ApostolicSuccession as an unnecessary or fictitious
mediaeval
theory. See Clergy.
differ
Churches
"of the Presbyterian order"
from those "of the Congregational order" rather
in their theory and practiceof church government
certain
in their concept of Orders.
Yet
Church"
Presbyterians claim and value
succession of their ministers from primitive
proper
times on
the ground that ordinations
by bishops
been
inasmuch
have
valid inasmuch, and
only,
than

"High

as

bishops are

properly presbyters. Presbyterians

ing
the question whether
unanimous
a "rulon
elder" in the local church
partakes of the
order as the mim'ster,or is only a layman.
same
tinctly
The
Methodist
followers of John
Wesley disrejectall idea of the episcopateas a separate
order, but the two largestbranches in the United
States of America
smaller churches
as
(and some
well) retain the title for elders elected to general
while they account
the diaconate
superintendency,
to be the lower order in the twofold ministry.
The Scandinavian
Churches of Lutheran originin
have bishop-superintendents
Norway and Denmark
of only presbyterian
ordination,like the Methodist
eran
Episcopal Churches; but the bishops of the LuthChurch
in Sweden
trace a lineal succession
can
from a bishop of Roman
as apparently
consecration,
also the Moravian
can
bishops. E. T. MERRiLii
not

are

ORDERS,

RELIGIOUS."

Societies of

men

or

according to rule for

work.
the purpose
of mutual
edification or religious
ancient reUgions,as
Such
orders existed in some
the Buddhists.
In the early Christian centuries
soUtaries in the deserts of Upper Egypt and Syria
formed such communities.
They probably entered
Europe in the late 4th. century. St. Basil gave his
later adopted by
monks
rule in 359, which
was
a
nearlyallthe monastic orders of the Eastern Church.
St. Benedict (d.543) gave a similar rule to the monks
gious
reliof the West.
In the Middle
Ages numerous
orders sprang
especiallyin the 13th.
up,
Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians,
century
CarmeUtes.
At present the older orders continue
of poverty,chastity,and
tO' make
solemn vows
obedience,and professtheir respectiverules. Those
solemn vows,
of later origin,
which do not make
or
are
properly called Congregations.See Monastilivingin community

women

"

ciSM;

J. N. Reagan

forms
A
guide to the proper
religiousservice, in pre-reformationtimes

ORDINAL.
of

Societies.

Catholic
"

DICTIONARY

Ordination

instructions
furnishing

RELIGION

OF

for all the canonical hours

In the AngUcan prayer

during the church year.
ing,
book, instructions regarding the "making, ordainand
consecrating of bishops, priests, and
deacons."

of
In

The

formal

appointment

of

perform pubhc reUgious acts in behalf

church.
Such
appointment is of two sorts:
to

person

of Catholic
it involves the
churches
of the candidate into a holy order through
the
derived
through an
impartation of grace
apostolic succession from Jesus Christ. In the
tion
of other bodies it is simply a solemn introduccase
of the candidate
to ecclesiastical office and
sion;
Succesduties.
See Ordek, Holy;
Apostolic
Bishop; Deacon.
the

case

entrance

OREAD.

In Greek

"

mythology,

inhabitingand presidingover

nymph

(q.v.)

mountain.

An
ORENDA.
meaning the
Iroquois word
natural
invisible,mysterious potency by which
objects and living beings accomplish remarkable
Manitu.
or
starthng effects. See Mana;
"

ORIGEN
(182-251)." A celebrated Christian
he sucAs a young
teacher of Alexandria.
ceeded
man
the head of the
Clement
of Alexandria
as
and soon
became
catechetical school at Alexandria
influence of his day. He was
the leadingtheological
ordained presbyter in Caesarea
quence
(230) but in conseThereafter
banished from Alexandria.
was
he lived in Caesarea, where
his teaching soon
attracted largenumbers
of pupils. He finallydied
of tortures
inflicted during the persecutionof
Decius.
_

Origen organized Christian teaching through

of Greek
dialectics and philosophy. His
use
orthodox
but he taught a view of the
system was
the

relation of the Son

to the

Father

which

later

was

of the
interpreted as implying the subordination
former.
he influential in giving
Particularlywas
a Platonic
metaphysical tendency to the doctrine of
timeGod
and of the Logos as the eternally(i.e.,
He
lessly)begotten creative Son of the Father.
also
the

held

ETHICS

320

existence of souls,the eternal creation of the

and the final and universal restoration.

world,

ORIGINAL

SIN."
A
congenitaUy depraved
allegedby orthodox Christian theologyto be
the inevitable heritageof every
human
being.
As contrasted with the perfecthohness
of God,
human
life seems
sinful. The profound
inherently
of sinfulness felt by men
like Paul, Augustine,
sense
and
Luther
found
theologicalexpression in the
doctrine of originalsin,according to which Adam's
fall so corrupted human
that every child
nature
nature

ORDINATION."
a

AND

to

the

of
pre-existence

the

soul

and

In his
pre-existentincarnation of the Son.
millenarianism
and held
eschatology he combatted
souls from sin through
to the final release of human
purification.
of the early Fathers
No one
surpassedOrigen
in boldness of speculation or solid learning. So
his teaching in the pre-conciliar
creative was
age
the quarry of both orthodox
that it later became
and heretical schools.
As a biblical scholar he was
approached only
His
prolificauthorship resulted in
by Jerome.
both
scientificand
rolls. His method
was
6000
the
chief
cover
allegorical.His commentaries
His most
books of the Bible.
important critical
work is the Hexapla in which the Hebrew, Ac[uila's
Septuagint, the version of
version, Symmachus,
Theodotian, as well as variants and a transliteration
of the Hebrew, were
arranged in seven
parallel
logical
columns.
In addition to his exegeticaland theowhich
the De
works
are
(chief among
Prindpiis, and Against Celsus),he left numerous
the entire Bible as well as
homilies on practically
Shailer
Mathews
letters.
many
ORIGENISTIC

CONTROVERSIES."

versies
Contro-

church
from the
4th. to the 6th. centuries with reference to the
doctrines of Origen (q.v.). The
points of attack
his denial of the resurrection of the flesh,the
were
subordination of the Son to the Father, the pre-

originatingin the Greek

of Adam
is born in a state of sin. There has been
considerable
theologiansas to
controversy among
the exact extent of the depravity thus inherited.
Augustine,Luther,and Calvin set forth the doctrine
of total depravity,"whereby we
posed,
are
utterly indisand made oppositeto all good, and
disabled,
wholly inclined to evil" (Westminster Confession).
Catholic
Roman
theology represents originalsin
as the loss of Adam's
originalrighteousness,and
evil infection of human
nature
an
entailingGod's
wrath and bringingdeath as its penalty. Arminian4 ,
ism insisted that only when the evil nature of maaJ
is voluntarily
yielded to does sin arise.
denied the doctrine in the Augustinian sense, declaring
that our sin consists in followingthe bad example
of Adam
rather than
in any
innate
disability
ment
Origen ascribed originalsinfulness to the debasewhich
the soul incurred by sin in a preexistent state.
In present-day
tants,
Protesreligious
thinking among
the doctrine has been somewhat
discredited
both because of doubt as to the historicity
of all
the details in the theological
pictureof Adam, and
edge
knowlmore
accurate
especiallybecause of a more
of child nature.
It is recognizedthat physical
instincts
appetites and
age-long
represent an
refined
development in the race, while the more
spiritualattitudes have a comparatively short
racial history. Religious and
ideals thus
moral
have a hard fightagainst an
animal
inheritance.
Again,every individual is born into a societywith
faulty moral ideals and practices. Righteousness
must
as
alwayscontend againstsocial inertia. Wheresalvation from original
sin in the older theological
sense
requiresa sacramental or mystical regenera/tion,salvation from animal passions and from evil
social standards
requires a religiousand moral
trainingof the body and a "social gospel."
Gerald
Birney
Smith
ORMAZD."
The Pahlavi form of Ahura Mazda,
"the Wise Lord," Supreme Being in the Zoroastrian
religion. He is the Creator of the good world,
holy,merciful,eternal,
omniscient,leader of the good
creation in the world struggleagainst the wicked
Spirit,
Ahriman, creator of evil. In the earlyperiod
Ormazd
is not representedas omnipotent but later
thinkers give him that attribute.
Zoroastrian
See
Persia, Religions
of; Zoroastrianism.

Pelagiua|

"

ORPHANS
and ORPHANAGES."
Orphans and
widows
have
generally been regarded as suitable
objects of charity. Plato taught that orphans
should be placed under pubUc guardianship. Rome
less considerate.
In mediaeval
times
the
was
monasteries made
them their specialcare, and they
were
given schooling and trades. St. Vincent
Catholics and the Grerman
de Paul among
Pietist
Francke were
conspicuousfor their care for orphans.
The
former
placed them in charge of Sisters of
Charity, orders that since then have spread across
the world.
An Orphan Working Home
founded
was
in England in 1758.
of the poorhouse with its ungraded
The presence
derelicts led to the abuse of child life in both England
and
In the early factory days
America.

mv

S21

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

when
sent into the shops even
very
kept at work for long hours in England.
and
stirred Parhament
to legislate,
Philanthropists
Dickens
by his stories of children aroused the

orphans
young,

were

and

AND

ETHICS

Oxford

Movement

of numerous
and complicatedcontroversies,
in which
each
party claimed to represent true
bibhcal doctrine has done much
to discredit the
conception of orthodoxy. Such statements
as,
I'Orthodoxy is my doxy; heterodoxyis your doxy,"
indicate a popular impatience with theological
polemics. Less stress is laid today in Protestant
churches
doctrinal conformity,emphasis being
on
ideals of Christianplaced on loyaltyto the spiritual
ity,
leaving individuals free to formulate their
beliefs in their own
Moreover,the historical
way.
view
of the rise and
formulation of Christian
doctrines renders the presuppositions
of orthodoxy
untenable.
A less preciselyofficial view of doctrine
is thus coming to be more
generallyheld.
Gerald
Birnby
Smith
OSCULATORIUM."
See Pax.

opment

attention of the nation to the evils of the system

In America
of child support.
private orphanages
were
organizedfrom the beginning of the 19th.
century, but the evils of the poorhouse and of the
system continued to prevailmuch longer.
apprentice
the rule,
In the orphanages kinder treatment
was
of the institutions too
but the routine and discipline
and
initiative and
often crushed
out
originality,
More
of childhood.
blighted all the romance
recentlythe old type of institution has been giving
to the cottage or familyplan,by which children
way
are
placed in smaller groups under the care of a
house mother.
As often as possiblechildren are
placed out in the homes of those who are wilUng
and
are
reUable, and many
adopted by foster

ANDREAS

OSIANDER,
reformer

who

German
(1498-1552)."

participatedin

of the
many
Several approved methods
in vogue
of the
German
are
now
important events
Reformation
in various states for the care
of children outside the
of the Augsburg Confession
including the formulation
The
Schmalkald
Articles.
almshouses.
and
most
His interpretageneral is that of a state
tion
of justification
school, where children are regarded as wards of
by faith as a process which
the state and from which
they are placed out in
infused righteousness in the believer was
demned
confamilies. Michigan was
the first state
to bring
as tending to Catholicism by his opponents,
all needy orphans into one central institution instead
who taught that righteousnessis imputed to those
of helping
of privateinstitutions, who accept Christ's atoning work.
to pay the expenses
and a number
of other states have followed that
maintained
OSIRIS.
A complex god of Eg5rptianreligion.
example. Massachusetts
a state
mary
prischool for thirtyyears, and then abandoned
He
is god of the dead, sun-god and
symbol of
and life. See Mysteries.
it,as nearly all the children had been placed out.
fertility
Objectionsto the state school plan have been made
the ground that the schools are liable to political
Same as Monsteance
OSTENSORIUM."
on
(q.v.)
control,but on the whole the plan has worked well.
A second method, originating
in Ohio, was
OUSIA.
A
Greek
word
adopted
important in the
It is called the county children's
Christologicalcontroversies of the 4th. century.
by several states.
home
system, but the plan did not justifyitself. The AristoteUan usage of ousia denotes the essence
A third plan has been for the state to support its
to the speciesof a genus
and this was
the
common
in which the word was
used by the framers
wards in private institutions. This subsidy or
sense
of the Nicene creed.
contract
Members
of the same
system started in New York, and extended
genus
elsewhere.
Increase of numbers
faster than populasaid to be
homousios
Neowere
tion,
(q.v.). The
and sectarian interference caused
said
God
criticism, platonists
was
beyond Ousia; e.g.,
but experiencehas yet to prove that it is an unwise
Dionysius the Areopagite used the expression
PubUc
who
to
opinion is increasinglysensitive
hyperousios. Those
system.
applied the term
of the fatherless child,and a large
God
denied the possibilityof a definition. The
to the weKare
Latin fathers beginning with Tertullian adopted
number
of organizations
ity
supported by privatecharance
the word
substantia (substance) as equivalent to
now
are
engaged in caring for orphans in accordof social science.
with the principles
ousia.
In this sense
the Son is said to be of the
Henry
K. Rowe
substance as the Father.
same
See Mystery
ORPHISM."
Religions, I, 3.
for the
OVERSOUL.
^A term used by Emerson
The
affirmation of beliefs or
ORTHODOXY,"
all-pervadingspiritualrealityof the cosmos,
meating
perof a system of doctrines authoritatively
declared
and man.
nature
to be true.
the idea of an authoritatively
conformist
Orthodoxy presupposes
OWEN,
JOHN
(1616-1683)."Enghsh Nonleader and theologian;a rigidCalvinist
given system to which adherents are expected
in theology and one
of the foremost leaders in the
to be absolutelyloyal. The
conception developed
during the 2nd. century, as a phase of the attempt
strugglefor reUgiousliberty.
to define true Christianityso as to exclude
verted
perA
movement
OXFORD
MOVEMENT."
interpretations.Over
against all other
Catholic
Church
claimants
the
established its
divines
to
directed by Oxford
strengthen the
rights as the sole divinely established church, Church of England by ritualistic emphasis and
committed
the divine deposit of
of the ancient church.
to which
was
a restoration of the discipfine
truth by Christ through the apostles. Orthodoxy
Warned by the repealof the Test and Corporation
consists in allegianceto the dogmas defined by
Acts
Emancipation
(q.v.)and the CathoMc
Catholic
See Roman
Church.
the church.
The
of England was stillsuffering
Bill that the Church
Church.
Eastern church calls itself the Orthodox
from the effects of the Wesleyan awakening, the
In Protestantism,orthodoxy has usually been
liberal tendencies
of the French
Revolution, and
determined
in relation to official confessions
of
Erastian ideas of the church; thoroughly alarmed
the bishops from the
faith. But
at the agitationto remove
since, according to the Protestant
House
of Lords because of their decisive influence
by scripconception,all doctrines must be justified
tural
Bill of 1831; and fearful
in blocking the Reform
authority,orthodoxy in the broader sense
denotes conformity to the teachings of the Bible.
lest church
disestabhshment
a
might become
had
national issue especiallyafter the Commons
Dissenters, however, have been able to quote
discredit
Irish
the
so-called
bishopricsout of
scripturalauthority to
presumed to legislateten
of Oxford
confessions.
The develleaders Froude,
orthodoxy of ecclesiastical
existence, a group

parents.

"

"

"

"

p.

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

322

ritualistic practices,
and in defiance of the law and
Palmer, Percival, Keble, Mozley, and notably
took steps to organize
sometimes
of their congregations,introduced
Newman, Pusey, and Ward
monies
cerePetitions signed
of Rome.
Test
submitted
to the
cases
against further encroachments.
Judicial
Committee
of the House of Lords have given
largelyby clergymen and lay heads of families,
considerable
addressed
the
for proselyting. The
to
room
doctrine
Archbishop of Canterbury,
innovations
of the Real Presence and its corollary,
denounced
and
the Eucharpledged support in
istic Sacrifice,
have been openly and widely taught,
revivingchurch discipline.A series of "Tracts for
and have found expressionin a revived and elaborate
Times"
the
on
containing concise statements
ritual. Proceedings instituted in
1856
polity,doctrine,and worship of the church, aroused
against
Trenton
of the
and
in 1871
increasing Archdeacon
widespread interest because
against Mr.
Bennett
for teaching the above
with which
boldness
Romanizing tendencies were
doctrines,have
mooted.
The
only strengthened the cause.
publication of tract No. 90 by
Through its aggressive
work in founding brotherhoods and sisterhoods
undertaking to prove that the ThirtyNewman,
to minister among
the masses,
and its appeal to the
Nine
Articles are
capable of an interpretationin
Catholic views, precipitated ritualistically
has gathered
disposed,the movement
harmony with Roman
of
within its followinga considerable
with the secret purpose
crisis. Confronted
a
portion of the
withdrew
their allegiance. Church of England.
Peter
G. Mode
the propaganda, many
Realizing the hopelessness of effectinga general
OYOMEI.
A 15th. century system of Chinese
Roman
the Anglican and
reconciliation between
of the ablest
religious
philosophywhich extended its influence to
churches,Newman, followed by some
of the party, made his way into the Church
Japan. It is a mystical monism
members
seeking contact
with
cess,
confident of ultimate sucof Rome.
Others more
reality,not through the intellect,but by
intuition.
Its great exponent
the Church
retained
their affiliation with
was
Wang
Yang
extreme
continued
to advocate
Ming (q.v.).
of England and
"

"

for the so-called Priestly

The abbreviation
P.
Old
of the
Testament
Code
Scriptures. See
Hexateuch.
"

PACHOMIUS
(292-346)."Egyptian
founder of cenobitic life and organizer of
also a friend of Athanasius.

monk,
teries;
monas-

who
beUeves
that peaceable
One
PACIFIST.
and obligasettlement of all controversies is possible
tory.
The grounds of
is condemned
War
per se.
the teachings of
sometimes
are
this condemnation
and
the Mount
the Sermon
("Resistnot evil"),
on
sometimes
philosophy.
a
general humanitarian
"

See Non-resistance.
PAEDOBAPTISM.
Baptism
children,or infant baptism.
"

of

very

ydung

A
applied in the 4th.
name
the native religionsof distant places
not
by Chi-istianity.During the
yet reached
it was
Crusades
applied to Mohammedanism.
tianity,
refers to all religions
The word now
except Christhese three worshiping
and Islam
Judaism
PAGANISM.

century

"

to

"

the

same

most thorough work was

done at Tell el-Hesy (Lachish)and Abu Shusheh
(Gezer). These excavations
have
been
of the greatest importance for the
study of the development of civilizationin Palestine
The
Fund
has also encour(see Canaanites).
aged
private investigationby throwing open the
pages of the QuarterlyStatement,the official organ
of the society,to such as are
able to undertake
less systematic researches into the archaemore
or
ology,

topography,ethnology,etc.,of

Palestine.
D. D. LuCKENBILIi

WILLIAM
(1743-1805)."Enghsh philosopher
and theologian; author of several works
including Natural
Theology, Moral and Political
tianity.
Philosophy,and A View of the Evidences of ChrisHis argument for the existence of God on
the ground of the adaptability
and unity of created
things was long Quoted as a classic.

PALEY,

PALIMPSEST."
A manuscript from which the
originalwritingwas erased and another written in,
to the paucity of writingmaterial in
a practisedue
mediaeval
times.
By using chemical
reagents
originalmanuscripts have been deciphered.
many
Several of the biblical codices are palimpsests.

God.
^A covering, consisting of a squarePALL.
shaped pieceof cardboard,faced on either side with
hnen or lawn, used to veil the chahce in the R.C.
service of the Mass; or a covering for a coffin or
hearse. Thus figuratively,
anything inducinggloom.
"

of Portuguese originused
PAGODA.
A word
in the Orient for pyramidal shaped non-Christian
temples; but particularlyfor Buddhistic temples
of a polygonalform containingsacred reUcs.
"

PAIN.

"

See Suffering.

"

THOMAS
(1737-1809)."EngUsh
PAINE,
War
of
writer; a participant in the American
Independence; famous as author of The Rights of
Man, a powerfulplea for democracy, and The Age
flippantpolemic against
of Reason, a somewhat
supernaturalism in the interests of pure ethics
based on natural reUgion.
PALESTINE

EXPLORATION

PALLIUM.
^An ecclesiastical vestment
in the
form
of a white scarf having six black crosses,
the shoulders and breast by archbishops
over
worn
and metropoUtan bishops on
it has been
whom
conferred by the pope, thus authorizingthem
to
officiate pontifically.

FUND."

An

PALM
SUNDAY."
The
Sunday
preceding
Easter, being the last Sunday in Lent and the
first day of Holy Week;
so
designated from the
palm-branches strewn before Jesus on his triumphal

of
entry into Jerusalem.
Enghsh society founded 1865 "for the purpose
conductingsystematic and scientific research in the
undertaken
PANBABYLONISM."
An hypothesiswhich sees
first great task
The
Holy Land."
schauung)
by the Fund was the survey of Western Palestine, in a Babylonian or oriental philosophy {Weltanbeen
have
of all the mythological
excavations
the source
thinking
Since
1890
1871-78.
The
of the ancient world.
carried on
at different points in Palestine.

323

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The fundamental
ideas of this Weltanschauung,
according to Winckler
(Die Babylonische GeistesThe
kultur)are these : Law reignsin the universe.
universe is an emanation
of the deity. Law
and
all knowledge derived therefrom
revealed by
are
God
God
is one, but manifests
himself
to man.
in different aspects. Everything on earth and in
the universe from the least to the greatest is an
image of the deity. This is the idea underlying
Babylonian reUgion was
polytheism. The
an
astral reUgion.
This system^,
according to Winckler, must be
viewed
as
prehistoric.Furthermore, this ancient
oriental philosophy had
not
only permeated the
of Babylonia, but
whole
Elam, Arabia, SyriaPalestine,even
Egypt, before the dawn of history.
The problem of the student of the Hebrew
religion
is to discover the relation of that religionto this
Weltanschauung of the ancient orient.
The
opponents of this hypothesis point out
that Babylonian speculationabout the relation of
the world to the deity has not been adequately
formulated by Winckler, and that,so far from being
a prehistoric
product, it shows steady development
of Babythrough the two and a half millenniums
lonian
history. The hypothesis has few supporters
D. D. Luckenbill
today.
PANCOSMISM."
A philosophicalterm
ing
denotthe explanationof everything in terms of cosmic
processes, thus eliminating the conception of a
divine creator.
It differs from Pantheism
in that
admit some
the latter may
conception of God.
PANLOGISM.
A
philosophic theory which
the universe as a system of organized reason,
Stoicism or Hegelianism.
"

treats
as

PANPSYCHISM."
A philosophictheory affirming
in all matter, a modern
form
a psychicalelement
of ancient animistic and hylozoistic
theories.
PANTAENUS."

Christian teacher

andria
of Alex-

during the late decades of the 2nd. century.

is credited with having founded
the so-called

AND

ETHICS

Papal States

platonism (q.v.). Here

God
our

is

so

exalted

the ineffable nature

that the realitiesof the world

of
of

ordinary experienceare

modes

or

regarded as incidental
aspects of the life of the Infinite. The

trulyreligiousman

will pursue
a philosophy
which
centers attention on the nature
of the Absolute-inhimself rather than on the ephemeral expressionsof
divine activity in the world.
Thus
although a
form of pantheism is propounded,the real God
is
hidden, and worship is directed to this transcendent
Being rather than to the realities of the present

world.

2. Romanticist
the esthetic
pantheism. Here
the natural world is constantlyemphasized,
and the realityof God is found in the divine
qualitiesof the world rather than in a hidden
transcendent
Being. Giordano Bruno, the Romanticists,
and
Goethe
represent this type. God
tends here to become
a somewhat
and dissipated
vague
"

beauty of

spiritualpresence.
Philosophical pantheism. Spinoza is the
classic example of this type. A complete logical
schema
is worked
out through which
the Absolute
One
his nature
in the variety of the
expresses
world of our
experience. Hegel, while not usually
called a pantheist,yet represents this interest.
Pantheism
thus reallyconceals problems rather
than solves them.
facts of the world, when
The
frankly faced, are not of such a character as to
the hypothesis that things as
warrant
they are
reflect the character
of an
infinitelygood God.
Pantheism
thus must
explain away
evil,and must
reinterpretthe data of our
experience in such
fashion as to lead us to test hypotheses by a metaphysical
assumption rather than by the harsh facts
which
confront
us.
Theological objections to
pantheismon the ground that it denies personality
are
scarcelyappUcable to all types of pantheism.
The most
serious objectionis the inevitable vagueness
and mysticism accompanying the pantheistic
3.

"

ideal.
PAPACY."

Gerald

Birney

Smith

See Pope.

He
PAPAL
STATES."
The
political[sovereignty
catechetical school of Alexandria
of
of the Popes began in the 8th. century. In 727
where Clement
Alexandria
of his pupils. A more
the Lombards
the town
one
of Sutn
(q.v.)was
to Pope
gave
doubtful tradition represents him as a zealous missionary Gregory II. Threatened
and
by the Lombards
whose activities extended as far as "India."
left undefended
by the Byzantine emperor,
Stephen
II. in 753 procured armed
intervention from Pepin
PANTHEISM.
A form of monistic philosophy
of France who transferred the Exarchate
of Ravenna
which
interpretsall realityas a direct expression and other parts to the pope.
Charlemagne in 781
and
of the activityof the Absolute, or God.
787 added
more
territoryin middle Italy.
is alluringboth
Pantheism
The
the
religiouslyand
anarchy of the 10th. century reduced
to provide for a unified
logicallybecause it seems
pope's authority to the realm of religiononly;
of the world which at the same
time
but political
interpretation
sovereigntywas renewed and extended,
all-inclusive attitude of worship.
makes
for an
1014, by the giftof part of Tuscany; 1052, by the
Leo
IX.
gain of Benevento; and
Spinoza, a typical pantheistic philosopher, was
1052, when
known
the
"God
intoxicated"
became
When
suzerain
of the Normans
in Italy. In
as
man.
different in nature from the
God
is conceived
Matilda
1115 Countess
of Canossa
as
bequeathed to
world of our
various fiefswhich could not be securely
experience,it is exceedingly difficult the papacy
at
to arrive scientifically
definition of deity;
held against German
a
opposition. After the death
for there is no logicalbridge by which to pass from
of the Emperor Henry VI. (1197), Innocent
III.
As a matter
of Ancona, the
to the unknown.
the known
of fact,]
possessed himself of the March
dualistic systems usually resort either to special Dukedom
of Spoleto,Tuscany, Assisi,
and Perugia.
form of mysticism in establishrevelation or to some
ing
In 1213 Frederick II. confirmed the papal possession
the conception of God,
Pantheism, on the/ by a golden bull of the empire. The French king
the countship of Venaissin and in 1348 the
contrary,proposes to pass by a continuous process!
gave
from the world which
know
to the immanent'
we
bought Avignon. The papal sovereignty in
pope
divine source
"soul" of the world.
but nominal
and
or
Italy in the Avignon exile was
firstmade
Yet in spiteof this apparentlysimple procedure,
was
secure
by the militarycampaigns of
and
assume
forms, differing JuUus II. In 1768 Naples seized Benevento
pantheism may
many
There
different emphases appear.
several
are
as
Pontecorvo, Avignon and Venaissin joined the
later Napoleon
lowing French
the most
varieties,
Republic (1791), and
important of which are the fol:
incorporated papal lands in his empire. The
This
1
world-renunciation
Pantheism involving
Congress of Vienna in 1815 restored the States of
but they were
the Church
is the type found in Brahnianism
and Neofinallylost in 1870 to
(q.v.),
"

"

Papias
the

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

324

pendent
Remission
PARDON.
of the penalty incurred
Kingdom of Italy. Since then the indefor the violation of law.
In theology,the waiving
temporal sovereigntyof the pope is limited
and a country estate
the Vatican, the Lateran
by the act of God, of the penalty incurred by the
new

to
at Castel

"

Gandolfo.

F. A. Christie

Bishop of Hierapolis (ca. a.d. 140)

work entitled Interpretations
(Exegeses)
of Sayings of the Lord, in five books. If we may
judge from the few fragments that have been
able
preserved,he gatheredup in this work much valupersonal testimony as to early Christian
himself, as
literature and
biography, but was
gence.
intelliof very moderate
Eusebius
says, a man
PAPIAS.

who

ETHICS

AND

wrote

"

An
PAPYRI."
Egyptian water
to the ancient writing
its name
used
from its stalk and commonly
material made
in bibUcal times.
about the Mediterranean
made
boats were
and even
While
ropes, mats
suited for the manufacture
of papyrus, it was
especially
of it
made
of writing material,which was
from
early times; the earUest Egyptian
very
It
is from the 36th. century B.C.
extant
papyrus
was
exported in earlyantiquityinto Syria. In New

PAPYRUS,
plant which

gave

violation of divine laws.

See Forgiveness.

DUTIES
RELIGIOUS
OF."
PARENTS,
Anciently the child had few rights. The Roman
father could
compel obedience,could sell into
The
Hebrew
slavery or put the child to death.
father's authority was
not so great but he exacted
and
imphcit obedience
was
supposed to rule.
Puritanism
insisted on
ri^d control, and the
"will" of the child was,
if possible,"broken."
Modem
doctrines of "freedom"
have made
it very
difficultfor the parents of the 20th. century.
This
is perhaps more
strikingin America than elsewhere
owing to the effect of the public schools where for
eight years are mingled the children from all the
social and moral traditions of the earth.
It is very
difficult to exact obedience in the old sense, and the
to others has
expedient of turning the task over
been disappointing.
Modem
least the

clear on at
thinking would seem
fairly
followingpoints:
1. Parents should not attempt to reinstate the
the
writing older principle of unquestioning obedience
it was
times
common
Testament
nor
material in the Greco-Roman
world, and in the
should
they evade the task by allowing all the
form of rolls (bibUa) twenty or thirty feet long it
from other sources.
guidance to come
The
used
for books.
Scriptures,consisting
was
2. It is the duty of the parent to advocate
the
"bibUa"
the
known
be
as
to
such roUs,came
of many
moral
and
reUgious ideals and values which he
used
also
Bible.
word
whence
Papyrus was
our
believes in and to "expose" the child to groups and
in smaller pieces for letters,accounts, receipts, influences which tend to render them attractive.
these
of
petitions. Thousands
contracts, and
3. On the other hand, the parent must
expect
tine
from the Ptolemaic,Roman, and Byzandocuments
and accept the competition of other influences and
periods have in recent years been found in
learn to rejoiceat new
must
insightswhich may
Egypt, preservedin house-ruins,old convents or
to the child.
come
These
mostly
of
the
papyri,
strata
ground.
dry
4. The family exists for the child,not the child
Greek, give us a faithful pictureof ancient Greek
for the
and
family. Moral
religious progress
the
New
material
to
much
afford
and
Ufe in Egypt,
depends largelyon the changes which the children
Testament
grammarian and lexicographer. The
will eventuallymake.
literarypapyri have not only brought to light
5. Parents need to remember
that, in the long
lost works of classical writers,but numerous
many
sits in judgment on
the
run, it is the child who
biblical texts, mostly fragmentary but sometimes
Ellsworth
Faris
parent.
Christian pieces
of considerable
length,and some
of historical or literary
interest,
e.g., the OxyrhynPARISH.
^The name
given either to the district
chus
Logia (see Logia), and fragments of unto a church
to the congregation woror
tributary
shiping
found
at
Aramaic
papyri
canonical
gospels.
in the church.
the hfe
Elephantme throw interestingUght upon
1. The parish as
district. ^The parish was
a
of a Jewish
colony there in the Persian period
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
originallythe politicaland ecclesiastical unit of
(B.C.408).
Uved
within
that
district
territory.All who
taxed for
belonged to the one church.
One called to the assistance of
They were
PARACLETE.
its support; every child bom
was
registeredin the
another as in legalaffairs. Analogicallythe Holy
books at the time of his baptism; all marriages and
Spiritas an advocate or helper. A transUteration
funerals which
took place within the district were
forter")
of the Greek in John 14:16, 26 (translated"Comrecorded
in the parish register. Education
and
"Advocate,"
and of I John 2:1 (translated
rehef were
administered
parochially,and in
poor
and there used of Christ).
each of these functions the minister had an important
place.
PARADISE."
(Persian: "garden.") (1) The
2. The parish as a religious
(2) The abode of the blest after
community. ^With
garden of Eden.
of glorioushappithe abolition of the state church
and the growth
ness
their death, portrayedas a scene
Mohammedan
of free reUgious bodies the strict idea of the parish
in Jewish, Christian, and
has
disappeared, and the term
largely shifted
theology.
from a geographicalto a social significance.The
In the Latin Bible, the
minister's parish is the body of people for whom
PARALIPOMENON."
considered
to be
he is spiritually
are
dent
of Chronicles which
responsible. These are the resiBooks
members
of his church, the children of the
supplementary to the Books of Kings.
less regularattendants
Sunday School,the more
or
and in a far less specific
The
the church services^
perfections in
PARAMITAS.
supreme
upon
Buddhist
ethics,usually including"renimciation, way the population withm walking distance of the
G. Soares
Theodore
fortitude, resolution, love of truth, patience, church building.
lence.
wisdom, poiseof mind, kindness,goodness,benevoA ^odof the thimder and rain in
PARJANYA.
Vedic religion. He is one
of
of the divine powers
used
the sky whose historytraces back to the time before
term
Hebrew
PARASHAH.
by the
the Indo-Aryans began their wanderings from the
of the sections into which
Jews to designate one
cradle-land of the Aryan peoples.
is divided for synagogal reading.
the Pentateuch
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

325

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

THEODORE
can
PARKER,
(1810-1860)."AmeriUnitarian, whose views met with opposition
from his own
and other churches
in his day. He
of greaterudition,
was
a man
a great social worker,
preacher, and writer. In opposition to formal
ardent advocate
conceptionsof religionhe was
an
of a direct mystical contact
with the immanent
God.
PAROCHIAL

SCHOOLS."

term

of definite

in countries where
significance
elementary schools
are
provided by the state,designatingparishschools
conducted
by religious
bodies,separate from public
schools,and giving instruction to pupils of the
elementary and the high-schoolgrades.
in direct
Historicallyparochial schools are
tian
lineagewith the earliest provisionsmade by Chrischurches for the instruction of the young
and,
like these earlier agencies, they emphasize the
four
are
teaching of reHgious doctrine. There
types of parochialschools in the United
principal
bodies:
States,conducted by the followingreligious
Roman
Catholic,Lutheran, Jewish, and Mormon.
Catholic parochialschools were
cally
ecclesiastiRoman
recognizedin the United States by decree of
Council
of Baltimore, in
First Provincial
the
established by
1829, although local schools were
parishpriestsin Eastern Pennsylvania,particularly
at Gosenhoppen, as
early as 1745. The modern
schools are under the control of the hierarchy. In
the Official Catholic
1921
Directory reported:
Parishes
with
schools, 6,048: pupils attending,
of Education,
1,771,418. The United States Bureau
in
Report for 1920, gives the enrolment
Catholic
secondary schools, for 1915, 74,538 in
tion
1,276 parochialhigh schools. A national organizaCatholic Education
Association"
and a
Education
in The
National
Catholic
Welfare
Council promotes these schools and seeks
standards.
to elevate their professional
Lutheran bodies in the United
The
many
States report, for 1919, a total of 5,250 schools,
with 246,761 pupils under parochial
care; of these
nearly one half are in the Missouri Synod of the
Lutheran
Lutheran
Church.
schools, as a rule,
are
supported and controlled in each case by the
local church organization.
Amongst the Jews in the United States the
the abandonment
of
toward
tendency is definitely
children receive
full parochialschools in which
instruction and toward
both general and religious
of the public
the plan of supplementing the work
schools with special schools maintained
by local
and conducted
during the week after
congregations
1860 nearly all
to about
But
school hours.
up
fullcongregationsin the largercities maintained
and there are stilla
time schools for their children,
York.
number
of such schools in the city of New
children
statistics show
Recent
87,000 Jewish
of age receivingreligious
under twenty-five
years
schools.
mcluding those in Sabbath
instruction,
schools
known
"ward
Mormon
The
are
as
this
schools"
and
to be found
only where
are
church has a predominating element in the population,
and Idaho.
as in Utah
of religious
In parochial schools the purpose
instruction is accomplished through four principal
incidental
worship, direct indoctrination,
means:
of regularsecular
teachingsin the course
religious
studies,and the personal influence of the teachers
who
are
usually speciallypreparedfor this work.
The
usually provides for certain definite
program
and generalreligious
periodsof worship,catechetics,
teaching,usually the first period of the day. In
the requirements of
in order to meet
certain cities,
of education, parochial schools
the state boards
must
forty-fiveminutes earher than pubhc
open
"The

Bureau

of

schools

AND

ETHICS

Parsis

that the period of "rehgion" may

not
the standard school program.
parochial school has been the center of
bitter civic dissension in the United States due to
the efforts of the Roman
Cathohc schools to secure
appropriationsof state funds for their work and the
Protestant oppositionto the use
of such funds for
sectarian purposes.
The
this conhterature on
troversy
to hundred
amounts
of volumes.
(A brief
tion
bibUographyis pubhshed by The ReligiousEducaof
Chicago.) On the methods
Association,
Roman
Catholic
schools,see The Catholic School
System in the United States,J. A. Burns (Benziger);
the Lutheran
on
Schools, see Schulpraxis,
Lindemann
schools
(Concordia); the Mormon
are
described
in the annual
report for 1913 of the
United
States Commissioner
of Education.
Henry
F. Cope
PAROUSIA."
A Greek
word
used in the N.T.
to denote
the "appearance" or advent
of Christ.
See Millenarianism; Advent.
encroach
The

so

on

PARSIS.
The name
by which the Zoroastrians
of India are generallyknown, from their ancestral
home
in
Persia
(anc. P"rsa, whence
Parsl,
"Persian"), whence
they migrated to Hindustan
after the Mohammedan
conquest of Iran in the
7th. century a.d., in order to escape Moslem
cution
perseand remain
faithful to the worship of their
inculcated
god, Ormazd, as
by his prophet Zoroaster
is equally applicable to the
name
(q.v.). The
remnants
of Zoroastrians
still surviving in Persia
(see G.\BARs); and the Parsis,like their Iranian
the term
"Fireco-religionists,
strongly resent
worshippers," sometimes
erroneously applied to
them.
The
history of the Parsis in India, from
the time of their early settlement in the Bombay
Presidency,about 716 a.d., forms an interesting
story as to how a small band of religiousexiles,
subjectto diverse vicissitudes,has been able to rise
to the position of a flourishing,
and
influential,
highly respected community in the land of their
"

adoption.
The Parsis,though having

minor sectarian
some
themselves
in India, are wholly
united in maintaining all the principaltenets of
their ancient religion.See Zoroastrianism.
They
acknowledge Ormazd
as
God, and Zarathushtra
(Zoroaster)as his Prophet. They have a common
belief in archangels and angels (Amshaspands
and Izads),the responsibility
of man
to account, the
the coming
immortalityof the soul and a future life,
of a Savior (Avestan Saoshyant)and the regeneration
of the world
when
the devil
(Av. Frashokereli)
,
verse.
(Ahriman) shall finallybe banished from the uniAll this is based on the historic teachingsof
their sacred book^the Avesta
(q.v.); and their
The
theology today is strongly monotheistic.
doctrine of the resurrection of the body, however,
at present to be less stronglymarked
seems
among
them
to
than
their ancient texts would
appear
warrant.
In their ethics they certainlylive up to
the code of their Scriptureswhich
enjoins upon
them
strictlyto preserve the purity of body and
soul alike,and they sum
the
the teaching m
up
old time Avestan phrase,humata, hukhta. hvarshta,
"good thoughts,good words, good deeds." Though
of business the Parsis are noted for
keen in matters
their high moral standards and for their progressive
with regard to promoting higher
ideas,particularly
of women.
education
The
and the advancement
is their
customs
most
their religious
strikingamong
of
Dakhmas, "Towers
disposalof the dead upon
Silence,"for vultures to devour, in accordance
with the historic injunctionsof their faith to preserve
the elements, fire,earth, and
water, from
V.
Williams
Jackson
A.
pollution.

differences among

Pirvati

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of the names
One
of the wife of
PARVATI.
Shiva (qv.)- This term implies a connection with
and maylindicate
the mountains
a cultof a mountainlost in Shiva.
god now

ETHICS

AND

PASSOVER.

"

326

Jewish

"

festival celebrated

for

the fifteenth of Nisan

(the
week, beginning on
month
corresponding approximately to April).
The holiday unites the celebration of the coming of
of the ideal of liberty.
Spring with the glorification
It commemorates
the redemption of Israel from
BLAISE
(1623-1662)."A brilhant
PASCAL,
It is
French
literary philosopher. He
distinguished Egypt, narrated in the book of Exodus.
celebrated by specialservices in the synagog,
and sought a mystical rather
by
religionfrom reason
the
the service of Seder, a family gathering on
than a rationaUstic basis for faith. God is known
of Passover around the festive board, at which
eve
through the heart. His most famous work is his
the story of Israel's redemption and the praisesof
Thoughts (Pe/isees).
rehearsed
with
God
are
appropriate symbols,
of all leaven from the house
PASCHAL.
^The name
of two
and by the removal
one
popes ana
and the eating of mazzah
(q.v.).
antipope.
Harold
F. Reinhart
Paschal I." Pope, 817-824.
Paschal II. ^Pope, 1109-1118; engaged in a
PASTOR.
The ordained minister of a congregation.
concerning
prolonged struggle with the emperors
have been given to the spiritual
continuing the policy of Hildebrand.
investiture,
Many names
Posc/ta^ ///."Antipope, 1164-1168.
leader of the church
elder,priest,minister,rector,
preacher but perhaps the most universal is pastor.
_

"

"

"

"

"

church
In the R.C.
a
and
put in the church on
until Ascension
it remains
of the resurrection.

CANDLE."

PASCHAL

large candle blessed

Holy Saturday where
Day, in commemoration
PASCHAL

See Easter.

CONTROVERSY."

A perfect yearling lamb

for each Hebrew
family, to
be slain at the passover
(q.v.). The term has been
applied to Christ as symbolizing* his sacrifice.
The word Paschal denotes Easter,and the Paschal
a
dispute as to the proper time
Controversy was
for celebratingEaster.
LAMB."

PASCHAL

or

kid, selected,one

function of the
fundamental
It refers to the most
tinction
minister
spiritualguidance and comfort in disfrom
preaching and administering the
affairs of the church.
The pastor is one who makes
who consoles in
with people,
personal relationships
who
is expert in leading the
times of difficulty,
children into religious
confession,and who extends
the influence of the church in the community by
In contrast
visitation and religiousconversation.
and of
brilliant success
of the orator
to the more
less esteemed.
the executive,the pastor is sometimes
the continued
But the ablest ministers are insisting
upon
importance of this great religiousfunction.
See also Minister, Pastoral
Theology; Parish.
G. Scares
Theodore
"

In canon
TIDE."
PASCHAL
law, the period
A
PASTORAL
LETTERS."
name
given to
from Low
Sunday to Trinity Sunday, when those
tion
I and II Timothy, and Titus because of the attencanonical
of
attained
the
discretion
have
who
age
and dirties
given in them to the qualifications
Communion.
In
are
expected to receive the Holy
While some
scholars find
of Christian ministers.
the Roman
liturgy, the period has prescribed genuine Pauline portionsin these letters their literary
services,which are largelytimes of joy.
and the interest in church

style
they exhibit

which
Music
PASSION
MUSIC.
other stylein commemoration
for a passion play.
"

or
or

written in oratorio
of Jesus' Passion,

CHRIST."
The
PASSION
OF
sufferings of
of his life,especially
Jesus during the last week
and on the cross.
in Gethsemane
the agony
OFFICES."
PASSION
Special services which
to the passion
recited to spread the devotion
The
first
of Christ.
privilegeof recitation was
granted to the Passionist Fathers in the second
quarter of the 19th. century.
are

PASSION

PLAY."

PASSION
before Easter.

See Mystery
The

SUNDAY."

Plays.
second

are

organization
quite unlike Paul and point

date about the end of the 1st. century when it

settle down
become
clear that the church must
of organito a long task for which the primitivewant
zation
would no longer suffice. The letters served
in securinga flexible and effective
a useful purpose
form of local Christian organizationand insuring
and worthy men
the appointment of earnest
as
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
Christian leaders.
to

had

The
science that
THEOLOGY."
PASTORAL
tration
of the theory and practiceof church adminisand of the function of the minister as the
religiousleader of a parish. The term theology is
of any study about
here used in its ancient sense
religion.See Church
Government; Pastor.
treats

Sunday
A shallow dish
PATEN.
Lord's
bread of the Mass
or
"

week
The
WEEK."
PASSION
beginningwith
Passion
Sunday or fifth week in Lent, so called
of the passion of Jesus.
in commemoration
voted
PASSIONISTS."
A R.C. order, especiallydeof the Passion
of Christ.
to the memory
It originatedin 1720 in Italy,and since spread to
England and America.
affections of the mind,
Intense
PASSIONS.
irresistiblyto action, e.g.,
prompting almost
gence,
the passions of love, anger, jealousy,sexual induletc.
The control of the passionsis a primary
task of personalethics.
"

PASSIONTIDE."

includingPassion

The
Week

last

fortnight in Lent,

and Holy Week.

by

plate,used for the

Supper.

or

used
PATERESSA."
A curved staff,officially
bishop in the Greek church.

Ability to endure pain, persecution,

hardship,or any evil without yieldingto useless
in most
protest or defiance; a virtue commended
general sense, persereligiousethics. In a more
verance
PATIENCE.

in any

"

task

or

purpose.

code of 227 rules for the

monks.
life of Buddhist
in a generalmeeting
recited twice a month
It was
rule was
made
confession of breach of any
when
tive
and the code once
more
recognizedas the authoritacontrol of the group.
A

PATIMOKKHA."

regulationof the

common

DICTIONARY

327

OP

RELIGION

tish
ScotGIBSON
(1824-1907)."
JOHN
PATON,
missionary to the New Hebrides;
Presbj^terian
cessful
whose
autobiography relates a remarkably sucmissionaryenterprise.
and PATRIARCHATE
astical).
(Ecclesi1. Status and functions. The patriarchs
are
bishopsstanding above the metropolitansin the
hierarchy and superintending the government of
their several provinces,as the metropoUtans are
the ordinarybishops. It is their duty to ordain
over

PATRIARCH

"

"

one

another
at the

and also the metropolitans; to preside

largersynods and at oecumenical coim-

with one
another so as to
cils; to communicate
promote the unity of the church, althoughin the
last resort each acts independently in his own
of communication
sphere; and to serve as a medium
with the civil government.
2. History and locality.The patriarchatewas
the bishops of the
a development of the influence of
to be located,so
great cities in which they came
the patriarchs
that, like the oishops generally,
not after the
are
always named after those cities,
"

have supervision.The
system grew up during the 3rd. century. There
only one of them in the
to be five patriarchates,
came
the others in the East,
of Rome
the patriarch
West
nople.
at Jerusalem,Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantithese
Of
only three those at Rome,
Antioch, and Alexandria existed at the time of

regionsover

which

they

AND

ETHICS

Patron

Saints

wife and children were

placed in the power of the
father.
Ancestor worship was
the final factor in the
estabhshment
of the patriarchalsystem.
Indeed,
it cannot be understood unless it is viewed as a semiinstitution.
The
reUgious
of the patriarch
power
due to the fact that he was
was
regarded as the
Uving representativeof the departed ancestors
(thegods) upon earth,the Unk between the divine
and
the human.
Nowhere
does the patriarchal
ancestor
system
get full development without
worship; but it often survived with considerable
vigor after ancestor worship had decayed, as, e.g.,
the Hebrews, among
whom, however, ancestor
among
worship is believed to have existed previous
times.
to Old Testament
Charles A. Ellwood

PATRICK,
to and

SAINT

(ca.389-461).-Missionary

patron saint of Ireland.

It is difficult to

His
distinguishfacts from traditions in his case.
largelyin northern Ireland,although
activitywas
he

accomplishedsome

work
organizing

in the south.

SAINT
PATRIMONY
OF
PETER."
nically,
Techthat portion of the Papal States embracing
the city of Rome
and some
adjacent territory.
In general,it designatesthe entire temporal dominion
Catholic Church.
of the Roman

"

"

"

"

PATRIPASSIANISM."
The
doctrine that the
Father suffered in the Son.
The term was
used to
discredit any form of Christologywhich seemed
to
ing,
imphcate absolute Deity in an experienceof suffersince by hypothesis,God is incapableof suffering.
of Smyrna
Noetus
(180-230), and Praxeas
accused of holding the doctrine.
(195-210) were

(a.d.325). Constantinople
built; but at the second general
held in that city (a.d.381), its
was
recognized as higher than the
patriarchatewas
"the preof the East, with
other patriarchates
rogative
of rank next after the bishop of Rome."
1"ATRISTICS."
edged-somewhat
to be acknowlcame
The patriarchateof Jerusalem
Christian writers
the

council of Nicaea

then
council,which

was

not

The study of the works of those

of the ancient
church
called
Fathers
{patres)out of respect and affection.
Patristics takes account
of the whole
of
range
area
Greek and Latin ecclesiastical writers from Clement
of Rome
in the 1st. century to Photius (died891)
An
SYSTEM."
PATRIARCHAL
exaggerated and John of Damascus
(8th. cent.) This vast
form of the paternalfamily (see Family), in which
Uterature is conveniently divided by the Council
in addition to children taking the father's name
of Nicaea
(a.d.325) into two parts. The hterawith property and titles passingalong the male hne,
ture
before
325
again is conveniently broken
the father becomes
practicallyan absolute ruler
185) into the Catholic,and the pre(ca. A.D.
of all
and nominally owner
the family group
over
CathoUc
latter
the
primitive periods. To
or
The fa,niily
and property in the group.
persons
belong the so-called Apostolic Fathers, the prethe
minor
sole)
becomes
(sometimes
political Catholic Apologists,and the early non-canonical
a
unit,of which the eldest livingmale, or the patriarch, gospels,acts and apocalypses. To the Catholic
Patriarchal
family
is ruler, judge, and
priest.
period of Ante-Nicene literature belong Irenaeus,
several hundred
individuals, Clement of
groups often comprised
Alexandria,Origen,Tertullian,
HippolyCf. the opening
slaves and retainers.
numerous
tus, Cyprian of Carthage, Novatian, Arnobius,
chapters of the Book of Genesis.
and others of less repute. To all this
Lactantius
for a long time
The
family was
patriarchal
must
be added the original
works or translations in
tion,
form.
Fuller informathought to be the primitive
Oriental languages,Syriac,Coptic,Arabic,Ethiopic.
the
showed
that
system
patriarchal
however,
Patristics supplies the indispensablematerials
comparatively late development in human
was
a
for the study of the rise of the New
Testament
of
historic
of
the
All
Europe
peoples
great
history.
the history of dogma and ancient Church
canon,
the
have
passed through
and
Asia, however,
are
history in general. Its earliest documents
of them
(e.g.,the
stages, and many
patriarchal
books of the New
with some
ment
Testacontemporary
Romans, Greeks, Hebrews, Hindus, and Chinese)
and throw much
lightupon the problems with
had fullydeveloped patriarchal
systems when they
which they deal.
Indeed the distinction between
first appear in history.
is now
what is bibHcal and what is patristic
giving
of the developmentof the patriarchal
The causes
to the conception of Early Christian literature
way
Wife
understand.
to
difficult
not
are
system
as
a singleorganicexpressionof the thought of the
capture and wife purchase, through establishing ancient church.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
would
their
and
wives
in
children,
property rights
tend in that direction. However, the two decisive
In EngUsh canon
PATRON
and PATRONAGE."
of the patriarchal law the
factors in the establishment
patron is one who has the rightto nominate
of
the
undoubtedly
pastoral stage
A patron saint or deity
the holder of a benefice.
system were
industryand ancestor worship (q.v.). The keeping is regarded as having the guardianship of a place
of largeflocks or herds of domestic animals required or group
of people.
the wide
and
hence
extensive grazing territory,
Thus
Saints believed to have a
another.
PATRON
SAINTS."
separation of famihes from one
the wife's
broken
locality,
prise.
enteror
specialinterest in some
the old clan system was
up,
person
They have been chosen for individuals.
kin lost their control over the children,while both
later out of regardfor the venerable
historyof the city,but includingonly a small
W. F. Adeney
round it.

Paul, The

Apostle

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

328

ties,
churches,corporations,
families,
occupations,locali-

PAUL
OF SAMOSATA."
Patriarch of Antioch,
and nations.
The
choice may
be influenced
260-272, who enjoyed the favor of Zenobia, queen
of Palmyra.
Paul held that Jesus was
who
by the geographicaldistribution of relics,by
a man
visions or
of the Spirit had
marvels, by interest in a particular by specialendowment
become
by fashion. The most
the Son of God.
He was
dogma, or even
popular
deposed by four synods
mediaeval
dedication of churches in Great Britain
268-272, but until AureUan
conquered Zenobia
All Saints, the depositionwas
to the Virgin Mary, next
not put into effect.
came
was
Craft gildsand merchant
St.'Peter and St. Michael.
PAULICIANS.
An
evangeUcal Christian sect
gilds had their patrons; thus the actors had
and Asia Minor
St. Vitus.
from
the 5th.
Speciahzation of function took place; found in Armenia
Apollonia helped in toothache,Anthony protected century, later spreading to the Balkan
region.
reformers taught that the
The Protestant
swine.
They were
duaUsts, but not Manichaeans.
They
invocation of saints was
and
the Eucharist,
contrary to Scripture. allegorizedthe incarnation
W. W. RoCKWELIi
and
rejected orders
monasticism; vigorously
APOSTLE."
The foremost Apostle objected to image worship and veneration
of the
PAUL, THE
cross
and teacher of the earlychurch.
emphasized the possibihty of Uving
J and
few years
"Chnsts"
in the persons
in Cilicia,
of profoimdly religious
born at Tarsus
a
He was
held the
leaders.
after Christ,of a Jewish family which
citizenship:hence, probably,
privilegeof Roman
While preparing
PAULIST."
A member
of the Paulist Fathers,
of Saul and Paul.
his double name
himself as a Rabbi, under Gamaliel at Jerusalem, a R.C. congregation of missionary priestsfounded
Christian movehe came
in contact with the new
ment,
sionary
by Isaac T. Hecker in New York in 1858 for mishis violent hostility.After
and Uterarywork.
which awakened
the death of Stephen, in which he had some
share,
PAX.
An ornamental
tablet with a representahe was
employed by the Jewish council to arrest
tion
this
while
of some
sacred object or idea so placed as to
mission
comexecuting
Stephen's followers;but
enable worshipers to kiss it. Also called Osculaconverted near Damascus
by a vision
was
He now
of the risen Christ.
began a missionary torium.
be
30 years, and may
which extended over
career
PEACE
MOVEMENTS
and CONGRESSES."
divided into four main
periods: (1) 3 years in
I. Chief
Promoters
Peace.
of
(2) 14 years in Syria and Cilicia,
Grotius,
Damascus;
with Antioch as a center; (3)7 years in Asia Minor
Fox, Penn, Kant, Dodge (founder of the first
Peace Society in the world
in New
and Greece, with Corinth and Ephesus as the chief
York, 1815),
Channing, Worcester, Ladd, Sumner, Burritt,
centers; (4) 5 or 6 years of captivity,first at
He was
put to death,
Hugo, Cobden, Bright, Passy, de Bloch, Novicow,
Caesarea, then at Rome.
under Nero in 64 a.d.,
Nobel, Suttner,Bourgeois,Wilson.
perhaps in the persecution
II. International
Congresses
Peace
but more
official).
(unprobably a year or two earher, after
held in London
These
in 1843;
trial before the Emperor's court.
Although not
were
which
the
Gentile
seems
mission,
the originatorof
Brussels, 1848; Paris, 1849; Frankfort, 1850;
its most
revived in
London, 1851. These Congresses were
to have begun spontaneously, Paul was
It
was
1889 and held in various capitals. In 1893, one
zealous and successfulagent.
chiefly
through
shook
off
the
fetters
of
the
in Chicago and, in 1904, the largestever
met
him that Christianity
held,
Jewish
a
world-wide, met in Boston.
law, and that it became
The epistles
III. iNTERNATIONAIi
local movement.
CONFERENCES
instead of a mere
(official).^
of his missionarylabors
The First Peace Conferenceopened May 18th,1899,
which he wrote in the course
at
the Hague.
Its 100 delegates from
took their place,almost from the beginning,as the
twenty
countries
classicalexpositionsof the Christian faith. In his
European, four Asiatic and two American
festo
character,which stands out clearlyin his writings, met on the invitation of the Tsar issued with a maniin August, 1898.
Paul was
The
passionate and imperious, but full of
Conference, among
other things,provided for a Permanent
human
Court of
sympathy. Practical sagacity,intellectual
all blended in his
Arbitration and recommended
the use of Mediation
force and mysticalfeeUng were
As a theologian he
Commissions
and
of Inquiry. The
rich and many-sided nature.
Conference
world
marked the first step toward
re-cast the primitive Christian tradition in terms
organization.
Within six years after the opening of the Court in
of rabbinical and Hellenistic speculation. But his
had been ended through mediation,
1901, one war
theology is above all the transcriptof a profound
this has
and
intense reUgious experience, and
one
war
prevented by inquiry, and the greatest
to the Hague Tribunal.
been the secret of its enduring influence and value.
cases
powers had submitted
E. F. Scott
The Second
Peace
Conference at the Hague
of five popes.
PAUL.
^The name
opened June 15, 1907; forty-four nations were
Paul /."Pope, 757-767.
represented. It made these Conferences a permanent
Paul //."Pope, 1464-1471.
institution;agreed on a Court of Arbitral
His pontificate Justice, but not
the method
of selecting
Paul ///."Pope, 1534-1549.
upon
growth
a crucial point in papal history. The
was
judges;provided for an International Prize Court,
forbade forcible collection of contractual
tion
and
of Protestantism, and the complex pohticalsituathe strength of
debts.
due in 1915.
The
in Europe were
Third Conference
was
threatening
initiated
Church.
Paul
reform
Failure
of some
nations
the
CathoUc
to ratify conventions
the
within
the church, introduced
rendered
had
that
been
movements
non-obligatorymuch
into Italy,estabUshed the Index and
in 1907 regulatingwarfare.
achieved
Inquisition
IV. Conferences
tion
ArbitraThe
(unofficial).
censorship, approved of the Jesuit order, and
Conferences
Lake
Mohonk
at
met
convened the Council of Trent.
yearly
the
from 1895 to 1916 and published valuable reports.
Paid IV.
Pope, 1555-1559; denounced
The
International
Conference
First
of
Peace
Peace of Augsburg; alienated the church of England
Churches met
at Constance, Bavaria, August 2,
still more
by his uncompromising pohcy; gained
1914,and took steps to organizethe World Alliance
hostiUtyin Italyby his tactless reformingendeavors.
for Promoting International Friendshipthrough the
Paul
F." Pope, 160.5-1621; by his extreme
Churches.
national councils;
This
has fourteen
papal absolutism, alienated many
emphasis on
France and England.
American Headquarters,
70 Fifth Ave., New
York
CathoUc leaders in Italy,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

329

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Penance

of the peasants and established himself at MiihlCity. It works in conjunction with the Church
hausen.
The
German
Peace Union and the Federal Council of Churches.
princeshad pretended to
with
ORGANizATiONS.^The
treat
Peach
V. Important
them, until they could gather their
and his followers
forces; but on May 15 Munzer
InterparliamentaryUnion, organized in Paris in
defeated at Frankenhausen
national were
manded
by a force com1889, to promote arbitration and to extend interent
law.
Until 1914 it met regularlyin differby Duke George of Saxony and Philip
of Hesse.
for the Court of
Thousands
countries. It paved the way
were
slaughtered, Miinzer
himself was
Its business is directed by a comArbitration.
The
mittee
captured,tortiu-ed and executed.
revolt was
of two from each country and by a permanent
suppressed with ruthless cruelty,and it
estimated at the time that a hundred
at Brussels; The
International
was
thousand
executive bureau
So far from improving
Peace Bureau, Berne, Switzerland; The National
peasants lost their hves.
their condition by takingup arms, they had made it
Peace
Peace
Council^London; The American
Henry
C. Vedder
publishesThe Advocate of worse.
Society, Washmgton,
School Citizenship
League,
Peace; The American
PELAGIANISM."
The
after
system named
Boston, with state branches of teachers.
Founded
1914.-^
VI. Organizations
since
opposed the Augustinian
Pelagius (q.v.),who
view of the soUdarity of the race
in Adam, and
Central Organization
The
for a Durable Peace
do not inherit Adam's
eleven
founded at the Hague by experts from
taught that men
guiltbut
countries who
born
characterless.
The
human
will is conare
neutral and belligerent
sequently
publisheda
the determining element in salvation,
world action. It
and
Minimum
Program for common
sinlessness
is possible. This
Northern
has national groups in various countries.
even
conception
The League to Enforce
reduced
divine grace
to the position of merely
Stockholm.
Peace C/rw'on.,
York
with Augustine's
City, founded in Independence
aiding man's
will, in contrast
Peace, New
has state branches.
Societies in
view that salvation is due exclusivelyto grace.
Hall,Philadelphia,
condemned
at
Pelagianism was
a
Carthaginian
about twenty countries to support the League of
I. and Zosimus,
The League of Free Nations Association, synod in 412, by Popes Innocent
Nations.
York City. Unions
of Democratic Control, and at the coimcil of Ephesus in 431.
New
London, Paris and Czecho-Slovakia. Neves VaterPELAGIUS
Women's
International League
(ca.360-420)." Christian monk and
land Bund, Germany.
born in
theologian,who, according to tradition,
was
for Peace and Freedom, Headquarters, Geneva.
of his lifein the MediterBritain.
He spent most
ranean
Organizedin over twenty countries.
in Rome
-The
world.
He was
World
since 1910.
Peace
Endowments
405-410, then a
Ginn
short time in Africa,whence
he went
to Palestine
by Edwin
Foundation, Boston, endowed
for
where he remained
He was
some
with
opposed
$1,000,000. The Carnegie Endowment
years.
of total depravity,
with
to the Augustinian doctrine
International Peace, Washington, endowed
his
"If
I
can."
maxim
I
Church
Peace
being
Union, New
ought,
$10,000,000,and the
York
City, endowed with $2,000,000 by Andrew
PELAGIUS.
The name
of two popes.
Carnegie.
The United States has always led in the movePelagius I. Pope, 555-561; participatedin
ment
the Three
The first peace
Chapter Controversy, defending the
to substitute law for war.
Three
Chapters, but later acquiescing to the
conference was
plannedand the essential features of
decrees of the 2nd. council of Constantinople.
methods
of attainingpeace were
modern
the most
in the thirties and
Pelagius//."Pope, 579-590.
formulated by New England men
abroad as "The American
known
forties. This was
PENANCE.
^An ecclesiasticalpunishment inflicted
L. A. Mead
See Miutakism.
Plan."
for sin; also a sacrament
of the Christian
WAR.
^A name
PEASANTS'
commonly given church.
Despite the unlimited power vested in the church
peasants in 1525.
to a revolt of the German
had been peasant uprisings before this
to forgivesin (Matt. 16:19 and 18 : 18) in the earhest
There
Christian times,certain crimes
idolatry,
homicide,
in Germany
(notably in 1490 and 1502) and in
visited by perwere
adultery, and fornication
France
well, where the revolt known as the
petual
as
from the church.
excommunication
Against
Jacquerieoccurred in 1356. The grievancesof the
from
and had been intensified by
this rigorous attitude protests soon
arose
many,
peasants were
quently
and social
the rapid progress of a great economic
Hermas, Callistus,Cornelius,and others. Consethe old time rigorgraduallywas
abandoned.
and manufactures,
change in Europe: the rise of commerce
ship
of the offender into church fellowFor readmission
of the
and the consequent transformation
followed by
feudalistic system, restingon land tenure, into the
was
a public confession
required,
exercises such as prayer, fasting,
business system, restingon money
modern
capital. penitential
yrostraHence
the
tions, and harsh bodily treatment.
.Though the ultimate result was great betterment
effect was
increase
by grades mourners, hearers,
of the peasantry,the immediate
system of discipline
them.
A sharp rise in
of economic pressure on
fallers,
bj^tanders. After the Decian persecution
hitherto administered
this ministry of penance,
pricescoincided with an increase of taxes and
entrusted
also to the priests.
other exactions. The rights of the peasants had
by bishops, was
called penitential
To secure
uniformity manuals
depended on custom, rather than positive law:
codified law into
books
the introduction of Roman
(John the Monk, St. Columbanus, St.
now
the courts of Germany
Patrick,St. Finian, St. Cumian, Gildas,Theodore)
tunity
opporgave landlords an
compiled with regulationsand assessments
to deprive the peasants of long-cherished were
land and forest; and to
the lapse of time public
of punishment. With
claims to use of common
the ancient feudal services and payment
confession passed out of vogue
(461 a.d.). I*ublic
commute
inflicted only for publicsin, and
was
in kind into an onerous
rent-chargein money.
penance
in August, 1524,
Troubles
under Celtic influence was entirely
suspended.
began in Swabia
finally
and the followingspring the revolt became general
According to scholastic doctrine reaffirmed at the
of penance
The demands
of the peasCouncil of Trent, the sacrament
sists
conthroughout Germany.
ants
the essenand
formulated
in Twelve
of contrition,confession,satisfaction,
tial
Articles,
were
of
absolution.
Indispensable for the remission
justiceof which is testifiedby the fact that most
tered
of them long since were
incorporatedinto German
mortalT^utnot of venial sins,it must be adminislaw.
became the leader
Thomas Mttnzer,
a fanatic,
only by the priesthoodto the baptized. It
^

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Penates

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

330

remission of the guilt and eternal

introduction of the reformatorymethods.
These
due
The
to sin.
due to a conviction that the true principle
temporal punishment
were
of sin is expiatedby the sacramental
criminal
that
the
was
should be cured rather than
penance
fessional;
imposed by the priest. See Absolution; Conpunished, and that the method
of treatment
must
Indulgence.
I*eter G. Mode
end
in
view.
It was
keep that
plain that a fixed
of confinement was
term
impracticablein most
PENATES.
The group of superhuman powers
into
cases, and the indeterminate sentence
came
which presidedover
the household stores and proOn this basis the prisoner can
shorten his
vogue.
tected
the home
in old Roman
term by good behavior. In minor
he may
popular rehgion.
cases
procures

the

punishment

"

imprisonment altogether,
being allowed
probation,with the obligation of
reporting regularly to a probation officer,
he
or
be released from prisonon parole before his
may
term
is expired. The
practice of probation is
increasingin the case of firstoffenders.
The
reformatoryprincipleis followed in the
of the prisonerduring confinement.
treatment
He
is kept occupiedwith tasks that are fitted to his
is educated.
capacityor experience. His mind
to his better instincts,
Appeal is made
and
his
moral and religious
nature
is stimulated. In these
even

A
manual
for the use
of
PENITENTIAL."
R.C. priestsin their office as confessors for guidance
in

prescribingthe penance
Penance; Confessional.

required for sins.

See

ORDERS."
PENITENTIAL
The genericname
for a number
of religious
orders,aiming to attain
blessedness
by^a life of asceticism or penance,
and engaging in religious
of the
education, care

his

escape

libertyon

sick,missionarylabor,publicpreaching,controversy
and redemption of captives.
with the unbelieving,
asserts itself. So great has been
Among the Penitential orders are the Franciscans, ways his manhood
of this reformatory method
Dominicans, Lazarites of France, Augustrnians, the success
that eighty
CarmeUte
and orders of St. Magdalen.
turn out well. There are, of
nuns,
per cent of the cases
who
do not respond, and
who
on
course, some
PENITENTIAL
PSALMS."
Psalms
6, 32, 38, release return to their criminal practices. These
in
and
used
the
R.C.
recidivists
the
130
of
the
Church
and
are
51, 102,
143,
occupants
penitentiaries.
The new
theories have necessitated more
careful
AngUcan hturgies.
differentiationin places of confinement
and even
OF." R.C
of trial. Juvenile
CONGREGATONS
offenders are
PENITENTS,
brought before
of procedure
congregations with prescriptionsas to different
juvenile courts, and the methods
such
without
as
wearing hair shirts, are designed to reform them
penitentialworks
a
prison
If they prove
fasting,etc. The various orders are distinguished sentence.
incorrigible,they are
sent to reform schools,where
the trainingof hand
by the color of their habit.
and brain may
give them new interests and occupation.
WILLIAM
In this way
(1644-1718)."English
PENN,
they are carefullysegregated
founder
and
of
Quaker leader^
Pennsylvania. from adult offenders. Women
are
no
longerherded
Reared in a Puritan family,while at Oxford ne came
in the same
prisons with men, but they have their
under Quaker influence with which he made
mon
comown
pline
reformatories,where by firm but kindlydisciMen's
becoming a minister in 1667. He
cause,
they_are taught orderly conduct.
wrote
reformatories are no longer managed after the old
extensivelyand spoke in defence of Quaker
toleration
institutions generally,
doctrines,especially
advocating religious
prison discipline.Penal
and personalmorality; and on several occasions
through the influence of such men
as
Brockway and
was
imprisoned for his intrepidity.In 1700 he
Osborne, are governed on the principleof making
secured the charter of Pennsylvania of which
he
life pleasant as
well as endurable,throwing a
maximum
of responsibility
was
the prisoner that he
on
governor, and in the constitution of which were
embodied
and trusting
Quaker principlesof toleration and
naay learn self-control and self-reliance,
him to respond loyallyto the confidence reposed in
democracy.
him.

PENOLOGY.

Workrooms

are

well

cells
lighted,

are

less

Primarily this word

signifies places of terror, recreation in the prison yard and

the science of punishment, but it has come
labor out of doors have been increased,and gatherto
ings
include the broader aspects of prevention of crime
of the men
for social and religiouspurposes
and the reform of the criminal.
have
become
more
to
frequent. The
response
that the punishment
The older penal theory was
this milder treatment
is so satisfactory
as to justify
fitthe crime,and ingeniousmethods
of torture
must
the fullest claims of its sponsors.
devised to deter from crime.
Such methods
Prison reform has enlisted the interest of philanwere
thropists
did not succeed in lesseningcrime, and by the 18th.
and scientists,
and societies and congresses
of criminals led
treatment
have been organized for discussion. Investigators
century the inhuman
reformers Uke Beccaria and Howard
to agitatefor
have studied the criminal with the help of anthropology
ested
and psychology. Certain of the American
People in general became interprison reform.
in the fate of the criminal,and by degrees it
states have abolished the death penalty; in one
or
became
easier to provide better quarters for pristhe experiment of sterihzation has been
oners two cases
treatment.
insure
human
Instead
of
to
various
and
tried. Finally
agencies are
helping the
filthy barracks, sanitary dischargedprisoner.
Henry
K. Rowe
dungeons and
damp
and
officers were
buildingswere
placed
provided,
could be trusted to refrain from
in charge who
PENTATEUCH."
first five books of the
The
"

Old Testament.

brutahty.
Banishment

of

as
criminals,

to

See

Hexateuch.

Australia and

Siberia,marked a stage of progress beyond the

removal
inhuman
cruelties of the prisons. The
meanors
of the death penaltyfor minor crimes and misdeanother
was
gain. Experiments were
of confinement.
tried as to the best method
The
Pennsylvania system required livingand working
in separate cells. The
Auburn
system provided
and separation in cells at
for labor in common
with the
night. But the greatest progress came

FEAST
OF." Called also Feast
PENTECOST,
Jewish feast which falls fiftydays after
of Weeks.
the Feast
of Passover, (called also Sh'vuos, i.e.
"weeks"
in Hebrew).
It celebrates (a) the completion
of the grain harvest,and is hence a thanksgiving
day; and (6)the traditional anniversary of
the givingof the Law on Mount
Sinai.
In modern

times, the confirmation of children in the Jewish

faith is celebrated on this festival. The outpour-

331

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ing of the Holy Spiriton Pentecost is commemorated

in Christendom
by Whitsunday (Acts 2).

AND

ETHICS

Persephone

PERICOPE."
An
official table of Scripture
lessons from
the gospels and epistles,appointed
to be read in churches
on
Sundays and holy days.
In the Anglican and
Lutheran
churches
public

PENTECOSTAL
CHURCH
THE
NAZAOF
formed
in 1907-8
A denomination
RENES.
by
uniting various existingbodies holding to a belief
doctrinal
tenets
sanctification. The
entire
in
include the Trinity,inspirationof the Bible, the
eternal punishment of the impenitent,the atonement,
fall,
the second
entire sanctification of believers,
final judgand
ment.
coming of Jesus, resurrection
The
poUty and disciplineis Wesleyan,
230
rigorous. There
were
though rather more
the union was
consummated.
churches when

Scripturereading follows the pericope.

"

PERJURY.

An assertion made under a juridical

in which one
is knowingly telling
what is not
true.
Since
perjury defeats the administration
it is in most
of justice,
countries severelypunished.
"

oath

PERPETUAL
ADORATION."
The
unceasing
adoration of the sacrament
in a religious
community,
secured
by the presence before the altar of one
worshipers at all times.
or more

PERFECTIONISM."
The complete
realization of moral or religious
possibilities

PERFECTION,
in

personalexperience.

conceives
the supreme
In ethics perfectionism
of moral
self-realization.
the attainment
as
It stands for a moraUty of character as contrasted
make
theories which
with
happiness or utility
The
ethics of perfectionism
end.
the supreme
tion
satisfaclaysstress on virtues rather than on mere
of desires.
tion
In religion,
perfectionismdenotes the eliminaof sins or of fleshlylimitations so that the
is able to enjoy complete harmony
"perfect" man
be conceived in terms
of
It may
with the divine.
and
monastiascetic disciphne (as in Buddhism
cism),or in terms of an ecstatic experienceof unity
with the divine (as in Neo-Platonism), or as
a
supernaturally produced purification(as in the
of "holiness" sects in Christianity).
case
Catholic ethics affirmed a speciesof perfectionism
of works
of supererogation,
in its doctrine
it was
within
the bounds
according to which
of human
possibilitycompletely to satisfy the
requirements of God (aided,of course, by grace).
The Protestant reformers repudiated this doctrine,
insistingthat no one could lay claim to merit in
God's
have, however, arisen in
sight. There
advocates of possibleperfection
Protestantism
many
through a special experience of supernatural
John
Christian
sanctification.
Wesley advocated
plete
perfectionas an experienceof divine grace so cominner attitude of "pure love
an
as to create
reigning alone in the heart and life." President
Finney of Oberlin declared that one may at any
lence,
have an attitude of entire benevogiven moment
and is thus at the time inwardly perfect,
later fail to live up to this
even
though he may
Keswick
Movement
ideal. The
(q.v.)aimed to
tion
promote a complete experienceof mysticalconsecrawhich suggested perfectionism.
Religious perfectionismhas suffered from the
tendency on the part of its advocates to depreciate
less ecstatic or emotional
ence,
types of reUgiousexperithus to induce
and
of
an
apparent sense
ence
superiority.Too exclusive attention to the experidiverts
of "entire sanctification" sometimes
the more
humble
social virtues.
interest from
Protestant theologianshave thus generallytreated
perfectionas an ideal to be striven for rather than as
something which one may boast of having attained.
The Perfectionist
Community of Oneida, founded
of the 19th. century by J. H.
the middle
near
Noyes, attempted to promote absolute unselfishness
to be attained by comin its members.
This was
plete
of the
communism, in which every member
renounced
all claims, not
community
only to
ships.
property, but also to personal and family relationNo
could lay exclusive claim to his
man
wife or to his children.
The
movement
called
forth
the
ideal
wide-spread denunciation, and
to a
from a religious
was
eventually transformed
B. Smith
purelyindustrial community. Gerald

good

PERSECUTIONS."

In general,sufferingsinflicted
unjustly because of non-conformitywith
accepted opinions or practices;speciallysufferings
inflicted for religious
non-conformity.
Persecutions

have

not

confined to

been

any

but have specially

acterized
charreligion,
the progress
of the missionary religions.
They have usually been defensive,for the suppression
of heresy, but have
also been
employed in
propaganda.
Christians were
persecutedin the Roman
empire
until the triumph of Constantine
who
accepted
or

age

people

or

established

and
Christianity

toleration.

As

tianity
Chris-

spread into Gentile circles it frequently

determined
met
opposition,usually instigatedby
local Jewish animosity, as seen
in the experiences
of Paul in Asia Minor
and Greece.
These
were
violence without any color of legaUty.
of mob
cases
Indeed
the Roman
authorities
not
infrequently
protected the missionaries as at Ephesus, Corinth,
and elsewhere.
Early in the 2nd. century the emperor
Trajan,
in a letter to Pliny,governor
of Bithynia,laid down
tians
Chrisa sort of legalprocedure according to which
not to be sought out as criminals,but if
were
to be executed
reported and convicted they were
unless they renounced
Christianity.It was against
and
of the
this procedure that TertulUan
most
Christian
apologists protested, demanding that
Christians be tried on
criminal charges and not
condemned
because of the Christian name.
The
effect of this regulation was
to put the
of provincial
Christians into the power
gover nors
and produce frequent local sporadic persecutions.
Several
of the emperors
engaged in such local
persecutions,and twice the whole might of the
thrown
into the effort to suppress
empire was
ates
Christianityentirely. Constantine and his associin 311,
ordered the cessation of persecution
and two years later the principleof toleration for
all religions
definitely
adopted as the policyof
was
the

empire.
Under

began

to

Constantine's successors
Christianity
eventually
persecute the old religions,

tianity
Chrisaltogether. Established
suppressing them
quite regularlypersecutedheretical sects
After
during the period of CathoUc
supremacy.
in
the Reformation, persecution of Protestants
CathoUc

States
was

was

supreme

and

common;

attempts

CathoUcism
suppress
in Protestantism
oppressionswhich at times took
made

to

radical sects

where

were

by

tantism
Protes-

frequently
force.

The

subject to
the form of vigorous
were

persecution.
of religioustoleration is
the principle
in many
gainingground, persecutionis stillknown
While

parts of the world.

W.

J. McGlothlin

The
PERSEPHONE."
daughter of the earthmother, Demeter, in Greek religion.She is the
symbol of the vegetation powers of nature which

Perseverance

of the Saints

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

the close of summer

going to the
she is represented
Hence
realm.
underworld
as the
wife of Hades, the ruler of the underworld.
The
SAINTS."
THE
God
has
those whom
neither totally nor
"can
accepted as redeemed
finallyfall away from the state of grace; but
therein to the end, and
shall certainly
persevere
of the
This
be eternally saved.
perseverance
but
their own
saints depends,not upon
free-will,
the immutabiUty of the decree of election"
upon

ETHIQS

332

OF." Persia has played

PERSIA, RELIGIONS
important role in the reUgious history of the

disappearat

OF
PERSEVERANCE
Calvinistic doctrine that

AND

an

This
because
true
of its
is
particularly
historic faith,Zoroastrianism,
which
sents
prestrikingand interesting
parallelsto Judaism
and Christianity; it is also true because
of the
of Mohammedanism,
which
has been
significance
the prevailing
religionof Persia since the Moslem
ian
conquest of Iran in the 7th. century of the Christworld.
ancient

era.

It is possible
to trace presumablephases of a
Proto-Iranian
long antedating the appearreligion,
ance
of Zoroaster as the Prophet of Ancient Iran.
(Westminster Confession).
These antique features are parallel,
in part, with
MISSIONS
TO."
Persia, covering Vedic beliefs and practicesin early India (therefore
PERSIA,
628,000 square miles,with an estimated population Indo-Iranian in essence),and are, in part, survivals
from
the common
of 7| to 12 millions,two-thirds
before the war
Indo-European inheritance of
ans)
but
myths,legends,tenets,and religious
Kurds, Nomads, Syrians,ArmeniAryan (Persians,
observances;
to have been molded
one-third
and
about
in Persia into a
they appear
Turkish, and divided
dans
Zoroastrians
Iranian form. As beliefs they consist chiefly
between
(few),Mohammedistinctly
religiously
in elements
Nestorians
of nature-worship,a characteristically
(Syrians,or
(heterodox Shi'ites),
Persian veneration
of the sun, moon,
and stars,
and
Gregorians (Armenians) offers a
Assyrians),
tian
earth,water, and especially
complex of races and rehgionschallengingto Chrisfire;and they may go
back
a
before
couple of thousand years or more
propagandism. Henry Martyn (q.v.)blazed
the trail for Protestantism,spending eleven months
our
ordinary era of reckoning.
and
The coming of Zoroaster or Zarathushtra,
in Persia in 1811, refutingMohammedanism,
(q.v.),
Basel
centuries before the time of Christ,gave to Persia's
the N.T. and Psalms into Persian.
translating
old time
faith a new
missionaries to Traascaucasia visited Persia about
and
reformed
character,
which
made
it one
controversial Uterature
of the world's great creeds in
1830, contributing to
The A.B.C.F.M.
features of Zoroastriangregational)
(Conism,
antiquity. The dominant
againstMohammedanism.
the Nestorians
as
began work
portrayed in the Avesta
among
(q.v.)and the
Pahlavi
lation
be described
Martyn's transmarked
writings,may
as
(Urumia region) in 1834-1835.
a
of the Scriptureswas
completed by a Scottish
emphasis laid upon the dualistic strugglebetween
Work
the kingdoms of lightand darkness,good and evil,
begun
missionary to Persia, 1838-1847.
taken
in 1869 at Ispahan, in South Persia, was
and
personifiedas Ormazd
Ahriman; a clearly
by the Church Missionary Society (AngUcan) defined system of angelology and demonology;
over
code of ethics noteworthy for its high ideals; a
in 1875.
a
Upon the reunion of the Old and New
to
belief in man's
School Presbyteriansin the U.S., the "Mission
strongly marked
to
responsibility
taken over
by the
Persia" of the A.B.C.F.M. was
of the immortality
account; and a profound assurance
in 1871.
The
of the soul, the coming of a savior, the
Archbishop
Presbyterian Board
of
the Nestorians
resurrection of the dead, and the regenerationof
to
of Canterbury's Mission
and Kurdistan
Urumia
began 1886, its aim being the world in a form eternal when good shall be all in
all. The
religion of_Zoroaster, though passing
through education, etc., to purify the ancient
church
without
Nestorian
interferingwith its
through various vicissitudesand some
changes due
Catholicism is represented
external
and
to
internal events, continued
by
for
organization,Roman
thirteen centuries or more
the "Chaldeans," a sect arisingin 1551 by a schism
to be the rulingfaith of
the Nestorians.
They are found chiefly Iran until the Arab conquest of Persia,in the 7th.
among
the
national
on
and
Mesopotamian side of the mountains.
century a.d., changed the whole
reUgious historyof the country.
Bagdad has been the seat of the Patriarchate since
This
momentous
1830.
event, the Mohammedan
in South
Persia
The chief missionary agency
triumph in the 7th. century, meant the overthrow
is the Church
Missionary Society (Ispahan, 1875, of the ancient creed of Zoroaster by that of the
Arabian prophet; Ormazd
Kirman, 1897, Yesd, 1898, and Shiraz,1900). An
yieldedplace to Allah as
AngUcan bishop for Persia was appointed in 1912.
god; the Avesta was
supreme
supplanted by the
effective
has proved particularly
Medical
work
of the sun
sank before
Koran; the sacred emblem
In North
Mohammedans.
in the conversion
the crescent of Islam, and the hallowed flame of the
or
fire was
Persia
the
Presbyterianshave been the chief
quenched in the blood of the Magian priests
At first efforts were
centrated
conever,
martyred at the altar. Conversions to Islam, howevangelizingagency.
alone by the sword; there were
not
on
came
reforming the ancient Nestorian
formed doubtless
efforts proving ineffectual,
These
church.
that accepted the new
a Refaith for
many
into being. The
Nestorian
Church came
Tarious reasons;
the process, though gradualj
was
in 1862.
first meeting of a Presbytery occurred
the less sure
and
none
complete, so that Persia for
four
of
The Synod is now
twelve
centuries
Presbyteries,
has been practically
composed
Mohammedan
In 1883 this
three in Persia,and one in Turkey.
in creed.
of the population,
Only a small remnant
and
Eastern
Mission
the so-called Gabars
divided into Western
was
stillremain devoted to
(q.v.),
Mission
includes Urumia,
Western
their oldtime creed of Zoroaster,while the Parsis
sections. The
School for Boys,
1834 (Urumia College,American
(q.v.)of India represent the survivors of a band
Fideha
Fiske
of reUgiousexiles,
after the Mohammedan
Seminary for girls,Westminster
conquest,
and freedom
to
Hospital,etc.),and Tabriz, 1873 (schoolstraining who sought refuge in Hindustan
and dispensary). The Eastern
for college;hospital
worship Ormazd.
includes Teheran, 1872, Hamadan,
Mission
The great religious
schism in Islam, which rent
1880,
Resht
and Kasvin, 1906, Kirmanshah, 1911, and
into
two
Mohammedanism
antagonistic sects,
Sunnis
and
the factional
Meshed, 1911. All of these stations possess
namely the orthodox
etc.
with Iran, because
schools,churches, hospitals,
Shi'ites,is closely connected
unorthodox
Persian Mohammedans,
themselves
Persia became
and remains
today the recognized
are
more
responsiveto Christianitythan
(Shi'ites),
exponent of the Shi 'a "Faction," its adherents
Henry
H. Walker
beingdevoted followers of 'All and firm beUevers in
anywhere elsein the world.
_

333

the

line

of

the

Imams

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

(see ShI'ites).Certain

developments
philosophical

religiousand

OF

in Persia

while under the Caliphateof Baghdad, and especially

the
during the early 'Abbasid Period, which was
Golden
Age of Islam (749-847 a.d.),belong rnore
to the history of Mohammedanism.
particularly
Noteworthy during the 'Abbasid Period was the
Among
rise of certain great Persian heresiarchs.
be mentioned
others may
Bih-afaridh,Sinbadh,
of the 8th.
"the Magian" (both about the middle
century a.d.)-Muqanna', "the Veiled Prophet of
century,
Khurasan," in the latter third of the same
of the
and
Babak, who sought to revive some
mately
ultiof Mazdak
heretical tenets
(q.v.)and was
certain
While
put to death, 838 a.d.
Zoroastrian

elements

may

be

still

recognizedas

Ungering in their teachings,their doctrines were

morphism,
stronglytingedby foreigntenets, such as anthropoincarnation,re-incarnation or "return,"
and metempsychosis (cf.E. G. Browne, Literary
these,
History of Persia, I, 279-336). Besides
also some
there were
strikingsectarian movements
or
the Persians,like that of the Isma'Ilis,
among
"sect of the seven" and of the Carmathians, both

AND

ETHICS

Personification

Critical personalism proceeds from

the assumption
that the self is an irreducible Uving unit which
divided
be
only by a false abstraction; it
can
makes
the
characteristic
personal values and
experiences the final tests of truth and reality;
and in its metaphysics conscious personality(mind
and
of all reality.
will) is the ultimate nature
The ultimate fact is not abstract "thought" but
thinker thinking thoughts; not "thought proa
cesses"
but a thinker.
All knowledge has the
mental
forms
of
of
the
the
thinker
by the
stamp
conscious possession.
time it becomes
a
Personalistic
metaphysics regards conscious
in all phenomena.
as the ultimate reality
intelligence
and causalitywhich are the marks
The rationality
of the realityof all things,are conceived
the
as
and
thoughts and acts of the infinite Thinker
the ideals of personalism are
Thus
carried
Doer.
hmits of philosophical
through the extreme
tion
specularesultingin theism.

work
Religious personalism regards the real frameof realityas spiritual(personal)and makes
the active,Hving God both the immanent
reason
and

of the world's

the power

life. All ethical and

in
values receive theoretical reinforcement
spiritual
the acceptance of ultimate realityas the Personal
aspect.
as religious
live and move
Creative Spirit "in whom
and
we
the 9th.
Highly significantin Persia, from
have
the
being." Thus
religionand ethics are
our
religio-metaphysical
onward, was
century
physical
grounded in the center of Being and have metadevelopment of Sufi mysticism, which culminated
A. Youtz
Herbert
significance.
in the mystic poetry of Jalal ad-Din
Rumi, in the
13th. century, and of Jami, in the 15th. century,
The essential character of a
PERSONALITY."
the devotional lyricpoetry of
and stilldominates
over,
as
distinguishedfrom a thing, or of one
Iran.
In the first half of the 19th. century, moreperson
as
and
distinguishedfrom another.
distinctlyreligiousmovement,
new
person
a
Constituent factors. Free association of ideas,
called Babism, after the title of its founder,or more
in Persia.
termed
purposivecontrol of ideas in thinking,organization
Bahaism, arose
generally now
coherent
in its tendencies, of desires in the light of ideas, and
a
This creed,eclectic and progressive
of which

had

somewhat

character
political

well

as

'

"

ber
its adherents
counts among
todaya growing numnot alone in Persia and other parts
of followers,
in
of Asia, but it lays claim likewise to adherents
The
See Babism; BahAism.
Europe and America.
importance of the influence exercised in Persia by
for nearly a century, is a
Christian missionaries,
to.
factor duly recognized. See Persia, Missions
Jackson
A. V. Williams
used in theology to denote
A term
PERSON.
of the Trinity. The
of the three members
one
word
is an
AngUcized form of the Latin persona
western
as
which
the
theologians introduced
hypostasis (q.v.). See
equivalentto the Greek
firstused in the drama and
The word was
Trinity.
subsequentlyin law to denote the personalcapacity
_

"

in which one
acted,e. g., as a father,creditor,etc.
It is therefore not identical with "individual,"as
individual might act in different personae.
the same
this usage
From
through Tertullian,the
sprang,
held to be posThe god-substancewas
sessed
theological.
by the three personae (to use Tertullian's
and
Son
of
Holy Spirit.
Father,
word)

consciousness

of self in relations with

other

selves

marks of personality. Variations

distinguishing
in personalityare due to (1)underlying instinctive
differences of tendency and temperament,
tact
(2) condistinctive persons
and
with
institutions,
of more
or less automatic
(3) formation of a mass
habits and
attitudes,(4) pursuit of distinctive
of
differences
subtle
ideals. Complicated and
vanced
adpersonal qualityresult,especiallyin the more
grades of development.
pendent
Worth
of personality.Each person has indeethical worth, and is to be treated as an
(Kant). This valuation of
end, not as a means
in its conUes at the heart of Christianity,
ception
persons

are

"

of God's

relation to all men.

It finds social

but
democratic
institutions,
appUcation in modern
becomes
meaningless when interpretedas a merely
task of education
The
abstract equalitarianism.
is to secure
adequate development of persons;
that of social reconstruction,to secure
proper
and functioningof persons.
interrelating
Continuance
of personality.Does personality
conceived
be
persist after death? This
may
"

terms
of an underlying metaphysical
substance, or soul; or in terms of the concrete
experienced,a
factors of personalityas empirically
all the
coherent consciousness. Persistence of personality
connotes
in the genericsense
Personalism
the authority of a
is usually asserted either on
data of self-conscious life.
or
Aristotle among
religious
revelation,or as an ethical postulate,
In the history of philosophy,
with the
the factual ground of communication
other reUgious phion
the ancients,Augustine and
losophers,
be
dead.
See Future
op.
Life, Conceptions
Descartes, Kant, and Lotze, may
the attributes
far can
in their philosophies.Divine personality.How
regarded as essentiallypersonalistic
be asserted of a
in men
of personalityas known
Lotze
was
pre-eminently the modern
the
(q.v.)holds that while
of speculative personalism. But
forerunner
Supreme Being? Theism
is essentiallypersonal. The
God
is infinite He
to describe
technical designationof "PersonaUsm"
doctrine of the trinity (q.v.) introduces
specific
the phUosophic type firstappears in Le Personnalisme
J. F. Crawford
by
problems of personality.
by C. Renouvier
(Paris,1902). Personalism
B. p. Bowne
istic
(Boston,1908),is an outline of personalThe attribution of conPERSONIFICATION."
scious
logical
philosophy,amplifiedin the author's Psychoto inanimate objectsof nature,
Theism, etc.
personality
Theory,Metaphysics,

A type of thought emphaALISM.

sizing
that differentiate
qualities
distinguishing
the impersonal or mechanical.
the personal from
PERSON
the

"

primarilyin

"

Peshitto

phenomena, forces,human

OF

RELIGION

tions.
inventions,and abstrac-

of objects of
personification

The
of

DICTIONARY

is

nature

in

frequent occurrence

more
primitiveand even
as
earth-gods, airof abstractions
personification

reUgions, such
sophisticated
gods,

etc.

such

(q.v.). The
virtues and

as

religiouspractise also
literature.

vices has been

common

especially in

Bible.

modern
four "noble truths"

and

Von

Hartmann
The

pessimism.
philosophical
of Buddhism

(q.v.)rest

on

world-view.
pessimistic
of
The
foremost
APOSTLE."
THE
PETER,
Jesus' disciples.He was
a fisherman,in partnership
Jesus called
with his brother Andrew, when
"Simon" into
him as a disciple,
changing his name
"Cephas" or "Peter" (a rock),perhaps to denote
him as the firstmember, the foundation stone of the
He was
married, and his house
new
community.
the abode of Jesus during the
was
at Capernaum
Galilaean ministry. Throughout the gospelhistory
he appears as the most
prominent and devoted of
the first to acknowledge
the disciples.He
was
rewarded, according
Jesus as the Messiah, and was
to Matt. 16: 17-19,by a promise of supreme
authority
This famous
in the church.
however, is
passage,
tary
beset with criticaldifficulties. In spiteof a momenPeter
wavering on the eve of the Crucifixion,
the first to believe that Jesus had risen from
was
his faith and
(I Cor. 15:5), and it was
the dead
after its
movement
that saved the new
enthusiasm
re-constituted
the scattered
seeming ruin. He
forth
henceof believers at Jerusalem,and was
company
the recognizedleader pf the church.
Though
favorable to the Gentile mission he was
unwilling
this
to break entirelywith the Jewish law, and on
Of
into conflict with Paul at Antioch.
point came
Peter's later fife nothing is certainlyknown, but
in
martyred at Rome
the tradition that he was
the Neronian
(64),is supported by good
persecution
E. F. Scott
evidence.
OF." Two
ACTS
PETER,
to Peter, viz., the
attributed
See Apocrypha.
Catholic Acts.

PETER,
work

of 2nd.

apocryphal works
Gnostic

Acts

and

approximatingin style and

Apocalyptic

content

to

II Peter.

Literature.

SAINT
PETER
(ca. IOO67IO72)."
DAMIAN,
of monastic
reformer
and
Italian monk
Ufe, a
(q.v.) and
vigorous opponent of Nicolaitanism
simony. He was a cardinal and contemporary of
Hildebrand.
PETER

DE

BRUYS.

of the

and

sacraments

seven

of sacramental

"

OF." A spurious work

PETER, PREACHING
of the 2nd. century, purporting to be written by
Peter in defence of Christianity
againstJudaism and
paganism. See Apocrypha.
PETER'S

day

PENCE."

tax

of

one

penny

on

family formerly paid annually on

every

the popes.
contributions
of the pope.

to

PETROBRUSIANS."

St. Peter's
At present it represents voluntary
of devout Catholics to the support

The

followers of Peter de

Bruys (1104-1125),a radical opponent of episcopal

as
authority,of the R.C. mass
idolatrous,imageworship, infant baptism, celibacy and prayers
for the dead.
Recognizing solely the authority
of the gospels,they advocated
a
purely spiritual
religionfree from ecclesiastical forms.
OTTO
PFLEIDERER,
(1839-1908)" German
Protestant theologian,noted for his interpretation
of Christianity
in terms of idealistic philosophy and
historical development, and for his contributions to
and Pauline theologyand New Testament
Johannine
criticism.
PHALLICISM
PHALLISM."
That
or
type
of nature
worship in which the generativepowers
are
worshiped, as symbolized in the male organ
the name.
The
custom
is
or
phallus, whence
not only among
common
primitiveraces, but is of

frequent appearance
sophisticatedpeoples,
among
Greeks and Indians.
PhaUicism
as the Phoenicians,
often as a form of sympathetic magic, sexual
occurs
effect of the
practisessymbolizing the fertilizing
and
rain whose
sun
help is sought. Sometimes
in the Indian
the ceremonies
are
as
wildlyorgiastic
Sakti puja and the Canaanitish
Baal worship. In
the symbol of the phallusis worn
some
cases
as an
amulet or charm
the
to guard againststerility,
as
lingaof the Hindus, typicalof Shiva's procreative
power.

OF." An
APOCALYPSE
apocryphal
century origin,accredited to Peter,

See Apocrypha;

LOMBARD
tic
(ca.1100-1160)." Scholastheologian and bishop of Paris, who wrote
a
lection
theologicaltextbook,Sententiae lihri quatuor, a colof patristicsayings to which he sought to
give unity. His most noteworthy contribution to
his formulation
of the Cathohc
trine
doctheology was

experienceis

human
satisfactory

impossible. Schopenhauer
represent

Syriac versions

hypothesis that the world

The
a

334

grace.

The oldest of the

See Versions
op
the

PESSIMISM."
is evil so that

ETHICS

PETER

allegorical

See Animism.

PESHITTO."
of the Bible.

AND

See Pbtrobuslans.

OF." An apocryphal gospel

PETER, GOSPEL
dating from the 2nd. century, and attributed to
It shows anti-Judaistic,
Peter.
gnosticand docetic

in PalesPHARISEES.
A Jewish party name
tine
from the 2nd century B.C.
to designate the
adherents
of traditional,
nationalist and
devout
Judaism
A party of
against growing Hellenism.
the people rather than of the priests,and most
trained as Scribes to know
of them professionally
and teach the Old Testament
to the people,and to
administer the law.
The Pharisees were
the recognized
leaders and
officials,
exemplars of Jewish
faith and practice. A minor party in the
religious
Sanhedrin, they had their chief opportunity and
influence with the people through the synagogue.
of that standard[
Judaism
the makers
They were
which
the highest religionand ethics before
was
Christianity,and out of which Christianityitself
C. W. Votaw
arose.
"

tendencies.
HERMIT
(d. 1151)." A priestof
Amiens, France, an enthusiastic preacher of the
who
first crusade in France
according to popular
and went
of pauperes
with
beUef raised an
army
ship
For his actual relationto the Holy Land.
them
to the Crusades, see Crusades.
PETER

THE

ory
theThe
PHENOMENALISM."
philosophical
that since knowledge is limited to phenomena
knowable
there is no
realitybeyond phenomena.
This theory, if applied in the realm of reUgion,
restricts discussion to the realm of religious
experience,
refusingto make affirmations concerningany
objectof faith.

335
PHILADELPHIANS."

DICTIONARY
A

of

sect

OF

RELIGION

religious
tics,
mys-

the followers of Jakob

originating among
Boehme
(q.v.)in London, Eng., in 1670, the chief
Mrs. Jane Leade
who
drew
of whom
was
Laws of Paradise for the societyin which
and brotherlylove were
inculcated.

up

the

morality

PHILANTHROPINISM."
The pedagogicalsystem
tried in the Philanthropin,a deistic school of
founded
in Dessau, Germany, by
short duration
J. B. Basedow.
Following the ideal of Rousseau's
at a "natural"
the system aimed
tlmile,
education,
other prejudice.
free from ecclesiastical
or
-See Baraca-

CLASSES.PHILATHEA
BIBLE
Philathea
Bible Classes.

HESSE
PHILIP
OF
(1504-1567)."Landgrave
Hesse, who assisted in crushing the Peasants'
Revolt, 1525, about which time he espoused the

of

He
Protestant
cause.
put forth great efforts to
obtain a league of Protestant forces,being largely
of the League of
for the formation
responsible
unenviable
received
Schmalkald.
He
notoriety
because of his bigamy, sanctioned by Luther.
PHILIP

OF

-Founder

NERI.

of the Oratorians

(q.v.).

AND

ETHICS

Philippines,ReUgions

of

III. Evangelical
Missions.
1. Occupation.
The first evangeUcal missionarytransferred from
Brazil arrived in Manila April 21st,1899, followed
the next year by a missionaryfrom Spain. The
Islands were
under martial law, but the open
door
entered with zeal and wisdom.
was
To distribute
Luzon
was
responsibility,
dists,
assigned to the MethoPresbyterians,United Brethren, Christians
and
Episcopalians;the Visayas to the Baptists
and
to the
Presbyterians; Mindano
Congregationalists. These
secured
assignments have
a
wider
evangelism and have unified the people
subordination
the
of
through
denominational
divisions and the co-ordination of almost all work
through The EvangelicalChurch of the Philippine
used by every comname
Islands,the common
munion
the desire for a united evangehcal
to meet
church.
The primary work of the
2. Evangelistic
work.
missions is evangelistic;and, although this ideal
pervades all mission work, it is necessary to lay
specialstress on the work thus specially
designated.
Missionaries
and
trained
FiUpinos have carried
and
done
have
on
evangehstic meetings
personal
work.
The responses
have been great. Evangelists
have gone to villages;chapels have been built;
Sunday schools and churches have been organized;
and multitudes brought to Christ.
work.
3. Educational
There
are
4,589 schools
with 776,639 pupils under the Minister of PubUc
also
schools
under
mission
Instruction; and
auspices. These mission schools are elementary,
secondary, and for BibUcal training. Most of the
work is of high grade, and it is supplementing the
public school system without competition.
4. Literary achievements.
The
Bible societies
and the missions have co-operatedin the translation
and circulation of the Bible and other Christian
literature. When
the 'Islands were
opened to the
circulation of the
translations
had
Scriptures,
in four of the seventy-five
already been made
dialects. These four versions can
be read by one
half of the population. Philippine priests have
sometimes
distributed
the
Scriptures. Creating
Christian literature is arduous; but progress
is
S. Myers
Harry
being made.
"

"

"

"

MISSIONS
TO."
Catholic
Missions.
1. Roman
1. Conquest.
Urdanata
and his five friar companions accompanied
Legaspiin 1564, and helped to render permanent
settlements.
As a rule,the friars
the estabhshed
and no sacrifice was
too great for
remained
for life,
The FiUpinoswere
them.
baptized by thousands.
The
transfer of spiritualallegianceto Romanism
radical change of belief.
was
easy and involved no
when
of Filipinosare still pagans,
The mass
even
friar
of Christianity. The
they have a veneer
but only that he
become
has occasionally
a landlord,
might control the situation. The first friars were
medieval and reactionary. The Jesuits were
more

PHILIPPINES,

"

"

progressive.
2. Modem

times.

"

^the

number

of

friars is

than ever
probably greater now
before,and
are
attempting to perpetuate their power.

they

The
Church
saved the inhabitants from MohamRoman
medism.
The
It laid intellectual foundations.
if crudely,
theistic faith is held,even
by multitudes;
and an increasingnumber
are
making the words of
of their lives.
Jesus Christ the ruUng principles
Catholic
Apostolic
Independent
II.
Church.
Gregorio Aglipay of the Ilocano Tribe
Roman
ordained
was
as
a
priestabout 1890 and
was
closelyassociated with the revolutions of 1896
and
He
unfrocked by the Spanish
1898.
was
bishop,but was made Chaplain General by AguinAfter the pacification
aldo in 1899.
of the Islands
he initiated a protest againstfriars,
callinghimself
Maximus
or
Archbishop. This Aglipayano Church
is a revolt againstfriarsand their claims to property,
and is a democratic
for church governmovement
ment.
It has favored the distributionof the Bible,
pubUc schools,and expositorypreaching. It has
received many
dissatisfied Romanists
in its fold.
It has liberalized religious
thought and helped to
the people for the evangelicalmissionary.
prepare
In 1902 Governor
Taft called on the Pope, and
as
a result the friars' lands were
purchased by the
United
States Government
condition that the
on
friars should
leave
the
Islands.
This
action
this independent church, but
temporarilyweakened
it gained immensely soon
after. Its work has been
great and it is contributingmuch to the Christianization of the inhabitants even
if it should !;ea"e
to
exist as a separate organization.
"

"

RELIGIONS
tants
OF." The inhabiPHILIPPINES,
of the PhiUppine Islands fall into a varietyof
cultural groups,
partly determined
by race, partly
is generallyconby history. The oldest stratum
ceded
to be that of the Negritos,
a dwarfish
Negroid
still fairly numerous
in the mountainous
race,
interiorof Luzon, once
doubtless possessors of the
whole archipelago. Indonesians,today most purely
ern
representedby the Igorotand Ifugao tribes of northof population,
Luzon, represent a second wave
in its turn overlaid by the third and greatestimmigration,
that of the Malay races
from whom
the great
of the Filipino population is descended.
mass
touch with the
in commercial
Chinese,who were
islands before their discoveryby the Spaniards,and
the strain of European blood introduced
by the
latter and other whites complete the main stocks
that have gone
to the peopling of the islands.
and religiously,
Culturally
however, the influences
of Brahmanistic
India and Mohammedan
entered the islands before the appearance

Arabia
of the

Spaniards.
At the time of the discovery of the islands by
Magellan, in 1521, they were
entirelyinhabited by
and
barbarous
excepting for the
savage
pagans
which
had
rapidly encroaching Mohammedanism
entered the archipelago from the south probably
not long before; and with the Spanish conquests
and settlements,accompanied by Augustinian and
other missionaries,
twofold
conflict was
a
begun,

Philippists

DICTIONAKY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

336

Had only sHght contact with Jews of Palestine,

of the
and
the one
hand, toward the Christianizing
his contemporaries Jesus and Paul.
pression did not know
predominant pagans, on the other,toward the supHis Ufe work was
to promote a syntheticJudaism;
of Islamism
a,3 representedby the Moros
holding that the Jews had the true reUgion and
(or "Moors") as the Spaniards called the native
Philo aimed
to enrich and
was
The firstof these enterprises
Mohammedans.
universalize
Scripture,
Judaism
of the pagan
by annexing the Greek ethics and philargely successful,the great mass
losophy.
His extensive
natives
being Christianized during the Spanish
writing, classified as
and poUtical,were
exegetical,
philosophical
occupation. The second conflict was less decisive.
chiefly
of Pentateuchal
recognition aUegoricalinterpretations
The Moros
were
only brought to some
passages,
after the American
of responsibility
occupation. and theologicalessays. Philo's Hellenistic ideas,
and methods
terms
the inhabitants
At present, with reference to religion,
proved useful to Greco-Roman
of the islands form the followinggroups:
philosophyand to early Christianity.
C. W. VOTAW
All the civiUzed peoples of the
1. Christians.
PHILOSOPHY
IN RELATION
to
TO RELIGION.
eight million,
PhiUppines,numbering seven
Both reUgion and philosophyrepresent attempts
the
Christian. Augustinian friars entered
are
of man
to realize a relationship
followed within a few
islands in 1570; they were
to ultimate forces in
the universe.
in its beginnings,
ReUgion,especially
by Franciscans, Jesuits and Dominicans,
years
of the missionaries of these
rituaUstic means
employs dramatic, pictorial,
and it is to the work
of
of this relationship.
of the Malay tribes
arousing a sense
orders that the Christianizing
"-Philosophy
arises when
cultural maturity has been attained,
which they found was
a paganis due.
The religion
ism
prevails and seeks to represent ultimate reaUtyin terms of
not very different from that which now
influences
rational conceptions.
the wild tribes,although Hindu
among
ever,
The
relation of philosophyto religion
is twohad alreadyreached the islands;its records,howfold.
On
the one
hand
it criticizes crude
and
were
virtuallyaU destroyed (includingthe
ideas
the
in
naive
known
more
current
to
native books, for writing was
religion. This criticism may
be so
in their anxiety to
severe
as
virtuallyto destroy traditional
civiUzed)by the missionaries,
tian
reUgious faith for cultured
people. Socrates
extirpateidolatry. Today the reUgionof the Christhese grounds. On the other
condemned
was
natives
is naturally Catholic, although in
on
ents
adherhand, wherever
recent
religiousideas are
capable of
years Protestantism has gainedsome
rational
of churches.
interpretation,
philosophy gives them a
and has estabhshed a number
almost
Mohammedanism
more
2. Mohammedans.
profound critical examination, and reinforces
them, although often in altered form.
Greek
certainly entered the Philippines from MohamIt had established
medanized Malays of Borneo.
philosophy thus reinforced Christian theologyand
about Manila
itself even
Bay when the Spaniards made it the basis of mediaeval culture.
the great religionsthose of India
driven back to its strongholds,
Among
appeared, but was
and
Buddhism
and the Sulu Archipelago,where it still Brahmanism
Mindanao
(qq.v.) represent
the attempt to exalt a completely philosophical
is,however, that
prevails. This Mohammedanism
of a barbarous
people,mingled with superstitions reUgious attitude. Salvation is by philosophical
customs
and savage
(piracy,head-hunting,slavery, knowledge. Confucianism (q.v.)in China emphasized
ethical philosophy in the place of popular
except as suppressedby force),and is morally
cults. Judaism
the paganism of the
and Mohammedanism, with their
better than
if any,
little,
tribes.
have exalted
other barbarous
strong emphasis on specialrevelation,
tually obedience to divine commands
of the islands,virThe pagans
rather than specula3. Paganism.
tion.
in these
form many
Yet
in a state of savagery,
been
groups,
religionsthere have
notable philosophical
thousand
drian
developments, as in Alexanaltogether numbering several hundred
Judaism
in the system of Maimonides
or
people. The religionof the Negritos is almost
(q.v.),or in the work of the Arabic AristoteUans
unlmown, although it is believed to include worship
in the
Middle
of the Moon, as a great deity. The Indonesian and
Ages. Christianitymade
large
Malayan wild tribes preserve beliefsand practices use of Hellenistic philosophy in the development of
have
such as must
theology,and has generallymaintained a hospitable
prevailedthrough the
once
attitude toward philosophy,while at the same
three principal
islands. Two
gods, surrounded
or
time
carefullyguarding the primary authority of its
by a host of lesser deities or animistic powers, were
within
revelation.
Most
including,even
types of modern
philosophy,
worshiped with sacrifice,
sacrifices.
of Descartes
human
from
the time
have
recent
supported a
years, occasional
very
theistic or an ideaUstic monistic view of ultimate
The strongest factor in the native reUgion appears,
reaUty suited to reinforce Christian theology.
however, to he in the worship of anitos,or ancestral
all the
Radical empiricism,however, as in the philosophy
spiritsrepresentedby idols,found among
of Hume, or in the tendencies of modern
pragmatism
includingNegritos. The practiceof "headof
reduces
and neo-realism
logically
theology to a
unting," that is, decapitationof members
creation of human
tribes in order to secure
trophy heads, is
thinking, rendering doubtful
enemy
the ontological
existence of the God
of Christian
religiousin character, associated with ancestorbeUef.
See Monism; Idealism; Pragmatism; Ontology.
worship.
Chinese have been in
Birney
Smith
Gerald
4. Confucianism. The
the Islands for many
brmging with them
years,
number
between
PHILOSOPHY
OF
The
THE."
their native reUgion. They now
RELIGION,
and fifty
thousand,of whom a small portionare
philosophyof religionis the study that is devoted
forty
H. B. Alexander
to findingout the truth about
Christians.
religionand about
its relation to the rest of life,
and to organizingthis
lowers truth as nearly as possibleinto a coherent whole,
The
designation of the folPHILIPPISTS.
with the ultimate object of securingresults that
of PhiUpp Melanchthon
(q.v.)during the
shaU serve
latter part of the 16th. century. Their distinctive
as
guide for life. It begins by
a vaUd
trines recognizingreligion
docof the greatdepartments
included approximations to the R.C.
as one
tenets
of human
of free will and good works, and to the Swiss
experience,and it centers in the effort
to discover the laws that govern
Reformers' positionin regard to the Lord's Supper.
religionitself and
their meaning. This procedure naturallyleads to
the working hypothesisthat religion
is a normal and
PHILO
(ca.20 B.C.-50 a.d.). Foremost Greekpermanent function in human Ufe. But it always
writing Jew of Alexandria in 1st. century a.d.
on

"

"

"

"

"

"

Eagans

"

"

"

337

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHlCS

AND

Philosophy of keUgloit

in facts and theirlaws,and philosophy

terest;
shares this inbut no philosophical
is complete
treatment
which does not consider facts and laws in relation to
values.
So the sciences of the psychologyand the
historyof reUgion have it as then* chief concern
to
ascertain allthe facts about religion,
out none,
leaving
and to deal justly
with them all in determining
the
laws and principles
be
that govern
which
them.
The
no
generalphilosophyof life can
losophy
phiof religion
should build upon
This
out.
these sciences
knowledge of
thoroughly worked
and so has a like concern
seeks to
for facts and laws, but it
acquaintance the philosophyof religion
has the added
and special responsibiUty
of estimating
organize,and interpretby combining it
criticize,
the facts and laws according to their worth.
with all the "knowledge about" rehgion that it can
If the functional point of view prevails
this subject will have
to extend
in both
gain. Hence
the distinction stiU holds. The
itself far beyond the immediate
science of
study of reUgion fields,
to
into the consideration of the relations of religion
the
religion
inquireshow religion
actually
functions,
other sides of hfe
task to
science,ethics,politics,art, philosophyof reUgion has as its supreme
affairs. The
and practical
how
religionideally should function.
philosophyof religion determine
From
this point of view the central work
thus becomes
of the
a
philosophyof life centering in a
of religion.
reasoned interpretation
philosophyof reUgionis to seek to discover and to
in the way
this subjectis understood
When
just justifyprinciplesfor the further development of
reUgion,and of Ufe throughreligion.
described,it will be seen to differ in its fimdamental
of learning,
It is evident that,since the philosophy
from several older branches
of reUgion
principles
is so much
similar ground. It
concerned
which to some
with questions of value in
extent covered
For apolotion
for example, from apologetics.
getics reUgion,it must recognizea pecuUarly close reladiffers,
the truth of a particular
between itself and ethics a relation,indeed,
religion,
presupposes
of the most
vital interdependence.Whereas
for instan ce Christianity,
the
togetherwith itsmain body
older procedure was
tion
to lay in metaphysics
of doctrine and defends these againstattack or doubt.
a foundaother religion.
for reUgion,and in turn to find in reUgionthe
or of some
It is the defense of Christianity,
the philosophy of religiontakes the
foundation for ethics,the philosophyof religion
Whereas
out of the recognitionthat reUgion
truth of no doctrine for grantedand only presupposes,
springslargely
is a normal human
and ethics are two closelyrelated centers of experithat religion
as a working hypothesis,
ence,
Uke two nuclei in a Uving cell. This relation
So it approaches the truth of any
function.
is such that it is equally fatally
the basis of the meaning and
on
destroyed when
particular
religion
either is made
in general and on the basis of the
value of religion
a mere
by-product of the other,and
search for truth.
This subject
when the two are completely merged in each other.
generalphilosophic
Ethics becomes
physics.
the other hand, from
reUgious metaa mere
on
by-product of reUgion when
differs,
it is held that there can
be no valid distinctions in
Such
metaphysics,to be sure, does not
ethics except when
certain religious
truths
such as
take its stand within a particularreligion.On the
the existence of God
have firstbeen independently
contrary it seeks to establish certain truths about
gious
about the chief objects of reliestablished. ReUgion becomes
a mere
appendix to
religion especially
ethics when
it is accorded no content of truth of its
faith
ence.
independentlyof all religiousexperiBut there is danger that such an
attempt, own, but is made solelya certain emotional way of
while avoiding theological
taking ethics one that "views things in a rosier
dogmatism, will involve
dogmatism that is no less injurious. Ught." On the other hand the two are completely
a metaphysical
the philosophyof religiontakes its
either of a thorough-going
At all events
merged in the case
which
considers that
mysticism or of a moralism
start from
religiousexperience,personal, social
and proceeds by seeking to organize
and historical,
religionhas only the historical function of being a
school-master to bring us to ethical maturity. It is,
this into coherent relations with the rest of experience.
of the presuppositionsof the philosophy
As for the relation of our subjectto theology, then, one
if theology is dogmatic it is opposed to the philosophyof religionthat religionas it develops becomes
of religionin spiritand method, but if, increasinglyinterdependent with ethics and that
it endeavors
the
without
to determine
two
in an undogmatic spirit,
merging.
interpenetrate
may
and evaluate
of a particularreligion
the principles
Historicallyconsidered this relationshipbetween
to have
under the philosophy of religion
as
reUgion and ethics is generallyrecognized
them, it comes
Thus
within the
Christian theology
found its most important exemplification
of its sub-divisions.
one
the philosophy of the Christian religion.
becomes
sphere of the Christian religion.
is to do justice
But if the philosophy of religion
The
philosophyof religionis naturallyclosely
gion
relation between relirelated to the sciences which
to the mutually fructifying
study directlythe
from
the psychologyand the history
deal with the matter
and ethics it must
facts of religion,
i.e.,
of religion. These sciences do not take for granted the standpoint of social ethics and the social significance
and they do take
of religion.This,to be sure, is a task that
religion,
the truth of a particular
department of human experience Ues immediately ahead, instead of being one that
as a normal
religion
ology
The phiand so presumablyas a source^of truth.
losophyalreadyis being vigorously grappledwith. Sociof course
has recognizedthe largeand imporof religion,
therefore,is bound to examine
tant
the results of these sciences and to build
place that reUgion has occupied, but social
critically
best established
and
most
ethics has done the problem of the social value of
those that are
upon
be asked, is the
religionbut scant justice. And on the other hand
important. But what, it may
it build a
those thinkers who have started from the reUgious
basis for its critical work, and how can
largerstructure of truth than these sciences already side have considered the social significanceof
tutions
The
constructed?
have
philosophy of reUgion reUgion to be too largelya matter of reUgiousinsticriticize the results of these sciences and go
can
only,instead of a matter of the relation of
religionto all social institutions and functions.
hensive
comprebeyond them, because it has the more
of seeking to
task
integrate reUgious The most fruitful work in exhibitingthe significance
experiencewith experienceas a whole, and because, of religionfor social ethics and of social ethics for
in general,it deals with its material
like philosophy
religionhas been done in the sphere of Christian
from the standpoint of fact and
generalsphere of
in a twofold way
theology rather than in the more
from that of values Sciences are interested primarily the philosophy of reUgion though where this has
is
in mind that a working hypothesis
but somethingto
guide for investigation
be tested and not simply taken for granted. By
thus beginning with reUgion as a part of hunian
experience this study recognizes that religion
contains a large body of "knowledge of acquaintance."
out
data withThat is,religionsuppliesmuch
must
not

be borne

only

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Photius

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

occurred the spiritand method

of the philosophy
have been employed. This is doubtless
of religion
natural enough in view
of the extent to which
itself a reUgion in which
Christianityhas proven
rehgion and ethics interpenetrate. At all events
it is in the relation between rehgion and social ethics
that the important theses which
affirm the significance
of religion
for human
development to be its
will need to find their
"fertihty"and "creativity"

testingand

possiblevindication.

AND

ETHICS

(Bayly; Baxter;

Arndt;

338

Luther; Scriptures)

quickened his hfe and deepened his convictions.

As pastor in Frankfort
he held conventicles in his
house
(Collegia pietatis)for devotion, bibHcal
exposition and rehgious conversation.
In
1675
he pubUshed his Pia Desideria ("Things
Religiously
desires for reform
Desirable"). These
included
conventicle Bible study, the revival of the priesthood
9f beUevers,the practice of Christianity
in
of theological
dailyhfe,the vitahzing
education and

The

fact that the philosophy of religion

has as its
more
spiritualpreaching. Prolonged controversy
primary task the study of rehgion in its empirical ensued.
Spener's leadership
ended
only with his
and in its relation to the other great dedeath.
nature
partments
of experience,
rather than the study of
2. Francke.
Two disciples,
Francke
(q.v.)and
the elimination of
Anton, driven from Leipzigfor lecturingon the
metaphysics, does not mean
from
the
the philosophy of religionor
became
metaphysics
teachers in Halle, henceforth
Scriptures,
of metaphysics as a negligiblematter.
the citadel of Pietism
treatment
in northern
Germany.
Francke
It means,
the contrary, that metaphysics gains
established an orphanage as an expression
on
of practicalChristianity.
in importanceby being considered in relation to a
The
movement
spread
thence to Wurttembergj
body of religioustruth that^already has been
Switzerland and Denmark.
the impulse to foreign missions
grounded. The philosophyof religious Thence also came
empirically
experience is no less vitallyconcerned about the
(Ziegenbalg),
1705, eventuating in the work
of
problemsof God, freedom, and immortality in their Zinzendorf (q.v.)and the Moravians.
3. Contributions: later history.Apart
from
metaphysicalaspects, or about the problems of
emphases already noted Pietism contributed
purposiveness in the universe and the ultimate
to
form of pure
physics.
metaof being than is any
nature
rehgious
education,
preaching and pastoralministry.
Its only scientific contribution was
It is no less in earnest about the question
in the field
of exegesis. Its disparagementof intellectualism
than about the question of
of the realityof God
led to its overthrow
But it bases the study of
the meaning of God.
in the Enhghtenment
(q.v.).
It revived again, greatlymodified, in the 19th,
God's reaUty upon
a priorstudy of his meaning in
Henry
H. Walker
experience. However, after having identified itself century.
the philosophyof rehgion is
this method
with
the question of the realityof
ACTS
bound
OF." An
to pursue
PILATE,
apocryphal work
contained
center of our
in the so-called Gospel of Nicodemus,
God from the empirical
thought to its
farthest speculative circumferences. The
purporting to record the official acts of Pontius
study
his objective realityin
of the reaUty of God
Pilate,the Judaean
under
whom
Jesus
governor
Christ was
in
crucified. Its probable date is the
history,
personaland social experience,in human
4th. century.
in the sphere of ultimate metaphysical
the cosmos,
inclusive task
the most
thus becomes
existence
PILGRIMAGE.
A journey made
the one
that
of the philosophy of religionand
to a shrine
sacred
to the fullest possiblesynthesisof
or
the way
place from
The
religious motives.
opens
is one
Eugene
W. Ltman
truth.
custom
practiced for many
centuries by
religious
the devotees
of several religions.Among
the
ancient Greeks the temple of Zeus at Olympia was
stantinople,
PHOTIUS
(ca. 820-891)." Patriarch of Conthe resort of many
and 878-886; a man
of great
858-867
pilgrims. In ancient Egypt the
tomb
of the Kings, regarded as Osiris' tomb, at
and
erudition
versatility.His jurisdictionwas
of rival claimants
and
venerated
a
as
quarrels Abydos was
holy sepulchre and
stormy because
Nicholas anathematizing pilgrimage resort.
From
with Rome, he and pope
pre-Christiantimes the
and excommunicating each other.
peoples of_India have regarded pilgrimages as
and Hindus stillgo in multitudes to
pious practices,
such places as Benares and Puri.
PHYLACTERIES."
(Hebrew, tefillin.)Small
Buddhists, too,
had their sacred resorts to which pilgrimages
soon
boxes worn
They are square,
by Jews at prayer.
made
such as the birthplace
were
of Gautama
made
of leather,and contain parchment on which
written the Scripturepassages: Exod. 13:1-16;
(Kapilavastu),the location of the bo-tree where
are
he attained Buddhahood
To the phylacand Deut. 6:4-9; and 11:13-21.
teries
(Benares),and the place
where
he attained Nirvana
fastened long stripsof leather,by means
are
(Kusinagara). Early
in Christian historythe custom
of which they are bound, one on the left arm, and
of pilgrimages
arose
forehead. Phylacteries are
to places made
the
sacred by memories
the
other
of Jesus such
on
and Jerusalem.
With
the developas Bethlehem
worn
by orthodox Jews during the daily morning
ment
of ascetic tendencies pilgrimagesincreased to
service,as a sign that God's word is upon them;
Sabbath
and holy days, placesin Palestine.
Then the custom
but they are not worn
on
of pilgrimages
to the tombs
of martyrs and saints began in the
these days are in themselves
"signs." Reform
as
west
in the 3rd. century.
Relics were
Jews have generallydiscontinued their use.
transported
Harold
F. Reinhart
to various
of resorts increased.
places and the number
various
used
of
In the Middle
movements
PIETISM.
A term
Ages Rome
began to
in modern
The
resort.
as
a
Christianityemphasizing the personal, rival Jerusalem
prescriptionof
for sins stimulated the pracpilgrimagesas penance
spiritualand practicalas against the institutional,
tice.
intellectual aspects of the Christian
The attachment
of indulgencesto the various
formal and
of a movement
further stimulus.
resorts
Crusades
The
was
a
reUgion. It is used specifically
due to the necessityof protectingpilwithin German
Lutheranism, late 17th. and 18th.
(q.v.)were
grims
doxy.
when the Holy Land passed into non-Christian
by orthocenturies,to revitalize a faith deadened
hands.
In the 19th. century a revival of pilgrimages
Pietism
in two places associated with devotion to
was
1. Spener. The real founder of German
seen
was
PhiUp Spener (1635-1705). His home training the Virgin Mary, Lourdes, France, and Knock,
Ireland.
In Islam the hajj pilgrimage to Mohammed's
was
deeply religious.His years of study (M.A.
contacts
birthplaceat Mecca is one of the principal
1664), his human
1653, Dr. Theol.
(Schmidt; de Labadie) and his reUgious reading institutions of that faith.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

339

PILGRIMS."

In

the

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

17th.

early days of the

century, in the hamlets of Austerfield and Scrooby,

Elngland, and in the surrounding country, "yere

AND

ETHICS

PITAKAS."
This
term, meaning
is given to the divisions of the Buddhist
See Canon
(Buddhist).

Piyyut

"baskets,"

Scriptures.

of simple folk who

were
number
separatists,
church and
spiritsof ancestors in the folkbelievingin the rightto found their own
PITRIS.-;-The
cult of India.
their own
worship by the light of the
They receive the benefit of the
to form
of
leaders
William
the
shrdddha ceremonies
of the home.
was
See Shraodha;
Scriptures. One
of education,and when the Scrooby
Pinda; Preta.
Brewster,a man
led by John
church
formed, in 1606, it was
was
PIUS.
of ten popes.
^The name
But the
Robinson, an able and high-minded man.
Pius I."Fope, 141-154.
not suffer these people to
state authorities would
hunted
and persecuted so
Pius II.
Pope, 1458-1464; otherwise known
live in peace; they were
Silvius. Before
to use
of
Aeneas
the words
his elevation to the
as
afflictions,
that their former
tion,
wards
participatedin diplomatic service; afterWilliam Bradford, in History of Plymouth Plantapapacy,
he was a good statesman, his primary effort
"were but as flea bitingsin comparison of these
them."
Thus
beset and
which
came
being the co-ordination of European Christendom
now
upon
He was a humanist
and author
against the Turk.
tormented "by a joynte consente they resolved to
of many
works,
they heard was
goe into ye Low-Countries, where
Pius ///."Pope, Sept.22-Oct. 18, 1503,
of Religion for all men."
freedome
They therefore
Piu^ /F." Pope, 1559-1565; reassembled the
dam
(1608),livingfirst at Amsterescaped to Holland
council of Trent, 1562 after a recess
of ten years,
and thence moving to Leyden. But they
in securing statements
and succeeded
which
served
conthere, though they
could not be quite content
Catholic
traditions and
to have
papal authority
prosperedin religionand property,
seem
for greater local freedom.
"most heavie to be borne"
He
their sorrows
against demands
for among
a

"

"

of their children
the fact "that many
into dangerous courses."
drawn
away
to the New
World,
They planned then to move
of those vast and unpeopled countries of
to "some
America, which are frutful and fitt for habitation."
"So," says Bradford, "they lefte that goodly and
which had been their restingplace
pleasante citie,
they were
pilgrimes
12 years; but they knew
near
those things,but fiftup
on
and looked not much
their eyes to the heavens, their dearest cuntrie
and quietedtheir spirits." The VirginiaCompany
of London
granted the Pilgrims right to settle
within the limits of the Company's territory. But,
all the world knows, when
they sighted land
as
from Plymouth, England, in the
their voyage
on
bleak days of early winter
(November 9, 1620),
but the
not the coast south of the Hudson
it was
region of Cape Cod that lay before them.
outside the region of the
Because
they were
Virginia Company, where they had authority to
discontent
among
settle,and because there was
of the
them," they
"some
strangers amongst
entered into the famous
Mayflower Compact. On
of the
the basis of this compact, the government
httle colony developed. The
Pilgrims first went
of them
harbor; so one
ashore at Provincetown
11
landed at or near the site of Plymouth, December
December 21 new
old style,
style,1620.
or
A. C. McLaughlin
(Hebrew.) Dialectical study of the
PILPUL.
A method, popular with the Rabbis, for
Law.
minutely studying a text, determining all the
deducing from it all
concepts it includes, and
was

were

....

"

possible implications.
The cake of flour or rice offeredas food
in the religious
ceremonies of
ancestral spirits

PINDA.
to the

"

in India.

the home

in
A religiousguide in the mystic way
PIR.
is used in India to designatea
term
The
Islam.
similar to the guru
religiousdirector of Moslems
See Shaikh; Guru.
of Hinduism.
"

A council held in 1409

OF."
PISA, COUNCIL
reforms in the R.C.
for the purpose of establishing
church and in particularto settle the Great Schism
which since 1378 had resulted in succession of two
without
Council
The
rival popes.
deposing the
and Benedict
rival popes
two
(Gregory XII. in Rome
XIII. in Avignon) proceeded to elect a third,
The schism and proposals of reform
Alexander
V.
referred to another general
thus comphcated were
council.
See Constance, Council
of.

revived the Inquisition

and published
edition
a new
of the Index.
Pius
V.
and a
Pope, 1566-1572; a monk
vigorous reformer; a promoter of the Inquisition
and arch-enemy of heresy and infidelity;
ized
organthe Congregation of the Index for the purpose
of eradicatingheresy.
Pius
7/." Pope, 1775-1799,
Pius
F//." Pope,
1800-1823,
during the
years of Napoleon's ascendancy in Europe, Signed
the Concordat
later humiUated
(q.v.) but was
by Napoleon. He survived to see the Emperor's
fall,the restoration of the papal States and of the
Jesuits,the resuscitation of the Inquisitionand
of the French
the repeal of much
anti-Catholic
"

legislation.
Pius F///." Pope, 1829-1830.
Pius IX."
Pope, 1846-1877; an
unusually
long and extremely important period for the papacy.
In 1848 a revolution broke out in Italyand Pius was
driven from Rome, but in 1850 he returned by the
His
aid of foreign armies.
subsequent pohcy
estranged the Italians and convinced the European
of his incapacity
as
a ruler.
Consequently
powers
in the revolution
of 1866-1870
he received no
manuel,
aid, and lost the papal states to king Victor Emthus ending the temporal power
of the
Pius
ardent
was
ultramontanist,
an
papacy.
Catholicism,
to Romanize
In 1854
doing much
he promulgated by papal authority the dogma of
the Immaculate
Conception of the Virgin Mary,
thus exercisingsupreme
authority without calling
In 1862 he pubhshed his famous Syllabus
a council.
(q.v.),
describingand condemning modern erroneous
his policy crowned
by
doctrines,and in 1870 saw
of papal infallibility
the dogma
decreed by the
Vatican Council.
Pius Z." Pope 1903-1915.
During his pontificate
occurred the separationof church and state in
France
(1905), and the increased power of the
of Spain in controHing ecclesiastical
government
dencies,
to eliminate liberal tenaffairs. He acted officially
publishing in 1907 the famous Encyclical
letter against
Modernism
(q.v.),
PIXY.

"

fairy or elf-Uke creature of English

folklore,
PIYYUT.
ish
(Hebrew; plural,myyutim.) A Jewrecited in adaition to the regular
liturgical
poem,
liturgy on holy days and certain Sabbaths,and
The piyyutim are nearly countless
specialoccasions.
and vary according to the different
in number
"

Placaeus

or

Placeus,Joshua

DICTIONARY

OF

rituals. They date from various times duringthe

later periods. Their
authors
talmudic and
are

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

340

and being eternal and immortal.

Therefore if man
would fulfilhis best nature and attain to happiness,
the
he niust live in the world of ideas.
famous
called
most
But man's soul
payyetanim. Among
consists of three parts: the rational,
Eleazar ben Kalir and Saadia Gaon
of these were
the passionate,
and the appetitiouselements.
When
of the 10th. century.
rules
reason
the other parts, the man
is virtuous;but if passion
PLACAEUS
or
(1596- and appetite hold sway over
PLACEUS,
JOSHUA
reason, he is vicious.
under
Man, therefore,must five,
so far as possible,
1655). Professor of theologyat Saumur, France.
the guidance of reason, that is to say, in the world
He
objected to the theory of the imputation of
of ideas, and he must
resist the body, in which
sin to the human
Adam's
race, contending that
The
in the depravity passion and
appetite manifest themselves.
originalsin consists exclusively
Adam.
reasoningpart of the soul has an intuitivelongingfor
inherited from
His doctrine
was
demned
conthe world of ideas. He then is the true philosopher
by the Reformed church of France.
who neglectsbodilypleasure,and lives in the realm
of ideas,in the world of the Beautiful and the Good.
PLACET."
(Latin:"it pleases.") Formal state
Plato secured a rational basis for morality;
sanction to the promulgation of ecclesiastical administrative Thus
his ethical interest was
where the church is subordinate
and permeated
paramount
measures
all his thought.
It was
established in France in 1475.
to the state.
Evil.
The
of evil in the world
stiU retain the custom.
states
source
Certain
Plato
German
to have sought in the imperfection of the
R.C. church never
The
acknowledgedits seems
oflacially
material substratum from which individual objects
vaUdity.
are
brought into being by the imposition of the
An ancient
SONG."
CHANT
formulated
PLAIN
it, but he never
perfectideas upon
or PLAIN
clearlyhis beUef on this point.
composed without
type of ecclesiastical music
Transmigrationof souls. From the Orphicsand
rhythmic regularity,and using ancient "modes"
of
freedom
scales. Great
of modern
Pythagoreans he took the doctrine of the transmigration
instead
of souls:
for the ordinary soul ten
melody is in
expression is thus possible. The
between
See Music
Religion.
rebirths,with a thousand
unison.
and
rebirths,
years
needed
to complete the round
before the
were
soul could re-enter
its heavenly home; incurable
PLATONISM."
PLATO
AND
losopher,
Plato,the phisinners might not return to earth at all,but were
the greatestof Socrates' pupils. He was
condemned
to eternal punishment; the souls of
in 428-27 B.C. of an ancient family,
bom
at Athens
philosophers,if they always chose the higher Ufe,
attached himself to Socrates in his twentieth year,
release after three
until
might secure
and was
rebirths,and
closelyassociated with the master
to God.
ttien return
After this event, Plato
his execution in 399 b.c.
The state.
Plato's concept of the ideal state,as
for about
twelve years,
Athens
absent from
was
set forth in the RepubUc, is that of an
institution
first in Megara, and later in southern
Italyand
of society,one
in which
the
sophic for the education
Sicily. Returning to Athens, Plato opened a philowhich he presidedfor about forty
school over
trained,the philosophers,shall rule;
scientifically
below them are to be the officialsand warriors who
years, until his death in 347 B.C.
know
the laws; and
-^Oi Plato's lectures we
1. Writing.
tically are to protect the state and execute
pracof the citizens are
to provide for the
have
today forty-two the mass
nothing; but we
needs
of all. This triple organization,
material
dialoguesand twelve letters which pass under his
like the three parts of the human
of the dialogues seven
were
recognized in
soul,works perfectly
name;
when
all work under the direction of reason,
scholars have
antiquity as spurious,and modern
of the philosophers. In his old age Plato, in
the authenticityof many
attacked
i.e.,
others; most
the Laws, somewhat
modified this aristocraticand
of the letters are certainlyforgeries.
doctrinaire concept.
The kernel of the Platonic philosophy
2. Ideas.
Later history. After Plato's death the Academy
oped
is the doctrine of ideas (forms) which Plato develcontinued as a philosophicschool without
from the teaching of his master, under the
ruption
interuntil the closingof the Schools by the edict
influence of the Pythagorean doctrine of numbers.
In the course
be briefly
stated
of Justinian in 529.
of the centuries
The matured Platonic doctrine may
modified by the teaching of other
thus: the world is dual,consistingof the transient, the doctrine was
schools,and itself had a profound influence. In
phenomenal world known to us through our senses,
which
the eclectic philosophiesof Alexandria,Platonism
and
the permanent, invisible world
can
The latter is the
the
be grasped only by the reason.
usually the largestelement; it formed
was
of Neoplatonism (q.v.),and through
relation between
the two
substratum
The
of ideas.
world
worlds is illustratedby Plato himself at the beginning
Origen and later through Augustine it passed into
Cliffokd H. Moore
Chnstian theology.
of the tenth book of his Republic. There
Socrates'
to
assents
Glaucon
proposition that
beds and tables in the
See Happiness.
PLEASURE."
although there are many
world, there is only one idea of bed and one of
makes
PLENARY
An ecclesiastical
COUNCIL."
the workman
table.
Now
a bed or a table
coimcil,attended by all the bishops of a country or
by fashioningfrom his material a copy of the
This idea is not the invention of the
nation,hence "full" in every requisite.
proper idea.
it is in the mind of God; it belongs
cabmet-maker
So everywhere
PLOTINUS
(205-270)." Neo-Platonic
to the rational and eternal world.
losopher
phibehind
who
studied in Alexandria,
find behind the things of sense, and
Egypt and
we
less permanent
His
and relations no
ideas, in Persia and estabUshed a school in Rome.
qualities
know
them
is to
which
system was a recrudescence of Platonic philosophy
represent reality. To
the ideas there
coupled with religiousmysticism. See Neopossess real knowledge. Within
Platonism.
various grades, the higher comprehending the
are
lower; the highest of all is the idea of the Good,
PLURALISM."
The theory that realitycannot
which is also the Beautiful,God.
be explained in terms
of a singleprincipleor substance
reason
can
hend
apprePsychology. Since man's
be of like
of
the ideas, Plato argues it must
(Monism) but consists in a number
with
nature
them, partaking of the Absolute, irreduciblefactors.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

341
The

universe

Atomists

in ancient Greece

RELIGION

OP

DICTIONARY

conceived the

complicated system of relations and

AND

nobility at

ETHICS

fithicsof
Politics,

Geneva, Strasburg, and

Wittenberg.

Calvinistic Protestantism

found
in Johannes
k
Lasco
an
indefatigable
organizer (1556- 11560).
till 1570 did Polish Protestants
Not
(Lutherans;
and
Moravian
Reformed; Bohemian
Brethren)
form what proved an ineffectualunion (Consensus
of Sendomir). Servetus' (q.v.)death, 1553, led to
exodus of Italian Antitrinitarian refugeesfrom
an
Switzerland to Poland.
The
Pax dissidentium,
a
made
it posroyal guarantee of religious
and real evils.
toleration,
sible
for Faustus Socinus to bringAnti-trinitarianism
either polytheism
ReUgiously pluralismmeans
to ascendancy, 1579-1604.
or else the conception of a finite God, since other
3. The
affirmed
to have
the
are
an
beings and substances
Counter^Reformation. Meantime
Smith
Counter
Gerald
Birney
Reformation, under
aggressive Jesuit
independent existence.
leadership,
rapidlydeveloped. Protestants suffered
BRETHREN."
A popular desigPLYMOUTH
nation severe
persecutionunder Sigismund III (1586-1632)
Socinianism
of Christians in
driven out by 1658.
of independent groups
was
EvangeUcal
Christianity,though sorely oppressed,survived
England and Ireland in the early 19th. century,
The
movement
"Brethren."
the partitions
of Poland
(1772-1795).
calhng themselves
4. Present
situation. Roman
Catholicism is
representeda protest against the secularization
Of some
allbut universal.
thirteen million populaof reUgion through the intimate relation of church
tion
effort
in Russian-Poland
in 1913, 5.3 per cent were
a
spontaneous
and state, together with
New
Of
basted on
ment
Testathe three and
communion
for a "spiritual
Protestant,mostly Lutheran.
milUon
three-fourths
population of Prussianprinciples."
in Dublin, led by A. N.
about
31 per cent, and West
In 1827 "Brethren"
Poland, Posen was
Prussia 46 per cent, Protestant.
In Austrian-Poland
Groves, J. G. Bellett,and J. N. Darby, "broke
bread" together. Growing skepticism regarding (Gahcia), out of about eight million population,
Protestant.
United Poland which
some
the doctrine,disciphne,and raison d'etre of the
37,000 were
Establishment,a growing conviction of the spiritual has emerged out of the War includes,all told,some
79.4 per cent are
Catholic
to creeds,together
of the church,repugnance
nature
30,000,000,of whom
ideas acquired
with ultra propheticand premillenarian
(Roman, Greek, Uniate), 12 per cent Jewish, 6.6
dents,
through contact with the Irvingites(see per cent Protestant,and 2 per cent Russian DissiArmenians
and Mohammedans.
Irving) led to the holding of the firet pubUc
The
of
Henry
H. Walker
success
"assembly" in 1830, in Dublin.
POLEMIC
THEOLOGY."
An
Nelson
John
exposition of
Darby (1800-1882) in estabhshing a
Christian doctrine especially
intended to refute the
in Plymouth, Eng. (1831),raised him
congregation
allegederrors of other systems.
to a positionof unquestionedleadership (hence
Polemic
apologetics
Darbyites). He combined
Theology differs from
Plymouth Brethren:
forms
learning and personalmagnetism with unflagging (q.v.)in that it is concerned with erroneous
of belief rather than with skeptical
His labors resulted
or
irreUgious
zeal and rigorous asceticism.
nent,
philosophies. It attempts to vindicate one type
in the establishment of congregationson the Contiof Christianity
in French Switzerland (1838-1840). of theolo^as the true interpretation
especially
unchecked
Intense individualism
by ecclesiastical and to discredit all divergingtypes. It is most
prominent when it is assumed that there is only
together with a growing egotismand
organization,
authorized
form
of Christianity but where
one
dogmatism on the part of Darby led, m 1848, to
exist for suppressing rival sects.
no
Other divisions have taken place from
legal means
divisions.
Thus during the firstthree centuries of Christianity
time to time, the absence of ecclesiastical authority
With the full organizapolemic treatises abounded.
tion
making it easy for protesting groups to secede.
be
of the Catholic church, erroneous
beliefs were
doctrine that aU religiousactivity must
The
ation
suppressedas heresies. In Protestantism,polemical
directlyguidedby divine influence leads to a deprecition.
theologyagain came to the front in post-reformation
of education and of carefully
plannedorganizaand
continues
to the present in those
rivalries,
Development is thus left to God's initiative
bodies which claim exclusive possession
of authorized
to man's
planning. In the United
rather than
Christian doctrine.
Dunng the 17th. century
States there are (1919) 13,717 adherents.
Henry
H. Walker
polemic theology was defined as a distinct branch
of theologicalstudy. Its importance has waned
See Macedonianism.
PNEUMATOMACHI.
co-operationhave
as the ideals of toleration and
IN." 1. Early history. gained the sympathy of Christian people.
CHRISTIANITY
POLAND,
Gerald Birney Smith
Duke
Mieczyslaw'smarriage to a Bohemian
POLITICS, ETHICS
OF.-^The term is used
princess(966)led to his baptism and the introduction
The close connection
in a variety of connections
to indicate the relation
of Christianityinto Poland.
to ethical standards
of Poland with Germany, however, resulted in the
(1) of individuals engaged in
model.
of the church after the Roman
politics;or (2) of groups, such as political
parties
organization
of the state itself.
or (3) finally
968, and
The first bishopric,Posen, was estabUshed
involved
ceses,
dio1. In the firstconnection,the questions
the archbishopricof Gnesen, embracing seven
of heathenism
the
on
The persistence
are
properly those of individual ethics. The^
1025.
tical
comprise such problems as, how far a citizen is
one
hand, and of Greek traditions involvingecclesiasas opresponsiblefor good government, and on the other
posed
independence,and of national aspirations
of officialsin
and papaldomination on the other, hand, questions as to the conduct
to German
in the
Clerical
resulted in turmoil tillthe 16th. century.
handling pubUc funds or in filling
positions
faction,
public service. The ultimate issue is usuallythat
immoralityproducingwidespreadpopular dissatisof how far the individual acts with a disinterested
with
combined
a
vigorous Renaissance
view to public welfare.
Undoubtedly the general
pared
spiritinspiredfrom both Italyand Germany prefor the Reformation.
tone of morality has been lower with reference to
the way
public property than with reference to private
2. The
period of the Reformation. Calvinism
Lutheranism
Great
entered
Little Poland, and
property, due, perhaps, to the fact that the public
of the
does not consider
less personaland
one
seems
Poland
through the education of sons
as

interference of an infinite
movements
due
In
of
number
quantitativelydistinct atoms.
has advocated
times Professor William James
modern
a pluralistic
philosophyin oppositionto the
explanations.
artificiahtyof supposed monistic
for more
exact
is made
He holds that thus room
freedom
scientific inquiry as well as for real human
to

the

"

"

"

"

"

Ethics
Politics,

of

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

342

needs of modem
direct personalinjuryupon
a
societycan be better met through
as
inflicting
other
humanizing the state or through recognizing
by being careless or even dishonest. It is
that there has been on the whole a gain
agencies of community organization,even
the
as
probable
has for some
time had recognitionas a
Church
of pubhc morality in this first sense.
in standards
has the stamp of group morality.
2. Party politics
separateand largelyindependentbody.
H. Tufts
James
Acts done for the group are felt to be excusable,
POLYANDRY.
A system of marriage by which
and even
praiseworthy,which would be condemned
for purely privategain. Party strife is
has a plurahty of husbands; pracif done
woman
one
tised
felt to warrant abuse of candidates from the oppocertain primitivepeoplesas the Todas,
site
among
of money
Koorgs and Nairs of India,and in parts of Africa and
party, the expenditureof huge sums
Australasia.
to influence public opinion (although the grosser
form of money
briberyis less frequent),and the
of pubhc
POLYCARP."
manipulation of public issues and filling
Bishop of Smyrna, about 107-17,
to the church at Phihppi a letter of Christian
wrote
offices with a view to partisanadvantage rather
the
than
to
admonition, sending with it such letters
thoroughly
public welfare. The
of Ignatius as he could procure.
On
his return
devoted
of course, would not admit any
partisan,
distinction between
public welfare and the victory from a visit to Anicetus at Rome, he suffered
of his party. In this second use of the term, there
martyrdom at Smyrna probably in a.d. 155, at the
has been, if not an improvement in the spirit,
a
age of 86, as related in the Martyrdom of Polycarp,
considerable refinement in the methods.
Perhajjs the earliest acts of martyrdom extant. Irenaeus
describes Polycarp as acquainted, probably as a
the most difficultquestionat the present time is
with John the disciple
of the Lord.
that of the morality of influencingpubhc opinion pupil,

himself
anyone

"

throughthe

press and

byother

means

employed in

POLYGAMY
The
POLYGYNY."
social
or
party strategy. Discussion and argument is of
method
of reaching a pubhc
the proper
order under
which
has a plurahty of
course
man
one
for influencing wives.
but the most effective means
Various religions
in the matter.
decision,
are specific
cussion,Islam permits four wives.
to be, not argvunent or disHinduism
allows any
pubhc opinion seems
under the form of news
but what appears
number.
Judaism
and Christianity
are
opposed to
is intended to shape opinion
Mormonism
the custom.
or other material which
(q.v.)permitted a modem
without encountering the oppositionwhich a prowhich is discredited in the
fessed resuscitation of a custom
best moral thinkingof today.
argument would meet.
of the term is with
3. The most
significant
use
POLYGLOT
BIBLES."
and conduct of states
reference to the standards
Books
giving versions
far are
The
states
such.
of the Bible in different languages in parallel
questionis: How
as
ethics?
of individual
first known
The
columns.
subject to the standards
example is Origen's
of these standards.
War
obviously violates many
O.T., and five Greek
Hexapla, giving the Hebrew
vexed
issue. Ought
afford another
Treaties
a
parallels.In modern
missionarywork, polyglot
editions are frequent.
government to continue to respect a treaty when
entered
have
conditions
changed since it^was
POLYTHEISM."
The hypothesisof a plurahty
Individuals are expected at times to prefer
into?
tage.
of gods, usually conceived anthropomorplucally.
the interests of others to their own
privateadvanMacchiathis be expected of states?
Can
PONTIANUS."
velh opened this discussion for the modern world
Pope, 230-258.
^

in his essay,

"The

Prince"

which

examined

the

by which a government might maintain

of moral scruples. Hobbes
sidered
conitself irrespective
the state to be the authorityrather than the
subject in the sphere of right. In recent times
means

the relation of the so-called civilizedstates to the

"backward"
peoples has been a difficult ethical
problem. Imperialism was no doubt entered upon
with no ethical purpose, but the question whether
the rulingpower mightmorally exploitthe subject
people,or whether it was bound to govern them
bound to become
acute.
for their advantage,was
makes
Treitschke
a vigorous argument that since
for the purpose
of power,
the state is an organization
for the realization
justas the family is an organization
be
of love, so the ethics of the state must
determined
question as to
by the fundamental
willstrengthenor
whether
a given hue of conduct
The geneticpoint of view would
diminish power.
point out that the state has both the merits and
difficulties of all group
morality, but in a very
tion,
intense degree. Patriotism enlists the finest devooften been enlisted for purbut it has more
of
of slaughterand crime than for purposes
eneficence.
Moreover, like other corporate bodies,
the actual state seeks certain abstract ends and
end
although Aristotle
not a completely human
for the reahzaconsidered the state as the medium
tion of men's
complete hfe, and Hegel similarlv
of God in the world."
spoke of it as the "march
at the expense of service,
It has emphasized power

Eoses

"

and has been conspicuous in the militarysphereor

At the
in the negative work of preventing crime.
present time the problem is whether the manifold

COLLEGE."
In ancient Rome
which
entrusted
the
was
adnunistration of the law with reference to religion
The
as
a
authority of the college
public matter.
centered in the pontifexmaximus, the other priests
Religion.
forming an advisory board. See Roman

PONTIFICAL

the

collegeto
priestly

MASS."
In the
the celebrant is a
in which
robes.
pontifical

PONTIFICAL

mass

R.C.

church,

bishop

in his

PONTIFICALIA."
robes of a pontiffor

The
msignia and
bishop.

POOR
LAWS.
rehef for poverty.

^Legislationproviding pubhc

"

official

of the poor in the

basis of public care
States
is the
law.
The
English poor
of 1601 codified forty years of legislation
statute
which
made the state rather than the church the
for public charity. Its provisions were
agency
in
Overseers
well adapted to rural conditions.
each parishwere
charged with the care of the poor
Ablerate.
with
the raising of the poor
and
to be punished;
bodied men
unwillingto work were
to receive relief,
those unable to work were
ably
preferto be
in almshouses,dependent children were
The
United

apprenticed.
The socialand economic changes of the industrial
too complex for this simple system
revolution were
of supplementing
custom
of parish charity. The
with
of able-bodied workers
an
the low wages
for grave
fund made
from
the poor
allowance

343

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Positivism

John 21 : 21 ff.)
Luke 22: 31 ff.,
tremendous
increase in pauperism.
who,
(Matt. 16: IS ff.,
a
it claims,affixedhis apostoUc authority to the see
An
investigationby a royal commission in 1834
of Rome, where he died.
which
To be elected bishop of
resulted in legislation
provided for (a) a
tion
is to become
Peter's successor
Rome
and (b)the formaor
central board of administration
Pope. In
almshouses
the early centuries the clergy and people of the
of unions of parishesto maintain
relief. These
reforms
administer
and
city elected their bishop. In the early Middle
brought
of outdoor relief and a
about the virtual aboUtion
Ages the "cardinal priests,""cardinal deacons,"
"cardinal bishops" of the vicinityof Rome
and
steady decline in pauperism.
tion
formed
the "sacred college"and reserved the elecIn the United States each state has its separate
of the Pope to themselves.
Since 1179 the
statute with the township or the country as the
administration.
The
of
Cardinals are required,on the death of the Pope,
unit
almshouse, the
institution for indoor poor
to enter "conclave,"shut out all external influence,
characteristicAmerican
and stay there till they elect another Pope. The
reUef,once housed aU types of dependents, orphan
minded,
Italian
of
who
Cardinal
course
children, the physically defective, the feeblepresent an
the insane,and mothers
with illegitimate receives a two-thirds vote of those present and
children.
During the 19th. century specialized accepts,is Pope. His power is direct from God and
been
institutions have
established by the state,
absolute
"to feed, rule, and teach" as "Vicar of
the
Christ"
personal,and direct over the whole church,
as children's homes, schools for the blind and
though not impairing the authority of the local
deaf, institutions for the feeble-minded, and
Vatican
Council
relief by the
(1870,
bishop or pastor. The
hospitalsfor the insane. Outdoor
of
the standards
state
has always fallen below
Pontiff,
ses.
IV, cap. 4) declared: "The Roman
when speaking ex cathedra (thatis when
functioning
privatecharitable organizations.
Recent tendencies in state control of poverty are
as
pastor and teacher of all Christians he declares
Social legislation
aims at the prevenwith his supreme
authority a doctrine of faith or
significant.
tion
be believed by the universal church)
of pauperism rather than its reUef
morals must
tion
Compensafor industrial accidents, old age
pensions, has by divine assistance promised him in blessed
which
the divine Redeemer
social insiurance,employment
bureaus, minimum
Peter the infallibility
of
in defining doctrine
illustrations of the present mode
wished
His church
to have
are
wages
of poverty.
attack by the state upon the causes
of faith and morals."
siderable
Practically,there is conE .W. Burgess
disagreement as to just when the Pope
Catholic theologians
POPE.
Pappas, an Oriental title of dignity, is speaking ex cathedra,among
who have discussed the authority of papal "syllabi"
given to Christian bishops and priests,reserved
J. N. Reagan
Church
since the 5th. century for
since 1870.
in the Western
the Bishop of Rome.
of an
POSEIDON.
A fertility
In the Christian literature of Donutian's
reign
Aryan
power
Church's
became
entered
Greece
who
formed
transthere is already discernible the Roman
tribe which
into a sea-god and symbol of sea power when
presumption of authority, concerning itself with
established on the coast.
In
other churches.
his worshippers were
Pope Victor (189-198) exercises
blended
with
the numen
this authority,and St. Irenaeus asserts it. Nor is
Roman
religionhe was
Tertulhan
it sarcasm
only when
(De picdicitia, of springsand rivers,Neptunus.
Blessed Pope,
Most
217 A.D.) alludes to "The
ca.
A term
THEOLOGY."
POSITIVE
indicating
Bishop of Bishops, Pontifex Maximus"; especially
rest on
art
doctrines which
"positive" revelation in
basing that claim on Matt. 16: 18 ff.,"Thou
contrast to the supposedly "negative" conclusions
during
Peter," etc. Ecclesiastical appeals to Rome
Aurelian in the Antiochene
of rational or liberal religious
the 3rd. century
speculation.
even
rationaUstic
with
1. In controversy with deistic or
schism sided with the party "in communion
the
the Bishop of Rome";
Constantinople'sattempt
writers, certain theologians characterized
authoritative doctrines drawn
from Scripthe primacy of "Old
to usurp
ture
Rome," and the
definite,
term
has continued to be
attitude of the Popes in the struggle between
as "positive."The
in opposition to
"destructive"
Constantinople and Alexandria, manifest that the
generally used
criticism.
attaininga positionsecond only to the
Popes were
of the 20th. century, a
2. In the early years
Emperor's.After the fallof the Western Empire (476)
Rudolf
of German
as well as reUgious
theologians,of whom
they assumed the lead in political
group

abuses and

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

saved
civiUzation from
utter
Roman
Leo I.
destruction
by the "wandering nations."
(d. 461) and Gregory I. (d. 604) extended their
power as well as their dominion, the "Patrimonium
Petri,"which was fast growing by pious legaciesof
landed property into the "States of the Church."
the Carlovingians, the Popes of the
Supporting
with the Emperors
Middle
Ages clasped hands
ally,
in uplifting
Europe intellectually,
morally,materiwhile
socially,religiously,
they mutually
interests. "Investitures,
their own
advanced
"nepotism" and other clashes could not prevent
in Innocent
III.
the papacy
attaining supremacy
and
affairs,

the most
prominent, advocated a
Seeberg was
"modern-positive"theology as the great need of the
This theology was
to be thoroughly scientific
age.
tianity
to set forth Chrisand methods, but was
in its spirit
"positive" religionof supernatural
a
as
redemption, not indeed in crude conceptions,but as
confessingthat reUgion
a cultured faith implying and
rather than a mere
is something given by God
human
development. PrincipalP. T. Forsyth, in
Mind
his book Positive Preaching and the Modem
is an Englishexponent of the position.
Gerald

Birney

Generally, the

Smith

tendency to
action on the facts of objective
by rising evangehcalism,
(1216-1237). Checked
discard metaphysical speculations;
Reformation, and
culminating in the German
the system of Auguste Comte
tion,
specifically,
repubUcanism,culminating in the French Revoluthe papal power
was
inwardly rehabilitated
(1798-1857).
because it
of Pius IX.
(184"-78), and
Knowledge is of value for Comte only
by the absolutism
in the material
enables us
to modify conditions
outwardly by the diplomacy of Leo XIII. (1878versallyworld and in society. For this we need to know, and
1903). The present Pope, Benedict XV., is unipolitically can know, only phenomena and their laws. Each
acknowledged as a world power
first
to maturity, discards
and morally.
well as religiously
science,as it comes
as
the start the R.C. Church has based its
From
theologicalthen metaphysical explanations, and
the prerogative of Peter
attains a positivestudy of the facts and their laws.
claim to supremacy
on
POSITIVISM.
base knowledge and
experience,and to
"

Possession,

Demoniacal

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The sciences have passed throughthese stagesin an

order of succession,
beginningwith mathematics,
the most
abstract,and passingup to sociology,
which
named
himself and
took
was
by Comte
form in his hands.
As each science contributes
to the next
higher science,the system culminates
in sociology,the whole existingfor the service of
society. If the system lacks metaphysicalimity,
it centers in the practicaland almost mystical conception
of humanity and human
Comte's
progress.
views of the coming social order, while in part

ETHICS

AND

344

is to use
the term without
meaning. As a metaphysic,it considers anything to be what it is known
to be, either actuallyor potentially. As a method,

of any
distinction to the field
it confines the use
which
the distinction is "relevant," or
within
makes a real difference;it derives the meaning of a
concept from the function which that concept performs
in thinking,and regards aU thinking as an
in understanding and controllingsituainstrument
tions.
The
has
aroused
pragmatist movement
vigorous controversy, in large degree technical,
much
with
both
fantastic,were
alleged misunderstandingon
Having discarded a
significant.
sides.
retain its
he would
supernatural basis of religion,
several more
less prevalent
2. There
force in a new
ity,
or
are
spiritual
cult,the ReUgion of Humancharacteristics
of recent
which he elaborated in detail. This was
tained
mainthinking, often quite
and several organizations beyond the limits of avowed
by a few followers,
pragmatism, which
today remain faithful to the cult. But his chief
mgLj broadly be considered phases of the pragmatist
influence has been more
due to the
tendency. They are in large measure
general,in the development
influence of the doctrine of evolution.
of sociologyon the one
hand, and on the other in
the spread of positivistic
both
lectually
inteltendencies
(1) Moral standards and rehgious doctrines are
and
regarded as growing up under specific
increasingly
religiously.The agnostic attitude
toward
ence.
experirealitybeyond the experienced order, conditions,in intimate relation to human
any
to be absolute, and
and the attempt to find rehgious satisfaction in
Thus
are
they cease
the service of society,are essentially
positivistic. relative to the conditions under which they develop.
J. F. Crawford
They are regarded as adjustments,to be adopted as
true or false so far as they prove
successful or unDEMONIACAL."
See Demoniacal.
successful
POSSESSION,
in furtheringinsight,
ness
Possession.
character,and richof experience.
that
POSTMILLENARIANISM."
The
beUef
(2) There is also an increasingwillingnessto
the visible return of Christ to the earth will come
claim for any given behef or system only provisional
at
the end of the Millennium.
See Millenarianism.
validity. Systems are regarded not as ultimate or
to
final,but as tentative approximations, open
POSTULANT.
In ecclesiastical terminology,
endless possiblerevision.
The moral and religious
ideas of today are seen
to be in the same
for admission into holy orders or into a
a candidate
genetic
is accordseries as those of earlier times; the way
ingly
monastery.
for their further growth in the
held open
POVERTY."
the way
to a comparative
future.
This also opens
Total or partial lack of means
wherewith
to secure
the necessities of Ufe.
Poverty
study of other present-day religionsand moral
has been regarded in two very different ways.
On
codes as belonging within the same
general system
the one
hand, it deprivespersons of the possibilityas our own.
the
of securing an
enrichment
of Ufe. Thus
it is
emphasis upon
"p)ractical,"
(3) Modern
viewed
evil by modern
while sometimes
social science; and
as
impatiencewith
an
a merely superficial
of the distinct social aims today is the eUminareflective forms a manifestation
one
theory,is in its more
tion of poverty.
in various
On
the other hand, the selfof the pragmatist tendency. It appears
current
modes
of expression: thinking is for the
indulgence to which persons of means
are
tempted
is seen
pensable sake of action; knowledge is in the service of life;
to be evil; and poverty is exalted as indisbe disregarded;
to
ideas that cannot
be used may
It
to God.
complete consecration
has thus been
included
in monastic vows.
See
not
logic,but outcome, is the test of truth; _we
Poor
beUeve that which in the long run givessatisfaction.
Laws; Monasticism.
Under
the operation of this motive, not only has
PRAEMUNIRE."
In
England various legal much of the content of older theology been cut
provisions to prevent the exaltation of papal
or
modified,but the place of theology as a
away
from the
whole has been re-located in relation to experience.
authority over that of the king, so named
first word
of the legal summons
served on
one
Experience is taken as authoritative in constituting
charged with loyaltyto an aUen power.
theology, rather than theology in dictating to
"

PRAGMATIC
SANCTION."
Originally a
Roman
for a state decision in some
term
juridicial
of general public concern.
matter
Later it came
to denote a royal or imperialdecree establishing
the
conditions of government in a country.
E.g.,by
the pragmaticsanction of Bourges,1438,Charles VII.
of France restricted the papal jurisdiction
in French
domains.
Other
monarchs
determined
the line
of royal succession by various pragmatic sanctions.
PRAGMATISM."
The tendencyto subordinate
the intellectual to the practical.
1. A recent movement
in reaction
in philosophy,
against the absolutist character of the ideahsm,
generallyHegeUan in type, which was prevalent a
Its
generation ago
(see Hegel, Hegelianism).
best known
WiUiam
representativesare
James,
F. C. S. Schiller,
and John Dewey.
As a theory of
knowledge, it identifies the truth of a proposition
with its verification;
to call a proposition "true"
except so far as itsassertionisknown to be justiied

experience.
(4) The pragmatisttendency has also a social
be social products.
to
seen
phase. Ideas are
They are rooted and grow in the "give and take,"
both co-operative and competitive, between
sons;
perthey are adaptations to a social environment.
course
Progressin ideas is therefore to be secured by interand
mutual
and
persuasion. Standards
beliefs are determined in the long run
by whether
lectual
good" socially.Accordingly intelthey "make
tolerance,so far as based on faith in this
democratic
play of ideas,is distinctlypragmatist
J. F. Crawford

in character.

of Creatures."
"Lord
PRAJAPATI.
appliedin early Hindu speculationto the
"

from the chaos

the world who arose
golden embryo. See Hiranyagarbha.

name

creator

of waters

in

of
a

of all
root
and
substance
The
PRAKRITI.
material thingsaccording to the Sankhya philosophy
evolves according
matter
of India. This original
"

345

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

into the phenomenal universe for

nature
to its owTi
the sake of the individual spiritswho
are
passive
drama.
To
spectators of the cosmic
give each
spiritthe knowledge that it is not reallypart of the
phenomenal world but an isolated,free soul the
evolution
of prakriti takes
whole
place. See
Sankhta.

AND

ETHICS

Prayer Books

With the growingsense

of the social nature of all
true worship,prayer tends to emphasize service and
social fellowship
central aspects of the prayeras
life.
"He prayeth best who loveth best
All things,both great and small."
"

Perhaps

other

Coleridge

modern
emphasis is so marked
PRAPATTI-MARGA."
vation as this movement
The Hindu
of salout of the individualisticto the
way
social consciousness
in prayer.
The
by a completely passive surrender to the
goal is still
irresistible grace of God.
identification with the will of God; but this tie is
It is a specialphase of
the Bhakti-mdrga (q.v.)and is popularly described
effected through human
worth and fellowshipand
the "cat- way" in contrast
with the "monkeyservice. Instead
of the crude
as
notion
of
pagan
way" since the baby monkey helps its mother to
persuadingand changing the will of God, in order
the socializedconception
to get its petitions
fulfilled,
carry it by clingingto her.
of prayer
seeks to lift the common
life up into
PRATYEKKA-BUDDHA."
An
emancipated harmony with the divine will,as in the great ethical
saint who
has attained nirvana
Christian prayer, "Thy will be done on earth as in
by centuries of
lives in an age of the
heaven."
soUtary effort through many
world when
the law is not taught by a perfect
The
conceptionof law and of a fixed natural
Buddha.
He ranks midway between
order which
the hodhisattva
characterizes the scientificconsciousness
of modern
civilization has contributed
tinct
dis(q.v.)and the arhat (q.v.). He does not become a
a
for he has not the omniscience
and
perfectBuddha
shaping influence upon religious
conceptions,
universal compassion of the hodhisattva nor does he
and has rendered untenable
the earlier ideals of
lawless demands
as
deity. Answer to
preachthe law as do the arhats yet he excels them in
prayer
upon
or
knowledge and merit.
suspension of natural
prayer as a disturbance
law gives way
to the conception of the scientific
PRAYER.
^The effort to establish intercourse
control of lifeby a deeper understandingof law. See
with the divine.
And
of law
Immanence.
the
is
same
sense
Any expressionof religiousneed
from
mood.
or
Prayer ranges
primal impulsive leadingto a profounderstudy of the psychologyor
mental laws of prayer, with a view to determining
to developed liturgies
and moral commovements
munion
with deity. Sacrifice,
fasting,laceration, just what the mind does in the experienceof union
of the prayer life.
praise,thanksgiving, with God which is the essence
penance, tribal rites;petition,
consecration are aspects of religious
Herbert
A. Youtz
self-expression,
PRAYER
BOOKS."
Compilations settingforth
or
prayer.
in
moods
find expression
The elemental religious
the order of the various religious
services,each of
the elements being given in its entirety.
two typicalforms : 1. Prayers of petitionor request.
Commonly
2. Prayers of worship or
self-expression.
Liturgy is a gradual growth, and is at first oral
these motives
are
mingled. In primitive and fluctuating. It tends to become fixed and its
is regarded as important. Thus
standardization
races
religiousfeasts,dances, crude rites or savage
of conwritten hturgieshave arisen. As a matter
venience
orgiesexpress unreflective impulses after a prayerfor worshipers books have been prepared
In
life in which
reason.
superstitiondominates
ideals
for the various services of
the higher ethnic developments the moral
givingin full the liturgies
the church and of the synagogue.
become prominent and find expressionin beautiful
Missal contains the liturgy
of the
elaborate rites,revealingthe deliberate aim to
1. The Roman
or
variations
Mass.
establish a fittingethical relation with the deity.
During the Middle Ages many
of ritual developed, but after the Council of Trent
Prayer thus has a very wide scope of meaning and
established.
is
The mass
form was
of form.
a standardized
The historyof prayer shows an evolution from the
always celebrated in Latin, but translations are
demand
of the savage,
provided for the benefit of the laity. The ordinary
superstitious,un-moral
Missal in use
to
today furnishes the layman with all
through the ascending stages of civilization,
the direction which he needs to follow inteUigently
effort to identify
oneself with
the highestspiritual
the deity in moral acts and service. From
sjiecific the services of the church and to understand the
somewhat
complicatedpracticesof the church year.
petitionsto harmony with the divine purpose is the
2. The Book of Common
direction of the growth of the prayer-consciousness;
Prayer is the service
before
There were
book of the AngUcan Church.
from external request to inner adjustment is the
of worship in
several manuals
the Reformation
with God
is the idea
law of moral growth. Union
of all great developed religions.Prayer is involved
English. The most importantwas "The Primer of
the SalisburyUse," so called because it set forth
in all worship, but the conceptionsof prayer reflect
the liturgyas it had been developed at SaUsbury.
who prays.
the stage of culture achieved by the one
Particularlyis the conception of prayer sensitively After several service books had been preparedin the
attempt to suit the liturgyto the reformed practice,
responsive to the conception of God held by the
worshipper. Rituals, postures, prayer-formulas, the prayer book of Edward VI. appeared in 1549,
made
later revised in 1552.
Several changes were
of prime imporhave aU been regardedas matters
tance.
revision in
in the next hundred
Spiritualworship tends at its best to
years until the final
book includes,together with
The
all form.
The
1662.
exalt the "spiritof prayer" over
prayer
ing
the order for dailymorning and evenideal is that all life should become
details,
many
prayer by reason
the litany,prayers and thanksgivings
of its religiousquality. Prayer is the complete
prayer,
and gospels
epistles,
functioning of life. "Pray without
ceasing." for various occasions;collects,
to be used throughout the year; the orders for the
(St.Paul.) Prayer becomes an inner moral act of
with the divine,in which the worshipper
marriage,burial
communion, baptism, confirmation,
fellowship
and
of so identifyinghimself with his
of the dead, ordination
consecration; the
has the sense
environment
that its energy co-operates with him in
catechism; the psalter(inCoverdale's translation);
and many
specialforms of prayer.
supplementingand renewing his personal ener^.
of Common
Prayer
The Christian ideal of prayer is of such union with
3. Variations of the Book
have been made in certain sections of the Episcopal
the Father, God, that life is liltedto new
levels of
In Ireland after the disestablishment of
Church.
power, peace or happiness.
_

"

no

Prayer Books

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

346

and
for the Sabbath, the three festivals,
the church
in 1870 some
revisions of an
antiprayers
the week days ; the second containingthe prayers for
sacramental
character were
made.
In the United
New
Year's Day and the Day of Atonement.
States the General Convention
of 1789 adopted the
G. Scares
Theodore
EngUsh prayer book with a number of modifications.
FOR
THE
The
PRAYER
DEAD."
It omitted the Athanasian
practiceof
Creed, about which there
has been so much
praying for the dead is a natural expressionof the
controversy; the use of the cross
desire to help the departed. The earliest expression
made
in baptism was
also the
optional, as was
of food and drink at the
of this desire is the offering
of the words
"He
into hell" in
descended
use
Abode
When
the ideas of gods and
revised in the
an
the Creed; the marriage ceremony
was
grave.
however,
of the Dead
have once
interest of modern
of verbal
emerged in a religion,
taste; and a number
the early practicefalls into disuse and the
introduced.
changes were
4. The PresbyterianBook of Common
livingmake direct appeal to God for the dead as for
Prayer.
themselves.
The Scottish reformers at firstused the prayer book
It is especially
developed in religions
where
the concept of an
of Edward
VI. until the liturgyto which the name
intermediary state or
of helping the
is attached,was
introduced
in 1562.
of John Knox
purgatory suggests the possibility
tianity,
dead to a higher state of existence (Judaism, ChrisThis was
an
adaptation of the form used by the
It includes the forms of
Tibet). In ancient Egypt the prayer has
Enghsh church at Geneva.
the qualityof a magical spell. Zoroastrian religion
morning and evening prayer, of baptism, of the
has a set ritual for funeral services and festivals in
Lord's Supper, of marriage and of the visitation of
which the livingmake
confession on behalf of the
ecclesiastical
the sick, together with
numerous
dead and pray to Sroasha, the Angel of Death and
directions.
At
after the Restoration to secure
In the endeavor
Judgment for the future bliss of the deceased.
funerals the Fdtiha is recited for the dead
uniformity in Great Britain, the Presbyterian Moslem
and in some
to the
certain emendations
a
specialSabha or "Rosary"
clergy in 1661 made
groups
is performedto transfer merit to the soul.
book on the basis of the Directory for Pubhc
prayer
ceremony
Modern
Assembly. This
Worship of the Westminster
Japanese funeral services embody prayers
for the illumination and happiness of the departed
amended
book
has been pubUshed in the
prayer
Shinshu
of the Presbyterian soul especiallythose of the Jpdo and
United States under the name
sects.
In Tibetan belief the soul of the dead remains
Book of Common
Prayer.
The Book
of Common
terian
Worship of the Presbyduring forty-ninedays in an intermediary state
from which it is released into full regenerated hfe
Church pubUshed in 1905 is an admirable
of which
service book.
by the prayers of the priests. Jewish prayer for the
Prepared by a committee
dead dates from the 2nd. century B.C.
The Kaddish
Dr. Van
Dyke was
chairman, it makes generous
elements
is interpretedby some
writers as a service
of older hturgies and contains new
use
ceremony
alike with the devotion of the past and
of the livingto those who are passing through the
consonant
with the demands
of the present. It is in no sense
Purgatorial stage. Jewish funeral prayers make
Christian
the minister,complete freedom
direct appeal in behalf of the dead.
obUgatory upon
of direction being left to him.
practicevaries. There are no early prayers for the
dead but from the later 2nd. century the custom
5. The Sunday service of the Methodists
was
in favor until by the 4th. century
prepared by John Wesley on the basis of the
increasingly
grows
Book of Common
it is an
established
some
was
Prayer. In generalthe liturgyis
practice. There
sinners and
saintly
shortened,all creeds but the Apostles'are omitted, uncertainty as to whether
the ordination offices are modified,the thirty-nine martyrs should
be prayed for,but the ordinary
from
reduced
to twenty-five. baptized believers thus secured deliverance
articles of the Creed
are
form of this book was
for some
time
The American
custom
persisted in medieval
purgatory. The
The Methoin the
dists
used,but was graduallydiscontinued.
Christianityand is cautiously commended
have a modern
service book with the customary
Luther approved
decisions of the Council of Trent.
its use, however,
denies purgatory
the practice. The Greek Church
orders of worship and specialoffices;
is not compulsory.
but teaches that the dead may
be helped by prayers
The Jewish synagogue
embodied
and Eucharists.
The
6. Jeivish Prayer Books.
Anglican Church
of Prayer
service has always been
for the dead in its Earliest Book
strictlyHturgical. The
prayer
Old Testament
dictions, but later refined it away.
fession
Conis rich in prayers, doxologies,beneThe Westminster
and the post-bibUcal
Haydon
A. Eustace
development was very
repudiated it.
elaborate.
The firstcollection of the prayers for the
formulated
various holydays was
The
made in the middle of the 9th.
PfeAYERS, LITURGICAL."
which have been prescribedfor the order of
century. This "Sidur" has been the basis of the
prayers
later editions. It includes morning prayer, prayers
worship. See also Prayer
Books; Worship.
is rare.
for Sabbath, and
close of Sabbath, for the new
The
giftof originalreligiousutterance
the orders
for Passover and the other festivals,
The religious
in his attempt to find adequate
moon,
person
for circumcision and marriage,prayers for mariners, expressionfor his thoughts and feelingsinevitably
have
which
and for specialoccasions.
the significant
words
lays hold upon
There are
divisions of Judaism, each of
been used by giftedsouls before him.
Moreover,
many
There
which has its own
have also
religiousexpression gains in impressiveness and
prayer book.
been a largernumber
of revisions and translations
to have a unique
It even
seems
sanctityby age.
could
of the various books.
words
The conservatives
opposed
quality which
no
extemporaneous
translation into the vernacular at first,
but gradually
possiblypossess.
the practice has
become
estabUshed,
Almost
all religionshave
although
developed forms of
the sacred language is used in the service.
value.
which have come
to have prescriptive
prayer
Reform
Judaism
Primitive
began about a century ago to
peoples use certain magical utterances
which
considered
modify the ritual in the direction of simplification,
are
particularlyefficacious in
in the use of modern
highly
languages for at least a part
affectingthe gods. These are sometimes
of the service and
in the removal of messianic
elaborated as in the funeral prayers of the Egyptians.
reformed
references. There
Sentiments
of penitence,faith,aspirationtend to
are
prayer
many
Such are
themselves in liturgical
books, but the Union
Prayer Book for Jewish
prayers.
express
of Egypt, Babylon, Greece,
of
found in the religions
Worship, edited by the Central Conference
ized.
American
Rabbis, is rapidly becoming standardRome, and especiallyin the mystery religions.
the
It is ia two volumes,the first containing
have all developed
The later great Asiatic religions
"

"

"

"

347

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The
Hebrew
liturgical prayers.
religion was
peculiarlyprayerful.There is a considerable body
of noble

in the Old Testament.

As the
prayers
service took form these biblicalprayers
synagogue
became
the basis of a great prayer book.
church
Christian
its worship were
The
and
and from
developed from the Hebrew
synagogue
religiouspractices,in both of
contemporaneous
almost
which liturgical
were
universally
prayers
Psalms
used.
The
are
quite as much
prayers as
praise. While a largespontaneous element appeared
in the meetings of the earlyChristians,
the tendency
toward
was
uniformity in the practicesof worship.
Even
the Lord's Prayer became
and has
hturgical
continued
since. Many
of the Church
ever
so
which
used in the
Fathers composed prayers
were
churches.
The
Catholic
churches
developed the
elaborate ceremonial
of the mass,
in which
large
After the Reformation
place was given to prayers.
the Protestant
churches
varied in their attitude
toward
liturgy. The Anglican desired only the
of the old forms, while the
theological
purification
have no forms at all. The Scotch
Puritan would
of liturgy. The
made
use
Wesleyans,
a modified
while
giving large opportunity for extempore
of the English Prayer
preserved much
prayer,
in the United States
Book.
Many denominations
of worship in which
have books
for
are
prayers
regularservices and for specialoccasions,e.g., the
revised Presbyterian Book
of Common
Worship.
The Anglican Book of Common
Prayer, slightly
modified
in the United
by the Episcopal Church
States,contains the great prayers of Christendom
rendered into the noble English of the Elizabethan
times.
It is the common
property of all Christians,
is increasingin churches which do not
and its use
regard themselves as ritualistic.
G. Scares
Theodore
PREADAMITE."
One who holds to the theory
that men
existed on
the earth before Adam;
in
advocate
of the theory that the
particular an
Genesis account
refers to the originof the Caucasian
existed previously. Also
peoples,but other races
used to indicate anything which
existed prior to
Adam
or
man.
_

PREBEND."
Originallythe food given clergy
monks
at their common
or
table,but later including
the benefice (q.v.). In Anglican usage any endowment
church for the
given a cathedral or collegiate
support of a clergyman.
PRECENTOR."
The
leader
of the
musical
service in a church,especially
where congregational
singingis in vogue. In the Anglican church usage
official in the clerical staff
the precentor is an
of a cathedral.
PRECIOUS

BLOOD."

devotional

phrase

referringto the saving blood of Jesus Christ,or to

the wine of the Eucharist, as symboUzing Jesus'
blood.
church
In the R.C.
the first Sunday in
A
July is a Feast of the Most Precious Blood.
number
of congregations and
confraternities are
organizedin devotion to the "Precious Blood," taking
their

name

therefrom.

PREDESTINARIAN."
Predestination
(q.v.).

PREDESTINATION."

One

The

who

believes in

doctrine that

aU

More
predeterminedby the will of God.
specificallythe doctrine that each individual's
eternal destinyis fixed by divine decree.
events

The

are

inevitable

course

of

events

suggests

be
mysterious superhuman control, which
may
explained in terms of Fate or Chance (qq.v.)or.

as

AND

in Indian

ETHICS

Pre-Existence

thought,may

mically fixed routine of

many

and Mohammedan
Christian,

be conceived
cycles. In

as

cos-

Hebrew,
religious
thought, the

sovereignwill of God

is declared to be the ultimate

of events.
See Providence.
Predestination
is the consistent applicationof this idea in the
realm of human
destiny.
The doctrine as contained in the theologies
of
is affirmed by the apostle Paul, but
Christianity
received
its full exposition by Augustine. He
are
taught that all men
by nature religiously
tent
imporesult of Adam's
fall. The salvation of
as
a
individual
is possible only as
divine grace
any
(q.v.) shall be bestowed.
Logically,then, Gpd
must
deUberately select those individuals to whom
is to be given. These
elected or preare
grace
destined
to be saved.
Extreme
Calvinism
insisted
that
predestination is unconditional, i.e.,not
do priorto the
dependent upon anything man
can
giftof grace. This involved the doctrine of reprobation,
according to which God willed and decreed
that certain individuals
should
resist grace
and
suffer eternal
damnation.
interests of
In
the
moral
man's
responsibility
on
part, Arminianism
conditioned predestinationon God's foreknowledge
of each individual's faith and good-wiU.
The
religiousvalue of the doctrine lies in the
confidence which it givesto the believer.
Since his
salvation rests exclusivelyin God's
hands, he is
freed from
and from
solicitude
anxious care
any
merit as a condition of salvation.
concerninghuman
The apparent harshness of the idea of unconditional
Predestination
has always aroused protests.
Pelagianism, Semipelagianism,Socinianism, and
Arminianism
have given to human
initiative
(qq.v.)
a real place. In
particularthe doctrine of reprobation
has
received
criticism on
moral
severe
times the doctrine of pregrounds. In modern
destination
has fallen into the background, largely
because of a changed conception of God
which no
longermakes use of the idea of arbitrarysovereignty.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
PRE-EXISTENCE."
The
belief that the soul
existed in the past before its union with the present
cause

body.
The conception of dtman
"soul" (earlier
prdna
in the pluralas the sum
total of the breaths,of the
vital forces in the body) is animistic in origin.
The soul may
leave the body temporarilyor permanently;
for one visits distant placesin dreams, and
friends after death (ghosts) The soul continues
sees
to exist after death,and may
enter into another
even
body. This future existence is eternal; the soul
migratesendlesslyfrom one body to another unless
in some
it can
be released from transmigraway
tion
(q.v.). Then the Hindu mind concludes that
is to be eternal in the future must
a thing which
have been eternal in the past. It is impossiblefor
the Hindu
to believe that a thing can
be created
out of nothing and then continue
to exist forever.
If the soul were
created as a compound thingout
of different elements it must
inevitablybe resolved
back again into those elements.
If it is simpleit
be uncreated.
must
A future eternitydemands
a
eternity. This convention of Hindu thought
influence on ethics. The soul does not
much
as
have to work
out its salvation during the period
between
the cradle and the grave; a thought which
leads to the conception of the tremendous
tance
imporof the present life,
the basis of which the
on
soul is eternallysaved or eternallydamned.
Life
becomes
between
moment
two
not of
a
eternities,
vital importance in the destinyof the soul. The
soul has an
infinite number
of lives in which to
work
its salvation.
The
out
doctrine of preexistence has been repudiatedby orthodox Christian
theology. It appears in the Apocrypha and
.

East

Prefect

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

348

In
churches, presbyter, when
non-prelatical
used instead of the more
common
"elder,"continues
Testament
to bear its New
of the highest
sense
in the local church.
permanent official
Benjamin
B. Warfield
PRESBYTERIANISM."
One of the three principal
systems of ecclesiastical
polity,
occupying an
intermediate
A
PREFECT.
episcopacy and
positionbetween
frequent designation in the
the
congregationahsm,or independency. With
for ecclesiastical dignitarieswith
R.C. church
it shares the unifyingprinciplethat the entire
one
church
enterprise or some
supervision of some
church is a singleentity and should fimction as a
field of activities.
specific
whole; with the other the democratic principlethat
what should function in the church as a whole is the
in
In mediaeval times, a person
PRELATE.
istic
secular or
ecclesiastical. entire membership of the churches. Its characterhigh authority whether
feature whence
it derives its name, is that in it
In modern
times, a R.C. dignitary with episcopal
the
the
of
church is exercised exclusively
government
who is distinguished
jurisdiction
or
quasi-episcopal
or
These officers of the
by "presbyters"
'^elders."
by a violet robe. There are four classes: great
in conciUar courts, administer
order
themselves), local churches,combined
exempt (heads of monastic
the affairs of the whole body of churches thus
active Roman,
exempt (from ordinary jurisdiction),
compacted into one.
and honorary Roman,
1. Presbyterian
Polity.
1. The New
ment
Testabasis. Presbyterianslook upon
their pohty
The beUef that the
PREMILLENARIANISM."
as
imposed by the Apostles, the agents of Christ
personalvisible return of Christ will precede his
in establishinghis Church
in the world, on
the
earth.
See
Milthousand
for
on
a
reign
years
churches
which
as
they
founded,
part of their
lenarianism.
equipment as the pillarand ground of the truth.
Its chief
feature was
the installation in each
A R.C.
CANONS."
PREMONSTRATENCIAN
church of a collegeof "elders" or "bishops" the
founded
order of regular canons
by St. Norbert
equivalence of the titles is clear to whom
were
(ca. 1080-1134) in the diocese of Laon, organized committed
its teaching and
government;
by
the Cistercian plan and following the rule of
on
the side of whom,
however, a similar college
Norbertines
and
white
Also
called
Augustine.
of "deacons"
was
placed, whose
duty it was
Canons.
tables."
"to
serve
Following this
pattern,
the local Presbyterian church
is organized with
DAY
OF."
In Judaism, the
PREPARATION,
of
a
pluraUty
"presbyters,"or "elders" elected
or
day preceding a holy day as the Sabbath
to rule, and
by the congregation
of
a
plurality
churches
Christian
the
in
some
day
Passover;
"deacons,"similarlyelected by the congregationto
Lord's
celebration
of
the
the
Supper.
preceding
serve.

the early Fathers,notably in Justin Martyr

and Origen. It is possibly intended in John
9:2,
In
to have been held by the Essenes.
and seems
Greece it played a conspicuous part in the speculations
of Pjdihagoras,Plato and
their followers.
W. E. Clark
See Transmigration.
among

"

"

"

"

"

"

2. The
In the
pastor of the local church.
Presbyterianpolity,the pastor is one of the elders,
who while he does not differ from the others in office,
differs greatly from them
in function.
To him is
"

"older"
Literally,an
person,
used as a substantive,in heathen and Jewish circles
functionary,
aUke, of both a municipaland a religious
of the
and in the New
Testament, of a member

PRESBYTER."

committed

ministration of the Word

the

and

the

settled Christian
"elder."
An
governed, an
congregation was
officer in the Christian church, holding, in nonchurches, the highestplace,in prelatical
prelatical
deacon
and
the second highest,above
churches
a
below a bishop. See Order, Holy.
each primitivelocal
As reflected in the N.T.
church (Acts 14:23; Titus 1:5) was
governed by a
called indifferently
board of officials
"presbyters"or
"bishops"(Acts 20:17, 28; I Pet. 5:1, 2; I Tim.
tion
3:1-7; 5:17-19; Tit. 1:5-7); the former designation.
of dignity,the latter of functhe name
was
in the oversight of the church,
All shared
of them labored also in word and doctrine
and some
differentiation thus
already
(I Tim. 5:1). The
begun issued later (seencomplete e.g., in Ignatius,
drawing
early2nd. century) in one of the presbyters
to himself the
higher functions of the board,
togetherwith the distinctive titleof bishop; leaving
their distinctive name,
a
to the presbyters,now
function.
lowered rank and diminished
By a still
further development (late2nd. century) the pres-'
of his lost dignityand fimction
byter regained some
by becoming the head, ordinarilythe singlehead,
of the local church.
Meanwhile, he had also
become
(etymologicaUyonly a shortened
a "priest"
form of "presbyter"but actually absorbing into
of sacerdos) In this final developitselfthe sense
ment,
is defined as the highestof
the presbyteriate
the seven
orders, that is to say, the office and
dignityof those clerics who possess the priesthood
In this definition,
in the literal sense.
(sacerdotium)
it is observable, the presbyterate still embraces

aU the
Sacraments; he presides by right over
meetings of the "Session,"as the collegeof elders is
called;and he is by rightone of the two representatives
of the session in the highercourt, or Presbytery.
He differs from his fellow elders also in not being
of the local congregationwhich he serves,
a member
to it for his efficiency
in his service or
or responsible
amenable
to its disciphne. He
is not responsible

both bishopsand presbyters.

possibleequal

board

of officials
by which

each

to the session of which

he is a member
and
whose presidingofficer he is,for either his personal
His membership is in the
or official deportment.
higherbody,the Presbytery;and to it he is directly
into the local congregaresponsible. He comes
tion
from without; by its free "call,"that is to
by election of the congregation; but not
say
without
the explicitconsent
of the Presbyteryto
which he belongs; and by formal installationby it
he enter
alone can
the pastorship of the
upon
church which
calls him.
Here
cratic
aristowe
see
an
element
entering into the Presbyterian
system and modifyingits democracy.
3. The higher courts.
In the higher courts the
local churches are united into one generalbody. In
the Presbyterian system, delegates from the local
churches within a prescribedarea
these delegates
consistingof the "teaching elder" of each church as
of right,and one
a matter
"ruling elder" selected
number
from their own
by each session unite to
form a "Presbytery" which
has jurisdiction
over
all the churches within its area.
Delegatessimilarly
selected from a largerarea, includingseveral Presbyteries
the
number
of
"teaching elders" and
elders"
being kept always as nearly as
"ruling
even

"

"

"

"

"

^a

"Synod," having jurisdiction

349

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Priest, Priesthood

the Presbyterieswithin its bounds.

Finally
delegatesof "teaching elders" and "rulingelders,
nearly as possiblein equal numbers, from all
as

organization of the church, carried on

in the
Assembly, bore good fruit.
6. American
byterian
PresPresbyterianism. The name
form
the "General
in America
is borne onlyby those presbythe Presbyteries,
Assembly"
the whole Church.
The
terian churches which derive their originfrom Great
which has jurisdiction
over
which
byterian Britain,where alone this feature of the Reformed
exists in the Presaristocratic element
tradition has given both
churches
of this order
system, is maintained, through the
their distinctive
American
series of its graded "courts"; an
whole
equal
presbyterian
name;
churches deriving their origin from the continent
of "teaching" and "ruling"elders
representation
all above
the session, of
as"Reformed
is sought through them
Europe
designate themselves
Churches"
(q.v.). The largestof American presbvdespite the great numerical preponderance of
terian churches is the Presbyterian Church in the
"ruling elders in the Church.

over

"

United
Presbyterianism.
1. Early
States of America
which
op
enrols now
II, History
more
Church.
-The
of
than a million and a half of communicant
and
Mediaeval
development
bers,
memconnection
monarchical
lines
in
the
in
with
the
sister
church organization
church
the
along
or,
in the United States (Southdeprived the Presbyterian Presbyterian Church
ern),
sub-apostolical
age,
which was
separated from it only on issues
impressedon the Apostolic churches, of
principle,
and a half,although
connected with the war
between
the States,about
all history for a millennium
there of practices 2,000,000. The
total number
revivals here and
of
communicant
there were
members
in the PresbyterianChurches
in the
reminiscent of the Presbyterian past.
States
is about
United
most
2. The Reformation. In their reversion to the
3,000,000. The
important bodies in addition to the above named,
Scripturesas the sole authoritative guide it was
with membership (1919),are: the United
organization of
inevitable that the monarchical
terian
PresbyChurch
should be rejectedby the Reformers.
(155,994);the Associate Reformed
the Church
zeal
in
the
Reformed
Reformers
showed
byterian
Presno
PresbyterianSynod (16,564);
great
But the earher
Church, Old School (8,750); the Reformed
reorganizingthe infant evangeUcal churches on
General
Presbyterian Church,
bibUcal lines. The result was that the governSynod
(2,400);
ment
more
fell largely, the
Cumberland
of these churches
and discipline
PresbyterianChurch (64,452);
planted, and the Colored Cumberland
Presbyterian Church
in the several countries in which they were
of the local secular authorities; (13,077).
into the hands
In 1875 the AUiance
them was
ingly
of Reformed
Churches
lacking; and accordall cohesion among
Holding the Presbyterian
the greatestconfusion and weakness
reigned throughout the World
about
was
System
them.
organized. It embraces
among
A
Calvin.
b
7,000,000church members.
Presbyterian polity was
3. John
Benjamin
B. Warfield
biblical
on
a
introduced by Calvin into Geneva
PRESBYTERY."
In Presbyterian churches, a
basis,an achievement accomplished only by a hard
endured
life
through his whole
body composed of the ministers and pastors and
conflict which
one
ruling elder appointed from each church in a
Geneva, this polity spread
(1536-1564). From
district. It has the ecclesiastical and
Churches and thus became
spiritual
to the other Reformed
anism.
as
oversight of such a district. See Presbyteridistinguishedfrom
characteristic of Reformed
Protestantism. With local variations it
Lutheran
Churches not
the polityof the Reformed
became
PRETA.
^A disembodied helpless
Reformed
ghost which
Germany,
only in Switzerland and
has not yet acquired a new
other-worldly body.
only the main branches) of Bohemia,
but (to name
The
and
vinda
in the home
for
(q.v.)offeringmade
and Hungary, and France, and the Netherlands
ten
days after death is supposed by the Hindu
Scotland.
people to give the ghost the new
body and so make
4. England. Only in England did a national
it one of the jntris (q.v.). If the food is not given
creed (the
church which had adopted a Reformed
the ghost remains a wandering, dangerous preta.
tution.
Thirty-Nine Articles)retain a hierarchical constiof constant
the source
This was
irritation,
between
PRIDE.
A conscious high valuation of one's
the
and kept alive a conflict in the Church
Protestantism
which
own
abiUty, accomplishments, social status, or
and the less advanced
more
of
possessions. Pride may
culminated in the middle of the 17th. century in
express a noble sense
"the second Reformation."
the
In
resents
one
personal independence,as when
is known
as
what
the
hierarchical
idea of accepting favors.
On
the other hand, it
this great national movement
Christian
of England was
lead to an
anti-social attitude.
for a
constitution of the Church
may
ethics,especiallyin the R.C. church, has contrasted
overturned,and, with help obtained from
moment
poUty set up in its stead.
pride with that humility (q.v.)which is essential to
Scotland,the Presbyterian
true
virtue.
Pride is regarded as the root of a
plished
by which the revolution was accomThe instrument
refusal of a person
to subject himself to divine
the Westminster Assembly of Divines,
was
dates a new
in the
authority. As such it is "the most grievous of
era
from the labors of which
sins" (Thomas Aquinas).
its
history of Presbyterianismin Britain and
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

daughter-lands.
minster
WestAssembly. The
Westminster
to
laries
formuundertook
prepare
for the unificationof the national churches of
England, Scotland and Ireland along the Unes of
tradition
and
this alike in
the best Reformed
5.

The

PRIEST,

"

and

Assembly

"

discipline and
worship.
The restoration of the
It failed in this purpose.
monarchy in the person of Charles II. threw the
of England back into its old hierarchical
Church
constitution and this carried with it the restoration
in
of the hierarchical form in Ireland also. Even
preciselythe Assembly's work in
Scotland, it was
ance.
church
government which met with least acceptthe proper
on
Nevertheless the debates

doctrine, government,

tionary
A
PRIESTHOOD."
religiousfuncdeity and
order, mediating between

man.

worship of
necessity to
that power's favor and avoid his displeasure.
secure
Since religionalways reflects social environment,
representatives the head of a family,the chi"f and
the king came
to conduct worship in behalf of their
respectivecircles. At this stage priesthood is a
function,not an office or order. This condition
in advanced
civiUzation.
persists or
reappears
Usually ujider such circumstances, however, the
I. In

General.

superhuman

power,

"

The

basis

is

springing from

"

"

function

is Umited

to restrictedaspects.

In China

Priest,Priesthood

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

under the Empire the head of the family directed

the Emperor offered sacrifices to
ancestral worsliip,
priests performed rites in other
Heaven, and
worships. Nearly similar conditions
long prevailed
in Israel. In Egypt the Pharaoh
could
before
the
of
act as priest
gods.
any
From
early times the priestlyfunction was not
the "godward"
confined
to
priest
aspect. The
This
to deity,also deity to man.
representedman
combination
or
persists in advanced
reappears
the
"absolution" (manward)
religions compare
"confession"
after the
(godward) in ritualistic
"

Christianity.

ETHICS

AND

350

local conditions

operate against undue

may
dominance
preof priests(Greece and Rome), duties
restricted
ritual.
to
ture
investiConsecration
or
being
before entrance
is necessary
duties and
upon
at
privileges.Strict codes of conduct, theoretically
for
least,control; regard is had to responsibility
welfare of the human
the spiritual
clients. Not only
conduct of public (temple)worship falls to priests,
call for
even
private (household) worship may
expert direction (India,Persia).
In personallyfounded
religionsthe attitude
toward
the
a
priesthood is divergent. In some
order remains rudimentary or confined to degenerate
ism).
Confucianor
vestigialforms (Mohammedanism,
In others each
individual
works
his
out
own
though an ascetic hierarchy(q.v.)
salvation,
hold to
develop (Tibet, q.v.). Others may
may
and
a real or
a relative priesthood of all believers,
develop sacerdotally,unfolding into a hierarchy.
The Hebrews
"a holy priesthood" as regards
were
other nations, but had their own
cessors,
priestlyinterat first serving at the several holy places,
at Jerusalem
under
finallyconcentrated
a
high-

The roots of priesthood as an

II. The Order.
order are
is ritual.
complex. An important one
plex
a certain uniformity in the comBy this is meant
constitute worship. A second
of rites which
root is fear lest deviation from a set form offend the
object of worship; solicitude arises for correct
of
the continuance
performance in order to secure
^individuals
A third root bifurcates
God's favor.
and ways
claim superiorknowledge of the means
^with the
of propitiatingdeity; then convenience
priest.
tendency to specializationof vocation, which
In Christianity
two theories conflict: (1) Every
society ^tends to delegate
appeared early in human
Christian is his own
of worship to men
the functions
to
priest with direct access
presumed to
God
be specially
(the primitive status, reinstated with the
quaUfied.
The priesthoodmight developfrom the medicine
Reformation). (2) The developed priestly
system
which holds that Christ estabhshed
A shrine requires
an
apostolate,
man, witch doctor, or shaman.
priest. from which
apostolate by ApostolicSuccession
develop into a
a
guardian, who
may
and priestis
shaman
transmitted. The
The line of division between
(q.v.) the priestly order was
sacerdotal theory was
reinforced by the view of
be drawn
roughly where the
tenuous, but may
the Eucharist as a repeatedpropitiatory
the
tion
sacrifice,
speU (power over the gods) passes into prayer (petifor their favor). Egyptian religion,
however,
offeringof which required regularly transmitted
Priest and
and authority. This theory is maintained by
the borderland.
remained
long on
power
the prelaticalchurches.
In the Roman
church it
magic existed contemporaneously there till the
Greek period.
the
at
developed monarchically with the pope
head as vice-regent
It is thus
of Christ;also sacramentally,
Priesthood.
III. Conditions
of
evident (1) that priesthood as an order impUes a
and absolution from penalty for
to God
access
sin being through the priest alone.
forward stage of culture with a cult or cults more
Protestant
churches
(the Anglican refuses the title "Protestant")
or less organized in definite centers, exceptingwhen
the family,tribe,or people is migrating (Exodus
accept the universal priesthood of believers.
In the Christian church
28 ff.;Judg. 18). (2) In its earlier forms it carried
priestlydevelopment was
In Babylonia priests due (1) to imitation of Judaism; (2) to Roman
a
large range of functions.
acted as judges, theologians,sacrificers,
psalmists, administrative measures;
(3) to environmental
historians or legendists,diviners and astrologers, example; (4) to the growing complexityof a great
leaders of
organization.
astronomers, purifiersand physicians,
The
IV. Support.
maintenance
of priestsas
worship and guardians of sacred things,teachers,
order
is variously provided for. Voluntary
archives.
Where
and
priests an
keepers of the
vidual. giftsto the temples or churches
indi(endowmental or
were
few, these functions centered in one
In great temples duties were
partitioned occasional)or to the officiant;systems of tithes;
of great collegesof priests, portions of the offerings
and support
the members
or
sacrifices;
among
branch.
The
of its own
each class taking care
by the state have been and are in vogue under
George
W. Gilmore
differentsystems.
order may
develop into a hierarchy (q.v.),and
the priesthood of a singledeitytake pre-eminence
PRIMATE.
The
in Egypt);
ecclesiastical dignitary of
all others (priesthood of Amon
over
sacerdotal.
become
the development may
See
highest rank in a nation or a district. E.g., the
or
Sacerdotalism.
religions,archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all Eng(3) In
polytheistic
land;
the archbishop of Armogh
is primate of all
for each
developed a special ritual
deity was
and
various archbishops in France
Ireland:
or
priests could
service, which
only his own
are
perform. (4) The tendency was to exalt the office, primates in their districts.
develop close organizations,which might become
In the R.C. liturgy
PRIME.
the firstcanonical
and attain control
hereditary(Israel,
Syria,India),
hour after lauds; or, the office of the breviaryfor
the life of the entire people, even
the
over
over
at that hour which is about 6 a.m.
also Theocracy).
state (medieval Catholicism;
use
see
the priests'
work
became thaumaturgic,
Moreover
PRIMITIVE
BAPTISTS."
A sect of Baptists
and their utterances
fateful. Exclusive privileges
to the order
theirs. Succession
often
was
(q.v.)originatingin New York and Pennsylvania,
were
or
appointment, heredity,
1835, with ultra-Calvinistic beliefs. They oppose
through self-perpetuating
Sunday-schools,Bible,tract,and mission societies,
membership in a caste.
therefore be by inheritance,a
and
for ministers, and
Succession may
theological education
feet-washing as an
ordinance
in addition
family (e.g.,Aaron's, Aztecan king's) or a tribe
practise
the Lord's Supper. Membership
to baptism and
(e.g.,the Levites) being recognized as by birth
of the order.
hood
Priest(1919),80,311.
succeeding to the privileges
develop into a caste, with claims even
may
PRIMITIVE
METHODISTS."
A branch of the
of godship (Brahmins), possessingalone the key to
Methodists
which came
into existence in England
salvation. Yet the pre-eminenceof the state or
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

351

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

in 1843.
to America
and came
Emphasis
of camp-meeting evangehsm,
the use
is laid on
in reUgious services, and
enthusiasm
a
larger
activityof the laity than in the other Methodist
about
in
There
bodies.
are
215,000 members
England. In the United States (1919) 9,190.

in 1812

RELIGIONS
OF."
PEOPLES,
Primitive
Peoples.
of
I. Characteristics
what
It is not altogethereasy to define satisfactorily
constitutes a primitivepeople, although no
one
hesitate to placeAmerican Indians, Oceanians,
would
and Africans in this category. Nevertheless,
be made.
The
certain broad generalizations
may
primitive peoples use only implements of wood,
mentary
merely a rudistone, or bone, and have at most
knowledge of metals; their pottery,
weaving, and other arts are in the initial stages;
nomadic
rather than
sedentary; their
they are
is drawn
sustenance
primarily from the chase and
from
wild plants,roots, etc., rather than
from
these
peoples hold
agriculture. Psychologically
that animals, stones, trees, etc., have
indwelhng
unlike those inhabitiiig
human
not essentially
spirits
beings; that natural phenomena, the heavenly
bodies, the earth, the mountains, the rivers,etc.,
influenced by human
have similar spiritsand are
motives and passions; and that human
beings may
mals,
be transformed into any of these phenomena, aniIn religionthey maintain
etc.,or vice versa.
of natural
that worship is due the divine spirits
phenomena, such as sun and stars,storm and wind,
vegetation
springs and rocks, winter and summer,
akin to certain
and harvest; that they are closely
that
so
or
individually,
animals, either collectively
specialworship must be rendered to such creatures;
be
there must
lives after death, whence
that man
cult of ancestors.
a
like a child. In him the
is very
The
savage
the concept; he is concrete,
image predominatesover
not abstract,in thought; he works
largely
by analogies, often of an extremely superficial
for everything,but a
kmd; he desires a reason

PRIMITIVE

"

AND

ETHICS

Primitive

Religions

A peoplein Melanesia,
religionis environment.
for example, may
of
be as profoundly convinced
animism
and ghostsas the Eskimo ; yet the different
conditions of life will inevitably
lead to a different
manifestation
of the religious
instincts J a settled
people like the Hopi wiU differ widely
agricultural
from such nomads
as the AustraUans; the warlike
Ashanti
wiU be quite unhke
timid Amazon
some
As a people rises in the scale of civiUzation,
tribes._
its religionchanges; yet often there remain
vivals
surin the Kteral sense
of the
("superstitions,"
term), as we see them in the reUgionsof Greece and
India.
IV. Animism.
The doctrine of animism holds
that all objects sun,
stars, mountains,
moon,
a

"

"

rivers,lakes, trees, stones, animals, birds, fish,

like those which
have spirits
etc.
insects,reptiles,
dwell in men.
be more
These
spiritsmay
even
mighty than those of men; they often speak (as in
the roaring of the wind) or are
(as in the
angry
of the flood),or have human
passions (as
ravage
and
in the conjunction of sun
moon). Thus all
in a very
real sense.
these things are
personified
"

Animism

is the

basis of

nature-worship.It

also

of the phenomena of animal-worship.

explainsmany

See Animism.
V. Metempsychosis.

Not
only do all things
but these may
from
indwellingspirits,
pass
habitation to another,not merely as man's spirit
one
leaves him permanently at death, but even
during
life. There is littlereal distinction between
spirits
to kind, in primitivethought; the only true
as
difference is one
of degree. Accordingly the spirits
of men
and
of animals
interchange; and,
may
thus have a
since the spirit
is the real being,
we
may
into some
transformation
of a man
object,as a tree
in human
or
a
rock; or an animal may
appear
be philosophized,
guise. Later such a belief may
notably in India and in Pythagorean philosophy.
"

have

See Metempsychosis.
VI. Fetishism
as

we

and

have

seen,

men

some

are

and
are
more

Shamanism.

"

Some

spirits,

mighty than others;

mighty than others. This

more

him; rigidly
simple explanation contents
logicalaccording to his lights,he often draws
his faulty premfrom
ises.
strange conclusions
very
of his religionis to win the
The
purpose
shower benefits on
favor of his gods that they may
their displeasure; he
avert
him, or that he may
seeks to compel the divine powers
to do
frequently
his will; his cult is,in many
instances,magic in
type.

themselves
either from
or
from
contact
with a still higher potency;
some
transmit it to those who
and in their turn they may
is
less favored in this regard. Such
are
power
known
by the
by various names, but jjreferably
mana.
Now, it often becomes
Polynesian term
for some
desirable to gain additional mana
purpose,
to
able by superior spiritualpower
e.g., to be
detect
to
illness
of
from
or
an
invalid,
expela spirit

Type
Primitive
Religion.
op
II. General.
The
practically
religion of primitive man
may
animism
and ancestorbe reduced to two elements:
mately
(q.v.)being based ultiworship (qq.v.),totemism
animism.
Generally speaking, the
upon
its worship
more
primitivea people is, the more
In other
tends to be propitiatory in character.
whether
spiritsor
words, the superhuman powers,
toward
mankind,
ghosts,are felt to be ill-disposed
which
and the reverence
they inspireis based on
love.
It is only with
the
fear rather than
on
in ethical conceptions that the sentiment
advance
of gratitudefor benefits or of abstract love for the
arise. For this reason
good deities or
gods can
such as an
those held to reside at a great distance
apt to receive little worship; the
all-god are
far-off king of the gods may
safelybe neglected,but
be feared.
his servants, who are close at hand, must
While
it
Environment.
III. Religion
and
whether
that all religions,
primitiveor
would seem
advanced, are reducible to a few elements, and
while, in a sense, the chief interest in the study of
religionscenters about the developments and the
interplayof these elements, it nevertheless remains
of the main factors in the evolution of
true that one

very

"

"

"

"

superioritymay

thief

or

come

wizard, or

eminence
merely to gain general pre-

of
An excellent means
one's fellows.
attainingthis end is to acquirean additional spirit.
Accordingly we find the development oi fetishism
The
fetish is an
and shamanism.
object (e.g.,a
pebble) whose unusual shape, color,etc., suggests
of an uncommon
that it is the abode
spirit;possession
of the
of the habitation ensures
possession
spirit. On the other hand, this additional
indwelling
be
needed
only temporarily. In
spirit-aidmay
trained and taught
such
case
a
man
especially
another
spirit
is believed to be able to cause
himself.
within
abode
its transient
make
to
Such a person
is termed a shaman, and the presence
into a state of
him
of the spiritusually throws
are
his normal
greatly
powers
ecstasy in which
enhanced.
See Fetishism; Shamanism.
In a sense
ancestorWorship.
VII. Ancestorworship also is a part of animism, since it is a
cult of a human
spiritwhich has departed from its
earthlybody. As a matter of fact,however, it is
questionablewhether it is properlyto be classedwith
The two seldom blend,though they often
animism
excludes
one
even
exist side by side; sometimes
is shown
This
the other.
by the contrasting
over

"

Primitive

Religions

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

and Polynesia; in the former

rather than animism, in the
find ghost-worship
rather than ghost-worship.
latter we
have animism
The view that all reUgion is derived from ancestorworship is false; and the idea that everything
be explained by animism
is equally erroneous.
can
The two
and it is possiblethat even
run
parallel,
for all the phenomena
of
they do not account
and
religion. See An cestoe- Worship; Death
Funeral
Practices.
VIII. Magic.
be
defined epiMagic may
In
grammatically as the science of primitiveman.
itself magic is un-moral; its morality depends on
the use to which it is put. If its aims are for the
welfare of the community or for one's self (without
injuryto another),it is good magic ("whitemagic");
if its purpose
is to harm
the community or one's
it is evil magic ("blackmagic"), or sorcery,
fellows,
it is when
its application
marks a reversion to a
as
In
stage which the community has outgrown.
its good sense
magic is an essential component of
primitivereUgion,just as earlylaw and religionare

systems in Melanesia
we

"

ETHICS

AND

352

communal
visit to his place of abode
a
(see
be either to
Procession); and the dance may
of the
or
or
give pleasureto the divinity,
one
more
dancers
identified
personate (i.e.,become
may
with or possessed by) him. See Dance.
Finally
the priesthood forms
the necessary
intermediary
between
the deity and his worshipers. It is obviously
needful that the god be approached in the
and by those who, by specialinitiation
proper manner
or
learning, possess
peculiar quaUfications.
In the most
primitive peoples the priesthood is
seldom a separate caste, but with the development
of the rehgious instinct the priesttends to become
a distinct (oftenhereditary)
class,properlyenjoying
and having specialresponsibilities
specialprivileges
or

both

toward

the

god

and

toward

his fellow

men.

See Priest.

X. Myth.
If magic is the science of primitive
expressionof worship
man, and ritual is the outward
and the right manner
in which
the divine being
should be approached, myth is the explanation of
how thingscome
to be as they are; it is a form of
history. The sun is eclipsed(a fact); drums are
inseparable.
tive"
beaten to make him shine again (magic),
into two classes: "imitaor
Magic falls,
further,
prayer
is made that his light
and
and
"sympathetic." The principleof the
may again be seen (ritual
former is "like causes
by a dragon's
Uke,"of the latter "the part reUgion); he has been swallowed
he passes through the monster's
affects the whole."
The
head, but when
stickingof pins into an
be visible (myth). A
gullet,he will once
more
effigyof one's enemy to cause him pain or death is an
religionwithout any attempt at explanation is as
example of the one; the torture of a foe by burning
rally
Natuunthinkable
with no forms of propriety,and
a stolen lock of his hair illustrates the other.
as one
hence we
magic is often closelyconnected with animism,
safelyaffirm that ritual and myth
may
theless,
essential to religion,
and it also blends frequently
with religion. Neverand that some
are
form of them,
religionand magic should be distinguished, however rude, has existed in reUgion (and in magic)
tory;
since the former is precatory and the latter mandafrom the very first.
As a religiondevelops,its older myths may
be
one
says, "may the god do thus"; the other,
In similar fashion,
"the god must do thus."
though found inadequateand better explanationsmay be
often are combined
in
the priestand the shaman
In such case
the discarded myth often
advanced.
distinction:
survives in folk-lore (e.g.,
there is a fundamental
"the Wild
Huntsman"
one
person,
the prieststands in a regular and quasi-continuous as an attenuated
form of the god Thor), just as an
relation to the divinity,and is not possessed by
ritual is occasionaUy found in folk-customs
outworn
is temporarily possessedby the
the children's game
of "London
him; the shaman
(e.g.,
Bridge," with
works
its obvious hint at the offering
of a human
victim as a
god; the one
by entreaty, the other by
See Myth.
compulsion. See Magic.
foundation-sacrifice).
IX. Ritual.
If human
XI. Deities.
beings must be apReligion (includingmyth and
proached
ritual)is the relation which, man
by their fellows according to certain
holds, exists
between
the human
the gods,who are superior
and
the superhuman.
This
rules,much more
so must
No
to mankind.
worship is conceivable without
superhuman element, the divine,is envisaged by
some
forms,and this holds true even of systems and
primitiveman
as a multipUcity of gods of varying
rank.
At their head we sometimes
sects which
find an
deny the vahdity of all ritual,as well
all-god,
of magic itself. Ritual denotes reverence, and
as
though in actual worship he plays a rather minor
some
degree of reverence, whether of fear or love, r61e. Our evidence scarcely permits us to say
inherent
Ritual
that pol3^heism is the most
in mankind.
varies, of course,
definitely
primitive
At all
according to the status of the religionprofessed. stage; it may be that it was monotheism.
In primitive peoples it is usually very
far
records
simple events, primitivepeoples, so
as
our
though the Hopi form a marked exception;it tends
extend, are
invariably polytheistic.These
gods
but in
either deities of natural phenomena, or are in the
to
are
develop not merely in elaborateness
forms of animals,birds,plants,etc.,or are spirits
spiritualcontent pari passu with the evolution of
of
the departed. The basis is animistic.
The deities
a
religioussystem; and occasionally,as in the
of India,it may become
conceived as possessedof very human
so
are
post-VedicBrahmanism
passions,
excessive as to cause
which by no means
often quiteimmoral
a revolt,
accordingto our ideals. Where
the character attributed to a deityis contrary to the
inevitablydenotes a true spiritual
progress.
Ritual is naturallya part of cult,the form of
moral standard
of his worshipers,this may
times
somebe explained by a moral
advance
of the
worship. Cult comprisessacrifice,
religious
prayer,
ceremonies
of all other kinds, and the priesthood. worshipers beyond the stage in which
they were
The sacrifice has various purposes.
It may
be to
when
the concept of the deity in question was
feed the deities or otherwise to please or concihate
formed.
We
also note that primitivedeities
must
often very vague
in nature.
This is in keeping
are
them, or to set the victim free in the spiritworld
be a communal
with the inabiUty of the primitivemind to analyze
to tend the departed; or it may
shared
meal
and classify.On the other hand, we
by divinity and worshipers, this
occasionally
sometimes
and
find quite speciaUzeddivinities,
leading to rehgious cannibalism
particularlywhere
in totemism.
See Totemism.
the economic
of the worshiper warrants
status
being found especially
it,
of placingthe individual en
the most strikingexample being the "departmental
Prayer is a means
rapport with the deity and is distinguishedfrom
gods" of the ItaUc and Lithuanian systems. See
the speU (q.v.)by being precatory, not mandatory.
also Totemism; Taboo.
other ceremonies
XII. Taboo
Man's
Purification.
life is
processionsand dances
and
Among
The processionmay
either be a
be noticed.
both religiousand
hedged about by prohibitions,
may
of
the
solemn
of causes.
deity from place to place, social,arisingfrom a multipUcity
escorting
Such
"

"

"

"

353

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Probabilism^

the same
in order to secure
international
year,
prohibitionsmay be either permanent or temporary
co-operation in prison reform, helped to organize
(e.g.,a permanent taboo of certain foods or a
extend
the International Prison Congress.
temporary taboo of mourners); they may
II. The
Rbformatory
System.
of the
be restricted to particular
One
to an entire peopleor may
the opening
individuals (especially
was
kings) or classes (e.g.,
priests earUest results of these movements
in 1876 at Elmira, N.Y., of the New
of the sexes
tory
York Reformaand warriors)or to one
women
(e.g.,
for youthful firstoffenders between
be not only persons
in child-bed);they may
16 and 30
(e.g.,
This institution was
a
corpses)and harvests,but iron,blood, hair,nails,years of age.
practically
etc.
great industrialschool for the reformation of young
words, names,
essential feature of the Elmira
The
To free one's self from taboo certain purificatory offenders.
The
sentence
rites are
or
system is the indeterminate
(law passed
thing under
necessary.
person
which
confinement
be perilousto
1877) under which the prisoner's
taboo possesses a mana
may
may
be terminated
evidence of his
conditionallyupon
others, and a formal removal of this influence is
reformation
at
time
before
after
the
has
the
maximum
tence
senpurification
proper
any
requisite.Only
such an uncanny
individual be
been performedmay
imposed by the law for his crimes. Under
the
in
Mr.
Z.
the
R.
of
restored to regular standing
superintendence
community.
Brockway the
Elmira
L. H. Gray
successful that its
so
See Taboo.
Reformatory was
been copied by instituessentialfeatures have now
tions
in seventeen
A monk
in
other American
next
States and in
or
nun
PRIOR, PRIORESS."
several foreign
abbot
abbess.
coimtries.
A priory is a
below
or
rank
an
which
Probation
and
it has
over
a
monastic house
prior or prioress
parole. More and more
to be recognizedthat the prison is a relatively
come
presides.
unnatural
environment
at its best, and that
even
certain classes of offenders can be better reformed
A heresy originatingwith
PRISCILLIANISM.
while left at liberty
in society. Under
the probabishop of Avila,Spain, in the latter half
PriscilUan,
tion
"

"

"

of the

Gnostic

contained
fusion of
a
elements.
It had
Manichaean
siderable
conin Spain for a time.
currency

4th.

century, which

and

The movement
to make
REFORM."
conduce
of criminals
confinement
to their
reformation and social rehabiUtation.
XI.
I. History."
(1704) is
Pope Clement
prison
usually considered the pioneer in a modern
made
way
headno
reform, although the movement
and
until Beccaria
published his "Crimes
his "State
Punishments" in 1764 and John Howard
Thereafter
Prisons" in 1784.
of the
torture,
excessive punishments, and the frequent use of the
abandoned.
Howard
attacked
death penalty were
as
the prisons themselves
unsanitary, immoral,
habitation. The
and in every way unfit for human
Quakers took up prison reform and in the Walnut
Street Jail,Philadelphia (1790) and later in the
place
Eastern
Penitentiarjr(1817) at the same
put into practisetheir idea of continuous separate
for each prisoner. In 1816
cellular confinement
similar system started at Auburn, N.Y.,
a somewhat
the prisoners
known
as "the silent system," in which
worked together by day under the rule of silence,
of
but had each a separate cell at night. Both
these systems are now^ condemned
by penologists,
and no longerare used in America, though they still
exist in some
European countries.
of the frightful
After the exposure by Howard
conditions in Enghsh prisons England resorted to
deportation,transporting her criminals largelyto
Australia and Tasmania
during the firsthalf of the
the occasion for
19th. century. This system gave
to try his famous
Capt. Alexander Maconochie
indeterminate
a
"mark system" (essentially
qualified
sentence) in the reformation of the prisoners
Norfolk
Island in 1840-44.
his charge on
under
later the
"mark
Maconochie's
system" became
basis of the "Irish System," and eventually of the
present English Prison System, which was initiated
the whole
be
must
which
now
on
in 1878, and
considered the best national prisonsystem in the

PRISON

the

world.
United States,prison reform has made
imequal progress. Some states have better
prison systems than any European country, but
primitiveconditions. The
others still retain very
have quite
in the United States especially
local jails
To deal with these
generallybeen in bad condition.
tion
evils,the National (now American) Prison Associaformed in 1870 by Dr. E. C. Wines, who
was
In the

very

system, which

was

initiated in Massachusetts

in

is suspended, and he
1878, the offender's sentence
is given conditional
hberty, usually under the
watch-care
of a specialprobation officer. Under
the parolesystem, a prisonerwho has alreadyserved
is conditionallyliberated.
a
part of his sentence
Both of these systems have been widelyadopted with
good results.
Prison
The
most
farms and public works.
recent
movement
is to provide work
in the open
air for the older adult prisoners,either on
farms
or
on
pubhc works, such as road-making. Most of
the Southern
States have now
replaced the lease
system of convict labor by the prison farm system
with good results. Other states have set convicts
at work
Both of
making roads with good success.
these systems, if surrounded
by proper safeguards,
promise much for the future solution of the prison
CharIiES A. Ellwood
problem.
"

PRITHIVI."

The

divine

earth,wife of Dyaus,

Heaven, in early Vedic religion.

PRIVILEGES,
law secured

ECCLESIASTICAL.

"

CathoUc

various

clerical privileges
which
are
no
or
longer necessary
recognized. Such were
(1) the privilegeof the canon
(canon 15 of the
Lateran
synod 1139) excommunicating any who
laid violent hands on cleric or monk, (2)the privilege
of tribunal,exempting the clergy from
the
jurisdictionof state courts, (3) the privilegeof
exempting from
legal seizure of
competency,
sistence.
goods beyond the minimum
required for subIn most
countries today a clergyman is
and jury duty and his repute as
exempt from army
a
public character upholding morality is specially
protectedagainstunjust attacks that would destroy
his claim to pubUc confidence.
F. A. Christie
canon

PROBABILIORISM."
In R.C. ethical theory,
the doctrine in opposition to probabilism (q.v.),
that in case
of doubt as to the existence,
tation
interpreor
appHcation of a law, one ought not to
decide in favor of the most
agreeable alternative
favors the legality
unless the balance of probability
of such action.
PROBABILISM."
In the casuistic ethics of the
R.C. church, the theory that in case
of doubt as to
the existence,interpretationor
application of a
is free to follow any
specificmoral precept, one
opinion which has been expressed by a recognized

DICTIONARY

Processional

OF

RELIGION

While
church.
the intent of the
extend
moral
control over
cases
be quoted, in
clear moral
where
no
precept can
practicethe possiblechoice of the most agreeable
alternative led sometimes
to moral laxity.
permissible
doctor

of the

The

AND

Old

ETHICS

Testament

has

354

familiarized

us

with

the

Yahweh
figureof Balaam, whom
inspiredto speak
againsthis will,as well as the frenzied "prophets of
Baal," who limped around the altar,and slashed
their jflesh with knives and lancets,in their vain
efforts to compel Baal
to Usten
to them.
The
A
latter account
PROCESSIONAL."
is closely
during a
hymn sung
paralleledby the descriptions
of
the
the
when
the choir enters
as
prophets of Adonis and the motherreligiousprocession,
of services for a religious
the classical pages
of Lucian
h c h ; or a book
cession. goddess of Syria on
pro{De Syria dea,ca. 50),and Apuleius (Metamorphoses,
VIII. 24-30). We
earlier
have, however, a much
allusion to Phoenician
formal
The
PROCESSIONS."
orderly and
prophecy in the record of the
of a body of people in processionwas
a
movement
Egyptian envoy, Wen-amon
(ca. 1100 B.C.),who
feature of festal celebrations in the ancient religions, tells how, during his visit to Byblos, "the god
seized one of his noble youths, throwing him into a
and Rome.
Processions likewise
as those of Greece
of
the ceremonies
his will
at an
frenzy,"under which he communicated
early date among
appear
A
in
saner
the Christian
Church, especiallythe penitential to him.
type of prophecy appears
litanies (seeLitany), which were
accompanied by
Babyloniaand Egypt, notably in the Admonitions
Funeral
and
of an Egyptian Sage (publishedby A. H. Gardiner,
processionsand
hymns
prayers.
with the translation of martyrs'
of the
Leipzig,1909),with its strikinganticipation
those connected
social outlook
of Amos
The Roman
and
Isaiah.
Asia
From
also very earlycustomary.
relics were
of the stately Minor
Church
prophecy in its extreme ecstatic form passed
to have adopted some
seems
Greece
to
and
Southern
ritual,giving through Thrace
Italy
processionsof paganism to its own
in Euripides'
(cf.the Dionysiacorgies dramatised
them
new
a
meaning. A clear case is the solemn
of the growing
rites for the purification
Bacchae; and the "inspiration"of the Cumaean
processional
tide
survived in the Ascensionwhich
Sibyl so vividlydepictedin VergU, Aeneid, VI.
(Itistratio),
crops
the impulse of the Mohammedan
45 ff.). Under
rogationsand in other ceremonies.
Webster
HuTTON
awakening it likewise invaded Arabia, and still
The
act of dishonoring or
actively survives in the ecstatic dances of the
PROFANATION.
dervishes of Islam.
to religiouspurposes,
desecratingthings devoted
Israel.
III. Prophecy
1. Origins. The
Profane language
of a church.
in
the 'fyrofanalion
as
firstrecorded instance of prophetic inspiration in
is a vulgar misuse of divine or sacred names.
Israel is found in Deborah, who roused her people
The
PROFESSION.
public acknowledgment to the great battle for independence at Megiddo.
Kut the typicalprophets of the earUer period are
of one's faith,a condition of membership in most
in those bands of religious
ecstatics who cross
seen
In the R.C. church,the solemn
Christian churches.
ihe stage during the stress of the Phihstine
order.
peril
pledgingof oneself to a religious
md
in later crises sweep
through the land on
AND
CONGREGATION
pTahweh's errands,clothed in the hairy mantle and
PROPAGANDA,
leathern
OF.
An assembly of the cardinals and
girdle of their caste, appearing to the
COLLEGE
sober spectator no
better than madmen.
On the
task is the implanting
whose
a
collegeat Rome
surface there is nothing to distinguish
these ecstatic
CathoUc
and spread of Roman
Christianity
among
bands from the prophets of Baal and Islam; but
non-Christians
and heretics. The institution dates
the religion
of Israel contained
the promise of rich
from 1622 when
Gregory XV. created the congregation.
moral advancement, and the prophets soon
led the

theory

was

to

"

"

"

"

"

inspirationalin

The
Prophecy.
Character
of
of prophecy in its primitive
form is ecstasy. The prophet is a man
"possessed"
by a god, and thus conceived to speak and act for
to the higher
him.
This descriptionappUes even
manifestations of prophecy in Israel. The prophets
bones a
in whose
declared their oracles like men
shut up, burning till it found expression
fire was
(Jer.20:9). They acted, too, as if grasped by a
"strong hand," from which they could not shake
themselves
free (Isa. 8:11; Ezek,
3:14), often
and even
unnatural
doing deeds which seemed
the direct
but which to their minds were
fantastic,
command
of Yahweh
(Isa.20: Iff.; Hos. l:lfi.;
I. General.

"

distinguishingmark

Ezek. 4: Iff.).
The
prophets are thus nearly related to the
apprehended the divine will through
seers, who
While
visions,dreams, or acts of divination.
orders tend
to
independent, the two
originally
developments of
coalesce in the more
spiritual
is one
prophecy. The true prophet of Yahweh
whose eyes are opened to see visions of His gloryand
working, and whose words are the direct outcome
vision of the prophets
The
of what
he has seen.
corresponds,indeed,to the Torah of the priestsand
collection of their
The
the wisdom
of the wise.
be described as a vision.
written oracles may
even
of
The
II. Ethnic
Prophecy.
phenomenon
prophecy is wide-spread iu the ancient East.
"

of progress.
We have an earnest
Nathan's
condemnation of David.

of the future
The decisive
impulse,however, was given by EUjah the Tishbite,
when he insisted not merely on the exclusive claims
of Yahweh
of His people,but on
to the allegiance
the equal bearingof moral principles
on
king and
commoner.
By so doing he guided the reUgion of
Israel along the high road to ethical monotheism.
2. Prophets of the Assyrian era."
The century
that followed Elijah saw
vast
material progress.
Under
the auspices of Jeroboam
II. and his contemporary
Uzziah
the Great, victoryhad crowned
of both Israel and Judah; and with this
the arms
wealth and luxury. But behind the outward
came
of poverty, made
splendor rose the dark shadow
ever
deeper by the greed,injusticeand tyranny of
the rich. To dispel the shadow
no
help appeared
from priestor judge. In this emergency
Amos
of
Tekoa
(ca.750 B.C.)stood forth as the champion
Yahweh
oi justice. What
requiredwas not worship
but straightdealing in market
and
and sacrifice,
other
side is
law-courts
(Amos 5:21ff.). The
emphasizedby his Northern contemporary Hosea,
the tender, sufferingprophet of love (Hos. 6:6);
while Isaiah blends the two ideas in his prophetic
he identfees with
conception of holiness,which
(Isa.l:16f.). His
justice,humanity and mercy
democratic
compatriot Micah
pleads especially
of the dispossessedpeasantry of Judah,
the cause
inveighingagainstthe crueltyof the land-grabbers,
Samaria and Jerusalem
and calling
down swift doom
on
as the incarnate sin of their people (Mic. 1 : 5 ff.).
van

The

PROPHETS."
PROPHECY,
element in reUgion.

355

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Protestant

Episcopal

in the Church second only to that

a position
assume
3. Prophetsof the decline and fallof Judah.
of the Apostlesand even
In the
For almost another century the voice of prophecy
alongsideof them.
Teaching of the Twelve Apostlesthey hold supreme
is silent,but the breaking of the Scythian storm
the local Christian communities,
it to new
authority over
Ufe, and the austere
(ca.626 B.C.)rouses
their utterances
being regarded as the very word
Zephaniah hurls forth his bolts of judgment.
of God, which it is unpardonable sin to challenge
heard
the
P?5BaGIyin the same
year
Jejjemiah
and they themselves
or
criticize,
call to prophesy. Till the destruction oT Jerusalem
being entitled to
the first-fruitsof every kind of produce, "for they
of purity,truth,
in 586 B.C. he upheld the banner
and love,meeting persistent
chief-priests."Abuses, however, crept
are
oppositionand
your
justice,
but standing bravely at his post, and
in, and the authority of the prophets gradually
persecution,
yieldedto that of the regularministry,Montanist
finding in his despised prophecy "the bridge to
relation with
God"
intimate
(Wellhausen), and other attempts to resuscitate their influence
an
which
him
made
being crushed by the sheer weight of ecclesiasticism.
pre-eminently the prophet of
the Jewish
patriot In the modern church, prophecy may be held to
personal religion.Meantime
survive in the impassioned preaching or religious
Nahma
(ca. 610 b.c.)had hailed the approaching
from
intense spiritual
of exultant song,
with a paean
comes
dowmall
of Nineveh
insight which
an
Alex
R. Gordon
and the author of the earUer section of Habakkuk
experience.
strument
the inas
(1:1-11) greetedthe terrible Chaldeans
PROPITIATION."
The act of gainingthe favor
His perverse
of Yahweh's
on
vengeance
of a god through the performance of some
and rebellious people.
act
calculated to remove
While
Judah
4. Prophets of the exile.
guilt or divine displeasure.
was
In primitivereligions
this act is one
of the tribal
thus facing her doom, the captive prophet Ezekiel
and may
be of various sorts. Since miscustoms
fortunes
had been preparing his fellow-exiles in Babylonia
When
the news
at last'
for the inevitable end.
are
generallyregarded as due to an offense
done either consciouslyor unconsciouslyto the god,
of his prophecy, andl
he changed the accent
came,
labored as preacher and pastor to bring back his/ primitive customs
prescribed sacrifices,feasts,
or the performance of some
suffering,
self-abasement,
people to their God, and so to lay the foundations of
ritual act
of the nature
of penance.
of his dreams
Cultural
the New
Jerusalem
(Ezek. 40: 1 ff.).'
asked
As the days lengthened, men
impatiently views of the god's nature or attitudes have deternained the belief as to the nature
to swallow up the rightand cause
of the
how long the wicked were
eous.
time the only counsel was
For some
faith, divine displeasureand the proper means
by which
the poUtical it could be removed.
The conception of propitiathen like a meteor
Cyrus shot across
tion
(ca.
heavens, and the great Prophet of Comfort
accordinglyhas varied with the development
of social ideals and penal methods.
aloud that the day of deUverIn the higher
546-40 B.C.)proclaimed
for
and that Israel's sufferings
were
ance
was
religionsthe thought of propitiationhas been
come,
reduced to hardlymore
than a formahty or transthe salvation of the world (Isa.40-55).
formed
into some
The Restoration
moral adjustment with the deity.
5. Prophetsofthe New Jerusalem."
illusionment
In Christian theologythe thought of actual propitiasucceeded
in 538 B.C. was
by a period of distion
of the angry
Father
and
has persistedin those
once
more
despondency, when
doctrines of the atonement
which represent the
prophecy sounded the call to faith and duty. The
Father's punitivejusticeand anger at sin as having
of Haggai (520 B.C.)and Zechariah
words
(520satisfied by the death of the Son
18 B.C.)are concerned
or
primarilywith the building been removed
the cross.
the end of worship
Such views arise from the literalizof the Temple; but even
on
so
in their eyes is truth and righteousness(Zech. 8:
ing of certain N.T. expressionsand the emphasizing
of social and political
evident in
of the feudal and
customs
16 f.). This ethical note is still more
Malachi
and Isaiah 56-66
(ca.460 B.C.),while the
earlynationalistic periods. They have disappeared
in most modern
Gospel of God's free,universal love ringsthrough the
attempts to interpretthe Christian
salvation. See Atonement; Sacrifice.
book of Jonah
(ca.250 B.C.).
Shailer
Mathews
6. Transition to Apocalypse. In several of the
PROPRIUM.
later prophets we
In the philosophicalsystem of
trace an approach to Apocar
can
lypse, that peculiar literaryform under whicn^
Swedenborg, the distinguishingquality of any
truths are enforced,not by direct appeal
individual personality.
spiritual
but oy a series of elaborate
to heart and conscience,
final judgment-scene.
PROSELYTE.
visions converging on
a
a sojourner or
^Etymologically,
made
The transition to Apocalypse is definitely
m
stranger; in customary usage, a convert from one
Joel (somewhat
the books of Obadiah (ca.400 B.C.),
reUgion to another, the originalsense
referringto
9-14 and
Isaiah
later than
to Judaism.
a convert
Obadiah), Zechariah
24-27
(during the 3rd. or 2nd. century b.c),
in the classicOld Testament
but especially
PROTESTANT
EPISCOPAL
THE.
lypse
ApocaCHURCH,
^This is an
of Daniel, written to comfort and strengthen
branch
of the Anglican
autonomous
after the
the faithful sons of Zion in the dark days of persecuCommunion, organized in America
tion
under Antiochus
Epiphanes (167-65 B.C.).
Revolutionary War, by those who had belonged to
With
nance
domiProphecy.
the
IV. Christian
the Church
of England (q.v.).
of Apocalypse prophecy died out of Judaism;
The EngUsh Church
was
planted in Virginiain
revival in Christianity. 1607, and
but it experienced
before the Revolution
a
temporary
congregations
the Baptist and
Jesus were
John
mentary
Both
had been organized in all the colonies. Parliarecognized as prophets, for they spoke with the
laws, however, and other causes
vented
preof Bishops for America,
the consecration
conviction,"and not as the
authority of inward
There
is frequent reference to prophets
and many
scribes.
of the clergy who were
sent there were
Acts and Epistles. In
also in the New
Testament
unworthy. Moreover, when the Revolution came,
ministers
showed
of the Church's
prophecy is identified with prepart Christian
Tory
diction many
(Acts 11:28; 21:10f.); in part it is a
leanings,and this threw all earnest Churchmen
older
of
t
he
the
under
recrudescence
ecstasy (cf especially
poUticalsuspicion.
it was
under dis1. Organization.
couraging
'Accordingly,
"speaking with tongues"); but the highest order
hold their spiritsin
those who
that the organizationof this
of prophets are
circumstances
Certain
undertaken.
Church
was
check, and minister to the edification and comfort
EngUsh laws
had to be repealed before American
of believers (I Cor. 14: 3, 24 ff.). As such,prophets
Bishopscould
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Protestant

Episcopal

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

AND

ETHICS

356

Unity in 1886,the House of Bishops affirmed

to unity lies in "the
return
of all
way
Communions
to the principles
of unity
Catholic
Church
exemplified by the undivided
during the first ages of its existence."
In 1910 a Commission
was
appointed to bring
about a World
Conference on questions of Faith
In 1792 these two lines of succession were
1790.
Conference only, without
to
a
united by all the Bishops above named participating and Order
power
commit
its participants
to any
particularscheme
in the consecration of Thomas
Claggett(Maryland)
of reunion, this being deemed
achieved by
Its
premature.
The organizationof the Church
was
is simply to promote mutual
1785 and 1789
between
understanding
several General Conventions
purpose
tendom.
divide Chrisconcerning the differences which now
Unes somewhat
analogous to those of the.national
on
A large part of the Christian world has
of framers of that document
a number
constitution,
The Church's
accepted the invitation to take part in the proposed
being active in these Conventions.
The
war
delayed the undertaking,
body is a General Convention, consisting Conference.
legislative
but a preliminary
of Deputies,the
Conference, at which the bulk of
of Bishops and a House
of a House
from
Communion
Christendom,outside the Roman
was
latter made
up of clerical and lay deputies
held at Geneva, Switzerland,in
be
represented,was
All canonical
diocese.
legislationmust
each
Francis
J. Hall
August, 1920.
lar
adopted by both Houses, voting separately.Regusessions take placetriennially.
local diocese and missionary jurisdiction
Each
PROTESTANTISM."
A term
used to express
of clergyand lay deputies, the doctrines and practicesof bodies of Christians
Convention
has its own
diocesan
The
distinct from the R.C. church.
with
limited legislativepowers.
Its originis in the Protest issued by 5 princes
Bishop presides.In 1913 the dioceses were grouped
with
each having a Council
and 14 free cities of Germany againstthe action of
in eight provinces,
functions.
the Diet of Spiresin 1529 revoking the decision of a
certain legislative
Diet of Spiresin 1526 according to which each Ger2. Doctrines and worship. These are embodied
man
of Common
Prayer (q.v.). This
in the Book
the religionof his
prince should determine
poUtical subjects. The Protest was not theological
but the
book, except for adaptations to American
to the EngUsh Prayer
assertion of the powerlessnessof one
Diet to revoke
conditions,conforms closely
been
Creed
has
dropped
Athanasian
The
Book.
decision of a
by a majority vote the unanimous
for prudential
and, although the Thirty- predecessor,and of the libertyof the princes to
reasons;
subscription determine religious
Articles (q.v.)are retained,no
Nine
practicesand views within their
the preface declares
is required. But
the term
Protestant
to them
own
territory.Thereafter
is far from intending to depart
for Luther"that this Church
into general use
ans.
came
as
a
synonym
essential
of England in any
from
the Church
to stand
In English usage
the term
came
or
worship; or further
for (1) those who
point of doctrine,discipline
supported the Anglican church
require." The Apostles' as opposed to Roman
than local circumstances
Catholics, Puritans, and
tinctivemembers
Creeds
emphasized, and no disare
and
Nicene
of various sects,and
(2) later for all
is
doctrine or principle
those who
It
or denominational
were
opposed to the R.C. church.
traditional
CathoUc
Uturgy and
in such
designations as the Protestant
imposed. A
appears
sacramental institutions are retained.
Protestant
Episcopal church, and the Methodist
ment,
3. Development. After a period of discouragechurch.
Certain non-Catholic groups,
especially
the consecration in 1811 of Bishops Hobart
refused to be called
the Baptists,have sometimes
Diocese
Griswold
i.e., Protestants on the ground that they originatedin
(Eastern
(New York) and
ening
tion.
New
the N.T. period rather than in that of the ReformaEngland, except Connecticut) brought quicknary
SemiGeneral
Theological
leadership. The
Similarlythere is a growing oppositionto the
Missionaries
crossed
the
founded in 1817.
of the term by Anglicans and American
was
use
palians
Episcocrated
conseBishop Chase was
and a correspondingpreferenceof the term
Allegheny Mountains.
in 1819, and
Bishop Smith for
for Ohio
Cathohc
(q.v.). The general usage, however, is
See
Kentucky in 1832. In 1835, the Diocese of Illinois that contained in the definition given above.
be consecrated in England. However, Samuel
consecration
secured
by
Seabury of Connecticut
in 1784.
Bishops of the Scotch Episcopal Church
William
obtained
for
EngUsh consecrations were
and Samuel
Provoost
White
(New
(Pennsylvania)
(Virginia)in
York) in 1787, and James Madison

on

tion
that the
Christian

"

"

"

"

was

the
recognized,

Board

of Missions

was

ized,
organ-

labor with
In 1853 Bishop
in the North-West.
much
success
vening
Kip was consecrated for CaUfornia, and the interhas long been covered by missionary
territory
The first foreignmissionary
districts and dioceses.
Bishop was consecrated for China in 1844. Today,
tories
terriall American
cover
episcopal jurisdictions
missions
in China,
and
and possessions,
Japan, Cuba, Haiti,Brazil,Mexico and Liberia,as
congregationsin Europe.
well as American
of communicants
was
In 1830, the number
1,096,895.
30,939, which in 1920 had become
doubled
in
than
These
figureshave to be more
computing baptizedmembership. In 1920, there
133 Bishops and 5,987 clergy. For these a
were
raised by
retiringpensionfund of $7,500,000 was
ending
popular subscription, during the year
to
In 1920 the fund amounted
1917.
March

and

Bishop Kemper

1,
$8,500,000.

was

sent

,
for unity. Conscious of retaining
of the
sacraments
the
and
the
the faith,
ministry
with
ancient
undivided
Church, unencumbered
state control or sectarian
either papal supremacy,
has been
this Church
doctrines peculiarto itself,
to labor for unity. In a didactic Declara-

4. Work

impelled

"

Confession

op

Faith.

Shailer

Mathews

to

church
In the Eastern
chief secretary to the patriarch
Constantinople. In the R.C. church, a name
of noteworthy pontifical
given to several registrars
business.
the
of

PROTHONOTARY."
title of the

the
PROTOPAPAS
PROTOPOPE."
In
or
Orthodox
church
Greek
a
priest of high dignity,
equivalentto the dean or archdeacon in the Western
church.
verse
doctrine
that the uniThe
istered
in its details is divinelyadminto promote the good.
so
as
order in the
The
conception of a benevolent
universe is wide-spread. In the Stoic doctrine of
the
of Taoism
providence and in the "Heaven"
cosmic order is praised and trusted as good.
ology.
theMohammedan
In Jewish, Christian,and
is always traced to the wisdom
Providence
The reUgious man
and will of the personal God.
that "all things work together for good
know
may
to them that love God."
PROVIDENCE."
as a whole

and

357

OF

RELIGION

explicitdoctrine of Providence
from
strict predestination
prescribesevery
(q.v.) according to wliich God
event, to the conception of a world in which moral
but
man's
free endeavor
is
be achieved,
values may
The

details of

DICTIONARY

an

AND

ETHICS

PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN

Psychical Research
DECRETALS."

9th.

greatly,ranging

century collection of allegeddecrees derived from

earUer luaterials genuine and
spurious,prepared
with unlimited fabrication of documents (decretals
of earlybishops of Rome, etc.)containingwhatever
serious difficulty
encountered
needful to estabhsh the absolute authority of
essential. The most
was
the pope
over
metropoUtans and civil rulers,and
by the doctrine is the fact of evil (q.v.) Theologians
have
general 'providence, the rightof unlimited appeal to Rome from decisions
distinguishedbetween
and
lent
benevoof local prelates and tribunals. As the forgeries
which
is expressed in a rational
in which
were
world-order,and specialprovidence
perfectlyaccordant with papal poUcy they
God
and were
porated
incorreadilygained acceptance at Rome
performs specificacts for specificindividuals.
in all later compilations of Canon
Miracles (qv.) are examples of specialprovidence.
Law
modern
The
conception of evolution (q.v.) has
(Decretiimof Gratian,etc.). The forgerieswere
the
idea
of providence.
not discovered
considerably modified
(orexploited)until the Renaissance
admitted
not
(Laurentius Valla) and were
Long processes rather than specificevents lie at
by
time later.
the oasis of values.
A. H Newman
Accordingly the conception Romanists tillsome
is
of specialprovidence
receding, and general
in the opportunitiesopen
for
providence is seen
PSEUDO-MESSIAHS."
Persons who have
human
nally
spiritualdevelopment rather than in exterclaimed to be"Messiah3
but have failed to do messianic
vary

fixed conditions.

Gerald

Birney

Smith

work.
There
have been numerous
who
men
made
claims to messianic dignity,some
of
whom
have attracted a considerable number
of followers.
Josephus mentions several such pretenders,
but the most
Bar Cochbar
important was
(q.v.),
who headed a great revolt of the Jews during the
See Messiah.
reign of Hadrian.

have

certain
In
PROVINCIAL.
religious orders,
superiorresponsibleto the generalfor the oversight
of the houses of that order in a province or district.
"

prior (q.v.),abbot, or other

religious authority in a
In
church
or
religious community.
Germany
the pastor of the leadingchurch in a district.
PROVOST.

person

with

"

supreme

The
wise and careful scrutiny
PRUDENCE.
of any
of the probable outcome
action, so as to
avoid conduct leadingto undesirable consequences.
and
mediaeval
Christian
Greek, Roman,
By
Moralists,it was regardedas one of the four cardinal
without
which
virtues, furnishing that wisdom
In
there could be no rational or virtuous action.
cautious
modern
times the word
ordinarilymeans
refers to a selfish regard
discretion and sometimes
interests. It is thus often disparaged
for one's own
of the risk
influence leadingto the avoidance
as
an
involved in courageously facing moral opportunity
is not assured. See Virtues
and
when
success
"

Vices.

"with false
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA."
(Literally,
a
Writings put forth under
superscription.")
fake claim as to their authorship.
is especiallyapplied to certain late
This term
writers put them
forth under
Jewish works, whose
of venerated patriarchs,
the names
sages or prophets,
perhaps because the Canon of Jewish prophets was
closed and no
one
might any longer claim such
inspiration;perhaps out of a pious dispositionto
and to secure
efface one's self and exalt the ancients,
for one's views something of their prestige. This
well recognized literary custom
was
especially
characteristic of Jewish apocalypticliterature which
ancient
was
regularlyput into the mouth of some
The late Wisdom
worthy like Enoch, or Daniel.
of
Literature also was
put forth under the name
Jewish examples, mostly apocaThe
Solomon.
lypses,
are

Enoch, Daniel, Baruch, Tobit,

etc.

In early Christian literature the pseudepigraphic

is abundant; The
Gospel of Nicodemus,
element
II Peter, the Revelation of Peter, the Gospel of
Peter, the Preaching of Peter, and, according to
the earliest
scholars,Ephesians, are among
some
of the seven
Ignatian
examples. The interpolation
than twice that
letters and their expansion to more
number
exemplifya different pseudepigraphical
type.
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
A name
used to desigPSEUDO-DIONYSIUS."
nate
of certain Christian
author
the unknown
writings probably originatingin the 5th. century
and allegedto have been the work of Dionysiusthe
in Acts
17:34.
Areopagite mentioned

PSYCHICAL
RESEARCH."
monly
com;The name
used to denote scientific investigationinto
not
alleged physical and psychical phenomena
recognizedby physics and psychology.
Of late years the term has been more
specifically
applied to the work of the Society for Psychical
Research,founded in London in 1882,and of similar
organizationsin America and elsewhere.
The matters
by these societies may
investigated
be grouped under
the following heads:
physical
phenomena, the subliminal self,telepathy (including
phantasms and clairvoyance),communication
from the dead.
No
has
been
general agreement
reached
uncaused
to physical phenomena
as
by
known
ous
physical forces. On the other hand variphenomena of the subliminal self have been
well established
so
that many
of them
at
are
present being handed
over
(as "mesmerism"
was,
hypnotism) to psychology and
under_the name
psychiatry. The facts of telepathy and clairvoyance
have
also been
nearly demonstrated,
very
of the method
though nothing whatever is known
of psychical
The
by which they work.
success
research in estabhshingthe realityof telepathymay
survival of
of human
prevent the demonstration
death.
For though survival might be made
able
probto the medium
by production of facts unknown
and to all but the departed,a telepathic
explanation
is always conceivable
if the knowledge of these
Thus
facts be shared by a singleHving person.
the possibiUty of telepathy seems
to vitiate all
from discarnate
attempts at proving communication
spirits.Two types of experiment have been tried
which seek to avoid this difficulty.(1) Mediums
have attempted to read notes leftsealed by departed
known
to no
were
experimenters,whose contents
one
living.The result has invariablybeen failure.
tances,
(2) Different mediums, separated by great disand
with no
(conscious)collusion,have
less uninterpretablemessages,
given out more
or
which when
pieced together have formed a fairly
characteristic of the
intelHgible
whole, and one
the "other side."
alleged communicator
on
(See
Vols. XVII-XXIV
of the Proceedingsof the Society
for Psychical Research.) "Cross Correspondence"
of this sort would be difficultto explain
by telepathy;
but the correspondences thus far recorded
can
hardly be considered decisive evidence,
James

Bissett

Pratt

Psychology of ReUgion

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

358

concerned.
OF
RELIGION."
A scientific phenomena
Recent
writers
the
PSYCHOLOGY
on
consciousness and of the
pretation,
subject are still divided on this question of interdescriptionof tiie religious
Boutroux, Miss Underbill, and Mrs.
laws underlying its action.
Hermann
is a branch of general
Thie psychology of religion
refusing the naturahstic
view, which
is supported by Floumoy and
various psychiapsychology. It seeks to collect the facts of the
trists.
into a
religious
consciousness,systematize them
A large part of the more
the
scientific description,establish laws of sequence
recent work
on
between
psychology of rehgion has been devoted to the
them, and if possibleexplainthem by the
appUcation of various generalpsychological
nomena,
ciples.question of the origin of various rehgious pheprinand to the nature and scope
of rehgious
Methods
PsYCHOLoaY
op
1. The
custom, or social habit, in early society.These
op
the
first
The
Reugion.
collection of data.
the
investigationshave been based in part upon
1. The
results of historical and anthropologicalresearch,
student of rehgion is the
task of the psychological
Three
collection of trustworthy data.
principal in part upon child psychology, and their aim has
been
to
The first
methods
have been used for this purpose.
interpret the various sociologicaland
objectivephenomena involved in such a way as to
is a study of individual experiencesas portrayed in
throw new
lightupon the nature and workings of the
autobiographies,letters,and other spontaneous
second
consciousness.
In Germany the leader of
The
religious
expressions of religious persons.
this branch of researches Wundt
to definite
method
is the collection of answers
( Volkerpsychologie,
of persons through the
stood
1909), who maintains that religioncan be underquestions from a number
gates
investionly from the point of view of its origin.
of a questionnaire.The third method
use
Much
the relatively
suggestivework upon the nature of religion
objectiveexpressionsof social
and
his
rehgion furnished by the cults,behefs,institutions, has been done in France by Durkheim
would
derive
the
school, which
and sacred hteratures of various peoples.
rehgion from
conscious relation of the individual to the group.
2. Advantages and dangers of these methods.
The
have the advantage
The first two of these methods
investigatorsof the social
leadingAmerican
and
of studying rehgious experience at its source.
genetic problems of rehgion are King (The
the other hand, their automatically selective
Developmentof Religion,1910), Ames
On
(The Psychology
of ReligiousExperience,1910), and Leuba
tendency emphasizes an unusual type of character.
has the merit of objectivitybut
(A Psychological
The third method
Study of Religion,1912).
pology
Other
the great disadvantage of giving us either anthroproblems of religion that have been
investigatedby psychologists are belief (Pratt,
sociologyrather than psychology. All
or
have their value if used critically. Leuba, and others),the subconscious
and religion
three methods
The
psychologist, (James, Coe, and
value
3. Systematizationof data.
others.) rehgion and
examined the facts
(Hoffding,King, Ames, Coe), prayer,
religious
having collected and critically
them so that
of the rehgiousconsciousness,
sects,religious
leaders,and alhed subjects. Fairly
arranges
they may throw fightupon each other,and interprets complete surveys of the whole field are Coe's The
of generalpsychology.
them on the principles
Psychology of Religion (1916) and Pratt's The
Science.
Development
op
the
II. Rise and
ReligiousConsciousness (1920).
from the time
III. Significance
Interpretation
Writers on the philosophy of religion,
in
the
op
Religion.
of St. Paul, have dealt with
The psychology of refigion
has thrown
of Augustine and even
but
the
factors of religion,
of religionand upon
new
the
certain psychological
lightupon the nature
methods
criticaland empirical
of modem
the religiousconsciousness.
principlesthat govern
application
the
It has shown
the study of rehgion hardly antedates
to
rehgion to be deeply human, and no
first
extraneous
of the
19th.
which
mere
last decade
century. The
phenomenon
might well
"

"

"

"

"

"

technical work

of this sort

probably that

was

of

be

outgrown.

At

the

same

time

it has

mad"

it

investigatorsconnected with Clark

University,the impetus coming from President G.
Stanley Hall, important results being obtained by
Leuba
("The Psychology of Rehgious Phenomena,"
and
Jour, of Psy., 1896, and other articles)
Am.
Starbuck
(The Psychologyof Religion,1899). The
of
principalsubjects investigatedby this group
with
the developconnected
ment
were
psychologists
of the rehgious Ufe of the individual,in
during adolescence,the
childhood and particularly
the phenomena of
chief emphasis being put upon

be identified with any

plain that religioncannot
creed or practicebut is rather an
attitude of the
entire human
mind, reacting toward the Cosmos
and toward society. The essentially
social (as well
of rehgion .has also been
as
individual) nature
states
emphasized. That
religiousmental
obey
the laws of general psychology was
of course
the
expectation of the psychologist,and this expectation
has been
to a considerable extent
verified.
New
of fairlyregular sequence
laws, moreover,
rehgious phenomena or between them and
among

done
the
work
Further
conversion.
was
upon
latter problem by Coe (The Spiritual Life,1900)
and James
{The Varieties of ReligiousExperience,
drawn chieflyfrom the
1903). James's data were
individuals a
disadvantage
study of unusual
largely counterbalanced by the insight and sugwith
In connection
gestivenessof the treatment.
work
has also been
the study of conversion some

certain verifiable conditions

have been
worked
science has reached a point
out.
Finally,the new
where it is able to apply some
of its results to religious
pedagogy and other practicalundertakings.
With
the ultimate
problems of theology the
itself. It
psychology of religiondoes not concern
aims to be a science,
and when
properlypursued it
does not seek to go beyond the hmits of scientific
description and phenomenal explanation. Like
other sciences,
it presupposes
regularityof sequence
and the possibility
of complete explanationwithout
appeal to anything supernatural,but it is not in
to demonstrate
the truth of its presupposia position
tion.
On
the other hand, it is at least equally
incapable of furnishingarguments in favor of the
supernatural. But
though the psychology of
be a partisan in theologicalconreligioncannot
troversy,
well make
of many
theology may
use
of the facts which its researches bring to light.
James
Bissett Pratt

group

of

"

the psychology of revivals (notablyby

on
Davenport, Fryer, and Fursac).

done

studies of mysticism
The
first psychological
appearedin France, at the end of the 19th. century.
from the pens of
important of these were
Leuba
(Les maladies du sentiment religieux)
ens,"
("Tendences fondamentales des mystiques ChretiDelacroix
(Etudes
Revue. Phil, 1902), and
du mysticisme, 1908).
d'histoire et de psychologic
cism,
James's Varieties was also chieflya study of mysti-

The most
Murisier

in

and differed from the three other works named

to the
less naturalistic interpretation

givinga

359

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Purgation

of the Freudian
A
of restoring The
method
success
development of
of psychological principles,
a
psychotherapylies in the impUcit recognitionon
the part of the Freudians
ence
form of heahng which functions through the influthat mental phenomena
consist of specifictypes of responses
to various
of the mental life.
Jung and Adler have attempted to correct
Psychotherapy must be carefullydistinguished stimuU.
the overstressed sexual basis of Freud's theory;
from Psychiatry which treats mental diseases only.
the latter has worked
The former is a general method
of treatingmental
out the etiological
significance
of non-sexual conflicts,
and generalfailuresof
and physical iUness principally
through the means
of suggestion.
adaptation in the development of neuroses.
ing.
HealIII. The
Psychological
Mental
Basis
therapy.
PsychoI. Methods
Results
op
and
op
ous
'Everyfunctional disorder whether nervPsychotherapyis effective in the correction
maladies involving an unbalanof all those human
cing
or
physiologicalis the failure of an organism
definite
to make
to some
of the psychophysicalorganism. Such
a
adequate response
an
condition of stimulation; that is,the organism as a
be accompanied by paralyses of
disturbance
may
various sorts, a variety of faulty sensory
reactions, whole is improperly functioning,as contrasted with
pains of all sorts or any kind of deficientfunctioning a disturbance involving a structural defect. Thus
be owing to
of the physiological
digestion, for example, the failure to see may
as
processes such
visual organ,
to a
the injury of the specific
or
be present
respiration,etc. Again there may
reaction
various forms of insomnia,nervousness,
of
originally developed
general defensive
spasms
in
different types or various forms of psychoses such
to avoid some
unpleasant sight,such as occurs
method
fears. The fundamental
therapy
hysteria. In the latter case the value of psychoas obsessions and
strated
be completely demonof mental heahng is naturallyto restore equihbrium
to effect relief may
because
it does not confine itself as does
between
his surroundings in
the individual and
the therapeutics of drugs to the possible effects
reactions of the person.
order to insure proper
isolated phase of the organism, but aims
The general psychotherapeutic methods which are
an
upon
individual
to improve the
selves
mentally as well as
primarily prophylacticin nature, resolve themmight consider
into a complete regulation of the patient's physically. As an illustration we
of digestivedisturbance by psychotherapy.
be distributedthe cure
both of which must
work and recreation,
An investigationof such an illness may
efficient results.
to yield the most
yieldthe
so
as
information
that the trouble is owing to a inalabove
all become
The patient must
disciplinedso
balance is maintained at
that a proper emotional
surroundings. The
adaptation to the
person
with frifendsor business
have some
of specific
all times.
In cases
disturbance special may
difficulty
about
worries
relations; he becomes
irritable,
techniques of various sorts are employed such as
trifles,
exaggerates his troubles,and finallyfinds
hypnoticcontrol in its many forms.
Psychotherapy.
II. History
op
therapy himself in a state of impaired health with dyspeptic
PsychoThe correction of this illness obviously
has had a long and tortuous
symptoms.
development
the vagariesof mesmerism.
which originatedamong
depends upon a restoration of a proper interaction
between the person and his surroundings.
The
applicationof hypnotism to the needs of
Kantor
Jacob
medical
practice such as the English physicians
PTAH.
God of Memphis in Egypt who created
in the period
Elhotson, Esdaile and Braid made
the gods, the world, and all things by his word.
from 1837 on, inauguratesthe scientific employment
is
that which is loved and that which
in therapeutics. He "made
methods
of technical psychological
and
hated.
he who gave lifeto the peaceful
It was
of Nancy"
In the "School
inspired by Lieb6ault
death to the guilty."
about 1860, Bernheim
developed what turned out
attitude that hypnotism is the
to be the valuable
PUBLICAN.
One of a body of men
in ancient
of suggestion and thereby gave a powerful
process
farmed
Rome
the collection of taxes was
to whom
impetus to the use of hypnotism in medical work.
Coincident
with the growth of the Nancy school
out by the state for a certain period and amount.
tioners,
PubUcans
what became
known
the "School of the Salpewere
as
frequentlyunscrupulous extorheld
Charcot who worked
and the contempt in which they were
at
tridre" developed in Paris.
is reflected in the New Testament, e.g.. Matt. 11 : 19,
the La Salpetriere
hospitalmust be credited with the
18: 17.
active
propagation of the psychological basis
of functional disorders.
Janet, a pupil of Charcot,
word
for rehgious devotion
A Hindu
PUJA.
comprehensive theory of the
developed a very
which may
in degree from sincere respect to
of the neuroses.
mental causes
Dating from the
vary
devout worship.
of the latter, psychotherapeutics became
work
definite scientific basis and
established upon
a
PULPIT.
A raised platform with a desk or
took its place as a legitimatebranch of the medical
sciences,as is well illustrated by the surprising stand to hold the books and manuscripts used in
merly
methods
the deUvery of sermons;
effectiveness attained by psychotherapeutic
or the desk only. Forof war
shock cases
in the recent
the pulpitwas
in the treatment
an
enclosure,frequentlyhaving
A similar piece
and
and in the remarkable
a
sounding board.
development of the
canopy
war,
of furniture,the "mimbar," is the pulpit of a
mental
hygiene movement.
had its inceptionin
Mohammedan
Freudian
movement
The
mosque.
Freud
1895
when
developed the psychological
PuotshSee Rewards
PUNISHMENT."
and
diseases,
acquired from the
conception of nervous
Penology.
French, into a very elaborate technique for the
ments;
The
of such disorders.
treatment
primary departure
the substitution of psychoanalysis
PURANAS.
A collection of eighteen books of
of Freud was
had
medium
which
he
the popular rehgious literature of India.
for hypnotism,
employed as a
They are
of mental conflicts) Later
form are older than
in Sanskrit and in their original
of catharsis (elimination
the 3rd century B.C.
Freud developed the theory of "repression"which
Cosmogony, theology,history,
to some
sexual
traced back the neurotic symptoms
legends of heroes,theories of salvation and social
of
conflict brought to hght through the method
practiceare treated in the works in popular form.
consisted
in connecting
which
free-association,
which
PURGATION.
Proving oneself innocent when
experience with experience until the one
reached and exposed. accused of crime.
This proof might be either
caused the trouble was

PSYCHOTHERAPY."
health by the use

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

DICTIONARY

Purgatorial Societies

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

360

individual.
The
term
first apphed
in the
unimpeachable evidence in support of an oath
was
of innocence,or might be furnished by ordeal (q.v.). ear'y years of Elizabeth's reign and then described,
perhaps rather contemptuously, one who desired a
PURGATORIAL
R.C.
SOCIETIES."
of the forms of church worship.
In the
purification
church
societies or congregations devoted
Puritanism
in essence
to the
was
a
product of the
task of helping the poor souls in purgatory (q.v.).
Reformation
ferment. There
in England
was
httle
PURGATORY."
ing.")
(Latin: "a process of cleansIt usually refers to the Roman
Catholic
beliefin a period of discipline
after death to remove
reUgious disabilities incurred during life.

desire

to

break

from

away

Rome

(1533). But

there

was

the
from
constituted
to find guidance

then, among

Entrance.
All the unbaptized are
barred;
but not all the baptized can be admitted, because
of mortal sins not absolved.
1.

"

2. Duration.

Souls
for
remain
in purgatory
not perthe arrears
of penance
formed
before
death.
By securing indulgences
(q.v.)for oneself or for others one may shorten the
stay. In any case purgatory closes on the day of
"

periods varying

judgment.
3. Purpose.
"

but

as

Absolution
(q.v.)frees from
the temporal penalty due to

guilt

sin.
still
Just as a murderer, though absolved, must
suffer punishment, one
must
go to purgatory, there
to complete the satisfaction of the justice
of God and
to cleanse oneself entirely.
not

from

established

an

system in the early days after the separationfrom

a
Protestants,
turning

earnest

more

the

away

authoritative
leadership of a
hierarchy,and there was
a tendency
in the Scripturesrather than rely simply on
tradition and estabUshed
authority. This tendency
to relyor largelyrely on the "Word"
explainsmuch

in Puritanism
tion.
of the whole Reformaas it does much
We
however, properly pass over the
may,
first thirtyyears
after the break with Rome
and
to the time of EUzabeth, when
what
was
pass on
called Puritanism
began. Throughout her reign
much
discussion of ecclesiastical
(1558-1603) there was
determined
to
matters, and the Queen was
have
uniformity and regularity. There was, on
the other hand, strong oppositionto the preservation
of practicesand formalities in the Church
that were
considered
rehcs
of popery
and
mere
"popish
other
superstitions" objection,in
words, to
stopping the Reformation
by merely casting aside
the relations with Rome.
An astonishingamount
of earnestness
devoted
and learningwas
to attack
such things as the use
of the cross
on
in baptism
and of the ring in marriage, the celebration^
of
saints' days, the wearing of the cap and surplice.
At the beginning of James' reign (1603-1625) the
MillenaryPetition was in part directed againstsuch
at no
practices; and this aspect of Puritanism
time disappeared.
Objection to the form of church organization
marks
the second period,
which began about 1570;
this objection was
though of course
organically
connected
with opposition
and with
to ceremonials
and praca desire to approach the primitiveforms
tices
of the church.
did not
Even
this movement
established
aim
down
the
at
breaking
generally
desired the Presbyterian organizachurch; many
tion;
and chancellors
archbishops and arch-deacons
of
said the reformers, "drawn
out
were
names,
which they
the pope's snop," and the government
denounced
"anti-Christian
and
used
was
as
devilish."
A few there were
who
set upon
were
state
building "up churches
separate from
any
the
establishment; they were
"separatists" or
who
that any
"Brownists"
contended
number,
motion
form a
however
smaU, could of their own
church.
EUzabeth
turned upon
the Presbyterians
and Separatistswith almost, if not quite,as severe
rigor as against the Catholics; Separatism nearly
view, to reappear
altogether disappeared from
in the next century as a great force in the Puritan
RebeUion.
Presbyterianism likewise, though
"

4.

death

Suffering.After
"

make

cannot

one

satisfaction or acquire merit; one

must
atone
by
instead of satisf
suffering(satispassio
actio) The
sufferings are
graded. Nearly all the Greek
Fathers and many
of the Latins held that the fire,
though agonizing,is figurative.
6. Psychological appeal. ^Purgatory suggests
their
in which the livingcan continue to serve
a way
It
dead, and that in the hour of their direst need.
is also a presuppositionof the system of indulgences,
and therefore stimulates
almsgiving, and
prayer,
other good works, and the more
frequentoffering
.

"

of the sacrificeof the

mass.

adduced
include
texts
6. History. Biblical
II Mace.
and
I Cor. 3:11-15.
Under
12:43-44
Clement
the influence of Plato, the Alexandrians
and
Origen allegorizedthe traditional flame and
made
future punishment purificatory.Purgatory
not defined as dogma tillthe Council of Florence
was
"

(1439).
7. Protestant attitude. The Reformers
thought
liberal
purgatory repugnant to Scripture. Some
theologiansteach that all future punishment should
be reformatory. Most Protestants expect immediate
stabilityof status after death.
"

W.
PURIFICATION."

W.

See Defilement

Rockwell
and

Puri-

PURIM."
(Hebrew: "lots.") A Jewish feast
celebrated
annually on the fourteenth of Adar,
the month
corresponding approximately to March,
in commemoration
of the deliverance of the Persian
It is
Jews, as recorded in the book of Esther.

vigorously attacked,

was

not

altogether wiped

in force in the time of Charles (1625celebrated by feasting, masquerading, sending

out, but arose
and especially, 1649) and of the Commonwealth.
resents, and general jollification;
and
The
the
the Megillah (i.e.,
aspect of Puritanism, asceticism
y reading in the synagog

scroll of the book

of

Esther).

The word Puritanism, as it is

PURITANISM."
used today, suggests a body of principles
or behefs
concerning the propriety of individual conduct.
The Puritan adheres to a strict code of moraUty, and
is used invidiously,as it often is, it
if the term
with unbecoming rigor clingsto
who
one
signifies
out-Worn
austerityand refuses to recognize the
an
cent.
rightfulnessof enjoyments that others find innotook its rise
When, however, Puritanism
first used, it had no special
and when the word was
reference to the morality or immorality of the

austerity,of which we have already spoken, did

not become
prominent till toward the end of the
16th. century.

hostilitytoward

It had
"

its connection

with the whole

"

idolatry and with the zeal

to
the scriptural injunctions, a
for adherence
the
zeal shown
most
clearlyin insistence upon
of the Sabbath.
Under such influences,
observance
made
various immoralities
attacks were
upon
be
well as upon
practicesthat might now
The quaUtiesand characteristics
thought innocent.
in its various aspects are most clearly
of Puritanism
in tlie New
seen
England colonies of the 17th.
their immediate
those men
and
century, among
severe

as

361

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

build a
America
to
who
to
descendants
came
bulwark
"againstthe kingdom of antichrist."
C. McLaughlin
Andrew
The general term for the family
PUROHITA."
priestin Hinduism.

AND

ETHICS

PUSHAN.
A sun-god of Vedic religionwho
became
specialized as the guide of travellers,
warder of flocks,
finder of lost articles,
a god of the
roads.
"

PYRRHONISM."
PURUSHA.

In

"

early Vedic hymn Purusha

all
giganticbeing from whom
an

is spoken of as a
formed.
is used in
The
word
the universe was
with Brahman, the
the Upanishads as synonymous
Supreme Soul. In the Sdnkhya system it means
infinite
there are
the individual soul,of which
an
it designates soul, whether
number.
Commonly
the soul of the universe or of the individual,
though the
soul is atman
or jlvdtman.
generalterm for the human
BOUVERIE
PUSEY, EDWARD
(1800-1882)."
English church theologian,the leader of the High

party whose

Church

(q.v.) was

influence in the Oxford

ment
Moveextensive.
He
sought to
of the real presence
of Christ
the practiseof the confessional.

Qutb

The

doctrines
philosophical

taught by the Greek philosopher,Pyrrho of Elis

(ca. 360-270), the main
of which
tenet
was
a
thorough-going skepticism. The impossibilityof
led
to an
knowledge
emphasis on imperturbability
as

the ethical

norm.

PYTHAGOREANISM."
of Pythagoras, the

The philosophical
tem
sysIonian
Greek
pher
philoso(6th. century B.C.) and his followers,
the
main
of which
tenets
the immortalityand
were
the
transmigration of the soul and
mystical
of number
the rational principle
use
of the
as
cosmos.

very

revive the doctrine

in the eucharist and

word
abbreviation for the German
Q. An
It is used to designate
Quelle,meaning source.
"

documents
from
which
the
the lost document
or
and Luke
writers of Matthew
are
commonly supposed
materials.
to have derived their non-Markan
The
name
applied in Islam
QADARITES.
that man
has power
(qadar)
to those who beKeved
actions and is not in all thingssubject
his own
over
This was
predestinationof God.
to the absolute
of the doctrines of the Mu^tazilites (q.v.).
also one

PYX.

See Tabernacle

"

(5).

symbols would
fertility
powers

indicate
that he combined
the
of sun, wind, and waters.
He is
the teacher of arts and patron of agriculture. With
the coming of the Mexicans
he departed to the
east.
The Spaniards were
welcomed
the return
as
of the god.

"

oflicial appointed by the

A Moslem
QADI.
to decide
cases
duty it was
government whose
duties in such matters as laws of
involvingreligious
inheritance and marriage.
"

See Isma'IlIs.

QARMATIANS."

The

QUADRAGESIMA."

Latin

for Lent

name

(q.v.).
earUest Christian
The
gist
apololived in the reign of Hadrian
(117-138)
he addressed a defence of Christianity.

QUADRATUS.
who
to whom

"

^A type of mysticismwhich
oped
devel17th. century, in Italy,France, and
Holland, out of the Counter-Reformation.
Quietism is the most acute stage of European
absolute despair
of an
out
mysticism. It sprang
of human
nature, an extrep"? fprm of tb^ Hnntrinp of
the
the utter ruin of faneiTman.
IL^figaxLJvith
fundamental assumption that nothing of spiritual
The
value or significance
can
originatein man.
only hope of salvation or of a true religioushfe
lies in a divine movement,
a
supernatural action
wil:hin the soul. The Quietistendeavors
to secure
tion
absolute calm, the annihilaa silence of all flesh,
an
of self-will,
act within
in order that God may
the soul and bring forth the spiritual
results which
states are beUeved
he wills. The
highestspiritual
with
by the Quietistto be "pure" states,unmixed
anything of self. "Pure" prayer is prayer without
words
or
even
thoughts a state of complete
"Pure"
love is a love which
absorption in God.
loves nothing finite or particular. It loves for love's
sake alone.
"Pure"
faith is intense consciousness
definite ideas or beliefs or
of God, but without

QUIETISM.

"

in the

"

QUAKER.

"

See

Friends, Society

op.

DECIMANS."
Those Christians in the
commemorated
the death and
who
resurrection of Christ in a period beginning on the
Nisan (thedate
14th {quartusdecimus) of the month
tion
of the Jewish Passover). This brought the celebrain different years,
on different days of the week
At the Council
of
introduced confusion.
hence
was
demned,
conNicaea in 325 the quartodeciman practice
made
and it was
rate
obligatoryto commemoGood
the death of Christ on
Friday, and to
celebrate the Resurrection on the followingSunday.

QUARTO

early church

See Easter.

(1634-1719)." French
regarded as the leader of
the
on
Reflections
the Jansenist party. His Moral
of the most
one
important
Testament
was
New
being condemned
Jansenist books, its propositions
the bull, Unigenitus(q.v.).
m

QUESNEL,

theologian,for

name

The
Miguel de MoUnos
great Quietistswere:
(1627-1696); Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Mothe
Guyon (1648-1717); Frangois de la Mothe Fenelon
Bourignon (1616(1651-1715); and Antoinette
Rtjpus M. Jones
1680).
merly
(Latin: "fifty.") Forperiod from the Sunday preceding Lent
Sunday. Quinquagesima Sunday is the
Sunday immediately preceding Lent, being the
fiftieth day before Easter.

QUINQUAGESIMA.

"

the
to Easter

PASQNIER

time

QUETZALCOATL.
whose

expectations.

means

"

A pre-Astec
god of Mexico
"Feathered
Serpent." His

QURAN."

See Koran.

The
"Axis," the most perfectsaint
QUTB.
is at the
of the age who, according to dervish belief,
head
of the hierarchy of saints directing human
be unknown
and unseen.
though he may
affairs,
to describe a saint of
is used generally
The term
very superior holiness of life.
"

Rs

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

362

night is free but must not be spent in frivohty.

who does
Moreover, the fast is worthless to a man
not perform it willingly,
desiringto receive reward

See Re.

RA."

AND

RABBI.
(Hebrew: "my master" or "teacher."
also RAB
A recognized from God for his deed.
Sometimes
or
RABBAN).
of Jewish
master
learning. The title applied in
RAMAKRISHNA
times to the Jewish spiritual
ancient and modem
(1834-1886)."An influential
ascetic mystic of modem
He had Uttle
leader.
Hinduism,
knowledge but an intense rehgious emotion which
in his youth found expressionin devotion
word "Rabbi"
RABBINISM."
to the
Theneo-Hebraic
trained in Yoga and
goddess Kali. Later he was
(my master) is the title given since the 2nd. century
initiated as a rehgious devotee.
teachers in Israel,
whose opinions
Instructed in the
to the authorized
he henceforth
Veddnta
The word
and Midrash.
laid down
in Talmud
thought of ultimate reahty
are
Rabbinism
includes also the views of all the later
as
impersonal and knowable
only in phenomenal
manifestations.
Uterattire. See
authorities based on the Talmudic
Coming under the influence of the
sectarian rehgions of Krishna, of Islam
and
of
Judaism; Mishnah; Talmud; Midrash, etc.
he found it possibleto enjoy the mystic
Christianity
union with God
under any of these forms.
CATECHISM."
RAEAUER
As a
or
RACOVUN,
he taught that the form of rehgion and
See SociNiANisM.
consequence
the manner
of worship are indifferent;
all rehgions
of them
true since in any one
The time of doom
into
of the gods
RAGNAROK."
are
men
come
relation with the one God.
He urged that Hinduism
the
in Norse mythology. In a great battle with
the Aryan way
and should be maintained
because
for
of evil the old Aesir gods, doomed
was
powers
India. Vivekananda
of broken
(q.v.)was his greatest disciple.
faith,are destroyed and with them the
the fire has passed,
and
heaven.
After
earth
RAmANANDA.
An
from the deep, a
important leader of the
however, the earth rises purified
in India
of the old
Ramaite
movement
the pure
firmament
ones
new
during the 15th.
appears,
the side of
of men
back and a new
race
begins. The
century. He threw his influence on
gods come
tendencies at work
to bring a theistic rehgionof
of peace and purity.
world enters upon
era
a new
salvation to the common
people,emphasizing the
byterian personalgod, Ram
(Vishnu),rather than monism,
(1826-1906)."Scottish PresRAINY, ROBERT
using the vernacular Hindi rather than the Sanskrit,
minister,professorof church history and
relaxingthe rigidrules regardingfood,extendingthe
College, Edinburgh. He was
principalof New
free fellowshipof the sect to all classes of people
influential during a period of controversy in
very
Scotland
over
questions of biblical and historical who sought salvation regardlessof caste.
Through
and their followers he has exerted
confidence
in
his greatdisciples
scholarship,helping to estabhsh
also was
instrumental in
He
critical method.
a vast influence in India.
Kabir, Nanak, Tulsi Das
his spiritual
heirs.
are
securing the union of the Free Church with the
"

"

United

Presbyterians.

RAmANUJA.

A class of dangerousdemons in
RAESHASAS.
and of great
Hindu
folk-beUef,
ugly in appearance
who
constantlytrouble and terrifyhuman
ing
devoureings,causing storms, carryingmen
away,
tion.
them or changing shape to lead them to destrucThey have a long historyin India from
deals
times.
The
Vedic
to modem
RamSyana
with one of these demons.
of Rama
with the struggle
"

Eower,

ROY
MOHAN
RAM
(1772 or 1774-1833)."
Founder
of the Brahma
SamaJ (q.v.). He was
when
and abandoned his home
reared a Vaishnavite,
his
his parents proved unsympathetic toward
ideas.
of reform
monotheistic
He led a movement
against degraded forms of Hinduism, and was
He was
the first modern
active as a translator.
Brahman
to break the rule against
crossingthe ocean.

RAMA.

^The hero of an epic poem

in Sanskrit
character and exploitsin defeatingthe
demon, Rabana, made him a popularheroic figure.
then recognized as an
later deified and
He
was
About the 8th. century the Rama
avatar of Vishnu.
took
form
parallel to the
sect of Vaishnavism
of the
Krishna sect. The
^eat popularization
accomphshed by Tulsi Das in his
rehgion was
in the 16th.
Hindi adaptation of the Rdmdyana
90 milUons of the
century. The sect claims some
Hindu peopletoday. SeeRAMAYANAj
Ramananda;
Ramanuja.
whose

A learned teacher of Vaishnavism

flourished in S. India in the latter
Vedantist
a
part of the 11th. century. He was
and made
his hfe work
the transformation
philosophically
into a philosophical
of the Vedanta
rehgioncapableof coming to terms with the needs
of
popular worship. While
maintaining that
Vishnu is alone real he made
a
place within this
for the supreme
Absolute
eternal
personal spirit,
all evolving in an
souls and the material world
apparently real sense
yet all part of and one with
Absolute,
the
the
Entirely within
impersonal
with its many
divine unity he set the cosmic drama
grades of souls,the various modes of manifestation
of transmigrationand
of the Supreme, the round
of Vishnu.
the heaven of eternal bhss in the presence
is the only reahty. AH this apparently
Yet God
evolution
takes place within
real universal
the
bounds of his being.
"

(q.v.)who

"

noble

month
observed as a time of
Each day, from the time when
be distinguishedfrom a black
white thread may
a
be
at sunrise to the coming of night there must
one
completeabstinence from eatingand drinking. The

RAMADAN.

"

fastingby Moslems.

RAmAYANA.
One
of the two great epicsof
sectarian rehgion. Originallywritten (6th.Hindu
4th, century B.C.) as a popidar epic by Valmiki
settingforth the heroic deeds of the noble human
it was
transformed, about the 2nd.
prince Rama
into a sectarian
century B.C., by interpolation,
From
avatar of Vishnu,
as
an
exaltingRama
poem
versions have
the 10th. to the 18th, century many
been
languages of
produced in the vernacular
India.
The work teUs the story of the victory of
his enemies, human
and demonic, in
Rama
over
of his chaste wife,a model of womanhood.
protection
versions emphasize the divine love
modem
The
who trust his saving
of Rama- Vishnu toward
men
See Rama.
power.
"

RAMMON,

RIMMON."

See Adad.

363

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

Reason

of Christianity,
A 17th. century sect in England
incisivelyand vigorously
with God, and
contact
assailingcurrent social injustice.His most important
professed immediate
books
and the Social Crisis
are
Christianity
rejectedthe authoritative control of Bible,church,
and Christianizing
ministers. They developed eccentric and
the Social Order.
or ordained
Methodists
Primitive
fanatical traits. The
(q.v.)
of their
The
RE.
because
called ranters
sometimes
sun-god of ancient Egypt. The
were
greatest figureof the cult,risingunder Ikhnaton to
noisy and passionatepreaching.
the grandeur of an only God.
bar
RASm
(1040-1105)."Solomon
Isaac, a
RANTERS.

"

tation

who

"

French
Talmud.

Jewish

commentator

on

the

Bible

and

REAL

PRESENCE."

The

doctrine that

the

body and blood of Christ are actuallypresent in

sive
thorough and comprehenknowledge, and clearlyand conciselyexpressed, the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. The
belief is held
in the
Greek
of inestimable value
his talmudic commentaries
Orthodox, R.C.,
are
indeed
is
of the Talmud, which
churches, though with
to all students
AngUcan, and Lutheran
differences
of
theological interpretation. See
now
invariablyprintedwith Rashi's commentaries.
Consubstantributions Eucharist;
Other Jewish writers have made
more
Transubstantiation;
originalconof knowledge; but none
has
tiation.
to the sum
the Jews as
had so widespread an influence among
Based

upon

AND
NOMINALISM."
ReaUsm
is
REALISM
the
universals
doctrine
of Plato
that
general
notions and class concepts
^have an
of
the
Yazatas
One
RASHNU.
independent
(q.v.) in
real than are
Zoroastrian rehgion. He is the spiritof truth who
particular
existence,and are more
holds the balance to weigh the good and evil deeds
objects. Its formula
is, universalia sunt realia
makes
universals
NominaUsm
ante
res.
mere
at the judgment of souls.
and denies them other existence than they
names,
Sects.
See Russian
minds.
RASKOLNIKI."
have in our
in the earlyperiod of
ReaUsm
dominant
was
The
RATIO
STUDIORUM."
scholasticism. Anselm
designation in
(1033-1109) held reaUsm
seemed
brief for the pedagogicalsystem of the Jesuits (q.v.). to be essential to orthodoxy. Nominahsm
is Method
arid
Adam's
destructive of certain important dogmas.
The
designationin full (translated)
System of the Studies of the Societyof Jesus.
sin,for example, was his individual deed according
to nominahsm, whereas reahsm
made it an act of the
of philosophizing race, of humanitas
A method
RATIONALISM.
The
iota present in Adam.
and criterion
the ultimate source
could be maintained
which makes reason
by
unity of the God-head
of truth.
but tri-theism was
the logicalconsequence
realism^
fied
Abelard
of nominahsm.
As opposed to empiricism (q.v.), rationaUsm
(1079-1142) gave a modicertain innate ideas or a prioriphiloalso accepted by the
form to realism,
which was
insists on
sophical
pendent
of the 13th. century. The indeprinciplesas fundamental in knowledge.
great schoolmen
The
existence of universals was
no
longer held.
great systems of Descartes, Spinoza, and
became
Leibnitz are rationalistic in this sense.
The
formula
universalia in rebu^.
now
is employed in theology
Rationalism
carried farther,espeThe term
But criticism of reahsm
was
cially
in constructing
in the 14th. century.
to indicate the exclusive use of reason
by William of Occam
ism
He asserted that universals are
rehgiousbeUefs. The positiveaim of rationalonly terms which
is to maintain
arise in the mind
of realism
The dechne
religiousdoctrines on grounds
post res.
See Natural
meant
the growing extension of the scientifictemper
Religion;
acceptable to all men.
The
Deism.
which
value to the study of individual
negative aspect of rationalism is
new
gave
to mysticism
in its uncompromising hostility
Everett
Walter
Goodnow
seen
things.
If reason
alone is
and to supernaturalrevelation.
be no
to determine
authority
The
REASON.
truth, there can
capacity to form clear ideas,
ehminates
Rationalism
thus
reason."
"above
to compare
ideas,and to form conclusions on the
declared
elements
which
Christianity has
basis
of such
comparison. It represents the
many
fundamental, such as the doctrines of the Trinity, deliberative and critical aspect of consciousness in
the Incarnation,
direct emotional and instinctive
sin,the vicarious atonement
contrast to the more
original
of Christ,and the miraculous.
reactions of men.
During the 18th.
absorbed
in
to be so
Reason
translates the deliverances of the senses
century rationalism came
ness
into definite ideas which may
be held in consciousnegative criticism of Christianity,that it lost all
It
and
capacity for appreciating the mystical rehgious
subjected to careful examination.
cized.
values which
is thus the primary means
are
of organizingour experipreservedin the doctrines critience
shallow and flippant;and during
It grew
to make
so as
possiblea critical education,and
the 19th. century ceased to be influential. Thomas
it makes
possiblethe science and the philosophy
It is
Paine's Age of Reason is the best known
which
of culture.
lie at the foundations
example of
character of later rationalism.
the "smart"
therefore highly prized. In the realm of behavior,
lies in
defect of rationalism
The fundamental
that the impulses^
to "be reasonable"
are
means
gion.
its exclusivelyintellectualistic conception of relisubjected to a control in the interests of principles
will be content
with
that men
Reason
thus
be objectivelyset forth.
It assumes
which may
emotional
and
of which
furnishes an objectivestandard by means
logical consistency. But
mere
to a common
understanding and a
men
come
mystical experiences constitute the very hfe of
may
common
religion. Doctrines are admittedlyimperfectmeans
program of action.
and mystical
to reaUze emotional
But since
of enabling men
necessarilymakes use of ideas,
reason
Modern
which
satisfaction.
psychology has undermined
are
secondary products of experience,it is
Thus
it is both
from the primary
the epistemologyof rationalism.
always working at one remove
discredited.
and religiously
for ideas to be taken as
data of life. It is possible
philosophically
Smith
Gerald
Birney
ences
experiobjectsof thought apart from the sensory
In such a case, reason
WALTER
from which they sprang.
(1861-1919)."
RAUSCHENBUSCH,
consistency
Baptist minister and professorof church history builds up a speculativeworld, in which logical
He was
of ideas is the sole test employed. RationaUsm
in Rochester
TheologicalSeminary, N.Y.
of abstract
of the foremost advocates of a social interprerepresentssuch a supremacy
(q.v.)
one
Rashi.

"

"

"

"

"

Recapitulation

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

aspectsof experienceare
to their rights.
allowed to come
Christian
theology has, as a rule, regarded
a
divinely given endowment
reason
as
through
could discover the truth.
On the basis
which men
"natural
of reason
structed
cona
theology" (q.v.) was
which was
supplementedby the doctrines
tion
furnished by revelation.
Where
and revelareason
to agree, the attempt
did not seem, at firstsight,
to discover
made
an
was
interpretationin which
should
In rare
both
a
concur.
instances,when
discrepancy has been discovered,theologianshave
defied reason, assertingthe authority of revelation
if its deliverances
seemed
to be irrational.
even
But generallyspeaking the desire to find rational
well as authoritative support for doctrines has
as
ism;
Rationalprevailed. See Natural
Theology;
Religion.
Philosophy
to
in Relation
Birney
Smith
Gerald
1. The
RECAPITULATION."
theory advanced
by Irenaeus that the Logos passed through all
phases of human experienceso as to confer complete
salvation on every aspect of human
ing
life,by reversthe evil processes due to man's sinfulness.
2. The pedagogical
theory that the growth of
hood
the individual human
organism up through childand
social
through the biological
passes
race.
development of the human
concepts that the concrete

not

RECLUSE.

"

One

who

Uves in seclusion from

world, particularly for religiouspurposes.

Asceticism; Monasticism; Anchorites.
RECONCILIATION."

bringing into harmonious

the
See

(1)The act or process of

relationshipthose who

used of the relation between

alienated.
When
of the
the purpose
it expresses
and
God
man
Atonement
(q.v.).(2) In R.C. terminology, the
of a decree of excommunication;
or
cancellingof an interdict,
the rededication of anything which
or
were

has been

profaned.

AngUcan church,the clergyman

of the parish, and
income
for maintaining the church
is nominally responsible
services.
Laymen, designated as lay rectors are
sometimes
granted the freehold and unappropriated
of a parish without
income
pastoral obligations.
In the Protestant Episcopal church of the U. S. A.,
is officially
in charge of a parish.
a clergyman who
In the R.C. church, the clergyman presidingover
college or community; in Great
a
congregation,
Britain and the U.S.A., a priestin charge of an
important mission,as a missionary rector.
In the
RECTOR.
receives the
who
"

The designationin the 16th. and

RECUSANT.
refused
17th. centuries in England for those who
to attend the services of the established (Anghcan)
CathoUcs were
Roman
church.
usuallydesignated
by the name.
"

Red
The
Cross, spiritual
Knights Hospitallersof the
nursing sisters of Saint Vincent de
Crusades,
gale
Paul in the Napoleonic wars, and Florence Nightin-

RED
descendant

CROSS."

of
the

the

in the Crimea,
and her heroic band of nurses
founded at Geneva, in 1863,through the efforts
after
of Henri Dunant, a Swiss physician. It was
ministeringto the wounded at the battle of Solf erino,
Italy,in 1859, that he conceived the idea of an
international understanding whereby the sick and
and enemy
wounded
prisonersof war would receive
under
common
humane
flag, and
a
care
mercy
sought assistance of the Geneva Societyof PubUc
was

Utilities.
An international conference of fourteen nations
adopted the treaty of Geneva, or Red Cross treaty.

AND

ETHICS

364

in 1864, which has been ratified subsequentlyby all

This instrument
civiUzed nations.
provides that
in war, hospitalformations and their personnelshall
be treated as neutrals and that every nation signing
the treaty shall have an association of volunteers to
assist and supplement the medical
services of the
the chief duties of the
fightingforces. Accordingly,
International Committee
Cross are to
of the Red
promote the formation of reliefsocieties in countries
where they do not exist,
to serve
as an
intermediary
for the national societies,
to foster development of
the principles
of the Geneva
Convention,and, within
the hmits of its authority,perfectand carry out the
terms of the treaty. The Red Cross emblem, which
is the Swiss flagreversed,
was
adopted as an enduring
tribute to Henri Dunant.
The organizationhas amply proved the value of
its work in every war, disaster and pestilenceall
the world from the time of the convention.
over
When
the World
War
broke
in 1914, every
out
European nation,those of the Americas and some
of those in the Orient were
supporting Red Cross
societies which
to the call to
responded at once
service. During five years of horror they proved
for all time that the Red
Cross is the practical
expressionof the universal ideal of mercy, knowing
neither race nor
creed.
The plightof the inhabitants
in the vast theater of conflict made evident the
of immediate
necessityof a program
post-war peacetime
and succor, taxing the utmost
reconstruction
of helpful agencies. To
energies and resources
there
prepare and put into effect such a program,
formed
at Cannes, France, in May,
was
1919,
the League of Red Cross Societies,
whose peacetime
duties would
be equivalent to the wartime
duties
of the International Committee.
Red Cross,of which the United
The American
States Sanitary Commission
of the Civil War
was
the forerunner,was
incorporatedin the District of
in July, 1881, under
the name
Columbia
"The
Association
of the Red
American
Cross."
The
confirmed
Treaty of Geneva was
by the Senate in
and
in
March, 1882,
June, 1900, the American
Red Cross was
incorporatedby Congress. It was
re-incorporatedin January, 1905, and given the
charter now
in force.
Not
a
government department but a reUef

organization having a governmental status, the

American
Red
its Congressional
Cross, under
charter, has the following functions:
(1) The
furnishingof volunteer aid to the sick and wounded
in time of
Convention.

in accordance
with the Geneva
of communia medium
cation
between the people of the United States of
and navy
America
and their army
in matters
of
voluntary relief,and between similar national
societies of other governments
and this country.
national
(3) Carrying on a system of national and interrelief in time of peace, applying the same
in public disasters,
and devising and carrying on
for their prevention. Representatives
measures
of the State,Treasury, War, Justice and
Navy
of the Central Committee
departments are members
of the American
Red
Cross,all Red Cross
audited by the War
accounts
are
Department,and
the Secretaryof War makes
annual report of its
an
war

(2)Acting as

activitiesto Congress.

1, 1917, the American Red Cross had

of 486,000 members
in 562 chapters,
and on
stood
February 28, 1919, the enrolment
members
at 20,000,000 adult
in 3,724 chapters
with 17,186branches,and 11,000,000
juniormembers
school children.
During the twenty months
among
in
ending on the latter date the total revenues
were
round
numbers
$400,000,000; while the expenditures
an

On May
enrolment

were

for
$273,000,000"

$164,000,000,and

relief
abroad
for relief in the United States

365

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

remaining $127,000,000 was

$119,000,000. The
in both
expended during the succeeding months
foreignand domestic reUef.
of the organizationincludes
The peace program
continuation of aid to needy and disabled veterans
of the World
War, service for the peace time Army
and Navy, development of stouter national resistance
to disease through health centers, increase of the
with
and
nation's nursing resources
co-operation
official health
preparedness
agencies; continued
Service and community
Home
for reUef in disasters;
warwork, and completion of relief work among
exhausted
and disease-ridden peoples abroad.
of
Red
As
formally described, the League
founded
Cross Societies,
tions
by the national organizaof the United
States,Great Britain,France,
Italy,and Japan, will "encourage and promote in

AND

God

ETHICS
and

sometimes

Redemptoristines

an

expected Messiah.

times

every

country in the world

the establishment

and

duly_authorized

of
a
Cross

voluntary
national Red
having as purorganization,
poses
the improvement of health,the prevention of
to
the mitigation of suffering,and
disease and
development

for
of such organizations
the co-operation
will promote the welfare of manthese purposes;
kind
for bringing within
by furnishinga medium
the reach of all peoples the benefits to be derived
contributions
facts and new
from present known
tion;
to science and medical knowledge and their applicafor co-ordinating
and will furnish a medium
reliefwork in case of great national or international
calamities." Besides the founder
members, the
includes the Red Cross organizations
League now
secure

Argentina, Australia,Belgium, Brazil,Canada,

Czecho-Slovakia, ChiU, China, Cuba, Denmark,
Zealand, Norway,
Greece, Holland, India, New
Peru, Poland, Portugal,Roumania, Serbia,South
Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,Uruguay and
in a
Control
of the League reposes
Venezuela.
all
oi
General Council composed of representatives
member
societies,a governing board of fifteen
members, and two ex-officio members.
of

W.

S. Odlin

(Latin: redemptio,a buying

in
term
repurchase.) The
back, or
expresses
thought the act of placatingan offended
religious
of error
or
deity and averting the consequences
sacrifices did
not
sin. Among
primitive men
a
redemptive significance(see
ordinarily have
Sacrifice),but in many parts of the world piacular
offered on
occasions of great peril
sacrifices were
to placate the deity that was
supposed
or
distress,
If the perilor distress was
to be offended.
averted,
the sacrifices were
tive
supposedto have had a redempgaall,"to buy
efficacy.Among the Hebrews
employed of redeeming estates, but
back," was
had a wider meaning; thus goelh"ddam
its participle
of blood (Num. 35:19ff.).
designated the avenger
of
As the lex talionis was
regarded as a means
find goelin Job 19:25 applied
we
obtainingjustice,
final justicefor
the being who will secure
to God
as
REDEMPTION.

"

much
is said about
40-66
the
from her exile. The redeemer
himself.
As Judah
Yahweh
is in all cases
was
believed to have incurred her exile by her sins,her
redemption was to be accomplished by Yahweh's
graciouslove.
the exile and loss
Israel's national misfortunes
of independence led to the development of an
intense realization of the need for redemption from
result of
the ills of the present world-age. The
the development after about 200 B.C. of the
this was
which is devoted
mainly to
apocalypticliterature,
the redemption of the chosen people from their present
illsand the destruction that awaits the wicked.
This redemption was
expectedto be accomplished
in a
cataclysmic
through divine intervention
upheaval. The agent of the redemption v/as someJob.

In

Isaiah

redemption of Judah

See Apocalyptic

The fullest development of the idea of redemption

is in Christian theology,
but the Christian ideas
Atonement
are fullytreated under
(q.v.).
Next
to Judaism
and
the most
Christianity
complete development of redemption is found in
the mystery religionsof Greece
and the Roman
empire. The cult of the Thracian god Dionysos,
introduced into Greece in the 7th. and 6th. centuries
cult for individuals in contrast
to
a
B.C., became
the native reUgionsof the country, which were
clan
religions.Before this time the dead were beheved
to pass a wretched
existence in Hades, such as is
portrayed in the 11th. book of the Odyssey.The
beheved
to
mysteries of Dionysos were
secure
certain benefits,one
of which
was
redemption
from the wretchedness
of Hades
to a happierlife.
Similar cults of a more
refined nature
that of
were
Demeter
at Eleusis and the cult of Orpheus.
Similarly into the Roman
empire during the
firstthree centuries of the Christian era three foreign
from
their home
rehgions, detached
lands, were
and became very
introduced as mystery religions,
the cults of the Phrygian
popular. These were
Cybele,the Egyptian Isis,and the Persian Mithra.
Each
possessed mystic rites,and each promised
personal regenerationand salvation. Among the
the taurobolium,which
mystic rites of Cybele was
requiredthe devotee to stand in a pit above which a
bull was
killed. The blood trickled through crevices
in the covering of the pit and drenched
the worshiper.
When
he emerged he was beheved to have put
his old nature and to be united to the goddess.
away
Among backward peoples it is often believed
that it is necessary for deities to be propitiated
by beholding sufferingto keep them from inflicting
sufferingon the community. For example among
the Dravidians
nine victims are each year impaled
sticks which
rise from
rude cart,
as
on
a
many
which the priestthen drives for a mile or more
to
the sanctuary.
The
writhing of the victims is
tions
supposed to redeem the community from visitaof the divine anger.
If the etymologicalmeaning of redemption be
and it be interpretedas the freeing
disregarded,
of human
life by religious
practicesfrom illsthat
otherwise overtake it,then all religions
would
are
redemptive. In India it has been believed since
about the 8th. century B.C. that redemption from
reincarnation
is the great desideratum.
Jainism
and
other sects believe that this can
be
many

accomplished by asceticism;Hinayana Buddhism,

by followingthe Noble Eightfold Path of ethics;
one's lower
the followers of Krishna, by sacrificing
to one's higher nature; the ^ivaites oy imitating
the not-too-moral
Civa. Mahayana Buddhists in
Tibet believe that redemption is accomplished by
the up-bearing of prayers many
if the
times, even
up-bearing is done by a wheel; sections of Chinese
and Japanese Buddhists hold that it is accompUshed
fucianism
by faith in Amida
Buddha, the Savior. Conand

Zoroastrianism

look

for dehverance

humanity through ethical endeavor;

early Taoism, through a quiescentsympathy with
nature
tive
by which one regainsthe condition of primifrom

the illsof

man.

"

"

Literature.

The

predestinessome

Mohammedan
men

to hell

beheves

that

Allah

and others to heaven,

he holds that the saying of the appointed

even
prayers, fasting,and alms-givingresult in a store
will respect. Interof merit that a merciful God
preted
all religion
is redemptive.
in this broad way
George
A. Barton
A R.C. congregation
REDEMPTORISTINES."
of women,
founded by Thomas
Falcoja of Castellafor contemplation and education. The rule
mare
was
approved by Benedict XIV. in 1750.
but

Redemptorists

DICTIONARY

OF

A
R.C. religiousorder
1732, by St. Alfonso Maria de Liguori,
object of prosecuting missionary work,

REDEMPTORISTS."
founded
with the

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

366

the rather

type of scholastic theology

revolutionary
of Occam
and his Nominahst
taught by WilHam
followers,
which, while not then considered heretical,

tended nevertheless to discreditthe reahst and more

rationalistic older Schoolmen.
See Scholasticism;
Realism
which
REFORMATION.
The
and
came
name
Nominalism; Occam.
Also, in
in a particular certain phases of later medieval Mysticism,historians
very earlyto be appliedby historians,
discover
influences contributory to the
technical sense, to that important 16th. century
or
Protestant
schism.
which
The
movement
began with attacks upon a few
emphasis which Mystics
hke St. Bernhard, Tauler,Thomas
cally
doctrines and practicesof the medieval, hierarchih Kempis and
minated others of the Brethren of the Common
Life put upon
organized,Christian church and which culin the separation from this organization a non-intellectual faith or trust,upon
immediate
with God, upon
of individuals,either as a result of
of multitudes
the priestpersonal communion
hood
of all believers,
the study of the Scripor
personal choice or as a result of more
deliberate,
tures
upon
less involuntary obedience
to royal, princely
or
by all and in the vernacular,and upon
the
is
and
there
character
At
of God, tended
loving
a
forgiving
to
present
municipal governments.
Protestant
depreciate the mediatory function of the church
growing tendency to apply the term
and
and clergy
to undermine
belief in the efficacy
Revolt
to this movement,
retaining the word
tion
of sacramental
ceremonies.
Such
Reformation
also in the phrase Catholic Reformalate medieval
and
conservative
anti-papalor anti-hierarchicalreligious
sects as the
used to designate the more
found
which
for reform
Waldenses, the Lollards and Hussites gave expresreactionary movement
sion
to the same
dissatisfactionwith the external,
definite expressionin the doctrines of the Council
mechanical
which
of Trent (1545-63). See Counter-Refokmation;
had
conception of Christianity
become
dominant
in the papal church as well as to
op.
Trent, Council
The
their dissatisfaction with the lack of religious
Reformation.
fervor
I. Beginnings
the
op
and moral
the
earnestness
the secular clergy
event usually selected by historians to mark
among
and
conventuals.
See
is the postingby
of the Reformation
commencement
Waldenses;
Wycliffe;
gences
IndulLollards; Hus.
Martin Luther of his Ninety-fiveTheses on
The scandalous livingof many
berg,
of the popes, the
the door of the castle church in Wittenon
notorious corruption of the papal court, and the
in October 1517. See Luther; Indulgences.
all too common
if not universal,among
the direct or indirect result of
The Reformation
worldliness,
was
all kinds and classes of ecclesiasticalpersons
forces long at work in western
nished
furseveral co-operating
another
for the Reformation,
potent cause
prior to Luther.
European Christendom
did also the ignorance of many
Reformation.
as
conventuals
and
the
During
II. The Causes
op
secular clergy of lower rank.
centuries
The improvement of
the two
more
just preceding the
or
and the increased dissemination
Reformation, there had been considerable opposition the printing-press
the part of individual ecclesiastics to the concentration of printed matter
supplied conditions eminently
on
of a propaganda such as
of ecclesiastical power in the hands of the
favgrable for the success
the Reformation.
To these factors must
be added
or
Pope. Such opposition found
Bishop of Rome
the personality,zeal and
for expressionand for growth
excellent opportunities
persuasiveness of the
Reformers.
It is evident,however, that the Reforof the Babylonian Captivityof the
mation
in consequence
not
the work
of a few men
but the
was
at
Avignon (1305-77), of the ensuing
papacy
Great Schism
product of a very complex and long-continued
(1378-1417) and of the 15th. century
historical process.
not only to heal
councils summoned
oecumenical
III. Essential
Characteristics
but also to reform the church in
mation.
Reforof
the
the Great Schism
rise of strong royal,
The Reformation
The
members.
gious
head
and
was
essentiallya reliand
It was
interested primarily
movement.
the
and
municipal governments
princely, and
almost exclusivelyin the relations of God
to man
frequent clashes between their interests and those
and of man
in doctrinal or theological
to God;
of the popes and clergyled to the strikingof many
tions^
at the papal, universal
hard
blow
formulas; in ecclesiasticalorganization and funcmonarchy
a
Catholic Church.
the conand, because Christianityin precedingages
flicts
Roman
or
Particularly
some
over
appointments to ecclesiastical benefices, and in all its varied forms had maintained
of ecclesiastical courts
and
connection between
the jurisdiction
over
religionand ethics,in good
tion
morals or upright living. Wherever
the Reformato
the right of governments
tax clerical
over
manifested itself,
there one finds these elements
of popes,
property,tended to restrict the privileges
particularly
emphasized, notwithstandingthe efforts
priests,and monastic organizationsand to kindle
The
of humanists
to direct this religiousmovement
in
bitter enmity against them.
tional
growth of naing
behalf of intellectual emancipation;notwithstandfurther strengthened the governsentiment
ments
the readiness of kings and princesto increase
and tended to make anti-clericalisma popular
and
incomes, or
weU
thereby their poUtical
a
as
as
governmental attitude. Economic
power
of
self-interest contributed also to the disruption
knights
attempts of social classes like the German
the German
or
peasants and proletariatto gain
the medieval ecclesiastical
system, not only because
with the church over
matters
rulers quarreled
throughit material advantages, and however much
money
of popes, clergy, its successes
have involved other changes than
but because the financial policies
may
the people.
those sought by the religiousleaders of 16th.
and orders bore heavily upon
factor which aided in producing the
Another
century Protestantism.
Luther's
labors as a
At the basis of Martin
Reformation is found in the intellectual development
rebirth
Reformer
or
development and
lay his peculiarreligious
of western
Europe. The Renaissance
culture contributed somewhat
the convictions gained therein.
to
Vitallyimportant
of Graeco-Roman
as
for him personally and for the Reformation
a
the rise of Protestantism because of its anti-ascetic
tendencies
or
oppositionto otherworldUness; its whole was his rediscovery of the largely,if not
the characteristic clerical wholly, obscured conception of the loving,forgiving
for scholasticism
scorn
well as his slowly developed
tude
character of God
as
learningof the day; its destructivelycritical attiis made justor righteous
beliefs and
church
practices; conviction that sinful man
toward many
its strong
before God simply and solelyby trust in the Father's
to himself, and
its revelation of man
in Christ s sacrificial life and
love as manifested
for individual
an
enlarged scope
emphasis on
death. These ideas, togetherwith insistence on
Stillanother cause is to be found in
aciuevement.

particularly
among

the poor.
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367

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

the Bible

Reformed

Churches

the sole authority for the Christian in

and economic
as
tant
political
conditions,the Protesthe
Revolt
religiousteaching and
practice, furnished
spread and established itself in the
of Luther's religious
fundamental principles
Roman
greater part of the German
Empire, in
propaganda.
tion
of all his Reformaland,
Switzerland,Sweden, Denmark, Norway and IceThey form the essence
in England and
writings,although these contained also much
Scotland, in the Dutch
and monasticism
as a
vituperationof popes, clergy,
Netherlands, and, with less success, in parts of
Huldreich
result of their opposition to
France.
It had to wage
him.
at times fierce struggles
for existence and lost some
tion,
of its earlier conquests as
Zwingli,the foremost leader of the Swiss Reformanot a httle influenced by these Lutheran
and successful
a result of the Counter-Reformation
was
first brought into conflict
Jesuit propaganda. But, in consequence
of the
ideas,although he was
with the papal church in consequence
of his critical, Protestant Revolt, the one
visible,
indivisible,
holy,
church
humanistic
intellectual rather than religious) Roman,
universal
rent
was
(i.e.,
asunder, it
While
local politicalenvironment.
for
all
time.
the
medieval
and
See
church
Zwingli;
seems,
These
mation
Reforfundamental
Erasmus; Humanism.
persisted,essentiallyunchanged, if morally and
doctrines struck at the roots of Roman
ous
renovated,at its side arose numeradministratively
churches
less
Catholic theology and practice. Their acceptance
state
non-papal and more
or
involved a rejection
of the entire Catholic conception
fundamentallyProtestant in character.
for Protestant
of
It has been common
the
sacraments.
historians
Grace, according to the
not
to exalt and exaggerate the beneficent results of
Reformers, was
something infused into man
it did revivifyreligionfor
And
the Reformation.
by the church or its sacraments, but was
merely
barriers in the path of
God's
attitude
of forgiving love.
Justification
But it set up new
many.
intellectual progress.
It strengthened absolutism
by faith alone involved a rejectionof penances,
of purgatory
of all works
of satisfaction.
It aided the landed
and
or
royal and princelypower.
aristocracyand the risingbourgeoisieto maintain
According to the Reformers, good works followed
there was
true
social and economic
Although modern
faith, but
necessarilywherever
supremacy.
these good works
had
influence in securing democratic
trend
toward
greater social equality
no
modern
man's
salvation.
and economic
intellectual
justiceand even
They were
effects,not causes,
of salvation.
The
roots in the Reformation,
priesthood of all believers was
libertymay have some
of other movements
the outcome
another much
emphasized tenet of the Reformers, yet it is much more
Faint indications
involving rejection of a professional priestly than of the Protestant Revolt.
and of all
of the modern
trend away
from intellectual dogmatism
class,of the monastic ideal and practices,
between
God
and man
^the church, the
and external authorityin religion
it is
mediators
may,
saints or the Virgin Mary.
true, be found in the 16th. century schism, but
of today have
made
Reformation
also an
tendencies
The
establish these
was
attempt to reheadway
Testament
Christianity in spiteof rather than because of the Reformation,
primitive.New
and in its entirety.
movement
in the place of an
existing,so-called Christianity regardedas a specific
A. E. Harvey
which had departed far from the teachings of the
of the case
REFORMED
C H U R C H E S ."Protestant
early Apostles. Yet, in the nature
it was), such
the 16th. century being what
Churches, organized in the 16th. century, in
(i.e.,
churches; particularly
only approximately distinction from Lutheran
an
attempt could be at most
churches
be said also that the Reformation
successful.
It may
followingZwingli and Calvin in France,
Switzerland
and
quently
in its essence
the assertion of the principle Germany,
Holland, and subsewas
in Great
of individualityin the sphere of religion. For a
Britain,the U.S.A. and other
countries.
it did seem
if the Reformers
Uttle while,at least,
as
Church
Reformed
America
viduals.
I. The
is a
stood for complete religiousliberty for all indiin
hneal descendant
Church
of the Reformed
of Holland.
But, alas,none of the leadingReformers
The
first congregation was
organized in
certainlyneither Luther, nor Zwingli,nor Calvin
above
in
1628 by Dominie
dam
Jonas Michaelius in New Amsterthe environment
could rise sufficiently
which they had been reared to grasp fullytheir own
(New York). Other congregations,composed
established in the
modern
reach the very
were
fundamental principles
or
mainly of Holland settlers,
under the
and
not
yet universal conception of complete, surroundingregionsand all of them came
until
stood
individual religious
supervision of the Classis of Amsterdam
liberty. Each Reformer
independent of foreigncontrol.
for hberty to accept his particularinterpretation the colonies became
Under
failed
of Christianityand sought to crush all who
English rule the Reformed
congregations
asserted their independence because of an attempt
to agree therewith.
However, since the successful
with the English Church.
In
to incorporatethem
those who
secured
leaders of the Reformation
self-defense they organized a classis in 1679, and
governmental and large popular support" did
affairs.
obtained
their own
charter to manage
a
not agree among
themselves,a door was left open
for the later gradual growth of a spiritof religious In 1696 the mother church secured full posessionof
her constantly growing property and
ing
complete
tolerance and of individual liberty. Notwithstandthe Reformed
ecclesiastical freedom.
Friction between
ism
the emancipating elements in early Protestantin realitya conservathe Reformation
was
tive
congregations and the civil authorities,
families to cross
Dutch
the
less reactionary movement.
It
and more
or
however, led many
Hudson
into New
tendencies of humanism
reacted againstthe liberalizing
Jersey and to settle in the region
of the times.
drained
It
the intellectual trend
by the Raritan River, which is still a
or
institutions and congreReformed
which
of the dogmas
had
been
center of Dutch
retained most
gations.
fastened upon
Christianityby speculativeGreek
After the capture of New
Amsterdam, by the
Roman
and legalistic
theologiansof the 3rd. and 4th.
the
It resulted in a revival of dogmatism
immigration ceased, but
centuries.
Enghsh, Dutch
churches
Reformed
scholasticism.
It reaffirmed
gained accessions from two
and the rise of a new
America
to
The
it
sources.
the principleof authority in religion. While
Huguenots flocked
mentally (ca. 1680) and
readily amalgamated with the
rejectedmonastic asceticism,it retained a fundaA quarter of a centuiy later the
Church.
Dutch
life in this world,
ascetic attitude toward
found
Reformed group from the Palatmate
type of other-worldliness. German
merely introducinga new
Settlingmainly beyond
Reformation
op
the
and
an
IV. The
Progress
asylum in New York,
With
the help of royal, princely, the Dutch
Its Results.
parishes,in the valley of the Mohawk
and the upper
favorHudson, their congregationscame
or
municipal governments, and especially

able

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Churches

Reformed

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

368

During the coetal period the Church was

the jurisdiction
of the Holland synods. The
became
coetus
independent of Holland in 1793 by
turning into a synodj adopting a constitution of
and assuming the name,
its own,
"The
Synod of
the Reformed
Church
in the
(High-) German
United
States of America."
In the absence
of
definite statistics historians have
computed the
number
of congregationsat that time to have been
about
about
178, and of communicants
15,000.
The great majority were
located in Pennsylvania.
less prosperous congregationswere
Yet more
or
also
found in New
ginia,
Brunswick.
York, New Jersey, Maryland, VirNorth Carolina,
and Ohio.
In 1747 a coetus was
organizedfor the churches of
The
New
York and one
for those in New
prospects of the Church brightenedwith
Jersey,and in
the awakening of a missionaryand
effected which in a few years
educational
1771 an organization
was
spiritin the second and third decades of the 19th.
five classes. The fornaer had
became
a synod and
first missionary committee
to the ministry.
century. The
the rightto license and ordain men
was
ineffective
made
sionary
appointed by the synod in 1819 and the first misThis preparation for progress was
society was
organized in 1826. In 1824
by the breaking out of the Revolutionary war.
logical
Church
The Dutch
occupied much of the territory the Synod of Ohio was organized. The first theoof strife and suffered
became
the scene
seminary was
that now
opened in 1825 at Carlisle,
of
located at Lancaster,Pa.; and Marshall
the return
With
Pa., now
its full share of desolation.
the separation from
and
foreign political Collegeat Mercersburg was chartered in 1836,now
peace
FrankUn
and Marshall
College at Lancaster, Pa.
subjection,ecclesiastical bodies severed their ties
The General Synod was
ing,
full libertyto develop
with Europe and obtained
organized in 1863, includat the present time, eight district synods and
their institutions and carry forward their benevolent
sixty-two classes. Since the organizationof this
enterprises. At a generalconvention of the Dutch
has
made
made
remarkable
to translate
judicatory the Church
Church
in 1788 provision was
church
and
order, progress, both at home and abroad.
into English its standards
The
both
Heidelberg Catechism
serves
as
a
omitting everything that characterized a state
confession of faith and as a book
of instruction.
fact of its complete
the
To
church.
express
The
is presbyterial. In its
polity of the Church
Americanization its name
was
changed in 1867 from
mode
of worship it is bound
Church
in North
neither to a ritual nor
Protestant Dutch
"The Reformed
It has liturgical
to a free service.
forms for mornChurch
in America."
ing
America" to "The Reformed
and evening worship and for the specialservices
In 1846 a new
immigration from Holland began.
of the Lord's Supper, Baptism, etc., but it allows
made
in Michigan
The
principalsettlement was
Theological congregationsthe use of a free service. In 1920,
where
Hope College and the Western
there were
founded
and located at Holland.
1,751 churches, and 329,937 members.
Seminary were
George
W. Richards
into adjoining states and
colonies went
Smaller
REFORMED
EPISCOPAL
CHURCH."
A body
distant parts of the country, so
since then to more
which
its congregationsare scattered from the
separated from the Protestant
Episcopal
that now
Church
in protest against sacramentalism.
The
to Texas.
middle west to the Pacific and southward
fession, church was
of doctrine are the Belgic Conorganized Dec. 3, 1873, in the city of
The standards
York by prominent clergymen and laymen of
pendium New
with the Comthe Heidelberg Catechism
the Protestant EpiscopalChurch, with the Rt. Rev.
of the Synod
of the same, and the Canons
is based
of the Church
of Dort.
The government
George David
Cummins, D.D., of the Diocese
of Kentucky as its first bishop.
Government
the Articles of Church
adopted at
on
This formal separationfrom the mother
church
Dort in 1619,and the Explanatory Articles adopted
occurred as claimed because of the rapid growth of
in 1792.
The last revision of the Constitution was
ritualistic or sacramentarian
extreme
doctrines and
727 churches
adopted in 1874. In 1919 there were
practicesin the parent body which were
with 133,783 members
contrary to
the constitution of the true Reformed
Church
of
Church
United
the
Reformed
II. The
in
astical
to the
States.
The founders of this Church
England, and which formed a barrier to full ecclesicame
and Christian fellowshipwith other Evangelical
the Rhine
colonies from
American
provinces of
of Switzerland.
cantons
organizations.
Germany and from the German
The
Reformed
chosen to
also influential French
name
Episcopal was
Among them were
conform
munion
to the legal title of the Anglican Comfaith. They
families of the Reformed
and Dutch
which is "the Reformed
Church of England."
from 1710 to 1770.
arrived in considerable numbers
of all
established by the
It claims the great English Reformers
Reformed
congregations were
and the Protestant
communions
martyrs, as preYork,
Palatines or the Swiss in the colonies of New
eminently
its spiritual
progenitors. It also asserts
Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia,Carolina, and
it is the Protestant Episcopal Church
Reformed
Evangelical
congregations in the
Georgia. The
not
as
a distinct body.
colonies,barring those in Pennsylvania, were
of the
so-called
It repudiates the doctrine
organizedinto a denomination; but, in the second
it has
(q.v.). But
"ApostoUcal Succession"
third generationsfollowing the pioneers,they
or
terian,
carefullypreserved through its Bishops whatever
by neighboringPresbywere
gradually absorbed
Historical Succession there may
be in the Anglican
churches.
The
Episcopahan, or Lutheran
Communion.
denominational organizationin
Church
became
a
It holds that the Episcopate is not a separate
the German
and Swiss settlements of Pennsylvania
in the region of Montgomery,
Bucks, Lancaster, order in the ministry,and that the Bishop is first
the Presbyters in office. It recognizesthe
and Lebanon
counties.
among
tian
united into a coetus
The
validityof the Presbyterialorders of other Chriscongregations were
churches.
It freelyexchanges pulpits with
(synod) 1747, imder the leadership of the Rev.
It receives members
them.
sent to this
by letters dismissory
Michael Schlatter (1716-1790),who was
It receives
and dismisses them to these churches.
country by the synods of North and South Holland
bodies
without
from
these
communicants
reReformed
to look after the German
people of Penn-

of the Classis of Amsterdam.

under the supervision
of a
much
not
The
difference in language was
ministers
could
officiate in
hindrance.
Many
both languages, while in doctrine and polity the
In 1755 the
churches
essentiallythe same.
were
taken
first step to educate a native ministry was
of a professorship
of divinity
by the estabhshment
with King's (Columbia) College,an
in connection
caused
but the arrangement
Episcopalinstitution,
classis
Then
the American
a splitin the Church.
of
charter from the governor
in 1766 secured
a
New
Jersey and founded Rutgers College in New

sylvani

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369

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

and
dismisses
confirmation
them
to parishes
as
within
its own
jurisdictions.It admits
by the
rite of confirmation by its Bishops tho^ who
for
the first time
profess their faith in Christ. It
the term
Presbyter in place of Priest. It
uses
denies the dogma that Regeneration is inseparably
connected
with
Baptism, termed
"baptismal
ing
regeneration." It has ehminated
everything savorof transubstantiation
from
its Communion
Service.
Its Prayer Book is modeled
the firstAmerican
on
of 1785, known
"The
Prayer Book
as
Bishop
White Prayer Book."
Its Uturgy can
be used by a
layman in conducting the devotions of the people.
By an overwhelming vote the General Coimcil of
1918
removed
all distinctions of sex
in the lay
administration
of the affairs of the church, so that
be wardens
and vestrymen, also deputies
women
can
to Synodical and
General Councils. The needed
affirmative action of the General Council of 1921
wiU undoubtedly be given to this just measure.
being taken in Great Britain
Steps are now
to form a union of the Reformed EpiscopalChurch
with the Free Church of England which will add a
largeforce of clergymen and laymen to its numbers.
There
four Bishops in America
and
are
now
two in England. One of the American
Bishops has
of colored communicants
charge of a large number
in the South.
In India an important mission work
is carried
at Lahtpur including orphanages and
schools.
on
And
is a widely known
at Lucknow
hospital and

AND

ETHICS

Reform

Judaism

Bible teaches it,but because he is convinced of its

truth.
Abraham
ibn Ezra
(1092-1167) is more
radical. He
recognizes that Ecclesiastes shows
traces of Mishnaic
vocabulary(Comm. Eccles. 2:25),
admits
the exihc origin of some
Psahns
(Comm.
Ps. 42) and in veiled language states that some
parts of the Pentateuch were
written after Moses'
death.
(Comm. Deut. 1:2.)
Renaissance
and Reformation stimulated criticism
in individual scholars. Azariah
dei Rossi of
Ferrara (1511-1578) boldlydeclared that rabbinic
authority is confined to rehgious practice,but
cannot
be decisive in scientificquestions. Leon
of Venice
Modena
(1571-1648) went still farther,
attacking the practicesof Judaism as petty, superstitious,
and often conflicting
with the Bible.
The Jewish masses
imbued
not
were
with the
necessity of revising their religiousideas, until
the French
Revolution, by a law passed Sept.27,
1791,gave them fullcivic and political
rights. Some
progressiveminds had paved the way by literary
activity. Moses Mendelssohn
a popu(1729-1786),
lar
school
of
expounder of the Leibnitz-Wolff
secular educaphilosophy,successfullyadvocated
tion,
thoughhe remained an observant Jew.
The leadingproblem in this new
religious
movement
the eschatologyof Judaism
was
which taught
that the Messiah
woiild re-estabUsh
the Jewish
the main
kingdom in Palestine. This dogma was
argument used by those who opposed the emancipation
of the Jews,declaringthat the liturgy,
expressing
this Messianic belief,
makes the Jew a self-confessed
alien. In addition the separate day of rest, the
dispensary.
is The Episcopal Recorder pubIts chief organ
in the
lished dietary laws, and the use of the Hebrew
drew a dividingline between
weekly in Philadelphia. Its well endowed
the Jews and
synagog
their neighbors. The first to draw practicalconseto
Theological Seminary at Philadelphia is open
quences
all evangelicalstudents.
from this theory was
Israel Jacobson, a
It has a total clergylistof 124,and of communicants
wealthy philanthropistof Cassel (1768-1828) who
and adherents about fifty
introduced the vernacular in the synagog
thousand.
which he
Samuel
established in connection
Fallows
with a school, founded
REFORMED
PRESBYTERIAN
CHURCH
OF
by him in Seesen (1810). The first synagog
to
NORTH
AMERICA."
Organized in Scotland (1743) carry this principleinto practicewas established in
as
a
protest against the compromised character of
Hamburgj1818. It introduced besides services in
the State
in the reign of
church, reestabhshed
German, instrumental music and omitted from the
WilUam
and Mary, it appeared in America
in 1752,
ritual all expressionsof the hope of a renationaUzawhere
it has undergone reorganization in 1798
tion in Palestine.
1833.
Distinctive
and
features are
its refusal
For twenty years this example remained
isolated,
to accept slave holders as
church
but afterwards found rapid imitation in connection
communicants,
its recognition of "Jesus Christ as
the ruler of
with the political
for the abrogation of
movement
the Jewish disabilities then existing
nations," and its disinchnation toward the use of
all over
Europe
the franchise and the holdingof pubUc office. It
with
the exception of France.
In the United.
and 16,564 members.
has 133 churches
States the principlesof the Hamburg
"Temple"
first introduced in Charleston,S.C, 1841,
were
REFORM
A type of Jewish faith
JUDAISM."
and in time were
all synaaccepted in practically
and
practice freed from vigorous subjection to
gogs formed by natives or Americanized
immigrants.
external authority,and aiming at a reUgious interpretation The departure from tradition differsin degrees. The
of Uberal culture.
decisive radicalism is the abandonment
most
of the
Like ail other rehgiohs Judaism is capable of
Seventh
the day of pubhc worDay Sabbath
as
ship,
different interpretations,
mission
first introduced by the BerUn Reforrrkiemeinde
ranging from blind sub^
"^
to ecclesiastic authorityto the recognition in 1845.
of individual conscience as'the sole arbiter between
Attempts to lay down theoretical principlesfor
God
and man.
The
liberalJudaism
unquestioning acceptance of
have not been successful probably
and ecclesiastic authoritymay
both Scriptural
be
because Judaism
lacked an ecclesiastic organization,
called the rule in Judaism
from the beginningof
and its theologians were
concerned
always more
in the 2nd. century b.c.
the Pharisaic movement
with religious
practicethan with the definitionof
end
of the 18th. century, although the
to the
dogma. In generalwe may divide liberal Judaism
never
feehng was
lacking that reUgion is a matter
into three classes: the radical element, headed by
of the individual conscience and its practicesare
Samuel
Holdheim
(1806-1860) which abandons the
bound
to change with time and environment.
As
traditional Sabba.th
the profirifi
^irciimf^iaiQinj
gressive
be quoted the Talmudic
statement:
typicalmay
party'whose most scholarly expounder
Torah
is given to iadividual conscience"
"The
Abraham
was
Geiger (1808-1874) which, while
{Mishnah, Shebi'it,II, 1).
showing greater respect for tradition,denies the
Uberal interpretation
The
is
of Judaism
more
dogma of a personal Messiah and of the restoration
to Palestine; and
clearlyexpressed in the works of the mediaeval
the conservative
party, whose
whom
Maimonides
philosophers, among
(1135- leader was Zechariah Frankel (1801-1875),
ing
demandHe says that he accepts
1204) stands foremost.
merely freedom in theoretical questions,but
of creatio ex nihilo,not because the
the dogma
conforming with tradition in practice. In the

Regeneration

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

United

States the school of Geiger won

the greatest
Its most
Isaac M.
popular leader was
Wise
its representatives are
(1819-1900) and
organized in the Central Conference of American
Rabbis, established in 1889.
DeTTTSCH
GOTTHARD
success.

AND

ETHICS

REGULAR."
the

vows

370

In the R.C.

regularof

church, one
order.
religious

bound

by

REIMARUS,

HERMANN
SAMUEL
(1694philosopher,best known
by his
WolfenbiiUel Fragments, pubUshed posthumously
REGENERATION."
was
A New
explainedrationalBirth,re-creation, by Lessing in which religion
of life,
isticaUy,miracles denied, and current conceptions
conversion.
The creation
a radical renewal
of historical facts challenged.
of a new
becomes
life,whereby one
reUgiouslya
"new
creature."
The conception of

radical conversion

of nature

by religious
or
discipline
through the efficacyof a
ritual is wide-spread. In the mystery reUgions in
the Hellenistic world, mortals
could be initiated

1768).
"

German

REINCARNATION."

See Transmigration.

SPIRITUAL."
In the R.C.
RELATIONSHIP,
the priestadministering baptism and the
sponsors are conceived as standing in such a close
relationshipto the baptized child and its parents
that the marriage of an
individual in one
group
church

into a new
type of lifewhich lifted them above the
vicissitudes of mortahty. TertuUian
(De. Bapt. 5)
that baptism in the Eleusinian
mysteries is
says
to effect regeneration. to an individual in the other is fo!rbidden.
believed by the devotees
Liturgicalfragments which are accessible emphasize
distinctlythe privilegeof a reUgious rebirth,in
RELATIVISM
RELATIVITY."
The
or
sophical
philowhich one
receives divine power
and is assured of
doctrine that realityexists only in relation
inunortaUty. In India,the conception of a rebirth
to or as an object of the thinkingsubject; synonymous
is very common,
ranging from mystical initiation
with phenomenalism (q.v.).
in the experienceof a Uving person to the elaborate
theories of transmigration(q.v.).
In the Greek
and Roman
RELICS.
churches,
The conception appears
in Christianityalmost
an
objectsacred because of its close association with
from the beginning. The apostlePaul portrays the
saints or martyrs.
A corpse, or a bone, or articles of
Christian
as
a
a
by which one becomes
process
objectsof reverence.
clothingare the most common
radical transformation
wrought by the indwelling Relics are commonly regarded as possessingmiraculous
spiritof God or by the indwelling Christ. It is
potency.
this regenerate experiencewhich makes
Christianity
Judaism.
The
inherentlydifferent from legalistic
An act passed by the English
RELIEF
ACT."
apostoUc tradition carries out this conception of a
in 1791 whereby Roman
Cathohcs were
ParUament
radical renewal of life as the condition of salvation,
reUeved
of certain disabilities pertainingto civil,
Jesus' death
and resurrection
regarded as
are
educational and economic
interests.
redemptive acts, prefiguringand providingfor the
death of men
to the natural order and their regeneration
A group which, under the
CHURCH."
RELIEF
In the Catholic church,
into a spiritual
order.
of Thomas
Gillespie,separated from
the sacraments, especially
baptism,as supernatural leadership
in 1761, forming
the established church of Scotland
"means
of grace" give men
to a "new Ufe" not
access
the Presbytery of Relief. In 1847 it united with
continuous
with the old.
Secession Church
to form
the United
the United
In the history of Christian doctrine,this vital
See Presbyterianism,
Presbyterian Church.
insistence upon
of
a regeneratedlife takes the form
technical doctrine of a literal or metaphysical
a
life expressA function of human
RELIGION.
ing
The
change divinely wrought. See Salvation.
attitude to environing reaUties
itself in an
insistence upon
marks
renewed
Reformation
a
a
of dependence upon
involves
which
(a) a sense
supernaturalisticchange, but transfers emphasis
the same;
(6) attempts to gain help therefrom
to the sole
from
the efficacyof the sacraments
of personal relations;
through the establishment
of faith in Christ.
sufficiency
and (c)the utilization of social experience,
culture,
inclines to return to the
Modern
interpretation
in such attempts.
and customs
symbolical use of the conception of Regeneration. organization
the essential elements
This definition embodies
acters.
charOur ethical realities deal with transformed
Regeneration expresses thus a radical,
vital, emphasized by opposing groups of investigators.
in
On the one hand are those who like Durkheim
see
ethical change, rather than an absolutelynew
physical
metareligiononly "a unified system of beliefs and practices
beginning. Regeneration is a vital step
relative to sacred things,i.e.,
things set apart
in the natural development of the spiritual
a
life,
unite
and forbidden; beliefs and practiceswhich
of fife.
radical adjustment to the moral processes
into one
singlemoral community called a church
More
commonly a series of ethical renewals is
On the other hand
all those who adhere to them."
this does not express
a
taught. Psychologically,
those who like Tylor limit rehgion to "a beUef
are
miraculous
"new birth,"but new
stages of contact
one
Supreme Being.
beings" or even
realizations of spiritual in spiritual
with spiritual
reahty, new
of opinion,however, seems
The
tendency
general
A.
Herbert
Conversion.
Youtz
See
power.
to be toward
conceiving religionas the extension
of the process of biological
adaptation into man's
CONFERENCE
OF."
A conference
REGENSBURG,
Social experience
personal relation with the cosmos.
held at Regensburg (Ratisbon) in 1545,
furnishes the materials for making such adaptation.
aiming to restore religiousunity to Germany.
of several
authorities
In the case
(e.g.,
few articles on which the R.C. leaders
There were
interests lead to a description
Hoffding) philosophical
could
reach
and
the
Reformers
unanimity, so
definition of religionas the
rather
than
a
the Conference ended in failure.
social values.
preservationof permanent, especially
,

"

"

guard against
reUgion must
sively.
excluto primitivereligions
Developed rehgion is as truly a, matter
is primitive. It is as misleading
for observation
as
ism,
to neglectdeveloped reUgious systems like Hinduand
Buddhism, Judaism, Mohammedanism,
Christianity,
fis it would be to omit constitutional
The

PARISH,"
A book in which the births,marriages and deaths
in England
of a parish are recorded; the custom
dating from Cromwell, 1538.

REGISTERS,

REGULA

PAROCHIAL

FIDEL"

See Rule

OR

of

Faith.

of
student
induction

his
limiting

DICTIONARY

371

governments from

the discussion

of the

of

nature

ReUgious Corporations

Chief among

ways.

be
cannot
the group hfe from
which
its thought forms
derived. In the
are
to
attempt is made
present general article no
describe separate religions.For such information
reference can be made to articles on various religions,
of; Judaism; Christianitt;
e.g., Israel, Religion
BbahChina, Religions
Mohammedanism;
of;
gions
India, ReliHinduism;
Buddhism;
manism;
Philosophies
and
Japan, Religions
of;
op; Zoroastbianism, etc.
^Various theories have
I. Origin
Religion.
op
for the originof the
been suggested to account
beliefs and practicesto which the term religionis
applied. Perhaps the oldest is that "fear made the
explanations
gods." Less naive are those modem
which
regardreUgion as an organizationof social
customs
around hfe interests accompanied with the
of social beliefs. Other originsare
personifications
found in fetishism (q.v.),
naturism
totemism (q.v.),
Worship), tabu (q.v.),sex, dreams
(see Nature
ship),
Woranimism
ghosts (see Ancestor
(q.v.),
(q.v.),

reUgions. Even

mysticism

properlyunderstood apart from

"

(q.v.)(seeMagic)

mysteriouspower.

or

the

new

elements

of the

tant

be added that
it may
sake of clarity
stood
be underattitude can
a
as
psychological
religion
only through a study of social data found in

mana

ETHICS

rehgious hfe of the group

the state.
For the

different

AND

RELIGION

OF

1. Ritual.

are:

^This is normally composed of customary

of earher times which
have become
hallowed
customs.
Thus
sacrifices,feasts and
tabv^,domestic ceremonies,sowing and harvest
fasts,
customs
are
graduallysystematized and organized
into a definite cult which is increasingly
separated from the ordinarysocial activitiesof the
inner
Frequently an
group.
(e.g., the
group
church, q.v.) is formed for rituahstic and other
"

acts

religious
distinctively
purposes.
Such
a cult demands
professional
in consequence
rehgions have all
but invariably
who
given rise to classes of men
are
and knowledge
regardedas hayingparticular
power
the divine favor.
The
to win
priest as representative
of socially
guished
approved rites is thus distinfrom
the magician. (Perhaps the word
itself may
this power of the priest
religio
preserve
through rites to bind or compel the gods to do the
will of the
worshiper.) Generallythese priests
class which has for generabelongto an hereditary
tions
been the repository
of the sacred and secret
behefs of the group.
Only in a few rehgions
have priestsoeen
(notablyin R.C. Christianity)
compelledto be cehbate,the priesthoodthus being
kept from becoming a caste (q.v.). See Priest;
2. Priests.
"

attention,and

element
Each
of these theories recognizes some
Priesthood; Shamanism.
for the
Most
3. Myths.
in the religiouslife,but none
accounts
tions
rehgionsembody interpretabe found
of natural
attitude which each implies. That
can
phenomena
(thunder, hghtning,
rain,wind, aurora
boreahs, etc.)in the shape
fire,
only in hfe itself. Of the two ultimate forces
of dramatic
narratives of the doings of heroes and
viz.,
assuringthe continuance of life,
self-preservation
of these forces.
he said to
and
gods who are the personification
race-propagation, rehgion may
tinguishable
In some
It is as indisthese myths (q.v.) possess great
be a development of the former.
cases
hfe as
is any
other
from
human
hteraryexcellence.
4. Gods and God.
Religionsvary from the vast
impulse,e.g., the search for
expressionof the same
in its developed
tianity
and preparationof food, which
polytheismof Hinduism (q.v.)to the theism of ChrisIn most developedrehgions,it is necessary
form
is seen
in agriculture,
meals, and scientific
._
to distinguishbetween
is to say,
the theistic ideals of its
of various sorts. That
investigations
better educated adherents
and the behefs of the
Ufe,and its expresreligionis a function of human
sion
Because
of the difference in intelhgence
interests expressedin
is as varied as the human
masses.
of its members, a people may
maintain
As distinct from magic
various social environments.
a
stitious
superit is always socialand is the product of and ministers
polytheism or a veneration of dead heroes
and
saints
side
noble
it
side
with
Ufe. In this particular,
a
to group
also, differs from
by
theologyor
philosophyexcept in certain cases when a philosophy philosophy. See Gods; God.
all developed
5. A sacred literature. Practically
becomes
activityof a group.
a religious
their
sacred
books.
See
Religions.
II. Primitive
^Rehgionsreflect the
rehgions have
Bible; Koran; Vedas; Brahmanism; Buddhism;
tive
generalstatus of a civilization. In the most primiThese
be legislative,
than simple customs
China, Religions
of.
they consist of httle more
may
philosophical,
poetical,rituahstic. See Sacbed
by which the tribe seeks to gainhelpfrom aspectsof
"

"

"

"

Thus
its physicalenvironment.
activity
religious
includes and providesfor allelemental needs such as
of
Each
these
hunting, fishing, grain-raising.
constitute
activities prescrioescertain rites which
small part of the rehgion of primitive
no
peoples.
dancing, music,
Generally such rites involve
of a sort appropriate to the social
social practices
either
the idea of gods exists,
hfe of a tribe. When

Litebatubes.

is here used looselyto

doctrine.
In many
this tends to become
rehgious groups
dogma, or
behefs made
authoritative by the decision of the
In
group and enforced as a basis of membership.
such dogma dominant
ideas and
social and political
describe
used
to
the
practices are
commonly
in
relations of men
with the deity. Particularly
animistic
or
otherwise, super-human beings are
the Christian
and
share in feasts,
of the tribe,
rehgion has theologybeen a sort
treated as members
Thus
served by specialpersons.
pohtics,utihzing such ideas
cults,parare
ticularlyof transcendentahzed
tations as sovereign,law, punishment, pardon, etc. See
developed, subjectto the limisacrifices,
in Relation
op
Religion; Philosophy
set by the social life of the worshiping Science
cult
inhibits
TO Religion.
Speaking generally,the
group.
These various characteristics usually
7. Church.
change and so tends to keep social hfe at about the
This is parstandardized.
level in which the religionbecame
co-operate to form a group of devotees.
ticukrlytrue of Christianitywhere the church (q.v.)
Rehgions have developed markedly only during
been identified with societyas
periods of decided social changes. For instance, has only sporadicaUy
Shailer
Mathews
nomadic
to settled
of a tribe from
a whole.
the passage
habits has often led to the development of polytheism,
CORPORATIONS."
RELIGIOUS
cultus. See Primitive
European
and an agricultural
law recognizesthe church as a public corporation,
Peoples, Religion
op;
op; Agriculture, Rites
i.e.,an agent of the state existingfor a pubhc
Festivals and
Feasts; Fetishism.
church and state are separated the
interest. When
^The development
Religions.
III. Developed
hve as a purely
hfe of a
church must
the political
private corporationas
of the social and particularly
in the United States,i.e., as a society
incorporated
imporgroup has affected its reUgion in still more
6.

Theology. ^The
"

"

"

term

indicate a body of standardized

Religious Education

DICTIONARY

OF

legalresponsibihtyfor making
holding property for a religioususe.
gious
The corporationas such has no charge of the reliaction of the church, since the state cannot
deal with religion. In some
states
constitutionally
the act of association of itselfincorporates
; elsewhere
The law respects the pohty of
act.
the court must
in the form of the incorporation.
the denomination
by the

state

contracts

to have

or

The'theory and
EDUCATION."
RELIGIOUS
in the
practice of developing immature
persons
duties,ideas,and ways of Uving that characterize
the religious
See also Childhood, Religion
group.
Catechetical
Catechumen; Catechism;
op;
Instruction; Worship.

AND

RELIGION

pubUc

ETHICS

school does

not

372

absolve

that

institution

in the moral and reUgious

responsibihty
development of its pupils. The whole trend of

from

its

education
as
represented by Dewey and
others is in the direction of the achievement
of the fundamental
values. A monograph
religious
tion,
by Rugh, The Essential Place of Religionin Educahow a school
pointsout clearlyand practically
in the very
organization of its corporate hfe is
the word.
use
teachingreligion
though it may never
closer co-operationbetween
the school and
Much
other agencies of rehgious education
are
clearly
social
many

possible.

ideals of children are

3. The
library. The
formed
far more
by their voluntary reading than
of their prescribed studies.
1. The
1. Relation
Education.
by many
General
to
They turn
to the books of high flavored adventure,which often
dominance
of education by religion.Until recent
gion
present dangerously immoral achievements,because
times, education has always been religious.Reliof their craving for a hfe that is one
of movement.
of the high interests of the group and
was
one
of good he in the direction of
had gathered about it forms, ceremonies,festivals, Large possibilities
wise guidance in the choice of wholesome
stories
liturgies,
togetherwith a certain body of ideas found
which will meet this eager interest. Pubhc libraries
in sacred books and formulated
in systems of faith.
The
intimately are usuallyvery anxious to co-operatewith schools
moraUty of the community was
of securingthe best
and churches in the matter
connected
enforced
with religionand indeed was
hterature and providinghelpfuldirection to readers.
Thus the youth growing up
sanctions.
by religious
4. The community itself,
in the community required
apart from the special
trainingto
a considerable
institutions aheady considered,is an educational
take his place in the rehgiouslifeand his education
Its streets, its parks and
was
always directed to this end. This is clearly agency.
playgrounds,
It
ized
in the educational scheme
or the lack of these,its business hfe,its commercialof the Hebrews.
seen
and
of Greece
is characteristic of the nations
amusements^ its bill boards, its regulations
ing
education
Rome.
In Christendom
was
entirely of pubhc health,its police,aU are influences affectthe young hfe and perhaps very easilydoing more
tion
to the Reformain the hands of the church down
to break down
the socializing
than all other
in the hands of ecclesiastics to
and was
process
largely
constructive
efforts can
build
Education
In truth, the Sunday School
the 18th. century.
up.
be considered by itself but must
cannot
It was
be conin the field of general education.
an
sidered
arose
as
part of the total social hfe in which the
attempt to givethe rudiments of learningon Sunday
children grow up.
week days
at work
to those children who
were
on
and thus had not acquired the abUity to read the
5. The church has its own
peculiarresponsibihty
but must
act as a correlator of the activityof all
Bible and
the catechism.
The
Sunday School
the agencies described.
Its weakness
was
today is the
adopted and developed as a church institution
hmitation
of its educational
and came
efforts to the brief
to be regarded as the appointed agency
instruction.
See Sunday
School.
The church is composed of
for religious
Sunday School hour.
secular
families and therein hes its opportunity to make
2. The publicschool. Modern
so-called,
the
contact
with the life of the children and to help
somewhat
education arose
as a protest against
unpedagogical tyranny of the religiousemphasis, in the unifyingof their education.
III. The
Organization
of the rich development in the
tion.
EducaReligious
op
partly on account
curriculum
of studies concerned
with
1. Various
practical
organizations.The worldwide
differences institution which has concerned itselfwith religious
life,and inevitably because religious
it impossible to
education
is the Sunday School.
It has had an
produced by sectarianism made
instruction that would be satisfactory extraordinarydevelopment in practically
all denominations
give religious
demand
the part of
is constant
and
It is not
to all. There
on
throughout the world.
certain religious
to be "put back"
times
always an integralpart of the church but somepeople for religion
into the public schools.
More
the
maintains
are
significant
semi-independence. In most
a
churches the pastor has very httle oversightof the
experiments,in giving school credit for Bible study
in the churches,and in the actual establishment of
Side
Sunday School.
by side with this long
school supported by the comin
established organization,there has grown
a week-day religious
munity,
up
but not by taxation,to which the pupils
recent years, a largenumber
of educational societies
and clubs in the church.
Most
notable are
the
may
go at stated times,by arrangement with the
others are
various boy
people's societies,
publicschool authorities.
young
Religious
II. The Agencies
and girlorders founded upon
Education.
of
chivalry,and recently,
1. The family. Renewed
outside the church
but often adopted by it, the
emphasis is being placed
the family as the fundamental reUgiousgroup
Boy Scouts,the Girl Scouts,the Campfire Girls.
upon
in which the child learns to be religious
2. The correlation of the religiouseducational
by sharing
social religion
the common
life. As modem
is seen
of the most
agenciesin the local churches is one
to be quiteas much concerned with personalrelations
problems. The
pressing of our
Sunday School
with instructional materials,it is evident that if
as
has organized its classes of adolescents,giving to
the family is not religious
it is irreligious.
There
them
outside duties,providing through-the-week
is no
vital matter
of neutrality. The
and each
activities,
possibility
requiringpayments of money,
of sex education
is best worked out in the home.
of the other clubs and societies,
more
or less rivals
The school and the church are therefore concerning
in securing membership, is doing the same
thing.
Considerable
themselves with the trainingof parents as the most
confusion results. There is no proper
in which
The
effective way
to train children.
supervisionof the whole educational process and
education are very intimately there is no
problems of religious
adequate curriculum of instruction and
related to the
changing conditions of modern
activitythrough which aU the young people pass.
3. The correlation of the religiouseducation of
family life.
is a unitary process.
the community is a further step that remains to be
2. The school. Education
The ehmiuation of rehgious instruction from the
taken.
Is this to be brought about
through a
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

373

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

ReUgious Experience

with a
community board of religiouseducation
professionalsuperintendentcorresponding to the
Will the
superintendent of pubUc instruction?

5. The Science ofReligiousEducation.

A beginning
is being made
in the universitiesand divinity
schools to deal scientifically
with the problems of

Christian associations with their trained secretarial

furnish the
staff and their weU equipped buildings
natural correlating
organizations?
The American
4. Associations.
Sunday School
Union is an organizationfor planting new
Sunday
The International Sunday School AssociaSchools.
tion
undertakes
through township, county, state,
and international officers and conventions
late
to stimuthe life and work of the Sunday Schools.
Its
has prepared lessons since 1871.
conmiittee
The
Association seeks to act as a
ReligiousEducation
clearing house for all the interests of rehgious
education.
It holds annual conventions,
pubhshes
and
ducts
cona
magazine and various bibliographies
investigations.The Sunday School Council
is composed of the educational
of EvangeUcal Churches
officers of the various denominations
who
the common
meet
annually for conference upon
Council
interests
which
they represent. The
the
International
has
now
representativeson
The Commission
Lesson Committee.
on
Religious
of the Federal Council of the Churches
Education
is organized to study, investigate
of Christ in America
and make reportsupon the problems of religious

rehgious education and to train speciahstsin the

field. Tests, measurements,
experiments,must
be devised and developed, following
in generalthe
direction which
the science of education is

"

education.

"

pur-

Theodobe

sumg.

RELIGIOUS

EXPERIENCE."

G. Scares
That

aspect of

experienceexpressingitself in rehgious ways.

1. Dipferentiatiom
op
Religious
ence.
Experi1. The
kinship of moral experience and
rehgion is notoriously close. "Morahty, tinged
with emotion"
has been accepted by
as
a
many
definition of rehgion. Undoubtedly all profound

rehgious experienceshave
element.

But

the

indispensableethical

an

converse

is not

true.

There

are

profound ethical experienceswhich are not of

themselves
rehgious. Nor is it difficult to perceive
just what additional factor causes
moral experia
ence
to become
a rehgious experience. So
long as
the self which is passingthrough a moral experience
remains related to its fellow men
only,the experience
in question is ethical only and not religious But
many

the

moment

that

the

whole

moral

environment
non-human
extra-human
or
being or beings,that moment
the
experiencehas become rehgious. It has not ceased
to be moral, but it is no
longer merely moral.
Nor is it difficult to see why all profoimd religious
have been by common
consent
experiences
admitted
to have necessarily
an
ethical element or quality.
The self that has consciously
envisaged an extrahuman
being or beingshas been inevitably
modified
by that encounter; has found a new self-estimate or
and such
self-direction,
a
changed self cannot
some
modification of its attitude toward
escape
the other human
selves with whom
dailyintercourse
is held.
And
such conscious modification
of one's
attitude toward
one's fellow men
is essentially
a
moral matter.
2. Another
view similar to the definition of

widens to include along with

men

some

Religious
Education.
The International Lesson
Committee
two sets of Bible lessons
now
prepares
is a continuation
of the plan
the imiform, which
which has been in vogue
nearly half a century,and
the graded course
adapted to the various ages of the
is also provided
pupils. A modified uniform course
wluch
makes
some
recognitionof the principleof
not confined to Biblical
grading. Independent course
material have also been prepared,notably the
Constructive Studies of the University of Chicago
Press, the completely graded series of Scribner's
series of the Unitarian Society.
Beacon
and the new
Beyond these series there is a complete curriculum
of missionary studies prepared by the Missionary
Movement.
The
Education
rehgion as "morahty tinged with emotion"
Boy Scouts and the
is
that defended by Ames, in his Psychology of Reliand the excellent ethical and
Campfire Manuals
gious
rehgious textbooks of the Christian Associations,
namely, that rehgion is the social
Experience,
of material.
consciousness in its most
swell the volume
intense form.
"The great
of humanity,or of a human
2. Training in worship,a most important duty
common
concerns
group,
of the family and of the church, has been httle
in this view.
are essentially
And no doubt
religious,
ritualistic communions.
there is something of truth therein. The
regarded except in the more
great
elation of the national spirit
Instruction in the elements of worship, practicein
in time of war
is closely
akin
to
the proper use of those elements,are basal requirements.
religious enthusiasm.
Strong patriotic
Then there is needed the proper conditions
feelingis often if not always sacramental.
But
here again, it is possible to distinguishclearly
for worship approximating to those generallyprovided
It is a questionwhether the pastor
between the rehgious and the non-rehgiousphases
for adults.
of such social consciousness.
In war
for example,
ought not to supplant the superintendent in the
is soon
driven to envisageits own
of the worship of the children of the
conduct
a nation
destiny,
to see itself in its historic and
church,
cosmic setting,to
whether
take
in
religiouslivingcan only
3. Training
feel,
mistakenly or not, that the right
for which it fightshas some
sort of universal vaHdity,
place fuUy in the actual social life of the young
not
sanction.
When
merely mundane
people. But it is possibleto create opportunities some
a
be
nation's consciousness
into this particular
for social co-operationand service which
may
passes
behavior.
in religious
excellent practice
phase, it certainly therein becomes
religious.
teachers and leaders
Sooner or later,
for instance,embattled
4. The training of religious
democracy
of religious comes
is a most urgent need for the betterment
to feel that "the voice of the
irresistibly
extent
this will involve
It is not the mere
of God."
To a Umited
education.
people is the voice
of community interest as such, that
rehgious directors, enhancement
the employment of professional
gives the rehgiousquality,but rather the reference
a
policy already adopted by the larger"churches.
continue
for the
of the group
interest to some
standard
But the volunteer
or
system must
power
this
outside the merely human
of boy and girlleaders,and
sphere.
great number
than
3. There has also been much
gious
confusion of rehthorough trainingsystem
requiresa far more
teachertraining
aesthetic
and
has yet been employed. Standard
experience. The
foregoing
tutes
distinctions were
made
the assumption that
on
systems are being developed and community instiThe
rehgion is essentiaUythe attitude of a self or of a
are making a beginning in serious work.
in theory and
toward
human
extra-human
some
not
church coUeges ought to offer courses
or
group
environment.
Here
be taken
by young
again this
people merely human
practice which may
the question. The aesthetic
definition may
clarify
expectingto do lay service in the church.
IV.

The

Method

op

1. Instructional material.

"

"

"

Religious Journalism

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

374

The
consciousness is an attitude of appreciationtoward
more
changes noticeable in
significant
In this aesthetic mood
the environment.
the sense
reUgious journals during the last quarter of the
be present or
19th. century and the earUer years
of ego, the consciousness of self,
of the 20th.
may
Also the
wax
or
wane.
chiefly their mechanical
concern
absent, or at least may
development.
evolution
from
The
the huge "blanket
be a work of art or a part of
aesthetic object may
sheet"
into a size of page more
When
aesthetic contemplation of natural
convenient
for the reader
nature.
of selfhood in
evidentlysuggested and faciUtated the creation of
objectsbecomes suffused with a sense
the observer,then and then only the aesthetic mood
of
an
increasing number
"departments." In
should be said to possess the rehgious quaHty.
(It the days of the excessively
largetype-page it was not
of the journal
infrequentto divide the contents
should,however, be noted that works of art tend by
into
of age, association,
and grandeur,to take on
"secular"
"reUgious" and
reason
departments"
the
latter presumably prohibited for Sunday
In the great
than merely human
signfficance.
a more
workmanship
reading. The fading of distinction between that
cathedral, for instance, the human
which is "spiritual"and that which
of its unearthly beauty.
is "worldly"
may be forgottenin a sense
The
induced readily becomes
mood
reUgious.) is seen in the form of the 20th century religious
in which
the reading matter
The
concerns
logic of the situation is that the selfhood, newspaper
aroused
by whatever
psychicforces are involved, itself with all aspects of Ufe, separated by no
in
the
bulkheads.
it
of
otherness
a sense
typographical
bringswith
irresistibly
The growing complexity of religious
Ufe is manifest
object, of something personal or quasi-personal
scape
in these sub-divisions of newspaper
in the object or behind it. The beauty of a landcontents.
One of the earlier of them was
beholders merely sensuous.
be to many
devoted to the interests
may
of the Simday school
in certain moods, the
its aims, its activities,
But
to certain minds
or
its curricula.
The growth and results of efficient
sensuous
appealpasses into an intensified feelingof
were
aged
markedly encourpersonahty and this inevitably and unwittingly Sunday-school endeavor
of an animate
being somehow
by the regularweekly pubUcation,in advance,
posits the presence
of the prescribedSunday-school lesson-text of the
revealed
by the beautiful object. This is^the
Such
aesthetic mood
that has become
thereon.
aesthetic-religious.uniform lessons with comments
worth,
The philosophy of ScheUing, the poetry of Wordspublicationwas firstbegun by a Baptist newspaper
the nature
seers
pubUshed in Chicago, later called The Standard.
psalms of the Hebrew
Its Sunday-school lesson department was
illustrate the varying degrees to which the aesthetic
soon
attitude toward nature passes into the reUgiousphase.
copied by other reUgious journals until almost
Experience.
such paper
in the Protestant world provided
Religious
II. The
Validity
op
every
1. The psychologicalstudv of reUgious experience
a similar service for the churches, and
eventually,
lenge.
chalhas made two points stand out with supreme
daily newspapers, once
a week, did likewise.
many
The
of photo-engraving and
One is that reUgion is as natural and under
the
discovery
interest in
low cost of iUustrations which this process made
conditions as inevitable as an
proper
this conor
viction
poUtics. From
available,as compared with those produced by
baseball,or money,
the laborious
tion.
has sprung the crusade for reUgious educaof the wood-engraver, have
art
enabled the pubUshersof reUgiousjournalsto utiUze
of passingevents, both reli2. The other point is that since the individual's
gious
pictorial
representations
and secular. It is conceivable that this adaptation
reUgious experience is completely mediated
by
of photography and engraving to illustrative
the experienceof the group, and this in turn is imibe one
of the causes
for an observable
versallyconditioned by habitat,the vicissitudes of
purposes
may
of denominational
shrinkage in the number
history and the interplayof social habit (custom)
organs.
Side by side with the increased use of moderate-priced
and human
due to chance
and
the innovations
illustrationsapparently began the noticeable combination
idiosyncracy,reUgious beliefs and experiencewould
of several groups
of smaller newspapers
to have
seem
only a relative vaUdity. However,
feel that reUgion is sick with what
the smaller being merged into a largerone, more
to those who
wiU
There
reassurance
we
might caU "psychologitis,"
frequentlyiUustrated.
prosperous and more
from the conceptionsof the evolution
several instances in which one
doubt come
are
such journal has
no
secured by purchase or arrangement as many
of religion,
the validityof faith as "working hypothesix
sis,"
as
to eight others.
and the place of reUgion as the motive power
The result of such combinations
world reconstruction
rather than as an
is the lesseningof the number
for human
of religious
journals,
of readers has not been decreased
although the number
exploitationof other-worldlymysteries.
A. Clinton
Watson
to aziy appreciable extent.
Indeed, the
The entire work
combinations
of groups of journals is one
RELIGIOUS
of the
JOURNALISM."
of producing reUgious periodicals.ReUgious jour- noticeable tendencies among
religiousperiodicals,
and cuswhile the growth of interdenominational or, more
tomarily
naUsin, however, as usually understood
concerned
considered,is more
strictly
particularly
speaking,of non-denominational
journalsis
another.
In Great Britain the non-denominational
with the product itself than with the processes of
journal has become a recognized power in religious
production.
literature and politics
It appears to be impossible to state just when
to a degree seldom
equaled
in the United States.
In the United States while
religiousjournaUsm, as typifiedby the modern
of denominational
is doubtless
began. Surely no such publications the number
reUgious newspaper,
organs
hundred
existed as long ago as two
decreasingtheir power in stabiUzingthe opinionsof
years
be
unless disputatiouspamphlets and tracts may
acteristics
charthinking people remains one of the marked
of American
social Ufe. The
natural
regarded as incipientjournalism. Indeed, it was
of religiousleaders,their manifest
not until 1615, 163 years after the reputed discovery conservatism
of printingby movable
the greater amount
of time pertype that the regularpubUcadisinterestedness,
mitted
tion of news
began in Das FrankfurterJournal, the
by a weekly rather than by a dailyexpression
States
oldest European weekly. In the United
of opinion and
conviction
which
elements
are
rival claims,each vigorouslydefended, are made
for
be regarded as explanatory of this power
to
may
create
primacy in pubUshing a reUgious journal. In
right-mindedness,while the popuUir beUef,
the newspaper
whether based on fact or not, that the metropoUtan
representedby each set
any event
of claimants has undergone transformations
in
press is largelyunder the influence if not under the
and in most instances, control of organized commercialism, may
also
form, in contents,in ideals,
in name.
have, negatively,its share in accrediting to the
"

375

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

to the religious
weekly journal,and, in particular
this conservation of wise pubUc opinion.
journal,

ETHICS

Repentance

The task of translation gave an opportunity

for the Greek scholars of the East, notably
after the Turkish
of
possession
Constantinople.
The enthusiasm
for expositioncreated the expositor,
the itinerant professor,
the academy, and muItipMed
universities. Nature
also made
her appeal to
of this age.
In contrast
men
with
mediaeval
press.

ing

reliable statistics available show that

States there are about 900 rehgious
periodicals.Of these 422 are publishedweekly;
300
monthly; 14 bimonthly; 24 semimonthly;
5 semi-weekly : 3 fortnightly;1 daily; 79 quarterly.
of those issued less frequently than
A number
weekly are merely Sunday-schoollesson helps and
be regarded as religiousjournals in the
cannot
The
bined
comacceptance of these words.
common
has been
circulation of the whole
group
The

AND

most

in the United

responded to the charm

of moimtain
waters, flowers,sunsets, and bird songs.
appreciation for beauty found expression in
masterpieces of Giotto, Ghiberti,Raphael,
Michael Angelo, Da
Vinci.
Nothing, however,
the higher evaluation of
estimated
as
by experts as nearly 16,000,000 copies. is quite so significant
of rehgiousperiodicals human
Hence
the
In Great Britain the number
personaUty (see Humanism).
circulation
human
is considerably less but the average
portraitso prominent in art, the thirst for
of each is greater. In continental Europe there are
the venerafame, the confident hope of immortahty,
tion
of birthplacesand graves,
the beginningsof
comparativelyfew such periodicals,unless there
and
the
be included theological
quarterlies
like.
of religious
A considerable number
newspapers
once
ent
privatelyowned, owing, doubtless,to the apparof denominationahsm, in order to maintain
wane
existence are pubUshed by denominational societies
or
generalorganizations. In not a few instances
whose constituencywas
chieflyconfined to a
papers
sionary
singlestate have become the property of state mis-

days,

men

scenery,

This
the

the
biographyand autobiography,

relish for wit and

satire. Men
revolted against the regulationsand
restraints of mediaeval
ecclesiasticism.
In this
exuberant
passion for freedom, feudalism was
sloughed off,the spiritof nationalism was
born,
science started on
her career, and
geographical
discoveries were
launched.
the defects of the movement
a
Among
was
pedantry that jeopardizedoriginahty and spontaneity,
societies.
a
tendency to regard the classics as the
of mental
In
countries where
missionary associations sole standard of scholarshipand means
of
and a misguided hberty that in many
are
maintaining missionaries a unique class
discipUne,
the
exist. These
serve
to
and
haa come
bridled
unquarters degenerated into immorahty
periodicals
lust. Beneath
double purpose of creatingan espritde corps among
the surface of social culture
often
there remained
the resident pastors, teachers and physicians,
passions
gross appetitesand savage
widely scattered and seldom gatheredin conference, that have left their record in chapters of violence,
of needs and progress to
and of giving information
poisonings,and assassinations.
base.
Within
the constituencyof the home
effected Httle
Italy,the Renaissance
Dickerson
J. Spencer
toward
The
"Renaissance
reformingthe church.
rehcs
A
interested largely in -the classical
repository in which
Popes" were
RELIQUARY.
of them
artistically aspects of the awakening, and their court took on
are
are
preserved. Many
added
ornamented.
Some
indeed
splendor and pomp.
sented
reprethe worst hcentiousness of unbridled freedom.
who
Dutch
Protestants
Across the Alps it was
REMONSTRANTS."
otherwise.
Among these
northern peoples with their deeper moral cast the
defended
Arminian
views after the death of ArminRenaissance
caused
divorce of moraUty nor
(whence
no
ius,andin 1610 presenteda "remonstrance"
the name) to the states of Holland and Friesland, hostihty to Christianity.
Suggestive,rather,of a
Points
to the Five
stated their adherence
which
new
approach to the problem of reform, it led a
of scholars into the field of bibhcal and
of Arminianism
a
colony
(q.v.). They founded
group
Oriental research, among
The
Remonstrants
were
in Schleswig in 1621.
whom
were
Reuchhn,
In others such as
Melanchthon, and Erasmus.
by the decisions of the Synod
virtuallycondemned
of Dort (1619),but in 1630 were
granted religious Colet and ZwingU it instilled an enthusiasm for
They to-day have 27 vigorous bibhcal exposition.
libertyin Holland.
of historical interpretachurches.
Through the principle
tation,their zeal for bibhcal knowledge, their
transitional
A
movement
RENAISSANCE.
of the many-sidedness of human
ests,
interrecognition
and their insistence upon
from the Middle Ages to the modern
the right of private
world, marked
the
the
Humanists
undermined
by a revived appreciationthroughout western
interpretation,
authorityof the Church of Rome, laid the foimdaEurope of classic culture,a passionateenthusiasm
tions for consistent
the
for freedom and spontaneity,and an enlargedrange
Protestantism, saved
Reformation
interests.
from
of its
of the excesses
of human
some
boundaries are
difficultto
best friends,and suggested a method
Its chronological
by which in
be seen
in the revived
the fulness of time the church
be cured of
limit. Foregleams may
may
her ills.
Aristotelianism
of the 12th. century, in Abelard,
Peter
G. Mode
St. Francis of Assisi,Frederick
II, and Dante.
tic
ERNEST
With the age of Petrarch (1304-74) its characterisRENAN,
(1823-1892),"
JOSEPH
Its culmination
in
features are clearlydefined.
French theologianand orientalist,
educated for the
Rome
the
sack
after
of
be
fixed
R.C.
at
(1527),
Italymay
clergy; but his study of philosophyled to his
identified with the transalpine renunciation of orders,and his devotion to scholarwhich
it becomes
ship.
and imporHis hteraryremains are numerous
tant,
peoples.
and
acteristic
An
the chief being his Life of Jesus, History of
interest early developed
highlycharthe archaeological the study of
was
Israel, Future of Science, Studies in Religious
and
the Origins of ChrisRome's
tianity.
on
ruins,the decipheringof inscriptions,,
History, and volumes
While
the rebuildingof her crumbling structures.
Literary
criticallyrejecting supernatural
of the past were
monuments
zealouslysought after, rehgion,he was an ardent advocate of the esthetic
princes,patricians,popes,
despots and merchant
power of rehgion.
and monks, all dihgently locating and
storing
of these
A turning about, a radical
accumulation
the
REPENTANCE."
manuscripts. With
and the expositor. revision
of one's
the printer,the translator,
course.
came
Specifically,
turning
Inventive geniuswrought triumphswith the print- from a sinful to a godly life.

may

"

"

"

Reprobation
While
involved

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

definite turning from

evil to good is
religionswith an ethical import,
received
in
especial attention
and Mohammedanism.
The
Judaism, Christianity,
great prophets of Israel declared it to be the primary
condition of God's favor,and the messages
of John
a

in all
has
repentance

the Baptistand of Jesus stressed repentance as the

The new
condition of membership in the Kingdom.
attitude of heart was
supposed to be permanent;
that many
failed
persons
life. Hence
"second
a
repentance"was early recognized. The question
frequentlyrepentance should be valid led
as to how
to ecclesiastical
supervisionand regulation,
growing
of penance
tant
into the sacrament
(q.v.). The ProtesReformation restored the personal and purely
meaning of repentance.
spiritual
Repentance connotes both an emotional element
and an act of will; a change of course
ing
accompanyfor the past and the
a change of mind, sorrow
worketh
direction;"Godly sorrow
facing of a new
repentance." This conception of repentance as
is the
"a sincere and thorough changing of mind"
first step of a sinner in the development
indispensable
stressed in
of a reUgious life,and is much
Herbert
A. Yoittz
evangeUcalpreaching.
but

it

was

evident

soon

purity of

maintain

to

A term
REPROBATION.
signifyingthe fate
of those not included in God's election. It involves
See Predestination.
eternal condemnation.
"

In the R.C. church a solemn mass

behalf of the souls of the departed,so called
sung
of the Latin introit.Requiem
from the first word
dona eis, Domine
("Give eternal rest to
aeternam
those,O Lord").

REQUIEM.

"

on

REQUIESCAT.

"

prayer

for the repose

of

departed soul,so called from the first word of the

Latin Requiescatin pace (May he rest in peace);
frequentlyabbreviated to R. I. P.
REREDOS.
screen

In church

"

forming

architecture,an ornamental
background for the altar.

ETHICS

AND

376

RESTORATIONISM."

The belief that all men,

die unrepentant, will be
of the restitution of all
saved as a consequence
things to the control of God.
view does not involve the denial of
Such
a
divine punishment of sinners,but makes
God's
love rather
than
In
punitive justice supreme.
less distinct form it has appeared in Chrisor
tian
more
teaching since the days of Origen, but has
The doctrine
always been regarded as unorthodox.
of Purgatory (q.v.)whUe
not without some
blance,
resemis not a form
of restorationism since its
is not permittedall men
and the
cleansingdiscipline
has taught the endless duration
R.C. church
of
punishment. The leading Protestant bodies have
as
opposed restorationism
unbiblical,although
from the Reformation
period it has been advocated
various
of Christians and by many
by
nent
promigroups
theologians of the 19th. century. It thus
the subject of widespread interest both
became
within
and
without
the Universahst
churches.
At present althoughnot ecclesiastically
recognized
it arouses
Uttle discussion,
except by Universahsts,
doubtless
because
of the diminishingemphasis
laid upon
the punitiveaspects of God's sovereignty
and
the use
of other than pohticalconcepts in
theology. See Universalism.
Shailer
Mathews
RESURRECTION
OF
THE
DEAD."
See
Future
of
Life, Conceptions
the.

including sinners

who

RETENTION
SINS."
The
OF
ecclesiastical
denial of forgivenessor withholding of absolution.
See Keys, Power
of
the.
RETREAT.
In reUgious usage, a time or place
devoted to prayer, meditation
and selfspecifically
of long duration
in the
examination, a custom
Roman, and introduced by Pusey into the Anglican
"

church.

REUCHLIN,

JOHANN
(1455-1522)."Noted
fame rests primarily on his introduction
of the study of Hebrew
ture
language and literain Germany.
His defense of Jewish hterature
in the face of a persecuting attempt to destroy
aU Jewish
writings led to his being represented
Christian doctrines.
as
denying fundamental

humanist,whose

A replyin writing from the Pope

RESCRIPT.
law or ethics.
in response
to a question of canon
from
the imperial rescripts
is derived
The
name
HEINRICH
FRANZ
(1823-1900)."
REUSCH,
answered
questions Old Cathohc divine
emperors
whereby the Roman
who, with Dollinger,withdrew
of law, the answer
having the force of a decree.
from
church
the R.C.
as
a
protestagainst the
decree; an influential professor
papal infaUibility
MENTAL."
See
Mental
RESERVATION,
at the University of Bonn;
retired into the lay
Reservation.
communion
as
a
protest against the Old-CathoHc
enactment
permittingthe clergyto marry.
SACRAMENT."
THE
OF
RESERVATION
The
withholding of portions of the consecrated
EDOUARD
GUILLAUME
EUGENE
REUSS,
of the eucharist for other religious
uses.
elements
(1804-1891)." Theologian in the University of
of
the
2d.
in
The custom
arose
century
reserving Strassburg. He was
a
pioneer in the appUcation
of critical historical method
portions to be administered privately to sick
to the study of the
attend
the
to
unable
those
members
public Bible.
or
the
of
withheld
use
service. In mediaeval times
REVELATION."
The disclosure to men
of the
portions as charms, and the adoration of other
portions arose, the latter developing into the
divine purpose
or of superhuman knowledge, usually
Christi
feast of Corpus
(q.v.).In Protestant
in ways deemed
superiorto the ordinary processes
fell into disuse, and where
churches the custom
also to denote
the body of
of reasoning. Used
ments truth thus disclosed.
is administered to the sick, the elecommunion
consecrated
at the time.
are
universal
1. The
for revelation. The
"

quest
knowledge in the face of
lead
of special
needs
to seek avenues
men
pressing
The historyof religion
shows"^ great
mformation.
important
variety of such attempts. The most
which
are
sidered
conoccurrences
are:
(a) Significant
tion.
"signs"pointingtoward the desired informaColors of objects,direction of movement,
"

limitations of normal

RESPONSORY
for formal
gicalservices.
term

OR

RESPONSORIUM."

responses
congregational

A
in htur-

RESTITUTION."
In
theological usage, the
ultimate
restoration of all things to a state of
with
God's
bliss and righteousness in harmony

vilL

peculiarformations,etc.,

are

thus

interpreted.

is a highlydevelopedforijof this
Astrology (q.v.)

DICTIONARY

377

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

Revivals of Reli^on

and
Divination,
See
Jesus, that trust and love are made possible,
(h) Casting of lots or
See Bible;
with God ensues.
personal communion
examination
of entrails, (c) Oracles (q.v.)which
mediate the will of the god directlythrough specific Inspiration; Infallibility; Authority.
Smith
which
Gerald
Birney
and visions,
(d) Dreams
placesor persons,
REVEREND."
Originallya term of respect,
are beUeved to record realities not accessibleto the
honorable
of ministers.
now
an
prefixto the names
mind in waking moments,
(e)Ecstasy,in which a
The
is the formal address
term
"very reverend"
prophet is inspiredto utter divine truth. (/)Sacred
of a dean in the Anghcan church,or a principalof
or divinely
books,either written by divine inspiration
called "right
all excej)t a Scottish university. Bishops are
authorized. With the advance of cultiu"e,
"most reverend."
the last two tend to disappear; and revelation is
reverend,"and archbishops,
of prophets
now
generallylocated in the utterances
REVERS.
trinal
A written acceptance of the docof sacred scriptures.
and the message
isters
standards
of Lutheranism
required of min2. The authentication of revelation. Whenever
and of candidates for ordination.
tion
revelastress is laid on superhuman characteristics,
itself by divine credentials.
commend
must
Also called "MisOF RELIGION."
sions."
REVIVALS
In primitivethinking,abnormal psychicalactivities
marked
Times
of specialreligious
interest,
(such as trance or ecstasy or "possession" by a
Not peculiar
But the
usually regardedas evidence.
by the conversion of large numbers.
are
spirit)
but more
or less characteristic of aU
possibiUtyof maUgn influences is also recognized. to Christianity,

idea.

"

"

Deception, either subjective or due to diabolical religions.

of Christianity
exist. "False
The history
begins with a revival,
prophets" and
suggestion, may
the giftof the Holy Spiriton the day of Pentecost
"magicians" compete for recognition with the
in a single
of three thousand
"true" prophets. In order to obviate confusion, and the conversion
Miracles
demanded.
since, revivals have been
certain objective tests are
day (Acts 2). Ever
and certain centuries have
are evidences
frequent and fruitful,
wrought in connection with a message
and wide extent.
these may
be
been marked
of divine approval, though even
by their recurrence
wrought by diabolical agencies. Prophetic pre^j Extensive revivals accompanied the preaching of the
ricQctionof events is another test, which may
b^ Franciscans in the latter half of the 13th, century.
Reformation
has often been described
tative
The
by
Iverified
by the fulfilment of the prophecy. Authorithe part of
historians as a revival of religion. In modern
times,
credentials of inspirationon
in order
the great revival of the 18th. century in England,
be demanded
authors of sacred books may
under the Wesleys and Whitefield was one of the most
to verifysubjectiveclaims.
in Christian history.
remarkable
stress has
much
and Christianity
movements
In Judaism
The Great Awakening (q.v.)beginning in 1734
been laid on authentication
by these tests,and the
at Northampton,
Mass., under the preaching of
canonical Scriptureshave been declared to be the
It is
Jonathan
Edwards, extended through most of New
sole utterances
completely authenticated.
England, and three visits of George Whitefield
granted that there is a revelation to be derived
the
to the colonies greatly deepened and extended
from nature, and that individuals other than biblical
effects on
the
had momentous
which
have
writers may
genuine insight into God's
a
movement,
The
19th. century
Christian history of America.
truth; but only in sacred Scripture do we find
of revival,
distinguishedby successive waves
revelation. Historical criticism,
was
however,
infallible
can
determined
the progress of Ameriwhich practically
it difficult to maintain
discloses facts which make
and
and there is
churches
religious institutions. The
this doctrine of external authentication,
of the type known
times to appeal to
earliestof these were
as "camp
distinct tendency in modern
a
of the biblical mesthe inherent spiritualpowey
sage
meetings,"held in the open air for several days or
weeks in succession.
rather than to external credentials.
Many of these were attended
3. The relation between revelation and reason.
by surprising physical demonstrations, locally
is in a
known
is reaffirmed or endorsed by reason
Whatever
as the "jerks,"at the time ascribed by most
but by
Christians to the influence of the Holy Spirit,
than that which is liableto adverse
stronger position
and
have
to the devil. Progress in medicine
some
criticism. Hence
thoughtful men
always
sought to show the reasonableness of revelation. psychologyhas made it clear that this was a species
and many other phenomena of revivals
of hysteria,
Thomas
Aquinas taught that while revelation
have
in the light of what we
are
now
furnishes knowledge otherwise inaccessibleto human
interpreted
in its
learned of the psychologyof the crowd.
reason, yet there is nothing contrary to reason
no
In the earlierrevivals there were
evangelists,
This positionhas been generallyapproved
content.
and in some
respects
The first,
in the modern sense.
both in Catholicism and in Protestantism,although
Charles
the greatest,of this class of preachers
was
it is often
reason
practicallyrepudiated when
Grandison
utters criticism of traditional doctrine. So long
Finney (q.v.). He worked uniformly in
with the churches,and his preachconceived
ing
was
as a purely speculative close connection
as "reason"
nizing
doctrinal and argumentativeto a degree
was
was
experiencedin harmoprocess, little difiiculty
with
revelation. ^But if
tionally
unapproached by other evangelists. He was excep"right" reason
convincing
successful in arousing and
"reason" is fortifiedby exact processes of historical
been
had
who
merchants
it
become
and empiricalinvestigation, may
so strong
men
doctors,lawyers,
in the idea of revelation.
indifferent or hostile to rehgion. The churches of
as to compel modifications
like Utica,Rochester,Buffalo,for two generaThis has actually occurred in the past century or
towns
tions
If he did not
showed
the effect of his labors.
two.
increasing agreement
Today there is an
of the
use
that the Bible is not to be taken as teaching a
introduce,he extended and popularized,
the earliest of those devices of
the religiousideals of
Even
"mourner's
"revealed"
science.
bench"
psychological
Scriptureare found to be colored by contemporary- revivalist preachers whose common
to
and
is their effectiveness in leading men
justification
conceptions. Consequently, revelation is more
when
decision
religious feelingand
being considered as exceptional spiritual immediate
more
communication
conscience are aroused.
insightrather than as a non-human
notable revivals occurred in
of the most
One
The Bible is regarded as a "progressive
of truth.
tent
1858, following a great financial panic. It began
revelation,"culminating in Christ. And the conof business men
in
of
in a noon-day prayer-meeting
of revelation is restricted to the realm
the John Street Methodist
church,New York, spread
religiousexperience. God's character and purpose
the country and ceased
like a prairiefire over
in
are
so disclosed in the Bible and pre-eminently
_

"

"

"

"

Rewards

and

Punishments

DICTIONARY

OF

suddenly as it began. The converts

as
estimated
within a year were
at half a milhon.
of beginning,extent of progress, numIn suddenness
ber
of converts
and rapidityof subsidence, this
stands
revival
unique.
Edward
Payson Hammond, from 1865 onward,
also worked in and with the churches, and was
especiallysuccessful as a preacher to children.
He
made
the first extensive use
of the "inquiry
meeting" as a feature of revival work.
Dwight L.
Moody and Ira D. Sankey were the first great lay
their predecessors having all been
evangelists,
ministers.
Two of their methods
were
novel,and
became
popular. They reintroduced the practiceof
Whitefield,in holdingtheir meetings in largepublic
built for the purpose;
or in "tabernacles"
buildings,
known
and they introduced
that form of
as the "gospel
hymn" (the real father of which was
WiUiam
B. Bradbury)
a "catchy" melody, with
The
a spiritedrefrain and
a captivatingrhythm.
music has certain obvious merits for popular assemoften
are
bhes, but the accompanying "hymns
worthless.
The more recent meetings of WiUiam A.
Sunday in the chief American
cities,repeat the
features of the earher campaigns,onlv substituting
and
trail" for the "mourner
the "sawdust
s bench"
the "inquiry meeting." There is great difference
of opinion among
Christian ministers and laymen
alike,as to the permanent worth of the revival.
almost

hymnody

"

AND

than

loyalty rather
Penology.
3. In

378
as

mere

retribution. See

religionrewards

and
punishments have
God's way
of expressingapproval
or
disapproval. The vicissitudes of ordinary life
are
divine
frequently viewed
as
"judgments."
But wider experience shows
the futility
of such a
theodicy. The Book of Job is the classic protest
against it. Hence
rehgion eventually locates the
divine rewards
and punishments in another world.
The ideas of Heaven
and Hell (qq.v.)sum
up this
has for centuries been
conception. Christianity
conceived as a means
of preparing
the soul to claim
the rewards
and to escape the punishments of a
future life. Here, too, has been encountered the
moral danger involved in externaUsm, and the great
stressed
the
rehgious leaders have
immediate
rewards of an uplifting
experienceof God's approval
rather than the external events of a future life.
Gerald
Birney
Smith

been regarded

as

RIDGLEY,

NICHOLAS
(ca.1500-1555)." English
bishop, active in the English Reformation,
being one of the signersof the decree denying the
pope's jurisdiction in England. On
rehgious
of Mary to the
grounds,he opposed the ascendancy
and
with her commg
English throne,
to power, he
was
excommunicated, convicted of heresy, and
burnt

at

the stake.

RIGHT."

PUNISHMENTS."
able
Pleasuror
painfulexperienceswhich are so related to
either
the commission
of certain acts as to serve
as incentives or as deterrents.
individuals are found whose natural
Wherever
interests are opposed to sociallyapproved standards,
means.
conformity must be secured by extraneous
Acts naturallydistastefulwill be performed if this
performance is the gateway to coveted pleasure;
attractive will be refrained from
and acts inherently
immediate
if sufferingis anticipated
conseas
an
Rewards
and
thus
punishments are
cjuence.
of moral control.
importantmeans
be
1. The moral education of the individiuilmay
and
faciUtated by rewards
punishments. Habits
in this way before the individual
be estabhshed
may
is mature
enough to make rational decisions. The
of the race
thus
be
wisdom
accumulated
may
capitalized. The moral danger here is that mere
be secured without
comphance with custom
may
inner love for ideals. Consequently the aim of
any
is to reduce so far as possiblethe
moral education
mary
appeal to external inducements, and to give priattention to the initiation of the individual
ideals.
with
The
into social sympathy
group
rewards
of virtue are thus part and parcel of the
this attitude is achieved,
practiceof virtue. When
reward."
"virtue is its own
is necessarilyexpressed
2. Political organization
be obeyed if pubUc
in specificlaws which must
welfare is to exist. Since it is assumed that citizens
external rewards usuallydo not accomwill be loyal,
pany
But
punishments play a large
legislation.
the
part in the administration of law. When
defied
mdividual
has
public opinion, external
make
To
becomes
such
restraint
necessary.
cult
restraints genuinelymoral is an
exceedingly diffitask, and considerable discretion is usually
left to the judge, so that mitigating circumstances
be given full weight. It is increasinglyfelt
may
fixed penalties
that the impositionof quantitatively
and the
is too crude to serve
the ends of justice,
"indeterminate
sentence" is growing in favor.
social
When
a
punishment creates or enhances an antifailure is self-evident.
attitude its moral
that penaltiesshall
There is an increasingdemand
of creatingsocial I
be viewed primarilyas means

REWARDS

ETHICS

AND

RELIGION

As

the standard
of conduct;
choice or purpose
which is
in accord with a standard, whether
this standard
is regarded as set by God, by laws, by social judgment,
or by conscience.
In many
the
words
for right and law
languages
the same
from the same
are
or
root, and it is probable
that the ethical meaning is derived
from
social judgments. It is nearly equivalentto "what
ought to be done," but not quite,since at a given
time it may
appear that of two acts either would be
right (neitherbe wrong) although one
have
may
such
considerations
in its favor as
it
to make
probable that it ought to be done rather than the
other.
The relation of the right to the good is
conceived
by ethical schools. Teleosuch as the utilitarian,
consider the
logicalschools,
good as fundamental and regardthe rightas the means
the other hand holds that the
to the good. Kant
on
and
only good without quaHficationis the good will,
the good will is one governed by a rightmotive.
Still
another view would
maintain
that neither can
be
derived from the other. Sidgwick regards each as
too elementary a notion to be resolved into elements,
although he holds the final test of an action to be
its results measured
in terms
of happiness; the
principlethat I must consider the general happiness
and not merely my
rests on
own
intuition
an
of reason.
Intuitionists of the rationahst
type
regard the rightas nearlyequivalentto the reasonable,
for us
and hold that it is determined
by
reason.
Westermarck, on the contrary, holds that
the emotion of indignation is the primary psychological
factor.
We
resent
are
indignant and
certain acts.
this resentment
is not purely
li now
personal but is sympatheticresentment, we regard
the act as wrong
call it wrong
because we
we
(i.e.,
feel the emotion
of sympathetic resentment;
not
vice versa
first judge it wrong
that we
and then
resent it).
James
H. Tufts
as

an

adjective,
an

noun,
act or

differently

RIGHTEOUSNESS."
to the
The

The

attitude of loyalty

Right (q.v.).
into
conception of righteousness comes
prominence where social organization is valued.
certain moral obhgations to which
It presupposes
the individual is expected to be loyal. The word
has received especialemphasis in the Egyptian,

379

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Rites,Rituals,Etc

ence
and
Mohammedan
Christian
religions, of stress and satisfaction,
involving the very existand welfare of the group affords both the emotional
divine favor is pictured as being conditioned
tension and the repetition
is right. The
apostle
by which habit and
man's fideUty to what
on
custom
develop. The ceremonies in turn make their
Paul, holding that perfect righteousness is out
bility contribution of excitement and thereby enhance the
of reach of human
effort,proclaimed the possiRecent
objectsand activities in which they center.
of a divinely given righteousnessacquired
writers have explainedhow the performance of rites,
through faith in Christ. See Justification.
before the hunt is started or the grainsowed, heightprimary
ens
Theologically,righteousness is a
of the value of the end.
the sense
and
also describes
the
The more
characteristic of God;
elaborate the preUminary performances the more
inner
quahties of uprightness. It impUes an
independenceof character which guarantees fidehty is the appreciationof the object increased. This
extension of the mediating activitymagnifies the
is hence
cardinal
a
to the highest justice,and
In extreme
feelingof the importance of the end.
virtue.
become
end in itself and
the means
cases
an
may
tends to be merely formal.
A
collection of 1017
liymns then the ceremony
RIG-VEDA.
The
occasions
which religiousceremonies
the gradual
on
They were
arranged in ten books.
their nature.
throw hght upon
famiUes who composed and sang
They do not
occur
product of priestly
with reference to an indefinite
at random
of the sacrifices of the early
occur
nor
in the conduct
them
of objects and
These
events.
occasions
Vedic Aryans. These
family books reflect a polytheisticnumber
be grouped into three classes: those which
nature-reUgion,the chief gods iddressed
may
dividual,
the crises in the hfe cycle of the inconcern
(qq.v.). See
being Indra, Soma, Agni and Varuna
those related to the seasons
and
those
Literatures,
also Vedic
Religion, III; Sacred
having to do with strangers. Under the first are
in
the rites enacted at the birth of the child,
at puberty,
of inspiredsages
used
A
term
RISHIS.
when
the
he is initiated into the tribe,at the time of
who
of the ancient seers
were
India especially
These
marriage, in case of illness and at death.
authors of the sacred books.
allof importance to the group and genuinepublic
are
interest inheres in them.
word
The second class of occaA Hindu
for the
sions
Cosmic order.
RITA.
to Nature, his
law of the universe.
pertainsto the relation of man
basic moral and physical
dependence upon her and her dependence upon him.
AND
CEREMONIES."
RITUALS
Magical rites are performed to bring the spring
RITES,
of the earth, the
rains,to guarantee the fertility
These terms are treated here as practically
synonymous.
monies
The character which they all share is that of
growth of grain,and its preservation. The cerevital energy,
warding
act or a series of acts performed according to an
an
convej^ to Nature
rule.
off evils and insuringsafety and plenty. Floods,
or
established order determined
by custom
drouths,famine, earthquakes,echpses,fire and all
They are not restricted to rehgious observances
dire calamities are
dealt with by the all-powerful
though most commonly appUed to these. Courts of
rites. A third set of events for ritual treatment
are
law have their ceremonies, as do social functions.
with strangers either in war
in hospicontacts
rites of initiation into secular societies
or
tality.
There
are
there is present an ahen or
In either case
and it is not inappropriateto speak of the ritual of
of
must
be disarmed
presence
collegegraduationor of inaugurationinto political foreigner whose
had
Even
in developed
once
danger by the proper usages.
office. Many, if not all such customs
and rehgion is the soil in
reUgionsthese are the occasions when rites are most
religioussignificance
in evidence
and Christmas.
at Easter and Harvest
which they flourish.
be
There
also ceremonies
which
to attach
are
seem
As compared with the cult (q.v.)rites may
and persistence. to incidental experiencesor to events long forgotten
lackingperiodicity
occasional,
more
while the rites are maintained
from force of custom.
ances,
The rites signifythe formal action of the observtrines. Head-hunting among
the Dyaks of Borneo
the behefs or docseems
with less emphasis upon
to persistchieflyas an
occasion of excitement
of related rites belong to the cult.
or
A group
rests upon
the impulse of the young
to prove
have the "rite of baptism," the
men
In Christianitywe
their courage.
tribes it is beUeved that
In some
"rite of confirmation,"the "last rites." Since rites
after death aU the enemies
has killed will
man
a
are
integralfactors of the cult it is
or ceremonies
to treat them without discussing
society there are
principles become his slaves. In modern
impossible
survivals of customs
less ritual such
or
having more
which apply also to the cult.
be sought in the phenomena as those in connection with May Day, Hallowe'en,
The origin of rites may
and St. Valentine's Day.
The relation is parof habit and custom.
ticularly
ritual and the
A close relation exists between
clear in early society. For
example
sacred
various arts.
Even
the most
the ritual of their most
primitiveceremonies
the Todas
among
mentary
involve features which may
be regarded as the eleoccasions is largelythe routine of the dairy, their
There is also some
of their buffaloes.
forms of the fine arts.
sole occupation being the care
ground for the view that the different arts become
The dairies are their temples,the dairymen are their
conscious and elaborate their technique most
fully
priestsand the buffaloes and the dairy products are
only when their originalsocial originand rehgious
sacred. The customary procedure in the care of the
unity have begun to disintegrate.At least a survey
buffaloes has become fixed and any variation is tabu.
of any
includes the following.
typical ceremony
Among the AustraUans a clan which has the plum
be a
of its ceremonies
the
There is first of aU the sacred place. It may
has for one
tree for its totem
or
a temple.
dramatization of gatheringplums. While the clan
spot of natural beauty and seclusion,
tating The ceremonial
imiground acquiresits fitness for the
sit in a circle two men
go into the center, one
pressive
imof plums and the other
in the first instance by virtue of some
the knocking down
purpose
of agricultural
ceremonies
natural features or because it is the scene
The
gatheringthem.
of their occupational of important events in mythical or historical times.
preserve the form
itself makes
But the performance of the ceremony
abor.
Sowing and reaping and harvestingfurnish
a
place sacred and this quahty is intensified by
the action of the rituals. The folk-dances of various
In primitive times the ground is
repeated use.
peopleare often fragments of their rehgious ritual
detached and re-enacted for pleasurebut preserving often freshly prepared for the rites by making
now
from which
or less clearly
designs of the totem or other sacred object by a
the patternsmore
blood and ochre.
In later times
The recurrence
of the times
mixture of human
originally
sprang.

Hebrew,
where

"

"

"

"

f)eoples

they

Rites,Rituals,Etc.
the art of architecture

DICTIONAKY

OF

the sacred spot by a

covers
ceremonial
The
symbolic structure.
dress of the participants
develops aesthetic interest

permanent,

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

380

growing scientific impulse may

rightly demand.
At least it is a significant
fact that with the ment
developof education
and science in modern
society
ceremonial
rituals are undergoing elaboration and

of
in the direction of textiles and various ornaments
The garments, head dress and insignia refinement.
the person.
Edward
S. Ames
of the priests are
often intricatelyelaborated.
ALBRECHT
RITSCHL,
Usually a story or myth accompanies the per(1822-1889)."Noted
formance
German
of the rite. It may
be recited by one
who broke with the speculative
theologian,
Hegehan theology and introduced
designatedfor the purpose or chanted by the group.
critical
new
a
See
Ritschlianism.
evangeUcal method.
He
Lyric and epic poetry have usually had their
brations.was
professorat Bonn, 1846-1864, and at Gottingen
development in connection with festivals and celefrom
1864 until his death.
Thus
music
is naturally ehcited espeHis most
cially
important
is The
work
and
choral accompaniment.
Christian Doctrine of Justification
in the chant
and Reconciliation.
Musical
instruments
are
employed to accent the
rhythm and heighten the emotional effect. The
RITSCHLIANISM."
A
of
light and heat and smoke from the ritual fire add
type
theological
the
thinking which originated with Albrecht Ritschl
impressiveness, especially at night. But
omits
and
exercised
of
wide
these
elements
enumeration
(q.v.)
influence during the latter
separately
the most
part of the 19th. century.
important single feature,namely, the
mation,
RitschUanism can perhaps be best understood
dramatic
action.
It is this which
gives Ufe, anias
an
the evangehcal Lutheran
unity, and meaning to the ceremonial.
attempt to conserve
mimetic
the method
The action consists of processions,
of orthodoxy
type of pietywhile repudiating
dancing
in favor of colnplete freedom
of the important events
and
dramatizations
or
of criticism.
The different artistic aspects
interests concerned.
RehgiouslyRitschlianism makes central the inner
of divine salvation;but instead of basing
So unified is
into a vital whole.
thus blended
assurance
are
this assurance
the mere
this organiccomplex that it is frequentlyforbidden
of the Bible it
on
message
derives it from an appreciationof the inner lifeof
feature privately or outside the ceremonial
to use
any
be sacrilege
Jesus.
The
occasion. For example it would
followingtraits of Ritschlianism may
be noted :
to recite the story of the myth for entertainment
It is sacred to its proper
1. Complete freedom of inquiry, in opposition
other purpose.
or
any
to the orthodox demand
occasion and setting. One reason
for conformity. Faith, it is
why modern art
must
lost and meaningless is because it
at time seems
insisted,
mean
so
personalconviction,not simply
the
assent
to authorized
doctrines.
Critical scholarship
attempts to be "art for art's sake" whereas
with
is cordially
art is in connection
welcomed.
natural function of any
ideal interest in alliance
2. A sharp distinction between the outer world of
some
organic,purposeful,
causal relations and the inner world of experienced
with other arts. It is also an interestingfeature
values. Religion rests on
that it generally employs an
of the ceremony
value-judgmentsrather
than on
archaic or
The
objective demonstrations.
foreign speech, corresponding to our
religious
is one who feelsthe power
ceremonial
of Latin or King James
of God over
his conman
use
EngUsh.
science
and will. This inner experience is a suffifeature of the aesthetic character of
Another
cient
attitiide
vindication
in
the
out
ceremonial
the
of
the
comes
play
realityof the objectof faith,
could
be more
if external
evidence
it manifests. Nothing
be inadequate. This
even
which
than the impression that religiousrites
emphasis on the sufficiencyof the experience of
erroneous
values led to a sharp polemifeagainst the use
of
necessarilyor predominantly sad. While they
are
and felt to be of the utmost
earnest
importance
are
metaphysicsin theology. The Ritschlian doctrine
they are yet joyous and lively. This is evidently of value- judgments has been interpretedby hostile
and
of the celebrations of harvest
true
victory critics to mean
metaphysical agnosticism; but
the objectivereaUtyof God is plainly
but it is true also that generally there is a high
impUed in the
of expansion and expectation. RitschUan
note of exhilaration,
exposition. A metaphysical doctrine of
is conducive
God does not supply a Christian experience
of God
The social character of the ceremonies
this is the Ritschhan
contention.
to this. It is a time of reunion and the hohday
3. Emphasis on the historical Jesus as the one
spiritprevails. Feasting and drinkingand orgiastic
to the rites. Fear is not so
historical
factwhich imparts to men a value-experience
dancing are common
tude
attiIn the place of biblical proof-texts
so exclusive an
of God.
or philosophical
prominent and perhaps never
of the older views of religiontaught.
some
as
arguments, Ritschlianism puts a personal
results of the ceremoThere are certain practical
nies
acquaintance with the inner life of Jesus as the
natural consequences
of religious
tian
In Jesus the Chriswhich occur
as
assurance.
though it source
the power
of God to forgive him
is doubtful whether
they are consciouslysought.
experiences
and to transform
him inwardly. The
Ritschlian
One is the discipMneand trainingof the young during
The conscious purpose
in that it tests all doctrines
the initiation ceremonies.
theologyis Christocentric,
to be to impart by the magical rites the
by the vital revelation of God in Jesus.
seems
But the awe
4. The
ethical-social content
inspiring
of theology. The
mysterious lifeof the totem.
revelation of God's purpose
in Jesus is seen
in the
followingupon fastingand vigilsand direst
scenes
ideal of the Kingdom
of God.
The creation of a
warnings impress the attitudes and interests of the
Further
the social
of righteous men
is God's
effective way.
in an
community
purpose.
group
Love
Salvation
is the primary attribute of God.
bonds of the tribe are cemented in the furnace of a
tion
consists in the creation of Christ-Uke
character.
This tends to unity, to the inhibigreat emotion.
of Christ consists in effectinga moral
The Work
of unsocial impulsesand to the rousing of the
The rnethod of this
reconcihation
between
God and man.
greatest loyaltyand devotion.
trary
Ritschl's influence began to be felt in the 1860's,
control is that of suggestion and arbiceremonial
and between
stimulated
he had
1870 and
1880
authority. The ritual group has not been a
for more
demand
several able scholars,who
later known
"deUberative assembly." The
were
as
"RitschHans."
noted of these are HarThe most
inteUigent,critical control of social activity in
mann,
civilized societyat the present time creates a new
nack, the famous church historian in Berlin,Herrthe influential theologianat Marburg, Schiirer,
set of problems for ceremonial rehgion, but it is
Julius Kaftan, H. H. Wendt, Haring, and Lobstein.
that symbolism and ritual are
believed by many
and adaptationas the
Gerald
Smith
Birney
capable of such purification
_

"

381

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The
RITUALISM.
assigning of a primary
such
to prescribedforms of worship,
placein religion
sacraments
or
hturgies.
as
demands
The social organizationof religion
some
shall
forms
action in worship which
of common
of a
reinforce and
interpret the consciousness
life. See Cult; Rites, Rituals,
common
religious
An
Ceremonies.
AND
important factor in the

AND

ETHICS

Roman

Catholic

Church

of Roman
Catholic Faith, and is regarded as a
doctrine
systematic exposition of Catholic
as
defined in conscious opposition to the Protestant

"

Reformation.
ROMAN
CATHOLIC
CHURCH."
I. The
Name
consists of three words, each emphasizing
whole.
special aspects of a logicallycoherent
"Church"
here
suggests the claim that Christ
founded
visible and
a
society;
self-perpetuating
"Cathohc"
(Greek katholik6,universal),that the
church is by intention world-wide;and "Roman,"
that the pope
is the divinely
as
bishop of Rome
appointed center of unity. On such presuppositions
the Larger Catechism
of Pope Pius X. states that
"all those who
do not
acknowledge the Roman
Pontiff as their Head, do not belong to the Church
of Jesus Christ" (p.44). The appellation"Roman
Catholic" has been used in Enghsh legislation
since
1791, replacing
by request earher designationssuch

ceremonies
is the
effectiveness of such rites and
of sanctity induced
sense
by a minutely exact
Ancient
origin
performance of the required acts.
of mysterious significanceare
also
and
sense
a
of
ever,
important aids. This very nature
ritual,howit from the scope of criticism.
tends to remove
It thus is an
important aid in maintaining the
and naturally
authority of a religiousinstitution,
ceptions
plays an indispensable part in high-church conethical
and
of religion. Rationalistic
ism
have usuallyobjected to ritualmovements
religious
emotional
and
the ground that an
even
on
as
"papist."
and sacraments
superstitioustrust in ceremonies
II. The
Term
first occurs
Catholic
Church
and
to truth
righteousness.
supplants devotion
to have
word
has thus come
The
a
depreciatory about 110 or 115 a.d. in the Epistle of Ignatius to
the
the
Smyrneans
(8:2): "Wherever
bishop
meaning in most Protestant movements.
there let also the multitude
shall appear,
be,
Christ
wherever
even
as
be, there is the
may
The
of three
BRETHREN."
RIVER
name
CathoUc
Church"; i.e.,the presence of the bishop
Swiss
settlers in
smaU
sects
originating among
is the visible test which shows
that the congregation
similar
Their
tenets
are
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
is part of the world-wide
church
of which
of the Dunkards
to those
(q.v.).They teach
literal obedience
to N.T. commands, and practise Christ is the invisible head.
is one
This world-wide
Church
and there is none
and trine immersion.
foot-washing,strict Sabbatarianism
other beside it; the term CathoUc
implies uniqueness.
Membership in 1919, 5,389.
Paul spoke of the church
the body of
as
there is a
Christ (I Cor. 12; Col. 1:18), in whom
WILLIAM
FREDERICK
ROBERTSON,
(1816race
unity transcending class, nationality,or
Robertson
as
1853). AngUcan preacher, known
(Col. 3: 11). Let this unity transcend place,and
earnest preacher
of Brighton. He was
a thoughtful,
have the idea of non-local,or Catholic.
The
with liberal but deeply reUgious views^attracting you
safest definition,
then, of the term Catholic as
his
church
his
oratorical
of
all
classes
to
by
people
is negative:it means
the
applied to the Church
gifts and his spiritualinsight. He exercised a
Church
not restricted to any
locality,
province,or
profound influence on the religiousthinkingof his
country, but diffused throughout the whole world.
generation.
The churches in Corinth,Ephesus, and elsewhere,
the local embodiments
of this one
are
church,the
ROBINSON,
JOHN
(1575-1625)."Educated
unity being unaffected by the distribution of the
associated
with
the
at
Separatist one into the
Cambridge,
which is purely geographical.
many,
congregation at Gainsboro, and later with that at
The
Larger Catechism prescribed by Pius X.
with
his
flock
Scrooby Manor, he
emigrated (1607)
(p. 43) does not, however, rest in negatives: it
to
Holland, disembarking at Amsterdam, from
defines the Catholic Church
"the Society or
as
made
to Leiden.
which, shortlyafter,removal was
Congregation of all the baptized,who, wayfarers on
the staunch defender of Calvinism,
There he became
this earth,professthe same
Faith and Law of Jesus
and the leading counsellor of the Pilgrims in their
Sacraments; and
Christ; participatein the same
American
adventure.
Large hearted and sound in
obey their lawful Pastors, and in particularthe
than any other man
placed the
judgment, he more
fined
is here deChurch
Roman
Pontiff." The Cathohc
imprint of his personalityon the Pilgrim group.
share in the grace
as the body of the faithful who
able to carry out
He died in Holland before he was
of the (Catholic)sacraments, accept the (Catholic)
his plan of joiningthe Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock.
archy,
creeds,and hve in obedience to the (Catholic)hierHis works (reprintby Ash ton, 1851),cover
doctrine,
The real criterion
whose head is the pope.
and
moral
themes.
church polity,
on
essays
nitions
has become
subjection to the pope; the other defi_

"

circular.
are
Church.
Ancient
Catholic
III. Rise of the
By the time of Irenaeus (died about 202 a.d.),
had
of the Church
the corollaries of the universality
been clearly drawn.
As Ritschl and others have
shown, the rise of the Ancient Catholic church was
the result of controversies acute from about 140 to
The
DAYS."
ROGATION
Monday, Tuesday,
then asserting that
Gnostics
The
were
180 a.d.
and Wednesday preceding Ascension
Day, so designated
their distinctive views, based
on
alleged secret
of chanting htanies in profrom the custom
tianity,
cession, tradition going back
to the earhest days of Chrisa custom
dating from the 5th. century.
the only correct
ones.
Against the
were
Gnostic claim to possess the inside facts about the
The
ROGATION
SUNDAY."
the churches in centers
Sunday
of Christianity,
ceding real nature
preAscension
Day.
like Rome, Corinth, Ephesus,where
apostles had
labored,employed a triplehne of defence: the rule
ized
A catechism authorCATECHISM."
ROMAN
of faith,the teaching authority of the bishops, and
of Scripture.
the canon
by the Council of Trent and prepared under
intended to
It was
the direction of Pope Pius IV.
1. From the earliest times candidates for baptism
formula such as "Jesus is
had had to profess
the content
some
set forth accuratelyaiid comprehensively

ecclesiastical vestment, conAn

ROCHET.
sisting
of a white tunic reaching about to the knees,
and worn
by prelatesand bishops and on special
The earhest
papal sanction by cathedral canons.
of the rochet dates from the 9th. century.
use
"

"

Roman

Catholic

Church

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

382

the great numbers

which
2. Among
"Jesus is the Christ" (Paul; Acts); and
belonged
or
there were
to the church in Rome
later they had to be baptized in the name
somewhat
probablycertain
of wealth (FlaviusClemens). In the 2nd.
of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost
persons
3rd. centuries several writers mention
and
the
triune
formula
28: 19f.). This
was
(Matthew
charitable aid given by the Roman
to
Church
expanded at Rome, in the first half of the 2nd.
in placesoutside of Italy;
afflicted Christians,even
Creed, the nucleus of
century, into the Old Roman
here as elsewhere service was
a root of power.
the so-called Apostles'Creed
(q.v.): the added
at Rome
shared to some
3. The Church
extent
that Jesus had
material
going chiefly to prove
in the political
lived a real human
or
prestigeof the capitalof the empire.
life,over against Marcion
Itself the shining goal of persecution,it could at
See Docetism.
similar exponents of docetic views.
times secure
valuable information.
The
ence
transferCreed was
The Old Roman
required of candidates
of the capitalto Constantinople in 330, seven
for baptism,and is therefore a "baptismalsymbol."
before the baptism of Constantine, made
it
writers about the year 220 speak of a "rule
When
years
to base their
such a baptismalsymbol,
of faith" theyeither mean
impossible for the bishops of Rome
claim to precedence on
the political
eminence
of
essential.
or a similar list of doctrines considered
their city. It was
the patriarchs of Constantinople
2. The
teaching authority of the bishops was
who
used to show that the rule of faith was
authentic;
plumed themselves on being bishopsof
which they called New
the capital,
and conversely,
that the secret traditions boasted
Rome, as stated
in the churches
unknown
by the Council of Chalcedon (451). The pope then
by the Gnostics were
founded
reigning,Leo I.,publiclybased his claim upon the
by the apostles,and therefore could not
texts for the primacy of Peter
If the secret traditions had
(Matthew 16, 18;
possibly be correct.
Luke
22:31; John 21:l5f.), thereby offsetting
actuallybeen genuinethey should have been handed
distinction of Constantinople
the passing political
down
through the bishops of those churches which
could trace the succession of their teachers back to
a perpetual foundation
by assertingfor the papacy
of divine right.
the apostles. This
style of argumentation had
Church was
4. A chief distinction of the Roman
used
schools of philosophy in
been
by Greek
the fact that it was
the only Christian community
repudiatingalleged secret traditions;they had
where
in the Latin-speaking world
unknown
to
apostles had
emphasized the fact that these were
resided.
boasted of being the scene
of the
Rome
their pubUcly acknowledged succession of teachers
The
in centers
like Athens.
martyrdoms of Peter and Paul, a claim which we
adoption of this
contested by any other locaUty.
do not know
ness
was
defence made the bishops guarantors of the correctWith
its allegedfounders, Rome
such apostles
the
of the apostolictradition; and rendered
as
of genuine
was
regarded as a pre-eminent depository
synods, or councils of bishops, the court of final
tradition.
apostolic
appeal as to orthodoxy. This development took
Power.
V. Reform
Secular
the
through
(q.v.),and
placein the fightagainst Montanism
centuries which elapsed between
During the seven
put the bishopinto the exalted positionof discerner
Constantine
and
Hildebrand, the reform of the
(cf.I Cor. 12: 10) or judge of the genuineness of the
of the prophets. The
church, theoreticallyleft chiefly to provincial
episcopate was
inspiration
undertaken
the
the Spirit,a view
on
synods,was in cases of emergency
regarded as certainlypossessing
which underHes
the bishop's
Kings and emperors
monopoly of the right initiative of the secular power.
careful to use
in particular
to ordain.
were
ecclesiastics,
their policies;
to execute
the chain of
3. Parallel with the emphasis on
archbishops or patriarchs,
but the fact remains
that virtual control of the
witnesses to apostoUc teachingwas
the appeal to the
of
church
was
practiced in most
by the crown
hteraryremains of the apostles. Their writings,hke
the ruins of the Roman
the states which arose
on
those of other Christian leaders such as Clement of
broke
from
the
Empire. After the popes
Rome, had long been sought and collected for puraway
poses
of the Eastern Empire in the 8th. century,
all writings
of instruction and edification;
now
power
to the Carolingians, or
friends of order looked
of the Twelve, or by Paul, or (as in the
not by one
to intervene
and Luke) by one
and Salian successors,
to their Saxon
of Mark
whose information
case
with military forces in critical emergencies. The
at first hand from the originalapostles,were
came
call the Canon
of the
donation of Charlemagne (774),the revival of the
left out of that Ust which we
Roman
New Testament.
This process of eUmination
saved
tion
Empire in the West (800),and the deposiaccretions
of legendary and
of bad popes by Otto I. and Henry III. in 963
Christianity from
and 1046 are instances of such intervention.
fictitious material. Even
writings bearing the
Strengthening
VI. Reform
Papacy.
of apostleswere, however, to be rejectedif
the
by
name
The
of depending on
the secular power
weakness
they did not conform to the rule of faith.
that no emperor
whose
of
in the Ancient
Rome
for reform was
IV. The Pre-eminence
of
sources
and suppheslay north of the Alps could permaCathoUc
that
for
Church
was
men
inevitable,and
nently
ers
1. The
Roman
retain control of central Italy. The reformseveral reasons:
of the
was
one
in the world.
of the 11th. century, led by Hildebrand
Its
largest Christian communities
(Gregory
internationalism
shown
was
by its continuingfor
VII.), insisted that lasting improvement in the
could never
be brought about
about two centuries to use the Greek language in its
state of the church
it must
from within.
re-enforced
come
services,instead of Latin. Constantly;
by the secular power;
Hildebrand's
mately
plan was reform by centralization.
by immigration as well as by conversions,it ultithe difiiculties of the language The election law of 1059 put the control of the choice
overcame
of Fabianus
into the hands of the cardinals,and
of the pope
by the pontificate
question, and
orders of the
of the suburban
(236-250) had developed the seven
bishops who were
particularly
beheve
handed
a statement
clergyand, if we may
habitually the Liturgicalassistants of the pope.
associated the priestsof the princidown
in the Liber Pontificalis,
scheme
of subdivision With these were
a
pal
of church work so elaborate that it probchurches of Rome, and the deacons
or "cardinal"
ably
in any but the largest who were
officers.
would have broken down
the major administrative
among
reduced
of Christian communities.
in papal elections was
Just as Rome
in the
The lay participation
2nd. century led in the fightagainst heresy, every
shout of approval; and the influence of the
to a mere
exotic variety of which desired to be representedin
Secure
eliminated.
German
king was
practically
used
for reasons
both of pride and of propaganda,
the reformers
Rome
in the control of the papacy
in the 3rd. century Rome
led in specializing
the
so
legates to break the power of archbishopsnorth
functions of the clergy.
of the Alps.

Lord"

"

"

383

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Centralization
usually increases the number of
officials. To
keep them from starvation in lean
kinds of business
to bring new
necessary
years it was
to the
papal court. Appeals and dispensations
were
mmtipUed. This process, in fuU swing under
its potency for
II. (1130-1143), showed
Innocent
evil particvilarly
(1378during the Great Schism
1417), when a divided Europe had to support more
than one papalcourt, and exactions multiplied.
During the centuries from the preaching of the
drawal
firstcrusade by Pope Urban II. (1095),to the withtine
of the lastOccidental
garrisonsfrom Palesof
(1291), the attempt to still the jealousies
Europe and to unite its military forces in a
series of holy wars
against the infidel had strengthened
of the
The
financial weakness
the pope.
ment
papacy, however, continued to hamper its developinternational
the
Though
an
as
power.
Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 grantedthe
for
pope the right to tax the church to raise money
crusades, nevertheless in most respects the pope,
mediaeval kings,was
Uke many
expected"to five
income
The
from the Papal States,
of his own."
together with certain customary dues, such as
Peter's Pence, was
quite inadequateto finance an
international
spiritual empire. In the absence
had to a fee system;
of the power
to tax, resort was
item
of business
that each
was
supposed to
so
The evils of this
for itself and a little more.
pay
notorious:
each hungry officialdesires
method
are
to affix his vis6 to every
or
appeal,
dispensation
thus
delay and
creating unnecessary
expense.
Add
to this the sale of offices and of the right of
ency
and the efficisuccession to offices (expectancies),
of government is deeply impaired.
entered upon
In the 14th. century the papacy
The
successive periods of misfortune.
two
lonian
Babyalmost
immediately
Captivity followed
the struggleof Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) and
on
Philip the Fair, hke his
Philip IV. of France.
I. of England, fought many
Edward
antagonist,
ecclesiastics so
for grants from
asked
and
wars
regularlythat what was nominally a gift became
Then
in the Bull Clericis Laicos
a tax.
practically
(1296) Pope Boniface protested that ecclesiastical
property should not be taxed without the pope's
which, if it had been accepted,
consent, a principle
material
would
have given to the papacy
a very
part of the power of the purse in every European
_

country.
of
Supremacy.
^The return
VII. CoNCiLiAR
followed by a
the popes from Avignon to Rome
was
election which
contested
inaugurated the Great
Schism
(1378-1417). A disputed succession is the
bane of monarchy; the problem the secular states
the church settled by a temporary
settled by war
council is
revival of a theory that the oecumenical
took
In 1415 the Council of Constance
supreme.
this position.It even
adopted a plan for parhamentary government for the church by councils to
be convened in five years, then in seven, and then
broke down, but the
This scheme
every decade.
question as to whether pope or council is supreme
Conthan four centuries.
debatable for more
was
maintained
ciliar supremacy
was
by the Galileans,
best formulated
in
essential principles
whose
were
of the Galilean
the Declaration
Clergy (1682),
civil
which says that the pope has no power
over
and temporal matters
(outsidethe Papal States);
councils
that
oecumenical
are
superior to the
of faith the pope's
in matters
pope; and that even
judgment is not irreformable unless ratified by the
of the church.
consent
^The position
Papalism.
VIII. The Victory
of
opposed to Gallicanism is called Ultramontanism;
in the
it maintains
that the supreme
authority
church is located on the other side of the Alps from
"

"

AND

ETHICS

Roman

CathoUc

Church

France

(ultramonies) This view is also known

Papalism, in distinction from Episcopalism or
Cyprian's theory that the church is an ohgarchy of
his
bishopsin which the pope is merely first among
On the eve
of the Protestant Reformation,
peers.
the Fifth Council
of the Lateran
declared (1516)
.

as

that the pope

has authorityover
all councils,
and
that he may
This
call,transfer,or dissolve them.
did not settle the question of supremacy,
which was
that the Council of Trent (1545-63)did not
so acute
dare to legislateupon
it. The
definite victory
of Ultramontanism
at the Vatican Council
came
tion
(1870); it was possiblebecause the French Revoluhad shattered the strongholds of Galhcanism
in the Bourbon
and because Napoleon,
autocracies,
had broken the political
throughhis secularizations,
of the great German
power
archbishops.The
Vatican
Decree asserted that the pope
has the
of governingthe universal church,
supreme
power
not merely in faith and morals,but also in matters
of discipline,administration, and
pronouncing
judgment. It also stated that the pope possesses
jurisdictionin every
ordinary and immediate
diocese.
Every cleric holding any positionof
influence in the Roman
Church is now
required to
and swear
true obedience to the Bishop
of the
to St. Peter, Prince
Rome, successor
Apostles, and Vicar of Jesus Christ," and (since
1877) also to believe in the Vatican decrees (Canon
Oath
of 1910, which
1406). The Anti-Modernist
be signed by all candidates for major orders,
must
founded
asserts also that the church
was
by the
historic Christ and is built on Peter and his successors
to the end of time.
The
ecclesiasticalsovereigntyof the pope is
limited by no theory of the separation of powers
into legislative,
and judicial. As supreme
executive,
legislator
Pope Benedict XV. in 1917 issued a new
Codex luris Canonici on his own
authority,received,
he beHeves,from Christ. This is an admirable
as
had not promulsuch as the papacy
codification,
gated
for preciselysix centuries.
With the learned
pensable
notes and index by Cardinal Gasparri,it is an indisaid to all who would understand
the rules
of Roman
Catholicism. Like the Code of Justinian,
it is pubhshed by authority of an autocrat.
IX. Infallibility.
^The pope
is not
merely
in some
matters
he claims infalhbihty
supreme;
is hmited
to the field of
(q.v.). This prerogative
faith and morals.
Prior to the Vatican
Council,
Roman
in France, had
some
Catholics,particularly
would
hoped that the pope^ when declared infalUble,
solve pending political
and social questions,by a
series of oracles;but this expectation has been
declared
disappointed. The popes have not even
which of their own
officially
pronouncements during
the past three centuries
infallible. In the
are
absence
of certainty,the faithful are
taught to
of the pope
as
venerate
every officialutterance
the voice of one
who may
speak with infalUbiUty
(cf.Canon 1324), and to obey dicta which may
after all be merely what
the Pharisees called "a
of the
statesmen
The
hedge about the Law."
in
Vatican
realize that few positions,particularly
be irrethe field of poUtical or social theory, can
versible.
If the Syllabusof Pius IX
(1864) were
the papal
declared infalUble,it might embarrass
diplomats in dealing with governments of the
of cathethe pope's freedom
20th. century. Thus
dratic utterance
is hmited
not merely by the
infalUble declarations of his predecessors(ifhe will
teU which
of their pronunciamentos are
really
but also by a proper regard for the
infallible),
in deaUng
probable perplexitiesof his successors
is in social and inteUectuai
with a world which
is at present
Church
evolution.
The
CathoUc
finality.
guided on the legalfiction of provisional

fromise

"

Roman

CathoUc

Church

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

384

The

actual fixation by infallibledecree of any matter

ROMAN
RELIGION."
A term
used to cover
the religious
Ufe in the Roman
to serious question would
state for a period of
endanger the very
which all depends.
1200 years.
on
some
infallibility
X. Concessions
I. First
Economics.
in Science
the
Founding
Period, from
and
op
Rome
Rome
is not always inflexible.
Dedication
Though infallible,
(753 b.c.) to the
of
the
Capitoline Temple
It has modified
its practical attitude on
(509 b.c). A Ust of festivals,
many
of Galileo
some
questions. In spiteof the condemnation
fragmentsof priestly
chants, a few formulas
of prayer and a tradition that is frequently
in 1633 it is no longer heretical to disbelieve that
vague
inaccurate are
the earth is the immovable
of the universe.
or
center
for the earUest
our
only sources
VIII. against period of R,oman
dence
eviDisregarding the Bull of Innocent
reUgion. With this meagre
detailed reconstruction
Roman
is impossible,
Catholics today prefer to have
but
witchcraft,
obnoxious
old women
is available to enable us
enough information
to
investigatedby an ahenist
sketch it in general outUne.
rather than
It was
a
reUgion of
by an inquisitor. The church now
forbids anyone
exorcism
and reflectedthe narrow
to undertake
clearlymarked limitations,
(apart from
life of a primitive community
rites such as baptism), except by express license of
whose
social and
the ordinary and after diligentinvestigationthat
privatelifehad as yet shown but Uttle development
which
and whose
chief activities were
the person
is reallypossessed by a demon
stockagriculture,
But within these narrow
is difficult to prove
Umits
(Canon 1151). As regards raisingand war.
the number
of gods included in their worship was
geology, a latent concession in the phraseologyof
the primitiveRoman
the "Short History of Rehgion" (appended to the
the world
very large. To
swarmed
of Pope Pius X.), says that
of whom
most
with spirits,
"Larger Catechism"
were
definitely
associated with some
the creation of the world "occupiedsix periodsof
function.
Saturnus
particular
the
of
Tellus
which
calls
was
the
299).
god
Days" (p.
Holy Scripture
time,
(Earth) was
sowing;
Church
who received and nourished the seed ; Ceres
In the sphere of ethics the Roman
mitted power
perand
the spirit
of growth, Flora,
first the modification
of blossom; Pomona,
was
through custom
of receiving of fruit;Consus, of harvest. Pales was
of the canonical prohibition
the divinity
casuistry
interest on
("usury"),and then quietly of the pasture land; Fons, of springs;Volturnus,of
money
Code
Matuta
rivers. Mater^
and Carmenta
dropped it; so that the new
were
nected
conpermits a not
with birth; Larenta, Carna
immoderate
and Veiovis,
rate of interest (Canon 1543). Thus
with death.
the papacy
is no longer an enemy
of capitaUsm.
In the house Janus was
immanent
in
the door and Vesta in the hearth-fire. There seems
XL
Modernism.
Rome
has responded to some
indeed
extent
of contemporary thought,
Umit
to the movements
to have
to this system of
been no
but certain Roman
Catholic scholars have tried to
speciaUzation. It was the beUef of the Romans that
In
the number
of gods exceeded
that of men,
is
as
go faster than is compatible with Catholicism.
shown
the later years of the pontificate
of Leo XIII., these
by their doctrine of the Genius,the spiritual
in
double who attended
tendencies
and watched
developed rapidly, particularly
each man,
over
and the Juno
France
who
and in Italy. The movement
fulfilleda similar function for
tized
stigmawas
in 1907 by syllabusand
There
other spiritsor
as
were
by
every woman.
many
Modernism
like the Lares, who protected the
(q.v.). It has two principal
aspects: groups of spirits,
historical.
the
other
one
philosophical,the
commimity and afterwards the home, the Penates,
is rooted
in the
(1) Philosophical modernism
spiritsof the store-room
(penus) and Manes, the
would
instinct to defend the faith. He who
vince
conall was
spiritsof the dead.
the
Towering over
shut himself up within a
triad that consisted of Jupiter,Mars and Quirinus.
an
opponent cannot
closed circle of CathoUc
truth and
the great sky-god,with whom
plead "prescription"
Jupiter was
were
associated all celestial phenomena:
the brightblue
against heresy; he must find a common
which
and
in
is
of
the
to
so doing
likely
ground upon
heavens, thunder, Ughtningand rain. Mars,
argue,
concessions
resented
make
to
a
connected with
by ecclesiastical if not originally
war
god, was
part
authority. (2) Historical criticism,
particularly war at an earlydate,while Quirinus was a counterunder
the influence of evolutionary theory, has
of Mars, whose cult had grown up among
the
scholars increasingly
distrustful of the Roman
made
community that dwelt on the Quirinal Hill.
All these divinities were
CathoUc presuppositionthat "tradition was, and is,
thought of merely as
state.
In Roman
by God, Who preserves
guided in a specialmanner
gods of the Roman
reUgious
it from
not related to the welfare
being curtailed,mutilated,or falsified" consciousness they were
(Pohle in Catholic Encyclopedia, XIV, 581d). of other^
communities, or to the world at large.
The anti-modernist
Roman
oath, since imposed on priests The original
reUgion had no cosmogony,
no
checks human
myths, no divine genealogies. Moreover, it was
now
ingenuity.^
in
Catholic
Krose
the
XII. Statistics.
clopedianot anthropomorphicand had neither images nor
Encyof
(XIV, 1912) gives the total number
temples. On the ceremonial side it was elaborate
in the world at 264,505,922; Europe.
and
CathoUcs
precise to an
extraordinary degree. The
and
celebrated
festivals were
numerous
188,577,058; Asia, 12,661,498; AustraUa
accordingto
No
deviation
of any
Oceania, 1,244,055;Africa, 2,689,839; America,
prescribed forms.
strictly
of this sort are severely
kind
was
87,614,635. Large figures
permitted. Violation of a regulation
in his Decay of the
attacked
to a procession,sacrifice,
by Joseph McCabe
pertaining
prayer or any
Catholic Directoryof
other ritual detail vitiated the whole
The Official
Church
of Rome.
ceremony.
salient facts: the present
The purpose of each festival was
to maintain
1921 gives the following
right
elected
relations
Benedict
1914.
In
with
is
of
some
XV.,
Sept. 3,
god or group
Pope
gods; and
there
5
when
the
had
Cardinal
the CoUege of Cardinals
been scrupulously perare
ceremony
formed,
it was
beUeved
that the god would
do his
Bishops,48 Cardinal Priests,7 Cardinal Deacons.
In the United States,there are 2 Cardinals,14 other
part.
Divination also was
Archbishops, 93 Bishops, 21,643 Priests,10,790
practiced by the early
that by watching the
churches
with resident
Romans, and they beUeved
pastors, 5,790 mission
flightand noting the cries of birds and by the
churches, 113 seminaries, 8,291 seminaries,215
other
observation of various
collegesfor boySj710 academies for girls,6,048
signs they could
of 1,771,418, determine
whether
favorable
the gods were
or
parish schools with an attendance
for
unfavorable
to some
295 orphanages with 46,777 orphans, 118 homes
plan proposed or projectunder
consideration.
This
the institution of the
the aged, and 17,885,646CathoUcs.
was
W. W. Rockwell
auspices{auspicia).
open

"

"

"

"

encycUcal

"

385

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Dedication
II. From
Capitoline
op
the
the
BEGiNNiNa
the
Temple
op
(509 b.c.) to the
War
Second
Punic
(218 b.c). The temple of
the CapitoUne Hill,
Juno and Minerva
on
Jupiter,
till the first year of the
though not dedicated
Republic,was begun in the period of the Tarquin
Etruscans, and the
dynasty. The Tarquins were
combination of these three gods in a triad that
and
of Jupiter, Mars
displaced the earlier group
manifestations
of Etruscan
Quirinus was one of many
tion
influence in Roman
religion. The combinadivinities
goes back ultimately to the Greek
bining
Zeus, Hera, and Athene, but the practiceof comthem, or rather their Etruscan counterparts,
in Etruria than in Greece
much
common
more
was
from the former country that the Romans
and it was
the temple itself was
the
derived
it. Moreover
and the clay statue of
architects,
work of Etruscan
can
which it contained was^ modelled
by Etrusinfluence
be
must
Etruscan
artists. To
ascribed also the institution of the triumph with its
and the organization of the
elaborate procession,
festival(Ludi Romani), both of which
great Roman
connected with the worship of Jupiter. But
were
it was
not
only from its northern neighbor that
ideas.
From
the Greek
Rome
receivingnew
was
of rehgiousinfluences
cities in Southern
Italy a stream
was
pouring into the metropoUs. The last
period of the monarchy saw the introduction of the
in Campania, and in
SibylUnebooks from Cumae
the first years of the Republic the cults of Apollo,
(Ceres) were
Hermes
(Mercury), and Demeter
these began that Hellenization
With
estabUshed.
of such far-reachingchanges
the cause
which
was
"

Jupiter

in Roman
With

reUgion.

over
the extension of Roman
Italy
power
also added to
were
gods of Italian provenance
many
Diana
of Aricia,
these was
the list. First among
the Aventine
temple on
the erection of whose
Hill marked
Rome's hegemony in the Latin league.
was
(Fortuna)
brought from
cult of Fortune
The
a
(originally
goddess of
Praeneste; that of Venus
of external nature) from
gardens and the charm
and Pollux,and Hercules, though
Castor
Ardca.
from
to Rome
ultimately of Greek origin,came
and were
and Tibur respectively
Tusculum
always
thought of as Italic in origin. Throughout the
whole
period of her politicalexpansion Rome
liberaUtytoward the religious
showed the utmost
she conquered
with
or
beliefsof the peopleswhom
commercial
affiUations.
or
she had political
whom
cases
She not only tolerated their cults but in many
absorbed them into her state reUgion.
Profound changes took place also in the external
of cult statues
and
use
of worship. The
forms
of
the estabUshment
the building of temples mark
anthropomorphicideas,and these steadilyincreased.
and more
more
The
spectacularelement became
in the
prominent. This tendency is clearlyseen
tion
displaywhich characterized the celebragorgeous
of the Roman
tably
Noof triumphs and
games.
two
other institutions
also were
spectacular
and
the
of this period,namely the ledisternium
a
banquet of gods.
supplicatio.The former was
On a table were
placedfood of various kinds and
it on three
the dining couches that surrounded
on
laid images of the gods in whose honor
sides were
the feast was
spread. It was one of the shows of
in crowds to see it. A
and the peoplecame
Rome
made
interest was
direct appeal to popular
more
for in this the people took an
by the supplicatio,
active part. In large numbers, with garlands on
their heads and laurel branches in their hands, they
selves
passed from temple to temple prostratingthemand
praying to each god in turn for aid
for a
in some
national crisis or giving thanks

victory.

AND

ETHICS

Roman

Religion

HI. From
the
Beginning
Second
of
the
PtJNic
War
End
to
Republic.
the
op
the
The ledisternium ordered by the senate in 217 B.C.
after Hannibal's victoryat Lake Trasimennus
is a
in Roman
significantevent
religion. For in the
six pairs of divinities who
reclined at that divine
banquet,we see the twelve great gods of Greece:
Jupiter and Juno (Zeus and Hera), Neptune and
Minerva
(Poseidon and Athene), Mars and Venus
(Aresand Aphrodite),Apollo and Diana (Apolloand
Artemis),Vulcan and Vesta (Hephaestus and
Hestia),
Mercury and Ceres (Hermes and Demeter).
This shows
how
far the process
of Hellenization
had gone, and in the two succeeding
generationsits
stillmore
was
rapid. But Roman
progress
reUgion
did not confine her fistof foreigncults to the gods of
Greece.
In the year 205 b.c, the Senate,worn
out
by the long war and discouraged by the fact that
Hannibal
and his army
stiU in Italy,
decreed
were
that the worship of the Mother
of the Gods
(also
called the Great
Mother
or
Cybele) should be
introduced
into Rome.
This
was
a
Phrygian
cult and it was
the first of the numerous
oriental
that
afterwards
religions
played so important a
r61e in Roman
religioushistory. This oriental
influence developed its greatest strength under the
of the Gods
Empire, but the Mother
not the
was
in RepubHcan times.
only eastern divinityin Rome
The Egyptian goddess Isis was
alreadyknown there
in the age of Sulla.
Other influences also were
at
work.
As a result of the improved standards
of
education
and
the rapid development of Roman
famiUar
Uterature, the cultured classes became
with Greek
now
philosophy,and many
sought in
the theories of the Stoics or the Epicureans the
to those questions which
to earlier generaanswers
tions
had
witmn
the
se^ed to he exclusively
field of religion.
The conditions so briefly
sketched,were bound
to react most
the old religion,
unfavorably upon
and it is without surprisethat we find on all sides
indications
of deep-seated decay. Many
monies
cerewere
Roman
entirelyneglected; numerous
divinities were
forgotten; the priesthoods became
of the temples crumbled
and many
disorganized,
into ruins.
IV. The
Reforms
Augustus.
of
Dismayed
by the lamentable state of the national rehgion,
Octavian, shortly after the battle of Actium, proceeded
to introduce
reforms.
He reorganized the
priesthoods; filled the office of high-priest of
which
had been vacant
Jupiter {FlamenlDialis),
for seventy-fiveyears; increased the privileges
of
the Vestal Virgins so as to induce noble famihes to
make their daughters take the vows;
rebuilt eightytwo
temples or sanctuaries which had collapsed;
and after his division of the cityinto fourteen wards
and of each ward
into many
precincts (vici)he
of the
placed in each precinct
a shrine of the Lares
the
cross-roads
{Lares Compitales),and between
of his
figuresof the two Lares was a representation
Genius.
own
V. The First Two
Empire.
Centuries
of
the
^The reforms of Augustus were
the basis of the
religionof the first two centuries,and one of the
the sanctioutstanding features of the period was
fication of the imperialidea.
of
The two measures
Augustus which produced the most startlingresults
the introduction of the worship of his Genius
were
in the cult of the Lares Compitales and the institution
of the worship of the Emperors {DiviImperor
which
he had initiated by building in the
tores),
Forum
{Divus luliv^),
a
temple to Julius Caesar
whom
the Senate had declared a ^od. This was
the beginning of a new
class of divinities in the
Roman
an
Emperor died, the
pantheon. When
where
or
Senate, except in cases
specialodium
"

"

"

"

Roman

Rite

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

386

17th. century which banned

Gothic
architecture
to his name,
decreed him divine
and Shakespeare as irregularand barbarous.
erected and
was
It
priests were
revolted againstsocial distinctions of rank or against
this emperorfined
appointed. In Rome
worship conitself to the dead emperors.
of
But in some
legaland ecclesiastical authority when these would
interfere with
the individual's freedom
the provinces,especiallyin the East, and in many
his
or
in Italy both Augustus and his
passion. It set the natural as a watchword against
provincialtowns
the artificial,
and identifiedrules with the artificial.
were
successors
worshipedduring their lifetime.
As an
ethical principle,
of which, like that of
romanticism
builds on
Oriental divinities,
some
of the two factors in life the factor of newness,
the Mother
of the Gods and of Isis,
duced
one
had been introcreasingly
invariation,originaUty, uniqueness. Life without
during the Republican period, became
these is dull and defective in that richness which is
popular during this period,although we
element
at least in perfection. Life which
of them obtainingrecognition one
do not hear of many
its interest on
centers
as state cults.
Among these were the Syrian goddess
keeping rules tends to be
who won
the favor of Nero, and the Persian god of
Pharisaicalor at least too pedantic for generous
and heroic and spontaneous activities. The defects
light,Mithras.
and dangers of romanticism
Fourth
Centuries
VI. The
Third
and
and
are, however, equally
obvious.
3rd.
Passion and emotion
In
the
unchecked
Roman
Religion.
End
THE
op
by sober
individual impulse unregulated by the
of their
reflection,
century the oriental cults reached the acme
in
experience of the past, and by general rules,are
popularity. The Sun-god El Gabal of Hemesa
and unfruitful.
likelyto be capricious,
selfish,
{Sol Invictus) from
Syria, the Invincible Sun
James
H. Tufts
Palmyra and the Carthaginian goddess Caelestis
ROMANUS."
allhad their votaries. None of these,however, could
Pope for four months, 897.
with the three cults already
in popularity
compare
of the Gods, Isis (with
ROOD."
Old English of "rod"; a term used for
the Mother
mentioned:
a gaUqws,
or
Serapis and the other divinities of the Egyptian
cross, in particularfor the HolyCross
which Christ was
the great rivals
crucified. The screen
These were
on
dividing
group) and Mithras.
the chancel from the nave
in a church is called the
in the 3rd. century, and they only ceased to contend
when
with one
another
they found their prestige rood screen from the crucifix surmounting it.
threatened
by the rapidly increasingstrength of
A stringof beads used in devotions
ROSARY.
Christianity. It is one of the important facts of
tian
Tibetan Buddhists, Mohammedans, and R.C.
religious
historythat the greatstruggleof the ChrisCfhristians.In Catholic devotions,the beads are
not with the old Roman
faith was
gods or with
of different sizes,and so arranged that a complete
these
Graeco-Roman
the
divinities,but with
oriental cults, which
spectacular cycleof prayers may be told off on the rosary.
by their more
ceremonies,their stronger emotional appeal, and
The
ROSICRUCIANISM."
their hope of a future hfe had driven the old beliefs
name
given to a
in the 17th. century, said to be derived
movement
into a distinctlysubordinate position. Through
from a societyorganized by a legendary Christian
of their doctrines they had even
some
prepared the
Rosenkreuz, who imparted to the society occult
way for Christianity. The church-fathers described
of Christianity. learning,including the solution of the many
Mithraism
a diabolicalimitation
as
lems
probof mediaeval science,
indeed
such as the transmutation
some
There
points of resemblance
were
of metals, the secret
of everlastingyouth, the
tianity
the two, and it is doubtful whether Chrisbetween
had a more
philosopher's stone, etc. The
ever
dangerous rival than the
history of the
is very imperfectlyknown.
movement
But the victory of the Christians
cult of Mithras.
in 311 the Emperors Galerius,
assured when
was
RICHARD
Licinius granted them_ official
and
Constantine
(1799-1867)." Lutheran
ROTHE,
studied
under
recognition. While this edict only gave Christianity theologian who
Schleiermacher,
Hegel,and Neander, professorat the Universities of
equal rightswith the cults previouslyrecognizedby
His great work
the state, the favor of Constantine conferred upon
Heidelberg and Bonn.
the
was
unrivalled prestige. It was the beginthe cause
TheologischeEthik, an inspiringideahstic system in
an
ning
which he taught that the rehgious and ethical hfe
of the end, and within three generationsthe
and that the process of history
is the
are coincident,
collapseof paganism was complete.
of the absolute,personal
Gordon.
J. Lainq
unfoldihg of the purpose
The
RITE."
ROMAN
prescribed liturgical God.
Catholic Church.
and rehgious forms of the Roman

infamy attached
honors.

temple

"

"

"

by

As an
art term, Romanticism
with Classicism
and
is contrasted
signifies
of the emotional as againstthe rational
a valuation
factor,of the imaginative as against the actual,
adventurous
as
of the unusual and
against the
habitual and commonplace, of the individual or
unique as againstthat which is ordered by general
rule. As apphed to a philosophy of life it is contrasted
with conventionalism
hand
the one
or
on
the
to established proprieties,
strict adherence
on
other with the regulationand himting of impulse and
ing
passion by rules of abstract reason, or with expectto general laws.
In
the individual to conform
it
"Yes!"
to life's
the phraseology of Nietzsche, says
rationalism,
conventionalism,puritanism,
urge, whereas
legalism,say "No!"
it was exhibited in a literary,
musical,
Historically
at the close of the 18th.
social and ethical movement
the beginning of the 19th. centuries which
and
for emancipation
demand
accompanied the pohtical
and liberty. It rejected the classic rules of the

ROMANTICISM.

"

ROUSSEAU,
JEAN JACQUES
(1712-1778)."
of letters,
of the,
philosopher and man
one

French
leaders

of the

Romanticist

movement

in French

His Social Contract

thought. See Romanticism.
supplied the social and pohticalmotives of the
Smile expressed his
French
Revolution.
His
educational
conceptions which laid stress on the
inherent goodness of child nature
and conceived the
task of education as the development of the native
desires and capacitiesof the child rather than the
subjection of the mind to the doctrines already
formulated by society. Rehgiously Rousseau
has
called a
"sentimental
been
deist," placing the
emphasis on the emotional side.

ROYCE,

JOSIAH
(1855-1916)." American philosopher,
occupied the chair in history of

who

Harvard.
He
influential
at
was
an
of absolute idealism and contributed to the
philosophy of rehgion from that point of view.but
with constant
social and
ethical
emphasis upon
considerations.
He ultimatelyformulated his ideal

philosophy
defender

387

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

Philosophy of Loyalty,and interpreted

Christianity as the rehgion of "loyalty to the
Beloved
Community."

of lifein his

A portion of
RUBRIC.
conspicuous by red or other
"

destructive
storm
RUDRA.
A
who was
later absorbed
Vedic religion

god of early
in Shiva.

TYRRANIUS
byter
RUFINUS
(ca.343^10)." Presand
theologian, at first a close friend of
broken
because
The
Jerome.
friendship was
Jerome repudiated.
Rufinus supported Origen whom
Rufinus' great work was
the translation into Latin
of the great Greek fathers.
tion
RULE
OF "AlTK."(Regula
Fidei.) A formulabehef designed to secure
of authoritative
a
of faith in Cathohc
correct content
Christianityand
to exclude
heresy. The conception appeared in
it was
the 2nd. century when
to define
necessary
doctrine
over
against
truly apostolic Christian
Gnosticism
(q.v.).The content of the rule of faith
was
probably an elaboration of early baptismal
confessions,and eventually included the items of
real canon
of
the Apostles' Creed
(q.v.). The
the total apostoUc teaching
faith,however, was
interpretedby the Apostolicchurch rather than the
creed alone,which has always been used as a symbol
of acceptance of Catholic doctrine as a whole, and
official compendium
of doctrinal beliefs.
not as an
The term
RUSSIAN
SECTS."
sects in Russia
be used in a broader, and in a narrower
sense.
sects
all the Russian
In a broader sense, it means
either derived from the raskol,or developed under
influences.
Judaic
In a narrower
Western
and
only the latter,with the exclusion
sense, it means
of the raskol and its ramifications.
raskol means
The
I. Raskol.
term
schism,
Christians
those Russian
and the raskolniki are
of allegianceto the
broken
the bond
who
have
Church.
official Orthodox
They are called also
slaroobriadtsy(followersof the old rites),and
may

"

staroviery(old believers).
its origin to the correction of
The raskol owes
the Uturgical books, which
in the 16th. century
were

fuU of mistakes.

Various

ETHICS

Russian

Sects

of Antichrist: the liturgical

books corrected
edited by Nikon are filled with heretical doctrines.
Old editions and images are to be used in
the worship of God.
They insist upon the addition
of the word "true" to the eighth article of the Nicene
creed; the use of two fingers
(insteadof three)in the
performance of baptism,and in the act of blessing;
the spelling of the name
Isus instead of lisus

ment

manuscript, made
distinguishingtype.

used to denote the instructions or

The word is now
rules printed in hturgical books
directing the
these having been originally
conduct of the services,
in itaUcs in the
printed in red. They now
appear
books.
prayer
"

AND

learned

monks

and

priestsstudied Greek manuscriptsfor this purpose.

of religious fanaticism, partly
Partly because
because of personal animosity towards
Nikon, a
Patriarch who organized the great hturgicalreform,
of Russian
a group
priestsand monks opposed the
undertaking and appealed to the Czar against him.
Their
rejected. Violent measures
protests were
were
adopted by the State to end this opposition.
One
of the chiefs of the raskol, the protopope
burned
alive with two of his adherents
was
Awakum,
A ukaze
of
the 14th. of April, 1682.
on
Tsarevna
Sophia Aleksieevna, issued in 1685,
ordered the obstinate raskolniki to be put into iron
As time went
ahve.
on, a whole
cages and burned
code of repressivelaws against them
was
compiled
by the government under the influence of the Holy
of
Synod, and it was only in 1905 that the severity
somewhat
the civil power
was
mitigated.
The doctrinal features of the raskol were
already
formulated at the end of the 17th century and they
have been kept in substantially
the same
form to this
Church
has
day. In their opinion, the Russian
falleninto heresy (Nikonianism) : she is the embodi-

and

(Jesus).
From
the outset, the raskol separated into two
main
branches:
Popovtsy and Bezpopovtsy. The
former,who may be named in English "the followers
of priests,"
beheve in the incarnation of Antichrist
in the souls of Nikon, and Peter the Great; still,
they
do not rejectthe priesthood
and sacraments
of the
orthodox
church, and they accept the services of
priestswho prefertheir financial offers to those of the
Orthodox
Church.
The bezpopovtsy(literally
out
"withof the
priests")beheve in the full enslavement
and consequently the
Russian Church
to Antichrist,
decay of the orthodox hierarchy,the necessityof
breaking with its representativesand repudiating
their sacraments, and of rebaptizingthe members
Both branches spht into a
church.
of the orthodox
considerable number
of sects and ramifications,
more
than 150.
The
popovtsy had a better organization in the
19th. century. Even from the 18th. century they
and vainly
strove to have a hierarchy of their own,
of Constantinopleand
entreated
the Patriarchs
Jerusalem
Their
to ordain bishops of their behef.
crowned
with success
efforts were
in 1847, when the
Greek metropolitanAmvrosios
of Sarajevoagreed to
take up his residence in the raskolnik monastery of
Bielokrinitsa (Bukovina), and to raise to the episcopate
and laymen coming from
and priesthood
monks
Russia.
Thus the popovtsy ceased being dependent
deserters from the clergyof the Russian orthodox
on
so-called hierarchy of Bielokrinitsa,
church.
The
trian"
contemptuously designatedby the epithetof "Ausin the polemical writings of orthodox
sionaries,
misincreased
and
considerably the power
organizationof the raskol. At this time, it numbers
and an arch-bishopric
In
at Moscow.
15 bishoprics,
1904 the Russian Senate approved a revision of the
repressive laws frequently enacted
against the
raskol. The
followingyear the raskolniki were
grantedfreedom of worship.
The exact number
of the raskolniki is unknown,
for the intolerance of the old regime forced the members
of the Russian
themselves.
sects
to conceal
their number
The
officialstatistics estimate
as
figures are
evidently false.
2,200,000. These
According to other sources, they are 20 millions
clearly exaggerated. The statistics of I. luzov
give 3,650,000 popovtsy, and 7,000,000bezpopovtsy.
in Russia that the raskolniki
It is generallybeheved
to 15 milhons.
amount
II. Sects.
In a narrow
sense, the term sect in
Russia imphes the acceptance of novelties in the
domain
of the orthodox
faith,and to this extent,
ment
attachwhich professes
it is contrasted to the raskol,
tianity.
to the traditional teaching of Eastern Chrisdeviate
Russia
abounds in sects which
dox
entirelyor in part from the doctrine of the orthochurch, and which have either had their origin
formers.
Refound much
or
encouragement from Western
In general,they are either the remnants
of the heresies of the primitive
church,imported into
Russia in the Middle
or
Ages by Bogomils (q.v.),
the product of Protestant
propaganda.
they are
dents,
stuAccording to P. MiUukov, and other modern
sects ought to be considered
Russian
as the
spontaneous evolution of the rehgious feehngs of
national as the
soul. They are
as
the Russian
of reaction against
raskol;they mark a movement
of the official
the paralyzingformalism
church.
"

"

"

Russian

The

Sects

Russian

sects

DICTIONARY
be divided

OF

RELIGION

into two
The former go back
to the 17th. century, and believe that their members
the incarnation of the Godhead, and possess
are
the inner illumination of the Holy Spiritin their
souls. The latter regard reason
rule
as the supreme
beUef and rejectthe dogmas, sacraments
of religious
and Uturgicalpracticesof the organized churches.
most
The
important of the mystic sects are the
Khlysty and Scoptsy:of the rationalistic,
Molokany
and Stundisty.
sects goes
1. Khlysty. The historyof Russian
Matviei Bashkin
back to the 15th. century, when
the society
that the church was
taught in Moscow
accursed idols;
of the faithful;that the icons were
that the ecclesiastical traditions were
mere
fables;
of priests. But,
that the sacraments
were
forgeries
it was
in the 16th. century that the seed sown
by
Kosoi
Theodosii
Bashkin
and
developed in the
and mysteriousof the Russian sects,
most
interesting
of God," or of the Khlysty (probthat of the "men
ably
a corruptionof Khristy).
The Khlysty arose
as a protestagainstthe moral
deficiencies of the Russian clergy and the exaggerated
rituaUsm of the Russian church.
They began
of
Russia.
The
first of
the series of mystic sects
SusIvan Timofeev
their many
was
pseudo-Christs
taken
lov. After his death, his prerogativeswere
over
by ProkopiiLupkin, who spread the sect in the
of Nizhni-Novgorod and
Yaroslav.
governments
civil power
The
spared no efforts nor cruelties to
them a
In 1733 its leaders,
among
uproot the sect.
Yet the Khlysty
beheaded.
Anastasia, were
nun,
the
outlived the persecution.They exist under
of Men
various denominations
of God, Montanists,
Chaloputy,Searchers for Christ,etc. They deny the
they consider the Son of
divinityof Christ,whom
migration
God but in a moral sense; they beUeve in the transof souls,in the immediate
fellowshipof
of the prophetic
in the continuance
God with men,
of the Orthodox
gifts;they rejectthe sacraments
may

classes,
mystic and rationalist.

"

ETHICS

AND

388

denied
the equaHty of persons
in the godhead,
and
the reahty of the incarnation.
To
them,
the Sacraments
have only a spiritualvalue:
the
Lord's Supper means
the spiritualassimilation of
the Gospel. The
true
church
of Christ survived
tillthe 4th. century when
it was
corrupted by the
Fathers and the Oecumenical Councils.
The Bible
has but a moral sense.
Jesus Christ proclaimed the
reUgious and civil equahty of all men:
therefore a
hierarchy is useless,civil laws are not obUgatory:
mihtary conscriptionand war are accursed by God.
The
Molokany lack doctrinal cohesion.
They
show
the influence of Khlysty and Stundisty and
of Tolstoism.
Some of them formed the sect of the
who keep the Sabbath; others fused with
Sabbatists,
the ancient converts
to Judaism.
In 1820, a member
of the sect, Maksim
Akinfiev Popov tried to
organize the life of his fellow beUevers on a communistic
basis.
Others also turned to mysticism,
and gave rise to new
sects,whose teaching bears the
imprint of strong Jewish influences (Sopuny, Vied-

entsy,Siontsy)
.

4. Stundism.
Numericallythe most important
of the Russian rationalistic sects is that of the Stundisty
is derived from the
(Stundism). This name
word Stunde
German
(hour),for the followers of
the sect meet
togetherin their prayer houses at
Under
the term
appointed times.
Stundism
are
included aU the branches of Baptists. The Baptist
movement
derived from Germany, spread under
was
the influence of German
preachers and colonists.
The high moral standards and economic
ence
independof the German
Baptists in Russia powerfully
contributed to the diffusionof their reUgious beUefs
Russian
chief dogmas
of
peasants. The
among
Stundism
the atonement
are
by the death of Jesus
in the charismatic gifts
of the
Christ,the participation
and the justification
of the soul through
Holy Spirit,
faith. They reject the hierarchy, the veneration
of the saints,and of the sacred images, tradition,
for the dead.
and prayers
ments
They accept the sacraStundism
is the
Church, particularly
marriage.
merely in a moral sense.
active of the Russian sects.
Their adherents
most
2. Skoptsy. The
Khlysty gave birth to another
in all the governments
of Russia,
to be found
are
mysticalsect,which the Russian government ranked
and many
raskolniki go over
to them.
the most harmful of the Russian empire, the
They show
among
founded
of soUdarity,abstain from intoxicating
of the Skoptsy (eunuchs). It was
sect
a great spirit
in the second half of the 18th. century by a peasant
liquorsand smoking, and distinguishthemselves by
their charity and generosity. It is beUeved that
of the government of Orel,Kondrat
SeUvanov, who
The
miUions.
two
former regime
declared himself to be the son of God, sent to baptize
they number
tried in vain to stop their progress.
The
tion,
with fire. The chief tenet of the sect is castramost
men
back to the purity and
violent of orthodox polemistshowever, are forced to
to come
as the only way
of our first parents. They consider it
do justiceto their high moraUty.
spirituality
of God, because
ist,
of sects, both mystic and rationalThe number
the greatest sacrament
they
as
in the Old Testament,
is steadilyincreasingin Russia; the ascendancy,
believe that it was
practised
to belong to the rationaMst
sects.
and performedon Jesus Christ by John the Baptist.
however, seems
their expansion Russian
missionaries
have
To
waiting the day when according to the
They were
motives.
Revelation of St. John, XIV, 1,they will be 144,000. largelycontributed for economic
than 200 sects have been classified. The
More
Then
the chief of the sect wiU dethrone the "white
the
most
Czar" and embody in himself a Russia cleansed of
recent, born in the 20th. century, are
condemn
of
"Readers"
the use
all human
(Chtetsy),who
passions. They continue their propaganda
tobacco and intoxicating
in Russia, in the utmost
draughts; the "Prophets"
secrecy, and it is
immense
and reject the
beUeved
that
(Proroki) who keep the Sabbath
they have accumulated
tions.
divided into various ramificariches. They are
Hierarchy:the Khekulity,who refuse the worship
of icons,deny the sacraments, and practicepublic
The so-called spiritual
tion
rejectcastrasA;op"sy
adore
confession of their sins; the Ivannites,who
and requireonly the practiceof chastity.
the famous
RationaUstic sects center around
3. Molokany.
arch-priestIvan of Cronstadt (d. 1909)
feature is
of Jesus Christ,and his friend,
as the reincarnation
Molokany and Stundisty. Their common
of
pretation Porphyria Kiseleva
the denial of the church,the free inquiryin the inter(d. 1905), as the Mother
of the Holy Scripture,the rejectionof
Israel,"who preach the exodus
God; the "New
of the orthodox
due to saints, from Egypt, i.e.,
the abandonment
sacraments, hierarchy,the reverence
a
rites and fasting.
church; the sect of the Lazarevtsy,who venerate
liturgical
the soul of God.
of Nizhny-Novgorod
as
The Molokany recognizeas their founder a tailor
woman
Matvieev
The task of findingout new
of Tambov, Semen
Yklein, in the second
sects,and outUning their
fulfilledby a monthly
doctrines for many
half of the 18th. century. At the beginning,they
years was
of the legal practicesof
favored the observance
(Missionerskoe
magazine, "The Missionary Review"
founded in Kiev in 1896, and transferred,
abstained from
the Old Testament, and
eating Obozrienie)
of the
Further
In 1916 an ex-organ
to Petrograd in 1899.
the flesh of impure animals.
on
they
"

"

"

389

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Sabbath

and

Sunday

Ecclesiastical

astical
and many
of them died
Academy of Petrograd, The Ecclesiexpelledfrom their villages,
into the official
of starvation
and
Messenger, was transformed
to the
ill-treatment. Thanks
of The MissionaryCommittee
of the Holy
pleas of Tolstoy and the pecimiary help of English
organ
Quakers, several hundred of them left Russia in
Governing Synod, and persistentljr
waged war
nounced 1898 and emigrated to the Island of Cyprus. The
against all the heterodox denominations,and deof new
After the
failure of that emigration led them to search for a
sects.
a
great number
better home, and in 1899-1905
downfall of Czarism, by a decree issued on
May
they estabUshed
sionary themselves
in Canada, where they reach at present
13-26, 1917, the Holy Synod suppressed "the Misand its organ, and opened the
Committee"
the number
of 10,000. They attempted to apply
of conscience for Russian
of the freedom
senters.their communistic
disera
doctrines, and their theories
about marriage,but they met with the oppositionof
III. DucHOBORS.

The

"

term

derived from

dukh

and
borets (struggler)has in Russian
a
(spirit),
those
negative and a positivemeaning. It means
that is,according to
who fight against the spirit,
the theologians of the official church, those who
deny the vital elements of the supernatural life,
In a positivesense
and the sacraments.
it means
those who
the champions of the spirit,
fight for
its emancipation from
rehgious materiahsm, the
of the organized churches.
formaUsm
The
origin
is wrapped in mystery. Some
of the Duchobors
find the traces of the sect in the Quakerism preached
cow
at Kharkov
by a Prussian officer in 1740, or at Mosin 1737, or in the sect of the Khlysty in 1717.
scattered
At the end of the 18th. century they were
throughout all Russia, especiallyin the governments
of the Don, and of Kharkov,
Many of them
ander
were
cruellypersecutedand exiled to Siberia. Alexto establish themselves
I permitted them
the borders of the river Molochnaia, and here,
on
1805-1808
between
they founded nine villages,
ticed
pracof goods, and
reached
high
community
a
bered
independence. They numdegree of economic
6,000. In 1841 Czar Nicholas I ordered them
casia.
to be transferred to the desert regionsof TranscauTliey obeyed, and under the direction of
Luceria Kalmykova, and a
a'
energetic woman,

peasant, Peter Vasilevich Verigin,

they revived their
economic
After

prosperity.

civil

who
authorities,

revoked
most
of their concessions
of land.
The problem has not been solved,
the Duchobors
preferring material ruin to the
repudiation of their theories. The Scriptures
are
as a dead
regarded by the Duchobors
book, corrupting
the mind.
narratives and
They accept some
maxims
of the Gospeland interpretthem in the light
of the inner inspirationof the Holy Spirit. The
Trinity is not real,but a symbol of the faculties of
the soul. Jesus Christ is a man
in whom
the divine
intelhgence flashes with greater intensity. His
life. Like Christ,
Gospel is like a diary of our own
we
are
rected.
born, we teach, suffer,die, and are resurChrist is the eternal Gospel,livingwithin
souls. After death, good souls transmigrate
our
into the bodies of the saints,
and the wicked into the
bodies of beasts,where
ness.
they lose their consciousThe
church is invisible;creeds are useless;
priesthoodan evil institution,Jesus Christ being
the only redeeming priest. Sacraments
less
worthare
ceremonies.
There is no need of churches for
the religiouslife. The worship of icons is detestable.
Marriage consists in the promise of reciprocal
love between
husband
and
wife and
divorce
is
granted in the case of adultery.
AURELIO
PaLMIERI
RUTHENIAN
RITE."
The
liturgicalforms
Catholic
church.
prescribed by the Ruthenian
Slavonic hturgy is used, although
The old Greek
is acknowledged.
the headshipof the Pope of Rome

of Alexander JI., they were

death
sent
to Siberia,
fiercelypersecuted. Verigin was
VAN
and passingthrough Moscow, became
acquainted
RUYSBROECK,
JAN
(1293-1381)."
the
Dutch
with Leo Tolstoi,and accepted his theories about
as
mystical teacher and author known
"Ecstatic
In 1894 and 1895 the Duchobors, in spiteof
teaching influenced
Teacher," whose
war.
Brothers
of the
and
two
repressions,refused to be enlisted into the
sects, Friends of God
severe
Common
Life (qq.v.).
By order of the government
they were
army.
the

JOSEPH
(892-942)." Jewish
(q.v.)of Sura, Babylonia. His

BEN

SAADIA

philosopher,gaon
great

work
literary

translations

of

the

embraces
Hebrew
grammar,
Bible into Arabic, piyyutim

especially
legaUstictracts,polemicalwritings,
(q.v.),
against the Karaites (q.v.)and philosophicboolcs
the Sefer Emunot
Deot (Book of Faith
we
especially
Doctrine) in which he reduces Jewish doctrine to
system, and verifies its revealed truths through
ish
rationaUsticspeculation. Saadia brought into Jew-

and
a

medan
life and study the fruits of the rich MohamArabic civiUzation of his time.
Harold
F. Reinhart
SABIANISM."
SABAISM
The behefs of a
or
semi-Christian
sect of Babylonia, resembling the
of which is
the earliest mention
Mandaeans
(q.v.),
in the Koran
(2:59; 5:73; 22:17).
LOUIS
AUGUSTE
(1839-1901)."
Protestant
theologian;
philosopher and
conquest of
taught in Strassburg until the German
Alsace, then in the Protestant theologicalschools
of Paris.
He advocated
a liberal type of theology,
and
showing the influence of Schleiermacher
works
Outlines of
Ritschl.
His best known
are
and Religionsof Authority
a Philosophyof Religion,
and the Religionof the Spirit.

SABATIER,

French

SABBATARIANISM.A term
for the doctrine
advocated
by certain Christian sects, such as the
Seventh-day Baptists, that the seventh day or
Jewish Sabbath
should be observed as the Christian
day of rest; used also to characterize the ideal of a
rigidobservance of Sunday as a sacred day.

words
The
SABBATH
and
SUNDAY."
two
often confounded, but they are
really quite
distinct: Sabbath, the Jewish
holy day, is the
seventh day of the week; Sunday, the Christian
day of rest and worship, is the first day. The
institutions are as distinct in originand purpose as
the days.
Traces of a weekly holy day are found among
other ancient Semitic peoples,but the Sabbath is a
first read, as of
of which
Hebrew
we
institution,
something long established and well known, in
logue.
Exod.
It evidently antedated the Deca16:23.
The day has a divine origin,in the sense
that men
were
guided to establish an institution
fundamental and permanent human
that meets
a
the need of periodicrest to offset cumulative
want
was
fatigue. The originalidea of the Sabbath
simply cessation from labor, and neither Law nor
that day.
of worship on
mention
Prophets make
After the exile,the synagogue
developed,at first
are

"

Sabbatical Year

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OP

ETHICS

AND

390

school for instruction of the peoplein the

There are at least three types of such meals and
the differences between
them
rally
naturelate to the placeof
a day of leisure,
was
Out of this school grew
chosen.
the divine being. It is common
the idea of
to regard the
ing
meat
of animals killed for sacrifice as sacred because
Sabbath
worship,and a liturgydeveloped,consistdedicated
to this purpose
of prayer and praisetaken almost wholly from
and also because a part
Jesus observed
he
the O.T.
the Sabbath, but
is
having been offered on the altar,the remainder
his disciplesa more
hberal
interpretationalso sanctified. This is probably the prevalent
gave
law than was
view of the sacrificialmeal where a highlydeveloped
of the Sabbath
in his day
current
theism has been reached.
This refined symbolism
(Mark 2:27; 3:4).
of the first day of the
Traces of the observance
intimate and elemental
has,however, a much more
week are found in the N.T. (John 20:26; Acts 20:7;
background in earlier stages of religion.A second
to observe
I Cor. 16:2). But there is no command
type of sacramental meal is that in which the god
is present with his people and shares directlyin
of the first three
the day, and in the hterature
is
Lord's
the meal.
Then
the parts which are consumed
of
centuries
observance
the
day
by
and the blood poured out as a libaof the resurrection
the altar-fire,
tion
regarded as a commemoration
the sacred place of sacrifice,
and a joyfulprivilege,
since they
not a legalobhgation. The
upon
first legalrecognitionof the day is in a decree of
disappear,are easilyregarded as the portion taken
substantial parts are
Constantine
for
published in 321, which calls it the
by the god. The more
Laws
human
devotees. The third type is that in
"venerable
requiringrest
day of the sun."
his_
magne,
which the god himself is eaten by the worshipers.
from labor were
promulgated in the reignof Charlewell understood
It is now
that among
and
became
general in aU "Christian"
tive
primimany
The
notion that the obligationof the
nations.
animals.
people the most sacred beings were
has passed over
to Sunday
Accounts
third commandment
give vivid, detailed descriptionsof the
is quite
Sabbath"
ceremonial eatingof these totem deities. In the
making that the "Christian
and is confined to English-speakingcounearlier stages of more
modern
tries.
developed rehgions such a
first advocated
custom
It was
cult of Dionysos
by the Rev. Nicholas
prevalent. The
was
the Greeks may
be cited. "In the frenzied
Bownd, a clergyman of the Church of England,
among
observance
of the cult the myth of Dionysos purin The
Doctrine of the Sabbath
True
(London,
sued
the prevalentidea
1606), and speedily became
by the Titans,assuming different forms, and
it
to
whence
has
bull
descended
the
rent
asunder
m
Puritans,
shape being
finally
by them, was
among
Protestant churches of England
of the existing
most
reproduced in ritual. An ox, a goat, or sometimes
found acceptance in
and America, but has never
or incarnatingthe god, was
even
a boy, representing
Protestants or Catholics.
Continental Europe, among
rent by the maddened
worshipers,and the raw flesh
C. Vedder
Henry
devoured."
Two
things are highlyimportant
was
The
in this ceremony.
first is that the animal
In the O.T. legislation,
YEAR."
SABBATICAL
the center of attention in the pastoral stage
he fallow.
land must
was
seventh
every
year when
and was
felt to be the carrier of life,of divine
Cf. Lev. 25:1-7.
It was
often thought to be the ancestor
energy.
of the tribe. In the second place, the object of
In the R.C. church
PRIVILEGE."
SABBATINE
to appropriate by the most
the prompt liberation from
purgatorialsuffering eating the god was
the magic power
effective manner,
which
he posthe Virgin Mary has had favor
of those on whom
sessed.
Thus the tribe renewed
its potency.
derived from
she interceded;a name
and for whom
Edward
S. Ames
the apocryphal bull of 1322 in which this special
The
doctrine
SACRAMENTALISM."
that in
of the
privilegeis made to be granted to members
themselves
there is an
the sacraments
inherent
CarmeUte
order, the deliverance purporting to be

as

mere

Law, and the Sabbath, as

accomplished in the Sabbath

after the

member's

saving power.

death.
The
SABELLIANISM."
theory advocated by
Sabellius who flourished in the firsthalf of the 3rd.
century. He taught that Father, Son, and Holy
Spiritare three modes of manifestation of the one
and
divine being, who
was
present as Creator
in the Son, and
Lawgiver in the Father, Redeemer
in the Holy Spirit.
Life-giver
See Mandeans.

SABIANS."
SABINIAN."

SACRAMENTARIAN."
(1) One who believes
in the saving power
of the sacraments.
A sacramentalist.
(2) In earlyLutheran polemic theology,
who denied the real corporealpresence
of Christ
one
did ZwingU, that the
in the sacrament, affirming,
as
body and blood of Christ are present only in a

symboHc (sacramental)sense.
SACRAMENTARY."
In the R.C.
church, a
book
containing the liturgyfor the celebration of
Mass, or other sacraments.

Pope, 604-606.

SACRAMENTS."
two

title
(Plural: saboraim.) Hebrew
appUed to the Jewish-Babylonian scholars of the
the final redaction of the
6th. century, to whom
Talmud
is due.
SABORA.

"

SACERDOTALISM."
A
from
term, derived
Latin
word
for priest,denoting a reHgious
system in which everything is valued in relation
of the priestlyorder.
It is
to the ministrations
usuallyemployed in a derogatory sense, indicating
unwholesome
preference for sacramental
an
larity
reguin contrast to personal and moral values.
the

SACRAMENTAL
sacred

manner

ceremony.

and

MEAL."
observed

A
meal
in some
with characteristic

Rehgious rites composed of

elements,a physicalsign and a spiritual
good.

The
various modifications
I. Origin.
of the
sacramental
idea which have appeared in the Christian
be traced to two distinct elements
church may
which are already found in the
apostolicage. The
sacramental
rite was
(1) originally
purely representative
invested
or
symbolic, (2) afterward
with mysterious or magical efficacy. This modification
introduced
was
by Paul in his teaching
concerningbaptism and the Lord's Supper and was
embodied
in the later writingsof the New
ment.
TestaIt did not, however, originatewith Paul,
is it pecuUar to Christian thought, but is deeply
nor
rooted both in Semitic and in other early religious
Belief in a resident and efficacious supercustom.
natural
virtue available for the worshiper appears
and
ceremonials
animism
in
the
connected
with
in
"

391

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

idea is characteristic of the

same
magic. The
the taurobolium
in
Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries,
the widely celebrated
mysteries of Cybele and
offeringin Zoroastrianism,and
Attis,the Haoma
rites as
certain early Semitic
in devouring the
sacred camel in order to become
possessed of its
divine efficacy.

AND

ETHICS

Sacred

Heart

of

Jesus''

administer it.
and
order

Only a bishop can givesacred orders,

customarily confirmation also. The priestly
is necessary for the eucharist,penance, and

unction.
The minister shall be in a state
of grace, although the efficacy
of the sacrament
is
not from the minister but from the institution of
God.
Baptism is the sole condition for the reception
Roman
of the six other sacraments.
Catholic Church.
II. Usage
in
the
include two
ments
eleIII. Protestant
1. Augustine. The
sacraments
Doctrine.
1. Lutheran idea
related to sense
A sacrament
is a rite which was
of the sacraments.
perception,and
physical,
instituted by God, to which is joined the promise
supernatural,related to intelhgence,which become
of grace.
The
It includes two
sacraments
elements
by the mediation of the Word.
an
earthly
therefore matter
and
and visible,
sacraments
are
these become
form; the
a heavenlyand
invisible;
is
indeterminate
such
and
united
be
the
matter
word
of institution.
as
might
sacramentally
by
put
of institution spoken
The rite is divided into three stages : (1)the formula
to various uses, but the word
of institution; (2) dispensing the sacraments;
by the minister with sacramental intent stamps the
material as sacramental
and makes it the efficacious
The efficacy
of the sacra(3)receivingthe same.
ments
This does not, however, mean
is due not to the influences of the Spiritnor to
vehicle of grace.
of the sacrament
but to the power inherent
that the matter
is indifferent;the faith of the recipient,
the contrary it is fittingly
in them through the word of institution;
on
symbolic,as the water
yet they
and the bread sustenance.
take effect in those only who have faith. They
signifyingpurification,
"sacrament"
if one
therefore applied to
The
term
is to receive the
was
are, therefore,necessary
various solemn acts under control of the church, as
grace which they signify. The aim is to extend the
time to renew
and at the same
gospelto all believers,
ordination,marriage,and anomting.
attention to the benefit of Christ,to strengthen
the
2. The Scholastics. The Scholastics defined the
ties of love,and to stimulate piety. An inherent
and caused
sacrament
signified
as those rites which
Council
of the sacraments
The
of Trent defined
the inward
efficacy
independent of faithin the
grace.
of
Melanchthon
them as symbols of sacred reality,
subject of it is not to be assumed.
a visible form
both
three
invisible grace,
containing and conferring and the Augsburg Confession enumerate
sacraments
those who
are
baptism, eucharist, and
suitably disposed. This
penance.
grace on
action of the sacrament, which takes place not by
When, however, it was made a condition that only
those rites which
instituted by Christ may
of anything human
but wholly by virtue
were
reason
be claimed
set aside
of the will of God, is defined by the phrase ex opere
as
was
sacraments, penance
and baptism and the Lord's Supper recognized as
church
the Roman
operato. Since Peter Lombard
of sacred
alone valid.
from the largenumber
has selected seven
the
2. Reformed doctrine. In general this was
acts
baptism, confirmation,holy eucharist,penance,
that of the Lutheran
same
extreme
as
body. According to
unction, orders, and matrimony;
the Westminster
is an
sacraments
these
are
Standards, "a sacrament
properly so-called. The
instituted
Council of Trent decreed that these were
holy ordinance instituted by Christ; wherein, by
sensible signs,Christ and the benefits of the New
did
not
exphcitly determine
by Christ, but
Covenant
instituted immediatelyor mediately;
whether
are
represented,sealed, and applied"
they were
within the covenant
to those who
of grace.
this is therefore
are
generally regarded as
but
who
defined
not
required
a
only a positiontheologically In distinction from the Lutherans
tion,
certain.
In
some
generalconfession with a purelydeclaratoryabsolurespect to
sacraments, as
the Reformed
fession
body enjoined private conbaptism and the eucharist,Christ determined
God
to the
to
matter
and
exact
only in extreme
cases
the
form; in respect to
and
that specialgrace should be
spiritualadviser
general confession in the
others,he determined
congregation.
conferred,but committed to apostlesand the church
and form of the ceremony,
sacraments
3. Zwinglian doctrine. ^The
are
the precisematter
as e.g.,
of grace, but means
for symbolic
not properlymeans
and orders.
A modernist
confirmation
tion
interpretatheir existence to
is that the sacraments
owe
presentationof the truths of the gospel. They
of the processes
also memorials
of redemption.
are
development within the church, leaving it an
Moreover
Christ either directlyor
by which
they are the appropriatemeans
question whether
open
Christians confess their religionbefore the church
indirectlyinstituted any of the sacraments.
and the world.
This view was
the sacraments.
The sacraadopted by the
ments
3. Differences
among
individual: baphave a twofold reference
tism, Remonstrants, who maintain that the sacraments
are
objectivesignspresented to the mind, and that
confirmation, penance,
eucharist, extreme
their efficiency
to waken
consists in their power
a
unction; social: orders and matrimony. Baptism
extreme

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

of the dead," i.e.,

and penance are "sacraments
they
who is in a state of mortal
be received by one
may
sin; to such a one they give life. The five other
of the Uving," and
"sacraments
sacraments
are
Three of the sacrastate of grace.
ments
a
presuppose
baptism, confirmation,and holy orders
be received but once, on the ground that they
can
ments
imprint an indelible mark on the soul. The sacrarist
differ in dignityand necessity, The euchais firstin dignity,since here is Christ's presence;
In necessitybaptism is
holy orders is second.
is before extreme
unction
and
is
first,penance
sin after
commit
mortal
for those who
necessary
baptism; and there must be ordination ifthe church
is to have ministers.
4. Ministration
of the sacraments.
Baptism
be celebrated by any one with
may in an emergency
the right matter, form, and institution,
although
ordinarily
onlythose who are in orders may properly
"

"

"

"

response to the divine grace.

There is no placefor the sacra4. The Friends.
ments
in their worship. They indeed allow that
practiced
baptism and the Lord's Supper were
for a time in the earlychurch, but only as a concession
The
faith.
of
to the weakness
grace which
inward
and
thus symbohzed, being purely
was
admits of no external form.
spiritual,
C. A. Beckwith
BOOKS.
See Sacred
Literatueb.
SACRED
"

"

OF
HEART
JESUS." A devotion in
authorized
by the
church, first officially
Congregation of Rights in 1765,but of long standing
heart of Jesus as the
in mystical worship. The
seat of infinite divine love calls forth a peculiarly

the

SACRED
R.C.

intense

and

tender

devotion.

In

1856

appointed the Friday after the Octave

Christi

as

feast of the Sacred

Heart.

Pius IX.
of Corpus

Sacred

Literatures

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

392

The emphasis upon

to the 6th. century B.C.; (4) the
periods down
Book
Li-Ki
of Ceremonial
each rehgiousdevelopor
ment.
Usages, givingthe
correct religious
and social custom for the important
When
authorityis vested in a collection of
incidents of hfe; (5) the Ch'un
to be exact
records of revealed
Ch'iu, attributed
writingsbeUeved
and supposed to be the annals of the
eternal truth the sacred literature stands clearly to Confucius
state of Lu from
720 B.C. to 478 B.C.
The
four
apart from other religious
writings. It sometimes
Books
tinguishable
are:
(1) the Analects, Lun
happens, however, that the sacred literature is disYu, made up
mostly of remembered
sayings of Confucius regardonly because of its connection with the
ing
the ideal of life,
ethics and government;
founder of the religionor its great popularityand
(2) the
Great Learning, Ta Hsueh, an attempt to set forth
influence.
In the followingsections the effort is
the method
of Confucius for the cultivation of the
to catalogue the
made
recognized authoritative
ideal character; (3) the Doctrine
sacred writingsof the various religions.
of the Mean,
fucius,
I. Babism, Bahaism
Chung Yung, attributed to the grandson of Con(qq.v.). The authoritative
Babi book is the Bayan written by the Bab in 1848.
sets the individual as a moral agent in relation
to the natural order by correct relation with which
For Bahaism
the "most holy book" is Baha Ullah's
he reaUzes and expresses
the ideal;(4) the writings
Kitah-i-Aqdas.
of Mencius on ethics and politics.
dhism
II. Buddhist.
The sacred literature of Bud2. Taoist.
The
is divided into two main groups, that of the
of the
philosophic idealism
Chinese intellectuals produced a considerable literature
and Siam and
Hlnayana school of Ceylon, Burma
of which
the
that of the so-called northern
Buddhism
which is
Tao-Teh-King attributed to
Lao-tse deserves to rank in authoritywith the Confucian
mostly Mahayana, of Nepal, Tibet, China and
classics. A typicalexpositionof the rehgious
of the first group
was
Japan. The sacred canon
written in Pali and fixed by the 1st. century B.C.
philosophy of Taoism is that of Chuang-tse.
which
absorbed the animistic
It is called the Tipitaka, or Three
Popular Taoism
Baskets, the
and magical superstitions
of the people as well as
Abidhamma.
The
the
Vinaya, the Sutta and
much of Buddhism
has a sacred book in its Book
Vindya-pitaka is a book of rules and instructions
of Rewards
and Punishments.
of the
It consists of 212
for the guidance of the hfe of the members
commandments
with the sanctions, enforced
Order.
The Sutta-pitakacomprises five nikdyas or
by
the spirits
of earth and heaven, for good and evil
collections and consists of sermons,
narratives of
actions.
A. Eustace
Haydon
the Buddha, poeticsections,
discourses for edification
IV. Christian.
and magic texts.
The
See Bible.
Abidhamma-pitakais a
V. Christian
Science.
ence.
Scischolastic group
of writings,later than the
See Christian
more
others,settingforth the "higherreligion." To the
VI. Egyptian.
The sacred literature of Egypt
Tipitaka should be added the MUindonpanha of
which the first three books are very old. This is a
consists of two main
divisions: (1) the Pyramid
contain
texts,which
nected
magical formulae, rites consupposed dialoguebetween a Buddhist teacher and
with funerals and
Menander
the Greek
offeringsat the tomb,
regarding the principlesof
the religion.
hymns, myths and prayers on behalf of the dead;
The
Mahayana literature was
(2) the Book of the Dead which was a collection of
mostly written
in Sanskrit and from that translated into the Chinese
for the deceased
magicalspellsintended to secure
three main
of
and other languages. The
safety in his passage to the other hfe, power
over
groups
early Buddhism, the Sthaviras or phenomenalists, adversaries on the way, eternal life and happiness.
The
and the Mahdsdnghikas
either inscribed in the tomb
the Sarvdstivddins or realists,
writing was
or
coffin or upon
Uterature.
or idealists each produced their particular
papyri rolls placed with the dead.
To these two
scattered
to have
Sarvdstivddins seem
had a Tripitaka
should be added
The
groups
hymns to the gods, the Litanies of Seker, and the
corresponding to that of the Hlnayana. A text
Festival Songs and Lamentations
of Isis and Nephmarking the transition from the Hlnayana to the
A considerable literaBook
ture
the
of
thys. See Egypt, Religion
Mahayana is the Mahdvastu.
of;
Dead.
around
the life of Buddha
of which
centers
VII. Hindu.
ism
The sacred literature of Hinduthe
examples are preserved in the Lalita-vistara,
Buddha-charita
and
the Jdtaka-mdld.
the sacrificial ritual set in a
After the
grew
up around
world-view
of naturism.
The
literatureis
2nd. century a.d., the full Mahayana
Rig- Veda consists
of a collection of 1017 hymns intended to be sung
The great texts which have influenced
in control.
with
the ritual,produced during
of the far east are the Saddharmain connection
the Buddhism
several centuries by seven
great famihes of priests
pundanka (ca. 200 a.d.),i.e.,the "Lotus of the
The
and finallycollected into ten books.
to
True
YajurLaw," the Sukhdvati-vyuha, devoted
the Kdranda-vyuha Veda is a group of liturgies
Amitabha and his land of bliss,
settingforth the correct
brating performance of the ritual of the sacrifices. The
which
Avalokita, the Ganda^vyHha, celeglorifies
from
consists largelyof hymns drawn
Sdma-Veda
Manjusri and the philosophicwork, the
the Rig-Veda especially
from the ninth book and set
Prajnd-pdramitds.
with the soma
to melodies for singingin connection
in India was
Buddhism
graduallyassimilated to
sacrifices. The
Atharva- Veda is a book of glorified
and
Hinduism
incorporated the Sakti idea, the
and spells,
the practiceof Yoga and
of Mantras
rehgious magic. The texts of these sacred books
use
called mantras.
Added
This gave
rise to the Buddhist
to each of the Vedas are
occult devices.
are
Tantrik literature from the 6th. century onward.
Brdhmanas, prose writings of explanation and
Later
canonical
1. Confucian. The
III. Chinese.
exposition_in the form of commentaries.
the Aranyakas and
Upanishads, the former
literature comprises the five classics and the four
came
from
their origin called the "Forest Books"
books.
Their
probably because they
authority comes
used in the instruction of the hermit forestin sages who have realized the perfectlifein harmony
were
and are therefore able to
dwellers. Both
with the order of nature
developed a philosophic religion
of
This whole
five classics are
the basis of the Vedas.
The
instruct others.
on
(1) the
group
as contrasted
Yi- King or Book of Changes, a primitivesystem of
writingsis called shruti,"revelation,"
with the less authoritative smriti or "tradition."
divination elaborated
by successive sages into a
Though classed as "tradition" the later hteracomplicatedcosmology and a method of forecasting
of History,
the future; (2) the Shvr-King or Book
ture is no less important. Earliest are the SUtras,
of
the twelve Shrauta-sUtras or priestlyhandbooks
probablyedited by Confucius; (3) the Shi-King, or
instruction in the use of the Vedas,the six DharmaBook of Poetry, a collection of odes from various
SACRED

LITERATURES."

varies accordingto
Scripture

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

393

sutras

or

works

law

on

and

house-books

Grihya-sutrasor

DICTIONARY

OF

twelve
deal with the

ethics,the
which

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Sacred

Thread

the later period in Medina, and those about which

there is difference of opinion. These
distinctions

historical
not wholly satisfactoryto modern
are
ing
containThe
sense.
Many Surahs are composite,some
popular Vaisnavite literature of India
the
additional revisional material by Mohammed
the two
around
centers
great epic poems,
himself. The textual criticism of the Koran
and the Ramayana.
has
Mahdbharata
Originally
lar
popuboth transformed by priests not yet arrived at the stage reached by that of the
they were
poems,
Old and New Testaments.
literature in the interest of the cult of
into religious
The collection as we now
have it is not from the
Vishnu and became
a vast storehoxiseof philosophic,
lore. The
hand of Mohammed,
but was
than
made
Bhagavadgitd, a
more
legal and theological
15 years after his death duringthe reignof the third
section of the Mahdbhdrata
was
very influential in
tradition
the religious
development of India. A greatreligious'Caliph Othman
(644-656 a.d.). The
that the first Caliph Abu
Bekr had previously
literature grew up around this theisticpoem.
antiThe eighteen Purdnas form another division of
publisheda similar officialedition is mere
Othmanic, i.e.,
anti-Omayyad propaganda. The
popular sacred literature deaUng with cosmology,
Othmanic
edition has remained the accepted text
philosophy. They exalt Vishnu
historyand rehgious
of the holy book to the presentday. No modern
and Shiva as the chief gods. The idea that the
scientificedition yet exists, but for their day
female energy of the Supreme God is the active
and purpose the editors did very well. None but
force in the world gave rise to the Sakta cults and
infinitesimal changes or additions to
the most
hundreds
of Tantras in which the goddessplaysthe
words
have yet been proven against
Mohammed's
chief r61e.
Veddnta-sHtras which develop the phiThe
losophy
them, and no omissions of any size or consequence.
of the Upanishads
the central Scriptures Some
not as yet carefullyexamined,
are
duplication,
unavoidable in the effort to include everything
was
of the orthodox intellectuals.
w
hich
be
obtainable.
Mohammed
wrote littleor nothing. A
In addition to the above
list,
may
sometimes
called the main trunk of Hindu sacred literature, large part he dictated to secretaries,
in revised form without cancelingthe original;
other writings no less influential and no less
some
are
The
to have
been gathered in writing
revered by special
Sankhya system,
portions seem
groups.
to
came
which has its roots in the oldest literature,
by his followers for devotional or other use.
in the 4th. century a.d. in the
The whole is homiletic in tone and for the most
its classic statement
for use
In the
in ritual prayer. From
Sdnkhya-kdrika, a poem of seventy verses.
part intended
sentiments aroused
middle of the 4th. century a.d. the Yoga-sUtraof
rhapsodicexpressionsof religious
bined
Patanjalifvu-nished the authoritative literaturefor
by simple but rigidmonotheistic conceptionscomThe
fears it passes through
with eschatological
the theistic development of the Sankhya.
allusions to and more
VaisheshUca and Nyaya systems have as their basic
or less exact quotationsfrom
the prophets,
biblical and^otherwise,
to legislative
Kashyliterature the Vaisheshika-sutra of Kanada
The Jains
sometimes
in minute
detail,but
enactments,
apa and the Nydya-sutraof Gautama.
of
like
never
systematicallycomplete. Mohammea,
are
supposed to have had originallya canon
his followers,
believed every word of it to be inspired
Scripturein twelve Angas which was handed down
after a thousand
by God, through various angeUc agencies,from a
orally for centuries and finally,
Svetambara sect
great archetypalholy book in heaven. The style
years, reduced to writing by the
The twelfth
is very good for one
Anga
of the firstArabic attempts at
the early 6th. century a.d.
m
of the
medans
Mohamas most
lost,and the surviving45 documents
was
prose, but it is not so superexceUent
condition.
The
rhymed prose is
sonorous
are in dubious
suppose.
present canon
lem
not well represented in any
sacred books of India producedunder MosTwo
EngUsh translation,
the best of which stillis that of Rodman
(reprinted
influence after the 16th. century, the Bdnl of
M. Sprenglinq
in the Everyman's series).
Dadu, leader of the Dadupanthis and the AdiPentateuch.
See Samaritan
XI. Samaritan.
Granth of the Sikhs are worshiped by the members
See Kojiki; Nikon gi; Norito.
XII. Shinto.
of these sects. The books are chiefly
poeticteaching
XIII. ZOROASTRIAN.
1. ScC AvESTA.
and prayers.
2. Pahlavi literature. The name
in India see section I
appliedto the
For literature of Buddhism
menting
A. Eustace
HatDon
patristicliterature of Zoroastrianism,as suppleabove.
the Avesta, or sacred book of that rehgion.
See Bible; Talmud.
VIII. Jewish.
The
Persian, in which these
Pahlavi, or Middle
Mormon.
See Book
op
IX. MoRMONisM.
writingscomposed^is a specialform of Iranian
is the sacred book of
^The Koran
X. Moslem.
tant
respects. Most imporworld,venerated ever since its inception language,difficult m many
the Moslem
the Pahlavi books is the Bundahishn,
in quitethe same
among
manner
by all good Mohammedans
and Revelation,based upon
tians
a sort of Iranian Genesis
and Chrismediaeval
Jews
in which
and measure
of Zoroaster; second, the
Nask"
the "Damdat
their respectiveBibles.
revered and stillrevere
tian
Denkart,"acts of the religion,"togetherwith the
It is a small book, not quitethe size of the ChrisMalnog-l Khirdd,
New
Testament, consistingof 114 sections, theologicaltreatises Dindrl
of Wisdom," and Ddtistdn-i
"opinionsof the Spirit
caUed Surahs; these are not like the chapters of
ArddDerng, "religiousjudgments"; and, finally,
subdivisions of a larger "book,"
the Bible, mere
apocalypseor Dantesque
a Persian
to be complete within itself, Vlrdf Ndmak,
but each is intended
vision of heaven and hell,vouchsafed to the saintly
Verse divisions of several schools
like the Psalms.
Arda Viraf.
This latter work has been translated
The
facilitate the finding of smaller
passages.
mto
Englishby E. W. West, The Book of Ardawhole book is further subdivided in various ways
Viraf,Bombay, 1872; and translations of the
for devotional purposes, as the Jews have done in
precedingand other Pahlavi texts have likewise
their Torah or Pentateuch.
in the series of Sacred
The
arrangement of the Surahs is peculiar. been made by E. W. West
Mtiller.
Books
of the East, edited by F. Max
which is a much revered prayer
Aside from the first,
Jackson
A. V. Williams
like the Christian Lord's Prayer and the Jewish
of the three
mark
The
THREAD."
SACRED
Shema, the longer and later ones, often composed
of the
the
higher castes of India. In the conferring
of very heterogeneousmaterial,are placedfirst,
last. thread in boyhood the child attains the Aryan rank,
part earlier ones
shorter and for the most
each Surah to distinguish is said to be "twice-born,"is taught the gayatrl
The Moslems
superscribe
(q.v.)and placedin charge of a guru for religious
earUer
the
to
periodin Mecca, to
those which belong

domestic cult.

"

"

"

"

"

"

Sacred

Vessels

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

394

theory
sinful sacrificerhimself. The sacramental
thread lies upon the left shoulder
students
of anthropology. It
the right side. Its ancient religious is popular with
falls on
from the
interpretssacrifice as intended to remove
meaning is blurred today but it is highlyregarded
of caste.
worshiperthe limitations and tabus which attach to
as a mark
him as a profane person and to invest him with the
of sanctity. The
characteristics and
VESSELS."
utensils
Vessels and
privileges
SACRED
in all religions sacrificehere serves as an intermediary between the
employed in religiousceremonies
sacred and the profane. The communion
theory
and all times have been regarded as dedicated to
the divinities in whose rites they are
employed, was brought into prominence by W. Robertson
Smith in his Religionof the Semites (1889). This
and hence as sacred.
Types of such vessels are cups
(q.v.).
theory makes sacrifice a rehc of totemism
and bowls for libations,services for sacramental
fonts for baptisms, Originallythe sacrificers ate together the animal
banquets, lavers for ablutions,
and their god, so
their ancestors
which represented
well as votive vases
for purifications,
as
aspergilla
that the act was
thought of as eating the god (cf.
of many
implements
sorts, and also such sacrificial
doctrine of transubstantiation
[q.v.]).
knives, axes, fire-makers,etc. Sacred utensils the modern
as
Later this became
a simpleact of communion, the
often preserve archaic traditions,as for example,
god and the worshiper alike taking part in the
flint knives were
anciently used in sacrificelong
sacrificial
meal which through the food and drink
into ordinary use.
after bronze or iron had come
established a common
of fife
thus shared
bond
The sacred vessels of Solomon's
temple, as carried
between
fice
sacrithe partiesto the sacrifice. Thus
25 : 13-17,
away into Babylon,are described II Kings
ever
WhatAfter the
was
thought of as "the food of God."
and again, as restored,Ezra 1:7-11.
theory of sacrificebe adopted, it must be borne
destruction of Jerusalem
by the Romans, the
in mind that for the early sacrificersthemselves
the
templevesselswere taken as plimder by the Romans
the importantthing, the interpretation
act was
of
and are in part picturedon the Arch of Titus. The
the act was_ of small
importance. The
same
most important sacred vesselsemployed in Christian
in as many
act might be interpreted
rites are those used in celebratingthe sacrament
ways as there
it was
the less effective.
none
were
sacrificers;
H. B. Ai^exander
and in the rites of baptism.
Sacrifice.
Prevalence
fice
SacriIII. The
op
in varying forms was fimdamental in all primito perA quahty pertaining
SACREDNESS."
tive
sons
religions,and has been prominent in more
or things by virtue of their close relationship
advanced
reUgions,such as those of the Babylonians,
to Deity. See Holiness.
Assyrians, and Egyptians,the Zoroastrianism of
peoplesthe world of material
Among primitive
Persia, the systems of Greeks and Romans, the
and psychicalphenomena was classifiedunder two
Islam of Mohammedans, the Taoism and Buddhism
heads,the sacred and the profane. To the former
of China,the Shintoism of Japan, the Brahmanism
to them,
belongedthe gods and all thingspertaining
of India,the monotheism of the Hebrews and even
This conception
etc.
their priests,
shrines,vessels,
of its phases. The kinds
in some
in Christianity,
shared by the
was
of sacredness as a relationship
of offerings,
the materials used,and the sacrificial
all through Hebrew
early Hebrews, and persisted
Whole
everywhere have much in common.
seasons
as
guardians of
history. The priests naturally,
incense
food and drink offerings,
concerned with the sacred
the ritual,were
burnt-offerings,_
chiefly
and such sacrifices
are common;
things. The
prophets supplemented the_priestly and flower offerings
of the new
the
made at the seasons
are
influence with ethical and spiritual
teachings that
moon,
and the time of firstthe solstices,
full moon,
the thought of sacredness less and
tended to make
Testament
continues
and under circumstances
New
fruits,
less materialistic. The
resemblingHebrew

training. The
and

"

sacrificeat many
points.
prophetictradition in the teachingof Jesus and
Hebrew
Sacrifice.
^The different
IV. Kinds
op
attitude toward sanctityfinds recognition
priestly
kinds of Hebrew
sacrifice can
only be listed
in the writingsof Paul and bvUks large in the
Protestantism
sacramental system of Christianity.
here, viz.,(1) Burnt-offering,(2) Peace-offering,
has more
with its increasingemphasis upon ethics,
(3) Meal-offering,(4) Sin-offering,(5) Trespassleft it to the Catholic church to empha(7) Freewill-offering,
and more
offering,(6) Drink-offering,
size
(10) Thank(9) Wave-offering,
sacredness in religion. J. M. Powis Smith
(8) Heave-offering,
offeringand (11) Incense-offering.In the sphere
of human
SACRIFICE.
An act in which something (generally, of Burnt-offeringsbelongs the custom
which was
at least sporadically,
but not always,an article of food or drink)
sacrifice
practised,
the
the

"

"

is devoted

to

from

God.

the earliest times until the

and
Exile,

that too

rehgion (Gen. 22 : 11 ;
Practice.
as a part of traditionalHebrew
Among primitive
the
Judg. ll:34ff.; Jer. 7:31; Ezek. 20:26; 23:37;
peoples everywhere, ritual constituted
sacrificeproMic. 6:6 f.). The practiceof human
main part of religion. The most outstanding and
tects
forever from
the charge that
the Hebrews
part of this ritual was the act of sacrifice.
significant
their rehgion lightly
and ethical religions, they took
or
mechanically.
Only in the most highly spiritual
No mere
formalism induces parents to slay their
notably, e.g., Christianity,Brahmanism,
Buddmsm
sacrifice children at the behest of the gods,
and
was
Mohammedanism,
A notable change in the spiritof the sacrificial
in theory abandoned.
even
There has
Meaning
Sacrifice.
II. The
worship took place in Israel in and after the Exile.
op
Whereas
the earlier sacrifice had been an occasion
always been wide difference of opinion among
students of religionas to the originalsignificance for joy and mirth, the people freely expressing
of their God
(I Sam.
their pleasurein the presence
of the sacrificial
act. Some of the more
important
The
be noted here.
and wide-spread views may
1:9, 12-14; Isa. 28:7, 8; Exqd.32:6), the later
period finds sacrificeconverted into an occasion for
gifttheoryhas had a large following. This view is
I. Extent

op

the

"

"

worshiperbrings his giftto the altar either

as expressinghis gratitudefor favors received from
the gods or as intended to appease
the divine wrath
stirred up by offenses of which the worshipper is
The
keenly conscious.
theory is
substitutionary
that the

It holds that sacrifice is an

for sin,and that the death of the sacrificial
expiation
animal is as a substitute for the death of the

still widely held.

the

expressionof

expiationand

sorrow

atonement

for sin and

means

for

(e.g.,Lev. 4:35; 9:3;

and chap. 16).

10: 16 ff.,
Sacrifice.
Prophets
V. Attitude
op
toward
as
^The prophets did not as a rule oppose sacrifice
Amos
5:25 and Jer.
such passages
as
such; even
7:22 are better understood
as
protests against an
unethical worship than as reflecting
any desire for

"

395

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

cessation of worship per se.

Such language
be understood
in the light of Isa. 1 : 15, 16,
where the prophet uses
equally strong words about
he
not
eUminate
prayer;
praj'^er. Yet he would
would
from
unethical
an
only insist that prayer
be heard
heart cannot
of God.
Even
so, the
that sacrifice to be effective must
prophets demand
proceedfrom hearts controlled by right motives.
Sacrifice.
VI. Chbistianity
The
and
spirit
alHed to that of the prophets
of Christianitywas
rather than that of the priests. Prophecy with its
exaltation of the ethical in religionhad prepared
the way for the disappearance of sacrifice. Christianity
and historycombined
to complete the work.
The destruction of the temple ended sacrifice even
in Judaism
itself. Christianity,
however, has
the death of Jesus
always insisted upon interpreting
the final and all sufficient sacrifice. The precise
as
of the sacrifice has been the subject of
significance
of perennial discussion,but the sacrificial nature
of the death has been almost universally
accepted.
J. M. Powis
Smith
See Human
Sacrifice.
SACRIFICE, HUMAN"
the

must

"

the
SACRILEGE.
sacred
^Infringement on
character or uses
of anything accounted
as
holy by
the followers of any rehgion. In primitivereligions,
such
associated
with
tabu
an
infringement was
The
(q.v.)and involved dangerous consequences.
transition to less magical conceptions is very
profanation of sacred
gradual, but in all cases
law,
things is regarded as dangerous. In canon
treated with
the crime
was
severity, the civil
authorities
often
co-operating in inflictingthe
was
nally
origipunishment. In English law, sacrilege
the sale of church
property to a lajnnan;
with the
it is the breaking into a church
now
intention of committing theft.
"

the
for

A church
official charged with
SACRISTAN."
of the sacristy(q.v.)and the preparation
care
a rehgiousservice by making ready aU garments

objectsrequired.

or

In church
architecture,a
keeping the sacred utensils and vestments.

SACRISTY.
for

"

room

SADDHARMA-PUNDARlKA."
"The Lotus of
ings
One of the most
the True Law."
important writBuddhism
of Mahayana
dating from the 2nd.
work
influential in
has been
The
century a.d.
revered
India and China; in Japan it is the most
is in it presented as an
of all Scriptures. Buddha
eternal being identical with the truth (dharma) who
exerts his influence as teacher in all ages and in many
to lead all human
modes
beings to the goal of
is shown
historic Sakyamuni
The
Buddhahood.
assumed
to instruct men.
an
as
illusoryappearance
A high moral tone is given to the teaching since
real sainthood is actual livingin harmony with the
laws of reality,not
merely mystic meditation.
The book is filledwith marvels to exalt the supreme
gloryof the Buddha.
tine
in PalesA Jewish party name
to designate those
from the 2nd. century B.C.
priests,with their supporters, who held the high
were
a majority in the Sanhedrin,
pohticaloffices,
and dominated the relations of the nation to the
and Roman
were
Greek
empires. The Sadducees
persons of lineage,positionand wealth, the Jewish
ing
lackHellenized,somewhat
aristocracy. Somewhat
ing
in spirituaUty,
piety,and race zeal,maintainthe temple system of
somewhat
perfunctorily
faithful to their
yet essentially
worship, they were
of the
nation and
religion. As strict adherents

SADDUCEES.

Old

"

Testament, they opposed the laterelaborations

AND

ETHICS

of the law, and

doctrine.
SADHANA.
divine which
practicesof

the

Sakti

eschatologicaland

new

C. W.

other

Votaw

The realization of unity with the

is the goal of the Yoga and of rehgious
mystic meditation in Hinduism.
"

CANONIZATION

SAINTS,

OF." The
solemn
the "canon"
officialUst of R.C.
or
invoked and whose relics and images
It is preby the whole Church.
ceded
by an elaborate "process,"the pro and con
interests being respectivelyrepresentedby "God's
advocate"
and "the Devil's advocate," determining
by rigidinvestigationthat the "blessed" has
received an uninterrupted popular veneration
and
that thereby new
miracles have been wrought since
"beatification" (q.v.).
enrollment
on
saints who are
venerated
are

OF." The anniversary

SAINTS, VENERATION
observed
(natale)of each martyr was
as
early as
cession
Cyprian (d.a.d. 258). A counterpart to the interby confessors was the behef that the martyrs
intercede before God.
movement
During the mass
toward Christianity
the church transformed
heathen
festivals into saints' days and heathen
temples into
churches,incidentallyannexing many
legends and
council
of
local customs.
second
In
787
the
Nicaea decreed that the saints should not receive
but greeting and veneration
true worship (laireia)
tion
(proskunesis) Protestantism
rejected the invocaof saints as repugnant to Scripture,and Calvin
in particular
stressed the perilof idolatry.
W. W. Rockwell
SAIVISM.
One of the great divisions of theistic
rehgion in India. Shiva is a composite figure
formed
by centuries of syncretism. He is at once
the ancient
mountain
god of storm, a frolicking
leader of dancing revellers,the destroying and
reprodticingpower of a pitiless
nature, the supreme
ascetic Yogi and the symbol of philosophiccahn.
that
the
Finally,since philosophy demanded
Supreme God be quiescent,his creative activitywas
symbolized in the figureof his wife or female energy,
Sakti (q.v.). His long history reaches from
the
ancient storm
god Rudra of the Vedas down to the
modern
era.
Owing to the multiform character of the religion
it has made
an
appeal to all classes of people.The
philosopherhas been able to see in Shiva or Mahadeva the supreme
realityremaining stable behind
the pitiless
change and evolution of the phenomenal
world.
The
(Safcto worshipers found hSm through
worship of his wife,in Parvati,Kali,Durga or Uma.
While Shiva has never
had an avatar he is worshiped
in his manifestation
and other local
in Ganesha
gods so that any popularcults may be assimilated to
him.
Asceticism
carried to its most
has been
forms among
the Shiva yogis who subject
extreme
AlUed
themselves
tortures.
to the most inhuman
to this religious
devotion is the somber phase of the
Shiva cult which has produced the groups who give
themselves up to the worship of the terrible element
in nature
as
representedin the destructive Kail or
Durga, the patroness of the Thugs (q.v.). The
and
naked
feed on
human
Aghoris who wander
belong to this phase of Saivism. Shiva's
corpses
symbol is the linga. While for the most part the
the
emphasis on sex is austere in form as among
Lingayats it takes on the character of license in
the philosophers of absolute
sects.
Thus
some
idealism,the ascetic fakir,the mystic yogi and the
all find a place within
followers of the bhakti way
this rehgion. See Hinduism.
.

"

SAKTI.
sectarian

"

The

active energy

rehgions. The

of God

supreme

in the Hindu

God

is usually

Sakyamuni

DICTIONARY

thought to be quiescent and passive; hence the

divine drama of creation and evolution of the worlds
with
is attributed to his wife,his sakti,who is one
him in realityyet active,creative and the driving
the
in the phenomenalworld. On this account
energy
most
of God
seems
important and
female energy
the most prominent place in the cult of
assumes
popularor Tantric Hinduism.
SAKYAMUNI."

See Gautama.

SALAMANDER.
as

"

^A fictitious

spriteportrayed

dwellingin fire.
SALVATION.

^The

"

guiltby divine power

so

AND

RELIGION

OF

of man
from evil or
rescue
ness.
attain blessedthat he may

ETHICS

396

expressingfaith in the fundamentally moral

acter
charof God's relation to men.
of the above conIn actual rehgioushistorynone
ceptions
be
stands in isolation. While
one
may
as
conditioning
put foremost,others usuallyappear
factors. The various sects in any religion
are
hkely
moral
to differ in their emphasis, and to stigmatizeas imviews to which objectionis
or
superstitious
felt. But
that genuine religioussatisfaction is
be denied.
cannot
attained in all the ways suggested
anity.
ChristiII. The
Doctrine
Salvation
of
in
The distinctive feature of the Christian conception
of salvation is the exaltation of Jesus Christ
the sole savior of men.
The various religious
as
ideas above described all appear
but
in Christianity,
their savingsignificance
isalways attributed to Christ.
of God isachieved by the sacrificialdeath
Propitiation
of Christ,which supersedesall other sacrifices. See
limited to
Atonement.
Rites of purification
are
See Sacrathe sacraments
authorized by Christ.
ments.
"

The
Conceptions.
conception
heart of real rehgion. It
very
in the complexity of reUgion.
therefore shares
Mystic redemption through participation
There
"ways" of salvation; and
numerous
are
in the dramatic experienceof a saviour-godis for the
a
nd
reforms
criticizing
are
constantly
religious
of
Christian spiritual
fellowshipwith the sufferings
revising current ideas and practices.The most
Christ and
mystic union with the risen Christ.
follows:
prominent conceptionsare as
like
Ascetic discipline
is shaped so as to induce a Christ1. Salvation by propitiation
of spiritsor gods.
ence
Good deeds are essential either as obedispirit.
the illswhich
animistic conceptionsprevail,
Where
to the commands
of Christ or as imitation of
attributed to malignant spirits, his
suffers are
man
of life.
way
favorable
from
be secured
while blessingsmay
the doctrine of salvation embraces
Theologically,
spirits.Salvation consists in thwarting the power
two themes, (1) the doctrine of the work of Christ,
and in securingthe good will of gods
of evil spirits,
settingforth the divine provisionfor salvation,and
who can confer blessings.Magic (q.
v.)is a common
of this pro(2)the expositionof the appropriation
vision
w
hile
of
offerings,
p
raises,
coercingspirits,
means
by man.
render
the
believed
to
and
sacrificesare
festivals
The work of Christ has been expounded: (1) As
gods propitious. Magic played a large role in
messianic deliverer.
Here his triumphant second
and
Egyptian and Babylonian religions(qq.v.),
coming to destroy the powers of evil and estabUsh
rites are universally
employed.
propitiatory
See Eschathe Kingdom
of God
is stressed.
A more
2. Salvation by rites of purification.
(2) As the
Millenarianism; Messiah.
tology;
ing
of conceivintrospectiveand metaphysical way
incarnation
of essential deity, whereby human
substantial
taint
evil
as
a
religionpictures
is made capableof divine possibihties.Here
nature
be acquired
corruption which vitiates life. It may
or
portance.
the divine nature
(deity)of Christ is of primary im"unclean"
in
touching an
by contagion,as
See Christology.
(3) As the divine
of
object,or it may be considered an inherent trait
of
his death on the cross
sacrifice,
being the means
be
This taint may
nature.
the flesh or of human
God.
Various theories as to how this
propitiating
of purifyingsubstances, is effected have been set forth. See Atonement.
removed by the application
consecrated
or
such as water, blood,fire,
tions.
preparato
(4)As a revelation of God's love and willingness
Ablutions,anointings,the touch of a priest forgive. This has been especiallystressed by
of
sacred person, and mysticrites are the means
or
Ritschhanism
(q.v.). (5) As the revealer of the
salvation.
kind
of life which
God
and
blesses.
approves
3. Salvation by personalrelation to a divine
"liberalism" takes this view.
Modern
savior. In the mystery-cultsrehgious hope was
The appropriationof salvation by the beUever
who through
attached to the figureof a saviour-god,
has been analyzed into its various stages or aspects,
of salva-/
and death provided a mystic
such as conviction of sin,repentance, faith,conversuffering
way
sion,
initiated into the mystery.
tion to all who
were
etc. (aQ-V-).
regeneration,
sanctification,
this type of salvation found expresIn Christianity
Gerald
Smith
Birney
sion
in the mystic union of the believer with Christ.
SALVATION
ARMY."
An
bodying
organization emof this ideal is expressedin
A poUtical
interpretation
quasi-militarydisciplineaiming at the
of
doctrine
Jewish-Christian
and
Jewish
the
spintual,moral, and material reclamation of the
Messiah (q.v.). For other conceptionssee Savior.
gious
lower strata of societyunprovided for by other rehI. Historical

"

of salvation is the

"

"

"

4. Salvation by ascetic discipline.-A complete

of hfe may
be attempted by a systematic
spirituaUzing
of fleshly
impulses,and a deUberate
repression
meditation.
cultivation of high mysticalor philosophical
here is placed on the essential unity
ReUance
with the ultimate
of the spiritof man
spiritual
realityof the universe. This ideal of salvation is
of India, but
especiallyprominent in the religions
fiindsa placein nearlyall reUgions. See Asceticism;
Brahmanism; Buddhism.
5. Salvation as a reward for moral living. In protest
conceptions of salvation,
against non-moral
tion
reformers in many
reUgionshave insisted that salvais reallyconditioned
by moral character and
conduct.
Zoroaster,the great prophets of Israel,
"

"

and

many

teachers

Christian

ideal. While it may

book-keeping,it

may

be

stressed this
sordid kind of
of
noble means

have

degraded to
also be

and social agencies.

Booth (1829-1912).
WiUiam
Its founder
was
As first a local Wesleyan Methodist
minister,his
rate
passion for open air evangelism led him to inauguHis labors in the
an
independent movement.
(1865) led to the
neglected East End of London
organizationof the Christian Mission, which in
of the Salvation Army.
1878 was
given the name
henceforth
It became
quasi-miUtary in character,
after
its "Orders and Regulations" being modelled
Its government
is
those of the British Army.
ence
autocratic,and unquestioning obedidistinctively
International headquarters are
is demanded.
in London.
in Britain,
The rapid spread of the movement
thence to the Continent, to America
(1880),and
28 languages,
representing
ultimatelyto 54 countries,
has necessitated thoroughgoing organization. The

397

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Sanday,

William

and
localized group with its officers constitutes a corps;
the rite more
perhaps human
beings made
several corps constitute a division;several divisions
effective. The participants
brought themselves into
the latter
contact with the power
a province; several provinces a territory,
by eating the flesh of the
animals,by masking in their skins,by lightingthe
usuallyhaving national deUmitations.
horne fires from the festival fire. At this time also
The early adoptionof unconventional methods
of evangelization (streetpreaching; processions; divination
and
were
fortune-telling
practicedto
forms; discover what
the new
bands; popular music; common
vernacular; unimight bring. The
year
mihtary titles;etc.) led to persecution, souls of the dead returned to their homes and shared
the festivities. The
Christian
church
ending only when the real import of the movement
attempted
became
evident.
While in no sense
to supplant this paganism by estabhshing
1
Nov.
a
church, the
All Saints Day and then virtuallyrecognizedthe
as
representing,
Army is thoroughlyevangelicalin spirit,
doctrinally, conservative
orthodoxy. Its old customs by an All Souls Day followingon Nov. 2.
ministry is two-fold: the first,
religious,
stressing Hallowe'en stillretains refics of the primitiverites.
conversion and the clean life;
the second,social,
employing
The Hindu word for "coUection"
SAMHITAS."
agencies of uplift (shelters and
many
usually referringto the originalcollections of the
food-depots;labor bureaus and factories for the
Vedic Scriptures.
and
exunenaployed;refuges for fallen women
convicts; maternity hospitals and
orphanages;
home visitation; farm colonies,
SAMSARA.
^The eternal process of transmigraetc.). Its principal
tion
under
the law of karma
ting
pubUcation, The War Cry, is a powerful contribu(q.v.)in Hinduism.
It is often likened to a wheel on which souls revolve
agency.
from
In 1896 occurred the secession of Commander
birth to death
to rebirth endlessly unless
and Mrs. BallingtonBooth, and the organization
released by some
of salvation.
of
way
the Volunteers of America
opment
(q.v.). The rapid develSAMURAI.
of the Army led,in 1920, to reorganization,
^The military
knightsand retainers
of the feudal age of Japan whose devotion to their
in the United
divisions,
States,into three territorialsuboverlords,loyalty,courage and love of honor created
Eastern, Central, and Western, with
in New
headquarters,
respectively,
York, Chicago, the code of moral action called Bushido (q.v.).
and San Francisco.
In 1920 the Army numbered
of
SANCTIFICATION."
The
act or
10,591 corps and outposts. There were
1,217 corps
process
in Great Britain,935 in the U.S.A.,548 in Canada,
purifying,cleansing; or rendering sacred or holy.
In personalrehgious fife dedication to a high purand 1,947 in Scandinavia and
1,265 in Australia,
pose.
Finland.
The
efficient
contributed
most
Army
service dvu-ingthe war
is
rite
sanctification
of
of 1914-18, and won
Ceremonially,
a symboUc
general
dedication or consecration for a special,
exalted servwork
for the
ice.
support because of its self-sacrificing
soldiers. The devotion of so many
of its officers to
Thus, to sanctify an utensil for a temple
this task forced a temporary reduction in activities
service is formally to set it apart or render it sacred
to a particularuse.
is cerebase.
Henry
H. Walker
To sanctify a man
at the home
monially
to dedicate
him
to some
high service.
SAMADHI.
The final stageof Hindu mysticism "Sanctify yourselves" is a call to prepare
monially
cerein which the soul,lost in meditation,sinks into the
for a sacred occasion or service.
ecstatic trance of union with God and all consciousness
sanctification implies spiritual
Theologically,
of separate individuaHty
moral purification.It has been described
cleansing,
disappears.
act of the Holy Spiritsupplementary to regenas an
eration
SAMARITANPENTATEUCH"
A Hebrew
to create a permanent devotion to the
so
as
sion
verof the Pentateuch
will of God.
preservedby the Samaritan
By some
rehgioussects it is regardedas
and
written
the supreme
sect
in the Samaritan
characters.
stage in a divinelyprescribedprocess
Jewish writers knew of,and the Church Fathers used,
of salvation
sinexalted condition of holiness,
an
this version of the Torah until ca. 800 a.d.
lessness or "Perfect-Love."
It was
See Perfectionism.
then forgottenuntil 1616 when
Pietro della Valle
Herbert
A. Yotjtz
This was
the basis
SANCTITY.
brought a copy from Damascus.
From
Latin sandus, meanmg
of a badly edited text in the Paris Polyglot (1645).
"holy"; the quaUty or state of holiness or sacredSince that date numerous
codices have
reached
ness, usuallyassociated with the deity or objectsof
but no
criticaltext has vet
Europe and America
worship, but also used of institutions the uplifting
been prepared. All of these codices are probably
influenceof which are recognized. See Holiness.
copies of the sacred codex preserved at Nablus
A
SANCTUARY."
(Shechem), the date of which, for lack of critical
sacred building or place,
the center
consecrated
of worship. Temples or
study, remains uncertain.
Probably,however, the
Samaritan
Pentateuch
developed along comparaor other placesof worship
groves, churches,mosques
tively
its
called sanctuaries.
Hence
B.C.
Since a sacred spot, because
independent fines 300-400
are
6000 variants
feared to profane it,served as an asylum or
men
importance as a version. It shows some
from the Masoretic
of which
from punishtext, most
are
placewhere refugeeswould be immune
ment,
ary
unimportant. It is frequently in agreement with
or danger, certain rightsof sanctuvengeance
the Septuagint.
D. D. Luckenbill
be
in
to
came
recognized law.
"

"

"

"

"

"

SAMA-VEDA.
A collection of hymns, mostly
taken from the Rig-Veda, set to tunes and chanted
in connection
with the soma
sacrifices in Vedic

SANCTUS."
In the R.C. fiturgy,a musical
settingof the praisesong, "Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord
God of hosts,"so called from the firstwords of the

religion.

Latin version.
The Sanctus-bell is the bell soimded
when
the Sandus
is sung during the celebration of
Mass.

"

SAMBHOGAKAYA."
SAMHAIN."

See Dharmakata.

Celtic festival of November

A
the beginningof the
jy^ear.Since at
this time the vitality
of the sun
and nature was
at
low ebb a great fire was
built to help magically the
powers of lightand life. The sacrifice of animals

which marked

WILLIAM
SANDAY,
(1844-1921)." Noted
Anghcan scholar.Canon at Christ Church College,
Oxford.
His fame lay in the realm of New
ment
Testascholarship. His most important works were
The Gospels in the Second
Century, his Bamptoa

Sandemanians

lectures
Romans.

on

Inspiration,and

DICTIONARY
his

Commentary

on

See Glassites.

SANDEMANIANS."

in
court
from the exile
and
It had
authority
continuing until 125 a.d.
certain aspects of Jewish life,
but the infliction
over
of the death penaltyrequired the sanction of the
lem
Roman
procturator. The Great Sanhedrin in Jerusabers
was
comprised of 71 elders,scribes and memof high priestlyfamilies.
Lesser sanhedrins,
lem
sittingin other cities were appointedby the JerusaSANHEDRIN.

"

The

AND

RELIGION

OF

highest Jewish

ETHICS

398

reach of karma
tion
or
transmigration. By devoLord and the practiceof yoga
to this supreme
(q.v.)the individual soul is able to come
more
speedilyto the unconscious state of isolation from
the wheel of life. This way
of salvation was
open
of all castes.
to men
the

Jerusalem organized after the return

body.
(788-850 a.d.)."A brilliant thinker,
teacher of India who
mentary
wrote a comis perhaps
He
the
Veddnta-sutras.
on
Veddnta
philosophy
the greatestexponent of the
is the only reality,
(q.v.),teaching that Brahman
spiritual,impersonal, ineffable and imknowable.
whole
is no
The
existence.
of Brahman
Outside
world of experience with its ideas of the supreme,
personalGod, the lesser gods,individualized human
result of mdyd
souls and material existences is the_
individual soul, in the toils of
illusion. The
or
in
of these illusoryappearances
use
mayd, makes
the quest for release and at last finds illumination
been anything else
in realizingthat it has never
and
has had
identical with
Brahman
than
no
separate existence. At death it sinks into the
eternal silence of the One ReaUty.
SANKARA

organizer and

SANNYASi.
Normally a man

"

^The ascetic saint in Hinduism.

expected to pass through the

four dshramas
(q.v.)of student,householder,hermit
and ascetic. In this last stagehe abandoned
thing,
everylived alone,
sleptin the open and gave himself
to
meditation.
Modern
conditions
in
rehgious
up
India do not favor this wandering,homeless beggar
lifefor old age but the ascetic devotee remains.
was

SAOSHYANT."

The
future prophet and
awaited by Zoroastrians.
Born of a virgin
by immaculate
conception from Zoroaster's seed
at the end of the present age of the world he will
complete the conquest of every evil thing and
establish the eternal Kingdom of God upon
the
earth.
restorer

SARUM

RITE."

of Sarum
Reformation.

The

liturgyused in

the

cese
dio-

(or Salisbury)prior to the EngHsh

It was
the prevalenthturgy
throughout

England in the 13th. century, and

dates

from

1085.
SATAN.
The personal
source, perpetuator,and
of evil.
instigator
Though there is early reference to evil spirits,
first in Zech. 3:1 f. (519 b.c.)
"the Satan" appears
and Job 1:6 ff. (ca.460 B.C.),as a kind of heavenly
whose
function is to search out
attorney-general,
"

ential
SANKHYA.
One of the oldest and most influof the religious
philosophiesof India. Like
men's sins and failings,
and so oppose their claims to
and Jainism
it was
Buddhism
a
product of nonIn I Chron. 21 : 1
and
a righteousstanding before God.
thinkers
brahmanical
a
protest against the
oped
has develmonistic system of Brahmanism.
It has remained
(ca.300 B.C.)Satan (without the article)
into the tempter (cf.
soul
II Sam. 24:1).These meager
consistentlyatheistic in denial of a supreme
allusions to a superhuman agency
in evil receive a
It positstwo ultimate eternal realities,
or absolute.
notable expansion in Apocryphal literature,
of souls.
partly
prakritior matter and an infinite number
tion
The phenomenal universe is the result of the evoluthrough Persian influence. See Zoroastrianism.
Under the different names
of Satan, Sotona, Satanunder the influence
matter
of subtle primitive
of the contemplation of the individual souls in the
ail,Satomail, Beliar,and Mastema, the devil is
movers."
In its original representedas chief of the rebel angels (alsocalled
capacity of "unmoved
contains the three gunas, or qualities, Satans) who "rejectedthe Lord of light,"and were
state prakriti
thus cast down
from heaven
in a balanced
heaviness and movement
of lightness,
(// Enoch 18:3; 29:
4 f.),king of the realm
of evil (Wisdom
the balance
is disturbed
state. When
by the
2:24),
seducer of Eve, and author of death and all other
influence of the souls a cycle of world evolution
ills. The
N.T. follows the same
general outlines.
begins and the phenomenal world is the result.
The
is as material as his
Satan, or Beelzebub,is the personalhead of a kingpsychical part of man
dom
nation
opposed to the kingdom of God (Matt. 12 : 26),
body and acquiresconsciousness only by the illumiof the soul. By this attachment
all the
"prince of this world" (John 14:30), archtempter
sufferingand joy of the individual are appropriated of mankind, and primal cause of sickness (especially
demoniacal
possession)and death (Luke 13:16;
by the soul which is deluded into the false idea
John 8: 44, etc.). The conception,however,is free
that it is part of the phenomenal universe.
Thus
from
dualism.
from Ufe to Ufe
the psychical
moves
Though opposed to God, Satan
part of man
is under Him, and even
the wheel of existence until at last the soul
subserves His purpose
of
on
realizes that it is and always has been entirely salvation (I Cor. 5:5; II Cor. 12:7). His power
the material
this
is equally limited in time.
world.
detached from
Christ has come
When
to
In principle
destroy Satan and all his works.
knowledge possesses the soul salvation is achieved.
inner psychical nature
this destruction is already accomplished (Luke
At death, the body and
and the released soul attains emancipation
disintegrate
10:18; John 12:31), though it wUl not be complete
in an
eternal state of uncontillthe Last Judgment (Rom. 16:20; I Cor.
from matter
sciousness
like deep sleep. The roots of the system
15:24 ff.).
literature but the classical
Christian
to Vedic
reach back
theologians elaborated the theory
is in the Sdnkhya-kdrikd of the 4th.
that Satan is an apostate angel. This conception
statement
A. Eustace
Haydon
is best known
through Milton's Paradise Lost.
century a.d.
Alex. R, Gordon
A specialdevelopment of
SANKHYA-YOGA."
SATI." See Suttee.
tion.
the Sankhya (q.v.)into a theistic method
of salvaSATISFACTION."
but a
As
The
philosophicsystem is the same
a
rehgious term, the
Supreme Soul or Is vara is added to the two eternal
meeting of certain requirementswhich, if unfulfilled,
He is not a creator nor
ultimates of the Sankhya.
prevent forgivenessof sinners by God.
with the evolving world but
connected
The term differs from propitiation
in any way
(q.v.)mainly
eternal perfection
stands apart in complete,
beyond in that the inhibition to divine favor lies in God's
"

.399

inabilityto forgivebecause
conditions

on

which

DICTIONARY
of man's

OF

RELIGION

failureto meet
believed to

was
forgiveness

depend. The exposition of these conditions has

varied according to the current limitationsset upon a
was
ruler's rightto pardon wrongdoers. The term
but did not become
a center
firstused by Tertullian,
of theologicalthought until Anselia's treatise Cur
is represented
In that treatise God
feudal analogies
unable to forgive
as
rendered
by
sinners until satisfaction has been
humanity to His infinite dignityor honor, injured
made
Christ as God-Man
by man's disobedience.
this satisfaction by enduring sufferingto which
not
of his sinlessness he was
because
obligated.
both
because he was
Thus
satisfactionwas possible
faction
As man
he could render the satisand God.
man
humanity alone could render, and as God
he could render a satisfactionrequiredby the injury
to an infinite honor.
Obviously, such a removal of
hindrance to God's expression of his forgiving
a
love is a transcendentalizingof feudal custom.
Anselm
never
pretends that it is biblical or derived
from the Bible.
Nor is there any evidence that it
Deus

Homo.

according

to

DE
and

AND

ETHICS

Savior

PIERRE
DANIEL
SAUSSAYE,
LA
(1848-1918)." Professor

CHANTEPIE

Amsterdam
at
in the historicalLeyden; one of the pioneers
psychologicalinterpretationof rehgion. His sympathetic
values of religious
insightinto the spiritual
vital and
toward
experience contributed
more
a
of the phenomena of religion.
accurate
representation
He was
the author of a widely influential textbook
the history
of religion.
on

One who makes

SAVIOR.
ment
possiblethe attainof the completely blessed life. Since the ideal
of the blessed lifevaries in different religions
and in
the same
religionat various periods the function
of any particularsavior may
ently
be interpreteddifferIt is more
at different times.
convenient
therefore,to view the various types of savior rather
than to present the changing interpretation
of the
religions.In
great personalitiesof the world
religionswhich have the idea of a Supreme God
either transcending or behind the phenomenal world
of human
to have
experience it becomes necessary
mediator between
the transcendent
realm and
some
This furnishes one
held by biblical writers. Sacrificialanalogies man.
was
type.
1. The savior as revealer. His savingrevelation
with which Pauline thought abounds are not those
take the form of an unfolding of the means
of satisfaction.
may
When
monarchies began to arise in Europe,
by which erringhumanity may conform to the will
jects
of God as in the earlyJewish prophets and in Islam;
the relations existingbetween
royalty and its subof a knowledge
be the awakening in man
became
the dominating concept in exposition or it may
had
of the
experienced. of his status as in Neoplatonism,the Vedanta of
forgiveness Christians
According to the preval"nt legalideas the sovereign India,the higher Taoism of China and in the system
lowed of Clement
of Alexandria.
Here man
that punishment folunder obligationto see
already is in
was
and needs only to be
Pardon
violations of his law.
was
impossible possession of the treasure
awakened
of his status in
to
the consciousness
other terms.
on
Justice,that is,the necessityto
relation to God or Reality.
were
punish,must be satisfied. These principles
be
2. The savior as practicalteacher. In reUgions
His punitive justice must
extended
to God.
which have no
satisfied as a preconditionto his remitting punishment
supernatural reality beyond the
and
natural order, such as classical Confucianism
This satisfaction was rendered by
to anyone.
of
Buddhism
the savior becomes
Jesus Christ,who bore the punishment due sinners
a teacher
original
the way
of practicalliving. His task is to show
God
elected to save).
(or at least of those whom
the method
of adjustingthe individual to the cosmic
Here satisfaction is not primarilyto honor, although
law
deals largely
Tao or Dharma.
His message
the Anselmic
view is maintained, but to punitive
with
of personal
social ethics and
the method
justice(Luther, Calvin). Even in the rectoral or
(Grotius) development. This type shades insensiblyinto
governmentaltheories of the atonement
the next.
the idea of satisfaction to God's
sovereignty as
3. The
savior as
guide. One
exemplar and
involving an obligationto maintain law, is to be
found.
But
great service of the teacher of the way of salvation is
again the thought is imported into
of
in his having given an example of the achievement
the few
port.
Scripturalpassages quoted in its supthe ideal. So in some
forms of Buddhism, SakyaThe moral worth of these theories is apparent.
muni, the historic Buddha, is revered as the actual
embodiment
of the dharma
in human
of settingforth the fact that
life;so the
They are the means
God
in forgivenessis not indifferent to morality. twenty-four Masters of the Jains and ISvara of the
find in contemporary
What
Sankhya-yoga, while they do not help |men directly,
morality is, men
to
social practices. Hindrances
serve
as
pardon in the
inspiringexamples of the goal actually
attained.
Jesus is interpretedin this way
of God
by some
temporary
are
naturally suggested by concase
court
Probably this is also one of the
practices. At basis analogical, Christian groups.
ceremonies of the Mystery
vital and indispensable functions of the initiatory
such explanations easily became
ment
is given of the achievecults in that a demonstration
to a theologywhich
was
a transcendentalof the ideal,
ized politics.They did not give rise to the faith
though the saviors of the mysteries
tions
in God's forgiveness. They helped rid it of objecbelong also to the next class.
In ages and
tenable.
The fact
and made
it intellectually
4. The savior as vicarious rescuer.
to effect
tionally religions
the doctrine funcof human
which despair
powers
was
permanently evangelical;
from the evils of life the savior brings
an
helpful as long as its premiseswere
gested
sugescape
religious his superiorstatus and power to the service of inen.
by social practice. As modern
This took three important forms in Christianity:
conceptions of God's relation with His world grow
social ideals and rnore
akin to modern
nearly
more
(1) in the incarnation as the communication of the
faction, divine essence
to the human,
(2) in the death of
approach the teaching of Jesus, the doctrine of satisChrist as the purchase price paidto Satan, (3) in
though still retained in the 16th. -century
the death of Christ as the satisfaction of the honor
confessions held by various churches, has grown
of God
anachronistic and
so
(Anselm) or of the justiceof God (Calvin).
religiouslyinelTective. See
tion
also there is a communicaMathews
Shailek
In the mystery religions
Atonement.
initiate. The^ great secof powers
tarian
to the
of India representthe incarnations
of a
classical mythology, one
In
SATYR.
religions
form as being due to the
of the Supreme in human
of beings,half-human, half-beast portrayed as
race
helplessnessof a degenerate age which could only
inhabiting woodlands, associates of Dionysos and
be saved by the condescendinggrace of the Supreme
in drunken
strained
revelry and unrePan, and delightin"God.
So also the function of the bodhisatlvas in
desire.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Sa^Htri

OP

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

is to transfer their merit and

Mahay ana Buddhism
In
powers to the strugglingsouls in all the worlds.
Amita
Buddhism
the Amitabha
of China and
or
Japan is the great example of a savior who refused
blessedness until he had made
the supreme
possible
the salvation of all who
call upon
and
his name
trust his redeeming grace.
A word should be added concerning the expectation
of a savior to come
who will destroy evil and
establish the world-era
of blessedness and peace.
Such hopes may
be illustrated by the expectation
circles of
of the Messiah
in the more
conservative
Christian
Judaism, of the return of Jesus in some
in the Shi'ite sects of Islam,
groups, of the Mahdi
of the coming avatar of the Supreme as Kalki in
and of
Hinduism, of Maitreya, the future Buddha
pletes
Saoshyant, born of the seed of Zoroaster,who comthe world program
for Zoroastrianism.
Haydon
A. Eustace
SAVITRI.
One of the forms of the sun-god in
Vedic religion.
"

shoulders

his fearless
in Florence
for many
But
years.
denunciation
of pohtical and papal corruption so
aroused the hatred of those high in authority that
in 1498 he, with two of his disciples,
Fra Domenico
and Fra Silvestro,
condemned
and burned on
was
definition
the charge of heresy and schism.
No
of fact he
of his heresy was
given. As a matter
did not depart in theology from
orthodoxy, but
such that he encountered
the
his ethical zeal was
oppositionof the corrupt and worldlypapal court.
mation.
He is often counted as a forerunner of the Refor-

SCALA

SANTA."
A stairway of 28 steps in
St. John Lateran, Rome, purporting
Pilate at
to be the steps in the palace of Pontius
descended
Jerusalem
which
Jesus ascended
and
during his trial. Pilgrimsto Rome
usuallyascend
at each
the stairs on their knees,utteringa prayer
step. Specialindulgencesare granted for this.
a

ETHICS

by
as

the
a

members

SCEPTICISM."

R.C.

some

fraternities
con-

term, derived

from

Greek

meaning to look at carefully,

indicatingan
unwillingnessto accept a propositionas true unless
cogent evidence is produced.
Since rehgion involves faith,the sceptic,who
is on
his guard against credulity,is ordinarily
considered
foe to rehgious interests; and evil
a
motives
are
true that a

often

attributed

to

While

him.

it is

thoroughlyscepticalattitude prevents

frona a sympathetic appreciationof ideals,the

one
sceptic is usually conscious only of a desire to
seek the truth uninfluenced by conventional
demand
for assent.
The searchingquestioningsof Socrates
felt to be irreligious
were
by men of his day, although
historyhas rendered a positiveverdict as to the
value of his

inquiries.In

modem

times the critical

in traditional
questioningof certain tenets fundamental
theology such as the authority of the
"

Church

the

or

of the
infalhbility

Bible

"

is often

such
regarded as scepticism. But when
questioning leads on to positive affirmations,it
should
be
than
criticism rather
regarded as
scepticism.
Thorough-going scepticism is rarely found;

for its leads to such

non-committal
attitude as
a
make
action virtuallyimpossible. Pyrrhonism
(q.v.)is a philosophical
curiosity. The grounds for
convictions are so complicated and so varied,
our
that it is impossibleto give a completely rational
vindication
of our
fundamental
beliefs. They
rest on
practicaland instinctive interests to so
in the face
large an extent that they persisteven
of critical questioning. Scepticism
is thus an artificially
developed attitude. While it is of great
service
in stimulatingcritical examination
of
problems, it can never
serve
as
a primary ideal in
life. See Doubt;
Faith; Certainty.
to

Gerald

SCHAFF,

Birney

Smith

PHILIP

torian
his(1819-1893)." Church
and theologian,of Swiss birth, whose
Ufe
work
in America, first at Mercersburg,Pa.,
was
and then at Union
TheologicalSeminary in New
York.
His History of the Christian Church is his
best known

"

of

badge of the order.

chapel near

SCANDAL.
In biblicallanguage,
a stumblingblock or cause
of offence to others.
In modern
of character due to the maUcious
usage, defamation
idle spreading of evil reports.
or

400

word

CathoUc
GIROLAMO
(1452-1498)."
SAVONAROLA,
of
Italian monk, preacher, and
man
a
martyr;
His purity of Ufe
splendidgiftsas a pulpitorator.
and remarkable
preaching gave him great influence

AND

work.

He

was

follower of Neander

combiningcriticalscholarshipwith evangelical
piety.
SCHELLING,
JOSEPH

FRIEDRICH

WILHELM

(1775-1854)."German
philosopher,
at first an
ideahsm; later
exponent of Fichtean
the leading exponent of Romanticism
(q.v.). He
interpretednature as a spiritual
realityakin to the
VON

SCAPEGOAT."
At
an
early stage of the
development of reUgious ideas uncleanness,e\ il or
sin is often thought of as a dangerous contagion
be removed
adhering to a person which may
by
transferringit to an animal or material object
which
is then excluded
from
the community
or
from the late Hebrew
destroyed. The term comes
practiceof placing the sins of the people upon a

inner life of man.

Thus
the outer world and the
inner realm of experience are different aspects of
one
reahty. SchelUng is an important factor in the
idealistic philosophy.
development of German

goat which

rehgious body

-The withdrawal
of a party from a
church so as to form a different
the demon
In the N.T. schism was
used of
a
year the impurities sect or church.
dissention in the church
of the Japanese people were
thus removed
(cf.I Cor. 11:18). The
by ritual
conducted
early church distinguished"schism," as a division
by the Emperor and carried on a horse
in organizationgrowing out of differences of opinion
in the sea.
to be washed
See O'Hakahi.
away
Animals were
used in China and in Babylonia. The
regarding authority or disciphne, from "heresy"
Greeks
and
Romans
transferred the commimity
or
departures from the accepted doctrines of the
Cathohc
victim who was
church.
Roman
law names
the
killed or thrown
canon
guiltto a human
and "heretical
from a height into the sea.
distinction as "pure schism"
Among some
peoples, same
schism."
the transfer is made
The separationof the Greek and Roman
to a
e.g., the Pacific Islanders,
the" Great Schism," culminating
into running water.
churches is known
as
plant which is then thrown
be depositedon the victim either by
Other schisms have been due to
The evil may
in 1054.
rival partieselectingtheir partisanpopes, the most
contact or by magic ritual.
noteworthy being the long schism of 1378-1429 or
A working garb of certain monasSCAPULAR."
VI. and
"Great Schism of the West"
Urban
when
tic
resided at Rome,
and
his rival
his successors
orders,consistingof a hood and a cloak. Symbolically,
Clement
VII. and his successors
at Avignon.
the
narrow
over
strips of cloth worn
then driven
Azazel.
Twice

was

into the wilderness

to

SCHISM.

"

or

401

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

DANIEL
FRIEDERICH
SCHLEIERMACHER,
(1768-1834)."Preacher, theologian and
he studied
by parentaltraining,
patriot, Moravian
at Barby for the ministry,but becoming sceptical
of the truth of Christianitythrough rationalist
himself to the study of historyand
influences,
gave
philosophy at Halle Universityand regainedhis
faith. Professor at Halle, 1804, at University of
Berlin,1806, he became famous as preacher at Old
himself by patriTrinitychurch, and distinguished
otic
His
service during the
Napoleonic wars.
views frequentlybrought him into conflictwith the
but he was
allowed to retain his chair
authorities,
ERNST

to his death.

His greatestachievement lay in the deliverance

of Protestant theology from its traditional scholasticism
and the renewal
of scientific and philosophic
interest in it. He based theology on
the fact of
religionas experience in the form of emotion,
versal
namely, the feehng of absolute dependence, uniand
in men.
He
fundamental
sought to
the historic faith in which
interpretChristianity
as
this feehng is reflected in men
from Christ himself.
The
historic creeds were
to be reinterpretedin
of the present higher Christian experience
terms
Modern
logians
theoand
knowledge of the imiverse.
but
have followed his method
increasingly
generallyrejecthis conception of religion.
Der
works
His most
are:
important theological
christliche Glaube; Reden
liber Religion;and Kurze
Studiums.
Darstellungdes theologischen
ARTICLES."
SCHMALKALD
Articles of faith
and
other
drawn
by Luther, Melanchthon
up
See
in 1537.
German
reformers
at Schmalkald
LUTHERANISM.
SCHMALKALD
Protestant
their interests
The
league was

man
A league of GerLEAGUE."
princes formed in 1531 to defend
against the CathoUc
potentates.
dissolved in 1547.

SCHOLASTICISM."

The

name

intellectualsystem of the Middle

given to the
Ages.

Its period extends in general from the 9th. to

scientific and humanistic
the 15th. century, when
interests asserted themselves
with increasingpower,
and
lost its vogue.
The
scholasticism
point of
an
unquestioning
departure of scholasticism was
acceptance of the dogmas of reUgionas interpreted
Authority played the grand role
by the church.
felt a keen
in all spheresof life. But the schoolmen
interest in speculation,and sought to rationalize
theology. Hence an increasingeffort to define the
relations of faith and reason.
In the firstperiod,
extendingto the 13th. century,
lish
there was
could estabhigh confidence that reason
and
all the dogmas.
vindicate
Faith
and
different paths to the same
were
reason
goal. But
in the 13th. century, the classical age of scholasticism,
Albertus
Aquinas recognized
Magnus and Thomas
is held
While
the limits of reason.
Christianity
to contain nothing contrary to reason, it is admitted
This
much
that transcends
to contain
reason.
truth is expressed by a new
distinction,that
revealed
natural
and
between
rehgion. Natural
reUgion, like any natural science,is dependent
revealed religionhas faith
upon
reason, whereas
This view finds its literaryexpresits organ.
as
sion
ing
in Dante.
As time passed,however, increasintellectual difliculties were
felt. Duns
Scotus
and William of Occam
develop the doctrine of the
two-fold
truth, according to which a proposition
be true for reUgion and false for philosophy.
may
Religionis thus given over to authorityand practical
and theoretical
needs, science and philosophy to reason
interests. This solution offered a working.

AND

ETHICS

Science

and

Theology

if

and
unsatisfactory,compromise.
temporary
Mysticism had wrought against rationalism,as it
vidual
assignedreligionto the sphere of feelingand indicism
experience. Another problem of scholastithat

of universals and particulars.

See
Nominalism.
Everett
Walter
Goodnow
SCHOLIUM.
In commentaries, an annotation
when
made
in
or expositorystatement, especially
the margin of the text.
was

Realism

and

"

ARTHUR
SCHOPENHAUER,
(1788-1860)."
German
idealistic philosopher. In revolt against
preted
the unbounded
optimism of HegeUanism, he interthe process of cosmic evolution as an endless
He
enced
influirrational struggle of sheer Will,
was
and
Buddhistic
thought,
by Brahmanistic
and his only hope of deliverance from the irrational
through suppressionof will.
power of the world was
EMIL
SCHURER,
(1844 1910 )."German
theologian,professorat Leipzig and at
for his great History of the
Gottingen, renowned
Jewish people in the time of Jesus Christ.
-

Protestant

A Protestant conSCHWABACH
ARTICLES,"
fession
articles drawn
of seventeen
up in 1528 by
Melanchthon
and
Luther
in conjunction with
essential to
Jonas, emphasizing uniformity as
strength,and consubstantiation as opposed
political
to ZwingU's doctrine of the Lord's Supper.
FRIEDRICH
CHRISTIAN
SCHWARTZ,
(1726-1798). German
missionary to India under
the Danish
Missionary Society,and the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge ; one of the pioneers
"

of

and
Christianity

of Western

Civilization in India.

ALEXANDER
(1808-1888),"
SCHWEITZER,
Influential Swiss pastor and professorat Zurich,
He was
follower of Schleiermacher
(q.v.)
a devoted
ology
theand brought to the elaboration of Reformed
Schleiermacher
had
the
principleswhich
set forth.
of the most imposing
His system is one
of the 19th. century in its confident
achievements
with
of speculative philosophy combined
a
use
profound appreciation of the close relationship
between
needs of the
theology and the practical
church.
KASPER
(1490-1561),"
SCHWENCKFELD,
theologian and mystic. He assisted in
ideals,but developed
spreading the Reformation
with God
communion
an
emphasis on immediate
ence
insistwhich led to a depreciationof the Lutheran
the authorityof Scriptureand the necessity
on
of the sacraments.
He was
estranged
consequently
German

from the Lutheran

movement.
continued
to the
to exist down

His followers have

present day.

A German
sect of
SCHWENCKFELDIANS."
followers of Kasper Schwenckfeld
(q.v.). They
associated with the
were
mystics and were closely

disciplesof Jakob
America

where

numbering

Some
Boehme.
einigratedto
vania,
community stillexists in Pennsylover

thousand.

Also

called

"Confessors of the Glory of Christ."

THEOLOGY."
TO
IN RELATION
the past three or four centuries,modem
science
has
developed various features giving
rise to a so-called "conflict of science with theology."
takes
Facts.
I, The Fundamental
Theology underand meaning of the
to set forth the structure
It thus
universe
in relation to religiousends.
inevitablymakes assertions concerningthe physical
and criticizedby
be examined
world.
These may
physicalscience. Christian theology in the course

SCIENCE

During

"

Science

and

Theology

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

AND

ETHICS

402

trained in scientific method

is not satisfied
of those conceptions
of its development made
use
a mind
lished,
with non-scientific reasoning in theology.
of the universe which ancient philosophy had estab4. The
and wove
these into the fabric of religious
reorganizationof rehgious thinking in
accord with modern
scientific principles.This is
interpretationso completely that the denial of
minds.
constructive
their vaUdity suggested doubt as to the authority
by many
being undertaken
of theology. Modern
It involves the empirical and
historical study of
science,in the interests of
and an inductivelyascertained interprehas insisted on
tation
religion,
important revisions of
accuracy,
ancient
of the facts thus discovered. It revises
theory. Christian theologians generally
theories of former ages as freelyas
the theological
endeavored to keep the traditionalsystem intact in
of
While
to
order
faith in religiousauthority. science revises its theories.
the power
conserve
Thus science found theologyresisting
its efforts,
and
dogmatic authorityvanishes,the appeal of religion
be based on
can
theology found science undermining its system.
rational,moral, and
indisputable
"Conflict."
II. The
Main
Stages
social demands.
op
the
of finding
1. The Copemican cosmology completely altered
Science and religion
two
are
ways
the existing
enrichment
in
of life. Science discloses the ways
theological
pictureof the universe. The
earth was
declared to be a relativelyinsignificantwhich
things behave, and enables us to control
instead of being the fixed center of the
Religion interpretsthe fact
satellite,
processes of nature.
universe.
The biblical cosmology, then, could not
of spiritualkinshipbetween
the
and
vast
man
be taken literally,
and the authorityof the Bible was
surrounds
him.
Modern
theology
reality which
will discover and interpretthe possibilities
of worchallenged.
ship
2. Kepler'slaws,and Newton's
in the world as explainedby modern
science.
discoveryof the
Smith
Gerald
Birnet
imiversalityof the force of gravitationsubstituted
ton's
SCIENCE
OF
RELIGION."
A comparatively
a mechanistic for a theological
explanation. Newto
modern
theologians
theory was declared by some
department of study devoted to the religious
"dethrone
Providence."
with a view to discovering
phenomena of mankind
3. Geologicalscience during the 19th. century
the historical development of religions,
the psychological
of the earth's history
account
and ideas
originand nature of their customs
gave an evolutionary
and the placeof religion
in cosmic evolution.
These
strikinglydifferent from the creation story in
the
Genesis.
In the placeof six creative days came
three phases are
usually separated as History of
picture of an age-long cosmic evolution of the
Religions,
Psychologyof Religion,and Philosophy
indefinite continuation
of the geoearth with an
logical of Religion; or
as
Hierography,Hierology, and
into the future.
Hierosophy.
processes
4. The science
The development of the science has been slow
of zoologyrevealed a compUcated,
of fife,in which
Some
to method.
age-long evolution
species are
owing to a lack of consensus
as
less unstable so that new
forms of life conof the presuppositionswhich
tinually
more
or
dents
hampered early stuThe account
of plant and animal
be mentioned, for example, the assumpappear.
may
tion
creation in Genesis is thus discredited.
that Christianity
is the true
religionand
5. The
others false or defective,
which was
evolutionaryhypothesis brought man
again based on
and
thus
within
the range
evolution
of animal
the idea that reh'gionis a matter
of beUef or of
with the
truth revealed from God to man;
explained his originin a way conflicting
or the assumption
biblical account.
that reUgionsdevelop in a uniform way
that it is
so
6. The doctrine of the uniformityof nature, which
the starting-point
of
to fix upon
only necessary
is presupposed in modern
credit reUgion and
the various phases of
then arrange
science,tends to disthe conception of miracle as an interference
religioushistory according to the prearranged
with the laws of nature.
of religion
be sharply
plan; or that the essence
may
Conflict.
III. Proposed
Solutions
defined and then the history of a religionwritten
of
the
These
about
the definition. At least a dozen
generallyfall into one of the followingfour
startingtypicalclasses:
points of reUgion have been defended; elements of
of
logical
theoaffirmation
1. An
similar
in separate reUgions
uncompromising
religionapparently
have been discovered on investigation
authority,coupled with a denunciation of
to be really
"science falselyso-called."
the position different;broad generalizationshave
This was
repeatedly
taken by both Catholic and Protestant theologians proven
insecure; true and false have been seen to
for a long time.
It is stillmaintained
in principle, be relative terms
with the result that modern
students of religious
the
though with inteUigentconcessions to science,by
history tend to abandon
is vigorously advocated
in general and to undertake
by
quest for a religion
Catholicism,and
Protestant
retain the
wish
to
the much
arduous
task of discovering
the
theologians who
more
doctrine of verbal or plenary inspirationof the
historic development of each separate religion
a
as
Bible.
natural and
operation unique thing in the lightof its whole
It, of course, makes
impossible any cobetween
science.
cultural setting.Starting with the assumption
religionand modern
2. The
so-called "harmonization"
of science
is a function of the changing,growing
that religion
with the Bible.
lifeof a human
BeUeving that God's revelation
history
group, the problem of religious
is to see how
must
correspond with demonstrated
fact, certain
they developed their instruments of
of
and
institutions to control the
theologianshave sought a "true" interpretation
ideas, customs
and themselves in the interest of the
environment
Scripture which shall correspond to estabhshed
doctrine.
The
underlyingthis
good life.
purpose
scientific^
The psychologyof religion
undertakes the task
attempt is to reconcile science and religion;but the
of explaining the origin of religiousideas and
effort to read modern
ideas into ancient hterature is
of religiousbehavior
to serious objection.
and of
historically
customs, the nature
open
of developing,changing and
3. The renunciation by theology of any attempt
determining methods
but the retention of
to dictate scientific positions,
recreatingindividual and social minds in the light
doctrine
in the purely
the idea of authoritative
of the ideal of life.
The philosophyof religion
This position forfeits all claims
religiousrealm.
attempts to orient the
in the universe but more
life of man
science in return for immunity from scientific
on
particularly
in the evolvingworld and, making use of the findings
criticism. It is a
precarious security which is
to projectideals for the achievement
gained; for if science be excluded from religious of the sciences,
bear the
of an
form of mysticism must
ever
more
perfect social organization of
thinking,some
conclusions.
Moreover
A. Eustace
entire weight of theological
Hatdon
humanity.
_

"

"

"

403

OP

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

of twelve
A company
MARTYRS."
SCILLITAN
Christians who suffered martyrdom in North Africa
under Marcus
Aurelius,180, and whose "Acts" is
the earUest specimenof Christian Latin.
A conOF FAITH."
CONFESSION
fession
of faith drawn up by order of and adopted by
and
the Scottish parUament in 1560 by John Knox
In 1568 it was
five collaborators.
readopted after
Queen Mary's abdication. It is Calvinistic,and
Confession,
was
supersededby the Westminster
Faith.
op
See Confessions
1648.

SCOTCH

DUNS."

SCOTUS,

See

Duns

Scottjs.

The name
and work of
SCRIBE, SCRIBISM."
certain Jewish religious
functionary.
The unique place given to the Scripturesamong
the Jews led to the rise of a class called Scribes,
of
task was
the interpretation
whose
professional
this body of sacred literature. Ezra is commonly
regarded as the first representativeof the scribal
movement, which by the 1st. century a.d. had
become
ently
Appara characteristicfeature of Judaism.
by this date the scribe was commonly given
the respectfultitle of Rabbi
(q.v.). The primary
He
to interpretthe Law.
duty or the scribe was
explained its meaning with reference to judicial
teacher who
also the professional
matters, he was
and he expounded
instruction in the schoolsj
gave
the practicaland
hortatory implicationsof the
Scripturesin general. Gradually successive generations
of scribes produced a large body of oral
teachingwhich ultimately attained a positionof
authoritysecond only to that of the sacred books.
these "traditions of the fathers" which Paul
It was
had studied zealouslyprior to his conversion
to
tain
(Gal. 1 : 14) and which occasioned cerChristiam'ty
conflicts between
Jesus and his contemporaries
as
reported in the gospels. Subsequently this
oral tradition was given written form in the Mishnah
(q.v.) which, supplemented in later times by
extensive comments, constitutes the oldest element
in the Talmud
(q.v.). See Judaism.
S. J. Case
SCRIPTORIUM.
The room
in a monastery set
apart for writing or copying manuscripts.
a

"

SCRIPTURE."
of any
The
sacred books
Zoroastrianism.
such as of Hinduism
or
Christian Bible (q.v.)
is frequentlyreferred to
mon,

Scripture, Scriptures, or
Sacred

Holy

as

reliThe
the

Scriptures. See

Literatures.

Reluctance
or
misgiving, arising
religiousmotives, concerning one's
of action.
obligationrespectinga proposed course
SCRUPLE.
from ethical

"

or

SCRUTINY.-^In

the R.C. church

the method

of

electinga pope in distinction from acclamation

and
accession,by a careful investigationof all
ballots,the voting having been done secretly,one
thirds being requisitefor a
than two
vote
more
successful candidate.

AND

ETHICS

Bible Society,afterwards

MilitaryBible

'A device
surface, used

engraved or stamped on a
metaUic
in making an
impression
ment,
a plasticmaterial,such
as
wax
a docuupon
upon
The
to give assurance
of its authenticity.
of such seals is very widespread, and includes
use
"

the seals of monastic

orders
and
ecclesiastical
offices and institutions. By analogy,
the sacrament
the means
of imprinting
indelible mark
as
on
an
the soul or as an attestation of the grace of Gfod,is
called a seal.

SEAMEN,

MISSIONS

TO."

organizationfor the benefitof

The
seamen

first gious
relithe
was

Naval
and
in London,

called the

Society, organized

1780.
From
that
time
in
organizations
multipUed to provide sailors with copies
Scriptures,with church services,readingrests and
homes in ports and other conrooms,
vem'ences.
These
societies are
chiefly British,
and American, the following
Scandinavian,German
being the principalones: the British and Foreign
Bible Societydatingfrom the Port of London
Society
1818, and the Bethel Union
Society, 1819, the
Missions to Seamen, the Royal National Mission to
Seamen's
Deep Sea Fishermen, the American
Friend Society dating from 1828 and the German
Mission.
EvangelicalSeamen's

Eng.,

have
of the

SAINT."
A
Christian
SEBASTIAN,
young
soldier of Milan
suffered martyrdom
who
in the
reign of Diocletian; a popular subject in sacred
art because
of his youth and beauty. His festival
is celebrated on January 20.

SECOND

ADVENT."

SECRET

SOCIETIES
describe

See

Millenarianism.

(PRIMITIVE)." A general
sacred
corporations,
and
esoteric orders,
magico-religiousfraternities,
and barbarous
"mysteries,"of savage
or
peoples.
Almost
has
its
primitive community
every
children,
secrets, carefullyguarded from women,
and
The
exclusion
strangers,or non-tribesmen.
of these classes of persons
rests, fundamentally,
widespread beliefs as to their dangerous
upon
influence. See
Taboo.
the Australians
Among
term

to

the

the secret association includes all the adult males

of the community, and initiation into it is compulsory
for every boy upon
the arrival of puberty.
See Initiation.
The true secret society,however,
is a voluntary body and in its most
developed form
quite ignore differences of sex, age, and tribal
may
grouping. Ultimately,it becomes, on the rehgious
hood
side, a church, if by a church is meant
any brotherwhose members
unite voluntarilyfor worship.
1. Organization.
1. Membership. Limitation
of membership forms an essential feature of the
developed secret society,but in this respect wide
diversities of custom
exist. In Melanesia there are
societies which
include the majority of the adult
of a community
males
and
others restricted to
chiefs and
the aristocracy. Women
belong to
North
societies in Polynesia, Africa, and
some
America, but their admission is probably a late
development. Africa,again, affords instances of
societies whose
members
or
exclusivelywomen
are
slaves.
As a rule a secret
society enrolls only
though some
large and powerfellow-tribesmen,
ful
associations
ramify through several tribes.
Membership in a societyis often open and pubhc;
in other cases
it is carefullyconcealed, with the
whether
result that no one
not his neighknows
or
bor
sometimes
is an initiate. A man
belong
may
to several societies,
especiallywhere they have
different objects and functions.
2. Degrees. A
primitive secret society is
usually divided into grades or degrees, through
initiates ascend.
which
The
general tendency
of degrees and to
will be to increase the number
make
the passage
through them constantly more
difficult and expensive. The entire cost of taking
all the degrees of Egbo, an important West African
five
to over
order,has been estimated to amount
few who
fortimate
thousand
dollars. The
have
the wealth and social influence necessary to reach
to form
inner
the higher degrees thus come
an
circle and control the organizationin their own
Melanesian
interests. The
Dukduk, for example,
is managed by the chief and the leading members
"

"

SEAL.

Secret Societies

"

Secret

Societies

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

404

of the tribe. The

upon

is

that the members

in constant
tion
associaoutsiders,
are
with evil spirits
and the ghosts of the dead.
3. Magico-religious.-Ceremonies
of a magicoof the
religiouscharacter are performed by many
America.
The
societies,especially in North
masked and costumed members
impersonate animal
or
and
supernatural characters
present songs,
dances, and tableaux vivants,forming an elaborate
dramatization of the native legends. They conduct
various rites connected
with the ripening of
the crops, the production of rain,and the multiplication

origin of secret-society
degrees
cases
obscure, but in many
they appear to be
an
outgrowth of the "age-classes,"
i.e.,groupings
of men
of approximately the same
are
age, which
of
the
found in many
parts
aboriginalworld.
The
A
3.
secret societyamong
lodge.
primitive
have its lodge,where the members
must
resort
races
"

for social intercourse and

the

performanceof

their

It is usually estabUshed
mysterious ceremonies.
in some
secluded place convenient to the settlement.
not
Women,
children, and uninitiated men
may
to
approach it on pain of death. The lodgeseems
be often a development of the "men's
house," a
sort of club, pubhc hall,,council
chamber, and
of a primitivecomsleeping resort for the men
munity.

the

belief,assiduouslycultivated

among

"

of animals
The preparation
used for food.
of charms and spells,the discovery
of witchcraft,
and the cure
of diseases are also included among
their functions.
In some
these orders praccases
tically
4. Paraphernalia. ^The proceedingsof allsecret
monopolize the tribal magic and religion.
III. Origin.
societies are carried out with much
guising,
disThe
various activities of primitive
mummery,
and
secret societies,
and the use of various devices to awe
as dramatic, magico-reUgious,
and initiatorycorporations,
bear a marked
blance
resemterrifyoutsiders. But the paraphernaha of the
to those of totemic clans.
See Totemism.
mysteries,however baselyemployed, are everywhere
This fact suggests a geneticrelationshipbetween
connected
with magico-rehgious ideas.
Thus, the
the two
bull-roarer (q.v.),which
institutions.
There
is a
considerable
is so generallyused to
of evidence, chieflyfrom
Melanesia
and
amount
frighten the uninitiated or to give warning that
North America, which indicates that the amalgamarites are
secret
tion
being performed, holds a very
of a number
of clans into a tribe results in the
important place in savage
religion. The muffled
formation of one
which it produces when rapidlyswung
is somesecret
whose
roar
more
or
times
societies,
the rituals of the
performances are
regarded as the voice of the tribal god. The
essentially
instrument
It does not necessarily
is also supposed to possess
magical
commingled totemic groups.
foUow that the rise of a secret societyalways breaks
and to be potent in rain-making ceremonies.
efficacy
Masks
of secret societies, up the earlier totemic
are
grouping. The clans may
worn
by members
not only as disguises,
but also as means
of impersonstillsurvive as social divisions,though no longer
ating
is
in possession of their distinctive ceremonies.
totemic
deities. The
of a mask
As
wearer
to flourish
supposed to lose his own
a rule,however, secret societies seem
personaUty and to be
where
the clan system is decadent
has
most
it represents. Both
or
possessedby the being whom
bull-roarers and masks often retain a sacred signifientirely disappeared. This fact is not without
cance
long after the disappearance of the secret
importance in the general history of rehgion.
rites in which they figured. The exhibition to the
It means
from
the narrow
movement
a
away
novices of these and other sacra
Umits of the clan, membership in which
forms the central
depends
and most
on
impressive feature of the initiation rites.
birth, in the direction of a more
voluntary
II. Functions.
from all parts of
1. Initiatory. Where
organizationenrolHng its members
cally
practiall the adult males of the community form a
the
It
community.
has, indeed, a germinal
secret association,
of its most
ecclesiastical
one
significance.
important duties
is that of initiating
IV. Decline
Survival.
Secret societies
the tribal youth into manhood.
and
The neophytes are removed
of the type that has been described are obviously
from
defilingcontact
with women,
subjectedto various ordeals,instructed
adapted only to the conditions of primitive hfe.
in rehgion,morality, and traditional lore,and proand the
missions
At the present time Christian
vided
with a new
ists
a
new
agenciesintroduced by traders and coloncivihzing
language, and new
name,
the most
effective cause
of their downfall.
This initiatory
are
privileges in a word, made men.
be retained
procedure may
by secret societies, They often survive, however, as purely social
clubs.
It is probable that secret societies existed
properly so called,though sometimes
boys who
have not reached the age of puberty are admitted
in prehistoric
times, since the Greek and Mithraic
to them.
which
tained
remysteries were
reUgious brotherhoods
2. Politico-judicial.
in their initiatoryritual such rude features
outside
observation
To
the poUtical and
of bull-roarers and masks, as well as
the use
secret
as
judicialduties of many
societies,particularlyin Melanesia and Africa, ceremonies representingthe death and resurrection
of the neophytes. Even
in remote
now
especiallynoteworthy. The societies punparts of
appear
ish
criminals and act as executioners,
the
as night
Europe, among
serve
peasantry, there are
formances
perwhich
and costumed
actors
police,collect debts,protect private property, and,
by masked
when they extend over
doubtless
not
fortuitous
a wide area, helpto maintain
present a curious and
intertribal amity. The
It
resemblance
to the mystic rites of savagery.
Dukduk
has
Melanesian
been described as "judge,pohceman, and hangman
is interesting,
also,to note how such associations as
all in one."
White
Where
the medieval
it prevails the natives
Vehmgericht and the modern
are
afraid to commit
of the
West
serious offense.
The
Caps have reproduced, unconsciously,some
any
African society,says Miss Kingsley, "as a machine
characteristics of primitive
secret societies.
for the people is splendid: can tackle a tyrannous
Webster
HuTTON
in order,and even
A
SECT.
which has separated from
chief,keep women
regulatepigs
group
of
and chickens,as nothing else has been able to do
inclusive religiousbody because
another
more
be
in West Africa."
The value of these associations, divergence of behef or practice. A sect may
its
of holding heretical doctrine; but
accused
as guardiansof law and order,is now
being more and
On
more
recognized in colonial administration.
independent organization enables it to disown
it.
the other hand, their activityis usually attended
the authority of any other body over
with much
The term is usually employed in a derogatory
oppressionof the uninitiated,
especially
who are compelled to make heavy contribuA
sectarian is supposed to place petty
tions
sense.
women,
of food and are often severelywhipped for real
pecuharitiesabove the great unifyingfundamentals
tant
church views all Protesof rehgion. The Cathohc
or
suspected lapses from the path of rectitude.
The
A similar conception marks
of the secret societies rests largely
bodies as sects.
power
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

405

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

erally
high-church Anglican thinking. Protestants genrefer to the largerbodies as denominations,

Historians refer
the sub-divisions of these as sects.
sects.
to the sub-speciesof the great religionsas
Gerald
Smith
Birney
CLERGY."
SECULAR
The ecclesiastical designation
admitted
who
have
been
into
for men
of a
holy orders but have not taken the vows
monastic order.
SECULARISM."
The principlethat all activities
and institutions should be governed solelyby
is
regard for the goods of this hfe. Secularism
imalterably opposed to ecclesiastical control of
institutions. A prominent tenet of secularism
is
be excluded
from the public
that religionshould
schools and that no state support should be granted
church or church-controlled
institution.
to any
SECULARIZATION."
Appropriation of church
Mediaeval
property by the state for pubUc uses.
kings often confiscated church wealth before the
control.
The
involved
Reformation
won
papacy
of monasteries,as
secularizations,
especially
many
in
England. Catholic countries
expelling the
Jesuits in the 18th. century secularized their wealth.
secularized two-fifths of the convents
Austria
in
in Portugal (1833,
Similar instances occur
1782.
1864, 1910), Spain (1838), Italy (1870), France
(1901, 1904). The whole wealth of the French
Church
declared
national property in 1789,
was
since when
the church
has had only the use
of
buildings. In 1803, to compensate them for loss
of territoryto France, German
sovereignswere
given the lands of the Prince-Bishops of Cologne,
and Trier.
Mainz
F. A. Christie
SEDER.
A Hebrew
for the ceremonial
term
meal and the ritual connected
therewith celebrated
at Passover in the Hebrew
home under the direction
of the head of the family.

AND

ETHICS

SELF-DEND^."

Semi-Arianlsm

The

subordination

of

one's

personal ambitions
or
appetites in the interests
of promoting a largergood, such as the altruistic
motive of seeking the welfare of others,or the religious
motive of seekingthe gloryof God.
Self-denial
is fundamental
in asceticism,
ism,
monasticism,Puritanand forms of social and
missionary service.
Also called self-sacrifice. Modern
psychology recognizes
the existence of several potential "selves"
in any individual'saspirations. Any choice involves
the suppression of a certain "self" so as to give
rightof way to another "self." It is only when a
choice involves the sacrifice of strong emotional
attachments
that one
becomes
conscious of selfdenial.
The
wiUingness to subordinate personal
preferencesto a largergood is a mark of moral
See Self-realization.
earnestness.

SELF-PRESERVATION."
to make

one's hfe

The
secure

sire
instinctive de-

by preventing hostile

forces from inflicting

damage.
The
is usually a
"right of self-preservation"
sufficient justification
for action.
But this instinct
has expressed itself in certain powerful emotions
other considerations. If every
which may
suppress
individual is permittedto indulgethe suggestionsof
fear,hatred, pugnacity, etc., the welfare of all
other individuals is endangered. The
instinct is
therefore regularlysubjectedto social control.
The
individual is led so to identify himself with his
is blended
that his desire for self-preservation
group
hfe.
In this way
in desire to maintain the group
be transmuted
into the ideal of
the instinct may
in which one finds the reahzation
loyaltyto a cause
of his better "self." See Self-realization;Selfdefense.

The

SELF-REALIZATION."

moral

ideal

or

"

SEDUCTION."

Enticement

of

person

from

tions;
right conduct by alluring,but specious,considerato sacrifice
specifically,
enticing a woman
her virtue by allurement or promise of marriage.

SEE, THE

HOLY."

See Holy

See; Pope.

SEEKERS.
'The name
radical rehgious enthusiasts

applied to a group of
in England in the 17th.
century. They sought to attain a purely spiritual
hfe in which
the trammels
of the flesh should be
eliminated.
In this quest they objected to the
accused
imposition of external authority and were
of various
by churchmen
extravagances.
They
believed in non-resistance,
and denied the rightof
the state to coerce
men.
"

SELF-DEFENSE."
In jurisprudence,
the right
one's person, property or reputationfrom
maUcious
illegalattacks, involving violence or
certain
circumstances
law
the
danger. Under
declaresa person innocent who kills another in selfdefense. In politicsthe right claimed by a state
tutions
or
by a group of citizens in a state to defend instiother cherished privileges
from malicious
or
for civil or international
attacks,sometimes
a justification
war.
Ethically, the exercise of seKdefense is a difficult problem for moral judgment;
in some
instances submission
the wiser
seem
may
while in other instances,especiallywhere
course,
social interests are at stake,self-defense is usually
There are various
judged the only ethical course.
Christian bodies which on the basis of Matt. 5: 39 ff.
deny the right of employing violence even in selfdefence. See Non-resistance.
to defend

goalof conduct conceived as development of persondesires are

distinctively
ahty. Impulsions and
human
just so far as they are related to the hfe of
the self as
whole.
The
a
organization of this
personalhfe may reach different degreesof coherence
about different kinds of interest.
and may
center
To that extent one
speak of different "selves"
may
in the same
for example higherand lower
as
person,
and
or
lasting. The
theory under
momentary
definition conceives the moral ideal to be the development
and inteof the most comprehensive,lasting,
grated
self,the "true" self. This ideal reconciles
satisfaction of
self-sacrifice and
self-expression,
feehng and rational control. It is conceived not
for all,
but a dynamic
as a static goal,attainable once
endless unfolding of the potentialself.
process, an
because the true
It is social rather than individual,
self is universal;one
can
develop only in union with
others,ultimately with all others. Therefore the
precept, "Be a person,"requiresno added precept,
"Respect others as persons"; the former involves
in a
the latter. This ethical ideal is propounded
sense
by Hegelian idealism,and in
metaphysical
ethics.
an
empiricalsense by recent psychological
J. F. Crawford
See Self-denial.
SELF-SACRIFICE.
"

reference of ambitions,
The
ests,
of action,etc.,solelyto selfishinterthe altruistic or rehgious
in contrast with
interests,recognized in self-denial (q.v.). Since
regard for selfish interests is apparently the most
motive in human
attempts have been
life,
persistent
this basis.
ethical theories on
made
to construct
of
anti-social consequences
The
See Hedonsim.
selfishness are
so
evident,however, that the term
used to denote an imethical attitude.
is ordinarily
SELFISHNESS.

"

choices,courses

ating
The positionof the mediSEMI-ARIANISM."
controversy of the
party in the Christological

DICTIONARY

Semi-Pelagianism

RELIGION

OF

stance
4th. century, affirmingthat the Son is of like subSee Homoiousios.
to the Father.
SEMI-PELAGIANISM."

to

mediate

between

the

arising
Gaul, attempting
of Augustinian

movement

simultaneously in N. Africa and

extremes

predestinarianism and
Pelagian free will. The
distinctive teaching was
that in regenerationthere
was
co-operation of the divine grace and human
will. This positionwas
disapproved at the councils
of Orange and Valence in 529 because it posited a
of human
measure
abiUty, but the condemning
forbade the teaching of predestinationto
councUs
evil. Semi-Pelagianism has appeared repeatedly
in theology,although not
avowedly under that

See Seminaky-Priest.

SEMINARIST."
SEMINARY-PRIEST."

CathoUc

In the Roman

chuych, usually apphed to a priesteducated

foreignseminary. Also called Seminarist.
RELIGION

SEMITES,

OF

THE."

The

in

reUgion

cians,
of the Babylonians, Assyrians, Hebrews, Phoeni-

Aramaeans, Syrians,Arabs, and all the other

kindred peoplesof S. W. Asia,namely, of Arabia and
the region to the north bordered
by Persia,Asia
Minor
and the Mediterranean.
All these
I. Range.
siderably
peoples differed conand character of
as regardsthe age, extent
their culture.
from
the desert and
They range
nomad
tribes of all ages to civihzed states and
empires of
empires. The culture of the famous
Babylonia and of Assyria can be traced back to
about
the beginning of the 3rd. millennium
B.C.,
that of the Hebrews, Phoenicians
and other petty
states of Palestine and Syria flourished in the 1st.
that of the Arabs fell into
millennium
B.C., and
two
periods,one before the Christian era which is
separated by an age of transition and decay from
the other,the highlydistinctive culture of the Mohammedans,
This
dating from the 7th. century a.d.
is not to mention the cultures of the Old Aramaeans
of north Syria (8th.century b.c), the Nahataeans,
over,
Pahnyrenes, and others of less prominence. Moreof the Semitic peoples have, at one
many
time
or
another, carried their rehgion outside
the Semitic area
and three great positive
proper;
religionsof today are of Semitic origin 'Judaism,
Christianityand Islam.
Consequently,in order
to keep the subject within Kmits, it is customary
to treat under the title of this article the general
features,referringthe reader to details for the separate
articles on the positiverehgions and the reUgions of the peoples mentioned.
II. Main
Periods.
tic
Semi1. Sumero-Semitic.
religionviewed as a whole can be conveniently
divided into three main
periods. Although some
of the early prehistoric
stages can be reconstructed
from the excavations and from the primitivefeatures
of the Semitic rehgions.the firstperiod is characterized
by the highly developed religionof Babylonia
and
Assyria dating from about 3000 B.C.
Here,
as also in Egypt during the 3rd. millennium,rehgions
institutions
thought,ethical ideas and social-political
reached a level which is astonishingly
elevated when
compared with that at which many
primitiveand
tribes stillremain.
The culture,
however, is
savage
the non-Semitic
Sumerians.
to
largely indebted
It was
at its apogee
during the First Babylonian
Semitic dynasty, famous
Dyriasty, a distinctively
for its royallegislator
Hammurapi (about 2000 B.C.).
The rise of Babylon involved the supremacy
of its
local god Marduk
other gods; old h3Tnns and
over
myths were
reshaped,the rehgion received a stamp
which
it continued
to maintain, and
the rehgious
"

"

"

"

AND

ETHICS

406

hterature
assumed
form that became
a
classical.
This Grolden Age and Creative Epoch was
followed
centuries of events of political
by many
significance,
and about 1000 b.c. we reach the age of Assyria and
the small peoples of Syria and Palestine.
2. Palestinian.
heir of
the
^Assyria became
Babylonian culture,and after some
extraordinary
amid
farmilitarysuccesses
suddenly broke down
and internal confusion
reachingethnical movements
throughout W. Asia. The old empires of Assyria
and (aftera short-hved
renascence) of Babylonia
now
disappeared, and
Indo-European influence
of the Persians and,
spread, through the presence
The significance
of this period
later,the Greeks.
hes in the rehgious historyof Palestine.
The Old
Testament
historical
represents (in the modern
of the profoundest of religious
view) the outcome
The old
developments prior to the Christian era.
religionof the Hebrews, very closelyakin to that of
all other Semitic peoples,received a new
impulse,
and a new
and reshaped
spiritualforce animated
the earlier beliefs. Hence
the O.T. as a whole is
closelyrelated to the Semitic rehgions,yet no less
unambiguously testifies to the changes effected
of rehgiousgeniusin
by the prophets and other men
Israel. The
newly reconstituted religionappears
in the 5th. century b.c. as that Judaism, the origin
of which
was
traditionallycarried back to the
remote
beginnings of the people. So,
relatively
while empires and states fell,
Israel stood forth as a
rock, and faithful Jews resisted the increasing
influences of Greek thought. The fusion of Semitic
and
Greek
ideas chieflyaffected the
(Hellenistic)
educated and governing classes;and another age of
more
far-reachingunrest
psychicalthan ethical
vital for Semitic rehgion. Christianityarose
was
and grew up in oppositionto Judaism; but although
each reacted upon
the other, it is noteworthy that
neither can
be said to undergo any continuous and
effective development
Semitic
soil. The
upon
Second
Period closes with the increasingweakness
of these two
the people and the
rehgions among
decay of western
(Byzantine) influence.
The third periodis Arabian
3. Mohammedan.
due to the rise of a new
in
rehgionunder Mohammed
the 7th. century a.d.
It spread with
amazing
far
rapidity throughout the Semitic area, and
has always called for
beyond; and its success
other
seem
explanation. It would
that, among
mental
causes, the simphcity and directness of the fundait more
authoritative
tenets of Islam made
and intelligible
than the relatively
highly developed
and
Christianity. It is an
thought of Judaism
instructive
quered
confact, therefore, that as Islam
and developed its theology and philosophy
indebtedness
of
to the earlier progress
(with some
its defeated rivals),
it soon
began
thought among
to pass
beyond the mental horizon of its simpler
adherents.
of Islam
Consequently, under a veneer
often be seen
ideas strange and contrary
there may
with popular
to it, although in entire harmony
psychology. So, the third periodends at the present
considerable divergence of rehgious
with very
age
the various strata of population; and,
belief among
during the old Hebrew
as frequentlyhappened (e.g.,
monarchies), popular religiontends to encourage
be tolerated by the loftier
features which cannot
and more
organized conceptions and ideals which
characterize
the more
prominent stages in the
lengthy historyof Semitic rehgion.
1. Variety. Judaism
Features.
III. Special
with
and Christianityarose
a soil saturated
upon
of the
traces
ancient
religiousideas; and many
culture
be recognized
Sumero-Semitic
old
can
and early non-canonical
in the Bible, the Talmud
writings. This old culture collapsedwith the fall
by
of Assyriaand Babylonia; it was
swept away
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

407

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of Persian,Greek and Roman

influence,and
livingelements remained when Islam appeared.
Islam, in constrast to the previous non-Semitic
and
new
a
distinctivelySemitic
influences,was
duced
beginning,so to speak. It introimpulse, a new
God
(Allah),and not a new
a new
stage in
It representeda simpler stage
conceptionsof God.
and the generalcultural level was, in cerin religion,
tain
Hence
before.
one
respects, simpler than

AND

V.

Order.

ETHICS

Semites, ReUgion

of the

What
be called an overpowermay
ing
of the "immediacy of the supernatural"
is exempUfied alike in rehgious fervency, fanatical
The Semites
excess, and the vagariesof "magic."
are
relativelyprimitive in contrast to the Greeks
with their conceptions of human
personalityand
order. Order
is embodied
in the head
or despot,
there is a recognitionof Divine stability(Num.
or
the
Semites were
23:19, etc.). But
generally
from order and discipUne,
that there has been some
continuous
averse
and lacked systemcannot assume
atized
nor
can
development in Semitic religion,
principlesfor the guidance of rehgious,
progressive
the typical Semite,
as
treat the desert Arab
social,and national life. Semitic history is full of
one
infer that the advanced
thought of the priestsand
intriguesand rivalries;
or
communities,which could
flourish in isolation with
or of the higherciviUzatheir few and
prophets,of the upper classes,
simple
could not compromise when
tions of Babylonia and
beliefs and
Assjrrianecessarilypermeated interests,
all classes alike.
ideas were
in opposition. At all times, social,
other
As
2. Character.
political,and
peoples,the
religious ideas intermingle,and
among
rival groups
could be united by the common
practicalbefore they were
religiousideas were
nition
recogof a politico-religious
speculative.The preservation of society comes
head, or a ruler of
the
prominence of "agricultural" divine or semi-divine authority. Chiefs and kings
first,whence
had religious
functions,and, conversely,
rehgion,"nature-worship,"and also the importance
frequently
of goddesses, virgins or mothers, and cults,symleaders (e.g.,
a high-priest,
or
a reformer)
bolical religious
and growth. Although
could
of all kinds of fertility
See Mohammed.
acquire politicalpower.
A new
the ceremonial Ucentiousness,
againstwhich Israelite
dynasty would be accompanied with some
have entered from Asia
rehgiousactivity(cf.,
prophets thundered, may
I.,Jehu), and
e.g., Jeroboam
and
sensuousness
a
Minor, a certain exuberance
great king, Uke Sargon II.,having gained the
horrible
The
characterized the ancient Semites.
to teach
"the
throne, would send his messengers
sacrifice among
fear of God
human
the western
and the king." Religions,social and
states,may
be of foreign derivation,although it was
pohticalconditions progressedor decayed together,
ently
apparthe Assyrians. The civiUzaand a clear example of radical disintegration
wanting among
can
barbaric and brutal as
be seen
in the days of Arab
tion of this people became
"heathenism"
before
A just estimate of
the rise of Mohammed.
it became
The
a
miUtary power.
general similarity
of
notice the indications
in the ebb and flow of events impressed itselfupon
Semitic
religion must
the Semites, but they have numbered
lent
excelsensualityand passionas also the fine ethical and
some
the Hebrews
historians and
the O.T.
or
itself contains the
spiritualideas, whether
among
butions
their neighbors. In general,the permanent contriearliest written history. Ibn Khaldun, a famous
of the Semites to religioncannot
conceal
Mohammedan
historian of the 14th. century in
his discussion of the usual moral deterioration of
ness.
characteristic racial immaturity and extremea
nomads, who have passed into settled hfe,asserted
The
that the Arabs
IV. Extremeness.
tions
striking variawere
incapable of founding an
very
in the O.T. itseK illustrate
of thought even
imbued
with rehgious
empire, unless they were
be included under the term
enthusiasm
of what
extremes
by a prophet or saint. And while he
may
contended
that esprit de corps and rehgion were
"supernaturalism."The remarkable i)revalence of
writers in Israel many
centuries
"magico-religious" ideas
ticularly
(par"magical" and
indispensable,
in Babylonia and Assyria),Jewish angelin their past
a rehgious significance
previously saw
the
and denouncing abuses which impaired social unity,
ology,the local cults of devils and saints among
modern
mediaeval
and
inculcated the common
tions"
peasantry, the "superstirecognitionof the God of
their fathers.
exemplified in the "Arabian
Nights" with
and
modern
VI. Monotheism.
their ancient
The
analogies all these
oft-repeatedbeUef in
and
Semitic tendency to monotheism
a
fication.
requiresqualirepresent a "supernaturalism" with many
Zeal and enthusiasm
favor the conception
profoimdly different forms, varying in spiritual,
of a singleand "jealous"God; but in practical
ethical and intellectual significance.In harmony
hfe
henotheism
with these facts is the absence of dominating conis more
ceptions
prevalent, the recognitionof
law and order,and causation.
of personality,
the supremacy
of one
God
above
others, who
be thought of
over,
Although the gods themselves may
however, are not without their authority. Morefor the sole
as
human, there is an unstable anthropomorphismpohtical organization made
totemistic or animal symbolism and imagery recur,
of the national ruler and equally,of the
supremacy
national
is, further,a strange
god, although, again, local and other
e.g., in Babylonia. There
and fear,on
though
not
alternation betweeen gloom, insecurity,
gods were
repudiated. Yet, alnecessarily
of confidence
and
the one
there are
ordinate
hand, and an excess
always various efforts to coThe ideas of the "superor
natural"
unify the gods, there is no philosophical
arrogance on the other.
akin to those of the political
The ideas of
are
realm, and
conception of a one and only God.
is autocratic,
inaccessible,
order and of causation did not advance
the typicalmonarch
arbitrary,
sufficiently.
but changeable,and, on occasion,remarkably
(viz.. astrology) and
Mathematics, astronomy
democratic and free with his favors ("unto half my
(viz.,Uver-divination) certainly made
anatomy
be
could
in Babylonia,but they are
considerable progress
dependence upon
kingdom"). There
had
Semites
that
not
The
the rulers either of the visible realm,or of the imseen
scarcely "sciences."
detached
the Greeks, led to
and a certain cringing and humility interchanged
interest which, among
the beginnings of science and philosophy. On the
with a famiUarity and confidence of which
some
popularnarratives of the O.T. are sufficient proof other hand, Orientals have always been famous
and
for
Judg. 7: 17, 36 fit.).The varjdng conceptions for proverbial and gnomic utterances
(e.g.,
and the unseen
when
Greek
shrewd
man
of the relations between
are
worldly wisdom, and
losophy
phiother peoples but they
spread, it was this side of Semitic temper
analogous to those among
forms
in Israel,and,
results are
which
in
take profoundlysignificant
stimulated. The
seen
was
culminate in
Literature" of the Jews of Palestine
the "Wisdom
under the stress of bitter experiences,
of vital truths associatingGod
and Alexandria
Ben Sira,
the consciousness
(Proverbs,Ecclesiastes,
Wisdom
and man.
of Solomon, etc.). Here are the rudiments
waves

few

"

sense

"

"

"

"

Semler, Johann Salomo

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

408

of a moral or ethical philosophy (not developed,

is the beginning of the Congregationalists.
Fearing
in Dutch hfe this group obtained a grant
however, as by the Chinese), a philosophical absorption
the
of
which
from
is
the
the
Co.
and
settled at
climax,
religious-ethical
Virginia
prelude
(1619)
of Israel
monotheism
in Massachusetts.
The
a practical
Plymouth now
Puritans
livingfaith.
Semitic
who
VII. Conclusion.
(1628ff.)migrated to this neighborhoodwhile
rehgion, viewed
at the outset conceivingthemselves
"child" stage.
or
tan
a
whole, is in an immature
as
as
simply Purimembers
The Semites did not reach the stage of intellectual
of the EngUsh national church followed
ing
development exemplifiedin Indian
speculation, the model of the Plymouth Separatistsby constitutchurches by a voluntary covenanting of regenerPersian rationalism
and the Greek
conception of
ate
believers with a ministry appointed by the
order and
personality. But although the Indocertain
with
far
the
so
congregation.
Eventually
European
stage
represents a
separation of
church and state
characteristic maturity,it lacks that rich and vmre^fuialand complete in Massachusetts
in 1833
strained
ment
Congregationalism became the fulfil"supernaturalism" which, alike in its
of the Separatist
istic
ideal.
F. A. Christie
best,as also in its unfavorable aspects, is character"

"

"

"

of the Semites.
It is true that some
admirable
SEPHARDIM."
advances
were
jmade,e.g., in the age of Hammurapi
Spanish Jews, that is the
descendants of the Jews who were
in Assyria in the 7th. century B.C.
(ca.2000 B.C.),
expelledfrom
the Hellenistic Jews, and again under Islam.
Spain and Portugalin the 15th. century. They live
among
in almost every part of the world.
But the Semitic lands remain the abode of grotesque
now
They have
from that of other Jews, and in
a ritual differing
magic, demonology and superstition,foes to all
further progress,
the less they are
some
places even
speak a language of their own, a
although none
have
lands which
birth to impulses which
Spanish dialect called Ladino.
gave
led to the profoimdestdevelopmentsoutside them.
SEPTUAGESIMA."
Stanley
A. Cook
The third Sunday preceding
SALOMO
Lent.
(1725-1791)."
SEMLER,
JOHANN
of
German
theologicalprofessorat the Universitjr
historical
Bible.
SEPTUAGINT."
See Versions
of the
Halle; a pioneer in the use of critical,
methods
in the study of the Bible and of church
the
CANONS
REGULAR
OF
THE
principles of
SEPULCHRE,
clearly outUned
history. He
HOLY.
A R.C.
order founded
in Jerusalem
in
critical scholarshipwhich since his day have gradually
1114, and granted the guardianship of the Church
displacedthe former dogmatic presuppositions
of the Holy Sepulchre,reputed to be built over
the
controlled bibUcal and historical mterprewhich
in which
tomb
Jesus Christ was
tation.
placed after his
"

crucifixion.
A word appliedto religious
SEPARATISTS."
from an estabbodies which
separate themselves

In R.C.

SEQUENCE."

a
rhythmical
liturgies,

Latin hymn.
The Dies I roe and the Stabat Mater,
church.
hshed
famous
the
are
state churches
The
examples. At the Reformation
compulsory for the whole
was
replaced by a congregationalhymn
populationwhich characterized early Protestantism
sequence
in the Lutheran
and Anglican hturgies.
encountered the oppositionof those who conceived
in adult
the church as embracing only those who
SERAPHIM.
So in England
The
hfe had experienced divine grace.
seen
angelic presences
by
Isaiah in his vision (Isa.6:2-7). Personifications
where a state church governed by royallyappointed
of the lightning,originallyserpen t-hke in form,
bishops with a prescribedform of worship (Book of
the throne of Yahweh,
Common
they appear hovering over
Prayer) was compulsory for all,discontent
their wings symbolizing reverence,
affected both those Puritans who preferredCalvin's
purity and
and
service,their chief function being to guard the
worship and a more
system of government
divine holiness (q.v.)and transmit it to men.
radical party of "Separatists"who
For
argued from
later developments see Cherubim.
Scripture(1) that a church was a voluntary union
of those only who shared a vital religious
experience
SERAPION."
(2) that a minister should
Bishop of Thebes, Egypt in the
("a body of believers"),
and
be
limited in
4th. century, who
be chosen by the congregation
was
ranged on the Athanasian
functions
his own
ministerial
to
the
congregation, side in the Arian controversy; renowned
as
useful each congregation reputed author of a sacramentary or prayer
book
(3)that while synods were
volved prepared for episcopal use.
Such
church.
This
is the most
autonomous
a
was
an
system inelaborate of the earlyliturgical
books.
separation from the sjtate church and a
segregationof godly "believers" from the unregenerSERAPIS.
the
tion
ate.
Anabaptist views of Dutch
Though
Greco-Egyptiandeity; a combinathese
of Osiris and Apis, regarded as god of the
refugeesdoubtless were a stimulatinginfluence,
underworld, and associated with cults of healing;
argued solely from Scripture by
positions were
Browne
who
Robert
(1580) founded a Separatist worshiped in Egypt, Greece and Rome.
in Norwich, removed
almost
church
immediately
SERGIUS."
don
The name
Another
church in Lonof four popes.
to Middelburg, Holland.
Sergius/."Pope, 687-701.
(1587) had the variation of rule by elders who
elected were
SergiusII. Pope, 844-847.
permanent in office (Barrowism).
once
of this church fled to Amsterdam
A remnant
(1593).
SergiusIII." Pope, 898, 904-911, supported by
only a portion of the cardinals. From
by James I. (Hampton
898-904
Rejection of Puritan demands
his enemies prevented his presence
tion
Court Conference,1604) stimulated the formain Rome.
borough
One formed in Gainsof Separatistchurches.
Sergius7F." Pope, 1009-1012.
John
under
Smyth fled to Amsterdam
standards
SERMON.
A discourse,
to Mennonite
usually prepared and
(1608)where it conformed
dehvered
who returned to England made
and those members
by a minister of religionas a part of
the birth of the great Baptist denomination
by the
public worship, and based on a Scripture text.
in London
See Homiletics.
creation of the first Baptist church
Helwys. The Scrooby
(1613) under Rev. Thomas
SERPENT.
In almost
church under Rev. John Robinson
(1606),driven
portion of the
every
(1608),and moved to Leiden (1609), world, both ancient and modern, peculiarawe atto Amsterdam
"

"

"

"

"

409

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

taches to serpents. This is due to several factors,

of which perhaps the most obvious is the dangerous
character of the bite of many
serpents, so that the
reptileis conceived as a malignant power or as
of a maleficent divinity. Again,the
the embodiment
serpent casts its slough, appearing in renewed
strengthand beauty. Hence it becomes a symbol
of immortahty, and is sometimes
pictured with its
another
tail in its mouth to typifyeternity. From
and silent
point of view, the sudden
appearance
with its fondness for
of the serpent,together
passage
livingin holes in the earth,cause it to be regardedas
re-incarnation of ftiedeparted; and this beUef
a
with some
is strengthened when, as is the case
to dwell near, or even
harmless serpents,it prefers
in or under, a human
dwelling,the serpent thus
becoming a household deity.
of the serpent,
nature
The
generally uncanny
it to be
and
its bright, unwinking eyes, cause
for its
regarded as especiallywise. The reason
association with
gods of healing, as the Greek
Asklepios,is obscure, unless such deities were
divinities of disease as weU as of health.
originally
The idea that the serpent is associated with phaUic
with much
rites is to be viewed
reserve.
Louis H. Gray
MICHAEL
(MIGUEL
SERVETS)
SERVETUS,
(1511-1553). ^Spanish physicianand theologian,
led to his
with pronounced mystical views which
tianity.
of traditional Chrisdenial of certain doctrines
aroused
by his
Especial opposition was
denial of the doctrine of the Trinity. As a result
of a controversial correspondencewith John Calvin,
who charged him with Pantheism, he was
arrested,
condemned, fined,and burned aUve.
^

"

SERVITES."
A R.C. mendicant
order,founded
citizens of Florence,Italy,as a
in 1233 by seven
with singlenessof
of devoting themselves
means
There
heart to the service of the Virgin Mary.
representativesin Italy, Austria, Germany,
are
gious
full title is "ReliThe
England and the U.S.A.
Servants of the Holy Virgin."
the
In
SESSION.
a
Presbyterian politj^,
vidual
governing body comprising the elders of the indi"

and

church

the minister.

In the church

of

Scotland,called the "Kirk-session."

An
have been
SET.
Egyptian god who may
a sun-god of Upper Egypt corresponding
originally
of Lower
to the sun-god Horus
flict
Egypt. The con"

for as
between
Horus and Set is thus accounted
reflection of the contest of the tribes in which
the followers of Horus
conquered Upper Egypt.
of Osiris and
With
the supremacy
Horus, Set
identified with
evil character, was
acquired an
and became
the symbol of the spiritual
darkness
of evil in conflict with life and light.
powers
a

Pope for 3 months

SEVERINUS."

See

ALEXANDER."

SEVERUS,

in 640.
Alexander

Severtjs.
SULPICIUS
(ca. 363-425)." A
Gaul, author, scholar and preacher. His
sacred history from the
a
principalwritings were
creation to his own
time, and a life of Martin the

SEVERUS,

Christian

Monk.
SEXAGESIMA."
Lent.

The

second

Sunday

before

SEXTON.
Originally the door-keeper of a
in former times a grave digger;
church; sometimes
"

at

AND

ETHICS

Shamanism

present the care-taker

building and

of the

church

property,

grounds, vestments, utensils,etc.

SHABBAT."
the
(Hebrew: "Sabbath," whence
English word.) The Jews celebrate the seventh
day, Saturday, the traditional Sabbath, as the day
of rest.
Throughout their history,they have been
strict in its observance,
and have made
laws
many
regardingit. Today, although economic necessity
has driven many
Jews to work on the Sabbath, the
of rest by some, and as
day is still kept as one
the day of specialprayer by all Jews throughout the
world.
Like
all days, counted
by the Jewish
calendar,the Sabbath lasts from sundown
(Friday)
to sundown
F. Reinhart
(Saturday). Harold
SHABBATHAI
BEN
ZEBI
MORDECAI
(16261676). -Jewish pseudo-Messiah of Smyrna. In
youth he devoted himself to the study of mystical
and was
books,Uved an ascetic life,
constantlyin a
state of ecstasy. In the year
1648, he declared
himself to be the Messiah and gathered about him a
band of followers,which in the course
of his travels,
to large numbers.
In 1665, he announced
grew
himself publiclyas the deliverer of the Jews, causing
"

boundless

enthusiasm

in
He
Hfe

Jewish
communities
arrested by the
Sultan
and
saved
his
by embracing Islam.
Some
of the credulous ones
refused to renounce
the
behef in him even
after his apostasy; and the sect
of Shabbathaians
continued
to exist even
long
after their hero's death.
Harold
F. Reinhart

throughout the world.

was

SHAIKH.
A trained leader and guide in the
mystic orders of Islam.
They are usually elected
by the group which they lead and the appointment
confirmed
by a higher shaikh of the sect. Their
influence is very
great especiallyin maintaining
loyalty to the established order and in providing
for the masses
emotional
an
rehgious life.
"

SHAKERS.
Shaking Quakers, founded by Ann
Lee. Quakeress, influenced by the "French
ets.
Proph'
revealed to
In 1770 she claimed that it was
her from on high that celibacywas
ment.
a divine requireUnder
supposed divine guidance, with a
of converts, she emigrated from England
company
of
to America in 1774.
After gaining some
means
labor they settled at Watersubsistence by manual
Within a few years they gained a number
vHet,N. Y.
of adherents
from Baptists and others in New
York
and
New
England chieflythrough revival
claina of
and
meetings, their strong emotionalism
divine
inspiration,with accompanying physical
greatlyimpressing the impressionable.
convulsions,
Shakers
munity
lay chief stress on virginalpurity, comof goods,and separation from the world.
They placeAnn Lee on a level with Jesus,the latter
ciple
representingthe male, the former the female prinin God; but they regard neither as divine.
Ann they
The dispensationinauguratedby Mother
regard as the final one, involvingthe estabUshrnent
of Christ's kingdom upon
earth.
They consider
themselves
the Pentecostal or Millennial Church.
They do not believe in the resurrection of the body
cieties
or in Christ'satoningwork.
They have (1919)12 soin the United States with a membership of 367.
A. H. Newman
certain
SHAMANISM.-7-The belief amon^
tribes in Siberia,
primitivepeoples,originally
among
which centers about the "shaman"
or medicine-man,
a
fimctionarycombining certain elements of priest
and doctor and beheved to have in himself authority
for the securingof good
to order the gods or spirits
and avertingof evil. He directs the ceremonial,and
other pubhc interests,
um
frequentlythrough the mediof ecstatic phenomena.
"

Shamash

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

410

Shi'ite sect has been

The
most
The most
SHAMASH.
important of the sunpowerful
in Persia.
They have their own
traditions,and
gods of Babylonian rehgion whose cult centered at
Sippar. He represents the kindly and life-giving jealouslymaintain their claim to be the true representatives
of Islam.
of the sun.
Whether
They are divided into various
as
god of light and
power
"

order

or

because

of his beneficence

he

came

ants.
to be

See

sects.

Mohammedanism;

Sunnites.

recognized as the god of righteousnessand justice

SHI-KING.
One of the Chinese classics,
in whose
called
name
judges gave decisions and kings
the "Book
of Poetry" made
proclaimed their laws.
up of 305 odes dating
"

from
the 12th. to the 6th. century B.C.
These
The heaven
SHANG-TI."
hymns reveal a fine social loyalty and a religious
god of Confucian
devotion
centered about
the family cult and the
rehgion. "The Supreme Emperor," as the name
of nature.
is interpreted,is the personal form
of religious powers
address used in prayer and in state ritual in contrast
SHINGON.
with the impersonal form
A form of Japanese Buddhism
Tien, "Heaven," preferred
taught by Kukai
(774-835 a.d.). It is a mystical
by Confucius and the intellectuals of ancient
China.
pantheism teaching that the universal Buddha,
Vairochana, is the spiritual
realityin every particle
THAYER
WILLIAM
GREENOUGH
SHEDD,
of the universe
which
is his body. Hence
all
(1820-1894). American
Presbyterian theologian, nature and the human
vital with the
heart are
divine presence.
professorat Union TheologicalSeminary, New York,
This made
it possiblefor Kukai
noted for his logicaland systematic presentation to recognizeall forms of religion
and the worship of
of
of Calvinistic theology. He
the author
was
all gods as in some
measure
an
approach to truth.
several theologicalworks includinga three volume
He arranged the various types of religionin ten
work on Dogmatic Theology.
stages placing Shingon as the tenth in which the
soul is fully conscious
of its identity with
the
SHE-ELOT
U-TESHUBOT."
(Hebrew: "questions
Eternal Buddha.
of elaborate
The sect made
use
and answers.") A term
designatinga great
and rites. Its great work
ritual,mystic prayers
of Jewish hterature consistingof the decisions
mass
in accomplishing a popular synthesisof Shinto
was
of Rabbis, made
retical and Buddhism
in answer
to questions,both theousually called Ryobu.
them.
This
and
to
practical,addressed
hterature
has accumulated
1700
through
years,
SHINTO.
Shinto isa faith indigenousto Japan.
the first examples of it appearing after the completion
The name
is formed
Chinese words:
of two
Shin,
of the Mishna
(q.v.),and collections of
meaning god or gods, and To, signifyingthe way.
She-elot u-Teshubot
being pubUshed frequently in
This term first came
into use after the introduction
all times down
to our
own.
of Buddhism, to distinguishthe native faith from
"

"

"

the ahen religion.

SHEKINAH."
(Hebrew: "dweUing.") The
The faith is evidently an elemental nature
ship,
worquently
glory oi God dwelUng on earth. The term is frerendered more
personal and vital through the
used in Jewish literature where it is desired
identification of human
natural
ancestry with
of the name
of God Himself.
to avoid mention
word for
Kami
is the
the
_

deity,
Japanese
It originally
object of worship in Shinto.
signified
to
anything above or superior,and gradually came
with fear or respect.
mean
anything looked upon
"The term
Kami
is applied in the first place to the
powers.

SHEMA."
(Hebrew: "hear!") The initialword
of the verse
(Deut. 6:4), "Hear, O Israel,the Lord
is our
God; the Lord is one!", which declaringthe
absolute
belief in monotheism, constitutes
the
Jewish confession of faith. The term is used also to
indicate the verse
with its accompanying passage
in
the liturgy,
and also the entire firstpart of the Synais foimd.
gog Hturgy in which this passage
SHEMONEH
term
used

ESREH."

(Hebrew: "eighteen.")
designate the central part of the
Synagog hturgy, so called because it comprises
eighteen (that is originally,but now,
nineteen)
blessings,
consistingof praiseand thanks to God, and
petitionson behalf of the individual and the community,
The

to

SHEN.
^The higher, good spiritsof Chinese
folk-belief. The
more
important shen rise to the
status
of gods. All are
identified with the yang
of light,
principleof the universe as embodiments
activityand hfe.
"

SHEOL.

The Hebrew designationof the abode

departed spirits. (Prov. 27:20; Ps. 88:12.)
conceived of as a pit or underworld, a view
was
held by the Babylonians and
other
commonly
ancient peoples. In early Hebrew
thought it was
not regarded as under
the control of Yahweh, but
later this limitation disappears. See Future
Life,
"

of
It

Conceptions

of

the.

SHI'ITES.
One
of the two
leadingdivisions
the other being the Sunnites.
of Mohammedanism,
main
of the
Shi'ites is the belief
The
tenet
that the Khahphate and office of imam
passed by
to 'Ah and his descendinheritance from Mohammed
"

various

deities of Heaven
and Earth who are mentioned
in the ancient records,as well as to their
spiritswhich reside in the shrines where they are
beings,but
worshiped. Moreover, not only human
birds and beasts,plants and trees, seas
and mountains,
and all things whatsoever
which
deserve to
and revered for the extraordinary and
be dreaded
pre-eminent powers which they possess, are called
Kami"
(Motoori).
completed
Kojiki,The Record of Ancient Affairs,
in 712 A.D., and Nihongi, The Record of Japan, 720
A.D., are considered the sacred books of Shinto. /They
contain objective,
picturesqueaccounts of prehistoric
No system of theology or of ethics has been
events.
produced from them beyond the expository and
apologeticwritingsof Mabuchi, Motoori and Hirata.
be summed
The ethics of Shinto may
up in the
phrase "follow the pure impulse of your heart."
Within the holy place of the shrine there is usually
heart which in its
a mirror,"typicalof the human
purity reflects the image of deity." The teaching
ence
concerningthe future lifeis vague, though the existis recognized.
of immaterial spirit
fact in Shinto is the absence of all
A significant
Simplicity
effortto objectifydeity in visible form.
and purity are characteristic of all Shinto shrines.
They are built of unpainted wood and covered not
infrequentlywith thatched roofs,as much as possible
ways,
in primitivestyle. Before them are peculiargatecalled Torii,consistingof two
pillarswith
"

horizontal beams, the

either side, the lower
not

projecting.

slightlyto
higher projecting
to the first but
being parallel

411

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

idea underlyingall Shinto servicesis that of

which
The
religious
impurities from
eUevers seek cleansingare those caused by contact
with the dead, with human
blood,etc.,rather than
and
character.
those of a moral
Harai
Misogi
and symShinto rites of purification,
are
by name
bolic
ing
action meaning the sweeping away, the cleansof evil,natural and objective. Divine
away
protectionis sought against all lands of natural
evil such as flood,pestilence,
and famine; and the
of paper or of straw,
straw rope, with pendant strips
universal before a shrine is a token of protection
so
from evil influences.
The worshiper at the shrine calls the attention
of the unseen
deityby ringinga gong, and worships
with dignified
clappingof the hands in front of the
bowed head.
The offerings
consist of small portions
of rice,
fish,vegetables,wine, etc.,while the Gohei,
rod from which
or
are
suspended stripsof white
before aU shrines is symbolic of offerings
of
paper,
cloth.
Formerly all Japanese funeral ceremonies were
in accord with Buddhist rites;but of late,especially
the aristocratic classes,
there has arisen a
among
fashion of observing occasions of death with Shinto
services. A further innovation in Shinto is the not
infrequentmodern
practiceof celebratingmarriage
at Shinto
shrines by priestsin imitation
of the
Christian service.
Tasuku
Habada

ETHICS

are

ancient sages.
Shu-KING.
One of the Chinese classics. A
collection of historical writings of uneven
value
"

containingmuch that is undoubtedlylegendary and

the whole evidently arranged with the purpose
of
social organization.
reinforcing the autocratic
The work contains material that is important for the
understanding of the early reUgion. It was probably
edited by Confucius.
OF AND
SIAM, RELIGIONS
MISSIONS
TO.
^A kingdom in the Indo-Chinese
peninsula of
S. Asia with a mixed population of over
6,000,000.
The Siamese
themselves
are
Hinayana Buddhists,
the King being held as the defender of the orthodox
faith. The Laos also are Buddhists.
The Malays
of Siam are Mohammedans.
The hill people of the
still ani mists, practisinga revolting
country are
type of demon-worship. Ceremonials of a religious
character have
life.
great importance in Siamese
The representatives
of Christianity
have been chiefly
Catholic missionaries from France,and PresRoman
byterian
missionaries from the U.S.A. (since1848),
but the progress
of the Christian religion
has been
rather slow.
"

SIBYLLINE

SmVA
(CIVA)." A composite god of Hindu
sectarian
absorbed
the old Vedic
religion.He
storm
god, Rudra; was
represented in terrifying
form as "lord of demons"; became
a symbol of the
philosophicconcept of merciless change in nature
with its two phases of dissolution and restoration
or
reproduction; took on the quaUty of the ideal
was
yogi as the greatest of all ascetics and finally,
identified with a boisterous,
dancing god of the
mountains.
Thus
he made
appeal to all classes of
As the essential creatiyeforce of the universe
men.
he rises to the rank of the supreme
God in Saivism
(q.v.). His symbol is the linga. Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva
form
the triad of great gods of later
Hinduism.
See Trimijrti.
"

SHOHET,"

Hebrew

term

for

Jewish

slaughtererof animals,who killsaccordingto ritually

correct

methods.

SHRADDHAS."
The
to the
family offerings
souls of dead relatives made
After the
by Hindus.
completion of the funeral sacrifices the shraddfias
are
performed on the eleventh day and thereafter
monthly for a year, then on every
succeeding
ings
They consist of offeranniversary of the death.
of food, water and flowers with the accompaniment
of mantras
chanted
or
spells.

SHROUD,
which

Jesus

was

HOLY."
THE
buried.

The

windmg sheet in

SHROVETIDE."
The time for confession (from
shrive,to confess,a word derived from the Lat.
to write,hence to prescribe). It refers to the
scribo,
day before Ash Wednesday (which is called Shrove
Tuesday), or sometimes to tlie three days before.
The revealed Scriptures
of Hinduism
SHRUTI.
of the highestgrade of authority,
namely,the Vedas
"

ORACLES."

A
composite group
from the 2nd. century
the
3rd.
The
collection
embraces
a.d.
ish
JewB.C. to
and Christian documents
written
in Homeric
styleand in imitation of the lost heathen Sibylline
books.
The Oracles purport to foretellfuture events,
with reference to distinguished
particularly
persons,
and kingdoms.
cities,
of

writingsdating all the

SIDDUR."
which the Jews
SIFRA.
of Leviticus
"

SIGN
hand

SHOFAR.
A Hebrew
the ram's
term signifying
horn mentioned
frequentlyin the Bible to be blown
New
Moon
and at many
other times.
on
It is still
used by the Jews, especially
the New
Year's Day
on
when it is blown in the Synagog, annoimcing God's
judgment and calhng to repentance.

Sikhs, ReUgion of the

includingthe Brahmanas and Upanishads. These

thought to have been divinelygiven to the

The

gurity.

AND

act

so

OF
as

to

way

(Hebrew: "order.") A term

by
designatetheir book of dailyprayers.

Hebrew

dating from

CROSS."

THE

suggest

performed

on

to the book
commentary
the 3rd. century a.d.

cross

various

of the
A movement
in outline,
as a Uturgical
occasions in the R.C.

church.
OF
THE."
The
SIKHS, RELIGION
religion
of an Indian sect (numbering about three miUions)
found chieflyin the Punjab.
Sikhism marks a distinct Mohammedan
reaction
Hinduism.
It was
founded by Nanak
on
(bom near
Lahore 1469 a.d.),
of Kabir (founder of an
a disciple
important sect). He was of a dreamy, impractical,
was
reUgioustemperament;
popularly called mad;
wandered
about
composing hymns and attracting
followers;finallywon
recognitionas a saint. He
to 1708 a.d.
succeeded by nine gurus (teachers)
was
The sacred Scripture,
the Adi Granth (anew
Granth,
not so popular, was
compiled by the tenth guru),
is made
and his successors,
up of hymns of Kabir, Nanak
collected by the fifth
and other holy men,
Till then the Sikhs had
guru, Arjun, in 1604 a.d.
lived,
munity
comquietlyin the Punjab as a small quietistic
hke
of Quakers. Arjun hved
a
prince,
changed the voluntary contributions into a fixed
in politics,
tax, organized the community, meddled
and drew the attention and enmity of the Mohammedans
The Sikhs,attractingmany
to the sect.
hardy, restless spiritsto their cause, gradually
developed into a nation of fanatical fighters. The
tenth guru (Govind) refused to appoint a successor;
be regarded as his sucdirected that the Granth
cessor.
With the downfall of the Moguls the Sikhs
became
paramount in the Punjab, but were

Sillon

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

conqueredby the British in 1849. The center of

worship is the Golden Temple at Amritsar where the
Granth is preservedin a shrine and accorded almost
divine worship.
Nanak, hke Kabir, revolted againstthe social
and ceremonial restrictions of Hinduism, againstits
formalism, against caste and idols (although he
cism
kept karma and transmigration)Discardingasceti-

ETHICS

412

An attitude or tendency in man

SIN.
ing
expressitself in acts contrary to what
is divinely
approved, and hence incurringdivine displeasure
and penalty.
General
1. The
Meaning
Sin. Sin is a
op
distinctivelyreligious conception. It is distingiiishedfrom crime (offenceagainst civil law) and
vice (offenceagainstsocially
approved standards of
behavior)in that these are judged by human
and monkhood
he preachedlife in the world.
norms,
while sin is behavior which incurs superhuman conHe rejectedpolytheism and taught that there is but
sequences.
The notion of sin is closely
allied to the
or
one
Krishna, but just
god, not Allah or Rama
prehensible;
conception of tabu (q.v.)in the early stages of
God.
This all-powerful
God is formless and incomreligiousthought. The
offences against divine
that there is no metaphysics, just
so
be purely ceremonial,and may
The relation of God
power
to God.
may
even
a fanatical devotion
be somewhat
God
does not
ards.
standperplexingif judgedby human
to the world is a pantheisticone.
The
For
when
manifest
himself to men
example,
Uzzah, with the best
by incarnations.
of intentions,
He is
and God.
between
men
put out his hand to steady the ark
guru alone mediates
lest
it
He had rashly
fall,he was smitten dead.
to be followed
implicitly(Sikh is derived from
touched
sacred object (I Sam.
a
Sanskrit gisya "pupil"). Individual souls are like
6:6, 7). But
as
Salvation consists in reuniting inasmuch
recognized moral standards gain in
sparks from God.
dignity by being invested with divine sanction,
The emphasis is on
the individual soul and God.
the conception of sin usually comes
inwardness
and
to include
fiery devotion rather than on
immoral
acts of all sorts. The
external
ceremonies
more
on
moraUty. Although
completely
or
tions
rehgion is dominated by ethical ideals,the more
Nanak
caste distinctaught the equahty of all men
closelydoes the conceptionof sin coincide with that
have slowlybeen creepingin. W. E. Clark
of wrong-doing in general. Yet even
in the most
there are emphases in the
of
SILLON.
A
Roman
Catholics, advanced forms of religion
group
definition of sin which are different from those of
founded in 1890, which attempted to reconcile the
ethics. Such acts as blasphemy,or desecration of
R.C. church and democracy, and sought a radical
reconstruction of societyby abolishingcapitaHsm.
buildings or utensils designed for a specifically
society religiouspurpose, are viewed with pecuhar horror
a quasi-syndicalist
According to its program
be
there would
direct injury to men
in which
would
be established
even
is involved.
though no
neither wage-earner
ment
movenor
employer. The
II. Main
Types
Sinful
banned
Acts.
of
1. The
was
by the Pope but continues to
violation of sanctity. A
difference
exist.
fundamental
between the divine and the human
is that pecuUar
SILVERIUS."
quahty which is called sacredness or holiness. A
Pope, 536-537.
resides in what is sacred.
This
mysterious power
of two popes and two
The name
SILVESTER."
power must be reverenced and any approach to it
be preceded or accompanied by the proper
must
antipopes.
rituals and a condition of religious
Silvester I. Bishop of Rome,
314-335, and
purity on the
To violate this sanctity
included in the papal lists.
is equivalent
part of man.
to refusing to recognize the divine power.
Silvester II.
Such
Pope, 999-1003; before his ^evaChristian
desecration or pollutionbringsupon
famous
tion to the papacy
the offender a
was
as
a
teacher under the name
Gerbert,and as archbishop curse.
Oedipus, for example, while doing his
to avoid committing the crime which
and Ravenna.
A man
of indomitable
utmost
the
of Rheims
oracle had foretold,unwittingly slays his father
energy, an erudite scholar,and first herald of the
and marries his mother.
His guiltis as real and
crusades,he did much to further the primacy of the
his punishment as sure
church at Rome.
if he had intentionally
as
Silvester ///." Antipope, 1044-1046.
offended. Such
acts as
failingto bury a dead
Silvester IV.
body, indulgingin sexual relations in irregular
^Antipope,1102.
refusingto extend hospitalityto a stranger,
ways,
STYLITES
and taking human
life are peculiarly
SIMEON
heinous.
The
(390-459)."Syrian
of the piUar-hermits; dread of a curse
anchoret,and most renowned
followingthe offender is vividly
for thirty years living on a pillar(Greek, stylos, portrayedin folklore and Literature.
2. Closely allied to desecration
is anything
whence
the name).
which is an offence
against the divine dignity. The
MAGUS.
A Samaritan sorcerer
who
Greek hybris,with its wanton
SIMON
defiance of all principles
of the
of reverence,
wanted
to purchase the miraculous
was
peculiarlyoffensive to the
power
See Acts 8:9 fE.
gods. To neglect the rituals,to be careless in
Holy Spiritfrom Peter and John.
to indulge in skepticism or unbelief
making sacrifice,
RICHARD
of
(1638-1712)." French
concerning sacred things,to take the name
SIMON,
God in vain are instances of this kind of sin.
theologian,whose fame rests on his contributions
3. Disregard for the principlesof humanity
and historical criticism of the Bible,
to the literary
and justice. ^When moral
disorder is introduced
for which he incurred the opposition of Catholics
and Protestants alike.
a people the reputation of their rehgion
among
and their God
is discredited. Thus
social
suffers,
The
of the
is generallyemphasized as sin.
MENNO."
founder
injustice
SIMONS,
It is evident that the exact
Menonnites
nature of sinful
(q.v.).
the generalstage of culture.
acts will depend upon
^The offence of presentingany one to
In earher stages of rehgious thought ritual and
SIMONY.
other conthe
for monetary
benefice in return
or
siderations;ceremonial offences are
a
very prominent. With
the incident of Simon
rational standards sin comes
development of more
so called from
and more
to be identified with morahty. But
more
Magus (q.v.).
in the most
even
highly developed reHgions there
certain items which carry over
the earlier feehng,
SIMPLICIUS."
during the
are
Pope, 468-483;
and are condemned
the basis of an inherited
on
more
monophysite controversy.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

413

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Sixtus

than
on
grounds of criticallybased on the belief that it is dangerous to approach
the sanctuary without specialprecautions. Since
ascertained moral worth or un worth.
the world is full of things unclean, that is,antipathetic
III. The
Punishment
Sin.
This
of
may
make
to the divinity,
take the form of an inescapablefate or curse
which
the worshiper must
that no contagion has affected him.
Ablution
follows a man
and holds him in its power
sure
matter
no
therefore usually precedes an
how he may
strive to escape.
Karma
act of reUgious
(q.v.)is an
worship. But the appUcation of water may not be
impersonalcosmic fate. Retribution is here viewed
The Greek
Nemesis
enough, and so the use of substances which have a
as a relentless cosmic
process.
the
Where
similar idea.
But when
positivelysacred quahty is indicated.
there is the
a
expresses
conception of a distinctly
personal god or gods, cow is regarded as sacred (forexample) urine of this
the anger of the offended divine beingis represented animal will be used for purification.
The
close connection
between
and
the source
of the punishment. The
as
purification
penalty
is well shown
consecration
in the Hebrew
ritual
be inflictedimmediately,
when the sinner is
as
may
where the rite of purification
smitten
dead
used for the leper is
(e.g.,Uzzah, Ananias) or it may
consist in a period of misfortune,such as disease, almost identical with that used in consecratinga
uncleanness
Punishment
in
priest for his service. In each case
an
poverty, social ostracism.
be counteracted by the applicationof a sacred
must
after life is very generallyaffirmed if the sinner
substance.
Since
the
sacred
substances
has not borne the full penalty on
earth.
See
among
blood of a sacred animal is one
of the most powerFuture
Retribution;
Life, Conceptions
op
ful,
these rites involve a sacrifice. In the ordinary
the; JuDGMENt.
IV. The
Remission
Sin. See Propitiasin-offering,
tion;
however, the blood is not apphed to
op
the worshiper but to the temple or some
of its
Atonement; Forgiveness; Penance.
vessels. The
V. The
Christian
Doctrine
As
Sin.
priestlywriter believed that every
op
stated in confessional Christian theology,
sin came
are
unwittingviolation of the Law (and sin-offerings
into the world through the voluntary transgression brought for unwitting violations only) infected
the temple and
blood
therefore is
altar. The
of God's command
As a result of this
by Adam.
ever
inherited
appliedto these and not to the worshiper. Whatdisobedience,an evil taint was
original
is effected for him
is accomphshed by the
thus bom
Men
are
by all Adams' descendants.
with original sin (q.v.), and
layingon of hands (q.v.).
are
partakers in
The word sin-offering
Adam's
might also be appliedto
guilt as well. This innate evil tendency
what are properlycalled cathartic victims. The sins,
itself in actual sins. Thus
inevitablyexpresses
in theory transferred
defined as sinners.
to be religiously
tion
Salvaoffences,or diseases of men
are
are
men
then expelled
to these victims which
consists in the appropriationof a divine proare
vision
from the country or slain at some
of which
be
point outside the
by means
originalsin may
eradicated through regenerationand actual sins may
boundary. The scape-goat provided for in the
Hebrew
ritual is a familiar example. This goat
be forgivenon the basis of the atoning work of
tinctionhowever, is not called a sin-offering,
and is offered
the disChrist. Roman
Catholic theology makes
of
to the desert demon
instead of to the God
between
mortal
sins (q.v.)which
bring
Israel. And the common
idea that the sin-offering
death, and venial sins (q.v.)which only
spiritual
is a substitute for the sinner and is slain in his
ism,
impair the work of grace in man's Ufe. Protestantstead has no foundation in the Old Testament.
rejectingthe system of penance,
rejectedalso
the
H. P. Smith
to minimize
any classificationwhich might seem
A
SINECURE."
care."
awful character of sin.
Literally,"without
benefice where the incumbent
is allowed to reside
In recent years sin has been redefined in the
of modem
and social conceptions. at a distance,and have his obligationsdischarged
philosophical
h'ght
Ideahstic philosophy laid stress upon
the finite
by another, or where there are no active duties.
income
which inevitablyleads him into
character of man
an
Hence, popularly, a position yielding
mcurred.
imperfectand even into pervertedways of thinking with httle or no responsibility
and acting. The doctrine of evolution has revealed
instincts and
OF.
impulses inherited from a brute
OF
SIRACH, WISDOM
JESUS, SON
See Jesus; SonopSirach.
ancestry and not yet fully imder moral control.
therefore
The
development of spiritualUfe must
contend againstpowerful physicalimpulses. Social
SIRICIUS."
Pope, 384-399.
science has made
us
acquainted with the social
of
estabh'shed customs, so that although
inertia
gious,
SISTERHOODS."
Organizations,usually reli"time makes ancient good uncouth," moral advance
of women
for purposes
of mutual
edification,
the doctrine of Adam's
fall is
is difficult. Thus
generally,for carrying on benevolent or
or, more
of sin,and in
givingplace to differentexplanations
ous
missionaryactivities. The R.C. church has numerof sm is coming to be almost
the process the content
sisterhoods.
The
secular
organizations of
entirelyin the realm of moral requirements rather
hood.
women
are
usuallycalled sororities. See Brotherthan in the realm of ritual.
Gerald
Birnet Smith
^The moon-god in Babylonian rehgion
SIN.
anti-Lutheran
ARTICLES.
SIX
decree
^An
With
the
with chief centers at TJr and Harran.
issued by Henry VIII. of England in 1543 "for
rise of the science of astrologythis deity became
abolishingdiversityof opinionsin religion."
increasinglyimportant as "Lord of Knowledge."
of transThe
articles upheld the doctrine
the
he
is
Since the calendar was
moon
regulatedby
and declared the continuance of certain
substantiation,
always prominent.
Romish
such as celibacyof the clergy,
practices,
and auricular confession.
class of sacrifices deA
signed privatemasses,
SIN-OFFERINGS."
ritual or moral
to free the worshiper from
of five popes.
SIXTUS."
The name
defilement.
sixth bishop of
Sixtus I. (XYST
US)."The
idea underlies the various
Whether
common
a
Rome, ca. 116-125.
sacrifice is not
clear. In the
forms
of animal
Sixtus II.
best known
Bishop of Rome, 257-258; martyred
to
are
us
religioussystems which
in the Valerian persecution.
tinguished.
several classes of these sacrifices are sharply dis-

feeling of horror

"

"

"

"

"

"

The

one

now

under

consideration

is

Sixtus III." Pope, 432-440.

Skandhas

DICTIONARY

Sixtus IV.
Pope, 1471-1484:
was
occupation of the papacy,
"

OF

RELIGION

previous to his
general of the

order.
He was
lavish patron of art
Franciscan
a
built the Sistinechapel,and instituted
and of letters,
the famous Sistine choir,
V.
of large
Sixtus
Pope, 1585-1590; a man
ambition
and
achievement.
He
improved, the
fiscalaffairs of the papacy,
reformed the constitution
of the collegeof cardinals,
of
and completed some
the most famoxis ecclesiastical buildings
in Rome.
"

AND

ETHICS

414

of class inferiority,
selfish exploitation,
principles
and general oppression,that the growing influence
of the Christian religion
was
against the institution
and favored the economic process that was
presently
the mediaeval
serf.
transforming the slave mto
stimulated
and
sanctioned
the
ethics that
Rehgion
social order based on
evolving out of a new
were
the possession of agriculturalsoil. The
Church
took the side of the oppressed, until its
habitually
vested interests aUied it with the landed
own

aristocracy.
rise of the citiesand the growth of modern
tended to break up a social
commerce
centered
that
in the
Serfdom
manor.
system
ceased.
Free peasants stiU worked on the
gradually
often httle better off than before,
land, and were
but were
nominally free. Then the sudden expansion
of the European horizouj
and the new
tunities
opporfor acquiring wealth m foreignplantations
stimulated a demand
for labor far greater than the
small European populations could supply. This
SKEPTICISM."
See Scepticism.
demand
met partiallyalso by the forced labor
was
SLANDER.
A
misrepresentation maliciously of natives in mines and on plantations;but it was
to transfer
circulated so as to injurethe reputationof another.
not
long before it seemed most profitable
napping
kidof Africans to America.
The
large numbers
Legally,written slander is hbelous. Suits must be
of unprotected negroes,
the crueltyof the
supported by evidence of specialdamage to a man's
"middle
is
passage," the denial of such primitive
reputation, profession, or business. Slander
universallycondemned
by all moral and reb'gious rightsas personal Hberty to work, to mate, and to
be merry,
became
quated
antithe characteristics of an
codes.
institution that had nearlylost its recognition
became
SLAVERY.
institution,but now
fied
justiSlavery as a social institution as a human
of the low ethical
divine.
It is evidence
the result
as
originated in primitive times. It was
advanced
standards
of the most
nations that they
to preserve
of a discoverythat it was
more
profitable
should have found
such sanctions of
war
satisfactory
captives for use than to kill and eat them.
in the field; this ancient evil.
Male
slaves could be put to work
The
served to gratifythe sex
victions.
early 19th. century brought better conwomen
desire,and were
The slave trade was
abohshed
useful at
indoor
lative
by legisoccupations. Slavery became
action in the British empire and in the United
general before written historybegan.
States.
South
tion
made
Slavery in the American
survived,
a large accumulaFrequent wars
possible
defended
economic
and
of slaves,and they became
economic
as
an
necessity and a social
an
sanctioned
the
Old
custom
labor
social necessity. They performed manual
by
Testament, until
ended
of the
of all sorts.
the handicraftsmen
by emancipation in 1863. The European
They were
nations meanwhile
had abohshed
time.
slavery in their
even
employed in the learned
They were
colonies. The
old institution has fingered where
for not a few were
well educated and of
professions,
civilization has least developed, but even
the last
high social standing before the fortunes of war
traces
of it are disappearing as the world comes
of liberty.Abundance
of cheap
deprived them
under
of nations that accept the
the dominance
labor on the one hand and abundance
of wealth and
humane
vation
leisureon the other gave opportunity for the cultiprinciplesof Christian ethics.
Henry
K. Rowe
of the arts, and made
possiblethe building
SLAVIC
The
RELIGION."
of the Egyptian pyramids and the development of
religion of the
Slavic peoples,particularlyof the Elbe Slavs and
the far-famed Athenian
culture; but they also permitted
selfish exploitation of human
abilities, the Russians, Czechs,and Poles.
I. The
Supreme
God.
Both
Elbe Slavs and
unhealthy class distinctions,the brutalizing of
oi
both master
and slave,and an untold amount
Russians,we are told, had a chief deity, though
is not given. For the Russians
his name
this was
human
misery.
undoubtedly Perun, the thunder-god (developing
Among certain peoples there was an easing of
Slavs the deitv
into a sky-god); for the Elbe
the burdens.
Hebrew
law protected the slave and
for his ultimate emancipation. At Athens
Svarog has been suggested for this honor, though
of Baltic rehgion (i.e.,
of the ancient
had
e
privileges,including recognized the testimony
many
to
Prussians,Lithuanians, and Letts) would seem
marriage, the rightto accumulate
property, and
to Perun.
more
point once
a
possibihty of emancipation. In early Roman
Slavs.
venerated god of
II. Elbe
The
most
days the slave worked in the fieldbeside his master,
the Elbe
Slavs
but in later times the miUtary successes
of Rome
was
Svantovit, whose
worship
about
centered
his idol in the great temple at
had
spoiledthe character of the race, and masters
jection, Arkona, on
the island of Riigen. Omens
small regard for a class that was
were
in complete subdrawn
from a white horse sacred to him, and a
and
Uttle care
of individuals that were
festival was
after
celebrated
in his honor
soon
to replace. Yet
mon
comemancipation became
easy
for those who
could purchase their freedom,
sought for the coming
harvest,when portents were
The deities Rugievit (or Rinvit),worshiped
and sometimes
freed thousands
masters
voluntarily
year.
at Garz, Porevit, Porenutius
of slaves.
("Son of Perun"),
there was
no
Among ancient pagans
question and the war-god Gerovit may have been doublets
of Svantovit.
about the proprietyof slavery. It was justified
by
Another
important deitywas Triglav ("Threesary
philosophers,and seemed a permanent and necesin
chief seats of worship were
social arrangement.
Heads"), whose
Religiontended to soften
to have
cult seems
Stettin and Wollin, and whose
did not
the rigorsof slavery,but even
Christianity
resembled
The divinity Radithat of Svantovit.
condemn
it as an
institution. The
principlesof
so
Christianity,
however, were
contrary to the
gast, who Ukewise possessedan elaborate temple

SKANDHAS.

"

^The aggregate of

physicaland

psychical activities which constitute the himian

There
according to early Buddhism.
personality
of
sold underlying these changing groups
IS
no
its
reactions.
When
the physical organism and
psychic accompaniments of perception,sensation,
ness
predisposition(the result of karma), and consciousexist,this is a human
being.

The

industryand

"

"

"

Erovided

"

415

DICTIONAKY

RELIGION

OF

scholars to be
horse,is taken by some
deity of the capital of the
the same
theory may be advanced
lance was
an
object of
concerning Jula, whose
worship at JuUn (themodern Wollin in Pomerania).
little more
know
we
Other Elbe gods, of whom
than the names,
Podaga (cf.the PoUsh airwere
goddess Pogoda?), Pripegala,Rinvit, Turupid,
Zcernoboch
Proven.
Puruvit, Pisamar, and
landic
("Black God," perhaps the Tierna Slav of the Iceto have been a god of
seems
Knytlingasaga)
and

sacred

the

eponymous
Rhetarians; and

AND

ETHICS

amply demonstrated for the Elbe Slavs; for the

definite
have
Russians, Czechs, and Poles we
information
only for idols and sacrifices. Feasts
of the gods were
the Elbe Slavs,
celebrated among
and oracles were
sought at their temples. The
the Elbe Slavs
place of a specialpriesthoodamong
to have been filledby magicians and sorcerers
seems
the Russians, Festivals with pagan
vivals
suramong
still observed
in Russia, especiallyin
are
with
connection
agriculturalinterests (Koleda,
Louis H. Gray
Rusalye,Kwpalo).

evil.
SMITH,
Besides godsthe Elbe Slavs worshiped goddesses,
(q.v.).
but we have no details concerningthem, except that
one

of them

represented on

was

banner.

Social Ethics

JOSEPH."

Founder

of

Mormonism

The

veneration of household deities is also recorded.

-The chief
Poles.
III. Russians, Czechs, and
"

WILLIAM
ROBERTSON
(1846Scottish philologist,
orientaUst and Biblical
scientific
scholar,who did much to introduce more
historical methods
into biblical scholarship. His
The
Prophets of Israel,
outstanding works were
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, and The
of the Semites.
Religion

SMITH,

1894).
"

the oak was sacred).

Perun
was
(towhom
doubtfully,as a
Veles is described,somewhat
god of flocks. His idols stood in Kief, Novgorod,
folk-lore his place is filled
and Rostof ; in modern
by St. Blasius,a shepherd and martyr of Caesarea
borrowed
("Golden [Idol],"
in Cappadocia. Chors
^Tradition or the post-Vedic reUgious
SMRITI.
been
to have
sunGreek
a
from
chrysos)seems
literature of India of less authority than the shruti
god; and Dazhbog may possiblybe compared with
(q.v.). It consists of the law books, books of
("Generous").
the
Samogitian deity Datanus
deities are very dubious,
science, the Purdnas, the great epics and the
Other
alleged Russian
Tantras.
such
Simarg and Mokosh, while Troyan is
as
merely an
apotheosisof the Emperor Trajan.
SOCIAL
small
Christian
BRETHREN."
A
know
that Svarog was
On
the other hand, we
and
sect, existing in Arkansas
lUinois,U.S.A.,
equated with the Greek Hephaistos; and he may
since 1867, holding to orthodox
the "celestial smith"
as
doctrines,the
perhaps be the same
polity being a fusion of Baptist and Methodist
of Baltic folk-songs,and
comparable with the
customs.
They have
(1919) 19 congregations
Finnish
Wieland, and
Ilmarinen, the Teutonic
and 950 communicants.
had
He
the Vedic Tvashtar.
(Elbe Slav
a son
also a
Svarozhich) who
was
Svarazhitz,Russian
ETHICS."
SOCIAL
In a broad sense, the ethics
and whose idol stood beside that of Radifire-god,
of the various relations in which man
stands to his
gast. Stribog was possiblya god of winter.
More specifically,
of Polish deities have been identified: fellows and to societyas a whole.
A number
the ethics of those more
Liada (Mars),Dzydzilelya(Venus),
general and organized
Yesza (Jupiter),
education,
(Diana),Marzyana (Ceres), types of relation found in institutions (e.g.,
Nyja (Pluto),Dzewana
besides
property, the family,the competitivesystem)
air-deity (Podoga) and a life-deity
an
in concerted
action demanded
or
by widespread
; but these are not beyond suspicion.
(Zhywie)
of crime, poverty,
The
domestic
Survivals.
(e.g.,treatment
IV. Modern
gods conditions
urban fife).The ethics of the
vice,class conflict,
worshiped by the Slavs survive in the Russian
poHticalgroup as such is usually given a separate
("House
DMushka
Gaffer"), Polish
domovoy
treatment
as
pohtical ethics. Some
movements,
Skrzat,Czech Skritek or Hospodaficek, Bulgarian
such
have
role as
as
the same
social,
socialism,which
political,
play much
Stopan,all of whom
and economic
be said to belong
deities
There
Ukewise
are
aspects cannot
the English brownie.
ethics,and
of fate
(Rozhanice, Sudjenice,Dolya, SreCa), exclusivelyto either social or political
and mountains
similarlythere are few actions of the individual
of water, forests,
fields,
and spirits
which
be regarded as belonging either to
cannot
(Vily, Divy, Judy, etc.). BeUef in werewolves
individual
to social ethics according to the
or
is wide-spread,
as is that in Vampires,
(Vlkodlak,etc.)
point of view from which we wish to regard them.
and the "Uttle folk" (Ludki).
The
The soul can leave the body in
Soul.
problems of social ethics include,on the
V. The
one
or
hand, (1) facts as to growth or change in
sleep and enter another person, called Mora
benevolence,
social institutions and the ideas of justice,
Kikimora; and the soul (Sjen) often acts as a
liberty,social welfare,which these embody
household
spirit. In Serbia these souls {Zduh,
or
express; (2) facts as to prevalence,increase,or
Zduhacz) battle for the welfare of their owners.
decrease of conditions such as poverty, dependency,
After death the soul remains on earth tillthe corpse
prostitution,juvenile delinquency, divorce, class
decays, and during this time food and drink should
souls are those
consciousness,with reference especiallyto their
be offered it. The only malevolent
of
become
the unbaptized,etc., who
of sorcerers,
causes; and on the other hand, the best methods
deahng with these institutions and conditions.
Navky, Rusalky, etc.
The
fundamental
^We are told
Elements.
question is: Do institutions
the
of
VI. Worship
and events, or is the institution less
mountains,
shape men
that the Slavs worshiped not only water, fire,
mined
and stars; important than the individual character as deterand trees, but also sun, moon,
details are
by heredity or by the individual's own
given regarding these
although no
of one
at
choices?
Social reformers
type aim
cults.
,
of another type, at promoting
changing institutions;
Testimony as to belief
VII. Eschatology.
but
the Slavs is conflicting,
eugenics; of another type, at effectinga change of
in immortaUty

god

"

"

"

"

,.

"

among

of
celebrated in honor
individual character.
the funeral feasts {tryzna)
tions
of the strong Baltic
Plato,in his Republicand Laws, laid the foundathe dead, and the evidence
certain
for social ethics. He held to the paramount
render it practically
belief in a future fife,
importance of social institutions in shaping the
that the Slavs shared this conviction.
in his Politics,
of temples,idols, life of the individuals. Aristotle,
The
VIII. Cult.
presence
while holdingto the greatimportance of institutions,
priesthoodsis
sacrifices (sometimes human), and
"

Social

Gospel

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

limitingthis,the opposing
forth, as partially
in part at least from the
doctrine that evils come
bad character of individuals who make
injurious
an
Plato would abohsh private
of the institution.
use
the ruUng
property and the private family among
because they tended to interfere with harmony
class,
to the interest of the whole
and devotion
state;
Aristotle would not.
mental
fundaThis difference still remains the most
of evil
the causes
in social ethics: are
or are
they due to such
fundamentally institutional,

set

non-institutional factors as physicalenvironment,

inborn
instincts,passions, inevitable "set" or
"drive" of mental tendencies?
Broadly speaking,questions of social ethics up
Revolution were
of the Industrial
to the time
immediately connected with the institutions
more
since the
of family, church, and
state, whereas
conditions of industry
Industrial Revolution the new
and business have forced problems relatingto the
A further
field increasingly
economic
to the front.
of
broad tendency in recent times in the treatment
of
all problems of social ethics is to look to causes
evils with a view to prevention rather than to centei
immediate
rehef,as was
the more
attention upon
The
earher frequently the case.
appUcation of
of study to problemsof poverty,
methods
scientific
of divorce and of
distribution of wealth, causes
the
vice and crime, has had a strong influence upon
if it has not,
method
of approaching these, even
H. Tufts
James
as
yet, effected its purpose.
The
GOSPEL."
applicationof the
of the
and
the total message
life,
Christian salvation to society,the economic
and social institutions such as the state,the family,
as well as to individuals.
gospelof
Strictlyspeaking, there is only one
The
salvation. See Gospel.
appUcation of its
however, can be to both individuals and
message,
New
social groups.
In
Testament
times, the
gospelpromised membership in a social order,
cendental
i.e.,the Kingdom of God, which although transthe less real. According to
was
none
of
this Kingdom
of joining
Jesus, one prerequisite
God
the possessionof the social attitude of
was
love.
As Christianitydeveloped, however, it did
not follow this thought so central in the teaching
of Jesus,but preached a salvation largelycomprehended
in the resurrection of the body and the
of the soul from hell and its entrance into
rescue
of
of the Kingdom
social ideahsm
The
heaven.
into ecclesiasticism and
transformed
God
was
that
It was
natural,therefore,
picturesof heaven.
of the gospel should
practicallythe only purpose
of the individual
be regarded as that of the rescue
and actual sin as well as the miseriesof
from original
SOCIAL

teaching of Jesus

life.

Perhaps in no periodhas the appUcationof the

individuaUstic
than during the
gospel been more
of the philosophy of the 18th. and early
dominance
natural
19th, centuries,with its emphasis upon
rightsand its minimizing of social structure. The
embodied
these views
were
theology in which
ary
emphasizedstronglythe doctrine of a substitutioneffect of such theology was
The
atonement.
side it begot the indifference
twofold.
On the one
which Wilberforce
of the masses
the other hand it stimulated a
of reUgious leaders to
comparatively smaU group
and other
undertake
the mitigation of economic
of Ambrose
and
social ills. Much
in the spirit
were
Chrysostom, these leaders,most of whom
sociaUsts
Christian
(see Socialism, Christian),
of England the wretched
brought home to the people
their need of education
condition of the working classes,
and of better interests and conditions in Ufe.

to the social needs

so

laments

and

on

AND

ETHICS

416

adherents of socialism
not philosophical
were
but they were
of the term
in the technical sense
that they beUeved
Christian socialists in the sense
and power,
that Christianityhad a social message
Christians should improve the
and that, therefore,
them
conditions of Ufe of workingmen and assure
larger justice. Their spirithas lived on in the
church of England and has extended far beyond its

They

limits.
An entirely
new

interest in the social significance

of Christianitydeveloped in the last decade
due largely to the
of the 19th. century. It was
the teaching of Jesus,
new
emphasis laid upon
the historical study of the Bible and Christianity,
the rapidspread of sociological
study and interest ; m
a word, the conjunction of the modem
spiritwith
the gospelof Jesus himself.
Sociologicalstudies
made
it apparent that the individual could not be
dissociatedfrom his social surroundingsor from their
influence;that group interests and social inheritance
had moral effects on the individual;that,primary as
the individual might be, his welfare,both spiritual
conditioned by social forces and
and temporal,were
those which
are
econoiruc.
customs, particularly
creased
PubUcations
in this bibUco-sociological
field inSocial preaching in churches as
rapidly.^
logical
theoand
well as social instruction in colleges
of the
seminaries emphasized the work
church
both
as
ameliorating and transforming
its beginning,
the Federal
social conditions.
From
Council of the Churches of Christ in America has
emphasized the social bearing of Christianityand
is commonly
the
has published what
known
as
of
Social Creed
of the Churches, i.e.,
statement
a
principlesand social ideals to which the church
tion
should devote itself. Among
these are the aboliof poverty, the curbing of divorce,the rightof
to share in determining working
laboring men
and other
conditions,the abolition of child-labor,
and in generalthe applicationof
evils,arbitration,
the teaching of Jesus to family,state,international
affairs and all other aspects of social life. Christian
activityis not, however, to be restricte'dto social
service and
the ameUo ration of evil conditions;
of social injustice
it must seek to remove
the causes
and evils; though opposed to revolution it must
be interested in social reconstruction.
Insistence upon
this appUcation of Christianity
has not been without opposition. On the one
side
those who hold that any attempt at Christianizing
are
the social order is contrary to the beUef in
the second coming of Christ.
On the other hand
there are those who insist that the church should
nomic
ecokeep itselfaloof from social and particularly
which is
questions,preaching the religion^
concerned
in abstract virtue,individual
essentially
and the salvation into
morality,the atonement
heaven.
Notwithstanding misinterpretation and
however, the spread of real confidence
opposition,
to
in the abilityof the gospel to present a way
social as
well as individual salvation is rapidly
not only Protestant but also
increasingamong
churchmen. .JThe heart of the
Roman
CathoUc
in the teachingsof Jesus
social gospel is to be seen
of
as
to the fatherUness of God, the brotherhobd
of personality. It
and
the supreme
worth
men
holds to the practicabiUtyas well as the necessityof
putting these truths into operation for the purpose
of destroying or reconstructingsocial forces and
institutions and establishing
those of a trulyChristian
of courage
character. Sit is,thus, a message
and hope as well as of ideals and social responsiIt believes God is working in human
biUty.^
history.
It does not forget that societyis made
up of folks
God's
that individuals need
and
saving power,
but it holds that the gospel is equally needed and

Farthest possible
appUcable to group-activities.

417
is it from

humanitarian
of the

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Social Service

of Church

of a
from church members
by taxation comes
merely sociological
presentation
largely
as
principle. For it is the social application does also the spiritand personnel directingsuch

gospelof Jesus Christ.

enterprisesbut pubUc consciousness of these facts

is sUght because the church as such does not make
Matbdbws
Shailer
SOCIAL
SERVICE
OF
the giftsand usually does not incorporate in her
CHURCH."
THE
of meetings and
munities
Organized charity characterized.Christian comeducation
program
adequate
from the beginningand was
of the
one
recognitionof this extension work.
teaits favorably regarded by the heathen
The trend from autocracy to democracy necesworld.
sarily
The
lavish presents, subsidies and legaciesof the
shifted the emphasis of social service from
rehef to preventionwhile the church as such remained
based primarilyupon
not
were
powerful Romans
need
administered
or
according to need alone.
predisposed to mercy rather than to justice. The
divided character of protestantismand the shifting
for
They aimed at splendor of hberalityand were
citizens only, the more
prominent usuallyreceiving of power almost wholly from clergyto laityretarded
the largerbonus.
The early Christian societywas
the free proclamation of social justiceand
signed
condedicated to the welfare of the poor and needy.
the church
to a rear-end positionin major
However
Athens at its best had succeeded in organsocial reforms.
Her care
for personal deportment
izing
conscious and effective than her concern
state reUef for the poor, the crippledand the
more
was
for the social conditions in which personalcharacter
orphansof fallen soldiers and priorto the squandering
of state revenues
in spectaclesfor political
Individual
effect
members
was
largerly determined.
maintained
have wrought well in this fieldbut not churches as
a
worthy record. Ultimately the
Roman
distribution of grainand spoilsdemoralized
such.
the citizenry. In the meanwhile
Institutional churches were
the guilds and
designed to supplement
the nearest approach to the standards
the domestic, educational
and
were
recreative
collegia
of a Christian community
and perhaps paved the
needs of depressed communities.
Their methods
have been those of the social settlements together
and family-like soUdarity
way for the communism
of the earhest Christian groups.
In such groups
with a frank appeal to the religious
interest. The
be "given to hospitality,"
and
best descriptionof such work on a largescale is that
must
one
great
of St. George's Parish,New
importance attached to the common
meal, "the
York, as set forth by
serving of tables" and almsgiving. Since there was
Hodges and Reichert in The Institutional Church,
It is worthy of note that the institutional or settlement
no
thought of reformingthe world,material goods,
indifferent matmethod
has become
for successful
ters,
government, industry, caste were
a standard
for the "end of the age" drew near.
both at home
and
abroad.
missionary endeavor
It is perhaps the modern
Accordingto the Apostolic Constitutions the
of expressing the
way
of
bishops "are to supply to orphans the care
spiritof the earhest Christians.
that of husbands,to help to
Within
parents, to widows
protestantism the rise of the Young
Men's
and
Christian Association
the
marriage those ready for marriage, to procure
Young
work
for those out of work, to show
Women's
Christian Association
compassion
represented a
co-ordination
to those incapable of work, to provide a shelter for
for social service quite beyond the
strangers, food for the hungry, drink for the thirsty, rea,ch of the separate denominations; but these,
visits for the sick and
help for the prisoners" quite like the various orders within the Roman
Cathohc
(IV, 2.) Purity and simplicityof livingand the
Church, were for service and not for social
before God
functioned
reform. The service rendered in peace and in war
equahty of all beUevers
and throughout the world has been great but the
indirectlyas social service while, naturally, the
conscious
aim
make
to
After
converts.
was
been
have
questions of social structure
grave
Constantine
the double standard involvingceUbacy,
avoided
and
the hardest
problems of the most
attacked.
poverty and works of merit for the ecclesiastical
needy have
hardly been
Working
Christian broke up this simpUcity,although very
the depressed but with a like aim is the
among
of
extensive
works
and
its more
offshoots.
charity continued, centering Salvation Army
recent
and
finally about
great monasteries
hospitals. Similarly the Young Peoples' Movements
more
because
of the
Congregational rehef subsided
strictlywithin the church had their heyday prior
the
concurrent
to the dawn
within
of community
expansion of Christianity and
responsibility
increase of misery and pauperism. Ecclesiasticism
the religious
and so spent their enthusiasm
groups
turned
giftsinto future salvation for the donors
largelyin personal Christian culture. It is probably
and in the 5th. century the church was
the largest
true, however, that the urgent social evolution
landowner in the Roman
accelerated by the great war
Empire. Bishops took
is already quickening
the place of nobles in distributing
benefits. Instiand broadening the church's conception of social
tutionahsm
ruled the day and
bulked
service.
result of her
But in the meantime
large in
one
is a certain coldness on the part of the
fosteringlearning,reheving distress and developing past course
abuses through the Dark Ages.
self-conscious strugglingclasses,especiallyin the
With
the Protestant Reformation
tion
decentralizagreat industrial centers, who are demanding what
set in,which, followed by the spread of common
they regard as their rightsand not "social service."
Therefore
the most
rights, democracy and separation of the
pressing problem of the
and state, resulted in throwing into civil
church
church
in this field is not that of organizing and
the greater part of the ameliorative
government
financing the fragmentary share of charity still
work of Christian bodies.
At the present time in
ments
remaining to her, nor yet that of pioneeringexperiStates the Boards
the United
of County Commissioners
in ameHoration, but rather that of making a
the
to
coherent
perform the relief work formerly done
and
convincing contribution
tion
democratic
by the church; school boards have charge of educain politicsand
movement
industry.
and in the great cities United
Charities and
with the "proletariat"were
If only her connection
various specializedassociations fiU in the gaps left
in the major
sound and vahd she might do much
social service of defining "rights" and
in
by the state, county or municipal government.
more
be held that the church leavened the whole
It may
such need as
Answering to some
urging "duties."
churches have espoused the Open Forum
lump but it is equally true that sound scientific this many
research
Movement
and have made
(often opposed by the church) made
possiblefree and frank
discussion of vital reforms in a rather ideal atmosphere.
possible the effective application of the normal
altruism
of the general pubUc. Voluntary supthe
Furthermore
adoption of a social
port
for the speciaUzedagencies not yet carried
creed for the churches on the part of the Federal

Socialism

Council

Churches

of the

OF

DICTIONARY
of

RELIGION

Christ in America

together with the proclamations of American

all
Catholic church
bishops within the Roman
favoring the reforms agitatedfor years by organized
"

labor
indicates a slow but sure acceptance
that virile social service which
struggles for
justice while continuing the rehef and welfare
the glory of the church.
work which anciently
were
Hoben
Allan
movement
^A social-economic
SOCIALISM.
system
aiming at the destruction of the capitalistic
institutions and the
together with all contributing
social order based upon the
estabUshment
of a new
collective ownership and administration of capital
and the products of labor by a democracy.
I. General
Characteristics
op Socialism."
The definitionhere given is intended to make plain
theories proposed
the distinction between economic^
by various sociahsts and the significanceof the
basal
Economics
movement
as a whole.
_may be
As an
but they are not identical with sociaUsm.
"

of

from
groups

AND

ETHICS

418

the generalinterests of different economic

farmers
(e.g.,

and

has
financiers),

had

no

in the constitutional organizationof the

nation.
ism
Religion.
^Radical socialII. Socialism
and
regardsthe Christian church and in fact rehgion
share

"

control.
itself as a form of capitalistic
Many of
of Europe
the leading sociahsts of the continent
allied with the Christian church, and
were
never
minism
adopted the generalphilosophy of economic deterin which,whatever
allowances might be
for ideological
made
elements in human
experience
(as by Marx) religionhas no legitimateplace. It
cautious
is,however, true that not a few of the more
of the system have
been outspokenly
advocates
Christian.
Such writers would expressly
agree with
the opinion of Professor Kirkup that "the ethics
tianity,
of sociahsm
are
closelyakin to the ethics of Christian
if not identical with them."
See Chrisnot
Socialism.
But
such
sympathies are
whole
and
characteristic of the movement
as
a
fairlybe criticized as confusing moral ends
sociologists may
theory it is held by many
economic
of attainment.
who
do not desire the destruction of the existing with proposed methods
and platsocial order but rather its transformation by the
forms
Further, although socialist programs
be carefully
limited to economic
of promatters,
collective ownership of the larger means
may
duction
of antagonism
the literature of the movement
is one
and of the
and the abolition of competition
to many
existing social institutions. Marriage
system. Such institutions as the family and
wage
an
as
indispensableinstitution is freelyquestioned
religionare by these sociahsts held to be matters of
of women
and the position
is a matter of variant
and the state is not to be destroyed
privateconcern
the socialist movement
not
and anarchy)
or
opinion. Whether
(as is the proposal of communism
the masses,
if at once
but more
victorious,would
less rapidlybrought into the control
or
among
of these socialists reorganizesex-morality,
can
of the working classes. Many
hardlybe a matter of
labor.
doubt. Yet it is also probable that,as in the case
would recognizeintellectual as well as physical
of the bolshevik regime, the actual experiment of
The number
of schools into which sociahsts are
divided is considerable.
From
this fact it is fair
recasting a social order would
greatly modify
views.
extreme
of socialists only the
to attribute to any
group
it is well to distmguish
On the whole, therefore,
proposalsactuallyadopted and publishedby them
in programs
and
officially
platforms. All types socialism as an economic theory lookingto collective
and democratic
of this, so
to speak, confessional socialism
ownership of capital,and socialism
are,
It is too
as
a
revolutionary social movement.
in professedsympathy with the
however, at one
but the growth in
to forecast its final influence,
soon
general philosophyand hopes. SociaUst
masses,
numbers
of its adherents,its effect on the labor
organizationsare means
by which the goal is to be
less rapidly sought. They all base their
movement, the gradual recognition of working
more
or
rather than as
factors in
as
mere
This,according men
activityon the class-consciousness.
persons
the growing criticism of the morals of
to sociahsts of the
International type, is to be
production,
transformed
into a class-hatred and
ultimately competition,and the increase of economic activity
the part of states and municipalities,
make
it
tion
class-control.
on
Many socialist groups look to evoluthat socialism is already a force in social
to bring about this end rather than revolution, evident
it wiU engender a largerliberty
evolution.
That
in
such group
although since the defeat of one
under a better adjusted competitive
than is possible
Russia
(the memsheviks) by those favoring direct
well be questioned. Social ethics is
communistic
action (the
and
system may
revolutionary even
the alignment is being confused by more
becoming of ever
increasingimportance, and
bolsheviks)
radical leaders and the influence of Russian propareligiousand moral teachers cannot
ignore the
ganda.
conditions.
As an economic
new
theory it may
not be hostile to Christianity;as an all-embracing
of the Marxian
The dominance
philosophythat
labor is the creator of all wealth has been somewhat
theory of societylookingto the recastingof morality
and rehgion
it bids fair to be a rival to Christianity
but Marx's
modified by various schools of socialists,
Shailer
Mathews
treatise Capital is still properlyto be regardedas
generally.
the Bible of the movement.
OF JESUS." See Jesus,Society of.
SOCIETY
world-attitude has influence
Socialism hke any
the
Before
socialist groups.
outside of avowed
PROMOTING
SOCIETY
FOR
CHRISTIAN
writers
felt by many
this influence was
Great War
Christian
See
KNOWLEDGE.
Such writers,followingthe
Knowledge,
economic
matters.
on
Society
Promoting.
for
an
Fabian
tunist
opporSociety,endeavored to assume
sociahsts
avowed political
attitude whether
FOR
THE
PROPAGATION
OF THE
SOCIETY
not.
further,
or
English and American socialists,
IN
FOREIGN
PARTS."
A missionary
that the German
discovered during the war
origin GOSPEL
of England, which is reprewere
societyof the Church
and leadership of the movement
ible
incompatsentative
branch of the Church,
of the High Church
important
with patrioticaction and in some
and
carries on
extensive,aggressive missionary
instances broke with the socialistparty. The full
work in various foreigncountries.
effect of these divergent currents ranging from the
like Spargo in
bolsheviks of continental Europe to men
tianity
A rationahstic type of ChrisSOCINIANISM."
America
is not yet discernible beyond the growing
in the 16th. century. Socinus
fluence.
radicahsm
of allsociahst groups under continental inoriginating
differentiated
(Latinized form of Sozini or Sozzini), Laehus
isthus ever more
The movement
clearly
(1525-1562), and Faustus (153"-1604), uncle and
from the democratic development of the
their
of the sect that bears
distinct nephew, founders
as
United States where class-consciousness,
"

"

419

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Sociology

virtue or energy
members
of an Italian patrician
of God, by the communication
family
name, were
of which all these operationsare performed." The
of thought.
noted
for its advocacy of freedom
This gained for them access
to high poUticalcircles
Gospel is to be viewed as the teachings of Christ
scholars
in addition to the law.
Christ's death was
and to the friendshipof leading humanist
not a
LaeUus was
of their time.
the more
satisfactutionfor sins,
though he died
deeplyreUgious substitutionary
of them.
account
of the two
His redemption of men
on
men.
is
Going to Poland, wher" the
his liberation of men
intellectual and
tolerance of the ruUng
from the service of sins,and,
religious
free scope
their punishment.
to
antitrinitarian consequently from
Men
are
an
nobihty gave
not inherentlyimmortal, neither have they original
there
movement
as
represented by such men
Peter Gonesius, Martin
sin, but they are rational,free and responsible,
Czechowitz,George Biandrata and Gregorius Paulus of Cracow, he became
and by faith,that is,trust and obedience,they will
be saved
from
a
punishment (annihilationfinally)
vigorous supporter of it. Faustus came
deeply
under his uncle's influence but his interests were
immortal.
and become
Augustinianism is repudiated
ethical and intellectual than religious,
in general. The
institutionahsm
of the
more
strictly
himself greatly with the rational
faith is entirelyrepudiated. "The visible
and he concerned
CathoUc
basis for the ethical teachings of Christianity.
hold and profess
of such men
He
church is a society
as
to Poland
and became
noted
the most
be used of a
too went
saving doctrine,"and the term may
considered as a
theologian of the antitrinitarians there; but his
singlelocal societyor of such men
and
of the
whole.
even
repudiation of all sacraments
Baptism (immersion) of beUevers is the rite
of initiation to the church, but it is not saving,being
Baptist view of the obhgation to be baptized as
weU as of the Supper as a memorial
feast
it was
but a symbol and sign and infants are not proper
a
form of thanksgiving to him
prevented him from
subjects. The celebration of the Supper purely
is limited to these baptized believers.
formally joiningthe very body that bore his name.
a memorial
He
assisted in the preparation of the Racovian
under
of the church
The order and discipline
come
visible
of the
the direction of chosen elders and rulers. The "inCatechism, which is the best presentation
church"
is made up of all those who beUeve
Socinian doctrines.
be no assemblage of
and obey Christ,but there can
Through its influence in the University of
Socinianism
it until the coming of Christ.
Racov, Socinianism
spread widely in Poland and
appears
in Germany and Holland
Hungary and somewhat
throughout as an attempt to restore the primitive
where it was
much
feared by orthodoxy,Catholic
Christian church and its doctrine as a truly rational
George
and
faith.
Cross
version
Protestant, till Jesuitism,through the conof many
Polish princes,brought about its
SOCIOLOGY.
it became
known
The
as a
suppression. Thenceforward
general science of social
be
It spread into England
life. More
fined
dedoctrine rather than a sect.
elaborately,sociologymay
and
and
the
science
of social evolution
as
deeply affected the views of many
English
social organization; or, of the originand develot"Protestants,both Conformists and Non-conformists.
of
and functioning,of the reciprocal
Its presence
is chieflymarked
by the number
ment, structure
controversial works
relations of individuals.
publishedagainst it. It was
I. History.
transplantedto New England in the latter part of
Speculations regarding social
the 18th. century and began quietly
to leaven liberal
organization and social origins began very early
and are conspicuous elements in all early religions.
rehgiousthought there.
Socinianism
be regarded as a simplified
and
Like primitive philosophy in general,early social
may
undifferentiated from
rationaUzed
ethical Protestantism.
brief
For
religion.
a
philosophy was
social
method
and its doctrinal
Thus
in both the Old and New
of its theological
Testaments
statement
Catechism.
logically
It
turn
to the Racovian
tenets
we
questions are almost invariably looked at theoand viewed
begins with an attempteddefinition of the Christian
exclusivelyfrom a religious
follows:
Christian
is as
"The
standpoint.
religion,which
which
The
first social philosophy to be formulated
religionis the way of attainingeternal life,
that of the
God has pointed out by Jesus Christ; or, in other
independentof religiousbeliefs was
of serving God, which
Greeks, especially that of Plato and Aristotle.
words, it is the method
The
Plato's social philosophy was
he has himself deUvered
idealistic and ethical,
by Jesus Christ."
to any
main
here clearly suggested: Christianity scarcelyconforming in its a priorimethod
points are
the
is practice,conduct, morals; it rests upon
of the canons
of modern
science.
on
Aristotle,
definite teaching,positiveinstruction,
tatively
other hand, was
given authorireaUstic,objective,and inductive.
of the teaching
Hence
Aristotle is almost universallyregarded as
by Jesus Christ;the source
His
himself and the reward
of believingobedience
social sciences.
is God
the father of the modern
is salvation, everlasting Ufe.
Politics contains the rudiments
not only of political
It is then
demonstrated
that the Scripturesare an
science, but of economics, sociology,and social
rationally
authentic statement, proved by their inner rational
ethics.
character
and
of social philosophyfrom the
This emergence
by the miracles that attested the
teaching, of the revelation of truth which Jesus
"theologicalstage" was, however, but temporary.
in the New
ment
Testauttered directly
Under
or
the influence of Augustine and other fathers
indirectly
and
of the Church
social philosophy again became
a
inferentially,
by his approval, in the
Old Testament; that they are
sufficient for our
so
during the entire
part of theology and remained
needs and that they are
pretation Middle
period,
capable of clear interAges. Even in the early modern
Thus
revelation
as
reason.
Bodin, Vico,
by the human
despite the efforts of such men
is a system
and rationaUty concide.
The outcome
and
Montesquieu in certain directions,social
of theology
of "rational"
morality supported by doctrines
thinking continued under the domination
authenticated
divine in origin. These doctrines
and metaphysics. It was
as
only the advent of
differ considerablyfrom orthodoxy.
which
the French
Revolution
put an end to such
God is one
In its midst Condorcet proposed that
only,revealed in Christ,
who, domination.
person
the methods
fully
of study which had been used successas
a human
being,not a God incarnate,was superto teach final truth,
in other sciences should be employed in the
natiu"allyborn and endowed
for Auguste
it remained
and elevated after his exemplary death to divinity, social sciences.
But
but not to essential equality with God.
Christ
Comte in his Course of Positive Philosophy(published
outline
is "the person
clearly these
by whose instrumentalityGod oper1830-1842) to
ates"
in salvation, and the Holy Spirit is "the
how they might be applied
and
show
methods
"

"

"

"

"

"

Sociology

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OP

in the study of social phenomena.

In this work
Comte
used the word "sociology"
for the firsttime
the name
of the general science of society.
as
For this reason,
well as for his insistence upon
as
the use
of scientific methods, Comte
is usually
ology.
recognized as the founder of modern scientific sociHis
contributions
to
own
sociological
not
and may
be found
theory were
insignificant,
best stated, perhaps, in his System of Positive
Polity, a Treatise on
Applied Sociology (1851-

1854).
Comte's

3.

AND

ETHICS

Accompanying

420
these

tendencies

of

recent

sociologyto escape from particularismand become

for a commore
psychologicalhas been a demand
posite
method
which
shall synthesize particular
inductive methods
of research,
such as the statistical,
the
the
historical,and
anthropo-geographical.
Such a method
perhaps develop out of the
may
"social survey," which has recentlybecome
popular
of studying local conditions.
as
a method
Started
local study of local
by social workers as a mere
to be caconditions,the social survey is now
seen
pable
of universal apphcation and is rapidlypassing

chief successors
in the 19th. centmy
into the
Herbert
hands
of scientific experts. At
first
Spencer in England {Principlesof
the survey method
itself only with the
3 vols.,1876-1896). Lester F. Ward
concerned
Sociology,
in America
but it is gradually
{Dynamic Sociology,2 vols.,1883), material conditions of social life,
Albert Schaeffle in Germany {Bau und Leben des
coming to include studies of social traditions,
Socialen Korpers,4 vols.,1875-1878), and Gabriel
social standards,
and social values.
and
It more
Tarde in France
makes
of the exact
of
more
use
measurements
{Laivs of Imitation,1890). None
of these writers,however, succeeded
statistics and of the insightinto processes of social
in making
sociologyan inductive science. They all remained
origin and
development which
history affords.
Some
such composite inductive method, covering
dominantly speculative social philosophers. The
the whole
social life of hiunanity, must
be the
heavy task of establishingsociologyupon a secure
basis of demonstrated
instrument
for the
which
to perfect
facts thus remained
use
sociology must
20th. century.
This task is yet far from completed,
itself;and scientific sociologists
increasinglystrive
but the outlines of a scientific theory of social
to employ such a method.
III. Bearing
social organization are
Ethics
Religion.
and
now
upon
development and
It is evident that the development of a scientific
becoming evident.
II. Present
most
The
Tendencies.
a
matter-of-fact,inductive basis
nounced sociology upon
prohave a profound influence upon
must
tendencies
ethics and
of present day sociology are:
for ethics
(1) to stress the importance of the mental side of
religion. The modern
spiritdemands
social life and
than a basis in revealed religion
the close interdependence of
something more
so
cerning
in abstract metaphysical principles. Conor
even
psychology and sociology;(2) to overcome
ticularism"
"parthe use of alcoholic beverages,for example,
by an organic, or synthetic,view of
their near
the social life;(3) to develop a composite method
ask what
and remote
social effects
we
which shall synthesizeall minor
methods
of social
the basis of this knowledge we
are, and
upon
decide
the social ideal regarding
and research.
largely what
investigation
should
often strove to assimilate
Social knowledge, we
1. Earlier sociologists
their use
be.
now
the methods
of sound
of sociology to those
of physical
see, is indispensablefor the construction
science.
social ideals,whether
of
these concern
the family life,
Carrying out this idea, a number
recent sociologists
have championed what is known
national,
fife,politicallife,intercommunity life,economic
interracial relations. Thus
modern
as "objectivism"in both psychology and sociology
or
the study of the behavior
ethics tends to seek a scientific basis,which, since
of men
and of groups
logical
without any reference to mental processes.
is a social matter, means
tivism
Objeclargelya sociobasis. This does not necessarilymean
the
has, however, made but Uttle progress, as
it is generally
recognizedthat the type of adaptation
overturning of long accepted general principlesof
in human
be safely
Mental
society is mental.
processes,
morahty.On the contrary, it may
affirmed that the general trend of scientific social
interstimulation and response,
especiallymental
mental
largely constitute the social process.
Especially research thus far has been to establish the fundacorrectness
have the "mores," that is,the sanctioned standards
of Christian ideals of Ufe.
In a similar way
of groups,
be recognized as
the chief
to
come
rehgion must also be affected
gion
determinants
not
only of group
behavior,but
by the development of a scientific sociology. Reliand to
is now
of the social behavior
of individuals.
also to be a social matter
Thus
seen
even
social psychology become
have
get its fundamental
significancefrom its relation
sociology and
practicallyindistinguishable.This is particularly to social values. Its origin and development as
manifest in such recent writers as Sumner, Giddings, a phase of human
culture, its functioning as a
of social control and as an agency
of social
means
Baldwin, Ross, Cooley, and Wallas.
of sociological
stressed the organic,synthetic view
all within the scope
2. Comte
are
progress,
of his successors
of human
judge from
investigation. Here again, if we may
relations;but many
the indications are that whatever
have developed what may
be called particularistic,the latest results,
from
lose in other-worldlysignificance
views of the social fife. Thus sociology religionmay
or unilateral,
than gain in significance
has had
its schools of geographical,
biological, such studies,it will more
form of
that some
for the present world; and even
The most
economic, and ideologicaldeterminists.
schools has been
Christianitywill ultimately be endorsed by social
prominent of these particularistic
for the highest
science as the religiondemanded
whose dominantly
that of the economic determinists,
economic
society.
philosophy of the social lifehas furnished, development of human
A. Ellwood
Charles
is well known, the basis for the revolutionary
as
SOCRATES
socialism.
While
logical
socio(ca.470-399 b.c.)."An Athenian
propaganda of Marxian
chief founder of ethics.
philosopher,
particularism stillholds sway in popular
the
somewhat
Socrates taught young
as
into antagonistic
men
beUefs
divides men
and
even
gists
sociololittle standing among
Sophists (q.v.)did, but without charge, without
parties,it has now
professionalpretense, and without formal discipleof repute. The tendency in sociologyis now
to
ship. His zeal for arousing thought on ethical
replace these various particularisms by an
of a divine
attained the consciousness
matters
synthesizes the elements of
organic view which
consummate
He
showed
mission.
genius in the
scientific sociologyis graduvalue in each.
Thus
ally
He
reflection and moral purpose.
attainingto a balanced view of the social Ufe, power to arouse
left no writings,but,through his personal influence
and so no longer lends itself readilyto the social
of inquiry,and
his dialecticmethod
faddist or revolutionist.
on several men,
were

"

"

"

moraUty

"

DICTIONARY

421

RELIGION

OP

determined the
the problems he raised,he largely
direction of later ethical speculations.
follows necessarily
He held that good conduct
from rational insight; evil is due to ignorance of
this insightby
what is good. He aimed to secure
of inductive
by
the method
definition,which
should clarifythe meaning
questions and answers
about
of the predicatesappUed in propositions
conduct.
Thus, while maintaming the right of
inquiry,he avoided the negatively critical results
re-established confidence in
of the Sophists, and
rational knowledge. As all the virtues ah ke flow
to constitute
from rational insight,he held them
be
reason
can
one
goodness, whicli for the same

taught.
rational
These
predicates, the clarifying of
not for Socrates
which
constitutes knowledge, are
ent
mere
concepts, but have an eternal reahty independFrom
this
of the changing things of sense.
is developed the doctrine of forms or ideas,usually
attributed to Plato (q.v.),but recently attributed
by Burnet to Socrates himself.
divinities and of
On charges of introducingnew
corrupting youth, but probably in fact because
unfavorable
racy,
to the democthe effect of his work was
condemned
and executed.
His
Socrates was
martyrdom
greatly increased his influence as
thinker and sage.
the greatestof whom
Several of Socrates' pupils,
was
Plato, established schools in which various
sided,
onevery
aspects of his philosophy, sometimes
with other
further developed or mixed
were
J. F. Crawford
speculations.
historian,
SOCRATES
(ca.380-444) ."Church
who
gatheredmaterial from existinghistories and
givinga series of chronicles
the writingsof the fathers,
and episodeswith honest intent but without much
Theologically,he was an
critical historical sense.
admirer and discipleof Origen.
SODALITY.

In the R.C. church

"

brotherhood

confraternity,organized for philanthropic or

Societies.
See Catholic
pious purposes.
or

when
for Mithra
A name
INVICTUS.
SOL
his cult received the support of the Roman
Emperors
was
interpretedin terms of a solar
and the religion
"

pantheism.
AND

LEAGUE

SOLEMN
See

League

and

Covenant,

COVENANT."
Solemn.

A
term
employed, often
disparagingsense, to indicate the doctrine that
is saved by faith alone without any contributing
one
element of good works.

SOLIFIDIANISM.

in

"

AND

ETHICS

(cf.Iranian
in the sacrifices
of drinkingit gave
name

SON

OF

indicative of
incarnate
1. In

Son of Man

Haoma). The use of this liquor

together with the natural effect
it a supernaturalcharacter.

GOD."
God's

term

of

varying content

regard, delegated power

or

nature.

non-bibical
is used
religionsthe term
the explanationof outstandingqualities
of some
They are said to be sons of a god
person.
it was
or a goddess. In Roman
applied to an
usage
whose predecessorhad been deified.
emperor
2. In the O.T. the term is never
of essence
one
of its application
nature except in the rare case
or
to angels,
where it indicates superhuman, spiritual
quahty. In all other cases it indicates that a nation
close relations with Yahweh
or a king is in especially
and the chosen recipientof his love and delegated
article is used either with
In such cases
no
power.
"Son"
or "God."
is true,but in the
3. In Jewish usage the same
a
apocalyptic writers it occasionally becomes
God's
of "Messiah"
as
descriptionor synonym
royal representative. The usage, however, is not
the conclusion that
to warrant
common
sufficiently
of God would be interpreted
to be the son
a claim
as
a claim to Messiahship.
4. In the N.T. the term when used in the singular,
1:35, 38, where the reference
except in Luke
is to the birth of Jesus,is always theocratic,
equivalent
Such sonship is conceived
to the "Messiah."
and as evidenced
of as pre- as well as post-incarnate
siah"
As distinguishedfrom "Mesby the resurrection.
rather than official,
it is ethical and religious
and indicates the dignity and authority resulting
Both
"Son"
from
intimate
relations with God.
and "God"
usually have the article ("the son of
In
the God") when the reference is to Jesus Christ.
it refers to those who
the plural(withoutthe article)
members
of the messianic
are
kingdom and so
the specialobjectsof God's love.
Hellenistic influence the term
was
5. Under
with
associated
the Logos (q.v.) and
gained a
the
of
narratives
metaphysical quality. The
Virgin Birth familiarized the church with a divine
of the Christ, and this in the 2nd. and
paternity
3rd. centuries was
almost
exclusivelytransferred
to the Logos as
a
begotten before time. Thus
basis was
laid for the theologicalfindingsof the
and
Athanasians
4th. century. The issue between
Arians concerned
the metaphysicalrelation of the
and not the
Son and the Father in the Godhead
of the historical Jesus.
By the decision
person
said to have been
of the Council at Nicea the Son was
with
substance
"begotten not made, of the same
In
Creed.
the Father."
See Trinity; Nicbne
as
generally

accordingly had a
theology thereafter the term
ceived
double meaning, the one
referringto Jesus as conOF."
A pseudepigraphical
ODES
by the Holy Ghost and the other to the
SOLOMON,
of them
Christian, eternal Son begotten before time by the Father.
collection of 42 hymns, many
unfortunately
The confusion of these two usages was
dating from the latter part of the 1st. century.
of
frequent,givingrise to serious misinterpretations
the orthodox position. This is stated with precision
A pseudepigraphal
PSALMS
OF."
SOLOMON,
in the Creed of Chalcedon (q.v.).
of 18 psalms of Pharisaic origin,written
group
Mathews
Shailer
70 and 40 B.C., and used extensivelyin the
between
A term used in the gospelsto
OF MAN.
See
SON
Christian
of the
era.
Jewish
synagogues
indicate Jesus as the type of the Kingdom of God.
PSEUDEPIGRAPHA.
The
origin of such usage is Dan. 7:13, where
is the type of the
like a son of man,
a man,
An
i.e.,
WISDOM
OF."
one
apocryphal
SOLOMON,
work
probably of Greco-Egyptian Jewish origin, triumphant kingdom of the saints. In Enoch it is
of the Messiah.
several times used as the synonym
and 40 a.d., the purport
150 b.c.
dating between
was
heathen
rulers.
is to admonish
Previously, however, in Ezelael the term
of which
frequentlyemployed to representthe prophet, with
weakness.
The
One of the three chief gods of Vedic
possible reference to his human
SOMA.
ceptions.
synoptic usage has been traced to both these conreligion. The whole of the ninth book of the
The problem is comphcated by the lack
He
is the deified
is devoted to him.
Rig-Veda
with
Jesus, and the
of evidence
contemporary
intoxicatingdrink made from the plant bearing the
"

"

Soothsaying

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

422

While
individual Sophists differed in range
further criticalquestion as to whether the term was
of
instruction and in tenets, they all reacted against
used by Jesus himself or appliedto him by the N.T.
the metaphysical and scientific speculationsof the
writers. On the whole the decision seems
in favor
Greek schools in Ionia and Italyas being uncertain
of the definition given above.
It should, however,
and useless. A principlecommon
be remembered
that the term
had
distinct
to them
the
no
was
distinction between
nature
messianic reference in popular usage in N.T. times.
and convention.
toms
Cusand beliefs which had once
For that reason, it could be used by Jesus as indicating
seemed
able
unchangeand universal were
his own
to have
had a
now
seen
conception of the revelatoryquahty
varied historyand to differ among
of his mission
different peoples.
without
exposing himself to the
The
difficulties involved in a definite messianic selfSophists therefore repudiated the effort to
find a rational basis for them in nature; their value
disclosure.
In later theological
the term
expressed lay in the practicalutilityof convention.
ras
Protagousage
the first to propound the social contract
the humanity of Jesus Christ as contrasted with
was
the
of
the Son of God
of
institutions.
which
his
t
heory
deity.
origin
(q.v.)
(q.v.)
expressed
While skepticalof any rational grounds of law
Shailer
Mathews
the
SOOTHSAYING."
or
Refers to world-wide
cult,
Sophists aimed to produce individual
stitious
superin the higher
efficiency(goodness,"excellence")and consequent
practices,persistingeven
within the obtaining system of conventions.
levels of culture, which
success
are
designed to obtain
accordingly conservative or even
knowledge of future events or of things or happeningsThey were
tionary
reacin their support of existingpoUtical and
otherwise hidden from ordinary perception.
In a narrower
the term
rehgiousinstitutions.
applies to the
sense,
indirect effect of such teaching,however,
The
diviners of ancient Chaldea, Greece
and
Rome,
to undermine
where the soothsayer was
less of a public
was
or
authority,to foster disputation,
more
and to render conventions
functionary and gave advice with reference to the
subject to caprice or
selfishness. This, with their professionalism,
affairs of state.
In its simplestform, the assumpmade
tion
the Sophists objects of bitter attack, so that the
of divination is that hidden information
may
be obtained from the observation
became
of the positions term
of opprobrium.
one
"sophist" soon
and movements
of animate
and inanimate
denotes reasoning
things Accordinglythe term "sophistry"
that is designedlydeceptive.
entirelyaside from supernatural agencies of any
In many
aided in stimulatsort.
ing
Positivelythe Sophistsgreatly
cases, however, the diviner assumes
the intellectual vitaUty of their generation,and
that superhuman or non-human
agenciesare operative
in producing the effects noted.
laid important scientific foundations
in grammar,
It is not possibleto enumerate
and logic. Their work raised for discussion
all the varieties rhetoric,
of means
used.
the
to depend on
by Socrates and Plato (q.v.)the ethical problems of
They all seem
whether
assumption that chance events and fancied resemblances
goodness can be taught, and whether the
virtues constitute
are
one
genuinely hnked, either causally or
good or several goods;
and
the epistemologicalproblems of the nature
sympatheticallyto the processes of the natural world.
and standard of knowledge.
such
J. F. Crawford
Dreams, presentiments;bodily movements
as
sneezing; frenzy, or
"possession"; natural
of
SORCERY."
See Witchcraft.
phenomena such as the wind, the movements
of trees, the rusthng of their leaves,
branches
flashes of lightening,the varying positionsof the
SOTER."
Bishop of Rome, ca. 167-174; named
in the CathoUc
hst of popes.
planets; clairvoyance; invoking the spiritsof the
of suspended objects,the falling
dead; movements
of dice and the drawing of lots are typical of the
SOTERIOLOGY."
That
section of systematic
methods
used.
well as the ancient
The modern
as
theology deaUng with the doctrine of salvation
behef in signs and omens
belongs in this class of
(q.v.).
beUefs.
Accidents, such as the spillingof salt,
SOUL."
the appearance
of a black cat on a joyous occasion,
The English word "soul" (of Teutonic
the flightof a bird through the house, the common
originand uncertain originalmeaning) is the common
a
superstition regarding "ground-hog day" as
equivalentfor the multitude of analogous terms
of
the
of
which
various
advent
rain
in
means
on
forecasting
tongues represent an animating
spring,
Easter Sunday, are famihar
illustrations of a wide
entityconjoined with the body in a livingman, and
of beUefs still current.
Divination
which is generallyconceived to be capable of a nonthrough
range
books
the random
as
opening of the Bible and
bodily existence. The tropes which underlie the
for soul are:
reading the first words that catch the eye, the
great majority of primitive words
object as a stone or stick, (1)Breath,wind, and the Uke. See Breath; Spirit.
throwing up of some
and noting which way it falls,
often with an accompanying
(2) Shade, shadow, as in Latin umbra, Greek skia.
prayer to render the accident significant, (3) A phantasm, or visual shape, usually manhke
also familiar. See Divination.
in form, as
Latin
eidolon.
are
simulacrum, Greek
in repreIrving King
as
(4) A flame, vapor, smoke, or the like,
sentations
SOPHISTS.
of traveUng teachers
A number
of a nimbus
or flammule.
(5) Bird and
of the latter part of the 5th. century B.C., not
other winged symbols, typifyingthe volatile powers
related to each other as a school,nor
founders of
of the soul.
(6) The life,closelyassociated with
instructors
for pay
the ideas of life-bloodand breath of life.
permanent
societies,but
in the art of
of temporary classes of young
soul first
The
immaterial
men
conception of an
in Plato and Aristotle,
where
the higher
citizenship.
appears
The increasingbut unstable democracies of the
soul,as distinguishedfrom the animal and nutritive
Greek cities,
is regarded as identical with the rational
especiallyAthens, made it important
spirits,
for a citizen to be prepared to defend himself in the
and
contemplative mind, while its beatitude is
his interests in political freedom from bodilyenchainments
into
and entrance
courts, and to advance
demand
for practical a state of intuition of things divine.
contests.
This
created
This idea is
a
needed
for pubhc
instruction in the information
seized upon
and made
precisewith St. Augustine,
life,and in the arts of oratory and disputation. who taught that the soul is a simple, immaterial
This instruction was
supphed by the Sophists,the
entity,independent of space and all quantitative
best known
of whom
endowed
with spiritualqualities.This
Protagoras, Gorgias, definition,
were
idea remained
the essential one
of mediaeval
Hippias,and Prodicus.
as
"

423

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Christian philosophyand was

challenged
not seriously
until Descartes
raised the problem of the
locus of the soul in the body,and of the nature of the

AND

ETHICS

South

Sea

Islands

people,nearlyevery

of whom can read. Many

one
trained Christian natives of these Islands have been
effectivepioneersand Christian workers in

adjoining

relation of the soul as an entity to the body as a

An extensive school system, culminating
groups.
This
Cartesian problem has been the
in the collegeand theologicaltrainingschool,has
machine.
of the speculationsof modern
chief source
sophic been established.
philothinking, profoundly reflected in modern
The Melanesian Islands occupied since 1851
philosophic and
psychological frona New Zealand attempted the plan of Ceris
theology. The
given have been of three main
answers
types:
tianizingthe Islands almost wholly through native
of
(1) The soul has been regarded as the source
teachers and a native ministry. The Presbyterians
man's
mental and spiritualhfe, primarilyas the
into the New
came
Hebrides where many
schools
voUtion.
soul
(2) The
agent of thought and
estabhshed
were
widely throughoutthese and the
and as a
has been identified with consciousness,
Solomon and Banks Islands.
as
being in the nature of an epipheconsequence
In a word, the lowest form of paganism which
of
or
accompaniment
bodily life,
depend- existed throughout the South Sea Islands a century
ent
nomenon,
but
the latter,
not conditioningthe body
upon
has been turned
or
more
into a substantial
ago
which
is essentially
in its turn
a point of view
beginning of a Christian society with schools,
reversal of the traditional conception. (3) In
a
and an orderly
churches,and a Christian literature,
another group
of views the idea of the soul iseither
law-abiding
people.
i^ored,as of no scientific value, or is bound up
II. Religion.
^There was
entire absence of
an
with conceptions of the whole structure
of nature,
system in the islands. Animism and
any religious
soul being, as it were, the structural or
the human
fetishism,mingled with a general beUef in spirits
that is,the real basis
cosmic raison d'etreof man,
and ghosts, with traces of idolatry,were
widely
In this latter sense
nature.
truth of human
the
or
were
no
prevalent. There
common
religious
bound up with that of personidea of soul is closely
but
ceremonies in_
and
few
places of
any
group,
ahty. See Body; Personality; Spirit.
of islanders was
worship. Religion to the mass
H. B. Alexander
littlemore
than a superstitioustradition crystalRELIGIONS
SOUTH
OF." See
AMERICA,
hzed into practices that were
widely variant in
Latin America, Religions
of.
differentgroups and often upon different islands in
the same
group.
SOUTH
SEA
TO
AND
ISLANDS, MISSIONS
1. Beliefin a supreme
God.
^A clear conception
RELIGIONS
OF."
I. Missions."
The South Sea
of a supreme
Being with attributes of deity was
Islands have been occupied by a large number
of
found only in narrow
The Fijiansworshiped
areas.
since the Islands
different missionaryorganizations,
of
Ndgendi, or Engei, who appeared to have some
are
widely scattered and constitute a considerable
the attributes of a supreme
the creator of all
deity,
number
of separate language groups.
There are
construction
things,to whom
temples of humble
few missionary fields where the response has been
erected and sacrifices,
often of human
were
beings,
results
more
general and the
more
widely manifest,
offered. Maui
the chief of the gods oi
were
was
in many
the entire social order being comcases
pletely
the Tongans.
There
in addition to the chief
was
revolutionized almost within a singlegenera^
god of the Fijisa variety of deities which appeared
tion. The
have
languages of the various groups
throughoutthe Pacific Islands in the form of fish,
been reduced to writing,the Bible translated
largely
birds,reptiles,
sharks,land-crabs,and all kinds of
in whole or in part into that language, and in some
fowls,but especiallythe serpent. In many
places
places a widely extended educational and general the
serpent was held in high regard,and was often
literature has been created.
carried to a rude
temple, annointed, fed, and
begun at Ponape and
Missionary work was
worshiped. Even the supreme
god Ndgendi was
and Gilbert groups
Kusaie
in the Marshall
in the
often worshiped in the form of a serpent. There
of Commissioners
fifties by the American
Board
is a trace of unity in the god Mburota
of the Fijis,
Before
the end
for Foreign Missions.
of that
Bulota of the Tongan
Islands, and Pulotu of
century the social ideas of the people of the groups
Samoa.
In eastern
Polynesia,Atua, or Akua, was
had been largelyChristianized,
the familystabilized,
for the supreme
the name
deity.
almost naturalwhile industry and cleanliness were
ized.
2. Lesser deities. ^Among the untaughtislanders
missionaries
trained
Native
in
mission
serious
difficult to detect any
generally it was
schools are now
pushingthe work among the more
belief in a supreme
order of
being or in a spiritual
islands.
remote
exalted to merit the title of
intelligence
sufficiently
The Society Islands were
don
occupiedby the Londeity,and yet there was a generalalmost unbroken
Missionary Society at the very close of the
The
world.
conviction of the reahtyof the unseen
18th. century. Their work
was
remarkably successful
forms both
lessergods, appearing m multitudinous
until the arrival of the French
in 1844.
and
inanimate, seemed to the Pacific
At that time the king had espoused Christianity animate
islands
Islanders
to be
omnipresent. In some
and the Islands had the name
of being more
civilized
there were
gods of the crops, of the weather, of
than any of the other Islands of the South
Seas.
In
different trades and occupations,and of war.
The Paris Evangelical Society took over
the work
the Fiji Islands the god Nangga was
a deadly foe
of the London
Missionary Societyupon the occupation
to bachelors and unmarried women.
of the French.
_

"

"

"

"

The Fiji Islands are occupied by the Wesleyan

3. Belief in spiritsor gJiosts.^To the Pacific
and present perhaps
full of spiritsemanating
Islander the world was
Missionary Society of London
which
of the most
from persons
who had died,as well as spirits
one
compeUing illustrations of the
of the Gospel. There
at
are
were
transforming power
supernatural. It was possibleto make these
mortal
three thousand
the present time
while all might become
trained
some
spirits
friendlyallies,
church
islands the spiritsof
native
enemies.
In the northern
a
preachers with
membership
approaching50,000 nearly one-half of the total
predominated, while in the southern islands
persons
and in the central
the unhuman
population of the Islands. There is also a Roman
ghosts prevailed,
islands these two classes were
more
Catholic Mission with nearly 10,000 members.
equallydivided.
The Tonga, or Friendly Islands,are practically The inhabitants of the SocietyIslands were
perhaps
and
Christianized by the efforts of the Wesleyan Misseemed
sionary among
the most
never
spirit-ridden
"

"

Society. A Christian king rules

over

his

free from

fear of them.
blighting

DICTIONARY

Sozomen

4. Doctrine ofsin. Sin

the necessary
ceremonies
"

was

OP

RELIGION

failure to perform

ETHICS

AND

by magic

power

424

certain result. In

primitive

thought the power of the word is very great and

the threatening
acts
offeringsto appease
spirit,ghost, ranks in efficacy with the manual
(often
httle or no
or
symbolicor imitative in nature) which, with the
deity. There was
conception of
moral wrong.
A failureto placate
ing
the overshadowspoken word, constitute magic (q.v.). The spell
differs
deities or spiritsproduced dire consequences
from prayer (q.v.)_
in that,while the latter is
from
which
the islanders shrank.
The
penalties precatory, the former is obUgatory; i.e.,if the
thus incurred were
the result of the sin of omission
spell is properlyspoken, the desired result must
in placatingthe avenging spirits.
follow,whether or not the superhuman beings so
5. Future
existence. There
spell must, however, be uttered
was
generalbelief desire. The
and

make

the

proper

"

in
In

form of a continuation
of hfe after death.
islands this was
but
some
self-terminative,
generallythe spiritof the departed long continued
of reaction
as
a ghost or
deity with certain powers
friends and
enemies
still Uved.
The
on
who
Samoans
pictured to themselves a heaven, earth,
a,nd sea where the departed spiritscarried on their
life as when
of the groups
the
earth.
In many
on
abode of the spirits
of the dead was
a barren
upon
island or in the crater
of some
extinct volcano
within
A generalbelief
or
an
unexplored cave.
prevailedthat the spiritsof the departed took
livingthing, or sometimes
up their abode in some
in an
inanimate object, the animal or object,
thus becoming taboo,was
held in great reverence,
which in some
islands amounted
almost to worship.
III. Religious
Practices."
Cannibalism, prevailing
in many
of the groups,
especiallyin the
due partly to a desire for revenge, partly
was
Fijis,
to a vitiated appetite,but also,in many
regionsat
of the
least,the practicesprang from the purpose
captor to win to himself the strength of his enemy,
with the expectation that thus the spiritof the
would
be absorbed
by the conqueror.
vanquished^
In Polynesiathe red feather of a small bird was
widely used for imparting supernatural power.
The behef in taboo put a premium upon a priesthood
which exercised almost supreme
over
power
the
and
common
disease were
people. Death
attributed to the operations of malicious spirits,
which
the priests or
medicine
men
claimed,if
able to divert. In
awarded, they were
suitably
some

it will be without

or
exactly,

effect and

even

may

bring into grave danger him who speaks it.

often couched
in archaic
dialects
Spells are
and may
creasingly
indegenerate, as these dialects become
into gibberish devoid
of
unintelligible,
quently
Fremeaning to the person
pronouncing them.

they reveal beliefin

the power

of the

name

(see Name), and hence often contain the appellations

of divinities,especially
of foreign cults.
The purelymechanical
nature of the spellis shown
by the fact that intention is not necessary to make
the incantation effective;
and folk-talesshow many
instances

in which
inadvertent
of a
utterance
results quite unexpected by the person
the reverse
of desirable
it,and sometimes
reciting
to him.
Louis H. Gray
causes
spell_

HERBERT
SPENCER,
(1820-1903)." English
and interpreterof the scientific movephilosopher,
ment
that
evolution.

doctrine of
and reUgion
must
recognize an inscrutable Power behind phenomena,
the Unknowable.
While
science cannot
affirm anything concerning this Unknowable, religion
consists in an emotional
toward
it.
reverence
Spencer made a fruitfuluse of biologicalanalogies
in the unfolding of his social and ethical theories.

current,

was

He

held that

the
especially
bqth science

SPENER,

PHILIP
man
JAKOB
(1635-1705)." Gertheologian,"the father of Pietism" (q.v.);a
of Christianity,
founder
mystic in his interpretation
of the University of Halle,and a vigorous advocate
islands the priesthoodwas
some
an
hereditary of reform in theologicaleducation in the interestsof
James
L. Barton
reUgious efficiency.
office.
SOZOMEN
(ca.400-443)." Hermias Salamanes
reared
in an
Sozomenus, church historian,was
His historyis derived
atmosphere of monasticism.
largelyfrom the Christian historian,Socrates,and
somewhat
sources.

in

sense

from oral traditions and other available

It is more
ecclesiastical and less historical
than the work of Socrates.

AUGUST
GOTTLIEB
SPANGENBERG,
(17041792). ^The son of a court preacher,left as a poor
of
trained
for and
orphan at the age
13,Spangenburg
ested
taught law at the Universityof Jena where he inter"

himself in free schools for the poor and made

Zinzendorf.
Invited
the acquaintance of Count
to Halle as Professor of Theology and Superintendent
in
of schools, but
becoming uncomfortable
pietisticenvironment, he subsequently associated
the Moravians
at
himself with Zinzendorf
among
As the organizer and
Herrnhut.
superintendent
of Moravian
than
missionary enterprisefor more
30 years, he influenced John Wesley, fathered the
Moravian
colonyin America, collected funds for and
defended
the Moravians
againstthe misinterpretations
the
of
of their enemies.
death
Upon
Zinzendorf he was called to devote the last 30 years
of his life to perfectingthe European organization
of Moravianism, formulating for it a doctrinal
statement, writing several apologeticworks and a
of Coimt
Zinzendorf.
standard me
I*BTER G. Mode
^The spell,
SPELL.
or
incantation,is a form of
"

words

which, when

pronounced,secures
correctly

MAINYU."
"The
SPENTA
one
Holy Spirit,"
of the names
of Ahura
Mazda
(Ormazd) in early
Zoroastrianism.
Since
the
God
acts
supreme
through his Holy Spiritthe latter appears at times
to be^
In the later religion
a separate personaUty.
this is really the case.
Original Zoroastrianism,
to have thought of the Holy Spirit
however, seems
for Ahura
Mazda
when
set over
as
a term
against
his cosmic
rival the Evil Spirit,Angra Mainyu

(Ahriman).
SPERMATIC

WORD."
A phase of the Stoic
declared that the
Logos, which
Logos is manifest, seminally, in all natural phenomena.

doctrine of

the

See Logos.

SPEYER,

DIETS

OF."

In

the

historyof

the

Protestant
by Charles

Reformation, four imperialdiets,called

V. to deal with specialproblems but
involvinga definite policyregarding Protestantism.
(1) The Diet of 1526 proclaimed freedom for each
state to adopt the religionof its prince. (2) The
Diet of 1529 abrogated the freedom
granted in
renewed
the demands
of the Edict of
1526 and
Worms
(q.v.). (3) The Diet of 1542 reaffirmed the
(q.v.). (4) The
ReUgious Peace of Nuremberg
concessions to the Protestants in
Diet of 1544 made
retiu-n for their help against France.
BENEDICT
(1632-1677)." Driven
in Amsterdam
the Jewish synagogue
when
a
people,
young man, he Uved as an exile from his own

SPINOZA,

from

425

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

A
livelihood by grindinglenses.
held that one
or
substance, God
nature, alone is real. Finite things are expressions
(modes) of this one
reality. Substance
appears
under
two
to us
aspects,thought and extension.
butes,
attriThese are everywhere coexistent and parallel
This
to inorganic nature.
extending even
is Spinoza'sdoctrine of psycho-physicalparalleUsm.
one
Spinoza, besides being a metaphysician, was
of the world's spiritual
seers, and in his ethics has
of the meaning of
given a profound interpretation
life. A strict determinist,he still finds
human
Counted
of spiritualenergy.
center
a
man
a
he has yet dealt more
rationalist,
adequately with
human
passions and emotions than has any other
classical philosopher.
Goodnow
Everett
Walter
SPIRE.
A tower with a high taperingtop which
gives a distinctive dignity to a place of worship.
feature of Christian churches.
A common
and

earned

pantheist, he

"

The
breath of life (Latin spiritus,
spirare,to breathe, blow). The conception
distinct developments, physioof spirithas two
logical
and rehgious. (1) The physiological
notion,
Greek
and
Mediaeval, conceived the spiritas a
Ufe principle,
that which
the Uving body has as
As
the natural
distinguished from the corpse.
beUeved
to have its seat in the liver,
spiritit was
and to be especiallyconcerned
with processes
of
nutrition and growth; as the vital spiritit was
believed
be aerated
to
through the heart and
blood vessels and to be the agency
of bodilywarmth
;
the animal
as
regarded as subject to
spiritit was
brain action and as directive of motion
and feehng
Medicine
was
long based upon
through the nerves.
the conceptionof a due equiUbrationof the functions
of such spirits. (2) In religionand
philosophy,
the conceptionof spirit
is appUed, first,
to one
of the
sometimes
beUeved
to be
hfe principlesin man,
inferior to the soul,sometimes
identified with the
frequentlydesignating a disembodied
soul; more
or
soul,and secondly,to the conceptionof a principle
motive in the direction of hfe, whether
in man,
in
It is in this latter sense, of a
God, or in nature.
is most
that the adjective"spiritual"
moving spirit,
commonly employed, contrasted with "physical"
Spirit.
or
"bodily." See Body; Soul; Holy
SPIRIT."

AND

ETHICS

Spiritualism

withstand, or elicit the aid of spirits.See Exorcism;

Magic.
With
advancement
in culture the shadowy
spiritsof primitiveman's faith take on more
crete
conform.
They are given distinctive characteristics,
they receive definite names, they are assigned

specific
functions,
they are grouped in separate
classes,and they are
graded according to
This process
of development
degrees of power.
produced a well established belief in spirits
among
the ancients,as amply illustratedin the religion
of the Egyptians, the Babylonians,the Persians,
the Jews, the Greeks and the Romans.
In modern
times this belief still survives,not only in India,
China
and Japan, but also among
Mohammedans
more

and

Christians.

S. J. Case

SPIRITUAL."
(1) One of a party within the
disciplesof Francis of Assisi which advocated
the
most
rigorousform of asceticism and poverty, later
called the Observan tines.
(2) An ecclesiastic,
so
called from

the character

of his office.

from

SPIRITUALISM."

of things,actions and

The

behef in the existence

forces,which

itis claimed

are

incapableof being controlled or known in the same

natural phenomena.
as
way
In a practicalway
spiritualismrefers to supernatural
happenings of all sorts; consequently its
believers

convinced of the existence of the superare

natural
whenever
they discover any event which
be
to
they presume
incapable of explanation in
natural
terms.
The
name
spiritualism,which
point
properly belongs to a type of philosophicalviewis almost universallybut incorrectlyapphed
to supernaturalhappenings, because they are presumed
to
be controlled
name
by spirits.The
better
spiritismis logicallypreferableand much
adapted to the thingsnamed, but custom has already
sanctioned
the less useful term.
Another
name
appliedto spiritistic
phenomena which is especially
used by investigators,
is psychic phenomena, an
appelationsupposed to distinguishsuch happenings
from the types of natural phenomena
which
are
assumed
to be material.
I. Classification
Spiritistic Phenomena.
of
"The
which
be
bear this name
occurrences
may
divided into two
classes: (1) supernormal events,
which are brought about by spiritistic
and
agency,
with the dead.
(2) direct communication
1. Among
the many
phenomena in the first
found
division are
the following: (a) Raps or
sounds of all sorts, reported to occur
without
any
mechanical
known
of production. (6)
or
means
Slate writing of various kinds are produced upon
slates when
natural
means
are
apparently no
employed for the purpose,
(c)The materialization
of spirits
in the form of a visual presentationof a
hand or face or other part of the body.
is brought
the dead
2. Communication
with
about through a medium, generallya woman,
who
The
is sometimes
though not always in a trance.
from the
medium
offers repliespurporting to come
dead which will identify
and furnish all sorts
the spirit
of information
desired by the questioneror sitter.
II. Development
Spiritism.
op
Spiritismhas
continuous
a
hneage with all the occultism of the
sively
ages, but in its present forms it began to be extenIn that year the selfcultivated in 1847.
confessed fraudulent Fox sisters began their famous
founded
the Society
In 1882 was
rapping seances.

H. B. Alexander
for certain beings
SPIRITS.
^A generalterm
lower in rank than the supreme
god or gods but of a
higherorder than livingmen.
Spiritsproper include both angels (q.v.)and
demons
(q.v.). The distinction between good and
evil (demonic) spiritsis drawn
more
sharply in
the Persian,
Jewish and Christian religions
than in
other faiths. Often spiritsand demons
most
are
virtually identical terms for beings capable of
beneficent or maleficent action according as they
in
are
granted or denied their desires. Hence
in theory,
sometimes
actual practice,and
even
elevated to the dignityof deities. Among
are
spirits
raised to the
are
some
peoplesthe souls of dead men
superhuman plane, thus making impossible any
and ghost (q.v.).
sharp demarkation between spirits
is very
The
cerned
largely conreligionof savages
with the activity of spirits.A belief in
to lie at the basis of those forms of
their power
seems
animism
fetishism (q.v.)
as
(q.v.),
religionknown
totemism
and
(q.v.). All sorts of mysterious
quakes,
eartheclipses,
floods,
displaysof power in nature
and
the
thunder
storms
even
for Psychical Research, an organizationincluding
more
in its membership, and
of
ordinary phenomena
daily experience are
many prominent men
and
which attempted to give a "scientific" turn to the
ascribed
to the action of spirits.Sickness
able
of spiritistic
death are traced to this same
supernaturalsource.
phenomena. A remarkinvestigations
is the persistfact about the entire movement
these behefs dominate, the chief function
Where
ence
with which
the societyseeks for proofs of
of religionis to institute rites that will appease.
"

"

"

"

Sponsor

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

through all the hopelessmass

The only result which
of fraud and deceit.
tific
scienof the society have
non-members
been
ever
that the mediums
when
able to obtain was
genuine
furnish such
dissociated personaUtieswho can
are
be interpretedby the staunch
utterances
as
can
beUever as being what he wants
to hear.
Favorable
of spiritistic
commmiication
been
views
have
given wide currency
by F. W. H. Myers, Sir OUver
Lodge, and others; but their inferences from the
undoubted
data are
to question at crucial
open
Kantor
Jacob
points.
survival after death

"

or

god-mother (q.v.).

or

SPRITE.
In German
mythology
spiritof water, air,earth or fire.

ETHICS

fairy, elf

which

an

itinerating

minister has the oversight. (2) A stated fast of

the CathoUc
church, observed on Friday in the
West, and on Wednesdays and Fridays in the East.
(3)One of the several picturesor representationsof
the passion of Christ so arranged in a church that
a
complete cycle of devotions is accomphshed by
before each.
stopping successively
The series is
called "Stations of the Cross."

STAUPITZ, JOHANN
of the German
Vicar-general
Luther

took

VON

(died 1524)."
Augustinian order in

monastic

His

vows.

which

eventuated

in

the

Protestant

doctrine

"

he

was

conservative

Calvinist.

See Shraddhas.

SRADDHAS."

of obedience
SRAOSHA.
^The personification
early Zoroastrian religion. In the developed
of the Yazatas
religionhe is one
(q.v.) who is
ing
constantlyat war with the powers of evil and untirin spreading the truth.
He, with Mithra and
Rashnu, presidesat the judgment of souls. During
the period of three days after death before the soul
bridge Sraosha
begins its journey to the Chinvat
leads them
guards the souls of the good and finally
safelyover the dangerous passage.
"

in

See Shruti.

SRUTL"
STABAT

MATER."

famous

Latin

hymn

of the Mother
of Jesus at
settingforth the agony
the Cross; used
especiallyin the R.C. church
Another
during Holy Week.
hymn depicting the
joy of the Virgin over Jesus' birth is called Stabat
Glaudiosa.

Mater

In ecclesiasticalterminologybeautifully
in a choir,usually built against
another
or
one
a
partition
screen, separated from
by elaborately carved sides. These seats are in
cathedrals assigned to the clergy,and in chapels to
members
of various orders.
STALLS.
adorned

"

seats

PENRHYN
(1815-1881).
and
of
theologian,a man
broad
interests and
accomplishments, who
won
distinction in the field of Uterature and educational
administration,as well as in religion. He was
a
of toleration and a leading supporter of liberal
man
theology. His outstanding works were
historical,
including his Lectures on the Eastern Church, and
History of the Jewish Church.

STANLEY,

"

ARTHUR

AngUcau clergyman

One

of "the seven"

leaders in the
martyr.

primitivechurch, and the first recorded

STEPHEN.
The name
of nine popes,
none
them
historically
important.
Stephen I. Bishop of Rome, ca. 254-257.
Stephen //."Pope, 752-757.
Stephen ///."Pope, 768-772.
Stephen /F." Pope, 816-817.
Stephen F." Pope, 885-891.
Stephen F/." Pope, 896-897.
Stephen F//." Pope, 929-931.
Stephen F///." Pope, 939-949.
Stephen /Z." Pope, 1057-1058.

See Astrology.
See Church;
AND
CHURCH."
Dissent
Dissenters.
and

STATE

STATES
States.

THE

CHURCH."

See

Papal

tion,
denomina(1) In the Methodist
church in charge of a settled minister,in

STATION."
a

OF

lishment;
Estab-

of

"

STIGMATA.
In R.C. terminology,
marks
on
the bodies of certain people similar to the scars
from
the wounds
in Jesus' body, regarded as
miraculous
tokens of God's favor.
"

STIGMATIZATION."
(q.v.)on the

The

body, such

production of stigmata

the appearance
red or bleeding spots upon
the body under
influence of strong religiousemotion.
as

of
the

ADOLF
(1835-1909)." An energetic
German
preacher, for a time court preacher
became
at BerUn, who
greatly interested in social
the founder
of the Christian
problems. He was
Socialist movement
in Germany, which was
designed
Christian
substitute
to furnish
for the Social
a
Democratic
He
also organized the
movement.
EvangeHcal-Social Congress in 1890, and in 1896
created an
independent Christian Social political

STOECKER,

party.
STOICISM."
A school of philosophy founded
Athens
the end of the 4th. century B.C.
near
in Crypus. The
by Zeno, a native of Citium
school takes its name
from the portico {sloa)in
which Zeno first taught.
Stoicism owed
most
to the Cynic school,which
had
virtuous
made
action the aim
of life; but
from the beginningStoicism was
eclectic phian
losophy,
drawing also on Heraclitan and Academic
from
the Hippocratean schools of
systems and
medicine.
it distinguished
Like other philosophies
between
physics,
logic,and ethics.
I. Physics.
In physics, which
included cosmology
and theology,the Stoics followed a doctrine
of complete materiaUsm, recognizing, however,
that there is inherent
in all matter
stress or
a
tension which makes
it dynamic, not inert. So in
aU things there is an active and passive principle,
the former
acting on the latter and shaping it.
This active principleis sometimes
figured as fire,
and
again as spirit,breath (pneuma); it causes
of the universe,
pervades all things; it is the reason
God.
The individual man
has as his soul a spark
at

"

STARS."

of

Justificationby Faith.

"

CHARLES
HADDON
(1834SPURGEON,
for
1892). English Baptist preacher remarkable
have
his platform abihty. His printed sermons
been
sold in enormous
quantities. Theologically

vital

enced
conception of rehgious experience greatly influLuther and led to the religious
development

STEPHEN."
"

426

distinctionfrom the circuitover

which

the
The
who
assumes
person
obligationsfor an infant at baptism by making the
and pledges and undertaking
prescribed responses
the child's religious
training,also called god-father
SPONSOR.

AND

OF

DICTIONARY

427

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Student

Organizations

of the world-soul,or, in the words of Epictetus,is a

belief in humanity's
This
fragment of God.
common
possession of a portion of the worldthe basis for a doctrine of cosmopolibecame
tanism,
reason

by

which
has had
a
profound influence on
and social history.
poUtical
The individual soul is at first a blank, on which
made
impressions are
by things through the
that graduallythrough experience and
senses, so
jective
reflection man
arrives at knowledge. The subarise within man's
mind,
concepts which
by their compellingforce,show their vaUdity.
Ethics.
II. Logic
Stoic logic included
and
and
rhetoric,grammar,
dialectic; this last was
criteria of truth.
chieflyconcerned with establishing
for from
But Ethics were
the Stoic's chief concern,
Zeno
to Marcus
AureUus
the school regarded as
worthy only such knowledge as could be realized
in action,i.e.,
their philosophy
to be a practical
was
guide of life. It taught that since the guiding
of man, the source
of his life,
and his reason,
principle
is a portion of the universal reason, man
not
must
let himself be the slave of his passions,but must
Uve a life in which
the passions are
absolutely
controlled by his reasoningwill;in this way he will
the
"to
live
in
accord
with
injunction
nature,"
obey
i.e.,in harmony with the universal reason.
By
such a lifeman
rise above pleasures,
and pains,
can
which depend on the accidents of life,and attain
then
consists in
to complete happiness. Virtue
perfectresistance to the passions and in complete
control of self by means
of the rational will. The
earhest
held that
Stoics, like strict Calvinists,
between
virtue and
vice there was
fixed gulf,
a
and that there were
no
degrees of either; but from
the 2nd. century B.C., as Stoicism was
modified by
other schools and adapted
especially
by Panaetius
and Poseidonius
under
to influence great numbers
the growing power
of Rome, the older view was
placed
reby one of progress in virtue,which finds its
best ejcpression
in Seneca.
Epictetuswas essentially
With Marcus
Aurelius
a missionary to the masses.
Stoicism practicallyceased to exist as a separate
school,but its ethics have been carried on in law and
to our
time.
own
Christianity
Clifford
H. Moore
STOLE.
A band or scarf with fringed ends,
of the vestments
of the Roman,
one
Greek, and
AngUcan clergy. It is also worn
by the monarchs
of England at coronation, in the latter case
a
the King exercised
survival of the days when
functions.
ecclesiastical

FRIEDRICH
STRAUSS,
(1808-1874).
theologian of the radical wing of the
his Life
HegeUan schools. His chief work was
destructive
of the
of Jesus (1835) which was
so
traditional beliefs that it provoked a storm
of

case

ceremonial
a

layingof

frequent custom

of the institutionin

the corner-stone, in which

is to place historical records
niche behind the corner-stone.

DAVID

"

German

criticism. Strauss
tian
Chriseventuallyabandoned
faith for a pantheisticinterpretation
of evolutionary

philosophy.

"

"

"

"

STONES.
On
account
of their qualitiesand
are
important for the history of
utiUty, stones
religions.Their rigidity,
size,strange shapes and
connected
with
them
inexplicablephenomena
caused
to associate
primitive man
deity with
"

certain
useful
Certain

stones.

Their

made

permanence

them

for

images, buildings and

inscriptions.
afford excellent
stones
inscriptionson
material for a knowledge of the reUgions
source
of antiquity,as e.g., the Moabite
Stone (q.v.)and
Stone
the Rosetta
(q.v.). In phallic and other
been used extensively
have
minetic rites,stones
such as the lingain Hinduism.
for symboUc purposes,
deemed
In folk-lore magical qualities
to pertain
were
to certain stones, as the Blarney Stone of Ireland,
by kissingwhich a flatteringtongue was thought
Black
Stone
of Mecca
be
to
imparted. The
which
Muslim
pilgrimskiss is perhaps a fetish
survival
of pre-Mohammedan
Arabic
paganism.
The

Old

Testament

affords evidence

of the

pillarsin the old Canaanitish

symbohzing the deity'spresence, such
stone
at

In modern
Bethel.
in connection with

use

reUgion

of
as

the one
as
Christian usage the dedication
is observed
placesof worship

STUDENT
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS."
L The
World's
Student
Christian Federation
is an
interdenominational
organization uniting
Christian movements
the student
throughout the
world.
It was
founded
at Wadstena, Sweden, in
1895
by leaders of national student Christian
from
movements
the Scandinavian
countries,
Germany, Great Britain, the United States and
Canada.
The
general committee is composed of
members
representingthirteen distinct
fifty-seven
national
international
or
movements;
by this
body a Chairman, two Vice-Chairmen,and Treaselected and five Secretaries are appointed.
m-er
are
A quarterly periodical,
The Student World, is published
at the office of the Chairman, 347 Madison
Avenue, New York.
The aims of the movement
are:
(1) To unite
Student
Christian
Movements
or
organizations
throughout the world; (2) To collect information
regarding the rehgious condition of the students of
all lands; (3) To
promote the active Christian
lifeof students; Each national organizationthrough
its secretaries,
conferences
and
literature brings
together the students of different races; and every
two
Federation
Conference
is held.
a
years
Through extensive correspondence, visits of secretaries,
evangelistsand lecturers,the publication
and distribution of books, magazines and pamphlets
and annual report, the aims of the Federation
are
realized. The total membership is now
over
200,000,
fiftydifferent coimtries and over 2,000
representing
universities.
II. The
Intercollegiate
Menorah
tion
Associais an organizationfor the study and advancement
of Jewish culture and ideals. In over
fifty
universities there are
active Menorah
societies.
Lectures
and
receptions are
frequently given;
ducted.
study circles are organized and conferences conThe
Menorah
Journal
is published at
the New
York office of the Intercollegiate
Menorah
Madison
Avenue
Association, 600
(bi-monthly
during the academic year).
Societies.
III. Church
Student
These are
organizationswithin a universityof students belonging
to the same
communion, as, e.g., Protestant
etc.
Under
Catholic,
Episcopal,Lutheran,Roman
the auspicesof these societies,
meetings of a social,
educational
and rehgious character are
arranged.
The various denominations
are
increasinglymaking
provision for efficient leadershipand organization
of these denominational
groups.
Men's
Christian AssoIV. Student
Young
ciations.
These
tional
are
voluntary interdenominastudents
in colleges,
organizationsof men
universities and schools for the purpose of building
There
faith and character.
780
are
up Christian
separate Associations with a total membership of
about
80,000; 134 local secretaries,31 state
secretaries and 10 National secretaries are employed
The officesfor the National
to supervisethis work.
located at 347 Madison
secretaries are
Avenue,
York.
New
Emphasis is placedon the publication
of books and pamphlets for Bible and social study;
conducted
conferences
on
annually in various
"

"

Student

Volunteer

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

sections of the country, the first conference haAdng

been held at Mt. Hermon, Massachusetts, in 1886
(over 3,000 delegatesattended these conferences in
1920); and on apologeticand evangehsticaddresses
aiming at decisions for the Christian life.
V. Student
Young
Women's
Christian
Associations
similar voluntaryinterdenominational
are
students in colleges,
organizationsof women
universities and
schools for the development of
Christian
character.
773
faith and
There
are
Associations
having a total membership of nearly
90,000; 78 Local student secretaries are employed
and 30 National
the headquarters of
secretaries;
the National Movement
is at 600 LexingtonAvenue,
New
York.
Eleven annual student conferences are conducted
enrollingover
3,895 delegates; Bible and Social
Study textbooks are issued and discussion groups
are
organizedin each institution ; unselfish service is
promoted and religiousaddresses are given with
to winning students to Christian decision.
a view
Students'
Christian
tion.
AssociaVI. Chinese
A national organizationof Chinese students
for the promotion of Christian life and
service,
Secretary is
numbering about 800. A General
employed, with oflBce at 347 Madison
Avenue,
New
York, and a bi-monthly magazine is pubUshed.
Students'
Christian
tion.
AssociaVII. Japanese
An organization
of Japanese students within
a
university for the development of_Christian
faith and character.
A monthly magazine is published
and a traveUng Japanese secretary employed
with headquarters at 5553 Drexel Avenue, Chicago,
lUinois.
VIII. The
Union of Christian Students
op
India in America.
An organizationof Christian
for the development of
Indian students in America
Christian Ufe and character.
Headquarters, care
New
of Mr. J. D. S. Paul, Yale Station,
Haven,

ETHICS

AND

428

3. Purpose. The purpose

and maintain
(1) to awaken

of the Movement
is:
all Christian
among
students of the United
States and Canada
inteUiactive interests in
gent and
foreign missions;
of properly quaU(2) to enroll a sufficient number
fied student
volunteers
the successive
to meet
demands
of the
various
of
missionary boards
North
America; (3) to help all such intending
missionaries to prepare
for their Ufe-work
and to
enUst their co-operation in developing the missionary
life of home
churches; (4) to lay an equal
burden
of responsibihtyon all students who are to
remain as ministers and lay workers at home, that
they may actively promote the missionary enterprise
by their intelligent
advocacy,by their gifts
and by their prayers.
4. Methods.
In order to influence the 250,000
collegeand universitystudents of the United
States
and
Canada, a staff of secretaries is
in New
York
employed; offices are maintained
and conferences
and conventions
held.
The
are
travehng secretaries visit the colleges, deUver
addresses on missions,meet
with missionary committees
and volunteer
bands, organize mission
study classes,and in every way possiblepromote
the missionaryactivities of the colleges;but the
chief object of their work
is to lead students
to
give their lives to missionaryservice. Once in
four years an
international convention
is held.
have
been held.
At the
Eight such conventions
convention
held in 1920 there were
present 6,890
students and professors
representing949 institutions.
5. Results.
Over 8,500 volunteers
'(1).Missionaries.
have reached (1919)mission fieldsin all parts
of the world having been sent out by 55 dHerent
missionary boards.
ment
(2) Mission study. In 1894, when the Movebegan promoting mission study, there were
less than thirty classes in such study among
all
students
of North
Connecticut.
America; during 1918-19,
Students'
enrolled in mission
Filipino
Federation
IX. The
in
38,819 students were
study.
At the beginning no
An organizationfor promoting Christian
text-books
America.
were
available;
the annual sales of mission study books in the
the Filipinostudents in the United
character among
now
States of America.
United States and Canada exceed 100,000.
Headquarters, 347 Madison
(3) Missionary giving. Oifts to missions by
Avenue, New York City. General Secretary,H. A.
Aguiling. A monthly magazine, the Philippine students have been greatlystimulated; over
$303,contributed
in 1918-19
000 were
through student
Herald, is published.
for
X. The
ciation. reUgious organizations
the work
of foreign
Russian
Students' Christian Assomissions.
An
Many collegesand seminaries now
organization for the promotion of
port
supthe Russian students in
Christian character among
whollyor in part their own missionary abroad.
the United States of America.
(4) Higher standard of qualification.'Students
Headquarters, 347
tary,
in preparation for missionary service are
Madison
urged
Avenue, New York City. General SecreCharles
D. Hurrey
to take graduate studies in addition to a regular
Alexis R. Wiren.
of
college
course; they are guided in the formation
MOVEMENT
VOLUNTEER
FOR
STUDENT
right habits of prayer, Bible study and meditation
MISSIONS."
An agency
for recruiting and are
in personal Christian
FOREIGN
encouraged to engage
for appointment as
service with a view to winning men
to the
student
candidates
foreign
of Christ.
Charles
D. Hurrey
missionaries.
discipleship
1. Origin. ^The movement
originated at the
STUNDISTS.
of Christian college
A Russian sect,so named
first international conference
from
their meeting at certain hours {Stunden) for Bible
students at Mount
Hermon, Mass., in 1886, when
Sects.
their
100 of the 250 delegates present recorded
study. See Russian
sionaries.
foreign mispermit, to become
purpose, if God
In Buddhistic
STUPA.
like
A
a moundarchitecture,
was
deputation of four students
the colleges;only one
of
shrine,indicatinga sacred spot, commemorative
appointed to visit among
of a historical event, containing a relic,
able
the four, Robert
P. Wilder of Princeton,was
or
serving
Also called tope and dagoba.
both ends.
to go; he was
accompanied by another Princeton
student. John
N. Forman, and they visited 176
S T YL I TES."
Pillar saints; ascetics who
institutions including many
leading collegesand
and the United States.
schools of Canada
passed their days mounted on pillarsin the most
divinity
of 1888 about
first
2. Organization. In the summer
rigorous mortificationsof the body. The
Simeon
and best known
volunteers met at Northfield and a conmiittee
was
(q.v.)whence
Stylites
fifty
the designation. The
latest known
pillar saint
was
appointed,which the followingDecember
ized
organmonks
of the 16th. century.
for Foreign
certain Ruthenian
Movement
the Student Volunteer
were
and there is an Executive
Missions.
It is incorporated,
of Trustees
and
SUAREZ, FRANCISCO
(1548-1589)." An able
an
Committee, a Board
R.C. theologian,member
of the Jesuit order,whose
AdvisoryCommittee.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

DICTIONARY

429

OF

RELIGION

used as
dialectic were
standard textbooks in Protestant as well as Catholic
and whose
theologicaltreatises were
universities,

expositionsof Aristotelian

widelyinfluential.
In the Greek and Roman
in holy orders (q.v.)next inferior in
the
his duties are
rank to the deacon.
Among
preparationof the utensils for the Mass and the
singing of the epistle.
SUB

DEACON.

"

one
chvirches,

The moderate
CalvinSUBLAPSARIANISM."
which conceives the decree of election
istic position
subsequent to the fall of
as
a
provisionmade
held in the Reformed
the view commonly
man;
churches. See Supralapsarianism.
SELF
SUBLIMINAL
or CONSCIOUSNESS."
The technical term for mental activitytakingplace
That
of consciousness,
the threshold"
"beneath
this unobservable activityis of considerable importance
in the total psychological
complex is a well
recognizedfact. Certain interpretersof religious
to this
experiencehave attached great significance
realm,seeking thereby to find psychologicalsupport
for a profoundlymysticalindependence on the part
to
of religion. Careful
criticism,however, seems
pendent
realm is neither indeindicate that the subUminal
is it of
of the realm of consciousness
nor
more
primary significance.Religion is therefore
to be explained
primarilyin terms of our observable
rather than in reference to an
social relationships
chology
occult phase of mental life. See Mysticism; PsyReligion.
OF
_

In
theology, that
which
doctrine
the Trinitarian
the Son and the Holy Spiritinferior to the
makes
trine
The docFather, either in function or in essence.
of the Son was
of the subordination
sized
emphaology.
by Origen, and is prominent in all Greek theIt received classical expressionin Arianism.

SUBORDINATIONISM."

of
interpretation

in triniof the term

In modern
philosophy
of the ultimate logical
substance is used in the sense
and of that which is permanent
subject (Leibnitz),
For use
SUBSTANCE.
tarian theology,see Ousia.
"

through change (Kant).

APOSTOLIC"

SUCCESSION,

See

Apostolic

Succession.
of
servile caste
lowest
^The
or
STJDRAS.
of the conquered
up
early Indo- Aryan society made
granted no reUgious
aborigines. They were
that of service to the three higher
privilegessave

AND

ETHICS

Sun,

Sun

Worship

'

SUFIISM.

A Moslem
designation for mysticism,
called from the Arabic word, Sufi,used from
the 2nd. century of Moslem
and
historyof ascetics,
probablyderived from suf (wool),having reference
to the woolen clothes used by them.
In the beginning
it was
but in the 3rd.
practicaland quietistic,
were
speculative pantheistic elements
century
introduced.
In later Persian thought a "sufi" was
''
with "freethinker.
Sufiism represents
synonymous
movement
rather than a sect with distinctive
a
See Mohammedanism.
tenets.
"

so

SUGGESTION."
accept without

The

tendencyof the mind to

beliefs presented to it by
external authority.
It is to be distinguished
some
from sympathy and imitation (in the technical
sense)in that it refers to the adoption of beUefs and
ideas, whereas
sympathy refers to feehngs and
reason

imitation

to acts.

is most
Suggestibility
clearlyseen in children,
the simple minded, and the abnormal.
The child
is presented to
naturallyaccepts as real whatever
him.
This
be the
"primitive creduhty" would
condition

of

all minds
but for the presence
of
The greaterone's knowledge and
the better one's ideas are
systematized, the less
All men, however
wiU be.
one
ing
(accordsuggestible
to the view accepted by the majority of psychologists)
to some
extent
suggestible. The
are
influence of suggestionin the spread of rehgionsand
in the handing down
of rehgicn through successive
generationshas, obviously,been exceedinglygreat.
its most
strikingform in
Suggestion assumes
hysteriaand in hypnosis. In both the hystericand
the hypnotized subject a dissociation has been
produced in the brain of such a nature that the
inhibitions coming from
normal
conflictingideas
do not function,and the beUef suggested by the
hypnotistis at once adopted. James B. Pratt

inhibitingideas.

tentional,
inSUICIDE.
Self-kiUing,especiallywhen
be the cause
In comwhatever
mon
or motive.
law attempted suicide is punishable. In most
ethical systems
it is reprehensible,although in
certain Stoic writers,
instances e.g., among
some
ence
it was
defended as evincinga praiseworthyindifferof life and
to the externals
death, and in
Japan has been considered an act indispensable
one's reputationhas been destroyed.
to honor in case
as
Among Christian writers it has been condemned
negligentof God's grace and God's judgment.
"

"

relaxed in
later times this rule was
since Sudra ascetics are found in the
Yoga, Sdnkhya and Buddhist rehgiousorders.

castes.

In

specialcases

less
or
which limit or thwart
the attainment of pleasure. An instinctive aversion
immediate
of the most
it one
to sufferingmakes
ing
evils in human
experience;and the relief of sufferas
a
rehgious and
is universallycommended
much
fact of so
apparently
moral duty. The
for
creates
irremediable suffering in the world
does a good
theology a serious problem. Why
tions,
God
permit sviffering?While certain considera-

SUFFERING.

prolonged,due

Pain

"

or

distress,more

to conditions

such
discipUne,"gr9wingpains," etc.,
as
of this
be urged, a complete rationaUzation
been
successfullyaccomplished.
evil has
never
See Pain; Theodicy.
can

assistant. Used
an
SUFFRAGAN.
^Literally
denote any bishop who issubordinate to another

not bound
SULPICIANS."
A R.C. congregation,
by religiousvows, founded in 1642 in France by
tion
Jean Jacques Olier to promote a thorough educaof priestsfor their reUgiousduties; prominent

in the work
the U.S.A.

of

education
theological

in France

and

THEOLOGIAE
SUMMA
or THEOLOGICA."
title of the treatises of certain schoolmen
tems,
embodying their theologicalor philosophicalsysAquinas, which is the
e.g., that of Thomas
accepted basis of R.C. theology to this day.
The

BONUM.

SUMMUM

"

Latm

term

meaning

the Supreme Good.

consists in valuing the various goods
the less
seek so as to subordinate
worthy ends. The Summum
worthy to the more
is that good to which all other goods must
Bonum
This has been variouslydefined,
be subordinated.
and harmony with God being
happiness,perfection,

Morahty

which

the

men

common

may

conceptions.

"

to

bishop.

This
WORSHIP."
most
striking
SUN, SUN
object,the sun, "has received homage in probably

Sunday

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

inhabited land, either as himself a divinity,

other way
nected
conthe seat of deity,or as in some
with the gods."
Among primitive peopleshe is considered the
beings of
most
splendid of the great animated
nature
(of.the Liberian Chieng, or the Asista of the

every
as

Nandi, who

African

is

Creator);

personaUzed (Greek Helios);

or,

or

in

definitely
higher
(Babylonian

as

still

AND

ETHICS

430

1. The
Development
School.
of
the
1. The EnglishSunday school came
into prominence
through the work of Robert Raikes (1736 to 1811)
who
founded
schools for the elementary
many
instruction of destitute children and
organized
societies to maintain the schools.
These institutions
not
were
especiallyrelated to churches.
2. In the United Stales in the early Colonial
days many churches made provisionfor the rehgious
instruction of their children on Sundays,and in
church
communion
this institution came,
every
to an
increasing
degree, under the charge of the
church. The
American
form
of Sunday school,
that is a school of the church, has been adopted all
the world.
The
over
of the schools is prowork
moted
by generalagenciesand by specialboards and
secretaries in the various denominational organizations.
"

ethical or spiritual
power
the eye of heaven
its instrument
aU (cf.the Egyptian eye of Osiris,in
which sees
Greece the eye of Ouranos, and in India of Varuna)
travel on foot (Vishnu
he may
In his journeyings
in India),on horseback (some of the baals in Syria),
(Apollo in Greece,
in a chariot variously drawn
in Babylonia),
Shamash
(the sun gods
or in a boat
of Egypt). At different times (of day, season, or
receive different names
(in Egypt
cycle)he may
conceived as
3. Statistics. In the United States,
Ra and the other sun
estimate for
gods), is even
1920, based on
of churches:
census
duplex or multiplex,with varying quahties and
Protestant,
schools 167,000; pupils 15,291,658;Roman
lic
Cathogods of Babylonia and
(so the sun
powers
schools
(for1918),
India).
12,761; pupils 1,853,245"
in
with attributes benign (Egyptian
also,
He is endowed
parochial schools, 1,667,945; Jewish,
schools 700, pupils 87,065. It is estimated
is a notable example) and maUgn (Shiva
Amen
that
deities of
there are nearly 300,000 Christian Sunday schools
in India, in some
aspects, and so some
in the world with over
Babylonia). Among the former, besides hght and
twenty-seven milhon pupils

stages, as

an

Shamash),

or

"

"

heat,
comfort-giving

are

(notablyOsiris, enrolled.
fertility

II. Function.
1. In
in Babylonia), Ufe, heaUng (Syria),
the scheme
and Tammuz
of general
education. -The tendency is toward the secularizawealth (India),truth (cf.the introduction to Hamtion
of publiceducation.
This has been completely
murapi's Code), and ethics (Babylonian Marduk).
of curricula
As a culture deity he teaches agriculture(Tammuz)
accomplished so far as the content
is concerned
in the United
States.
law
PubHc
and
grain and
schools
(Shamash, Ninib), bestows
do not teach religion,
oracles
deUvers
therefore the responsibility
(Marduk,
fruits (Osiris),and
is laid upon
churches to provide a teaching agency
god he is connected with
Apollo). As fertiUtj^
in this field.
throughout
trees, grain and fruits (and streams
ethical
2. To meet
social changes. The
family is no
Syria, Babylonia, and India). As an
he is the witness and judge of men's deeds
longer the teacher of religionand in the pressure
power
sometimes
is
of modern
fife children grow up without instruction
(Osiris).He (or she, for the sun
in religion.
feminine)may be the reputed ancestor of a dynasty,
3. In the organization
and work of the church.
which is then divine (Amaterasu in Japan). As a
of pestilenceand
The function of the church
he is the cause
is to develop religious
mahgn power
in Southern
in a rehgioussociety. The most important
death (Babylonian Nergal,and the sun
persons
time of growth is in childhood
"Yon burning sun is death"). His weapons
India
and
the normal
method
of growth is that of education.
arrows
(Apollo),the serrated sword or battle
are
Therefore,
ax
(Mediterranean peoples),or club (Mithra). the churches train their future constituencyin their
schools.
The animals most associated with him, or employed
own
III. Typical
School
the bull (Syria),
Last Century.
are
of the
as his symbols,
serpent (India),
and perhaps eagle (Egypt).
hawk
Although Sunday schools merited serious criticism
His worship is often connected with the tops of
as
tional
schools,showing scarcelyany traces of educahis rays first strike (a
where
influences and none
of improvement parallel
mountains
and hills,
in
the
advance
in
educational method
prehistoricPalestine, to
general feature,notably
priorto the
Syria and America); also with streams, springs, 20th. century, yet they developed somewhat
unique
methods
of their own.
in Syria). Normal
and trees (particularly
sions
expresin prayer and
adoration
1. Organization. ^A standard
school
of his worship are
of the
period before the educational reconstruction,a
(nobly expressed in the cuneiform), dance
song
human
sometimes
type still found in many
Greece); sacrifices,
places,was
(prehistoric
organized as
follows:
But
Pupils (then always called "scholars")
symbohc acts may
(the latter prehistoric).
dance in
divided roughly according to age into small classes,
serve, as smoking towards him or naming a
his honor
usuallyof from four to twelve children,in charge of
(American Indians.)
which may
teachers who were
such volunteer workers
His usual symbol is the disc (Egypt),
could
as
be secured,the whole in charge of a superintendent,
be winged (?Persia,Babylonia), surmounted
by a
f
whose
human
principalfimction was that of conducting the
figure(was Asshur originallya sun god?),
armed.
sometimes
exercises
of
and
head
to
records
human
of
worship, a secretary
shoulders,
keep
or
with
at times to be connected
PhaUicism seems
attendance,a librarian to distribute weekly periodicals
quently
freand
conduct
loan
and
blunt
or
a
his worship,
conical,are
hbrary.
piUars,
2. Session.
The school assembled
either before
foimd at his sanctuaries (Dra vidian India;
feature of the Shiva
is a constant
In Engand
or after the morning period of worship.
the hngam
and some
colonies an extra session was
held in the
shrines and cult: in Babyloniasmall conical objects
afternoon.
in temples). The human
The
session opened with
found by thousands
"worship,"
are
lastingfrom fifteen to twenty-fiveminutes, followed
figurerepresentinghim is youthful,and often wears
(Apollo,Mithra).
by a lesson period of thirty minutes, concluding
a rayed crown
George
W. Gilmore
with closingworship,from five to fifteen minutes
in
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

SUNDAY."

See Sabbath.

length.
^The classes all studied the same
3. Lessons.
lesson which
selected by a central committee
was
for all evangeUcal schools throughout the world.
The lessons were
cyclesthrough
arrangedin six-year
"

Private schools usually

SCHOOLS."
SUNDAY
conducted by churches,meeting on Sunday for the
purpose

of

teachingrehgion to

the young.

431

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

New
Testaments.
Each pupil
memorize
of the Bible
one
verse
In some
communions, the Lutheran
such
Roman
and
parishes as had schools, the
work was
largelycatechetical. During this period,
also few in numthe Jewish
ber,
schools, which were
had
as
a
rule,though some
taught Hebrew
lessons.
other Old Testament
Modern
The
IV. The
Type.
school of the
educational reconstruction.
The school is organized
with
educational
in accordance
principles; it
for the lives of pupils.
attempts a definite program
It has been reorganized under two tendencies.
1. The school has been thoroughly adopted by
^The
the church.
churches, therefore, provide
the

Old

and

expected
every Sunday.
was

the

to

"

"

(1) suitable physical equipment: (a) buildings

educational
especiallydesigned to serve
ends, with
class rooms,
and also to serve
the wider educational
of the social and recreational Ufe of the
program
young, (6)equippedwith desks and tables designed
according to the age of pupils and the work to be
done in a room;
picturesand other school
maps,
(Of. The Sunday School Building and
apparatus.
Its Equipment by H. F. Evans, 1914.) (2) Trained
and women
prepared for the
workers, usually men
specialprofessionof religiouseducation,graduates
methods
of
of courses
in the psychology of religion,
and the materials of religion.
reUgious education
"Directors of ReligiousEducation,"
as
They are known
receive regular appointments under
salary,
and are
are on
a parity with the pastor in his work
of the
work
responsible for all the educational
church.
(Work described in Religious Education,
Oct., 1915.) (3) General direction under special
The Board
boards and committees in the church.
is appointed for abilities in
of ReUgious Education
the educational field and is the specialbody of the
church membership assignedto the generalresponsi(4) Budget provisionfor the
biUty for the school.
needs of the school. Instead of being supported by
the pennies of the children this budget provision
from the church permits the children's offeringsto
benevolent
The
total
outside
to
purposes.
go
result of adoption by the church and of the recognition
of the specialfunction of this school is seen
"Church
in the tendency to apply to it the name

School."

ETHICS

Supernatural, The

(4)Preparation of

the educational
a specialliteratureon
work
of the school with text-books
for the
training of teachers and on method
in different
departments. (5) Attention to the work of the
school in institutionsof highereducation,courses
in
collegespreparing for lay service in the schools,
and
in divinityschools and
courses
schools of
rehgion preparingpastors for general educational
supervision,and also preparing the professional
leaders, "Directors"
(cf. IV, 2, above.) See
Religious
Education.
Henry
F. Cope
SUNNA.
^The religious tradition
in
orthodox
ranking among
Mohammedans
divine authorityalongsidethe Koran.
"

Islam,
as

of

One of the two main divisionsof

SUIfNITES."
the Moslem
world.
They are the orthodox party,
hold to the Koran
and Sunna
(whence the name)
the authoritative
of doctrines. They
as
sources
predominatein Arabia,Turkey, N. Africa,Afghanistan,
Turkestan
and among
the Moslems
of India.
See Mohammedanism; Shi ites.
_

SUPEREROGATION,

WORKS
OF."
In R.C,
works performed in excess
of what is
Such
have
required for salvation.
good works
been performed by saints and the merit accruing
is transferable to the faithful on
to them
the basis
of the church's indivisibility.
See Communion
of
Saints.

good
theology,

SUPERINTENDENT."
officer who
(1) The
and has the oversight of a Sunday
presides over
School.
(2)In certain Protestant denominations
as
the German
EvangeKcal, German
Reformed, English
Wesleyan, and the Methodist Episcopal,a minister
having the official oversight of the churches and
congregationswithin a certain territory.

SUPERNATURAL,

THE."

realm

of spiritual

realities

existing above or beyond the world of

ordinary sense-perception.
That
behind
the experiences of ordinary life
there is a realm of mystery is universally
recognized.
This realm may
be simplydismissed from attention
the ground of its inherent
unknowableness
be regarded as an
(see Agnosticism); or it may
indefinable spiritual backgroimd
of all reaUty
(see Mysticism; Pantheism); or it may be considered
in definite
as
activelymaking itself known
in the "natural"
order.
In this latter case
ways
have what is known
we
as a doctrine of the supernatural.

on

Sunday schools have been reconstructed' under

influenceof the educational revival of the 20th.
ment
century. Closely followingon the generaldevelopof the science of education and its applicaton
the recognicame
tion
to popularelementary education
of the educational task of this school of religion
mental
and the attempt to apply to its work the funda2.

the

"

(1) The

AND

This
of education.
principles
organizationof pupils into

resulted in:
(a) classes
the pupil's
basis
the

1.

Conceptionsof the supernatural. The

"

natural
super-

manifest itselfin various ways.

It may
be a realm of spiritsand demons
in
who
engage
it may
capriciousactivities. At the other extreme
be conceived as so completely ordered by God as to
be capable of rational interpretation(Deism). In
is
the conception of the supernatural
Christianity
organized aroimd the doctrine of redemption. All
manifestations
of the supernatural have a definite
redemptive purpose.
Capriceand magic are thus
may

according to the stage of

development; (b) classes grouped, on
life divisions, in "Departments"
or
of broad
under
a
Principal. (c) All
"Divisions," each
pupil activitiesconducted in these groups, including
separate worship, according to the diffejent needs
from
of groups,
grade to
(d) Pupils advanced
(2) Material of study
grade usuallyeach year.
eliminated.
determined by the needs of pupils,so that each
chief
2. The supernaturalin Christianity.The
material, suitable to the needs of the
year new
are
1917, items in the supernaturalorder,accordingto Catholic
now,
pupil'slife,is studied. There
four fairlycomplete systems, with texts for each
theology,are the divine foundation of the church,
structive,
the divine character of Christ,the divinelyinspired
Universityof Chicago Congrade (International,
and the divinelyefficacious sacraments.
Beacon, and Scribner Series)and several
Scriptures,
other systems in the process of making (Unitarian, The creation of the world, the miracles of history,
ers
and the eventual catastrophicend of the world show
Episcopal,National [English]Jewish). (3) Teachof the present world to
the complete subordination
especiallyprepared for their particularwork;
Protestantism
the standard is that each teacher shall have followed
supernatural power.
rejected the
of the church,though retainCathohc interpretation
of at least eighty short lessons on methods
ing
a course
of similar
and materials,to be followed by a course
the conception of its supernatural character,
of sacraments
and reduced the number
to two.
length on the specialgrade of work to be done.
selected

"

Superstition

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

432

ecclesiastical or
within
this realm."
spiritual,
Ecclesiastics or lay officers refusingto conform
to
this assertion of royal authority,were
disqualified
for office. Such as maintained
the authority of a
regeneration.
discussion.
^The conceptionof the
3. Modern
potentate (the Pope) outside the realm forfeited
his property,or failing
to have such, was
imprisoned
supernaturalin traditional theology involves a
for a year.
deals with
A third offense incurred the penalty of
dualistic world-view.
Science, which
The
high treason.
scribed
the "natural" realm, is admittedly incompetent to
majority of the clergy subecclesiastical order.
deal with the supernatural. But in our day there is
readily to this new
fruitful investigation
of the entire realm
The
increasingly
bishops,however, having been for the most
of reHgionby science and philosophy. To withdraw
part appointed by Mary, refused and forfeited
to arouse
their office. EUzabeth's second ParUament
rehgion from such investigationis likely
(1563)
But in so far as
imposed the oath upon
suspicionthat its case is weak.
schoolmasters, pubhc
in
located
and
it is
officers
private teachers of children,barristers,
religionis discussed scientifically,
of the law, and members
the natural. There
of the House of Commons.
the world which science knows
is therefore a tendency to shift emphasis from
Peter
G. Mode
SURAS.
^The chapters or sections into which
values,and instead
originsto spiritual
supernatural
ventions the sacred book of Islam, the Koran, is divided.
of defending a definite series of supernaturalinterof a more
to think
general,undefined
SURPLICE.
with the natural world,
world continuous
A
white
ecclesiastical garment
spiritual
to
but containing potencies which actually come
looselyfittingand with broad open sleeves worn
the ordinary clerical costume
over
at almost
all
expressiononly through religiousexperience. For
the
of interpretingthe activity of God
this way
minister
regular church service by the officiating
and the choristers in the Catholic and Anghcan
word supernaturalis hardly adequate; for the
churches.
realities is just as "natural" as is
reahn of spiritual
experience. In so far,however,
any realm of human
SURYA.
of reHgiontends to reduce it to
One of the names
of the sun-god in
as scientifictreatment
Vedic religion.
function,there is need of some
a
purely human
to express the reahty of a superhuman realm
term
lifeis enriched and transformed.
SUSA-NO-O.
God of the sea and of storm
from which human
in
the primitivenature-reUgionof ancient Japan. His
the affirmation of the supernaturalis
In this sense
to religion. See Miracles.
boisterous activities enter largelyinto the mythology
indispensable
Smith
Birney
Gerald
of the Shinto records.
lous,
SUPERSTITION.
Ignorant, grotesque, creduStJTRAS.
The
for an
belief,commonly associated
or
ill-regulated
general name
early
of Hindu
with fear.
to present
group
prose writingsintended
is often associated with magical
in concise form
the essentials of the religious
Superstition
exist without
organized requirements of Vedic religion.They consist of
rites,though it may
any
a very abbreviated collection
system of expression. Examples of superstitions (1)the Shrauta-sutras,
with the number
encounter
of precepts for the use of the mantras
beUef that an
and Brdhmanas
are:
will
attend
of the
thirteen is unlucky; that ill-fortune
Vedas
in connection with the sacrifices,
begun on Friday; that phases of the
(2) the Grihya-sutrasgiving instruction regarding
any enterprise
influence the weather, etc.
the family cult,(3) the Dliarma-sutras,
of
moon
a group
Among
primitive peoples irrational beliefs manuals on social duties,(4) sutras dealing with
rehgious practices.As
intermingled with
magical practice,grammar,
omy.
are
philologyand astronworks
more
written
in verse
Such
orderly and ethical,these
called
rehgion becomes
are
stitions. shdstras.
primitiveemotional reactions are classed as superEven
the
highly organized fonns of
SUTTEE."
The
religiondo not completely eliminate superstitious
burning of the widow on the
consciousness.
ideas from the common
funeral pileof her husband,practicedin India imtil
A. Yoxttz
Herbert
the British forbade
it in their territoryin 1829.
It was
LAST."
The last meal of which
usuallya voluntary sacrificeon the part of the
SUPPER, THE
and the name,
before his passion; woman
Jesus partook with his disciples
sati,indicates that it was
considered a mark of ideal womanly devotion.
art, the best known
a frequentsubject in Christian
paintingbeing that of Leonardo da Vinci in Milan.
SVASTIKA.
The Hindu name
for the gammate
The
SUPRALAPSARIANISM."
hyper-Calvin- cross which is found in practicallyevery division
navia
Greece,China, India,Scandiistic doctrine that the decrees of predestination of the ancient world
and
America.
antecedent to all other decrees,
Usually it is a symbol of
and election are
hence that the decisions of divine election preceded prosperity and good-luck.In origin it probably
the creation and the fall of man.
represents the four quarters of the world and the
motion
of the sun
and heavens
a
as
wheel, thus
ACTS
OF."
Enactments
becoming a sign of sun, winds and the four regions
SUPREMACY,
designed to place the ecclesiastical organizationof and secondarilyof plenty and prosperity.
England under the control of the sovereign.
EMANUEL
SWEDENBORG,
(1688-1772)."
first act
The
(Nov. 1534) enacted that the
from
Born at Stockholm
a
father, a theological
king "shall be taken, accepted,and reputed the
head on earth of the church in England, professorsuspected of heterodoxy, trained in the
only supreme
redress
and amend
all
to visit,
University of Upsala, widely traveled,promoted
with power
to the nobiUty by Charles XII. for war
need
inventions,
as
such errors, heresies,and abuses
well versed in matters
of Mary's
trade,
In the papal reaction
correction."
affecting
currency,
and mines, he pubUshed (1734) his three volume
regime this statute was repealed.With EUzabeth's
contained
which
declared
Opera Philosophicaet Mineralia
(Jan. 1559) that the
accession it was
science in
strikinganticipationsof modern
governor
many
"queen's highness is the only supreme
ecclesiastical
the fields of geology and science. A later work
or
of the realm as well in all spiritual
cant
Regni Animalis, is equallysignifias
temporal, and that no foreign (1740),Economia
things or causes
Subseconclusions.
for its physiological
prince, person, or prelate,has any jurisdiction.

emphasis has rested principallyon the

by
divinely inspired Scriptures authenticated
miracle,the divine Christ, and divinelyeffected
Protestaxit

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

...

433

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

quently (1745)a revelation from the Lord led to his

his
resignationas a mining expert. Thenceforth
time was
nous
given to scripturalstudyand the volumi-

AND

ETHICS

Symbols, Religious

from
pelican feedingher young
with the blood
her self-rivenbreast (accordingto ancient fable)is.
Even
the cross
is not a symbol of the Passion,
but
elaboration of his theological
ideas. He believed
tian
a memorial; it is,however, a symbol of the Chrisof God
faith. Yet
that the essence
is love, that nature
and
symbol is popularly used to
include memorial.
function
that man's
spiritare absolutelydistinct,
Christian
his
fell through the
is to image
symbols are mentioned in the early
creator,that man
church fathers,and are found in connection
influence of spirits
of darkness,
and that through the
with
incarnation
be
in the catacombs, on
reveahng God's love, man
paintingsand inscriptions
may
the
restored.
In
Scriptures,with a natural, ancient vessels of various sorts (ofteneucharistic),
and on sarcophagi. Within
and celestial sense, God
the first six or seven
reveals himself
spiritual,
centuries symboUsm
much
was
through the divinely commissioned
exposition of
developed. Some
early Christian symbols are directlyborrowed from
Swedenborg. Hence the revelations through which
Thus
the Hermes
conditions preart.
Swedenborg claimed to have seen
pagan
carrying a goat, or
Phoebus
tending the flocks of Admetus, becomes a
vaiUng in the future Ufe. On the basis of his
symbol of the Good
Shepherd. Even
teachings,a chxirch has been established with important
Orpheus
extensions
in European lands and
of
America.
charming the wild beasts is picturedas a symt3ol
and
the
chariot-race
See New
the
Christ,
of.
on
Jerusalem, Church
sarcophagus is
made
of human
G. Mode
to typify the course
Peter
with the
fife,
EVANGELICAL
NANT
COVESWEDISH
MISSION
palm of victory awaiting the faithful at the end.
Other symbols are taken from common
OF AMERICA."
A sect of Swedish EvangehHfe, as the
in the United
States springing from
cal churches
fish,an article of daily food, becomes
(possibly
of Sweden, dating from
with some
the free church
1868 and
suggestion of the eucharistic feast)an
acrostic symbol of Christ,the letters of the Greek
in 1919,324 churches and 29,164members.
reporting,
word for "fish" being the initialsof the Greek words
OF
PAPAL."
ventoryfor "Jesus Christ,Son of God, Saviour."
inAn
SYLLABUS
ERRORS,
Similarly
the ordinary hght-giving candle
is used on
the
or
registerof eighty heresies placed under
Christian altar to recall Him
is the Light of
who
by Pius IX. in 1864, and
papal condemnation
sections
the World, or to signifythe Divine Presence,as in
divided
into ten
including pantheism,
naturaUsm, rationalism,sociahsm, Bible societies, the Pentecostal fire. The triangle and trefoil as
heresies regarding the
modern
symbols of the Trinity in Unity are well-known.
HberaHsm, and
various.
Besides
Symbols of Christ are of course
authority of the Church and Pope.
those justmentioned, he is representedas the Vine,
An air-sprite.See Kobold.
SYLPH.
accordingto his own words, and because of the wine
which is his Blood.
He is a Lion (of the tribe of
See Silvester.
SYLVESTER."
Judah); but he is also a Lamb, as proclaimed in
St. John's
gospel. The four Evangelists acquire
their winged symbols from Ezekiel and Revelation:
SYMBOLICS."
The name
given to that branch
of general theology which
is the Man, St. Mark
the Lion, St.
interpretsthe official St. Matthew
Luke the Ox, St. John the Eagle; and later devocreeds
tion
(symbols) of Christianity.The scope of
symboHcs is strictlylimited by the fact that it
pointed out the characteristics of their respective
is expressed in the creeds.
deals only with what
gospels that justified the
imagery. The
It thus differs from a history of doctrine or from
is pictured as
Church
a
ship (sometimes with
Christ or St. Peter as helmsman) in which
the
systematictheology in that it does not, as these do,
of reUgious thinking. faithfulare carried safely,like Noah
consider general movements
and his family
be purely objectiveand comparain the ark, over
of
the raging floods of wickedness
Symbolics may
tive;
this world to their desired haven : or she is a draped
be in the interests of some
it may
one
or
hands
in the
type of Christianity. The latter ideal has usually figure standing with outstretched
been followed,so that the expositionhas constituted
primitive attitude of prayer, an attitude stillpreserved
of
in that of the celebrant in the eucharist.
an
apology for the chosen type. The demands
Incense
is the Scripturalaccompaniment
of the
objective historical interpretation,
however, have
felt so definitely
in present-day
made
themselves
of saints,and
thus acquires a symbolic
prayers
value.
The
theologicalscholarship that the aim of modern
serpent, or dragon, is a Scriptural
figurefor Satan, as the dove is for the Holy Spirit;
symbohcs is to furnish a sympathetic expositionof
with an
but the self-reviving
irenic
the various creeds of Christendom
phoenix for the resurrection
is another adaptation from pagan
rather than a polemic aim.
fable.
Gerald
Birney
Smith
The
of art, and the cult of apostles,
progress
RELIGIOUS."
SYMBOLS,
(Greek: symbolon, saints,and martyrs led to other devices in symbolism,
often (as memorial
"a sign.") Objects, or representationsof objects,
which
stood for,or more
used to suggest to the mind, by association or
attributes) accompanied, representationsof the
venerated
Thus St. Paul is distinguished
analogy, things or ideas of a religiousnature other
persons.
than those directlypresented.
by a sword, St. Peter by the keys of the Lord's
Early Christian symbols especiallyborrowed
commission, St. Andrew
by the X-cross on which
references in Holy Scripture, he suffered,
their aptness from
and other martyrs by the instruments
both gave
of their fate. The symbolism of the cock, which,
and Uke other pictorial
representations,
like the gospel of the Day-spring from
cise
on
pleasurablestimulus to the mind through the exerhigh,
of night and the
of the associative faculty,and had a decorative
souls from the darkness
rouses
sleep of sloth and sin,led to the frequent placing
value, while also obviating the need of language
weather-vanes.
be
of cocks
church-towers
to
as
on
suggest ideas. Objective symbols may
ture
Others make
the cock the symbol of the resurrection,
distinguishedfrom the use of symbolism in literabelieved to have
risen
because
Christ was
as
by simile and metaphor. Representations
of actual objectssuggestiveof religious
conceptions from the dead at early cock-crowing; others yet
than symbols.
to
declare the crowing of the cock had power
be, however, rather memorials
may
which
wander
abroad
be termed
at
A symbol may
banish the evil spirits
a metaphor expressed in
the spirit
as
night,and lie in wait for the faithful,
object instead of language, while a memorial
of denial forsook St. Peter at the crowing of the
corresponds to a simile. Thus a picturedchalice is
cock.
The mention of such variant views may
serve
not strictlya symbol of the eucharist,while the
"

Symeon

Metaphrastes

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

434

pretation of the exclusivelydivine originof salvation,

called
example of the way in which homiletic interof symbols was
elaborated and
monergism. The doctrine has been regarded as a
fancifully
developed. Symbolism has also been arbitrarily recrudescence of Semi-Pelagianism
(q.v.).
as

an

attributed

ecclesiastical vestments
and
other
and
unauthorized
tecture
archiin church
is exhaustively
treated by Durandus.
The
eastward
orientation of churches
is mentioned
as
earlyas the Apostohc Constitutions (4th.century),
and prevailedthroughout the Middle
Ages.
The halo,aureole,or nimbus
(usuallyround, but
later square
in the denotation of persons yet living)
surrounding the head is a sign of authority or
been of pagan
to have
origin.
sanctity. It seems
In the East rulers are thus distinguishedin early
centuries,as are divine or holy persons; in the
West, to which the use of the halo in art spread,
it is prevaiUngly
limited to the latter class.
E. T. Merrill
SYMEON
METAPHRASTES."
A
Byzantine
chronicler who probably lived in the latter half of the
of the biographers
10th. century; the most
famous
of the saints. He is venerated as a saint by the
Eastern church on Nov. 28.
to

furnishingsin quite fantastic

fashion.
Mediaeval
symboUsm

SYMMACHUS."
SYMPATHY.

Pope, 498-514.
An emotional

"

excited
experience,

by the experiencesof another, and inducing in the

beholder
auditor
or
feelingsof a corresponding
quaUty or kind. It is an evidence of social soUdarity, and
frequently is experienced before the
tion
reflective stage. In ethical theory it is the foundasince sympathy
of altruism and all social ethics,
is a powerful motive for promoting the good of the
hism
for whom
sympathy is aroused. In Buddperson
sympathy is a primary virtue.

SYNOD."
An ecclesiasticalcouncil,
whether of
regularstanding or appointed for a specific
purpose.
Examples of stated synods are that in the Presbyterian

Church

which functions between the General

the local presbyteries,
the General
and
District Synods of the
Dutch
Reformed,
Reformed
German
and Lutheran
churches
of the
U.S.A.,the Holy Synod of the Russian church, the
Holy GoverningSynod of the Roumanian
church
and the governing body of the Greek
established
church.
The Synod of Dort
(q.v.)is an instance
of a synod called for a specific
end.

Assembly and

SYNOPTIC

GOSPELS."
A
designation for
and
Luke
taken
gospels of Matthew, Mark
together,in contrast with the gospelof John.
first three gospelsare
The
termed
"synoptic"
because in the main they follow a common
outline
the

of events

in narratingthe
in their
striking
similarity

of Jesus.
This
career
content has given rise
to the so-called Synoptic Problem.
By arranging
Matthew, Mark and Luke in parallelcolumns the
followingfacts become
apparent:
(1) Matthew
and
Luke
each
contains
the main
bulk
of the
narrative in practicallyidentical phraseMarkan
ology;
and Luke
also have certain
(2) Matthew
less closely
similar
more
or
paragraphs in common,
both in content
and
language, for which Mark
offers no
parallels;(3) still other portions of
Matthew
are
wholly peculiar to that gospel;
(4) Luke also contains several sections not paralleled
in any of the others.
Various theories have been advanced
to explain
how
these similarities and differences in the first
three gospels arose.
The
general solution now
commonly accepted is: (1)The writers of Matthew
and
Luke, working independently, used Mark,
which they sometimes
copied almost verbatim and
times
at other
slightlyaltered or abbreviated.
Matthew
and
Luke
(2) When
closely in
agree
sections where Mark
offers no
parallel,they are
assumed
to have used a common
lost.
source
now
This
has
been
termed
hypothetical document
variously"Logia,""Sayings,""Q" (q.v.).Whether
it was
of two or more
a singledocument
or
a group
is still a matter
of dispute. (3) Sections pecuUar
to Matthew, and to Luke, may
be derived in some
instances from
earUer documents
be the
or
may
first-hand composition of these authors.
S. J. Case
SYNOPTIC
PROBLEM."
See
Synoptic

SYNAGOGUE."
local institution,
and
The one
the
the most
important social organization,among
Jews in and out of Palestine from the 6th. century
ritual sacrifice became
to the present. When
B.C.
confined to Jerusalem,the Jews requiredeverywhere
local organization for reUgious education
new
a
also a center
of comand worship. They needed
munity
administration.
served
The
synagogue
these purposes,
functioning socially as church,
school,courthouse and public hall. One board of
elders governed the whole cormnunity life through
suitable building was
for which
this institution,
a
held
The
chief religiousservice was
maintained.
regularlyon Sabbath mornings.
C. W. VOTAW
intentional
An
tional
unintenSYNCRETISM."
or
fusion of two or more
or religious
philosophical
Gospels.
tenets, as in
systems on the basis of their common
and
elements
in
of Hellenic
the union
Hebraic^
is applied to
the term
SYRIAN
CHURCH."
native (non-Greek)
The
Christianity.Specifically
church of Syria,using Syriac and having its chief
of the 17th. century, designed
the irenic movement
and
Reformed
While Christianity
the Lutheran
reached Antioch
to unite
churches, seat at Edessa.
of which
the leading advocate
was
Georg Calixtus
only a few years after Jesus' death, it made little
the interior of Syria until the
impression upon
(q.v.).
last quarter of the 2nd. century when
Tatian and
Bardesanes
CONTROVERSY."
The name
carried the gospel among
the native
SYNCRETISTIC
Syriac-speakingpopulation. Tatian's Diatessaron,
given to a controversy which arose in 1645 when a
CathoUc
and
or
conference
of Lutheran, Reformed
interweaving of the four gospels into one, was
called at Thorn, Poland, with a
tianity
long the gospel of the Syrians,and Syriao Christheologianswas
view to reaching unity. The
produced eminent leaders in Aphraates and
controversy lasted
the
Lutheran
until
1686.
theologians attach
Ephrem in the 4th. century. Early in the 5th.,
of Georg Calixtus (q.v.).
it produced the Peshitto or Vulgate version of the
controversy to the name
New
Testament
(lackingfour cathoUc epistlesand
marked
See Conscience.
SYNDERESIS.
Revelation). The 5th. century was
by
the conflict between the Monophysite doctrine of
Christ
the
of
and
views
16th.
the
A
SYNERGISM.
singlecomposite nature
century theological
of Nestorius,which resulted in dividingthe Syrian
doctrine that regenerationis due to a co-ordination
It was
church into the Monophysites (latercalled Jacobites)
effort with divine grace,
of human
opposed
West
or
to the Augustinian positionmaintained by Luther
Syriansand the Nestorians or East
"

"

435

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Taboo

or

Tabu

This expositionof supernatural

active in missionary
truth is so related
bodies were
to the deliverances of natural reason
centuries,that of the Nestorians
as to constitute
all-inclusivesystem.
a consistent and
especiallyreaching far into China and India, and
Protestant
centuries.
The
Jacobites are
theologians rejected the authority
enduring for many
reduced
in numbers
and
much
influence, of the Cathohc
now
Church, restrictingthe source
of revealed doctrine to the Scriptures alone.
still active in the regions
In
but the Nestorians
are
Edgar
J. Goodspeed
about Urmia.
theory, the Scriptures were
supposed to be selfinterpretingwhen read with the guidance of the
of
branch
THEOLOGY."
That
SYSTEMATIC
Holy Spirit. As a matter of fact, the various
branches
of Protestantism differed in their interpretations,
theologicalstudy which organizes and expounds
the doctrines of Christianity,
to constitute a
even
though all were
so
appealing to the
as
Bible.
The content
of doctrine was
well-ordered system of thought. It is often called
same
actually
because the subject determined
or
by the accepted beUefs of the denominar
dogmatic theology,
dogmatics,
tion to which the theologianbelonged.
is found in the dogmas of the church.
matter
19th. century brought earnest efforts to
The
Strictlyspeaking,systematic theologyis a form
pretation
eliminate dogmatic preconceptionsfrom the interof expounding rehgious beliefs characteristic of
of Scripture. The development of bibUcal
method
in other
Christianityalone. The common
reUgionsis either the unsystematized collection theology on the basis of exact exegesiswas expected
of systematic theologians.
of interpretations and
applications of specific to correct the errors
became
But as bibhcal interpretation
free
more
exactly
or
a
precepts (as in the Jewish Talmud);
it was
that doctrines found in the
seen
speculativephilosophy (as in Indian systems). historical,
The
peculiarcharacteristic of Christian theology Bible are colored by ancient conceptionswhich in
is the combination
of a systematic philosophical many
have been
cases
outgrown. A complete
aim with a recognitionof the supreme
authority reproduction of biblical thought thus involves
standards.
doctrines derived from the Christian
of fundamental
anachronisms when
judged by modern
RitschUan
to
The
revelation.
theology (q.v.) endeavored
first systematic theologian in Christian
this difficulty
surmount
The
by making the spiritual
history was
Origen (q.v.),who sought to present authority of Jesus rather than the Bible the norm
for theology. A more
Christian faith in philosophicalform, so that all
to
common
attempt was
"harmonize
with
human
bibUcal statements
modem
might be answered
by Christian
inquiries
ideals by a free use of speculativeinterpretation.
doctrines.
While
occasional
hke
compendiums,
of Augustine, were
the influence of the historical and psychothe Enchiridion
logical Under
logical
written, theodiscussion during the first thousand
analysisof the nature of religiousbehef,
years of
church historywas
theologianstoday are increasinglycoming to see
usuallyoccasional or polemic or
until the
that doctrines
social creations, propagated
Not
12th.
are
apologetic in character.
and developedby rehgiousgroups
the expression
bishop
as
century {Tractatvs
theologicusof Hildebert, archof Tours, d. 1134; and the famous Sentences
of their common
task
religiousinterests. The
of the theologian,
of Peter Lombard, d. 1160) did the systematic
the
therefore,is to understand
social origins of the inherited doctrines,and
to
presentationof the entire system of Christian
behef become
common.
reinterpretthe social inheritance of his church so
CathoHc
the rehgiousneeds of men
Roman
in his own
as to meet
day.
theologyis constructed on the

Syrians. Both
in

work

later

a faithful acceptance of the divine revelation

in Scripture supplemented by the tradition of
the Church, and
interpretedby the aid of the
decisions of councils and the writingsof the Fathers.

basis of

The

standard

doctrines

treated

in all Christian

theologiesare: Revelation,
God, Man, Sin,Christ,
Salvation,the Church and its Sacraments, and the
Future

Life.

Gerald

Birney

Smith

movable
scribedMoses
TABERNACLE."
The
from Mount
Sinai. Reprebrought down
sanctuary desentations
in Exodus, chaps. 25-27, 36-38, as having
of the Tablets inscribed with the Decalogue
been carried by the Hebrews
during their 40 years
are
as symbols of God's law.
placed in synagogs
In modern
times the word is used
in the wilderness.
where it is imusually
TABOO
for a placeof worship,especially
TABU."
the word taboo
As a noun
or
large or does not comply with the usual types of
(Polynesian
tabu,tapu) may be broadly defined as
church architecture,
nacle
prohibition supported by a supernatural
e.g., the Metropolitan Taberany
erected under Spurgeon in London, England.
to "prohibit"; used
sanction; as a verb it means
tabernacle
in Salt Lake
The
Mormon
adjectively,it refers to something prohibited to
Cityis a
famous
common
building of this type. The term is also
use, as being either sacred and inviolable
used of small receptaclesfor sacred objects,especior
ally
pollutedand accursed.
taboo
1. Diffusion of taboo.
of a repositoryfor the elements of the eucharist.
The
system
reached
its most
elaborate
development in
FEAST
OF."
A Jewish holiday
TABERNACLES,
Polynesia,particularly in Hawaii, Tahiti, and
found
observed for eightdays, beginning with the fifteenth New
the
Zealand.
It has been
among
of Tishri,the month
correspondingapproximately
Malays. It is
Micronesians, Melanesians, and
It celebrates the ingathering not unknown
with October.
in Australia,Asia, especiallyamong
of the crops, and is a day of thanksgiving and joyful
the aboriginaltribes of India and Siberia,Africa,
praise to God for the bounties of nature; and also
together with Madagascar, and various parts of
for His protectionof Israel through their history. America.
Such
expressionsas the Greek hagios,
be
It is celebrated with a specialritual,by carrying
the Latin
the Hebrew
tame, must
sacer, or
the lulab as a symbol of God's bounty, and
translated as "taboo," since each conveys the twin
by
frail booths
the
to
ideas of sanctityand pollution. In fact,regulations
sittingin tabernacles
open
in spiteof physisimilar or analogous to the Polynesian taboos either
cal
sky symbolic of God's protection
weakness.
exist or have existed in a great part of the world.
taboos
2. Classification
of taboos. Some
are
TABLES
LAW."
The
stone
THE
OF
two
imposed, for example, those which proartificially
tect
harvest
time
which
until
or safeguard
containing the ten commandments,
growing crops
tablets,
"

"

"

"

Taboo

or

Tabu

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

property against intrusion. On the other

grivate
taboos which regularlyattach
and, there
many

anonymous
demonstrates

to corpses, human
bom
children and

abrogated if they
oppressive.

are

blood,sacrificial
offerings,
newly
mothers, boys and girlsat
puberty, menstruating women,
strangers, manslayers,the sick,mourners, undertakers,
magicians,
a
nd
chiefs.
priests,
3. Taboo and magico-spiritual
It would
power.
that originally
seem
or
things are tabooed
persons
because
for some
considered
reason
they are
of
and
hence
mysterious or abnormal
sources
potential injury. The notion of taboo, at first
their

"

and
tends
differentiate
to
vague
indeterminate,
into the opposite though related ideas of impurity
and holiness.
This differentiationis never
perfectly

436

customs, to be retained
their

if experience
be silently
be unnecessary
and
Hutton
Webster

or
usefulness,

prove

to

to

TABORITES."
The
radical party of Hussites,
uncompromisingly opposed to ecclesiastical tyranny,
and thus resisting
all attempts at compromise, in
contrast
moderate
to the more
Utraquists (q.v.).
The

name

is taken

from

the

town

of Tabor

in

Bohemia, where Huss preached when requested by

the King to leave Prague. See Huss; Hussites.
TALISMAN.

"

charm

of

an

inanimate

acter,
char-

in contrast
regarded as magically beneficent,
with an amulet
charm
to counteract
or
malignant
taining
influences;ordinarilya metal or stone disk,conmagical formulae or astrological
configurations.

accomplished by primitive peoples, who find it

hard enough to distinguish
between
what is dangerous,
because
polluted,and what is dangerous,
See Charms
Amulets.
and
because sacred.
"unclean"
The
and
the
thing
alike
"holy" thing
possess magico-spiritual
TALLIT.
for a Jewish prayer
power.
Hebrew
term
Se6
Mana.
fluenceshawl, worn
Supernatural energy, force, or inwhile recitingthe morningby men
is transmissible
and is therefore capable
in the synagog.
or
prayer either in their homes
of infecting
with its injuriousqualitieswhatever
"

into contact
with it. The
taboo infection
thus spread indefinitely,
unless various precautions
taken.
Since a corpse
are
is a strange,
object,all who handle a corpse or assist
uncanny
at a funeral are
subjected to a rigid quarantine
imtil the pollutionof death has been removed
by
ceremonies.
house
the
Sometimes
purificatory
is destroyed,togetherwith
in which
a death occurs
its contents, or
it is sealed up and abandoned.
Widows
and widowers
have to go into seclusion,
may
and often the name
of the deceased
not be
may
mentioned.
The
practice of secludingor even
abandoningthose dangerouslyillrests on the notion
that they are temporarily taboo.
The restrictions
on
manslayers are connected with fimerarytaboos,
with those having to do
or
perhaps more
directly
with the shedding of human
blood. Again, the
of menstruation,pregnancy,
processes
irth,and the attainment of puberty are thoroughly
mind
and
mysterious to the savage
give rise to
comes

may

TALMUD."

The

word

Talmud

is

of

neo-

Hebraic

trasted
originallylearningconoriginand means
with practice. Inasmuch
the study of
as
the Torah
is the goal of all mental
activity,the

word
Talmud
attribute is understood
without
any
the system of rabbinic thought and
as
practice
laid down in the books called by this name.
and an
The Talmud
is a discursive commentary
enlargement of the law found in the Mishnah
has come
into use
(q.v.). Since the term Gemara
the term Talmud
means
now
generallythe Mishnah,
its commenunderstood as text and the Gemara
as
tary
both together being called Talmud.
ning
Beginwith the 3rd. century the Mishnah
the
was
textbook
used in the schools then flourishingin
Palestine and Babylonia. The
Mishnah
with the
discussions
of the Palestinian schools forms the
Talmud
Yerushalmi
was
(Palestinian),which
closed about 350; and
the Mishnah
with
the
discussions of the Babylonian scholars the Talmud
closed in the 5th.
protectiveregulations,including seclusion, Babli (Babylonian),which was
many
from
various
and
fasting,abstinence
larger and remained
activities,
century. The latter is much
avoidance
of the oppositesex, as well as to various
more
popular than the former.
rites of purification.At the other
It is very difficultto give a pictureof the unique
end
of the
scale are the taboos which surround
The nearest approach
form of the Talmud.
the persons
of
literary
priests,chiefs,and, in the higher culture,kings. to it would be a biblical book with the commentaries
Such individuals,
rupted
as
arranged in chronologicalorder, but often interbelongingto a superiororder
of beings,are believed to possess a specialstore of
by discussions of the older views by yoimger
their holiness must not be
authors or by explanations added
to their words.
magico-spiritual
power:
contaminated
The
by contact with the secular and the
following specimen taken from the tractate
the controversy indicated in
be discharged
not
profane; conversely, it must
Gittin,90a, reflecting
into the bodies of common
illustration : Mishnah:
folk to blast and destroy.
Matt. 5 : 32, may serve
as an
The
infectious quality of sanctity explains,also, The school of Shammai
teaches:
shall not
a man
the regulationsrelating to idols,altars,sacred
divorce his wife,unless he find her to be unfaithful,
shrines and places,and even
in her an
for it is written:
he foimd
unseemly
holy days.
It
is
4. Religious interdictions and
taboo.
thing (Deut. 24:1). The school of Hillel teaches
difficult to separate taboos, properlyso called,
if
he
divorce
his
she allowed
meal to
the
her, even
may
violation of which
is punished
bum.
Gemara:
Said the Hillelites to the Shamdirectly by an
"Dabar"
automatic
maites:
Is it not written:
(anything)?
discharge of magico-spiritualpower,
from
interdictions whose
Said the Shammaites:
Is not it written "Erwah"
sanction
is the wrath
of offended spiritsor deities. Such
maites:
interdictions, (immorality)? Said the HilleUtes to the ShamIf it were
and
indeed,form a natural extension of the idea of taboo
merely written '"Erwah"
be divorced on
and are found in all religions.In Polynesia,the
not Dabar," I would
say she may
the ground of erwah and not on any other ground.
were
atiM, or spirits,
supposed to enter the Dody
of one
had broken
who
Therefore it says: "Dabar."
Were it again written
a
taboo, causing disease
and death.
demonic
The same
beings,if offended, "dabar" and not "'erwah,"I would say, if divorcd
other ground, she may
if divorced
on
might visit entire tribes with an epidemic, or send
any
remarry,
down
she may
not remarry.
lightning and fire from heaven, or bring on the ground of infidelity
about the unsuccessful issue of a war.
'"erwah."
The
maites
ShamUltimately, Therefore it is written:
the punishment of the taboo-breaker
has to be interpreted
to
again say: "Dabar"
come
may
be regarded as an important function of the tribal
with the analogyin Deut. 19,"on the
in accordance
of two witnesses or on the mouth
of three
is the maintenance
mouth
or national
god, whose chief concern
of the customary moral rules. Thus taboos
witnesses shall a matter
(dabar) be established."
As in this case two witnesses are required(toprove
graduallybecome merged into the great body of

Ehysiological

"

437

the
are

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

two witnesses
guilt)so here in case of infidelity)
required. Said the Hillelites: Is it written:

AND

ETHICS

centuries whose
Mishna
(q.v.)and

teachings

Taurobolium

are

in the Baraita

contained

in

the

(q.v.)

be-dabar"?
Said the Shammaites:
Is it
'"erwah
dabar"?
Said
the HilleUtes:
TANTRAS."
written
"erwah
The
or
reUgious literature of the
Saivitesects of India,called the Sdktas,
Therefore it is written '"erwah dabar" to allow both
who worship
justifies the female energy of the supreme
God in his Sakti
interpretations(namely that any cause
like other charges must
divorce,and that infidelity
(q.v.). These works contain theology,instruction
in meditation
and innumerable rites making use of
be proven
by two witnesses).
The specimen quoted shows that the main object
mantras
(q.v.),
mystical diagramsand gestures.
of the Talmud
the interpretation
of the Pentawas
teuchal
law.
This is called Midrash
^The Chinese word
TAG.
for Cosmic
tion).
(investigaOrder.
in this case, concerns
When
the Midrash
It is the ultimate law expressingitself in the pheas
nomenal
itself with the law, the result is called Halakah
world, sometimes
interpretedin terms of
it concerns
itself
(practice,
literally,
walk). When
as
a spiritual
naturahsm, sometimes
lying
reahtyunderwith ethical teachings
the material phenomena of the world.
or
anything else which is
Human
not law in the proper
happiness is only to be attained by obedience to it
sense, it is called Haggadah
two
never
(sajdng). The
subjects are
clearly and human
in harmony
perfectionis found by living
the codifiers of later times unanimous
divided,
with this cosmic order.
nor
are
The
whole duty of man
in assigning statements
of the two
to one
is to be a willinginstrument for the free workingof
Talmuds
classes. There
in both
additions
the Tao of the universe.
are
from later times,some
apparently dating as late as
the 8th. century.
TAOISM.
See China, Religions
of, II.
The only complete manuscriptof the Babylonian
Talmud
is found in Munich.
It was
written in
TAPAS.
ings
^Austerities,
bodilytortures and sufferThe
first complete edition was
1369.
endured
published
voluntarilyby Hindu devotees in
in Venice, 1520-1523.
We
later
numerous
order to gain complete mastery of the passions
possess
the most complete one
and supernaturalpowers.
and to secure
editions,
published in Wilna,
spiritual
All editions have
suffered severely from
1886.
church censorship. The first edition of the Palestinian
A
TAQIYYA."
principle of Shi'ite Islam by
Telmud
was
which a Moslem
in a hostile country is enjoined to
printed in 1523 in Venice from
is preserved in Leiden.
A
convictions and conform
hide his own
a
to the alien
manuscript which
critical edition of both Talmuds
is still wanting.
rehgiouspracticesfor the sake of his own
security
Translations
have
and that of his fellows.
It probablyoriginated
repeatedly been
attempted,
with
is so far complete.
but none
the Isma'ilis.
The
Talmud
often attacked
was
partly on
of anti-Christian
account
TARGUM.
partly from
(Hebrew word meaning interprepassages,
tation,
the moral point of view.
The few scattered notes
translation),
a paraphrase of the Old
ment
Testaon
into Aramaic
the
Jews
Christianityare of no historic value. They
of
Jerusalem
among
reflect a polemical spiritagainst the gospelsbut
and Babylonia,according to tradition originating
show
nowhere
with Ezra
an
independent knowledge of the
(Neh. 8:8). These interpretationsof
The attacks based on
beginnings of Christianity.
the Old Testament
graduallycrystallizedduring
moral
several
grounds are without exception inspiredby
succeeding centuries into the so-called
fanatical bias. They began at an
early period. Jewish Targums. Those extant today are; I. On
The
prohibitionagainst reading the "Deuterosis"
the
Pentateuch:
of
(1) Babylonian Targum
in the synagogs,
issued by the Byzantine emperor
On]j:elos,
(2) Palestinian Targum II. of Jerusalem
similar persecutions, of parts of the Pentateuch, (3)a complete Targum I.
was
a prolog to many
Justinian,
such as the burning of cartloads of Talmud
copies of Jersualem called pseudo-Jonathan.
II. On the
in Paris in 1244 due to the calumnies of the convert
Prophets: (1)Babylonian Targum of the Prophets,
Nicholas
Donin, the order to seize all rabbinic
of Jonathan
bar Uzziel,(2) Palestinian Targum of
works
issued by the German
Maximilian
the
the
emperor
Prophets. III. On
Hagiographa:
(1)
in 1506, and the defamation
of the rabbinic literature
Psalms,and Job, (2) Proverbs, (3) Song of Songs,
"by John Eisenmenger in his Entdecktes JudenRuth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes,Esther, (4)
Chronicles.
thum, in 1701, which up to this day is the chief
No
known
Targums are
on
Ezra,
Nehemiah
and Daniel.
Ira M. Price
repertory for antisemitic writers.
The Talmud
is indeed characterized by a minuteness
in ritualistic discussions which to the modern
TATIAN.
Christian apologist of the
2nd.
mind
appears
petty, it naturally contains many
an
century. He was
Assyrian philosopherwho was
views which to a modern
scientist appear
and became
of
childish, converted to Christianity,
a disciple
and givesoccasionally
voice to bitter feelings
against Justin Martyr. His Diatessaron (q.v.)is the first
the persecutors of the Jews, but it also teaches most
known
attempt at a Harmony of the four Gospels,
probity in business,moral purity, and was the official gospel in the Syrian church.
emphatically
tenderness in family life and civic virtue.
GOTTHARD
DeUTSCH
TAUHID."
The
unity of God in the theology
TAMMUZ.
A divine figureof Babylonian religion,
of Islam.
Since the Sufis were
reaUy pantheistic
and
the
the term
symbol of the springtime sun
the
was,
by them, extended to mean
return
of
is associated
with
essential unity of the soul with God.
vegetation. He
This use
Ishtar who
condemned
represents the revived vegetation of
was
by orthodoxy.
the earth.
Under
the
title Adon,
"lord," he
to
and
linked
with
Greece
was
passed
Aphrodite.
(ca.1300-1361)." German
TAULER,
JOHANN
The death of the god at the end of summer
and his
under
the
mystic of wide influence. He came
revival in the springtime were
the occasions
of
influence of Meister
Eckhart
in Strassburg,
and
ceremonial weeping and rejoicing
associated with
respectively.The
as preacher in Basel was
intimately
underworld
realm of the dead is sometimes
called
the "Friends of God"
(q.v.). He proved his fidelity
the "house of Tammuz."
in the face of a plague of black death in Strassburg.
_

"

"

"

"

"

"

TANNA.

naim)

one

"

(Aramaic:

of the

Jewish

"teacher"; plural, tanscholars

of the first two

TAURGBOLIUM."
The
rite of blood-baptism
in the mysteries of the Great Mother,Cybele,and

James
I'aylor,

Hudson

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

initiate was
placed in a pit and the
to flow
of a sacrificed bull allowed
Originallya primitive
through a gratingupon him.
of securingthe magic potency of the blood of a
way
to
powerful animal by contact, it was spiritualized
to the old life of sin and guiltand,
a death
mean
purified
through the blood, a rebirth to the new
immortal
blood not only cleansed,but
life. The
imparted the divine Ufe. See Cybele; Mtstery
Religions; Criobolium.

Attis. The
warm

AND

ETHICS

438

by Paley, to more
developed forms to meet the
scientfecadvance
and especiallythe evolutionary
principle. (Cf. Janet's Final Causes, and James
Ward's
Realm of Ends.)
In some
developed form teleologyis still a
vital concern
for religiousthinking. ReUgious
explanation always involves some
conception of

tion

blood

HUDSON
(1832-1905)."
TAYLOR,
JAMES
missionary to China, and founder of the
of great executive
China Inland Mission; a man
abilityas well as of intense piety and devotion.
Medical

the

divine

and

of the relation of human

All Christian doctrines of
and
the meaning and
values of life rest
prayer
conviction.
a teleological
upon
Herbert
A. Youtz
TELEPATHY."
The
of
alleged transference
from one
mind
to another
thoughts or emotions
without the employment of the customary channels
of sense.
Telepathy is one of the possibleexplanations
of occult mental phenomena.
purpose

activityto that

purpose.

(1613-1667)."English
TAYLOR,
JEREMY
clergyman, who in that troubled period on account
TEMPERANCE
MOVEMENTS."
Movements
of his royalistdevotion led a somewhat
precarious
to limit or abolish the use of alcoholic beverages.
for his devotional books,
existence.
He is famous
I. Early
The
History.
The Rule and Exercises of Holy Living, and
Practically all peoples
above
the level of barbarism
know
Rule and Exercises of Holy Dying.
something
of the manufacture
and use of alcoholic beverages.
The
earliest
APOSTLES."
fermented
TWELVE
malt
OF THE
TEACHING
or
liquorswere
liquors;
"

yet the

See DiDACHE.
ancient hymn of praise
A famous
TE DEUM.
accredited to Ambrose
to the Trinity,traditionally
of Milan, used in various Christian liturgies,
cially
espefrom
and Anglican,and so-called
the Roman
the opening words of the Latin, Te deum lavdamus.
"

common

use

led

to

temperance

observation of the evils of their

early to counsels
movements.

of

temperance and
Such

even

movements

occurred in early China, India,Persia,and Egypt.

Hence
the more
ethical religions
to inculcate
came
The
total
were
early Buddhists
temperance.
forbade
the use
of
abstainers,while Mohammed
wine to his followers.
Not much
beyond
progress
the teachings of the Old Testament
TABLETS."
A collection of
EL-AMARNA
with respect
TEL
to temperance, however, was
realized in Christian
found in Egypt in
documents
350 cuneiform
over
countries tillthe 19th. century.
of the tablets are letters.
1886 (or 1887). Most
Modern
raohs
in Western
A few of these were
movements
temperance
exchanged between the Phacivilizationhave a number
of new
factors connected
Amenhotep III. and Amenhotep IV. and their
with them, which
doubt
account
the kingsof Babylonia,Assyria,Mitanni,
no
sociologically
"brothers,"
The
Hatti
(the Hittite land). for their appearance.
peoples of northern
Arzawa, Cyprus, and
the
The majority form the correspondencebetween
Europe are, in the first place,less immvmized
to alcohol,while at the same
in Syria-Palestine. physiologically
and
their vassals
Pharaohs
time
their climatic conditions favor the craving for and
of the royal letters is the amount
The main theme
the abuse of alcoholic stimulants.
of Egyptian gold the kings of Babylonia and
even
Secondly,
the popularization
of the use of distilled or spirituous
Mitanni will accept in exchange for their daughters
Pharaonic
harem.
The
the
to
who
Uquors (previouslylargelyunknown) in the 17th.
are
grace
and
18th. centuries made
the abuse
of alcoholic
burden
of the letters of the vassals of the Pharaoh
is the danger threateningEgj-ptian rule in Syria. beverages more
mon.
comeasy and intoxication more
The Hittites were
Thirdly,the complexity and high standards
pushing into the country from the
of efficiency
of modern
societyhave rendered strict
north, the Sutu and Habiri (nomads and semifrom
Lastly, the progress of
sobrietymore
nomads) from the east. Appeals for aid came
necessary.
science in demonstrating that alcohol under
of such
cities as
all
the governors
Byblos, Tyre,
circumstances
acts as a poison of protoplasm, or
Sidon, Megiddo, Gezer, Lachish and Jerusalem.
The
tablets vividly picture the conditions in
unprotected livingtissue,has aided not a little in
the Israelites were
at the time
Canaan
entering the progress of temperance movements.
The firstconsiderable efforts at legislative
tion
restricthat land (roughly 1400 B.C.), They also throw
relations
of the liquortraffic date from the early 18th.
light on the diplomatic and commercial
of the Near East during the latter half of the 2nd.
century. In 1728-36 the English Parliament passed
the first laws designedto limit the sale of liquors.
millennium
D. D. Luckenbill
B.C.
These have been followed in all civilized countries
succession of laws directed to the
TELEOLOGY."
The doctrine that the principle by a constant
Much
of this early legislation
of design runs
general end.
same
through the structure of the world
ineffective and often served only to intensify
and can
be employed as -a principleof explanation. was
the
evil. Indeed, the
in contrast
with
height of intemperance
Teleology is best understood
scientific explanations in terms
to have been reached
mechanical
of
in the period 1750seems
or
drunkenness
and effect. Teleology is the doctrine that
became frightfully
cause
common
1825, when
in all classes of_society,the clergy being
in an explanationof the world that reallyaccounts
for the total outcome, design or purpose
is needed
scarcelyless free from it than other classes.
and effect.
As a result,
to supplement cause
popular scientificand religious
many
evidence
has
Theistic
movements
always rested rather
against the evil started early in the
heavilyupon the argument from design (teleological 19th century. Dr. Benjamin Rush, a prominent
American
physician, in 1804 published a paper
argument) as one of its "proofs"of the existence of
of this argument
substance
consists
God.
The
evils which resulted
pointing out the physiological
from
alcoholic
to co-operate
in showing that world processes seem
beverages. In 1808 Dr. J. B.
Clark organized a pioneer temperance
to produce intelligent
results,which satisfyour
societyat
understandingonly as we allegea directingpurpose
Saratoga, N.Y.
Following are the dates of the
of the chief early temperance
purposing activities. The
starting of some
analogous to our own
societies and movements:
Massachusetts
argument has changed form from its earlyformulaSociety

439

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of Intemperance, 1813; Swedish

Suppression
(Per Wieselgren),1819;
Temperance Movement
of TemperAmerican
ance,
Society for the Promotion
1826; Ulster Temperance Society (Ireland),
1829; British and Foreign Temperance Society,
bald
(Father Theo1831; Irish Temperance Movement
Mathew), 1838; Washingtoniau Temperance
Society,1840; Order of Good Templars, 1851.
for the

AND

being the
South
In

ETHICS

Temples

"Dispensary System"

Carolina from

1893

to

conducted

by

1915.

English-speakingcountries, while high

local option, and state monopoly have at
license,
times

trend of the
been in the direction
of the total legalprohibitionof the liquortraflSc.
States this trend, first manifest in
In the United
the fifties,
have seen, showed
itself again in
other movements
as
we
As a result of these and many
the eighties. But a reaction followed,and it was
millions of people in English-speaking countries
not until 1907 that the movement
for prohibition
1840-1860
in the decades
signed the pledge of
Great
became
War
All branches
of the church
greatly
strong again. The
personalabstinence.
and even
carried it to
nence,
accelerated the movement,
to the support, if not of total abstiwere
won
over
in
countries.
other
movement
January 1919, thirty-six
at least of the temperance
By
the movement
expressed itself states and territories of the United States had
general. Politically
and
enacted state prohibitionlaws.
In December
of many
restrictive measures,
1917,
in the enactment
to the states
however. Congress had submitted
especiallyof prohibitionlaws in several American
amendment
in 1846
(the eighteenth) to the federal
an
states.
Beginning with
Maine, which
constitution
the first
law and became
providing for national prohibition.
passed the Neal Dow
ratified by thirty-six
This amendment
was
states enacted
states,
prohibitionstate, a dozen American
three-fourths majority,by January 16,
1855.
and
the necessary
date
that
prohibition laws between
It provided that the prohibition of the
hibition 1919.
Only Maine, however, stood steadfast by her profrom
the
into effect one
tution
traffic should
year
go
law, finallyincorporatingit in her constiBut in
date of the ratification of the amendment.
for a long
in Maine
in 1884, though even
the meantime, in 1918, Congress had
enforced.
passed a
of years the law was
not strictly
number
in
Time
Prohibition measure,
War
^After the Civil War
History.
providing for the
II. Recent
took
the United States the temperance movement
suppression of the traffic from July 1, 1919, till
ingly
effected. On that date accorddemobilization was
new
on
vitality. Its hygienic and social aspects
the whole of the United States became
"dry."
the
movement
became
more
emphasized, and
became
more
definitely organized politically. The effect of the Great War on the temperance
in other countries
was
movement
scarcely less
The National Prohibition
organized in
Party was
This party had few political
1869.
triumphs of its
striking. Soon after its outbreak Russia prohibited
and sale of vodka and the French
but it had a great influence on other parties. the manufacture
own,
that
of absinthe. France, Great
the organization in
Even
government
more
significantwas
to
Christian
Germany found it necessary
Britain,and even
Cleveland, Ohio, in 1874 of the Woman's
the liquor traffic
Under
the
Union.
leadership of
place stringentregulationsupon
Temperance
Canada
in 1883 an
this became
Miss Frances
E. Willard
measures.
adopted prohibition
as
war
in every
in all its provinces except Quebec and the Yukon.
international organization with branches
In 1879 this organization
civilizedcountry.
began Norway enacted a prohibition law in 1915, but
all the war-time
in 1918 repealedit. Whether
a
propaganda for the compulsory teaching of
In 1884 New
temperance legislationproves permanent or not,
temperance in the publicschools.
later
it would seem
York
probable that in the near future the
passed such a law. Similar laws were
and sale,if not of
some
enacted by all the states and
European
prohibitionof the manufacture
for
of the
this singlemeasure
From
countries.
more
all,at least of the stronger, alcoholic liquors
tian
has
would become
of the recent
general m Chrisbeverage purposes
success
temperance movement
Charles
other source.
An
A. Ellwood
countries.
than from any
probably come
the
adjunct in the United States, however, was
The "Poor Soldiers
KNIGHTS."
work of the Anti-Saloon
TEMPLARS,
League, founded in 1893,
under monastic
became
the
main
which
non-partisan political of Jesus Christ,"a militarycompany
organization agitating for restrictive legislation, vows, called Templars as their house in Jerusalem
formed
to the
the site of the ancient temple, was
and especiallyfor a prohibitoryamendment
on
was
in 1119, given (Council of Troyes, 1128) a rule
federal constitution.
of Clairvaux, and finally
In Europe the most
noteworthy developments
composed by Bernard
II. in 1139, after
in Scandinavia, which had
organized by Pope Innocent
during this period were
excessive
intemperance. In
long suffered from
which, beside the knights of noble birth and the
tage
1865 the cityof Gothenburg, Sweden, taking advanservingbrothers,the order had priestsas chaplains.
of a law of 1855, established a restrictive
mantle with a red cross
("Red
a white
They wore
Cross
monopoly over the sale of spirituousliquorsthrough
Knights"). This order charged with the
the Company
defence of pilgrimsand the holy placesof Palestine
what is known
as
pany
System. A comthe high expressionof chivalry and obtained
of twenty respected citizens and firms was
was
the right to sell spirituousliquors enormous
and
formed
wealth
throughout Europe, enjoying
between
The object
immunities and actingin negotiations
was
placed exclusivelyin their hands.
many
credited
disnate
to lessen the consumption of liquorand to elimiwas
kings. After heroic warfare the order was
the element of privateprofit. In 1871 Norway
by the final loss of Jerusalem and popular
used by rulers who
were
rumors
adopted this system and developed it with certain
against them
that it is now
coveted their wealth.
In 1307 Philip the Fair of
so
generallyknown as
modifications,
the "Norwegian Company
System." In Norway
V., arrested all
France, aided by Pope Clement
it is accompanied by local option in the country
in France
a
on
charge of apostasy and licentious
and the profitsof sales in the cities go
districts,
idolatry. Torture secured confessions from some
burned
the confession were
who
then repudiating
largely to provide "substitutes for the saloon."
bar has been
Council of Vienne
Since
1902
in Norway
the open
as
relapsed heretics. The
abolished and sales are only for home
consumption,
(1312) abolished the order,assigningtheir wealth
but in France and other lands
while the sale of beer and wine has also been brought
to the Hospitallers,
most.
under control.
Thus
Norway has reduced its per
kings and courtiers profited
F. A. Christie
capita consumption of alcohol to the lowest of any
AND
SEMITIC"
EGYPTIAN
TEMPLES,
country in Europe. But the system has not been
The regularterm for
I. EGYPTI4N.
1. Function.
copied outside of Norway, the nearest approach
been

temperance

advocated, the undoubted

movement

"

"

has

Temples

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

ETHICS

AND

440

and offices were

Store-rooms
or
for
Egyptian or Semitic
temple is "house"
very numerous,
"palace." This function of housing the presiding Babylonian priests controlled both the learning
Since they
deitywas served in Egypt equallyby the prehistoric and much of the business of their world.
wattle hut and by the magnificentstone structure
alone were
masters
of the cumbrous
cuneiform
of the Empire.
The normal
writing,they served as teachers,public scribes,
Egyptian temple was
and
and judges. Administration
of enlarging temple
approached
by a long,sphinx-borderedavenue
led into wider
business
estates
the surrounding town
set apart from
channels
rather
by a high
than into politics
in Egypt, so that Babylonian
the massive
as
girdle-wall.Behind
pylon entrance
but great banking
where
the
courts
came
lofty columned
public temples became not only religious
and mercantile houses.
in religiousfestivals. At
the
might participate
B. Western.
dwelt
the divine
1. Origin. In Syria-Palestine
and
rear
lay the sanctuary where
Arabia appear
and around
it the store-rooms
most clearlythe originsof Semitic
image in its shrine,
which
held the god'swardrobe
associated with
and his household
worship in general. Divinity was
manifestations
in nature,
prominent or unusual
equipment and supplies. The
sanctuary, lowceiled and remote
such as hill-tops,
from the bright Egyptian sunlight,
caves, springs,and the trees that
flourished beside them.
shrouded
Sites hallowed
ently
in fitting
thus inhergloom the divine mystery.
2. Beneficiaries."
classes of temples are
Two
or, in other cases, by specialvisions of the
Semitic
the
earUest
sanctuaries.
found: one for the gods proper, the other primarily deity, became
Such already
for the benefit of the dead.
Of the former class
holyspots would be chosen for temples.
and
the
the great Empire
nomads
2. Hebrew
temples. -When the Hebrew
temples at Thebes
Edfu
Ptolemaic
Dendera
and
structures
at
are
they took over the "highplaces,"
occupiedPalestine,
Of
the
second
class
("mortuary
etc., of their Canaanite
predecessors. Yet they
examples.
associated with
as stilldwellingin Sinai (IKings
thought of Yahweh
temples") the most notable were
tombthe humbler
19) and again as in their midst, in the ark of the
royal tombs; analogous were
chapels of the non-royal,where likewise offerings covenant; they could also represent him by images,
which
were
might be served by a hired priestin one's
brought for use by the deceased in the Other
World.
own
home, making it a quasi-temple (Judges 17).
Queen Hatshepsut's mortuary temple in
The shrine of the ark at Shiloh must
be classed as
western
Thebes, dedicated also to Amon, illustrates
combined.
normal
and mortuary purposes
"house" and "palace"
a temple proper, for the terms
activities.
of Yahweh
both
3. Maintenance, organization,and
are
applied to it. Solomon's
The temples were
the specialcare
and glorification temple at Jerusalem,
somewhat
Egyptian in plan,
their
of royalty, to which
built later as a permanent
home
for the ark.
was
they regularly owed
an

"

"

"

"

Their
walls were
erection and endowment.
Destroyedin 587 B.C., it was rebuilt on a humbler
gay
of the ruler's conquests
Zerubbabel
with paintedrelief scenes
scale under
after the Captivity, then
(from which the slaves who tilled the temple lands
replaced more
During
sumptuously by Herod.
tions
often drawn), his pleasures,
and his ministrawere
the_Babylonian Captivity,Jews in Egypt built
the
to
god. For the pharaoh officiated
an
independenttemple at Elephantine.
nominally in each act of worship; though pracTemple income included both taxes ("tithes")
tically,
of course, both ritual and administration
and gifts. The offerings
comprised burnt offerings,
were
commonly performed by priestsas his repreagriculturalproducts. Descendants
sentatives.incense, and
In early times high nobles held the
constituted the official priesthood,while
of Aaron
filled by
chief offices,
while humbler
the rest of the tribe of Levi was
set apart for suppleposts were
mentary
in established relays.
duties.
townsmen
T. George
Allen
servingperiodically
definite social group,
Later the priestsformed
a
trained in the temple itself. Their work, summed
FAR
EASTERN."
TEMPLES,
China, Japan
Buddhist
and Korea all have innumerable
temples.
up, consisted of body-serviceto the god's image,
celebration of his festivals,
and care
of his estate.
China and Korea
have also many
fucius
temples to Convast domains
Such temporal power, wielded over
and the other Sages. China has in nearly all
fucius
augmented from reign to reign,enabled the high- of its largercities temples similar to those of Conand even, at
to rival,
at Thebes
dedicated to Wen
ture,
priesthoodof Amon
Chang, the god of Literathe end of the Empire, to supplant the royalhouse.,
and everywhere it has Taoist temples which
Eastern.
Architectural
II. Semitic.
A.
1.
other countries.
not found in either of the two
are
origin. In the Tigro-Euphrates region the gods
Japan has its peculiar Shinto shrines in every
brick "houses"
set on
dwelt in massive
and hamlet, varyingin size from tinywayside
a
village
square
cubicles to the famous
memorial
lofty brick base (for stone, abundant in Egypt,
temple at Ise
where
was
lacking in the Babylonian plain). Nona
virgin Princess of the realm guards the
blended
Semitic
Sumerian
mountaineers
and of royalty.
in the
sacred Mirror,symbol of Amaterasu
In all three countries,there are
myriads of tiny
population contributed to these temples their
characteristic feature, mountain-like
most
stageworshiping places and shrines in the forests and
of Babel '), mountains
and
towers (among them the biblical "Tower
by the wayside where spiritsof
of modern
ancestors
steeples.
every kind are invoked.
activities. Great
2. Organization and
1. Buddhist Temples in all three countries are
temples
often
contained
sanctuaries
for numerous
sidiary largelysimilar as
subwith
to architecture,erected
ruler
deities beside the chief god. The
wooden
posts and lofty curved roofs covered with
served as high priest,but soon
have
himself had once
and Thibet
tile. In China
they sometimes
he required a professional
The majority of the ancient temples
stone walls.
even
priestas mediator.
in the quiet places in the
Besides serving the god's images and property, the
located far back
are
extent in
especiallyoccupied mountains, but in Japan, and to some
Babylonian priesthood was
with processes of divination (by hepatosimportant temples right in
religiously
China, there are many
Korea's
incantation
of the
the
heart
populated centers.
copy, astrology,prodigies,etc.) and
accompanied by rites of
(by magic formulae
temples look different from the others at first sight,
with
out
covered
inside and
for their walls are
sympathetic magic) in behalf of both state and
insure
correct
individual.
To
performance of
greatnumbers of picturesof Buddhas, the Paradises
to
of hymns, formulae,
In Japan, probably due
these rites,
and
other scenes.
a reference library
one
astronomical data,listsof omens, etc.,was provided; Shinto influence,
always finds a long row of the
"

"

"

and

the

priestsand

differentiatedgroup

priestessesbecame
of specialists.

highly

iorii,double

linteled,"bird

spanningthe approachesto

the

perch," gateways
temple. Because

441

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

spiritof Japanese Buddhism, the

aggressive
templesin Japan, at least those erected within the last
larger in size than those in the
century, average
and they are better kept up.
other two countries,
some
As to images, some
temples have many,
which
have none.
It all depends upon
particular
controls the temple. In Japan, there are
sect
twelve main types of sects divided into over
fifty
large and important independent denominations,
of these
each with its distinctive temples. Some
and his
sects in each country worship Sakamuni
associates only; others worship the Amida
group;
others favor only Vairochana; the Zen sect and its
counterpartsin the other lands have no images at all.
Usually the idols shown are in trinities sitting
the altars,although singlestatues
together upon
not uncommon.
are
Usuallyin all three countries,
but particularly
so in Korea, a "temple" consists of
a whole
assembly of "Main Halls" witTi some
ticular
parin each. In the
Buddha
or Trinity supreme
of the Japanese temples, in
Halls of some
Main
of preaching sermons
the custom
recent years,
of the

AND

ETHICS

Temples, Greek

and

leading up to a bell. Worshipers take

hats,pullthe rope, clap their hands, bow

Roman

off their
a

moment

in silent prayer
and then go about their business.
The worshiper seldom goes inside a Shinto shrine,
He worships
probably because they are so smaU.
from the yard outside.
of these three countries are there any
In none
great temples of marble and other preciousmaterials
such as they have in India.
The
materials used
are
more
largelywood and rougher stone, but the
idols in the temples will bear comparison with
those of any land.
Charles
Allen
Clark
GREEK
AND
ROMAN."
I. Purpose.
The Greek name
for temple (naos) implies
that the underlying idea was
that of a dwellingplacefor a divinity. The principalform of worship
there was
being sacrifice,
regularly an altar for
burnt offerings
outside the temple, and an altar for
within.
A statue of the divinity
bloodless offerings
not indispensableand in the earliest traceable
was
stage of Greek
religion that represented by the
Homeric
such statues
to have
been
seem
poems
almost or quite unknown.
But in the historical
period a Greek or Roman
temple regularlyhoused
of the divinityor divinities to
statues
a statue
or
whom the temple was dedicated.
There was
no
vision
prowithin the temple for any
form of congregational

TEMPLES,
"

"

in Christian churches
has grown
Usually, however, the priests go through
up.
cooked food or flowers
a regularroutine of offering
and incense with prayer at stated intervals whether
The devotees come
is present or not.
in,
anyone
prostratethemselves,offer silent prayer, put their
box in front of the image
in the grid-ironed
worship.
offerings
in the
II. History.
and depart.
Temples are mentioned
Homeric
but with little indication of their
idols and
services in
2. Taoist Temples and
poems,
architectural
character.
The
earliest
extant
China differlittlefrom the Buddhist ones.
Only the
remains
of temples of developed Greek type may
have the
of the idols differ. They even
names
date from the 7th. century B.C.
that time
From
of these temples
trinityof images. There are none
in
number.
on
in Korea or Japan.
temples increased
Ultimately
within
and
3. Confucian Temples in China
temples, some
Korea,
every city-statehad many
the citywalls,others in the surrounding territory.
and those erected to the god of Literature in China
From
the point of view of artistic perfectionthe
alike. In each
(not in Korea) are all very much
5th. century B.C. was
the great age of Greek templebuilt up high
country, they are massive structures
foundations of white cut stone, vying in grandeur
building. To that century belong the Parthenon,
on
the so-called Theseum, the Temple of Wingless
tions,
with the finest palacesof the Kings. As to decoratheum
at Athens, and
inside and out, they have none.
Victory and the Greek
They stand
other noble structures.
in beautiful spaciousgrounds surrounded
by massive
many
Of the earliest Roman
shade
trees.
temples,belonging to the
Nearby are the apartments of the
the great
Doctors of Letters who used to manage
periodin which Rome was under Etruscan influence,
do not begin
only scanty traces exist. Remains
Examinations, and the Lecture Hall where they
until the 1st. century B.C.
to be abundant
used to gather.
Fairly
well preserved temples exist in considerable numInside the Temple, the only furniture is a row
bers,
and elsewhere in Italy,but
not only in Rome
of lacqueredchairs arranged along the wall, each
also in other
dominions,
parts of the Roman
having upon it a tablet of wood bearing the name
Africa and
of the Sages. Confucius'
chair is slightly especiallySouthern
of one
France, Northern
Asiatic Turkey.
largerthan the others. On the two sides of him
III. Architecture.
The normal Greek temple
the tablets of his greatest disciples Mencius
are
of stone or marble.
and the others.
In Peking, there are but seventyIt was
was
an
oblong rectangle
in plan. Its essential part was
enclosed chamber
two
of these tablets in all. In Korea, there are
an
in which
the statue of the divinity. A large
140 in all,124 to Sages of China and 16 to Literati
was
Twice a year, in the second and tenth
of Chosen.
temple was surrounded on all sides by a colonnade
of the Doric or Ionic order,or, at a late date, the
lunar months, flowers,raw
meat, grains,silk and
offered before the tablets,
Corinthian order.
the
The edifice rested upon
other things are
a visible
covered
stepped base and was
by a gable roof.
King in person or his representativeofferingthe
ment.
tions
Sculpture was
extensivelyused for exterior adornworship. Since the aboUtion of the great Examinathese temples have lost
in the two countries,
The normal
their former
Roman
an
adaptation
glory, and are largelydeserted,but
temple was
still worth seeing. There are
of the Greek, but with some
modifications.
the largerones
It
are
Confucian
rested upon
no
temples in Japan.
a
comparatively high vertical-sided
in Japan are
4. Shinto Shrines
plete
base, with a flightof steps only in front. A comeverywhere
in the parks,in the crowded
streets of the cities,
in
colonnade
all four sides was
unusual.
on
the mountains
and by the waysides. Usually they
in Greece,were
Circular edifices,
not unknown
mon.
comUttle thatched buildingsraised on high foundations,
The Corinthian was
the favorite architectural
are
and approached by flightsof stairs or by
order.
The
of
Pantheon, the most remarkable
lanes. Always in front of them are one
narrow
extant Roman
or
a
buildings,was
temple from the
of the torii gateways.
more
Usually the shrine
beginning the existingstructure dates from about
is not over
but a temple of unique design. It
ten feet square, often it is not six. Inside
120-125
A.D.
is usuallynothing but a tablet or banner or mirror
covered by a conconsists of a concrete
rotunda
crete
of flowers. In front of it,hanging from
dome
and
of a rectangular portico with
or
vase
the eaves
of the torii,
is a rope (somefrom one
or
times
granite columns supporting a gable roof.
made
of human
hair given as
F. B. Tarbell
offerings)
similar to

those

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Temples, Indian

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

442

The
INDIAN."
earliest Indian
Modern
ethics finds in a psychologicalanalysisof
from
the 3rd. century b.c.
the growing spiritual
These
nature
of men
basis
a scientific
Buddhist
relics or
of explanation. The
to contain
wisdom
are
stupas, tumuli
kind
acquired by manin the life of the Buddha.
in the course
commemorate
event
of its long history establishes
some
Then in the place of independent stupas came
certain courses
of conduct
tures
strucas
valuable, or right.
in which the stupa was
The
placed at the end of a
individual, however, discovers that native
instincts
chamber
in
selfish
cut
interests
or
quadrangular
(dividedby pillars),
strongly engage his
cliffs or built of brick.
these conflict with what
is
Images took the place of
emotions, and when
known
and
the
shrine
be
marked
to
was
relics,
by a pointed dome.
right,temptation exists.
In the temples of Vishnu
is found (inthe inner
TEMPUS
of the god
CLAUSUM."
shrine)an image into which the essence
(Latin: "closed time.")
has
The
been
Subordinate
installed by ceremonies.
periods during which nuptial celebrations or
related gods, and
other festive ceremonies
or
forbidden.
The Council
are
represented by
avatars, are
of Trent
ruled that these periods should
be
images. The
temple is a replica of the god's
heaven.
Musicians
from
take
the place of heavenly
Christmas until Epiphany Day, and from
Ash Wednesday until the octave
singers; temple-girlstake the place of heavenly
of Easter.
The
German
Priests and worhipers wait upon
the god
lic
nymphs.
Evangelicalchurch perpetuates the Cathoservants
would
wait upon
ened,
as
custom.
He is awaka king.
bathed, dressed and ornamented, fed,put to
TEN
ARTICLES."
The
first Anglican Confession
bed, and the shrine closed. Incense is burned
before him, lamps are kept burning and are waved
of faith after the revolt against Rome^ promulgated
before him, flowers and perfumes are offered,
and he
in 1536 by Henry VIII.
It substitutes
is taken on his car in processionthrough the city. for the authority of the pope
the authority of the
Sacred texts are
Bible and the ancient creeds,and affirms a somerepeated before him, dances and
what
with him, are
modified
Otherwise
dramas, enacting myths connected
conception of justification.
it departsvery slightly
the
from Catholic positions.
performed. The worshiper circumambulates
shrine keepinghis rightside toward
it,goes to the
A system of philosophical
TENDAI.
Buddhism
threshold,presents offeringsof fruits,
flowers,or
food (which is received by the priests),
founded on the "Lotus of the True Law"
prostrates
(q.v.)by
himself or raises his hollowed
hands
to his forehead,
teacher of the 6th. century.
a Chinese
In the 8th.
and
Bells
mutters
Saicho
a
are
departs.
prayer,
(Dengyo),
century a Japanese student,
ing.
made
it the most
rung to attract the attention of the god to the offerpowerful Buddhist
teaching in
A portion of the offered food is eaten
(often Japan with headquarters at Hiei. It tried to
sold at a good price). It is efficacious because
and the manifold
unify the various forms of Buddhism
of the god has been
of the phenomenal world
of existences by
something of the essence
instilled into it.
truth
and
viewing them
as
phases of the one
In the temples of C'ivais found only the linga, grounded in the one
torical
hisuniversal Reality. The
the male reproevidence of this unity of the universal and
a
plain conical stone symbolizing
ductive
in a constant
This
the particularis given in the person
state
of
of the Buddha
is
organ.
heat.
Sacred
Bilva leaves are
who
embodied
the universal in a concrete
human
jjlacedon it,and
it. As a rule no
manifestation by attainingBuddhahood.
Ganges water is sprinkled over
food is offered.
The ritual is one
of prayers
and
TENEBRAE."
obeisance. Carvings and
statues
(Latin:"darkness.") The matins
(representing
and lauds sung in the R.C.
church
day,
Wedneson
myths about the god, and subordinate or attendant
In the temples of his wife Kali
gods) are found.
Thursday and Friday of Holy Week, so
creative
the gradual darkening of the
or
Durga, who
designated from
represents the female
principleas distinguishedfrom the absolute Being church by the extinguishingof candles,in symbol
of the male, animals are offered.
of the darkness
accompanying the death of Jesus
officiate at
Christ.
the
Only the lower Brahmans
temples, and these are looked down upon by the
The
TERAPHIM.
In the ancient Hebrew
castes.
educated
more
higher Brahman
religion
certain objects,
details concerningwhich are lacking,
rarely visit the temples. There is no congregational
which appear to have been used in idolatrous rites.
worship. All four castes are admitted to
excluded.
Cf. Gen. 31:19 and 30.
are
temples, but outcastes
The
to be largelynontemple worship seems
TERCE.
In the Roman
liturgythe office for
Aryan; to have been developed from the fetish
tribes as the religionof the
the third hour in the breviary,ordinarilyrecited
worship of Dravidian
Cudras was incorporated into the Aryan worship. about 9 A.M.
ritual only the three upper castes
In the old Brahman
had a part in the worship.
W. E. Clark
TERMINISM."
A theological
hypothesiswhich
Pietistic writers
assumed
some
importance among
TEMPORAL
POWER."
secular
Political or
that there is a limited term or period of grace within
in distinction from ecclesiastical or spiritual which man
to repent
must
accept the opportunity
power
be saved.
to indicate the power
or
authority,used specifically
Beyond the limits of tms term no
exercised by the pope
ruler of the
salvation is possible.
of Rome
as
before 1870, a rightregarded
States of the Church
TERRITORIALISM."
The
as inalienable to the Catholic Church.
theory which arose
that the religion
in the period of the Reformation
TEMPTATION."
The allurement
of an object
of a people should be that of its ruler.
which solicitsthe will,
usuallywith evil implications.
Members
of a spiritual
TERTIARIES.
Temptation indicates either the object which
congregation
R.C.
various
within
orders, who live in
tempts, the process of being tempted, or the act of
rule"
of
such
orders.
with "the third
accordance
enticingto evil.
See Third
Order.
Temptation describes any sinful solicitationof
the will,the impulse to make
evil instead of a
an
TERTULLIAN
good choice. Traditionally,temptation is pic(ca.a.d. 155-222.)" The founder
the "African Cicero."
tui;edas the work of a personaltempter, the devil. of Latin Christian literature,

TEMPLES,
temples date

"

"

"

"

443

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

for the law and practised

he was
converted,probably
removed
to
had
He
190-195.
A.D.
Carthage by a.d. 197, when he wrote his brilliant
defence of Christianity,
the Apologeticum. About
devoted
202-3 he became
to the Montanist
ment,
moveand for five years he strove to win the church
to
the Montanist
side. Failing in this, about
207-8 he withdrew
from the Catholic church and
became
the head of a small Montanist
at
group
Carthage. His numerous
writings, apologetic,
polemic and
practical,fall into three groups:
those written before his acceptance of Montanism,
those from the five years during which
though a
he remained
Montanist
within the church, and
tianity,
those written after his break with Catholic Chriswith extraordinary brilliance
He
wrote
and often bitterness.
of his orthodox
The works
because
periodcontinued to be influential(especially
of theologicalterms
he originated). He
deeply
influenced Cyprian and
Augustine, and through
them
all western
Christianity.
J. Goodspeed
Edgar
TEST
To provide a test which
ACT, THE."
ecclesiastical authority could elude by dispensano
tion.
Parliament
(March, 1673) enacted that all
civil and
of
military office holders, the Duke
of the royal household, were
York, and members
of Allegiance and Supremacy,
to take the Oaths
forswear
the doctrine of transubstantiation,
and
of the Lord's Supper in
receive the Sacrament
accordance with the usage of the Church of England.
Dissenters and Papists alike suffered disability
and
endured great hardship. Persistent protests issuing
in amendments, partialrepeals,and acts of indemnity
from
the
protecting individuals
penalties
incurred under this act, finally
in 1829 led to its
G. Mode
Peter
complete repeal.
for

Tertullian
a time at
about

was

educated

Rome, where

AND

ETHICS

Teutonic Religion

this long period a stream

of varying burial cuctoms

passed slowly from the South of Europe to the
North.
These
changes in custom are so radical
that they indicate changes in the conception of life
after

death.

It

is then

evident

that

Teutonic

is but a series of strata from vastlydifferent

religion
times and places,representing
religionsand
many

stages of belief.
1. The lesser mythology. ^There is a multitude
of religiousphenomena
not
connected
with the
great gods, but belonginglargely
to animism
(q.v.)
"

and manaism
(q.v.). These two forces people man's
invisible world with a miscellaneous supernatural
host.
Thus
the spiritof the mountain
the
or
frost may
of its baleful power
be figured
by reason
as
a
giant or giantess. But small and delicate
be
otherwise
things must
explained; jewelry,
good swords, all dainty heirlooms were
made
by
small beings that could fetch the ores
from the
bellies of the mountains
and fashion them
well.
These
the dwarfs.
The
elf is another such
were
being; its arts are fine; it may
love a
moreover
mortal and seek to carry him or her to elfin land.
Like the dwarf and the giant and all monsters
it is
often found
Most
by the waterside.
giants are
fair. Most
dwarves are maliugly, but some
are
cious,
but some
kind.
The dark elves are evil,
are
but the light elves are
also
good. There were
mortals whose
than the comspiritsavailed more
mon
who
the thread of
man's; wise women
spun
in Scandinavia; maidens
fate, called norns
who
hovered
the field of battle to choose those
over
who
should die, called valkyriesin Scandinavia;
who could put on the garb
swan
maidens, women
of swans
and fly to distant parts; and then the
ruck of wizards and witches.
When
the spirithas permanently left the body
it must be somewhere
else,therefore there is a region
of spirits.There
various
were
spirit lands in
CONFESSION."
The
first
TETRAPOLITAN
Teutonic
belief;in the earth where the body was
confession of faith of the Reformed
church, so
placed,in the North, in the sea, in the air,in Hel in
called because presented to the Diet of Augsburg
the center of the earth,in the mountains
where the
in 1530 by four cities,
dwelt in a goodly company
stance, spirits
in Valholl,or
Strassburg, Lindau, Conas
and Wemmingen.
where chosen heroes occupied selected mountains.
The
multitudinous
beings that dwelt so close at
hand were
TETZEL,
much
JOHANN
(1465-1519)." His fame
to mankind
than the great
nearer
rests exclusively
the fact that it was
his preachon
ing
gods whose defeat by Christianity
they survived.
of indulgences as a means
of raisingrevenue
The
lesser mythology provided men
with their
for the buildingof St. Peter's church in Rome
which
real religion.
aroused the indignationof Luther
and led to the
2. The greater mythology. The
ology
greater mythconsidered
deals with the gods. There were
writing of the 95 theses which are now
three gods
Reformation.
and one
known
as the beginning of the Protestant
all
to
the Teutonic
goddess
nearly
tribes; Tiw, Thor, Woden, and the latter's wife,
TEUTONIC
ORDER."
A
German
religious Frig. The three did not form a trinity.
order dating from
The
Tiw
name
1189; originallydevoted to
(Old English Tlw, Old High
German
hospitalerservices in connection with the Crusades.
word as
Ziu, Old Icelandic Tyr) is the same
It graduallybecame
Greek
a
militaryorder, and in the
theos,Latin divus, deus. The root means
13th. and
14th. centuries
instrumental
in
"to shine."
Tiw was
was
once
god of the sky, but he
the conquest of Prussia.
After varied fortunes the
had lost that character by the beginning oi history
order was
revived in
and become
suppressed in 1809, but was
the god of war.
the chief
He
was
Austria in 1834 with its originalpurpose of caring god of the Teutons
during the first centuries of
for sick and wounded.
but was
later overshadowed
our
era
by the rising
Woden
cult. The Roman
writers called him Mars
TEUTONIC
RELIGION."
Teutonic
religion and the Teutons named the dies Mortis after him
comprises the beliefs and practicesin regard to
(Old English Tiwesdaeg). Latin inscriptionsby
the
ancient
the
Frisianlegionaries
Teutonic
supernatural among
call him Mars
thingsvs,whence
German
peoples.
coimtries
Dienstag. In the Scandinavian
I. Religion
i
n
the
the
narrower
he was
(i.e.,
eclipsedby Thor and Woden.
sense,
beliefs only).;
Our
information
the
oldest
to
as
Thor's name
is best known
in this,its Scandinavian
is derived from the remains
these peoples
form
(O.E. ^unor, O.H.G.
Donar, O.Icel.
ave
from their burial places. From
left,chiefly
writers called him
Mrr). Early Roman
Jupiter,
these sources
it is known
that in prehistoric
times
later ones
Hercules.
The dies Jovis became
O.E.
there were
Teutons
believed in a life after
who
punresdaeg, O.H.G.
donarestag.O.Icel. pdrsdagr,
death, in an abode of spirits,
in gods to be placated
from which
latter English Thursday is borrowed.
and feared.
and
They worshiped the Thunderer
the god of thunder, with the decline on
Originally
the sun.
The evidences of this begin some
four
Tiw he became
the god of war, a positionwhich in
thousand years before the Christian era.
If
During Scandinavia he had to contest with Woden.
"

"

Eeriod

Teutonic

Religion

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

444

evil and mischievous but amusing god. Like

the most popular of the gods, the
as an
that land he was
of the elves,he is usually malevolent,
He was
youthful, so many
chief god of the common
man.
does good. At times he rises to
fair of face, red of beard, strong, good-natured, but sometimes
the dignity of a real spiritof evil. The
rather simple, a peasant god. He drove a wagon
do
sagas
not refer to him.
Hoenir is mentioned
consecrated agreedrawn
in company
by goats. His hammer
ments,
and Loki,but we
with Woden
and marriages.
know
littleof him.
vows,
Ullr is a Scandinavian god, counterpart of Woden,
writers refer to Woden
(O.E. Woden,
Roman
in whose
absence he rules,
but he is driven away
O.H.G.
at
Wodan, O.Icel. Odinn) as Mercury. The
Woden's return.
O.E, wodnesdaeg. All exceptdies Mercurii became
ing
Bragi was
a
poet who lived in
southern Norway in the firsthalf of the 9th. century,
He
Woden.
tribes knew
southern
the most
the earliest Scandinavian
and
But in northern
the god of the wind.
and
was
name
poet whose
works we know.
Later poetry elevated him to be
western
Germany he became the chief figurein the
god of poetry and gave him ISunn to wife. She is
cult and was
brought in that capacityto England
known
only to Norwegian-Icelandic
by the Angles and Saxons and to the South by the
poets. She
has the golden apples of fertility
and regeneration.
Langobards. This added feature also migrated
The
the
mother
of Thor
is sometimes
it flourished among
to
Scandinavia where
given as Jord,
aristocracyonly but where it found distinguished the earth, and sometimes
as
HloSjm. The latter
word in its southern form, Hludana, occurs
literaryexpression. As god of the wind he was
in five
German-Latin
the leader of the troop of souls that inhabit the
votive
the lower
on
inscriptions
Rhine.
Gefjon is a virgin goddess, to whom
air,and thus of the wild hunt, and so becarne god
all
to Scandinavia
In the cult that came
of the dead.
virgins go at death.
Hel
in all Teutonic
was
from the South he inspiredall higheractivityof the
the
languages
dwellingof the dead in the bowels of
the earth.
magic, runes,
Later Icelandic imagery made a goddess
mind; he taught shape-i^anging,
Woden
'art
of
of the dead with this
verse.
improvements in war, the
a
cannibal, horrible
name,
with a grey beard and but one
is an old man
to see,
eye.
Scandinavian
lore tells of many
other
hat
cloak and a wide-brimmed
divine
He wears
of which
a
beings, some
grey
were
worshiped
his forehead. He was
a
great
and others of which were
over
but the creation
pulled down
locally
viator
called in Latin Mercurius
traveller and was
of poets and mythologs. This same
lore tells that
the gods are divided into two
and Mercurius
indefessus. He rode a grey steed
and
races, the Msir
which
he fared through the air as well as
the Vanir.
The
^sir
were
upon
originallythe spirits
of the venerated
His wife.Frig (O.E. Frig,O.H.G.
dead (so in Gothic) and members
upon the land.
known
of the troop of Woden.
by the same
When
the religionof the
Frlja, O.Icel. Frigg) was
he was
But
no
tribes which
Scandinavian
worshiped Woden.
him
to the
aristocracy elevated
his
of
to
boasting
chief place the other gods were
monogamist, for he was given
subordinated to
lating. him, placed in his train,and
is cunning, bold, calcuHe
gallant adventures.
also called .^Esir.
know little of the Vanir, aside from faint
We
not so
The
widely tales of their defeat by the .^sir. There are
following divinities were
other deities mentioned
known.
Freyr was worshipedonly in Scandinavian
votive stones set
on
many
countries.
In the plains about
Upsala he was
by Teutonic
service.
legionariesin Roman
up
similar to Tiw, and
We know little about them.
the chief god. He was
even
of the latter's
have been developed from one
II. Cult.
1. Temples. Tacitus
may
insists that
His
attributes.
known, so
wife, Freyja, was
there were
no
temples. From the 6th. century on
Iceland.
and
in
far as we
can
tell,only
Norway
have evidence of their existence.
we
Remains
of
the most popular
and Thor, Freyr was
After Woden
Icelandic temples show
that each consisted of two
sunshine and rain,
He gave
god in Scandinavia.
separate buildings
placed end to end but not connected.
He has a son
rich harvests and wealth.
NojrtSr
The longer of the two was
for sacrificial
hke him and exercises the same
functions,feasts,
who was
the shorter was
for the priests
and the images.
at sea.
storms
the addition of ruling over
with
The dimensions in feet of three Icelandic temples
who was
ated
venerTacitus tells of a goddess Nerthus
follows:
were
as
120x60, 88X51, 60X20.
in the North, probably meaning Denmark.
2. Idols. Tacitus
is wrong
in denying that
is the exact equivalentof Scandinavian
This name
there were
idols. From
the stone age there is preserved
her
to
the
Roman
Tacitus
NjorSr.
compares
hollow block of wood
found on
a
altar
an
dent
what
he further tells it is eviFrom
of rude stones.
terra mater.
From
stillvery early period we
a
Heimdalk
that she was
a goddess of fertility.
have a number
of crude wooden
figuresof male
hear
we
human
Norwegian-Icelandicdeity of whom
was
a
with a phallus,emblem
beingsornamented
of fertility.
The
only through the poets. He is like Freyr and
images of Thor and Freyr are
the heavenly watchman,
He was
often
most
mentioned
in the Icelandic
NjorSr and Tiw.
sagas,
Balder was
known
Woden's
to St. Peter.
only rarely. In the temple at Upsala,
roughly equivalent
countries.
Adam
of
He was
Bremen
Thor
his hammer,
with
in all the Scandinavian
saw
bright
Woden
of all. At his tragic death
and shining,beloved
armed, Freyr with a large phallus. The
Ul
elevation on which
the image stood was
sort of
all wept but the spiritof evil. After many
a
altar. Upon
it lay the sacred ring upon
which
again, the poet says, all
days, Balder will come
and
taken and which the priestwore
oaths were
his
evil will be bettered,fields will grow
on
vmsown,
at the sacrifice. The sacred fireburned
this
at the ancient places. arm
the gods will meet once
more
on
to Christ is strikingand Christian
His resemblance
altar,and here also was the vessel that received the
blood of the sacrifice. In it lay the twigs with
assumed.
Whether
the supinfluence has been
posed
which
the priestsprinkledblood on the idols and
evidences of a Balder myth in England and
walls.
ForGermany are real or apparent is unsettled.
navians.
of Balder by the Scandicalled the son
3. Priests. There
was
no
seti was
caste; the
priestly
the
similar to the latter,and in
official with duties aside from
He
priestwas
an
was
did not have to be a priest
the best of all judges. He
addition
was
sacerdotal,but a man
was
probablythe same as the Foseti who was worshiped in order to perform sacred offices. The head of a
esses
Priestfor his household.
house conducted
them
his cult came
north.
by the Frisians,whence
mentioned
He
was
are
by the early historians and in
Loki is known
only in Scandinavia.
the sagas.
and continued as such in Sweden,
a fireelf,
originally
his offering
4. Rites. The
individual made
ber
Among a small numDenmark, and the Faroes.
Communities
he would.
met for
of Norwegian and Icelandic poets he figures when and where
"

"

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DICTIONARY

445

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Theocracy

sometimes
ceremonial
and grades of initiation. The murder
a small group,
of tribes. Often
federation
the divinity was
was
always done in secret without leavingany trace
and without
bloodshed.
conducted about the countryside in a conveyance.
British government
The
sacrifices in a
held their autumn
Semnones
The
suppressed them in the 19th. century.
sacred wood; all entered the wood fettered,
symbolizing
THANKSGIVING."
their subjection to the god; if one
The act of expressinggratifell,he
tude
but
had to crawl out.
A
could not be raised up,
or
acknowledging the beneficence of God
offered. Our other accounts
for blessingsenjoyed; specifically
sacrificewas
human
a formal
prayer
of gratitude used in various liturgies,
sources.
of sacrificesare from Scandinavian
They
as
e.g., the
the blood of the
conducted by the priest,
General Thanksgiving of the Anglican liturgy.
were
animal was
sprinkledon the images and the outer
The flesh was
THANKSGIVING
DAY."
A day formallv
and inner walls.
boiled,the meat,
drunk.
edging
consumed, beer was
appointed by the state for the purpose of acknowlbroth, and fat were
the divine source
of blessingsexperienced.
The
chief,king or jarl,from his highseat opened
and directed the toasts; the first
It originatedin New
the ceremonies
England when the Pilgrims
in 1621 appointed a day of thanksgivingfor assured
in honor of the gods and the second to the
was
Other
harvests.
It is now
celebrated
the
dead.
on
Songs were
regularly
sung in honor of both.
fourth Thursday in November.
forms of entertainment
might occur.
The burial places of two
magicians
5. Magic.
11th. centuries B.C.
the 13th. and
about
THEATINES."
A R.C. order founded in 1524,
from
island of Zealand.
so-called from the city in Italy in which
have been found on the Danish
one
or
sort of medicine
the founders fived {Chiate,or Tlieate). The purThere was
bag in each grave.
a
pose
of the order was
That from the older was
a leather case
containing
to induce
greater purityof
ranean,
fife and seriousness of purpose
the clergyj
amber bead, a small snail from the Mediteran
among
die of fir wood, the tail of a snake, a
and also to counteract the influence of Lutheran
a
a few
ideas. A
strict regime of disciplineand
squirrel,
birdclaw,the lower jaw of a young
very
is inculcated. There
female
two
are
pebbles,a pair of small pincers,two bronze knives, devotion
sewed up in a piece of gut. The
the Theatine nuns, and the Theatine
a flint lancehead
organizations,
similar and equally miscellaneous
a
later grave contained
hermitesses,both dedicated to a rigorousreUgious
collection. Everywhere there are reports
discipHne.The order is mainly confined to Italy.
the
of female magicians from early times, among
There is a
The
THEFT."
wrongful acquisitionof the
Goths, in England, and on the Rhine.
of the
of another
source
Known
means.
by any
property
long list of charms in a Franconian
of
Texts of charms, some
7th. or 8th. century.
legallyas larceny, a practice almost vmiversally
in content, have been precertain primitivepeoples
which are stillheathen
condemned, though among
served
navia.
it is sanctioned
under certain circumstances,and
from early England, Germany, and Scandiis considered a
in the robber caste of the Hindus
Tacitus tells of divination by lot and from
the Germans, and
to a Livelihood.
the blood of sacrifices among
proper means
who read dreams.
tell of women
sources
many
held
A word
used in a vague
THEISM.
6. Calendar and festivals.^A festival was
to
sense
about the middle of
denote belief in one supreme
God; but more
at the beginningof winter,i.e.,
exactly
employed to indicate a type of inonotheism which
October, to sacrifice for the coming year; one at
for
affirms the existence of God
a memorial
as
a
personal being
midwinter, the Yule feast,originally
who is both creator of the world and the immanent
the dead, one in February to celebrate the lengthening
of the sun, in Scandinavia
of natureN
of the days, the return
controlUng the course
power
in this more
technical sense
devoted
to Freyr. It was
Theism
is contrasted
perpetuated in
A fourth was
held at
with
Deism
the Shrovetide
(q.v.) which
overemphasizes the
mummery.
in the middle of April, transcendence
of God, and with Pantheism
the beginning of summer,
(q.v.)
which
continued in the St. John's day celebrations.
virtuallyidentifies God with the worlcft
The myths that have been preforms of monotheism
As contrasted with pictorial
III. Myths.
served
Scandinavian
which
involve
development and were
are
a
anthropomorphism (q.v.),theism
tain
not recorded before the 13th. century.
They coninterpretsthe nature of God in terms of a moral
old matter, mixed with a great deal that
of growth
some
actively controllingprocesses
purpose
best be read in Brodeur's translation
and development in the universe.
It is thus a
is late. They can
of the Edda of Snorri Sturluson,and in Vigfusphilosophicalform of religiousbeUef,
definitely
Boreale.
and is to be distinguished
from the popular form of
and Powell's Corpus Poeticum
son
Chester
Nathan
Gould
analogies. Theism
theologywhich employs political
An Aztec god of the upper
TEZCATLIPOCA."
gives a rational explanation of the universe which
watched
the doings of men.
As a
for the spiritual
air who
accounts
over
as well as for the material
of its emphasis on
aspects of reality. On account
tuous
wind-godhe was the giverof Ufe as well as a tempessacrifices were
made
to
the personalityof God
(in terms of moral will)it
destroyer. Human
the victim was
identified with the
is the type of religious
him in which
philosophy best adapted to
of the Christian conception
serve
god and eaten by his worshipers.
as the framework
of God.
It is therefore widely employed in modem
of India whose
A secret organization
THAGS.
See God.
theologicaland apologeticworks.
committed
murder
Gerald
members
Birney
Smith
by stranghng as a
THEMIS."
A Greek
usually
part of their religiousduty. They were
goddess, symbol of the
highlyrespectedand worthy citizens in their daily authorityof the social conscience and so of Justice
lives and felt that they were
and Law.
performing an act of
devotion to their goddess Kali or Durga in taking
the lives of their victims.
of political
THEOCRACY.
^A conception
They traced their order
zation
organito the
their ancestors
in which God is the supreme
beginning of time when
ruler,so that
in
assisted
the creation of man
be derived
from
the divine
by stranghng the
politicallaws must
demons
which devoured
command
the race
and earthlyrulers must
receive authority
as
quickly as men
created.
In return for this service in making
from God.
were
human
life possiblethey were
A theocracy recognizesno such thing as secular
granted the fives of
third oi mankind.
one
The sect had an elaborate
distinction
consequently no
government, and

religiousacts, sometimes
a

"

"

"

"

"

"

Theodicy

DICTIONARY

OF

church
and state.
All human
tions
organizabe religiously
sanctioned and controlled.
Hebrew
The
theocratic
prophets insisted on
a
in the
ideal,and the historyof Israel as interpreted
is the story of divine discipline
in
Old Testament
order to secure
a perfect
theocracy. Mohammedism
also sets forth a theocratic conception of politics.
Cromwell
in England
Calvin
at
Geneva, and
attempted to establish theocracy, as did the
Puritans in New
England.
between

must

In theology or
THEODICY."
philosophy,a
defence of the justiceand goodness of God
in the
See
face of the existence of evil in the universe.
Evil.
THEODORE.

"

The

I.,Pope, 642-649
twenty days, 897.

name

and

AND

RELIGION

of two popes.
dore
TheoTheodore
II.,Pope for

OF MOPSUESTIA
THEODORE
(ca.350-428).
Antiochian
Foremost
representative of the
school (q.v.).He
author, though
a
was
prolific
As
extant.
are
an
only a few commentaries
in
exegete, he employed the historical method
of Origen.
method
opposition to the allegorical
accused
of Nestorianism
After his death he was
and anathematized by the coimcil of 553.
"

ETHICS

446

in some
of the chief subjects of intellectual
one
interest
law, medicine, and theology. Paris was
easilyfirst as a school of theology. The subjects
bibUcal origins,
homiletics and church
taught were
law,theology and morals.
I. Roman
Catholic
Seminaries.
em
In the moddistinct to separate
period the tendency is more
cultural studies and ministerial preparation proper.
For this latter purpose
specialschools have been
established by Roman
CathoHcs, although preparation
for the R. C. priesthood includes the discipUne of young boys. It is noteworthy, however,
that the R. C. system is by no
uniform
means
in that many
candidates for the priesthoodreceive
their earher education
in collegesand universities
not under the control of the R.C. Church.
In the R.C. seminary proper
the candidates for
the priesthood are
trained for six years chieflyin
exegesis,Hebrtiw and Greek languages,
philosophy,
various
of theology, church
branches
history,
pastoraltheology, and church practicesand law.
Advanced
studies are pursued by graduates of the
seminaries at universities and other more
advanced
institutions,especially in Rome.
(CoUege of
Roman
College and
Propaganda, Dominican
Dominican
Franciscan, OraSeminary.) The
torian, and Jesuit Orders
(qq.v.) are active in
educational affairs.
1. On the ContiII. Protestant
nent
Seminaries.
of Europe theologicalfaculties are found in
universities (in Germany
17
are
Protestant).
Instruction is given in the traditional fields of the
Bible (O.T. and N.T.) church history,theplogyand
in the
practicaltheology, although the courses
than in the leadingseminaries
last are less numerous
of America.
In Germany
versities
graduates of these unitrained further in a seminary {Predigerare
the
seminar). After completing these courses
In countries
student passes a second examination.
where there are free churches
(as in Holland and
body maintains one or more
France) each religious
faculties.
seminaries or theological
instruction is
2. In Great Britain theological
universities have
of various
lands.
The
logical
theofaculties while most
bodies have
religious
logical
their own
collegesin which both generaland theoinstruction is given (e.g..
Clergy Training
School,King's College,of the Church of England;
Mansfield
CoUege, Hackney College,New CoUege,
of the CongregationaUsts;
Wesley College,of the
Methodists; Manchester, of the Unitarians). These
and of different scholastic
institutions are numerous
"

"

"

THEODORET

(ca.386-457)." Bishop of Cyr-

school (q.v.).
the Nestorian
controversy,
were
claiming that in Christ the two natures
but not fused into a single
united in one
person,
condemned
His views were
by Justinian I.
essense.
Controversy.
He
Three-Chapter
See
tributed
conto the
matter
considerable biographical
history of early monasticism.
rhus and
He was

theologianof the Antiochian

prominent in

THEOLOGICAL

ENCYCLOPAEDIA."

The

methods
of the aims and
systematic presentation
of theologicalstudy so as
of the various branches
ships
relationto indicate their organizationand mutual
in a comprehensive whole.
of theological scholarship
The
specialization
has created various "departments, such as textual
historicalcriticism,
philological
tion,
investigacriticism,
doctrinal construction,
church history,
exegesis,
paedia
pastoralcare, etc. Theologicalencyclohomiletics,

undertakes to exhibit the scientific method

of study and to correlate
and aim of each branch
them all. The term occurs firstin the 18th. century
itselfdates back to scholasticism.
standing.
although the discipline
is three years in length
The theological
The
course
important development due to the
makes the re-writing and includes the traditionalsubjectswith a tendency
of historical method
application
needed task today.
to lessen language requirements and add others.
of encyclopaedia
a much
Birney
Smith
as
Gerald
3. In America
theologicalseminaries are
ministers
Institutions
THEOLOGICAL
SEMINARIES."
a rule denominational,intended to educate
These institutions are
for their respectivebodies.
organized for the vocational education of ministers
of the Christian religion.
supplemented by theologicalinstruction given
Bible Schools,Institutes
colleges,
The
educational institutions of Christianity in denominational
of institutions
The total number
and Training Schools.
are
probably derived from the rabbinical schools of
schools and universities
training is considerable
Judaism
giving theological
and the philosophical
than 60 of
The earUest of such
although there are probablynot more
of the Hellenistic world.
^

institutions,the

catechetical schools, were

not

intended for the ministry alone, but the demands

for educated
expounders and defenders of the new
faith early led to development of schools intended
primarilyfor their instruction. These were distinct
Thefrom independent teachers like Justin and
odotus and reflect the influence of the Greek system
these early schools
Chief
of education.
among
those of Alexandria,
were
Caesarea,Edessa, Antioch.
In some
of these the instruction was
general as
well as bibUcal,and this practicecontinued throughout
the Middle Ages until the universities expanded
schools or speciaUzed
into groups of professional

"^

high standing.

seminaries
Entrance
requirementsin American
vary but there is a noticeable tendency to require
of
in the case
full coUege trainingas a prerequisite
leading institutions. There is also an increasing
of schools interdenominational (or nonnumber
denominational) in character, connected either

organically or intimately (although not always

technicaUy) with a universixy(Andover, Divinity
School
of the University of Chicago, Harvard,
Oberlin, Pacific,Union, Vanderbilt, Yale). The
same

is true of certain denominational

seminaries

(Boston, Cambridge, Candler, Chicago

Crozer,

447

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Theses

from the One to the Many rather than

Methodist). downward
Ryder, Southern
Other excellent
for matriculation
schools the prerequisites
upward froni the Many to the One.
be found
for Graduate Schools of
in
exemplificationsof theosophy may
the same
as
essentially
are
the works of Meister Eckhart, Boehme, and SchelArts, Literature and Science. The degrees-given
ling. A large part of Indian philosophicaland
not uniform
(D.B.,Th.B., A.M., Ph.D., Th.D.,
are
seminaries
religious
thought may be classed under theosophy.
D.D.) but it is usual for denominational
The
in
founded
Theosophical Society was
to 'giveno
degrees. Of late there ha* developed
1875, by Madame
the tendency to enrich the traditional curriculum
Blavatsky, with the aim of
in reUgious education,
(1)forming "a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood
by the addition of courses
of Humanity," (2) encouraging the study of comries
and missions.
In several of the seminaparative
sociology,
it is now
religionand philosophy, (3) investigating
possiblefor students to select special
"the unexplained laws of nature
and the powers
curricula in preparationfor the pastorate,social
latent in man."
The
Society defines theosophy
service,religiouseducation, and missions. There
its officialcreed) as "the body of'truths which
is also increased emphasis laid upon
practical (i.e.,
forms the basis of all religions." As a fact,however,
training,several institutions having added to their
of Vocational
the Society's teachings are
drawn
faculties Directors
Training and
chiefly
of practical from eastern
and contain several doctrines
sources
requiringa certain specifiedamount
It is also
the part of their students.
work
(such as reincarnation)which are repudiated by
on
for graduates of
One of the distinctive
Judaism, and Islam.
Christianity,
becoming increasinglycommon
in seminaries
work
to take advanced
seminaries
teachings of the Society is the doctrine
of the seven
with largeuniversities.
connected
planes,of which the three lowest are
Matbtews
Shailer
the physical,astral,and heavenly. Man, being a
of the
THEOLOGY.
In the narrow
of the universe,has (actuallyor potenmicrocosm
sense
tially)
of God.
The
bodies belonging to all of the planes. The
term, an exposition of the nature
lowest body is the physical,which
word
is ordinarilyused, however, with a broader
all men
sciously
conThe two next bodies in the scale
meaning to indicate the scientific study of the
possess.
most
also actuallypossessed (in different degrees of
entire field of religion. The
are
important
traditional divisions of theology in this largersense
development) by all men
are
though not all men
Man's
natural theology(statingthe religioustruth^' conscious of them.
real task is to develop
are:
obtainable
by reason); revealed theology (settinj^ and organize these higher bodies. Only a few
forth the truths obtained by revelation);biblical
have developed the senses
belonging to the astral
exact
and heavenly planes,but those that have, possess
interpretationof th(
theology (giving an
reincarnations
quired
reare
Scriptures)
Many
; historicaltheology(now usually called! telepathicpowers.
for the development of man's
church history)
full nature,
; systematictheologyexpounding the]
doctrines held by the church); and practical
holds throughout all rebirths
theology and the law of Karma
(dealingwith the duties of the pastorand preacher^ until liberation is attained,and life upon earth no
Some
longer necessary.
adepts,however, out of
THEOPASCHITES."
Those in the early church
love for mankind
continue to live and teach here
crucified in
who believed that God suffered or was
below.
These form the Great White
Brotherhood,
the death of Jesus Christ,a conception inconsistent
of which
the
Founders
of religions (Krishna,
definition of God
with the current
as
eternally Buddha, Jesus,and others)were
members.
ments
The
perfect. The belief is also reflected in such moveTheosophical Society added considerably
Sabellianism
(q.v.). to its membership in various parts of the world
as Patripassianismand
and soon
after her
during Madame
Blavatsky'slife,
See Eating the
THEOPHAGY."
God.
death a largepart of the American
branch seceded.
The new
has again divided.
society thus founded
of
THEOPHANY.
A revelation or appearance
of the British theosophistswithdrew
Most
in 1909
beings; such as in the ancient
a
deity to human
and a largenumber
of the continental theosophists
of the god at Delphi,
Greek religion
the appearances
followed their example a little later. The parent
in the Hebrew
religionthe manifestations to Moses
society,however, still has many
chapters and a
the incarnation
and others,and in the Christian religion
fair membership in various parts of the world, its
in Jesus.
headquarters being in Adyar, India.
James
B. Pbatt
A
SOCIETY
OF."
THEOPHILANTHROPY,
See Mother
THEOTOKOS."
of God.
French
religioussociety, organized during the

Garrett, Newton,
In such

"

"

"

antitheistic period of the Revolution,along deistic

belief in God,
lines,the main tenets of which were
in
and
virtue
society was
immortality. The
and
made
existence
some
during the
progress
was
period 1746-1802, when the Catholic Church

disestablished.
SOCIETY."

THEOSOPHICAL

See Theosopht.

used somewhat
^A term
biguously
am(1) direct knowledge of God

THERAPEUTAE."
A
of ascetics about
sect
whom
little is known, some
scholars connecting
them
with the Essenes, others holding that they
sect of the 3rd. century, and still
were
a Christian
others (includingHarnack) that they were
sect
a
of Jewish contemplativeascetics of the 1st. century.
located near
Alexandria.
They were

SAINT
of
THERESA,
(1515-1582)."Founder
especiallyrigorous division of the Carmelite
the 'BarefootCarmelites.
as
and of divine things,as by some
specialinspiration; order,generallyknown
(2) speculative mysticism; (3) a philosophical Her fame rests primarilyon her intense mysticism
which
itself chieflywith the nature
was
accompanied by vivid visions. She
theory which concerns
More
ential
specifically expressed her religiousdevotion in several influof God
as
a transcendent being.
applied to the
writings,in which she outlined the pathway
in late years it has been commonly
to a complete experienceof imion with God.
She
doctrines held by the TheosophicalSociety.
canonized in 1622.
was
classical example of theosophy (in the
The
genericsense)is to be found in the speculationsof
NINETY-FIVE
OF
HARMS."
The
possessed
THESES,
Plotinus,who in the opinionof his disciples
of the Divine
theses which Claus Harms
(q.v.)pubinsight into the nature
ninety-five
Ushed[
300th
in 1817 (the
mation)
anniversaryof the Reformystical
of certain
supernaturaland
ecause
in protestagainst rationahsm.
experiences,and who constructed his philosophy
THEOSOPHY.
to

"

mean

Eeculiar

an

Theses

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

448

OF LUTHER."
exhausted
The
and ready to conclude "the
partieswere
THESES,
NINETY-FIVE,
ninety-fivetheses,proposing subjects for debate, Peace of WestphaUa, in 1648. Germany is estimated
to have lost half her population and threechieflyconcerning indulgences,which Luther published
fourths of her wealth during the struggle.
Oct. 31, 1517, an act which
has usually
on
bean
taken
Reformation

as

the

beginning of

the

Protestant

(q.v.).

Henry

C. Vedder

FRIEDRICH
AUGUST
GOTTREU
THOLUCK,
(1799-1877). German
preacher and
theological
as
teacher,well known
a mediating theologianwho
combined
of the positionsof modern
criticism
some
and philosophy with pietistic
elements,
givingan
empirical basis to his interpretationoi Christian
experience. His strong religiouspersonalitymade
him unusually influential with his students.
"

THESMOPHORIA."
A
Greek religious
ceremony
of October
alone and
performed by women
intended
to promote
fertility.Pigs, as animals
were
placed in
possessing great fertility
powers,
xmderground placesto be brought into contact with
snakes
which
represented the mysterious powers
later
of the earth.
The
remains
of the pigs were
and used
taken up by specially
consecrated
women
as
a
magic substance to be mixed with the seed

grain to

secure

abundant

crops.

An
THIRD
ORDER."
institution existing in
certain monastic
organizations,as the Franciscano,
mediate
Dominicans
and Carmelites,representingan interstage between the monastery and the world.
The members
are
pledged to a high standard of holy
but do not take monastic vows.
life,
ARTICLES."
A confession of faith,
framed by the leaders of the Anglican church in
divines in 1538, and
with Lutheran
consultation
which became
the basis of the Forty-Two Articles
THIRTEEN

(q.v.).
The
ARTICLES."
confession
THIRTY-NINE
of faith in force in the Church
of England, first
published in Latin in 1563 and in English in 1571
during the reign of Elizabeth,being a reduction by
of the Forty-Two articles (q.v.)with the
seven
Protestant
articles. The
addition
of four new
Episcopal church of the U.S.A. is also committed
See Creeds
to this confessional statement.
and
England.
Articles
of
of
Faith; Church
WAR."
The struggle
YEARS'
(mainly
in Germany)
and
Roman
between
Protestants
(q.v.).
growing out of the Reformation
Catholics,
The war
(May,
began with a revolt in Bohemia
of
1618) against king Ferdinand, of the House
Austria.
The Bohemian
people declared the throne
offered the crown
to Frederick
vacant
and
V.,
count
Palatine,who accepted it. His brief reign
in 1620,
ended by the defeat of the Bohemians
was
and
Frederick
was
pursued into the Palatinate,
which was
conquered and given to Duke MaximiUan,
of Bavaria.
Ferdinand
had been
In the meantime
and
he now
turned
elected emperor,
against the
of Germany.
Protestant
In spite of aid
states
defeated
given by Denmark, the Protestants were
at Lutter
in 1626.
The
Peace of Liibeck
(1629)
brought the first stage of the war to a close. The
issued an Edict of Restitution,commanding
now
emperor
to
the Roman
church
the restoration
of all property secularized since 1552, and
this
caused
renewal
of the
a
struggle. Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden invaded Germany and defeated
the imperial armies
at Breitenfeld
(1631), estabhshing liisfame as the great generalof his age and
After
indecisive
freeing northern
an
Germany.
campaign in the south, he returned to the vicinity
of Leipzig, where
he again defeated the imperial
Liitzen
at
killed in the
(1632), but was
army
battle.
His death was
an
irreparableloss to the
Protestants,who suffered a signaldefeat at Nordlingen in 1634, and the Peace of Prag the following
the second stage of the struggle. The
year ended
third stage was
marked
by no such victories for
either side. Spain became
the allyof the emperor,
whereupon the great French minister,RicheUeu,
for the Protestants. Eventually both
intervened
THIRTY

ACTS
OF."
An apocryphal writing
THOMAS,
of Syrian Gnostic origin,probably dating from the
2nd.
century, recording the tradition that the
far as India
apostleThomas
journeyed east as
he suffered martyrdom.
where
THOMAS

AQUINAS."

THOMAS

BECKET."

See
See

Aqtjinas,Thomas.
Becket, Thomas.

THOMAS
CHRISTIANS
OR
CHRISTIANS
ST. THOMAS."
tians
A sect of South Indian Chriswho
hold to the tradition that the apostle
visited the Malabar
Thomas
and
Madras
coast
and
founded
their church.
The
of a
presence
Nestorian church can
be traced to the 6th. century.
Christians seceded from Rome
In 1153 the Thomas
and have since acknowledged the Jacobite patriarchate
at Antioch.
OF

OF."
GOSPEL
An apocryphal gospel
of Gnostic origin,dating from the 2nd. century,
expressing docetic views of Christ.

THOMAS,

A KEMPIS."

THOMAS

See

Kempis, Thomas

A.

ST." One of the apostles of Jesus;

THOMAS,
also called Didymus
(twin); frequently spoken of
"the doubter."
Tradition states that he became
as
a
missionary to the far East, traveling as far as
Christians.
India.
See Thomas
THOMISM.

"

system formulated
A

The

philosophicaland theological
by Thomas
Aquinas (q.v.).

god of the

air, of thunder,
home,
and of law in the Norse
mythology. He is also
As the heavenly striker he is akin
called Donar.
to the sky-god of Roman
religion. As the champion
of the Aesir gods against the giants and the giver
chief figure in the northern
of fertility
he was
a
pantheon.
THOR.

"

upper

of fertility
in field and
patron of agriculture,

CONFERENCE
THORN,
of representatives of the
Reformed
churches
which

OF."

conference
and
assembled
in Thorn,
the existingreligious
Poland, 1645, to try*to overcome
strife. The King threw in his influence with
the R.C. party, but the conference ended in failure,
the Lutherans
and
widening the breach between
Reformed bhurch in Germany.

R.C., Lutheran

An Egyptian god of wisdom

and the
magic power of correctlyspoken words
create, to heal,to protect and to justifyseems
have been symbolized in this divine figure. As
THOTH.
The

"

arts.
to
to

He
he is associated with the moon.
the measurer
stands waiting with tablet and pen at the weighing
of the heart in the Egyptian judgment scenes.
THREE

CHAPTER

CONTROVERSY."

phase of the Monophysite Controversy, originating

449

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Justinian I. condemned
when
Three
Chapters or
formulated
statements, viz.,(a) those of Theodore
of Mopsuestia (q.v.),(b) those of Theodoret
of
Cyrrhus- (q.v.) in defence of Nestorius and in
opposition to Cyril,and (c) the letter of Ibas of
Edessa
At the 2nd.
(q.v.)to the Persian Maris.
council of Constantinople,
553, the condemnation
ratified. The
was
Vigiliusand Pelagius I.
popes
for a time opposed the condemnation.
THREE

SONG
THE."
OF
CHILDREN,
apocryphal addition to the story of Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego in the 3rd. chapter of

An

Daniel.

See Thaqs.

THUGS."

See Censer.

THURIBLE."

TIAMAT.
^The primeval chaos,described as a
of the deep, which is overcome
raging monster
by
the gods before the ordered world and man
come
into existence in the Babylonian cosmology. In
"

latest versions

the

of

the

story Marduk

is the

champion of the Gods.

The triplebee-hive shaped crown
of
pontiffsymbolizing his claim to the
threefold authority,temporal, spiritual
and purgatorial.
The
of a papal crown
be traced
use
can
the 8th. century, its form
to
being gradually
the

TIARA.
Roman

"

modified until in the 14th. century the three crowned

tiara was
adopted.

AND

TIEN."

ETHICS

"Heaven."

Tokens,

The

term

Communion

used

by

the

intellectuals of China
for the impersonal power
actingin the order o'fnature of which human life
is an integralpart. It seems
at times to be synonymous
with Destiny or with
Tao.
The personal
term

for God

is Shang-ti(q.v.).

TIMOTHY.
An
early Christian convert and
of Paul
(q.v.). Timothy, along with
Silas,assisted Paul in the operations of the so
called "second"
missionary tour (I Thess. 1:1;
3:2, 6; II Thess. 1:1; II Cor. 1:19; Acts 16:1-3;
active also during the
17:14f.; 18:5); he was
"third" tour (I Cor. 4:17; 16:10; II Cor. 1:1;
Acts 19:22; 20:4); and he appears
to have been
with Paul when the latter was
a prisonerat Rome
(Phil.1:1; 2: 19; Col. 1: 1; Philem.,vs. 1). Of his
later activities practically
The
nothing is known.
allegedcorrespondence between Paul and Timothy,
I and II Tim.
as
comnaonly known
(q.v.),seems
from its styleand content,to be an idealized product
of a subsequent generation.
S. J. Case
"

helper

TIPITAKA."

Scriptures.See

The
Pali name
for the Buddhist
Canon
(Buddhist).

LOBEGOTT
FRIEDRICH
VON
logian,
theo(1815-1874)." German
professorin Leipzig. He is famed for his
critical work on the text of the Greek New
ment,
Testatestament
twenty editions of the Greek
appearing in Germany under his name
during his life.

TISCHENDORF,

CONSTANTLN

TITHES.
A
tax
or
assessment, secular or
RELIGIONS
MISSIONS
tenth of a person's
OF, AND
amounting to one
religious,
TO.
Tibet
is a
region of Central Asia, until
Among ancient peoples the
property or income.
1913
owning allegiance to China
(q.v.),lying custom was widespread of paying one tenth to the
north of the Himalayas, south and
east
of the
King, the practise existing in Greece, Rome,
Kuen-lun
mountains, and west of China. Lhasa
the
Hebrews.
Babylonia, Egypt, and
among
is the
In some
instances as among
capital. The
the Hebrews
tithes
population (estimated) is
were
3,500,000,probably 500,000 being Buddhist monks.
religiousdues. The emphasis on tithes in
In part the people are
polyandrous. Racially the Bible led to a generalassumption in the Middle
they are of "Himalayan" stock, on the borders
Ages that the system was divinelyappointed, and
mixed with Chinese and Indians.
from the 8th. to the 17th. centuries tithes were
The
early rehgion, known
as
an
"Bon," was
regarded as the property of the church by divine
animistic Shamanism
stillfound in Eastern
(q.v.),
right. In some
countries,as England, the tithe
Tibet, with witchcraft,magic, ancestor-worship, passed over
from a religious
offeringto a form of
and nature gods and spirits.
rent for the support of the clergy. The
custom
In the 7th. century Buddhism
of giving a tithe of the income
to the Lord
(q.v.)entered
still
through Chinese and Indian consorts of the king. exists as a piouspractiseamong
people. The
many
About
900 A.D., the religionwas
cal
proscribed by a
system has long since been found to be too mechanifor purposes
of just'taxation;
and its inadequacy
king jealousof its power, the people revolted,and
the government
fell into the hands of monks
and
as
a
measure
or
religiouscontributions is being
abbots,with gradual decadence toward Shamanism.
increasingly
recognized.
In the 15th. century the reformer
Tsong-Kapa
formulated
Lamaism, the present religion. The
TITUS.-;-Oneof Paul's helpers who is never
essentials of this are an eclectic Buddhism
with its
mentioned
in the Book
of Acts but whose
name
three "jewels," the pre-eminence of the church,
in the Pauline
letters. He
occasionally
appears
Dalai
ruled over
Lama
chief
or
the Greek convert
by a
whom
Paul brought forward
abbot, who is
was
the
continuous
reincarnation
of the
Buddhist
at the Jerusalem
council as a test case
for the
freedom of the Gospel (Gal.2 : 1,3),and he rendered
Tsong-Kapa, and of the coming Buddha Padmapani.
A mechanistic
acterizesPaul important assistance in a later controversy
theory of formula and prayer charthe religion. The literature is enormous.
with the Corinthians (II Cor. 2:13; 7:6-14; 8:6,
made
to Christianize
Frequent attempts were
16 f., 23; 12:18). It is now
thought that the
the country.
In 1330 Odoric of Pordenone
led a
so-called "Epistle
to Titus," at least in its present
band
of monks
Lhasa.
In 1624
to
the Jesuit
form, can hardly be a real letter from Paul to his
Antonio
D'Andrada
founded
fellow-laborer Titus, but is a later composition
preached and
a
cathedral.
1706 and 1730 several Roman
Between
to which their names
have been attached.
Catholic endeavors
made
and in 1846 A.bb6
were
S. J. Case
Hue
reached
Lhasa
for a short stay. None
of
TOBIT."
An Old Testament
apocryphal writing
these efforts left any
probably originatingwithin the last two centuries
permanent impress. About
1760 the country became
self-isolated.
for the hero of the book, and reflecting
B.C., named
Protestant
missions have
been carried on
the strict Hebrew
by
orthodoxy of the Pharisaic
the "Disciples"from Batang as a center since 1910,
school.
See Apocrypha.
and missionaries and their wives are in the field.
Other
bodies
COMMUNION."
(China Inland Mission, Anglicans)
SmaU metal disks
TOKENS,
work on the Chinese and Indian borders.
bearinga device or letters indicative of a place,
"

TIBET,
"

Toland, John

DICTIONARY

OF

tative
minister,or date, and given as evidence of authoriin the Lord's Supper.
permissionto participate
Such
tokens were
given the initiates in the old
used by
sometimes
mystery rehgions, and were
Their use
times
in modern
primitive Christians.
is largelyconfined to the Presbyteriansof Scotland,
printed cards being employed instead of disks.

TOLAND,
deist and

JOHN

(1670-1772)."Leading English

of letters. His most

famous
work, ChristianityNot Mysterious,was
a
cogent
for a
argument
completely rational content in
man

belief.
religious

of
a

TOLERATION."
with a policy
As contrasted
the term implies
compelhng uniformityin religion,
with restricted privileges
religiousestablishment

for dissenters.
During the

centuries Christian
of the
the hands
of
Roman
to the maintenance
Emperors committed
Licinius
the
and
state
religion. Constantine
(Edict of Milan, 313) accorded full religious
liberty
freedom
to
all and
universal
to
insisted upon
embrace
and
practice Christianity.Divisions
Christians
(Donatist, Arian, etc.) led
among
himself
Constantine
to
persecute irreconcilable
On
schismatics
in the interest of go\"emment.
moral
and
religiousgrounds, at the instance of
offensive
Chi'istian leaders,he sought to suppress
forms of pagan
the 4th. century
worship. From
Christian leaders were
onward
almost
unanimous
criminal.
in regarding heresy as
diabohcal
and
Catholic hierarchy
The intolerance of the Roman
reached
its highest development in the Inquisition.
Donatists,Pauhcians, Waldenses, Bohemian
Brethren,Anabaptists,and Socinians,as persecuted
the ground that
parties,pled for toleration on
of individual relation of the
religionis a matter
used
soul to God
be coerced.
Luther
and cannot
the same
arguments for toleration when defending
his cause
against Romish
intolerance,but was
absolutely intolerant toward
evangelicaldissent.
Calvin
theocratic grounds, regarding his own
on
system of doctrine and disciplineas absolutely
accordant
with the divine will,was
merciless in his
attitude toward
sance
heresy. The spiritof the Renaisand the growth
favorable to toleration,
was
of the scientificspirit
and its applicationto theology
has so far weakened
the conviction of the absolute
and exclusive validityof any
particularform of
individuals
doctrine
and
practice as to make
quent.
and churches
tolerant and persecutioninfremore
It is a generally accepted position with
today that liberty of
enlightened governments
beUef and worship shall be recognizedas a fundamental
A. H. Newman
right.

2nd. and

3rd.

apologistspled for toleration

AND

RELIGION

at

OF."
An act passed by
ACT
TOLERATION,
ously
English pariiament in 1689 removing previexistingcivil disabilities fiom non-conforming
Protestants
took the oath of allegianceand
who
of the Thirtysubscribed
to the doctrinal tenets

ETHICS

450

renounced

all privilegesof property and urged a

vigoroussimphcity as the only moral way of living.
His voluminous
writingshave been translated into
languages,and his influence has been very wide.
many
TOMBS
AND
Formal burial
TOMBSTO.NES."
of the dead
old as palaeolithictimes)
as
(itself
naturally leads to the erection of funeral monuments
marking the place of burial. Cairns, or
funeral mounds, many
centuries old are
to be
found in western
Europe, as also in America.
It is probable that from
such models
the
came
motive
which
developed the most
stupendous of
all tombs, the great pyramids of Egypt.
Rockcut or cave
tombs
also very ancient,and found
are
in many
lands,while mortuary buildings
are
among
the most
famous
of architectural works:
the
of the
Mausoleum, or tomb of Mausolus, was
one
wonders
of the ancient world, while the Taj Mahal
is.one
of the most
beautiful of extant
structures.
Tombstones
also date from remote
times, and are
used in modern
times not only by peoples of Christendom,
but also by Mushms,
Buddhists, Conand others.
fucianists,
Probably the most beautiful
in the woild are
the ancient Greek
funeral stelae
See Burial; Catacombs;
preserved in Athens.
Death
Funeral
Practices.
and
H. B. Alexander
GIFT
OF."
An ecstatic utterance
TONGUES,
induced by religiousexcitement.
Sometimes
uncultured
peoples a high
among
emotion so affects the vocal organs
state of religious
that certain individuals
forth
give
strange and
unintelhgiblesounds which are popularly regarded
as supernaturalin origin. This type of phenomenon
unknown
in other rehgions, but it has
not
was
figured especiallyin Christianity,It was listed
the giftsof the Spirit(I Cor. 12 ; 28)
by Paul among
and, followingJewish precedent, appears
to have
been regarded as a language of angels (I Cor. 13: 1),
which
naturally was
unintelligibleto mortals
until explained by one
possessingthe supernatural
of "interpretation"(I Cor. 14:5, 13, 27 f.).
power
In Acts,chap. 2, these ecstatic utterances are taken
to mean
a speaking in foreignlanguages. Throughout
the history of Christianity
the phenomenon
recurred
has
has
often
been
sporadically and
regarded as a display of supernatural abilityto
speak a foreigntongue, but under critical investigation
these ecstatic utterances
have
been
never
found
to consist of a connected
and
intelKgible
in any known
statement
S. J. Case
language.
TONSURE."

The

ritual

act

of

shaving

the

head (inthe Greek

of the head
church) or the crown
(inthe Latin church) when a person is admitted to
holy orders or a monastic order. The tonsure was
custom
the priestsof Isis and
a
among
Serapia
and entered Christianity
through monasticism.

the

and anti-trinitarians
Nine articles. CathoUcs
thus not included in its provisions.

were

LEO
(1828-1910)." Russian count,
reformer.
and
social
Religiously he
Greek
religionas well as
rejected the orthodox
Romanism
He was
ardent
and Protestantism.
an
follower of Jesus, aiming to follow literally
his
teaching. This led to the development of his
he carried to
doctrine
of non-resistance
which
exaggerated proportions,including adherence to a
form of anarchism.
His radical ideas concerning
industrial and social life led him to wear
the garb
his hands.
He
of a
labor with
peasant, and

TOPE."

See

Stupa.

A place of sacrifice in the valleyof

TOPHET.
Hinnom
south
of Jerusalem.
As
Ge
Hinnom
(Gehenna) it was the place of burning and later a
for the fieryplace of future punishment.
synonym
"

TOLSTOY,

novelist

TORAH.
A Hebrew
word
meaning primarily
"instruction,""teaching." It was
appHed to the
teachingsof the prophets,the oracles of the priests,
the proverbs of the wise and last of all to the Mosaic
"

law

as

whole.

TORGAU
ARTICLES."
A
confessional
ment
statedrawn
by Luther and his associates at
up
were
Torgau in 1530, which
subsequently the
foundation
for the Augsburg Confession
(q.v.).

451

DICTIONARY

OP

RELIGION

TOSEPHTA."
(Aramaic: "additions.") A book
of Jewish teachings dating from the 3rd. century.
It is a collection of baraitot (q.v.).

See

ABSTINENCE."

TOTAL
Movements.

Temperance

(From an Ojibwa Indian word

totam.) Broadly defined as "an
intimate relation which is supposed to exist between
side and a species
a group of kindred people on the one
of natural or artificial objects on
the other side,
of the human
which objects are called the totems
group" (Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 3-4).
institution of
as
an
Knowledge of totemism
and
barbarian society begins with two
savage
"The
remarkable
on
Worship of Animals
essays
and Plants" contributed by the Scotch anthropologist,
J. F. McLennan, to the FortnightlyReview, in
1869-1870.
The
leading facts relating to the
first collected by J. G. Frazer, in an
subject were
article in the 9th. edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica
with
fuller details,as
a
(reprinted,
in 1887). Since then perhaps no
separate work
sociologyhas aroused
topicin the field of primitive
greater speculationand controversy than totemism.
Practicallyall the available evidence relatingto it
will be found in Frazer's monumental
work, from
TOTEMISM."

Anghcized

as

which
1.

"

"

"

"

ETHICS

Totemisol

in North
and in some
America
quite unknown
other totemic areas.
III. Totemism
Exogamy.
and
McLennan, the
discoverer of totemism, also has the credit for the
which is the name
he gave
discovery of exogamy,
rule among
to the common
and barbarous
savage
peoples requiringa man, when he marries,to procure
his wife outside his own
tribal subdivision or
It was
formerly supposed that a totemic
group.
clan must
be necessarily
since the union
exogamous,
of a man
and a woman
of the same
tute,
clan would constiaccording to primitiveideas,the most heinous
form
of incest. Later research has shown
that,
while totemism
and exogamy
are
generallyfound
their
association
is
invariable.
Even
not
together,
within
a
single area, such as Australia, there
tribes which are
totemic without
are
being exogamous,
and other tribes which are exogamous
without
The
institutions of totemism
two
being totemic.
and oxy gamy
in fact,to be distinct both in
appear,
kind and in origin.
IV. General
Significance.
^1. Magicoreligiousaspects. In some
parts of Australia and
in the neighboringislands of Torres Straits totemism
combines
with
of magic.
the prevailing system
Here the different clans or other totemic groups
conduct
elaborate ceremonies
for the purpose
of
multiplying the animals and plants which form
their
The
ceremonies
are
respective totems.
thus intended to ensure
a
supply of food for the
entire community.
It has been pointed out that
they furnish perhaps the most primitiveexample of
a systematicdivision of labor,though this division,
being based on
magic, is economically barren.
Totemism
can
scarcelybe described as a reUgion,
if the word religion
be used with its ordinary signification.
A totem
is not a deity nor
even
a spirit;
and it is not worshiped. It may
inspirerespect
and affection on
the part of the clansmen, but
these feelings
do not differ in kind from those which
the clansmen
entertain for one
another.
There is
to believe,as McLennan
reason
no
once
held,that
the widespread practice of animal
worship was
inherited from an earlier totemistic stage of society.
The question whether
totem
ever
a
develops into
also be decided in the negative,though
a god may
this point the evidence is scanty and obscure.
on
theories of the
2. Origin. Many
origin of
totemism
have been propounded.
of them
None
for more
than
accounts
satisfactorily
particular
features
of the
institution.
Indeed, it seems
probable that totemism, considered as an intimate
relation between
and
natural or
human
groups
artificial objects,has arisen in different ways
in
different regions. Fundamentally, it is one
sion
expresof early man's sense
of kinshipwith the natural
socialized
world : this expressiongradually becomes
and
as a system of beliefs and customs, partlyoriginal
partlyderivative;the resultant complex istotemism.
in one
3. Geographical diffusion. Totemism
all the
form or another appears
to prevailamong
It is common
in Melanesia,
aboriginesof Australia.
almost unknown
in Polynesia,and rare in Indonesia.
the non- Aryan
much
It assumes
importance among
been
or Dra vidian peoples of India, but it has not
Africa affords
Asia.
found in Central and Northern
some
examples of totemic customs, especially
among
American Indians,
North
tribes. The
the Bantu
with the marked
exception of the Californians ana
been often totemistic.
have
the Eskimos, are
or
The American
presents,however,
type of totemism
wide
divergencies from that found in the Old
in Central
America
World.
of totemism
Traces
It appears
and South America are not numerous.
is a general,though
that totemism
from this survey
means
universal, institution of savage
by no

the definition quoted above is taken.

Essential
Nature.
Totems
are
usually
inanimate
speciesof animals or plants. Sometimes
natural objects (rain,cloud,star, wind, sun, moon)
as totems.
and, very rarely,artificialobjectsserve
As distinguishedfrom a fetish (see Fetishism), a
is never
totem
isolated individual,
but always a
an
class or species. As distinguished
from the guardian
spiritof a particularperson or family,it is attached
intimate
to a social group, such as a clan.
The
relation existingbetween the members
of a clan
in
(men and women) and their totem
appears,
of friendship and
alliance.
general, to be one
As far as possiblethey identify
with the
themselves
totem, whether it be an animal, a plant,or what not.
Totemism
is thus essentially
of association,
a mode
the most
diverse forms
which, however, assumes
totemistic peoples.
among
II. Accessory
Features.
1. Totemic
names
and insignia. As a general rule the members
of a
totemic clan call themselves
of their
by the name
In many
totem.
cases
they possess distinctive
badges, emblems, or crests, which represent the
totem
or
some
insignia are
part of it. These
drawn or tattooed on the body or carved or painted
on
houses, and other personal
canoes,
weapons,
belongings.Such practicesmay be intended simply
to afford visible evidence
of clan affiliations;
they
also be due to the clansman's
desire to assimilate
may
himself more
completely to his totem.
2. Descent from the totem.
^In some
instances,
the AustraUans
and Melanesians,
especially
among
the members
of a totemic clan believe themselves
from the totem.
to be actuallydescended
Myths
of totemic descent are
often difficult to separate
from other myths relatingto non-totemic
animal
ancestors.
Where
the belief prevails,it forms a
real social bond, since the clansmen
will then
regard one another as kinsmen.
3. Totemic taboos. The respect which
a
man
to his totem
often prevents him from killing
owes
and eating it,whenever
it is an edible animal or
where
clansman is
plant. There are also cases
a
forbidden to touch the totem
to look at it.
or
even
Such prohibitionsare true taboos (seeTaboo), the
violation of which is supposed to result in the sickness
death of the culprit. However, totemic
or
taboos are
universal.
by no means
They prevail
and
almost or
very generally in Australia,but are
"

AND

"

"

"

"

"

barbarian society.

Tower

DICTIONARY

of Babel

OP

RELIGION

is undoubtedly
4. Allegedsurvivals. Totemism
since it is found among
the
very old institution,
rudest peoples,and among
them often in a decadent
form.
It is quite another
question, however,
the ancestors
of existingcivilized peoples
whether
ever
passed through a totemistic stage of society.
Efforts have
been made
to discover
survivals of
totemism
in North
Asia,
Africa,Arabia, Western
and Europe, among
the ancient Semites and IndoEuropeans. Thus, the animal worship of Egypt,
than
by more
one
scholar, has been connected
with an antecedent
totemism.
Traces of totemism
of the
have also been sought in the food prohibitions
Mosaic
law and in the animal attendants
of Greek
deities (the eagle of Zeus, the owl of Athena, the
dove of Aphrodite, etc.). Even
the legends and
about plants and animals,so numerous
superstitions
in European folklore,
have been searched for supposed
vestigesof toten^sm. But no facts emerge
from such inquirieswhich
be more
cannot
simply
explained as due to the generalbelief in the sacredof animals and plants,a belief which does not
ness
whole
The
totems.
necessarily constitute them
subject requiresadditional elucidation.
"

5. Social influence. A large role has sometimes

been assignedto totemism
the ground that it led
on
"

the domestication
of totemic plants and to the
As to this
taming and breeding of totemic animals.
nection
theory, it is enough to say that no historical conto

can

be

traced

between

beginningsof agricultureand

totemism

and

the

cattle-raising.The

North
Australia
and
totemic
areas,
domesticated
animals, except the
no
dog, before the coming of the whites; and the
Australians
in their native
state were
totally
has doubtless
ignorant of planting. Totemism
contributed
something to the growth of pictorial
and plasticart, as seen in rude Australian drawings,
the
huge, grotesque
representing totems, and
America.
totem-poles of the Indians of Northwest
On the whole,however, the chief service of totemism
has been to develop a sense
of mutual
obligation
and responsibility
the part of members
of a
on
in this respect, too much
totemic
clan.
Even
importance is often ascribed to the totemic bond
in early society. Marriage, local proximity, blood
and common
common
pations
occurelationship,
religion,
influential than tothave
been far more
emism
in preserving the unity of primitive social
HuTTON
Webster
groups.
two

great

America, had

AND

ETHICS

452

TRACTARIANISM."
A
name
given to the
Oxford
Movement
(q.v.)because of the "Tracts
for the Times"
emanating from the leaders of the
movement.

TRACTS.

"

aiming to

short,easilyread literaryproduction,

adherents to a doctrine or a
of the slightexpense
involved
in printing,
tracts can
be more
widely circulated than
and periodiexcept newspapers
cals.
any other literature
of
They are thus especiallyuseful means
One
of
famous
the most
collections
propaganda.
the "Tracts for the Times"
was
of the Tractarian
or Oxford Movement
(q.v.).See Tract Societies.
On

cause.

secure

account

TRADITION."
handed on from

body of belief or
to another.
generation

one

usage

In
the
Roman
CathoUc
church
tradition
embraces
all those doctrines which
it is claimed
Christ and his apostles delivered orally to their
disciples,which were, however, not recorded in
the New
Testament, but have been preserved,
down
by the church;
developed, and handed
these are embodied
in the writingsof the Fathers,
in the liturgyand ritual,
and its celebration,
as the Mass
definitions of doctrine,
and other
as the Nicene
Tradition
is thus
ordinate
cocreeds,and anathemas.
with the Scriptures as
providing the
and interpretation
content
of faith. While Protestants
discard tradition as an
of
ultimate source
Christian truth,yet so far as they acknowledge that
the dogmas
and
of the church
whether
usages
ancient or modern
are
authoritative,they accept
the principle
of tradition.
C. A. Beckwith
TRADITIONALISM."
is
attitude which
An
beliefs in the
to find its sanction for existing
dition
Tradogmas, usages, and decrees of the church.
thus
dominates
religious thinking, and
bends all other sources
into conformity with itself.
content

TRADUCIANISM."
The
hypothesisthat the
well as the body, is procreated by the
of propagation. Other
parents in the process
theories as to origin of the soul are
creationism
and pre-existence(qq.v.).

soul, as

TRANSCENDENCE."

realityor

being existingin

term
realm

indicatinga
beyond

the

reach of human
experience.
The transcendence
of God indicates his existence
It is contrasted
priorto and superiorto the world.
immanence
with
transcendence
is
(q.v.). When
TOWER
OF
BABEL."
The
is
tower, which
God is pictured as virtuallyout
tradition with the multiplication over-emphasized
associated in the Hebrew
of relation with the world.
His deeds are
sented
repreof languages (Gen. chap. 11). After
is defined in
as
arbitrary,and his nature
the population of the world had been reduced
by
the
characteristics
of
the
world
of
to
opposition
the flood to the family of Noah
only, it became
sizes
religious thinking emphaexperience. Modern
of speech among
imperative to explainthe diversity
See
immanence
rather than transcendence.
its descendants and this tradition grew up to satisfy
of aetiological God; Immanence.
that need.
It belongs to the group
myths, such as the story of Cain and Abel, the
The
TRANSCENDENTALISM."
quaKty of
drunkenness, and the tale of the
story of Noah's
transcending experience; by impUcation, that
originof giants.
sublimated
which
is exalted
in

experience or

or

expression.
TRACT

SOCIETIES."

Organizationsfor

the

In

philosophy,the

Kantian

transcendentalism

publicationand dissemination of Christian literature,is his philosophicdoctrine of a form of knowledge

that transcends all experience,consistingin a priori
especiallyin the form of tracts (q.v.). Some of the
principlesthat precede,transcend,and condition aJl
larger societies such as the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, the Rehgious Tract Society, human
knowledge.
denotes
Societies for India and
More
the Christian
Literature
a
generally,transcendentalism
Tract Society are
China, and the American
lishingtype of philosophy which lays excessive emphasis
pubrefines
intuitive or subjective terms, which
of some
concerns
magnitude, and include
upon
books and magazines with tracts in their literature. a prioriprinciplesto the neglect of the empirical
It is thus opposed to empiriof smaller associamultitude
tions
tests of knowledge.
Besides these are
cism
a
and pragmatism.
which
confine their operationschieflyto the
of TranscendentaUsm
tract form
of Christian literature for evangelistic,
The
more
popular use
apologeticor pastoralpurposes.
designatesany exalted,abstract,or vague phi-

453

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

losophyof life,especiallya moral philosophy with

subjective and intuitive emphasis, a poetic
is
England TranscendentaUsm
philosophy. New
a name
given to the mystical philosophy of Ralph
of those affiliated
and the principles
Waldo
Emerson
A. Youtz
Herbert
with him in spirit.
the

'One of the wings in a cruciformTRANSEPT.

shaped church or cathedral projecting at right
the nave
between
angles from the main structure
"

and

choir.
TRANSFIGURATION."

change in form
change recorded

or

in
and
of Jesus
in Mark
9:2-10
tian
parallelpassages; it is a frequent subject in ChrisThe church festival of the transfigiiration
art.
is celebrated on Aug, 6.
appearance,

the

appearance

that
specifically

AND

ETHICS

Trees, Sacred

TRANSUBSTANTIATION."
The
Roman
doctrine
that there is present in the
Eucharist
after consecration
of the elements
the
substantial
body and blood of Christ,with his
whole
soul and
divinity. The entire substance
of the bread and wine have been converted
into
his body and blood; althoughthe speciesremains

Catholic

unchanged.
TRAPPISTS."

An

order of reformed

Cistercian

monks, distinguishedby their austerityand extreme

ascetic practises,and so named
from
the Abbey
of La
instituted
Trappe where the reform was
in 1664 by the Abbot
de Ranee.
The
order has
had a strong appeal to those who
a
regime
crave
There
are
expressing utter consecration.
teries
monasin most

lands

where

exists.
Christianity

In criminal procedure,any
loyal
disTREASON.
The
act
TRANSMIGRATION."
attacking, compromising, or betraying
passing of the
the safety of a government
tinguished
its head.
It is a
soul by rebirth into a new
body. It is to be disor
crime in all nations,punishable in various ways, the
which does not
from pre-existence(q.v.)
morphosis severityincreasingwith the despotism of the state
imply a previousincarnation; and from metawith the danger to which
the government is
tary
or
(q.v.)which is a temporary and volunthree words,
The
opposed in war or in insurrection.
change of bodily form.
metempsychosis, reincarnation and transmigration
OF
THE
TREASURY
See IndulCHURCH."
There is a tendency,
are
practicallysj^nonymous.
rebirth
GENCES.
however, to limit reincarnation to mean
in the
form and to use
the other terms
in human
TREASURY
The supererogatory
OF MERITS."
of rebirth in any form of body,
more
general sense
merits of Jesus Christ and of the saints,
regardedby
plant,insect,animal or human.
the R.C. church
as
With the rise of the idea of a separablesoul it
forming a treasury of merit
entrusted
and available under
its
to the church
for primitive peoples to recognize a
was
easy
administration
for the redemption of the faithful.
departed soul in any form of life that attracted
of
called up memories
attention and in some
way
These
have been conIn culture religionsthe idea
the former
nected
TREES, SACRED."
person.
with
the remotest
has not taken sohd root except in India and those
religiouscults from
times.
The
of pre-Israehtish
early Canaanites
parts of the Far East which have adopted the Hindu
times conducted
their worship on
the high hills
not part of the early Vedic rehgion
faiths. It was
with the idea of karma
but grew
protected and concealed by clumps of venerated
up in connection
of good and
justification
(q.v.)into a pliilosophic
trees,the oak, terebinth,tamarisk, palm tree and
Pain and happiness,
The
evil and a theory of morals.
pomegranate.
patriarchsare said to have
cherished
the same
for these special
disease and health, deformityand strength, vice
reverence
Israelites
and purity,the status of the individual in society trees (Gen. 12:18; 14:13). The nomadic
due to the karma of a previous
aU explained
are
as
crowding their way into the populous land of
Canaan
birth. The round of transmigration
the wheel
on
quietly and willinglyadopted the sacred
until the soul acquires a
shrines and trees of their immediate
of Hfe must
be endured
predecessors
true knowledge of its essential freedom
(Gen. 35:8; Josh. 24:26). Sacred spots in Syria
(Vedanta,
from
and Palestine today are often indicated by a tree,
release,by discipUne,
Sankhya) or secures
the bonds of karma
tion.
(Buddhism,Jainism, Ajivikas, whose sanctityis recognizedby the native populaand the great sects). Modem
representativesof
Frazer
Hindu
{Folklorein the O.T., Vol. III.,68ff.)
systems interprettransmigration as a progressive
relates that the AJdkuyu of British East Africa
evolution
of sentient beings toward
a
universal order of perfect
existence,knowledge and
today have the tops of all their hills dotted with
Hindu
bKss.
variants of the theory should be
Two
clumps of trees held to be sacred, and not to be
of famine
noted.
In Buddhism
there is no soul entity to be
cut
down.
In the case
elaborate
an
reborn but a self or aggregate of skandhas
(q.v.) sacrificeis offered in the midst of the thicket,and
is merely the bearer of the karma
from the top of the
which
and so
the much-needed
water
pours
hill. Also the Mundas
in Bengal have their high
In the Sankhya the
to another existence.
passes
to a material body and so
soul is never
attached
placesand their sacred groves in the midst of which
dwell the sylvan deities,their local protectors.
be said to transmigratebut the illumination
cannot
of the soul produces a psychical nature
which
Again on the borders of Afghanistan and India are
found sacred shrines,either on the moimtain
acquires karma and thus passes from hfe to hfe
top
until the soul becomes
conscious of its detachment
which stand stunted trees
or
on
a steep chff,near
when the karma-hody disintegrates
of tamarisk or ber, on the branches of which, as in
at death and the
soul is eternallyfree.
Palestine and Syria today, are hung or tied numerous
Outside of India the doctrine was
held in the
bits of rag and pieces of cloth,because every
7th. century by the Orphics and from them
was
petitioneris required to do this as an outward
of
the Cheremiss
spread by the later Greek thinkers,Pythagoras, symbol of his vow.
Among
as
Empedocles, Plato,Plotinus and the Neo-Platonists.
places
Russia, we are told,isolated groves serve
Its appearance
in Moslem
In earUer
days these
(Brethren of Purity, of sacrifice and prayer.
Sufis)and Jewish (Kabbala) mysticism is probably same
people sacrificed in the depths of the forests.
due to the influence of Neo-Platonism.
Detached
these
But as the forests fell before the woodman
from the doctrine of karma the transmigraas it was
tion
clumps were
preserved here and there to shelter the
sacred rites.
theory of these groups has the character of a
In the fight of similar customs
purgation rather than of a fetteringof the soul.
among
many
and the sacred
A. Eustace
Haydon
peoples today,even the high places,
"

Trench, Richard

Chenevix

OF

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

454

is
(Chinese Taoism). The
family arrangement
in Osiris,Isis,Horus
(Egypt). A functional
triad is sometimes
found, Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva
and
(India), as
creator, preserver
destroyer;
and
Tangaloa, Mani, Tiki as creator, preserver
revealer (Polynesia). Babylon has also in incantation
where the
formulae, Ea, Marduk, Nusku
last or fire god is an intermediary. But the same
reUgion "presents Sin, Shamash, Ishtar; Shamash,
triads
Nergal, Ramman, Nana
as
Sin, Ramman;
with
obvious
triads in
no
explanation. Such
Egypt are
Ptah, Sekhet, Imhotep (Memphis),
CHENEVIX
be
RICHARD
(Thebes). These
(1807-1886). Amon, Mut, Khensu
TRENCH,
may
The
Greek
merely the result of convergence.
Archbishop of the English church in Dublin;
of broad sympathies and learning. Besides
a man
Zeus, Hera, Athena and the Roman
Jupiter,
Juno,
Minerva
volumes
of religious
are
some
paralleltriads.
poetry, he was the author
of On the Parables,On the Miracles and of Lectures
In the Aryan groups the number
three is found
Mediaeval
Church
on
everywhere in myth and cult. The Celts have
History.
of goddesses in threes and a three-headed
groups
An assemblage
COUNCIL
OF."
In Greek religion
THE
TRENT,
god, Cernunnos.
appear 3 fates,
of Roman
Catholic ecclesiastics convened
to deal
3 graces, 3 furies,
3 hours, 3 muses.
The Teutons
have their 3 norns.
with schism
and church
reform.
Injndia the great gods number
of years
of equal size.
1. Origin and procedure. For a score
33 divided into three groups
German
reformers
and
Buddhism
the Lutheran
Protestant
developed its own
unique trinitarian
theologyin the theory of the three bodies of Buddha,
princes had been insistingthat the grievances of
the church should be considered by a Council convened
Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, Dharmakaya (q.v.).
soil. After repeated assurances,
German
In another form the Dharma, Buddha, and Sangha
on
tentative arrangements
form
of one
a
trinityof manifestations
promises,and unsatisfactory
reality,
in Trent March
this Council was
convoked
the eternal truth in three expressions.
15,1545.
in
three
Son
Its proceedingsextended over
The
of
and
Christian
eighteenyears
Trinity
Father,
Holy
Its
sessions, 1545-1547, 1551-1552, 1562-1563.
Spiritis another unique historical development.
A.
done
Eustace
work was
Haydon
through two commissions reporting See Trinity.
alternatelyto the full assembly.
A tribe is an
declared
logical
ethno2. Doctrinal decrees. The Vulgatewas
TRIBE, TRIBAL-GOD."
text of the Scriptures;the
to be the authoritative
division,consistingof a group of families
of the
small communities, usually bound
voice of tradition and unanimous
consensus
or
together by
tion
accorded authority in the determinaFathers were
consanguinity and affinity,and observing their
defined as a disposing economic, political
and religiouslife in common.
of truth; justification
was
chief and
leader or
through grace of the sinner to work out his
They have one
frequently
set forth in
trace their origin to a common
were
own
salvation; the sacraments
progenitor. The
fashion
to the
twelve tribes of Israel are an example, Israel itself
even
point
equally conservative
in two
of refusingto the laitythe communion
being a larger tribe. A belief peculiar to tribal
kinds.
historyis in a patron deity who protects the tribe
this highly and with whom
the welfare of the tribe is connected.
3. Significance.For the Protestants,
in the preSuch
the conception of Yahweh
conservative
doctrinal
statement
was
destroyed all
possiblehopes of conciliation and church reunion.
propheticperiod of the historyof Israel.
For the Catholics this Council supplied a doctrinal
In
TRICHOTOMY."
the
statement
theological usage
restingfirmly upon an intellectual basis
ism;
is composed of three elements,
and clearlydefined in its oppositionto Protestanttheory that man
for a
and made
it insisted upon
viz.,body, soul,and spirit.
provision
of its clergy; not
radical reform in the education
PROFESSION
OF
TRIDENTIVE
FAITH."
the invigoratedmorale which
the least service was
The most important creedal statement
of the R.C.
it imparted to those who, strugglingagainst the
able
elaborated
of cardinals
encroachments
of Protestantism, now
church
were
by a commission
under the direction of Pius IV. in 1564, and consisting
through the co-operation and leadership of the
of twelve articles. It gives clear definitions
Jesuits, to take the offensive. See Counter
doctrines as these were
determined
Peter
of CathoUc
Reformation.
G. Mode
by
in Palestine in Israel's
sheltered them
ancient
been the remnant
of an
have
forest in which divinitieswere
worshiped; and, as
Frazer
suggests, these clusters of sacred trees,
againstwhich the prophets railed,may have been
the refuge of the deities who formerly could roam
through their forests at their will. The so-called
"Asherah"
have been simply the trunk of a
may
former
sacred
tree
of the grove
that has
one
Such
is seen
remnant
a
today
passed away.
the natives of Borneo.
Ira M. Price
among
trees which

day,

may

seen

"

"

"

"

"

the
the
sacred numbers
commonest
especiallyamong
Aryan peoplesand naturallyappears in the triads
of Gods.
No
satisfactoryexplanation of the
grouping of gods in threes has been given and it is
probablethat there is no singleexplanation. The
natural rhj^hm of counting may
be sufficient to
for some
account
triads; others are explained by
their relation to the divisions of nature
earth,
air,heaven; or heaven, earth and underground; or
earth
and
stillothers
the
waters;
by
family
heaven,
arrangement of father,mother, child; others by the
of
between
two
necessity having an intermediary
separated divine figures;others,like the Christian
Trinity,have an historical explanation.
The divine rulers of the departments of nature
are
common
Anu, Enlil,Ea (Babylonia),
Surya,
TRIADS.

"

^The number

three

is

of

one

"

"

Vayu, Agni (Vedic),Zeus,Poseidon,Hades( Greek),

the Three

Rulers of the heaven,earth and

waters

See Creeds; Articles

the Council of Trent.
Catholic
Church.
Faith; Roman

op

TRIDUUM."
In the R.C. calendar a three days'
devotion
preceding the celebration of a saint's
day or preparatory to seeking the intercession of a
saint.

TRIMURTL"
one
are

supreme

named

commonest

himself

as

The

doctrine
in

creator

in Vishnu, as
in three forms.
TRINE

triad of manifestation

of the

The three gods

realityin Hinduism.
in the sects but the oldest and
differently
is that the

Brahma,

as

one

God

in Shiva
destroyer

IMMERSION."

manifests

providenceand

A mode

"

one

server
pre-

reaUty

of administering

baptism by immersing the candidate in the water

of the Father,
in the names
three times successively
of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. This method

455

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

and
in the Greek, Russian, Armenian
is in vogue
several
well as among
as
other oriental churches
western
sects, and its use can be traced to a very
earlydate, several of the Fathers believingit to be
the N.T. practise. See Baptism.

AND

ETHICS

it has been

generallyaccepted as

Truth

an

expression

of the adorable mystery of the Godhead, and has

served to stimulate mysticalreflections. Those who
have protestedagainst the doctrine have generally
represented an insistence on intellectual exactness
at the expense
of religiousmysticism. See Anti-

TRINITARIANS."
R.C.
A
TRINITARIANISM.
rehgious order
From
historical point of view, the doctrine
founded
and F6Ux de Valois in
a
by Jean de Matha
is seen
of Christians in
to be the natural
and
effective way
of
1198, and devoted to the ransom
modem
The
interpretingthe redemptive activityof Christ when
captivity to the Mohammedans.
devoted
salvation is conceived
to
so-called Bare-footed Trinitarians are
formation
a
as
metaphysical transthe liberation of negro slaves by ransom,
of substance.
It is strongly cherished
especially
in N. E, Africa.
wherever
sacramentalism
exists. When, however,
the metaphysical presuppositions of Hellenistic
TRINITY."
substance
The
doctrine that one
thinkingare abandoned, the doctrine is regarded as
of the Godhead
exists and acts in three "persons"
a symbol of Christian faith rather than as a literally
exact description. Liberal Protestantism
viz.,Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
generally
1. Developmentof the doctrine. Christian experitakes this position. See Christology; Logos.
ence,
from the first,
related to the
Gerald
was
Birney
Smith
religiously
of Jewish
TRINITY
God
SUNDAY."
The
first Sunday after
faith, to Jesus Christ as divine
Whit Sunday, celebrated by the R.C. and Anglican
manifest in
redeemer, and to the divine power
the gifts of the Spirit. No
effort was
made
to
churches as a festival in honor of the Trinity.
organize these elements into a rational theological
doctrine
until the influence of Hellenistic philosophy TRIPITAKA."
The Sanskrit form of the name
became
Under
this influence, for the Buddhist
dominant.
Scriptures.See Canon
dhist).
(BudGod
defined as the infinite,
immutable
physical
metawas
Christ
and
or
being,
"substance,"
was
conceived
the metaphysical Logos (q.v.). To
as
TRIRATNA."
The
Buddhist Triad
"three
or
define the relation between
and
God
the LogosJewels"consistingof Buddha, the dharma (Word or
Christ
to preserve
monotheism
the
so
as
was
Truth) and Sangha (the Order of Monks). In
trine philosophicBuddhism
problem which led to the formulation of the docthis is interpretedto mean
of the
trinity. Two
opposing solutions
that eternal Reality,expressed in Truth, finds complete
divided
the field. (1) The
ordination,
conception of subembodiment
in the person
of Buddha
and is
which
God
made
and the
supreme
sociallyactive in the Order.
Logos a created or derived being. See Arianism.
This
conception was
rehgiously unacceptable.
TRISAGION."
The
liturgical
designationof
Salvation was
interpretedas a deifyingof man's
Isa. 6:3, so-called from
the first words, "Holy,
substance through regeneration. This deification
holy holy, is the Lord of hosts," etc. The word
would
be imperfect unless the redeemer
himself
liter Uy means
"thrice holy."
possessed complete deity. Hence
(2) the doctrine
of the absolute deity incarnate in Jesus Christ was
TRITHEISM."
That interpretation
of the doctrine
established by the Nicene Coimcil.
This
officially
of the Trinity which so emphasizes the distinct
necessitated the making of a distinction between
the
existence of each of the three "persons" as to
Father and the Logos within the Godhead, whereas
suggest three independent gods.
the idea of subordination
it externally. The
made
doctrine of the Trinity includes the Holy Spirit
TRITON.
In Greek
mythology,the son of
within the Godhead, and declares Father, Son, and
Spiritto be consubstantial (ofidentical substance), Neptune. In the later classical mythology, one of
the inferior divinities who presidedover
the sea.
but to differ in the
of that
"

"

functioning

essence.

The
Latin
word
indicating a specific
persona,
TROLL.
One
of the clumsy, giant beings of
character which an active agent expresses, was
used
Teutonic
but
mythology usually faithful to man
to express the distinctions.
often dangerous.
2. Interpretationsof the doctrine. The
terms
discussions are
employed in the Nicene
highly
TRUCE
OF
GOD."
An arrangement for mitigating
speciahzed metaphysical concepts, and
these
the evils of private warfare in feudal times,
terms
were
given different meanings by different
forbidden by the church
exponents.
torial,under which fightingwas
Popular thinking was
inevitablypiccertain days of the week and on the important
and tended
on
the "persons of
to conceive
festival and
fast days in the calendar.
the trinity
after the analogy of human
It was
persons.
This leads to tritheism either explicitor implied.
generally respected from the 9th. to the 12th.
centuries.
If,on the other hand, the unity of God is emphasized,
the second and third persons
of the trinity
are
FEAST
pictured as less than God, and the religious
OF."
In the
Hebrew
TRUMPETS,
intermeaning of the doctrine is lost. Theological
in commemoration
of
a festival observed
calendar,
have
the New
sought to avoid these extremes,
Year, as prescribedin the Levitical legislation,
ut
forced to employ technically
are
abstruse
called from the blowing of the trumpets at
so
distinctions difficultfor any but trained theologians stated intervals,
a signalof the approaching festival.
to grasp.
Hence
the doctrine has been generally
maintained
TRUTH.
affirmation
An
by ecclesiastical authority rather than
or
a
proposition
by popular understanding. The so-called Athain accordance
with the facts,and therefore
strictly
nasian creed elaboratelywarns
both againstdiminishing
capable of serving as a trustworthy guide for
the full deity of any of the three persons,
thought or for action.
and against tritheism,and characteristically
forces
reinThe supreme
value of Truth is evident. Erroneous
this dictum
by declaringthe doctrine of the
or
misleading conceptions of the conditions
creed indispensableto salvation.
It is thus set as
which must
be faced defeats the successful conduct
a
contains
of life. Deliberate falsifying
is condemned
metaphysical mystery which somehow
by our
the sole saving truth.
In
Christian thinking moral judgment as an injury against the person
"

"

Eretations

"

Tuatha

De

deceived.

Danann

See

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Lie, Lying.
Imperfect or perverted
universally recognizedas evils
Truthseeking is a
by education.

AND

ETHICS

456

tory
thought the determiningfactor in the hisChristianityduring the years immediately
to be
followingthe death of Jesus to have been a sharp
and persistentconflict between
Paul and his conprimaryduty.
servative
Jewish
Christian
Philosophy might be defined as the critical
contemporaries under
To
method
of discovering truth.
a
the leadershipof Peter.
large extent
The age of the apostleswas
of philosophy in the western
the subject matter
but the
supposed to have been rent by this conflict,
to analyze
in the attempt
world
has consisted
next
of conciliation
generation began a process
the
of knowledge so as to discover
which graduallysynthesizedthe Petrine and Pauhne
the process
more
criteria of true conceptions. It is much
parties into the ancient catholic church.
Judged
would
these criteria than
difficult to ascertain
by this interpretationof the history,only those
that betray the existence of this early
documents
at firstsight. A very littlereflection reveals
appear
of a compUthe fact that our ideas are the outcome
Second
conflict,namely Galatians, First and
in which
cated
from the
physical,physiological,Corinthians,and Romans, can have come
process
Testament
temperamental,and social conditions are so many
pen of Paul; while the remaining New
ideas
of human
and so varied that the relativity
books,which show a conciliatorytone, must have
incurable.
The only way in which to correct
been
Baur
seems
products of the post-apostolicage.
idea is by the use of a second idea as a basis of
and
ethical ideaUsm
one
regarded the universalism
of Paul as the essence
of Christianity.
This had
comparison. This again must be checked up by a
been the real content
of the gospel as preached by
third,and so on indefinitely.
from
been implicitin the religion
Jesus,and it had even
Attempts have been made to rescue men
it was
this relativityby both philosophyand theology. of the Petrine party, by whom
temporarily
of the Platonic type assumes
obscured through a reversion to Jewish particularreaUsm
ism
Philosophical
existence of an ideal realm
and legalism. To deliver the gospel of Jesus
the objectiveand a priori
ful
from this bondage to Judaism
Particular ideas are proved to be truthPaul's peculiar
of truth.
was
in this absolute truth.
task.
by their participating
pendium
While Baur gave a strong stimulus toward the
Theology has provided a divinely inspiredcomhistorical study of early Christianity,
of truth in Scripture to which aU human
a
more
To
fuse
reSee Infallibility.
conform.
ideas must
thorough investigation of the various
genetic
this
divinely factors that contributed toward its rise has shown
to subject one's thinking to
of
the Tubingen theory to be indaequate. Its soluauthorized
has been regardedas a mark
tion
norm
far too simple to account
for all the varied
sinful perversity. Popularly the acquirement of
was
facts in the case, and
the school today has no
true ideas is still pictured as the copying in our
realities already existingin
S. J. Case
minds
of truths or
champion of note.
_

ideas
removed

are

perfection.
Modern
thought,however,

is

more

and

more

Baur
of

TUNIC

OR

TUNICLE."

celebrating Mass
by
accepting the inescapablefact of the relativityof
dalmatic (q.v.).
human
knowledge, and is working out a different
method
of seeking the truth.
Carefully regulated
TUNKERS.
Same
continually verified,
observation, repeated and
together with definite experimentationin order
(q.v.).
to test hypotheses, form the technique of modern
"

A vestment

sub-deacon;

as

Dunkers

or

worn

when

also

called

Dunkards

the
NEAR
affirmed on
TURKEY
AND
THE
truths which
science.
The
are
EAST, MISSIONS
TO.^" We
here consider missions in Turkey as it
basis of this method
are
carefullyrestricted to the
fied
before the world war;
also in Persia,Arabia
was
precisefield within which the controlled and veriof nationaUties,
and
have been made.
Beyond this
Egypt. The great number
investigations
of which there existed traditional antipar
be called hypotheses rather
limited field ideas must
many
among
for the
substitutes
thies accompanied by diversities of language and
truths.
than
Pragmatism
in
traditional conception of truth the conception of a
religion,rendered general missionary endeavor
is thus
those regionsunusually slow and difficult.
of progressiveverification. Truth
process
Missions in the Near East were
begun by the
always in the making rather than something already
Board
of Commissioners
for Foreign
fixed and
religiousthinking American
complete. Modern
of Boston
in 1819, when
of historical
Missions
Rev.
is more
and more
Phny
using the method
of
Fisk and Levi Parsons sailed for Smyrna but with
analysisas the means
study and psychological
covered Syria and
disPalestine as their objective. At that
truths
thus
The
arriving at conclusions.
time the condition and needs of the Jews and the
are
always subject to revision. But
chief attention.
Mohammedans
commanded
The
although this empirical attitude does not furnish
Roman
Mission
to Syria was
opened by them.
so
imposing a doctrine of the nature of truth, it
missionaries from
France
had
Catholic
the less emphasizes the supreme
preceded
none
importance
there and in Constantinople,
them
and have remained
of seeking criticallydefensible convictions,and
their operations extend
into the interior.
deliberate falsifying
or avoidable
severelycondemns
Smith
In 1831
Gerald
Birney
Constantinople was
occupied by Rev.
ignorance.
had
who
William GoddeU
spent some
years in
the Rev.
of a family Syria and
In 1833
James
TUATHA
DE DANANN."
The name
at Malta.
Boston
vmder
commission
to
of gods of the conquerors of Ireland in pre-Christian Perkins sailed from
in Western
the Nestorians
of crops, fertiUty begin work
times.
They are nature powers
among
He went
Persia.
to Tabriz and in 1835 he with his
and the sky. As on the continent there are blended
In 1825 the Church
to Urumia.
associates moved
with these fimctions those of war, learningand the
With
the
Missionary Societyof England sent five missionaries
arts.
coming of Christianity these
divine beingsbecome
fairy-folk
hving underground. to Egypt and their interest in that country and in
In 1854 the Associate
Arabia
has been continuous.
Advocates
of a parReformed
Church of the West, later merged
SCHOOL."
TUBINGEN
ticular
of early Christianity as
into the United PresbyterianChurch, began work
interpretation
of
expounded first by F. C. Baur who was a professor in Egypt and later the United Free Church
Dutch
and
the Reformed
Church
of
sity
Scotland
in the Protestant theologicalfacultyof the univerIn 1870 the Presbyterian
America began missions in Arabia.
during the years
at Tubingen, Germany,
Church North, which had been operating
lS2a-60t

457

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

Ubiquity

During the century the American missionary

Board, formed
and educational
and the Persian
carried on
in Turkey has
work
cost for the purchase and erection of plants,for
to that new
over
equipment and for conduct, over
$40,000,000,
board.
In recent years other and less well known
in some
and in normal
times the work is carried on in all
in a small way
societies have participated
in residence
in the Near
500 Americans
departments by some
East, but
form of missionary work
times that number
with ten
of trained native
forces are those above named.
the main operating
estabUshments
institutions
and
leaders. These
first directed to the
and effort were
Attention
have
translation of the Scripturesin whole or in part
wrought great changes throughout all the
Near East.
They are today the steadying forces
into the various spoken languages of the country.
in the country.
written with Arabic,
These included the Turkish
menian,
the Arabic,the ArIt must be stated that after the outbreak of the
and Greek characters,
Armenian
in 1914 all these educational
ary
missionand
war
the Greek,the Koordish and the Persian,and
time an educational and.a
At the same
operations severely suffered through military
others.
some
of the
treatment
operations and by the inhuman
more
generalliterature was created. As there was
Christian minorities by the rulingTurks.
Some
in all that country, schools
education
modern
no
contributed by Americans
through
opened in all of the largecenters of population $60,000,000were
were
East
Relief which
the Near
used for
The
sum
was
well as in widely scattered outlyingareas.
as
in the Near East by the American
coimtries were
fairlywell occupied within the first relief purposes
volunteer
missionaries,educators, doctors and
fiftyyears following1820. The Armenians were
James
L. Barton
the first to accept modem
learning;the Syrians workers.
next followed by the Greeks, and they have
came
TUTELARY
GOD.
A
as
deity conceived
held this lead throughout the century.
into
having the guardianship of a person, community
There was
no
purpose to introduce schism
or
thing; frequentlyan animal so regarded.
the Eastern Gregorian, Nestorian,Syrian, Coptic
and
Greek
churches, but the first missionaries
TWENTY-FIVE
ARTICLES."
The
confession
age
entered upon their work^instructed not to encourof faith drawn up by John Wesley and adopted by
separationbut to aim at producing the Bible
Church
the American
Methodist
in 1784, the basis
in the vernaculars of the people,the rearingup of
being the Thirty-NineArticles (q.v.)of the Anglican
and morally upright clergy for the
educated
an
from
which
certain articles were
Church
instruction
historic churches and a place for religious
See Methodism;
Creeds.
ration omitted.
Sepain the elaborate rituals of the churches.
that later took
place in the Armenian
TYCHE."
See Fate.
not brought about by the missionaries
Church was
but by ecclesiastics who
disapprovedof modern
TYCHISM.
^A theory which treats chance as a
education and the Bible in the vernacular.
real controllingpower
in the evolutionary process,
forbidden by the laws of the
The Turks
were
thus denying the universalityof immutable
law.
tion
country to show interest in Christianity. ViolaThe word is derived from the Greek, Tyche,goddess
followed
of this regulation was
by severe
of chance.
often by death.
Comparativelyfew
persecution,
from

the first with

the American

of its own
missionaryorganization
turned
and Syrian missions were
a

"

"

tianity,
have
the Mohammedans
accepted Chrisnow
but many
are
studying in Christian
introduced by the
medicine was
Modern
schools.
missionaries and already there are established in
of population fully
of the large centers
most
equipped hospitalsand at Beirut there are two
excellent medical schools.
Many industries have
and
the
been
introduced, including agriculture,
vations
These innotools and seeds.
importation of new
effect upon the industrial
have had a marked
and outlook of the country.
resources
missions in
As a result of a century of modern
nous,
the Near East the printingpress has become indigehas been accepted by the
medicine
modern
industries and modern
new
of the people,
greatmass
old ones
of carrying on
methods
are
multiplying,
with
churches
CathoUc
and Protestant
Roman
found
over
are
strong supporting communities
mostly
the country, and educational institutions,
an
and French, have won
a national and
American
for their
for themselves and
international name
These
include Robert
College, the
founders.
Catholic
American
College for Girls,and Roman
University
Colleges at Constantinople, Beirut
national
CathoUc Universityat Beirut,Interand a Roman
tute
College and the Smyrna CollegiateInstiCollege at
for Girls at Smyrna, AnatoUa
Marsovan, Euphrates College at Harpoot, Central
Turkey College at Aintab, Cairo University. The
under United
American
CoUeges are incorporated
States laws and have separateboards of trustees.
among

TYNDALE,
divine and

WILLIAM

(1484-1536)."English
gious
a
champion of reliin
religiousreformation

martyr, famous

as

of
hberty and
England, and as a translator of considerable
of the Bible into the English language.

tions
por-

TYPES.
A type is a person or thing which prefigures
another person or thing stillfuture.
According to the theory of the Church, the Old
and the New
form a singlerevelation
Testament
lessons. The chief interest of
and teach the same
to discover predictions
early expositorstherefore was
of Christ and his Church in the Old Testament,
Many things,however, in the earlier revelation
the Christian
to have
direct bearing on
seem
no
life. These
were
interpretedallegoricallyprecedent
found in the Greek expositorsof Homer
was
Testament
New
else viewed
as
or
types. The
itself sees
a
type of Christ in the brazen serpent
made by Moses.
Many expositorshave discovered
almost every
or
a type m
thing mentioned
person
sober exegesis
Bible.
But a more
in the Hebrew
H. P. Smith
now
prevails. See Allegory.
"

"

"

"

GEORGE
(1861-1909)." A R.C.
TYRRELL,
of
espoused the cause
priest in England who
excommunicated
when
Modernism
and was
(q.v.),
to ecclesiastical discipline.
he refused to submit
His ideals are set forth in A Much- Abused
Letter,
at the Cross-roads.
Mediaevalism,and Christianity

u
^A term
employed in Lutheran
UBIQUITY.
in the Lord's
discussions of the Real Presence
Supper. Luther held that the qualitiesof the
to
divine nature
communicated
in Christ were
"

the human
Hence
human
nature
nature.
and the body
be omnipresent (ubiquitous),
See
and blood of Christ is reallyin the eucharist.
IdIOMATUM.
COMMUNIGATIO

his
may

niama

^Learned men

ULAMA.
tradition and

"

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

in Islam,scholars in the

law.

canon

AND

ETHICS

(q.dence of the victory of the Jesuits over

458

Jansenism

(q.v.).
(ca.311-383)." Christian Missionary
sionary,
peoples; a great teacher and misThe churches of the
UNION,
CHURCH!."
the Visigoths and Goths
East
and
West
working among
(Greek vs. Latin Christianity),
He was
for forty years.
ordained by the Semiearlydeveloping
divergenciesin respect of doctrine,
Arians But subsequently went
to the Arian
over
pohty, hturgy,and monastic pohcy, influenced by
the succession of events
party. His translation of the Bible into Gothic
that gradually detached
of Teutonic Hterature.
laid the foxmdation
the western part of the Roman
Empire from the
eastern,at length in the 8th. century,on the occasion
ULTRAMONTANISM."
The name
given to the
of a violent controversyover
the use of images
R.C. attitude in Europe which exalts papal authority,
in worship, severed
fraternal relations. Due
to
so-called because the advocates of this policy the
growing imperialistic
aspirationsof the papacy,
look over
the
mountains
(ultra)
(monies), i.e., overtures were frequently
made
to heal this breach.
beyond the Alps to Rome for guidance in allmatters.
The
to provincial councils repeatedly
summons
The main tenets of the Ultramontane
position makes regretful
mention
of this schism
in Christendom.
of
(1)The acknowledgement of the supremacy
are:
church
Representatives of the Greek
the Roman
pontiffin matters of religion,
so that the
attended the fourth Lateran Council and negotiations
decree of the Vatican council 1870, in declaringhim
toward imion found a placein the proceedings
he speaks Ex
umph
infallible when
Cathedra,was a triof the Council
of Basel.
Deep temperamental
for Ultramontanism.
(2) The claim that the
differences and the patronizing
attitude of Rome
of religion,
in matters
and cannot
church is supreme
toward
her eastern rival interposedimpenetrable
hand over
the regulationof religionto the state; barriers.
the unity of the Roman
Meanwhile
consequently individuals are not obliged to obey
church was
seriously
impaired from another quarter,
church's
the
contravenes
which
teaching.
legislation
by^ various sects Cathari, Waldenses, etc.
This positionis clearlyset forth in the encyclical which
organized themselves in protest againstthe
The result of it is seen
in the
letters of Leo XIII.
sacerdotalism
of the papal system, and the deUnconstitution
of the Austrian
condemnation
by
these
Rome's
quencies of its clergy. Toward
Pius IX., 1868, and the Kulturkampf in Germany,
not of conciUation,
but of
pohcy remained
one,
when
the Pope declared the ecclesiastical laws of
repressionand extermination.
astical
Resorting to ecclesimaintenance
of
(3) The
void, 1875.
Germany
friar preaching,
crusading warfare,
censures,
Cathohc
loyalty in all institutions of culture.
and
the
she
succeeded
in largely
Inquisition,
criticism
Secularism, modernism, untrammelled
stamping out these recalcitrant heretics. The
and
to
be
all
to
as
dangerous
are
regarded
religion,
Hussites alone gained recognition
in the Compacta
against (q.v.)formulated at Basel. The Renaissance with
unceasing warfare is to be maintained
an
all
to
to
dethem.
(4) Opposition
attempts
its historicalspiritand its assertion of the worth
Romanize the church or to allyit with the interests
of human
personaUty,the growth of national
of UltraThe
montanism
of other nations.
great advocates
and the sensitiveness of the newly
consciousness,
have been the Jesuits,the influence of
created commercial
classes,raised new
problems
dominant
and more
with
has become more
whom
for the universal pretensions of Rome.
Hence
the papacy
during the 19th. and 20th. centuries.
the Reformation,
an
important result of which was
The Syllabus of 1864, the decrees of the Vatican
the organization
of state churches
which
carried
Council of 1870, and the Encychcal of Pope Pius X.
from the papacy
the allegiance
of largeareas
away
ultramontanist
modernism
are
typical
against
of its constituency. Clearer views of the spiritual
ULFILAS

to the

Gothic

"

"

expressions.
UMA.

"

character

^Wife

of Shiva

under

her

aspect of

beauty and light.

A bull promulgated by
SANCTAM."
UNAM
Boniface
VIII. in 1302 declaring that submission
to the authorityof the pope is essential to salvation.
This principlewas
applied to worldly rulers,who
to exercise their temporal power
so
as never
were
to clash with the purposes of the church.

UNBELIEF.
Scepticism,agnosticism, or the
unbelief
Strictly,
withholdingof intellectual assent.
simply suggests the absence of belief,a negative
it inhibits any positive
attitude of mind.
Practically,
action,hence is readilyclassed with disbehef.
unbelief is usually classed as irreFor this reason
Ugious. See Doubt; Scepticism.
"

A ceremonial anointing with oil

UNCTION.
Unction
(q.v.). The
ointments, as in Extreme
rite is beheved to impart a divine potency; hence a
is said to be
discourse with evident religious
power
"

or

deUvered with unction.

See Anointing.

In mediaeval
folk-lore,a female
soul only by
could obtain
a
water-sprite,who
wedding and bearing a child for a man.
UNDINE.

"

ACTS

UNIFORMITY,

OF."

See

Acts

of

Uniformity.
A
UNIGENITUS.
Clement XI. in 1713
"

bull emanating from Pope

condemning 101 doctrines

of

racy,
rehgion making for Christian demoction
quarters againstthe institumany
of the state church, and led to the formation
of various dissentinggroups.
The
fact that the
church
of Rome
showed
no
dispositionin the
Council of Trent to make concessions to schismatics,
and that government authorities proceeded to protect
state churches
by persecutingdissenters,
only
served to perpetuate and strengthensectarianism,
when
the uncolonized regionsof America
especially
provided not only a refugefor the religiously
oppressed but the frontier isolation conducive to

reacted in

further sectarian differentiation. Since the opening

of the 19th. century,several factors have been
operating toward the unifying of Christianity a
of persecution*
and the
view of the futility
saner
of religious
economic value of the principle
tolerance,
clearer insightinto the spiritual
nature and task of
the Christian
churcji,multipl5dng contacts that
ing
have compelledrival groups to a better understandof each other and to the disclosure of the great
to -all,the anomaly of a
basic features- common
divided
Protestantism
endeavoring to foist its
denominational
differences upon
the non-Christian
and the manifest inadequacy of duplicated
civilization,
sectarian propaganda to deal with the urgent
problems of world Christianization.
Among the earliest expressionsof this tendency
the merging into
united Christendom, was
to a more
churches
one
(1817)of the Lutheran and Reformed
stimulated
In England non-conformists,
of Prussia.
by the emancipating atmosphere of the French
Revolution,took steps in concert with each other
"

459

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

United

Brethren

in Christ

At the opening of the 3rd. century,as Tertullian

stillimposed by
the removal of disabilities
to secure
Hence
church.
the organization and Origen indicate,
the majority of behevers were
the established
disinchned
to the Logos Christology, which
of the Congregational and Baptist Unions, of the
was
National Council of Free Churches, and of the combining
adopted by philosophic minds and involved the
Trinitarian
doctrine
into
the
smaller
modern
Methodist
result. The
of
a
as
groups
Scotch PresbyUnitarian
view found
Free Churches.
United Methodist
expression in one party of
the opponents, the Dynamists or
encumbered
terianism
by its fourfold divisions
Adoptionists,
and
who conceived Christ as a man
witnessed
the merging (1900) of the United
adopted to the office
of Son
of God, empowered
Free Church
with the spiritand
wings. In America the 19th. century
exalted to rule over
the consciences of men.
Similar
terians
opened with the Plan of Union by which Presbyand Congregationalists
extended
the Paulicians of Armenia
reciprocal views appear later among
and the Spanish Adoptionists (8th.century). In
courtesies in the settlement
of their ministers.
the 16th. century this was
the conclusion drawn
The organizationsoon
after of Missionary, Bible,
from Scriptureby the Socinians in Poland
Societies,along with the
Tract, and Educational
(1565 ff.)
denominational
interand formulated
the basis of works
of Faustus
on
Sunday School Union, greatly stimulated
Socinus
An
for
in the Racovian
consciousness.
Overture
Catechism
(1605). A
similar group
in Hungary
Union
for
(1838) embodying federated principles
(Franciscus Davidis,
the immense
bishop 1568) is still represented by 166 churches.
evangeUcal churches disturbed over
The
Socinians
of middle
west
were
Christianization,but
expelled from Poland (1658)
and as an
aimched in the atmosphere of slaveryand Old-New
but their
organized body disappeared,
School Presbyterian controversy, brought no fruits
interpretationof Scripture affected the Arminians
of Holland
and England, giving rise to an English
until after the Civil War, the various bodies of
ents
Presbyterians consummated
propaganda (John Biddle, Thomas
(1894) a federation.
Firmin) adherSimilar
in large eastern
threatened
to which
federation
movements
were
by the Act of 1698
with loss of civil rights. In the 18th. century
cities led to the organization(1908) of the Federal
Socinian and allied views spread among
Council
of Christ in America,
of the Churches
churchmen
and dissenters,and on
catholic
the refusal of ParUament
designed to express the fellowship and
of subscriptionin their favor,a
to relax the terms
datory
unity of the Christian church, and without manUnitarian
for the corto act
relation
as
an
chapel was
opened in London, 1778, by
power
agency
and
co-ordination
of existing Christian
Rev. Theophilus Lindsey. This with Presbyterian
forces and organizations. Other series of negotiaand Baptist churches
the British
tions
adhering made
have united the old, new,
and
and Cimaberland
Association
Foreign Unitarian
(1825).[371
sections of Presbyterianism,the regular and free
churches.
Colleges: Manchester
College,Oxford,
ern
Home
Missionary College, Manchester]. The
Baptists,and the long standing alienation of northand southern
Methodists
been
leading representatives in theology have
gives recent promise
of elimination.
The Lutherans
have also perfected
Belsham
Joseph Priestly (1733-1804), Thomas
of their bodies.
From
(1750-1829),James Martineau
(1918) a union among
(1805-1900),James
many
the Protestant Episcopal church, on the basis of the
and J. Estlin Carpenter.
Drummond,
Lambeth
Articles emerged (1910) the idea of a
In America
King's Chapel (Episcopal)in Boston
World Conference for the Consideration
of Questions
became Unitarian in 1785, and Priestleyfounded a
church
in Northumberland, Pa., in 1794.
mental
The
Touchin:; Faith and Order, based upon the fundadivision of Congregationalism
in 1815 resulted in the
principlethat unity is to be found not in
the field of common
founding of the Unitarian Berry Street Conference
service,but "in the clear
and
full consideration
statement
of those things
Unitarian Association (1825),
(1820),the American
in which
differ as well as in those things in
the National
Conference
of Unitarian
and other
we
which
A Preliminary Meeting,
at one."
Christian
Churches
logical
Theoare
we
(1865), the Meadville
with representatives
from fortynations and seventy
School .(1844),and the Pacific Unitarian
churches (not includingthe Church
autonomous
of
School (1904)
Prior to 1878 the Harvard
Divinity
at Geneva, August, 1920, proSchool was
the chief seat of the movement.
In
Rome), convened
fesses
to have found much
to confirm the wisdom
of
America
there are about 500 churches, and 82,515
future a World
Conference
adherents
on
callingin the near
was
a
(1919). The older Unitarianism
have
non-Trinitarian
Biblicism.
Since Channing (1780Unity. Episcopahans and Congregationalists
which
awaits
already drafted (1919) a Concordat
1842) and Theodore Parker (1810-1860),Unitarians
the confirmation
of their supreme
deliberative
concerned
with
the affirmation
of a
are
more
bodies.
natural religiouscapacity in man
lated
Impelled by the co-operativespiritof the
which, stimutime
in experience,obtains conscious communion
of
war
period, representativesfrom scores
mission boards
endorsed
the organization (1918)
with God and is impassioned with the spirit
that was
of the Interchurch
World
in Jesus.
F. A. Christie
Movement, which proposed
through co-operationto increase the efficiency
of the church in her task of world evangeUzation
UNITAS
FRATRUM."
See Bohemian
ren.
Brethof imited
by means
budgets, a united financial
tian
appeal,and a scientific survey of aU fields of Chriseffected in the
UNITED
CHRIST."
An
BRETHREN
was
IN
enterprise. While much
matter
of surveys,
the movement
failed to sustain
evangelical church resultingfrom a spontaneous
the support of the participatingdenominations,
within
movement
several denominations
in the
and has ceased to function.
The most recent vmion
late
18th.
Pennsylvania,
century, in Eastern
movement
from
the
Otter(February, 1920) emanates
Maryland, and Virginia. Phihp William
bein (1726-1813), a German
Reformed
Presbyterians in a constitution
providing for
minister,
in denominational
complete autonomy
affairs,and Martin Boehm
(1725-1812),a minister of the
and a Council
to harmonize
and unify the work
Mennonite
church,were itsfirstleaders. United by
of the United Churches.
Through the application a common
evangelicalzeal,their preachingresulted
of co-operation it hopes eventually to usher in
in many
conversions.
no
Originally there was
G. Mode
Peter
organicunity.
ing,
Preachthought of organizinga new denomination
at first in German
(now but 4 per cent),was
UNITARIANISM."
The
itinerant.
Converts
name
given to a
were
gathered in bands, after
the model
theologywhich insists on the unity of God to the
of Methodism.
The
first ministerial
extent of repudiating
the doctrine of the Trinity.
conference
1789.
The
movement
(7) occurred

f)robIems
_

United

EvangeUcal

Church

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

460

They also claim support for these principlesin

that idea of evolution which makes
the end of creation
human
a redeemed
ology
race; in that view of sociwhich
holds to the soUdarity of the human
that when
race
so
member
suffers all suffer;
one
in that logic of theism
instanced
by George A.
Gordon
of Boston
in his phrase, "If God
shall
succeed universal salvation will be the final result."
UniversaHsts
To
fife is not a probation that
ends with death, but a discipline
for all,never
church
has stood for reform
local churches.
The
ing,
endbut always moving toward
mony
(Otterbein
a
(slavery; intemperance), education
completer harwith God.
other institutions
University,Ohio, 1847, and seven
nary),
2. History. Universalists recognizetheir beginof learning besides Bonebrake
ning
TheologicalSemias
an
and missions (W. Africa,China,Japan, etc.).
organized body in 1770, in which year
John
from
London
numbered
came
and
In 1919 it
Murray (q.v.)
347,981.
preached
in a church he found erected at Good
tion)
The
United Brethren in Christ (Old ConstituLuck, N.J.
Thomas
Potter.
From
that
by
is a schismatic movement
originatingin 1889
point Murray
constitution which
was
preached in many
in protest against a new
places,dying in Boston in 1815.
the idea of a mystic
Murray's theology was
(1919) 409
adopted at that time.
They have
union
of Christ and
the human
race
by which
churches,and 19,100 members.
Christ restored all that was
lost in Adam.
Christ
H. Walker
Henry
dying,not merely for the elect,but for all mankind,
See
CHURCH."
EVANGELICAL
UNITED
it follows that all are redeemed.
All will be saved
Evangelical
Association.
when
they reaUze that they are redeemed, and live
the redeemed
do when
life,which all must
they
OF SCOTLAND."
CHURCH
UNITED
FREE
hear and understand the good news.
To Murray
in 1900 by a
formed
A Presbyterian organization
it
the task of the preacher to tell every soul in
was
of Scotland
fusion of the Free Church
(q.v.)and
the universe the good news.
the United
(q.v.),although
Presbyterian Church
Hosea
BaUou
retained its inde(q.v.)modified Murray's theology
pendence
a
portion of the Free Church
in the
direction
of Unitarianism.
To
Free"
Ballon,
See "Wee
under the old name.
Jesus was
God
not
but the greatest son
of God,
Church.
from his
dying not to change God and save
man
but to show man
God's love and so change
CHURCH
IN AMERICA.
LUTHERAN
UNITED
anger,
When
know
the love of God in Christ
man.
the
men
The organizationresultingin 1918 from
Ballou came
General
they inust repent and so be saved.
union
of the Lutheran
Synod, Lutheran
United
General
Council, and Lutheran
Synod, to believe that in the great light of death and
entrance into the hereafter,all would
at once
South.
See Lutheranism.
see
and repent and be saved.
This idea was
named
in
and Glory" and was
An EngMETHODIST
CHURCH."
derision,"Death
UNITED
thought by
lish
Ballou stoutlyasserted that it
to be immoral.
Methodist
many
mation
body, formed in 1907 by the amalgawas
would
Methodist
New
merely a theory as to the time when men
of the
Connexion, the
and repent, and that no moral issue whatever
Methodist
Free
see
Bible Christians, and the United
involved in it. In 1831, led by Adin Ballou,
was
Churches.
and took the name
"Restorationa party seceded
CHURCH."
A
PRESBYTERIAN
ists,"declaringbeHef in Hmited future punishment.
UNITED
This schism
lasted about
25 years.
in 1847
Scottish Presbyterianorganizationformed
Today the
denomination
is in entire unity on its five principles.
by the amalgamation of the United Secession and
3. Organization. Organizations of Universalists
Relief churches,and in 1900 united with the Free
work begun
are
mainly in America, with some
Church
to form the United Free church of Scotland.
in Japan.
The organizationbeginswith the local parish.
CHURCH
OF
PRESBYTERIAN
UNITED
All parishesin any state form a State Convention
A body formed
AMERICA."
NORTH
(1858) by
which meets
and
the Associate Reformed,
annually. All State Conventions
the unitingof the Associate,
tion
and Covenanter
wings of American Presbyterianism. parishessend delegatesto form a General Convenwhich meets biennially. Between
Conventions
It accepts with sUght modifications respectingthe
Board
of nine trustees
controls.
The
General
a
Confession of
civil magistrate, the Westminster
Convention
keeps a National Superintendentin the
Faith.
Emphasis is placed on slave holding as a
of
field,and the separate states also keep State or
violation of the law of God, the unscripturalness
District Superintendents. The Woman's
National
secret societies,
covenanting as a church duty, and
is strong. The
Missionary Association
the use of the Psalms in publicand privateworship.
Young
People'sChristian Union has over
5,000 members.
It has 163 churches,and 155,994 members.
The General S. S. Association is a largeand efficient
UNIVERSALISTS."
enrols
AND
body. The Order of UniversaUst Comrades
UNIVERSALISM
the doctrines of
over
As used here UniversaUsm
means
5,000 men.
Universalists are
4. Growth.
called UniversaUsts.
a slowly growing
the religiousdenomination
stated as follows at
intensely individualistic,
doctrines were
These
body. Its people are
officially
and slow to see the value of organization. From
sal
in Boston in 1899.
the Convention
(1)The Univerfatherhood of God.
(2) The spiritual
authority the start they have faced bitter opposition from
those who
regard their doctrines as unscriptural
and leadershipof His Son Jesus Christ.
(3) The
and immoral.
tion
of the Bible as containinga revelaMany churches today are rather
trustworthiness
who are not infrequently
hospitableto Universalists,
of God.
(4) The certaintyof just retribution
tion
acceptingthe profferedhospitahty The denominafor sin. (5)The final harmony of all souls with God.
is however
adding about 3,000 souls each year
1. The distinctive doctrines of the denomination
versaUststo its church
(1921)
membership. They have
the first and the fifth of these principles.Uniare
650 parishes,
or
hold that these have a sound scriptural about
preaching stations,with
cants.
60,000 communigreat about 500 preachers and some
basis,and that they have been held by many
definitelyorganizedin 1800 as "The United
It is Wesley an in polity,and
in Christ."
OtterIts first bishops were
in doctrine.
Boehm
(1800). The General Conference,
a
delegated body, half ministers and half laity,
meets
quadrenially. It elects the bishops (for
for the church,and serves
as a
four years),legislates
Conferences
of appeal. Annual
court
(district)
supervisethe interests and appoint the pastors of
was

Brethren
Arminian
bein and

"

"

"

"

minds in all ages.

461

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

OF

about six
5. Institutions. Universalists have
invested in schools,which
are
millions of doUars
Divinity School;
Tufts College,Mass., with Crane
St. Lawrence
University and TheologicalSchool
College at Galesburg,
at Canton, N.Y.; Lombard
versity
111.,with its Ryder Divinity School at the Uniof Chicago; Goddard
Seminary at Barre,
Yt.; Dean Academy at FrankUn, Mass.; Westbrook
Universalist
The
Seminary at Portland, Maine.
"

Publishing House

is at 359

St. and

denominational

at

Dorchester

publicationscan

Ryder House,
Ave., where all
always be found.

B. Fisher
Lewis
in which
Bread
UNLEAVENED
BREAD."
no
used
to
produce fermentation;
yeast has been
that prescribedand used by the Hebrews
specifically
in celebratingthe feast of the Passover.
UPANISHADS.
teachingappended
Philosophic
and formingpart
to the Vedic texts and Brdhmanas
of the body of revealed
Scripturesof the early
of salvation
Indo- Aryans. They teach the way
by knowledge of the essential unity of the human
soul with the Supreme Soul.
The earhest
Upanishads date from before the 6th. century B.C.
"

URBAN.
Urban
Urban

The

"

of

name

eightpopes.

/."Saint; Bishop of Rome, 222-230.

II.
of
Pope, 108"-1099; successor
Hildebrand, continuing his poUcies; preached the
"

First Crusade.
Urban III.
Pope,
in exile owing to
"

ficate
1185-1187; spent his pontioppositionfrom the Roman

senate.

/F:"

Urban
Urban

Pope, 1261-1262.
of ethical
Pope, 1362-1370; a man
purity and'reformingzeal; beatified in 1870.
Urban
VI.
Pope, 1378-1389; his tactlessness
V.

"

"

and harshness
led to the division known
the
as
Great Schism which lasted fiftyyears.
Urban
F//." Pope for 12 days in 1590.
VIII." Fope, 1623-1644.
He was
Urban
cerned
conof the
chieflyto increase the poUticalpower
he acquiesced in the condemnation
of
papacy;
Jansenism
and improved the
Galileo,condemned
architecturally.
city of Rome
THUMMIM."
One of the forms of
URIM
AND
divination
the ancient
(q.v.) in vogue
among
Hebrews
(cf.I Sam. chaps.14 and 28) ; also regarded
as
part of the paraphernaliaof the highpriest(cf
Ex. 28:30 and Lev. 8:8).
.

URSINUS,
Reformed
the

ETHICS

Vagantes

work
and the succor
of the sick and poor.
The
founder
beatified in 1768 and canonized
in
was
1807 as St. Agnes of Brescia.
USHAS.

^The

of early Vedic
goddess Dawn
morning Ught which gave release
from
the dangers of night was
greeted with joy
by early peoples. The Vedic hymns to Dawn
are
fine examples of this feeling.
especially
"

religion.The

Boylston St., Boston,

Headquarters

Western
Chicago, 60th
with

AND

ZACHARIAS

theologian,one

man
(1534-1583)."Gerof the

framers

of

Heidelberg catechism.

USHEBTIS."
Statuettes in human
form placed
and
Egyptian tombs
compelled by a written
in the other
spell to do the work of dead man
in

world.

USSHER
(or USHER), JAMES
(1581-1656)."
of, great learningwho
AngUcan archbishop,a man
wrote
extensivelyon theologicaland ecclesiastical
for the scheme
of Biblical
themes; most renowned
chronology which he advanced and which for a long
period has been inserted in the margin of reference
editions of the Authorized

Version.

UTILITARIANISM."
A system of utility. The
ethical doctrine that utihty or usefulness is the
test of moral action.
Utilitarianism
represents the attempt to give
rational explanation for moral
conduct.
This
a
is found
in the conception of value or utilityin
human
contrasted
with
ethical
experience, as
theories which appeal to a prioriprinciples,
either
in the form of divine commands
of unexplained
or
intuitions.
Perhaps the most consistent form of
the theory is that of Jeremy Bentham, who affirmed
that the greatest good to the greatest number
should
be the
controllingprinciple of social
supreme
ethics. In J. S. Mill, the calculating
utihtarian
into a warm,
was
principleof Bentham
transfigured
sympathetic utilitarianism that has been widely
influential among
EngHsh theorists in poUtical
and social science.
While biological
studies of science and modern
in philosophy have
done
pragmatic methods
much
to emphasize the value of empiricism and
utilitarianism as the measure
of both truth and conduct;
yet idealism and the intuitive emphasis upon
subjectiveaspects of personalityhave emphasized
other essential aspects of moral loyalty;and the
social conception of human
behavior
has superseded
the individualism of original
utilitarianism.
UTNAPISHTIM."
The Babylonian hero of the
deluge, favorite of the god, Ea, on whose advice
he built a ship and
so
escaped the flood. He
then grantedimmortality by Enhl and given
was
residence in the earthlyland of the blest at "the
a
of the streams."

confluence

In the Roman
URSULA, SAINT."
martyrology,
UTOPIA.
with several companions was
a lady who
martyred
by the Huns at Cologne in defence of their virginity, Sir Thomas

An
More's
author's
"

imaginary island portrayed

book

of the

in

embodying
the
social,religious,and poUtical
commemorated
The
earUest appearOct. 21.
on
ance
ideals in a supposedly perfectstate.
It anticipates
of the legend in extant Uterature is the 9th
ideals of poUticaland religious
freedom
now
century. It is curiouslycomplex, and is explained some
The
is used of any
term
in several fashions,one
interpretationidentifying generally advocated.
ideal vision regarded as purely imaginary.
Christianized
of the Teutonic
Ursula
form
as
a
deity,Freya.
The
moderate
wing of the
UTRAQUISTS."
in both
founded in
demanded
communion
URSULINES."
A R.C. female order,
Hussites, who
1535 by Angela Merici at Brescia with St. Ursula
kinds (whence the name) as well as democratizing
Calixtines.
The aim of the order
ideals for the
the name.
as patron, whence
clergy. Also caUed
to educate
was
girlsand to promote missionary See Hxjss; Hussites.

VAC.
Goddess of speech,symbol of the potency
of the magic word; wife of Brahma
in later Vedic
"

reUgion,

VAGANTES."
wandered
from
did not possess

same

name,

The
designation of clergy who
place to place either because they
a

benefice

or

had

deserted their

Vaigesika Philosophy

DICTIONARY

be traced from
Their existence can
the 15th. centuries,the mediaeval
frequentlyroving minstrels,

church.
5th.

to

being

OF

RELIGION

the

type

AND

VALUE.

ETHICS

The

"

462

factor of

objector experience. That

to be sought.

in
desirability

which

makes

it

an

any

end

Values

rest on
feehng. Agreeableexperiences
naturally sought and disagreeableexperiences
avoided
far as possible. While
OF.
so
the ultimate
value is the happiness or satisfaction due to a given
of infinite light, situation,
VAIROCHANA."
The Buddha
the means
by which happiness is secured
to be valued
of contemplation in the
in relation to the experience
of the five Buddhas
come
one
See Adibuddha.
It is more
secured
later Buddhology.
We
learn that certain
by them.
soon
in the
kinds of satisfaction are
than likelythat he is identified with the sun
obtained at the cost of
he
excessive
Buddhism
effort or
birth stories of Hindu
as
was
actually
followed
or
sacrifice,
are
by
in the Buddhism
of Japan.
An
ethical conception
unpleasant consequences.
of Hfe is obtained
by careful study of the total
The theistic rehgion of India
VAISNAVISM."
implicationsof any given experienceof satisfaction,
In origin so as to determine those which are most permanently
in which
is the Supreme God.
Vishnu
movement
to have been a religious
it seems
be educated,
tastes may
rewarding. Inasmuch
as
apart
to
values come
to be assigned to various ends on
a
from
Brahmanism
consisting in devotion
the
basis of a comprehensive study of human
Bhagavan.
welfare.
personalGod called by the generaltitle,
made
with
union was
The science of ethics thus gives to possibleends
a
By assimilation of names
and Ramayvaluations restingon a more
the orthodox groups; the Mahabharata
defensible basis than
the mere
transformed into epicsof the sect and the
feehng of any individual at any time.
ana
were
There
various classificationsof values.
are
cult of Vishnu
A
by the 4th. century a.d., an
was,
tion
suggestive list as given by Everett {Moral
very
popularreligionwith a gospel of salvaaggressive
Values, p. 182) includes economic, bodily,recreational,
through devotion to God manifested in his
and
The
Rama.
social or associational,
human
incarnations,Krishna
character,esthetic,
be
deities
of
local
values.
with
wbdch
An
might
importance
intellectual,
rehgious
ethical
ease
and_
of life must
interpretation
recognizedas manifestations of Vishnu has made it
put these values in their
extend
the
its
relations
to
to
over
another
and
to
one
the welfare
sway
proper
possiblefor Vai"navism
of the individual and of society.
non-Aryan peoples of India. It has ramified into
Of
those
which
sects.
Gerald
of
recognize
Birnet Smith
a largenumber
the
VAMPIRE.
Wretched
the
most
Vishnu-Krishna
important are
ghosts who return from
in
the
11th.
the grave
to suck
the blood of the hving while
Ramanuji founded by Ramanuja
to Vai?navism;
attributed to them in
they sleep. Epidemics were
century which assimilated Vedantism
the Madhvachari, founded in the same
century by
then
parts of Europe. The suspected grave
was
is duaUstic in violent opposition opened and the body of the dead impaled.
which
Madhva
the Vallabhacharya, an
tional
emoto Vedantism, and
A group of Teutonic gods who
VANIR.
pelled
comtype, named after its founder of the 15th.
the Aesir gods (q.v.)to share their rule with
century which emphasizes the relations of Krishna
and sinks to sensuality. them.
The story of the battle and later combinawith the cow-herd maidens
tion
of these two groups
of gods probablyreflects a
sects are best representedby the RamaThe Rama
in the 13th. century.
unification of tribes through conquest.
nandl,founded by Ramananda
Rai Das, Kabir, and Tulasi
His great disciples,
The sky god of earlyVedic rehgion
VARUNA.
this form of Vai"navism the religion
Das have made

VAigESIKA

PHILOSOPHY."

See India, Religions

are

"

"

"

of

scores

people.

of millions of all classes of the

See Hinduism.

Hindu

third of the higher castes of the

made
the trading and
up
class of the social order, received the
agriciiltural
the sacred thread of the
Aryan education and wore

VAISYAS."

The

Indo-Aryans. They

twice-born.

akin
Ahura
Mazda
to
of Zoroastrianism.
He
embodies the rita or cosmic order and, as a righteous
god, enforces the moral law,rewarding the good and
punishing the evil. His rule is over heaven,earth
The moon,
and the waters.
the hghtningand Soma
associated with him.
In the later rehgion,
are
however, Indra and the gods of the sacrifice,
Agni
and Soma, took the first rank and Varuna sank to

an
place.
insignificant
A popular belief,
ST.,HIS DAY."
VALENTINE,
VASUDEVA."
One of the names
of the
of Vishnu and
originatingdoubtless in the observation
of Krishna.
mating of birds in earlyspring,that a certain day,
identifiedwith the feast of St. Valentine,Feb. 14,
The official residence of the pope
VATICAN.
other
for sending letters and
favorable
is more
of Rome, a palace to the north
of St. Peter's
traceable in
tokens of love, gave rise to a custom
Cathedral, including the Sistine Chapel, a noted
Ages.
France and England from the Middle
and art gallery,Hbrary, and offices for
museum
the transaction of business.
The leader of the most imporVALENTINUS."
tant
school of Gnosticism
(q.v.),who flourished
VATICAN
COUNCIL."
A R.C. synod of 770
about the middle of the 2nd. century.
bishops convened in the Vatican Dec. 8, 1869, by
Pius IX., in consequence
of numerous
doctrinal
VALENTINUS."
Pope for 30 or 40 days in 827.
'I
and social problems arisingout of the discussion
See Walhalla.
provoked by the papal syllabusof 1864, especiaUy
VALHALLA."
papal infallibihty.In four sessions the Council
decrees on the
MARRIAGE."
A
OF
VALIDATION
judicial discussed and drew up disciplinary
election of bishops and
a
pastors; the education
act of the Pope by which
marriage contracted
of the clergy; rehgious orders; social,ethical
bona fide with proper consent but invalidon account
and political
valid from
problems of the Church; authorized a
of canonical impediment only is made
such
of the
new
catechism, and defined the infalhbihty
now
on, "ex nunc," and the canonical effects,
removed.
of offspring,
are
the illegitimacy
Pope (q.v.). This question took up much of the
as
contested within and without
time, and was fiercely
the Council, the discussion terminatingJuly 13,
VALKYRIES."
See Walkyries.
"

DICTIONARY

463

OF

RELIGION

the
1870, in a ballot of 451 bishops for,88 against,
Council
The
proposal, and 62 "juxta modum."
end with the occupation of Rome
to a sudden
came
Sept. 20, 1870.
by the ItaUan army,
VATICANISM.

"

Same

as

J. N. Reagan
Ultramontanism

(q.v.).
VAYU
(VATA)." Wind god of the Indo-Iranians.
In Vedic reUgion he is of more
gentle nature than
the
Rudra and the Maruts (qq.v. ) In Zoroastrianism
good Vayu became a Yazata, the evil Vayu a demon.
.

The dominant
VEDANTA.
philosophy
religious
of India developed by the writers of the Upanishads
tradition to the
and continuing as the orthodox
the
modern
It claims to be grounded on
era.
is the one, eternal Reahty
Scriptures. Brahman
all-pervadingand intelUgentwith which the human
soul is identical. The
phenomenal world and the
apparent separateness of selves are both illusory
a
play of the desireless Brahman.
appearances
real to
world of experience which
The
seems
so
the souls moving in the toils of transmigrationis a
the religiousforms
of reality. Thus
lower form
and sacrifice
of salvation by works
and methods
to full
the soul comes
are
justified.But when
realization of the truth that it is identical with the
it knows
that
the
eternally inactive Brahman
phenomenal world is merely illusion and escapes
The system was
into the Eternal One.
expounded
monism
by Sankara (q.v.)and as a modified
as pure
monism
by Ramanuja (q.v.). Its greatest modern
probablyVivekananda, a discipleof
exponent was
Sir Rabindranath
Ramakrishna.
Tagore presents
the historic philosophy in a form adjusted to the
of the modern
world.
demands
more
practical
"

"

VEDAS.
The
four collections or samhitas
of
the sacred Scripturesof the Indo- Aryans consisting
of the Rig-veda,Sdma-veda, Yajur-veda (black and
Atharva-veda
(qq.v.),together with
white), and
their Brdhmanas
(q.v.) and
Upanishads (q.v.).
Literatures.
See Vedic
Religion
III; Sacred
"

AND

ETHICS

Vedic

Religion

and
the

and southward
into
pressed slowly eastward
valley of the Ganges. They were
no
longer
merely nomads, for they dwelt in villages,and
had developed agriculture(and work in wood
and

metal)

to a considerable
degree; but their wealth
consisted chieflyin cattle. The caste system had
not yet been developed, and the doctrine of transmigration
not yet present. Women
was
not
were
secluded.
In the valleysof the Ganges and Jumna
the tribes consoUdated
and the priestlyfamilies,
which had been attached each to the chief of some
unified priesthood. The
a
tribe,became
hymns,
which had been handed
down orallyfor generations
in the different families,were
collected into one
As the language changed it became
text.
ingly
increasdifficult to add new
The collection
hymns.
became
tion
a closed book, regarded as
a divine revelato the inspired"seers" who
"saw"
the hymns.
III. The
The
Text."
Rig-Veda consists of
1028 hymns arranged in ten books.
The nucleus
is formed
by books two to seven, each consisting
of hymns composed by one
family of priests. In
each book the hymns to Agni and Indra come
first,
then the hymns to other gods arranged according
of hymns
to the number
to each.
Further, in
each group
the hymns are
arranged according to
the number
Books one
of verses.
and ten are made
of smaller family groups
and of later hymns
up
book ten). Book
nine contains hymns
(especially
to Soma
extracted from all the family collections.
The
collection as a whole
is,therefore,clearlya
historical one
the Soma
centering around
ritual;
but the conditions under which the collection was
made
be determined.
cannot
IV. The
"!. The general nature
Religion.
of
the hymns.
^In the first enthusiasm
of discovery
hailed as
(the early 19th. century) the hymns were
the spontaneous outbursts of poets filledwith reverence
for the powers
of nature, were
thought to
have come
from a period of primitivespirituality
mankind
know
when
that the
was
good. We now
Rig-Veda is priestly and hieratic in character,
rituaUstic in
practicaland utilitarian in purpose,
"

"

practice. Happiness, health, wealth, victory,long

beUefs and
RELIGION."
The religious
rich presents
fife,and children are sought, and
bestowed
ators
the priestsfor acting as intermediare
on
practicesof the Aryan invaders of India during
in securing such success.
"I give thee that
the Rig-Vedic period.
'
is the constantly recurring
word
thou mayst give me"
The
means
"knowledge"
Veda, which
"sacred knowledge"), is applied,in a general
(i.e.,
thought. The aim of the religionis to make the
relation between
and gods a liveable one, and
men
sense, to all the sacred texts belonging to the first
These texts are more
to secure
after death a place in paradise with the
period of Sanskrit Uterature.
in number, and many
of conThis paradise is a glorified
than a hundred
are
siderable
departed ancestors.
of the Brahsize (the translation of one
world of material joys,but it was
developed rather
manas
occupies five large volumes). The oldest
by the mind of the priestthan by the mind of the
and most
warrior.
important text is the Rig-Veda. The
other texts belong to the period of Brahmanism
2. The
gods. These are, for the most part,
later period is clearly marked
off
of Nature, more
or less obscured
(q.v.). The
personifiedpowers
from the Rig-Vedic period by a change of abode,
The stormby anthropomorphism or abstraction.
demons
and of social customs.
of reUgious beliefs,
god Indra (with 250 hymns) who conquers
Setting
Date.
^The RigI. Historical
and aids in battle is the dominant
and
figure. Next in
Veda
is a collection of reUgious hymns composed
importance are the ritualistic figuresof the fire-god
ment
by the Aryan invaders of India after their settleAgni (with200 hymns) and Soma (with 120 hymns)
The
in the Punjab.
The"outhnes
of the figuresare
originaldark-skinned
They are
vague.
inhabitants were
not so far detached
from natural phenomena as the
conquered, made slaves,or driven
individual
mountains.
into the forests and
Intermarriage figures of Greek
mythology. Their
rise to what
forms the
took place and gave
functions are not clearlydefined; there is no family
now
The
India.
bulk of the populationof northern
relationshipamong
them; they have no definite
abode.
There is Uttle personalemotion or reUgious
period of the Rig-Veda is usually dated between
abstract
but this date is only a proWith
Varuna
1500 and 1000 b.c,
more
alone are
visionalfervor.
and theoretic one.
ethical ideas connected; but the ethical implications
The
II. The
Aryans.
of rta have been over-emphasized. The gods
Vedic
Aryans were
a
of the passive
whose
favor it is good and
are
sturdy, war-like people, with none
powerful persons
loftiness and hoUness
Moral
and pessimistic
traits which later are characteristic
to secure.
necessary
of the Hindus.
of
are
by tribes,in waves
They came
secondary attributes. They are easilyroused,
out
of Central
To win their
the mountains
migration, across
usuaUy kindly, but not always so.
favor it is not so essential to be good and moral as it
Asia, settled here and there in the Punjab, waged
with one
another as well as with the aborigines. is to offer them food and drink,to flatter them by
war
VEDIC

"

"

"

Veil

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

of artistic hymns recallingtheir beneficent

in the past and the generosityof the present
not to forgetto be generous
and especially
sacrificer,
posed
comto their friends the priests. The hymns were
definite ritualistic occasions.
for
They
express the ideas of only the higher classes,the
priestsand warriors. From them we learn almost
nothing about the popular thought and "religion
of the time.
The language is full of stereotyped,
As is
hieratic phrases and intentional obscurities.
said later,"The Gods love that which is secret."
3. The sacrifice.^The sacrifice was
entirelyan
tribal or public
individual affair. There
was
no
cult. There
were
no
temples or idols. The
sacrificialplace was
a
spot of ground, chosen for
and
the
particularoccasion, slightly hoUowed
the gods came
filled with sacred grass.
Hither
to partake of the grain,cakes,milk, butter,
unseen
animals,and to drink
or the flesh of the slaughtered
the juice of an
of the Soma
libation. Soma
was
became
fremented
unknown
plant which when
intoxicating. It was largelydue to copiousdraughts
able to perform his heroic
of Soma that Indra was
formalism in the
much
deeds.
Though there was
ritual and many
magical elements it did not become
elaborate magical operation imtil the time of
an
means

deeds

"

AND

ETHICS

464

VERSIONS
These
OF
THE
BIBLE."
are
translations of that book or largeportionsof it into
another tongue.
These may
have been made either
from
the originalHebrew
of the Old Testament
the original
Greek of the New
Testament
or from
or
A
from
translation of either of those texts.
a
translation of the originaltext is a primary version,
a translation of a translation is a secondary version.
The term
"versions" among
scholars usuallyrefers
to those ancient
primary translations which are
employed today to aid in determining the original
texts of the Bible.

beginnings of the versions are practically

lights
sidealthough their history yields many
on
literature,
art, palaeography and language
motives.
Our first aim is to
as well as on
religious
discover,as nearly as possible,the place,time and

The
unknown

under
version
circumstances
which
each
was
prepared. For the earliest and most
important
answered,
primary translations these questions remain uneven
though there are many
indefinite,
indirect and
general references to them.
Only
during and after the fourth century a.d. do we
find specific
and reliable dates for the translations
of versions of the Bible.

Enough has been determined, however, from

Brabmanism.
rhetorical and other features of the text
linguistic,
the
end
Toward
4
Tendency to unification.
of any
given version to locate its origin within
ency
tenda growing
of the Rig-Vedic periodthere was
reasonable approximation.
behind
the
to seek for a unity, for a One
Versions
Old Testament.
I. Primary
op
the
gods. Questions about the origin of the
many
in their approximate
^The primary versions
insistent and led to the conception
world became
chronologicalorder are as follows:
forces of Nature.
of one great force behind the many
1. The Septuagint (or LXX),
the first translation
Prajapati
In the succeedingperiod of the Brahmanas
and Aramaic
from the Hebrew
of the Old Testament
from
"Lord
of Creatures" emerged as the One
into Greek, made
at different times and
Brahman
the other gods sprang;
emerged as
whom
by seventy scholars) by different
(traditionally
of the universe.
substratum
the neuter, material
probably at Alexandria, Egypt, during
persons,
The two conceptionsfused into a pantheism.
the 3rd. and 2nd. centuries bc.
for Jews who
had
W. E. Clark
residents of Greek-speaking Egypt.
become
This
fabric
used
cloth
A piece of
as
VEIL.
or other
the Old Testament, the Scriptures
used by Christ
was
tabernacle
In the Hebrew
of concealment.
a means
in Palestine,
and his disciples
and also hy a considerable
Most
the Holy Place and
veils concealed
Holy
portion of the Christian church in the early
A eucharistic veil is used
Place from publicview.
Christian centuries.
the
at stated times to cover
in the R.C. church
2. The Syriac (or Peshitto),
made
from
the
The use of veils as a head-dress and covering
chalice
and Aramaic
Hebrew
of the Old Testament
about
is frequent,the practise
for the face among
women
the close of the firstor beginning of the 2nd. century
being especially characteristic of Mohammedan
to Christianity.
for Jewish converts
Like the
A,D.
dress
headdistinctive
veil
used
the
is
The
as
peoples.
it was
the work of different persons
at
Septuagint
veil"
the
"take
that
to
of nuns,
signifiesdifferent times and
so
places,but probably made in
enteringupon the life of a nun.
Armenia.
Asia Minor
or
"

"

"

Greek
Versions prepared for special
3. Minor
A part of the sacred literatureof
of belief; (a) Aquila's Version was
made
consistingof 22 chapters dealing phases
130 A.D.
about
by Aquila, a native of Pontus,
of expiation for
with
punishment and methods
with the intention of producing a faithful Hteral
siderable
religiousand social offences; civil law and contranslation of the Old Testament
by an orthodox
material. It is the work of
mythological
He
Jew.
word
attempted to give every Hebrew
of
priests.
generations
exact
an
equivalent in Greek, and so sometimes
is
gives us language that
grotesque.
man's
An action on
SIN.
VENIAL
part out
Pontus
of
was
(6) Theodotion
probably a
of harmony with the law of God, but not involving
Jewish proselyte,
whose ambition
led him to revise
God.
a complete alienation from
the Greek of the Septuagint by using the Hebrew
and Aquila'sversion,rather than by producing a
VENUS.
goddess of the
Originallya Roman
translation.
His work
done about 180new
was
garden she was assimilated to the Greek Aphrodite
92 A.D.
the functions of goddess of love and
and so assumed
who
a Samaritan
with Adonis.
and the relationship
(c)Symmachus was
was
verted
confertility
Judaism.
He
to
sought to undermine
doctrines by a free,almost paraphrastic
SAINT."
A
legendary figure, Samaritan
VERONICA,
translation of the Hebrew
Old
Testament
into
identified in early Christian
writings with the
His translation displayslinguistic
In
Greek.
healed of an issue of blood by Jesus.
ability,
woman
and a fine conception of a translator's
hterary skill,
gratitude she is said to have provided for the
done
duty. His work was
during the reign of
painting of the portraitof Jesus. The later and
famiUar form of the legend states that Veronica
Severus, 193-211 a.d.
more
4. The Old Itala was
to Jesus that he might wipe
a translation of the Hebrew
her handkerchief
gave
his
he was
N. Africa and
the Latinas
on
current in Egypt and
from his face the drops of agony
to
empire evidently produced for
speaking Roman
Golgotha. The features of Jesus were
way
the Latin-speakingChristians of that empire.
miraculouslyimprinted on the handkerchief.
VENDIDAD.

"

Zoroastrianism

"

"

465

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

translated by Jerome,
5. The Latin Vulgate was
into Latin,and this
390-405
A.D., from the Hebrew
the Old Testament
of the Bible
translation is now
Catholic
Church
of the Roman
(except Psalms,
which is Jerome's second revision of the Old Latin).
free renderings, almost
6. The
Targums are
of the Hebrew
Old
paraphrases, into Aramaic

transmitted orally down

Testament, which were
through several centuries,and finallyreduced to
writing after 400 a.d.
New
ment.
TestaVersions
II. Primary
the
op
The
early primary versions of the New
Testament
are evaluated
as second only to the New
"

Testament

manuscripts.

Translations made in Asia

1. Syriac Versions.
Minor
and
Armenia, the earUest not later than
into
Greek
Testament
the New
200 A.D., from
Syriacfor the use of Syrian Christians resident in
Of these there are in whole or in part
those lands.
with considerable variations six texts. Incidentally,
translation is
should note that the Armenian
we
dependent on the Syriacversion.
largely
I tola was
Old
Versions.
2. Latin
(a) The
Greek and used
translated from the New Testament
in the early part of the 3rd. century, where Latin
the language of the common
was
people. Of that
version there are extant about a dozen manuscripts,
and also numerous
quotations in the early Latin
ment
Fathers.
(6) The Latin Vulgateof the New Testarevision by Jerome
was
a
(about 360-84)
of the Old Itala,made on the basis of the Greek
Testament.
text of the New
In the 3rd. century and
3. Coptic Versions.
at the end of the 2nd. Coptic versions were
possibly
tion
in Egypt. Of these (a) the Sahidic translaextant
in Upper Egypt; (b) the Bohairie
current
was
in use
in lower Egypt between
250
version was
This latter version at a later time
and 350 a.d.
of the Coptic
Testament
became
the acceptedNew
church.
All the primary versions of both the Old and
have first-rate value for scholars
New
Testaments
in determining the primitivetext.
They, with the
the indispensable tools of the
manuscripts, are
textual critic to whom
look for the best text of
we
both Testaments.
^The historyof the
III. The English Versions.
English Bible stretches back to the beginnings of
There are many
the English nation.
fragments of
manuscripts from different epochs of those early
shall speak, however, only of those
days. We
the entire
translations which included
practically
Bible.
"

"

"

"

first complete English Bible was

that
John
Wycliffe and his co-workers,
1380-84, translated,however, from the Vulgate,
itselfa translation from the original
languages of the
Bible, thus producing a secondary version. This
Bible was
printed until the 19th. century.
never
1. The

produced by

2. William
Tyndale translated all the New
from the Greek and printed it in 1525,
from the Hebrew,
of the Old Testament
and most
but before he had finished it he was
treacherously
entrapped,killedand burnt at the stake at Vilvorde,
Brussels (Oct.6, 1536).
near
3. Myles Coverdale (1535) edited the firstcomprinted English Bible in small foho black
etter, with the books arranged in the order in
This was
not a primary
which we now
have them.
version,but was composed of the best translations
in his day. Several
could command
that Coverdale
editions followed in rapidsuccession,
to its
testifying

Testament

f)lete

popularity.
Bible
(1537) appeared in the
edition of Coverdale's.
second
combination of Tyndale,of Coverdale,
and,

4. Matthew's
same

It is

year
a

as

the

AND

ETHICS

in the historicalbooks
new

Versions of the Bible

of the Old

Testament, of

translation,
possiblyalso by Tyndale.
5.

Bible
Taverner's_

Matthew's

version, with

(1539)

based

was

on

verbal improvements
in language,especially
ment.
Testain the New
some

6. The Great Bible (1539-41) was

issued by
Coverdale with 6clat. Its proportions,
largefoho,
black letter and official recognition gave
it its
Political and
name.
ecclesiasticalinfluence put
of it into every parish church.
a copy
Archbishop
Cranmer
wrote
a
prologue to the second edition,
sometimes
called Cranmer's
Bible. Its use
and

popularity were
general until the accession of
Biblicalscholars with many
Bloody Mary.
others
fled to the continent for refugefrom the storm.
7. The
Geneva
Bible
(1557-60). The
quiet
old cityof Geneva became the new
scholars. In 1557 the New Testament

center

of Bible

appeared for
volume, printed

the first time in a small octavo

in Roman
verses
type, and divided into numbered
(as Stephanus had done on the margins of his
Greek Testament
of 1551). In 1560 the entire
Bible appeared, based on the Great Bible in the Old
in the New
ment,
TestaTestament, and on Matthew's
with the assistance of other texts. Issued in a
small format this Bible became
the one
in common
the people for nearlya century.
use
among
8. The Bishop's Bible (1568) was
a revision of
the ofiicialGreat Bible,made by a large number
of scholars,there being nine bishopsin the list.
There was
no
royalrecognitionqf the version,but
Convocation
decided (1571)that "every archbishop
and bishopshould have at his house a copy of the
Holy Bible of the largestvolume as lately
printedin
London."
to have a copy,
Every cathedral was
and so were
aU other churches,
"as far as it could
be convenientlydone."
9. The Rheims
and
Douai
Bible (1582-1609)
translated from the Vulgate by EngUsh Roman
was
Catholic refugeesin France.
The New
Testament
appeared at Rheims in 1582 and the Old Testament
at Douai
in 1609.
This
the first Roman
was
CathoUc
Bible in the EngUsh language.
10. The
Authorized
Version
the
(1611) was
in England of an
outcome
attempt to reach a
settlement
between
the
Puritan
and
Anglican
elements in the Church.
Under
the patronage of
James
I.,forty-sevenleading scholars of England
took up the task of producing a new
version of the
Bible.
all previous
on
They based their work
the
versions,especiallythe Geneva, and upon
Hebrew of the Old Testament
and the Greek of the
New
Testament.
Their revision by reason
of its
excellent EngHsh
and
choice renderings quickly
superseded all earUer Protestant Bibles, and for
the Bible of the
was
nearly three hundred
years
EngUsh-speakingworld, and even
today is the
favorite version except among
the educated classes.
11. The
Revised
Version
(1881-85) was
pared
preby about fiftyleadingBritish bibUcal scholars
of the time
beginning in 1870, and thirty-one
American
scholars beginning work
in 1872.
The
revision was
based on the Authorized
Version,the
Hebrew
and
Greek
and
several new
originals,
since
The
New
1611.
manuscripts discovered
Testament
was
completed and issued in 1881, and
the Old
Members
Testament
in 1885.
of the
British Revision Company issued a revision of the
Apocrypha in 1895.
The
translation printed was
that completed
and the American
by the British,
preferenceswere
put into an
appendix. By agreement between
the British and
American
no
separate
revisers^
within fourteen
edition should
American
appear
American
The
revisers,in the meantime,
years.
maintained their own
and assiduously
organization,
_

Vespers

DICTIONARY

OF

AND

RELIGION

ETHICS

466

So-called academic
doctrines.
labored not only to embody
their preferencesin
costume
is clerical
in source, the gown
and hood representingthe same
the text,but to improve the translation of the whole
originalas the monastic robe and cowl; hence the
work, by giving it a touch of American
language
of wearing the hood
and expression. In 1901 their revision was
the
over
lished AngUcan custom
pubE. T. Merrill
the title,"The
Standard
under
American
surphce.
Revised Version" by Thos. Nelson " Sons of New
VESTRY.
^A room
in or adjoining a church
York.
It is,at the present time, the most
perfect
where the vestments
of the minister and choir and
in
translation
of the
Bible
primary version
the ecclesiastical utensils are kept ; or a smaller hall
and
its adoption everywhere would
soon
use,
attached
in which
to a church
the Sunday school
of the errors
dissipatemany
long charged against
and informal gatheringsare held.
Ira M. Price
Holy Scripture.
In the Protestant Episcopal church the administrative
body is called the vestry. It is elected by
gies,
VESPERS."
and
Greek liturIn the Roman
the congregation,and with the rector is responsible
In the
the next to the last canonical hour.
for the welfare of the church.
church
five
Roman
the service
"

"

"

psalms
comprises
antiphons, a brief chapter, the hymn and the
and
the
the Magnificat and
its antiphon
verse,
collect for the day. In the Greek church it includes
psalms, a hymn, and anthem and the Nunc Dimittis.
In the Anglican church, the evening service is called
Vespers, and in the United States a late afternoon
service,usuallywith much
music, goes by that
and

name.

VESTA.

"

^In the

ancient

Greek

rehgions,the goddess of fire and

domestic

and

Roman

guardian of the

hearth.

of Vesta
VESTAL
VIRGINS."
The priestesses
duties
consisted
in keeping aUve
(q.v.) whose
for
the sacred fire,and in offeringdaily prayers
State.
the Roman
highly honored in
They were
ancient

Rome.

VESTMENTS."

to

person

The
times

years ago.
rately
the 9th. century, scholars began elaboto minute
to attribute to vestments, and even
of vestments,
details and
unessential ornaments
symbohc meanings which are entirelyforeign to
their originand history. The much greater development
of choir vestments
has
of liturgicalthan
accompanied the emphasis laid upon eucharistic

provisionfor
Literally
to describe

about

the eucharist
to die.

journey.
tered
adminis-

VICAR.
One who is the authorized representative
in a religious or
ecclesiastical
of another
office. Specifically,
in the R.C. church a priestwho
assists a bishop with certain delegated functions;
in the AngUcan church, a parish incumbent
who
collects the revenues
for another, and receives only
stated
a
stipend; in the Protestant
Episcopal
church, a clergyman who is a deputy of the bishop.
"

VICAR-APOSTOLIC"
In
the
R.C.
church,
the Pope
formerly a bishop or archbishop to whom
had delegated his own
for specific
powers
purposes;
at present, a bishop who
tions
performs episcopalfuncthere is

where

distinctive garments worn

in
of their ministrations
by clergy at the
at
Church
those worn
services; more
specifically,
Eucharist
Celebration
of
the
the
("liturgical
ments").
vestments," as distinguished from "choir vestalso
The
draperies of the altar are
termed vestments.
ing
In the earliest centuries of the Church the clothof the clergy as such was
distinguishedin no
services
and in Church
respect from that of the laity,
the ordinary everyday garments were
worn
by the
officiants as
by the congregation. In the 4th.
and 5th. centuries different classes of the populace
and law in
began to be distinguishedby custom
certain details of garb, and this period initiated
the differentiation of "clerical dress" from that of
the
lay people; but the clergy continued to wear
other
costume
at their ministrations
as
on
same
between
9th. cenBut
the 6th. and
occasions.
turies
changes of popular fashion in ordinary
lowed
slowly folmarked, and were
garments became
by the clergyin their everyday vesture, while
and formahzathe growing tendency to conservatism
of Church
services led them
tion in other matters
established fashions of
to cling to the older and
official ministrations.
dress in their public and
about
the 9th. century is to be dated the
From
differentiation
between
ordinary
accompUshed
"clerical dress" and clerical "vestments," of which
has altered from time to time, often
the former
under the influence of popular lay fashions,while
the latter have continued
essentiallythe antique
formaUzation
and local
models and uses, with some
East
of details. In the conservative
variation
the same
now
a
vestments
as
are
substantially
thousand
From

VIATICUM.
is used
term
"

The

no

canonical

VICAR
OF
The
CHRIST."
Christ on
earth; formerly a
bishop in the R.C. church, but

see.

representativeof
designation of any
confined

now

to the

pope.

VICAR-GENERAL."

In

the

R.C.

church

priestwho represents the bishop in the exercise of

church
the
In the AngUcan
episcopal functions.
title was
formerly given to an ecclesiastical deputy
of the king; it now
officialwho acts as a
an
signifies
deputy of a bishopor archbishop.
VICE.

See Virtues

"

VICTOR.

The

"

name

and

Vices.

of three

popes

and

two

antipopes.
Victor I. Bishop of Rome, ca. 190-198.
Victor //.- Pope, 1055-1056.
Victor III." Pope, 1086-1087.
Victor IV.
'(l) Antipope in 1138 for
months; (2) Antipope, 1159-1164.
"

"

two

VIDHAR.
One of the Aesir gods of Teutonic
mythology, slayer of the Fenris Wolf (q.v.)and
of his father,Odhin, at Ragnarok (q.v.),
avenger
He is called the "silent god"
which
he survives.
and may
signifyboundless space.
"

COUNCIL
OF." A R.C. synod of
VIENNE,
Bishops at Vienne, France, in 1311-12, which
investigated the charges against the Knights
Templars and arranged crusades for the recovery
of the Holy Land, condemned
the teaching that
114

of the
the rational soul is not per se the "form"
decrees concernhuman
ing
body, enacted disciplinary
and
Orders and the Inquisition,
the Mendicant
provided for the teaching of Hebrew, Arabic, and
in the universities of Rome, Paris,
"Chaldaic"
Oxford, Bologna, and Salamanca.
VIGIL.
when
one

appUed

"

Watchfulness, especially at a time

ReUgiously
day.

would
normally be asleep.
to devotions on the eve of a holy

467

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

VIGILIUS."
Pope, 537-555, during the Three
Chapter Controversy (q.v.),in which he assumed
an

AND

ETHICS

Virtues

and

Vices

rivaUng any gentilehero's claims to dis"thus led to see

Christians were
in
tinction,some
the language of Isa. 7:14a
specificprophecy of
Jesus' supernaturalbirth. During the 2nd. century
this behef took firm root within Christianityand
henceforth
continued to be a permanent feature of

cessful

evasive attitude.

writer of
A church
OF
LERINS."
VINCENT
the first half of the 5th. century, who belonged to
lated
Gaul, being priestand monk at Lerins. He formuis everywhere,
the test of orthodoxy as "what
always and by all beUeved."

the

creeds.

S. J. Case

VIRGIN

MARY."
of Jesus.
The
mother
the infancy sections of Matthew
and
Luke, Jesus was born without a human
father,his
mother
being a virgin. This behef,to which no
reference is made
in other portionsof the N.T., was
widespread by the beginningof the 2nd. century
and found its way into the earhest creeds.
In course
of time it was
developed into the behef that Mary
was
virgin,even after the birth of Jesus,
perpetually
and
that she herself was
conceived
without
sin
and always sinless,
because
predestined to be the
late
Mother of God before Adam's
fall. See ImmacuThe
of the
church
later
Conception.
Roman
to give Mary an ever
period came
higher
and the especialveneration
positionin Christianity,
Qiyperdulia)of the Blessed Virgin and prayers to
her became
a recognized part of the R.C.
system.
Her body was
also beUeved
to have been received
(seeAssumption) without having
up into Heaven
and
suffered corruption. The
other
Ave Maria
devotions
to Mary
{Rosary, Ldtany) addressed
have
equal sanctity with the
acquired almost
Lord's Prayer, and numerous
festivals and miracles
associated with Mary in the R.C. Church.
are
now
See Mother
God.
Shailer
Mathews
op

Accordingto
VINCENT
DE
(1576-1660)."
PAUL, SAINT
R.C. divine,founder of the "Congregation
French
the Lazarites,an
of Priests of the Mission"
or
He was
association to succor
the sick and poor.
beatified in 1729 and canonized in 1737, his festival
being held on July 19. The Society of St, Vincent
in 1833 for various humanitarian
de Paul founded
enterprises
perpetuateshis memory.
VINCIBLE

IGNORANCE."

See Ignorance.

RUDOLFE
(1797-1847).
VINET, ALEXANDRE
of
advocate
as
an
theologian eminent
trinal
against docvitalityand freedom in religionover
rigidity,and as a persuasive exponent of
warmth
alism.
over
evangehcal religious
againstration-

"

Swiss

BIRTH."
The Christian doctrine that
VIRGIN
Jesus was
supernaturaUy begotten and born while
stilla virgin.
his mother
was
afl"rmaThis belief is not, at least originally,
an
tion of strict parthenogenesis.
The gospelsascribe
to a visitation of the divine
Mary's pregnancy
Spirit(Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35) and the so-called
ceived
Apostles'Creed declares Jesus to have been "conby the Holy Ghost."
Consequently the
rather than
term
"virgin," birth
"supernatural,"
for the idea.
accurate designation
might be a more
of primitive peoples
religions,whether
Many
that have reached a relatively
or of races
high stage
of culture,entertain belief in supernatural births,
of accounting for the unique ability
as
means
a
Buddha
and
heroes
of great men
(q.v.). Thus
been
said to have
was
supernaturaUy begotten,
not
was
a
virgin; and the
although his mother
to be born
expected savior of Persian faith was
of a virgin miraculously impregnated by the seed
of the opinion
The Egyptians were
of Zoroaster.
took a mortal as bride,who
that a deity sometimes
mother
divine child.
to a
consequentlybecame
of the
speculatedabout the nature
They even
and
generative process under such circumstances
explained it in terms of the action of the god's
mon
comspirit(pneuma). Supernatural births were
in Greek tradition,
but no particularemphasis
the mother's
was
virginity. Among
placed upon
it was
current belief that their progenitor
Romans
had been divinelyborn of a virginmother.
Romulus
By the beginning of the Christian era reports of
the miraculous
genesis of numerous
mythical and
historical persons of distinction were
widely prevalent
world.
throughout the Mediterranean
in
Christian
interest
far
How
claiming supernatural
influenced by the curbirth for Jesus was
rency
the
Gentiles
of that
of similar beliefs among
debated.
Sometimes
much
the
has
been
time
Old Testament
phrase, "a virgin shall conceive"
(Isa.7:14) has been regarded as furnishing the
Other
doctrine.
for the
incentive
interpreters,
noting the absence in Isaiah of any reference to a
miraculous
impregnation of the virgin,have been
of the opinion that Christian interest in this subject
istic
first awakened
was
by contact with this charactermethod
of accreditingrevered persons
among
Gentiles.
Believing, as all loyal Christians did,
that Jesus could be furnished with credentials suc-

VIRTUES

AND

VICES."

A virtue is a habit or a
approval. A vice is
type of action meriting

type of action meriting moral

trait of character or a
a
moral disapproval.
if not
The complexity of life makes
it difficult,
impossible,to draw up any complete list of virtues
and
vices. Actions
are
differentlyestimated in
different grades of culture; and the determination
of what a virtue is depends on the ethical criterion
which
holds.
one
"cardinal"
so-called
1. The
virtites. Plato
\
viewed ethics as the art of introducingharmony into
hfe, both for the individual and for society. For
this harmonious
control of life he advocated and
"
virtues.
Wisdom
expounded four fundamental
and
inteUigentlysurveys life in all its relationships
be secured.
discloses the way in which harmony may
'
for
Courage suppliesthe positiveenergy necessary
ascertains.
which wisdom
carryingout the program
enables
to subone
Temperance, or self-control,
y
ordinate feelingsand selfish interests to the total
|
good^ Justice organizesall virtues into a harmonious
whole,and is thus the highest virtue. In the
standard
ethics of the Middle
Ages and in many
times these virtues are
recent
systems x)i more
taken as a startingpoint for the analysisof morality.
Christian ethics added
to these three "theological
virtues,"
/ai//i,
hope,and love,which were attainable
Thus seven
fundamental
only with the aid of grace.
For the sake of symmetry,
virtues were
secured.
of vices was
adduced, although
a similar number
there was
entire agreement as to what these
never
and unchastity
were.
Pride,avarice,
anger, gluttony,
of course, the other two (sometimes
as
a matter
appear
three) being selected from envy, vainglory,
gloominess,and indifference.
2. Aristotle's criterion
of virtues. Aristotle
between
two
defined virtue as the right mean
of conduct.
extremes
Every virtue may have two
corresponding vices,one due to excess, the other
For example, generosity
due to deficiency
of action.
between
is the right mean
extravagance on the onto
hand
and
niggardhness on the other. Following
"

"

Vishnu

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

468

this method
of analysis,he drew up a considerable
Sightis the most imporvery productive of such.
tant
list of virtues and vices,thus attempting a remarkof the human
ably
and the most
intellectual.
senses
For most
complete ethical analysis.
in
thinking goes on largely visual
persons
It is to be expected therefore that dreams
terms.
3. Some
typicaldefinitions.Stoicism set forth
the task of ethics as living in harmony with the
and
visions will Jbe chiefly of this type. The
divine Logos, or rational principleof the cosmos.
primary cause of visions,
given a properlysuggestive
The important virtues were
wisdom
and "apathy"
organism, is a highlyconcentrated emotional attention
self-control (indifference
to the soUcitations of
or
religioussubjects. Prolonged brooding
upon
the
forms
the person and character of Christ has brought
various
of
senses). The
Hedonism,
upon
visions of him to many
The isolamaking pleasurethe supreme end of life,
tion
emphasize
lonelydevotees.
of hermits and holy men,
wise discrimination
in the values of various
a
together with their
ascetic practices,
have prepared them to achieve the
pleasures.The virtues are such types of action
vidualistic
will bring the maximum
of happiness. Indias
experience. Similar phenomena occur
frequently
hedonism
emphasize a crafty in other than reUgious experience. For example,
may
prudence. Social hedonism may emphasizeloyalty the visions of the absent lover or of a dear one who
has died.
to a social order which
will protect the individual
In Israel,
in the later times, the visions
referred to the tests of practical
against aggression (Hobbe's theory of subjection of prophets were
life to determine
their value and that is the only
to the State); or it may
set forth the mutual
of measuring their worth today.
means
another so as to exalt a
dependence of men
on
one
Edward
S. Ames
system of moral rightsand duties (UtiUtarianism).
Intuitionism is a form of ethical philosophy which
VISITATIO
SANCTORUM
LIMINUM
APOSTOLORUM."
conceives of good and evil as eternallyfixed laws
In R.C.
practise,the visitation of
in the order of nature.
the churches of Saints Peter and Paul in Rome
and
The virtues consist in acts
of conformity to this a priori good (Cudworth,
of the pope, in fulfilment of a vow, or obedience to a
Samuel
virtues
prescriptionof the church.
Clarke). Lists of "axiomatic"
drawn
of the British moralists,
were
up by some
THE."
The
visit of Mary, the
VISITATION,
includingsuch ideals as the worship of God, the
in Luke
mother
of Jesus, to EUzabeth, recorded
duty of wholesome
self-development,equity in
toward
1 : 39 fif The feast of the Visitation occurs
our
July 2.
dealings with others, benevolence
etc.
fellow-men, industriousness,
Attempts have
R.C.
ORDER
OF
THE."
A
been made to discover some
all-inclusivevirtue
one
VISITATION,
female order established by St. Francis of Sales and
by which all actions may be tested. Characteristic
Mme
de Chantal in 1607.' It is devoted especially
benevolence
are
(Hutcheson), or the attitude of
to the education of girls.
rational obedience
to the categorical
imperative
(Kant). PhilosophicalIdealism would deduce all
VISITATION
OF THE
SICK."
A mmistration
virtues from the fundamental
attempt on the part
of the clergywhich is expUcitlyprescribed
in certain
of finite man
to realize the fullness of the Absolute
5:14r-15.
in his living(Fichte,T. H. Green).
conciliar decrees on
the basis of James
In the Anglican Book
of Common
4. Empirical ethics seeks to ascertain what
Prayer an
ters.
of minisfor the use
actions actuallyyield satisfaction,
and to classify occasional office is prescribed
In the Roman
them as good or bad.
Hume
liturgy it is connected with
distinguishednatural
virtues, like generosity, equity, clemency, etc., confession and absolution,and in the case of the
unction.
which
bring instinctive pleasure,from artificial dying with extreme
virtues which rest on the satisfaction of doing what
VITALIANUS."
is conventionally approved. Modern
Pope, 657-672.
scholars,
of man,
recognizing the essentiallysocial nature
The
RELIGIOUS."
would define virtues in terms of social relationships,
impulses
VOCATION,
and would seek in the evolution of societythe key
which men
recognize as providentialguidance are
often felt as a call to the priesthoodor the ministry,
to
the changing lists of virtues.
See Ethics;
and churches, Roman
or
Protestant, have asked
Utilitarianism; Right.
form
of such a call (cf The Cambridge PlatBirney
assurance
Gerald
Smith
VISHNU.
One of the most
VIII, 1). As Paul was called to an apostle's
important gods in
work by an act of grace, so, lest it become
the Hindu
hireling
pantheon; in Vedic times a minor god,
of
but in later Hinduism
a
of the members
of the
sense
one
service,all ministry should rest upon
triad with the fimction of preserver.
divine constraint, "the constraint of a heart which
do no other."
can
Early reflections on this matter
life.
dealt chieflywith the adoption of the monastic
VISIONS.
Mental
states in which the subject
lifelike
Cassian (Conferences III^4) distinguishesthree
to see
with
seems
objects and
persons
modes
clearness
such
known; direct
no
by which a call is made
though others present have
"

"

"

inspiration,the influence of a kindUng example,

experience. The visions of Ezekiel and of Swedenand the hard compulsion of the vicissitudes of life.
borg are illustrations.
teries
monasThe pressure of such questionsended when
Throughout the historyof religionvisions have
endowments
for the younger sons of the
became
and they have been considered
not been uncommon
ing
but it was
made acute again by the searchdue to supernatural
nobility,
agencies. Coe regards these
tests of IgnatiusLoyola and Suarez,definingthe
in the terminology of
phenomena as hallucinations,
identification of such a divine call in psychological
interpretation
psychology. In illusions there is simply a misof the object but in hallucinations
experienceand the compatibiUty of it with freedom
of choice.
The psychological
there is no object present in reality. The stimuU
problem is the same
in his contention
as that discussed
by Jonathan Edwards
are
intraorganic. They are also of the order of
for a direct perceptionof the action of grace
automatisms, that is, reactions of the organism
which are involuntaryand which seem
to the subject
as
distinguishablefrom the action of the human
and
mind.
Visions are automatto be induced
from without.
Protestantism, ending monasticisrn
isms
of all believers,
of a visual character but there are also automatisms
appliedthe
affirmingthe priesthood
held that
thinks himself
discussion to the layman's life. Luther
of hearing as when
one
in which
each man's lot was
assigned by God and he was
spoken to, and automatisms of movement
concerned
one
only with the duty of piety in a calling
speaks or makes a gesture unconsciously and
emphasized the
been
have
passively accepted. Calvinism
ReUgious revivals
unintentionally.
_

469

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Wake

this money
had been raised for superannuated
soldiers of the American
Salvation Army, was
deposed from his command.
A remonstrance
on
the part of the American Salvationists against this
recall proved ineffective. To conserve
ness
the usefulof many
who had withdrawn
from the Army,
A
"P
IjTT'RTCl'T'T'IT'
BaUingtonBooth organizeda new body incorporated
MARIE
DE
in the State of New
FRANCOIS
ARONET
VOLTAIRE,
York, November
9, 1896.
rationalist philosopher and
Chief features of its principles
that "all proper(1694-1778). French
are
ties,
real estate
and
of letters. His attitude toward the privileged
man
personal, of the Volunteer
and persecutingorthodoxy of his day is expressed
movement
shall be held by a body of five to seven
the infamous"
and
in his slogan, "Crush
(ecrasezweU known
citizens
responsible American
church
rehinstead of being handed
I'infdme). While severely criticizing
to one
over
man.
and
built
toward
It
and
is
inclined
must
be
American
institution
deism,
a temple
an
ever
gion, he
of the constitution
and practice
to God on his estate.
recognizingthe spirit
of the United States." "The
officer in supreme
The
VOLUNTARISM."
shall be elected by the
philosophicalconcepmiUtary command
tion
of reahty which
interpretsultimate reaUty soldiers. He may be removed
by a three-fourths
vote of the Grand
Field Council."
teer
in terms of will rather than in terms of intellect.
Every volunsubscribe to a belief in one supreme
must
Theologicallyvoluntarism
God,
grounds moral and
the Trinity, the inspirationof the Bible^
Jesus
logicaldistinctionson the will of God rather
even
Christ as the Son of God, the doctrine of the immorOn this theory
than upon the demands
of reason.
tality
of the soul, and of eternal punishment.
that is rightor true which God willsto be so.
The
God
is
man's
and
is
Woman
as
entitled
represents
recognized
as
opposing theory (intellectuaUsm)
equal,
to the same
privilegesin the organization. In
willingwhat he does because it is inherentlyrational.
addition to evangelistic
In modern
work, it provides homes for
philosophy the term indicates a type
of interpretation
friendless young
which makes
works
primary the active, destitute men,
women,
templative among
unprotected children and prisoners,and
practicalaspectsof experiencerather than the conwork
for the worthy poor.
and
lowed performs tenement
rationaUzing. Kant
(q.v.),folThe Volunteers
number
the ethical realm
10,204 (1919).
by Fichte (q.v.),made
Peter
^^odf*
Ct
where will is all-importantmore
primary than the
VOTIVE
MASS."
In the R.C. practice,a mass
intellectualrealm where considerations of logical
not
liturgically
prescribed,but the celebration of
ment
consistencyare aU-important.A radical developwhich is left to the discretion of the officiating
of this type of interpretation
was
given by
priest,
Schopenhauer (q.v.),who conceived the ultimate
VOTIVE
OFFERING."
the
church
In
R.C.
blind will. A
irresistible,
reahty as an irrational,
an
or
as
offeringin fulfilment of a vow
expression
of the voluntaristie point of view is
modification
of gratitude,and presc^bedto a shrine or pictureof
found in pragmatism which interpretsall thinking
a saint.
for the reaUzation
of
a
as
practicalinstrument
Gerald
Birney
Smith
definite purposes.
VOTIVE
OFFICES."
Services which are
peiv
in fulfilment of such.
formed because of a vow
AMERICA."
An
can
AmeriVOLUNTEERS
OF
secession from the Salvation Army of Britain.
VOWS.
See Oaths
Vows.
and
Commander
BaUington Booth, in charge of the
VULGATE."
A Latin version of the Bible used
Salvation Army, having refused to remit
American
in the R.C. church as the authoritative Scripture.
to London
headquarters a War-Cry Sustentation
the ground that
See Versions
Bible.
Fund
demanded
on
of the
by his father,

religious
duty of widsom in the choice of a vocation
for
since callingsare varied opportunitiesto work
This rationaUzingof the "call"
the glory of God.
choice
and
the restrictions imposed on
by the
economic
problem again
system isolate the spiritual
to the vocations which sacrifice worldly advantage.

"

....

....

"

w
cake made
of
^A thin, unleavened
WAFER.
wheaten
flour,used as the consecrated bread of the
R.C.
wafer
is stamped with
The
Eucharist.
a
and the letters I.H.S.
cross
"

WAHABITES.

A
Protestant, reforming sect
ibn Abd al'Wahab
of Islam founded by Mohammed
in the 18th. century. He
attempted to recaU
Islam to its originalpurityas found in the Koran
in the
tradition of the first centuries and
and
agreement of the Companions of the Prophet.
tion.
Everythingadded later was considered a degeneraConsequently the authority of the canon
lawyers was challenged; the worship of saints and
the tomb
of
pilgrimages to their tombs, even
condemned
as
were
idolatry.The
Mohammed,
monotheism
and a Uteral
sect insisted on
a severe
interpretationof the Scripture and tradition. At
their rule is
time a threateningpolitical
one
power,
Arabia
and
Western
restricted to Central
now
is
but the reUgious influence of the movement
stiU considerable throughout Islam, especiaUy in
India.
"

WAKAN,
Sioux

Indians

WAKONDA."
for the

word

used

by

the

impersonal potency which,

when
nature

present, gives
or
quaUty to

Mana;
WAKE.
and

super-usual

things and

or

superior

persons.

See

Manitu; Orenda.

^The essence
of the wake is that kinsmen
friends of a dead man
shaU, until final
dispositionof the corpse is made, remain in the
of the body without
During
presence
sleeping.
the interval
between
death
and
interment
or
cremation, the spiritof the dead is in a most
unstable pUght,and it may
seek to
very
possibly
return to its earthlybody or to revisit its old home.
Such return
would
be a great perilto the Uving,
especially in view of the superhuman powers
discarnate;
acquired by a spiritwhen it becomes
and
it is, therefore,advisable
for those closely
associated with the deceased during his Ufetime to
guard against this danger. There is also the even
other discarnate ghost or
greater perilthat some
maUgnant spirit,who are ever
wandering abou1h".
in search of a body in whic h to dweU, may
seek to
of providing food
The
custom
enter the corpse.
and drink for the watchers is a later development
for their comfort, and is scarcely connected
with
the feast for the dead, which is held at or after
of the body.
Louis H. Grat
finaldisposition
"

Waldenses

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

A mediaeval dissentingbody
of Lyons, a
(ca. 1108) by Peter Waldo
of mediaeval monaswealthy citizen who in the spirit
WALDENSES.

"

founded

ticism reached the conviction that individual ownership

of property was
tianity
contrary to the spiritof Chrisand that the masses
of the people should
be evangelized in their own
languages. Having
disincumbered himself of property by charity and
the expense
of translating the Scriptures,and
having gathered and trained a body of likeminded
he led a successful campaign
and
men
women,
of evangelismwhich in a few years almost covered
his work
was
Europe with its influence. When
prohibitedby the local authorities he appealed to
the pope
disclaiming any intention to antagonize
the Church
but insisting
the right to evanon
gelize.
^

Waldo

began

to

preach evangeUcalpenance

in

AND

ETHICS

470

WALHALLA."
The dwelling
of Odhin in Asgard.
It was
the paradiseof warriors selected on the field
of battle by the Walkyries. Heroes
there lived a
joyous hfe of fightingand feasting. The hall had a
roof of shields,
and was
for beams
brilliant
spears
with the flashingof armour.

WALIS.^ee

Welis.

WALKYRIES.
Divine
fates
warrior-maidens,
of the battle-field in Norse
mythology. They
selected the bravest of the warriors falUng in battle
for the companionship of the gods in WalhaUa.
"

WANDERING

CLERGY."

See Vaqantes.

WANDERING
JEW." A mythical character,
described in a legendoriginating
in Germany in 1602.
The
tradition records that because
he refused to
permit Jesus to rest at his door while bearing the
condemned
to be a wanderer
in the
cross, he was
earth until the second coming of Christ.

Forbidden
1176-77.
by the Archbishop o^ Lyons,
he continued.
condemned
The Waldenses
were
by
and
Councils
of the Lateran
the Third
Fourth
(1179 and 1215) for teaching doctrines not in accord
and
faith on the Trinity,divinity,
with Cathohc
incarnation
YANG
MING
of Christ, inspiration of Scripture,
(1472-1528 a.d.)."A
Chinese teacher of absolute ideahsm whose influence
originalsin and the necessity of infant baptism,
conferred
isters. extended to Japan. He held that reaUty is one, perby sinful minvalidityof sacraments
sonal
and spiritual;
that the old distinction between
maintained
iron discipline,the material and spiritual
is unreal; that the nature
Waldo as a leader
an
of man
is one with reaUty, and therefore in the human
requiring the inner circle of his followers to give
family relationships(even marital),property, conscience man may read the meaning and nature of
up
and secular avocations.
ihe universe. The way to truth,then, is by intuiIn Northern
tion
Italy,Waldo
not by much
edge
early established relations with a more
evangelical
learningnor by logic. "Knowlis dyspepsia" he said._
By keeping the heart
party (Humiliati,probably followers of Arnold of
the real intuitive
rebelled against his
soon
Brescia), who however
clean, by spiritualdiscipline,
clear and
find natural
two
rigid requirements. The
parties agreed in
knowledge will become
infant baptism
His system released
maintaining baptismal regeneration,
expressioni.nsocial conduct.
and .transubstantiation. The
Italians denied the
from
bondage to the old authorities and
many
of ordinances
administered by unworthy
became
liberalism
a
efficacy
philosophicaid to modern
affirmed
it. The
French
in Japan.
priests,the French
required of the Italians acknowledgment that
the Italians would
WAR
INVESTITURE."
See Investttube;
Waldo
OF
was
a saved
go -no
man,
further than to say that if he repented of his sins
of.
Worms, Concordat
(no doubt meaning his intolerant attitude toward
ADOLF
GUSTAV
Both partieshad
WARNECK,
(1834-1910)."
themselves) he might be saved.
German
for his activity in
during the 13th. and 14th. centuries strong condivine; best known
nexional
organizations,with bishops or majors, support of missions,and especiallyfor his literary
elders and
(usually works on the historyof missions.
deacons, annual conventions
in Lombardy), itinerant evangelists,schools or
of evangelists
A
OF
RELIGION."
series of wars
WARS
meeting places for the entertainment
and meeting houses.
beginningin 1562 in which the Huguenots (French
By 1260, as we learn from
preserved inquisitorial
Protestants)sought to establish rights of worship
accounts, both partieshad
of France.
A series of Edicts
become
within specific
far more
areas
evangelical,
maintaining that they
themselves
constituted the true apostolicchurch,
(Amboise 1563, St. Germ/iin 1570, Rochelle 1573,
Catholic
that the ministration
of Roman
priests Beaulieu 1576,Bergerac 1578,Fleix 1580) conceding
constituted a malediction rather than a benediction, sUght advantages to opposing forces almost evenly
rejected matched, served only as breathing speUs for the
denying transubstantiation,while some
which remained
renewal of the conffict,
infant baptism and insisted on
indecisive
personalfaith as
until the Politiques,
were
interposingas nationalists,
prerequisiteto baptism, etc. No doubt they had
been influenced by earlier more
evangelicalparties able to effect a compromise in the conversion to
Rome
of Henry of Navarre, the leader of the
Henricians, Arnoldists). In the
(Petrobrusians,
16th. century they negotiated with the Lutheran
tant
Huguenots, with the concession to them of imporembodied in the
the Reformed
With
the latter
and
movements.
reUgiousand civic,
privileges,
in
Edict of Nantes
the Zwinglian type) they had more
(q.v.).
(especially
common
and, accepting infant baptism, took their
See PuBmcACEREMONIAL."
in the great
WASHING,
place as a definite denomination
Reformed
body, those radically TiON, Rites op.
(Presbyterian)
opposed to infant baptism no doubt finding their
HOLY."
See Holy
Watbb.
WATER,
Anabaptists. The Waldenses have
place among
their
their independent status, and
maintained
OF." Water
is
LITURGICAL
USE
of religious
WATER,
ened
loyaltyhas been greatlystrengthsense
universal of religioussymbols.
of the most
gone
one
by the persecutionswhich they have underof life" the element
is significant
As "the waters
of the Catholics.
An
English
at the hands
his life in the
not
Colonel Beckwith, devoted
only because of its importance in quenching
officer,
but also because of the relation of vegetation
first half of the 18th. centuryto the establishment
thirst,
elaborate
This relation leads to most
ideals.
to water.
of schools and the raisingof their religious
Today the Waldenses are a vigorous evangelistic rituals and beliefs especiallyin regions where the
rainfall is slightor precarious,as on the borders of
13,000. A. H. Newman
body, numbering some

yANG

471

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Werewolf

of
in the arid Southwest
Desert
the Arabian
signed the Formula of Concord, but his views philosophically
or
tended to pantheism,
and theologically
the Pueblo and other agrithe United States,among
cultural
and he became
In such regionsspringsand pools
Indians.
a leader of "spiritual"
Christianity.
while the waters from above,
sacred places,
become
VON
HEINRICH
viewed
veneration.
KARL
with
WEIZSAECKER,
the descending rains,are
(1822-1899). German
Water
pastor and theologian,probeing so regarded, it is natural that it
fessor
valuable contributions
at Tubingen, who
made
should be widely employed in religiousritual,
in the early
and as a symbol
to the History of Christianity
both as a symbol of purification
of lifeand strength. Its more
important ritualistic period. His best known work is The ApostolicAge.
of
are:
uses
(1) Libation,in which drink-offerings
WELIS.
mixed
with blood or wine are
Moslem saints who are credited with
of water
water
or
They are usuallyranked lower
presented to deities or poured forth as propitiations miraculous powers.
than the prophets but as the favorites of God their
to the dead.
(2) Lustration,or purificationby
the body or
In theory
water
help is nearest at hand in times of need.
sprinkledor poured upon
ceremonial
they are not supposed to receive worship and in
objects. (3) Ablution, or ceremonial
of the most
the mosque
they receive recognitiononly as holy
bathing, a rite which is todajr one
in certain
in behalf
is known
intercession to God
who
make
ones
practices,
may
important in Muslim
In reaUty,however, their tombs are places
of men.
Christian sects in the bathing of the feet,and is a
of devotion
and
cults.
feature of many
(4) Baptism, or
they are directlyappealed to
pagan
for aid.
ceremonial devotion through the life-symbolismof
but also
not only as a Christian rite,
water; known
man
in other ancient religionsand in America
WELLHAUSEN,
JULIUS (1844-1918)." Geramong
Oriental scholar, well
and various wild tribes of
Old
and
Testament
the Aztecs of Mexico
from
America
North
pre-Columbian times. (5) known for his critical investigationsin connection
with the Old Testament.
He gave wide currency
Ordeals,in which swearing by water, being cast into
of Israelitish History which
water, drinking ceremonial or sanctifiedwaters, etc., to that interpretation
exalts the prophetic period, and interpretsthe
5:
tests of guiltor innocence,as in Num.
made
are
Law
as a later development.
11-31.
(6) Oracles, springs, pools, ceremonial
fashions as a basis for
waters
being used in many
WELSH
CHURCH."
how soon
It is not known
reading fate or fortune.
after its introduction into Britain toward the end
The
phrase livinqwater- commonly denotes
is usually
of the 2nd. century, nor
through what channels,
running water, and it is this which
With
the invasion of
Christianityentered Wales.
regardedas the natural vehicle of the powers of this
the
Saxons
it became
element.
strategicallyidentified
Running water is closelyassociated with
is its natural
with Wales, where British civiUzation had not been
the sanctityof the earth, which
in
it evolved
down.
There
an
ruthlesslybroken
vessel; and it is this symbolism which appears
ecclesiastical system and
advanced
estabUshed
Num.
5:17, and again in Ley. 14:5, where the
fested
several monasteries.
Distinctive
features manirunning water must be placed in an earthen vessel
the
at Augustine's conference
of the sacrifice caught in such a vessel
(603) were
or the blood
Indian
the
Easter
of baptism and
In certain American
date, the ceremony
over
running water.
be
The
must
tonsure.
triumph of Roman
Christianityin
rites (baptismal and other) running water
The
effected in the 13th. century.
was
caught in a bowl hewn from the wood of a living Wales
influence of the Renaissance, tardy in penetrating
tree,the rite thus symbolizing the relation of water
Wales, appears
(1588) in the first complete Welsh
to earth through the vegetationborn of earth.
H. B. Alexander
as
Bishop Morgan's Bible. The
Bible, known
of
ter
ISAAC
(1674-1748)."English minisgrowth of Puritanism is connected with the names
WATTS,
fame rests on
John
the Independents, whose
Henry, Vicar Prichard, and William Roth.
among
of the Welsh
to
With the ejectionof hundreds
clergy
his contributions
English hymnology. He
ity
held that hymns should be an
expression of the
shortlyafter the execution of Charles,nonconformmade
of evangelicalChristians,not simply a
devotion
rapid growth during the Commonwealth,
He thus
and under the unwise Stuart-Hanoverian
of the ideas in the Psalms.
poUcy of
reproduction
appointing only Englishmen to vacant Welsh sees.
opened the way for the free composition of hymns.
Under
a
system of catechizingin the vernacular,
able to reach a
GriflSth Jones
Same as Stations
CROSS."
WAY
OF THE
of
(1683-1761) was
third of the Welsh
Cross
population with scriptural
THE
(q.v.).
teaching. The indifference of the EngUsh prelates
revival that accompanied
CHURCH."
The
in Wales to the marked
FREE"
"WEE
name
larly
poputhis system of teaching,led to the Great Schism of
applied to the few congregationsof the Free
resisted union with the
of farming and laboringmembers
1811 when the mass
Church
of Scotland which
In 1906
abandoned
the Established Church.
United Presbyterianbody in 1900,and pressedlegal
was
appointed to inquire into the
proceedings so as to retain separate possession a Commission
of the endowments
belongingto the Free Church.
status,endowment, and work done by the churches
The
in Wales.
report of this Commission, presented
lishment
followed by a Welsh Disestabin 1910, was
time
A
WEEK.
measurement
probably of
which
Act (1914),according to
during a
Babylonian origin,being one-fourth of the lunar
Church
in
Hebrews
The
month.
adopted the institution, forty-year period, the EstabUshed
In
is to be dispossessedof its temporahties,
Wales
the seventh day their day of rest.
and made
to be devoted
therefrom
the money
through a
Christianitythis usage continued with the change
to universities and Ubraries
Board of Commissioners
worship. Gradually
to the first day for rest and
of the War, this
On account
attached
to other
services were
days until the
throughout Wales.
act has not yet been brought into force.
out a hturgy for the
church had worked
Cathohc
G. Mode
Peter
week.
whole week, the liturgical
A human
WEREWOLF.
being who at times
of a wolf.
Even
in
the form and nature
FEAST
OF." See Pentecost.
assumes
WEEKS,
wolf's
he is supposed to possess
human
form
a
heart.
In the transformed
shape the eye remains
VALENTIN
(1533-1588)." German
WEIGEL,
Akin to the werewolf is the berserker^
a
Lutheran
a
pastor and formally human.
mystic. He was
^

"

"

"

"

Wergild
in

man
are

most

the
common

OP

DICTIONARY

shape of a bear.
in Europe.

Such

RELIGION

folk-beliefs

A money
WERGILD.
compensation paid by
man-slayer or his kin to the kin of the slain man.
This ciistom replaced the primitiveblood-revenge
the Teutonic
paid
peoples. The amount
among
varied according to the social status of the dead
and was
shared by his relatives according to
man
"

nearness

of kin.

OF (d.1479)." Pre-reformation
adversely criticized the church's
regarding original sin, indulgences,
transubstantiation,feasts and fasts,the filioque
ritualistic forms, insistingthat
clause and many
the authority of pope, church, and councils should
that
of Scripture. He
was
be subordinate
to
forced to recant in 1479, his writingswere
burned,
and he was
incarcerated in the monastery at Mainz

WESEL,

JOHN

Protestant.
doctrines

He

ETHICS

AND

472

enforced with
was
Prayer without
alteration,
I. and
increasing rigor under Elizabeth, James
Charles I, Laud, archbishop of Canterbury under
Charles, by his attempt to force prelacy and
liturgyupon Scotland provoked the renewal of the
Scotch National Covenant
(1638) and called forth
resistance.
The popular demand
armed
expressed
in the Root and Branch Petition
(1640) to root
out

episcopacy,and

in the

Grand

Remonstrance

met
(1641) callingfor an ecclesiastical synod was
by the Long Parliament,which abolished episcopacy
and the liturgy,1642, and summoned
the Westminster

Assembly.

Membership.
The
rules
II. Rules
and
made
governing the Assembly were
by Parliament
which
also appointed the members, 121 ministers
and 30 laymen, the prolocutor,Twisse, and other
and
officers,
paid the expenses of the members
revised and
authority to the Assembly's
gave
The Assembly met July 1, 1643 in Jerusawork.
lem
until his death soon
after.
Abbey, and held 1163
Chamber, Westminster
sessions. The Scotch who were
invited to participate
made their own
terms in the Solemn
CHARLES
League
JOHN
WESLEY,
(1707-1788)AND
Samuel
which
demanded
and
Covenant
"the
nearest
of
(1703-1791). The two brothers,sons
dist
and Susanna
conjunction in religion,confession of faith,form
Wesley, and the leaders of the Methoeducated
of church
at Oxford
Both
were
government, directory of worship and
movement.
ment
catechizing" for the two kingdoms, the docuUniversity, and John filled there for an interval
office of instruction.
being solemnly assented to at a jointmeeting
an
of Assembly and Parliament
John
Sept. 25, 1643. The
Wesley, in respect of organizing talent
Scotch members
and
the unrivalled leader of 18th.
attending,four ministers and two
was
agency,
the situation and the PresbyHis energy
was
unwearying
laymen, dominated
terian
century Methodism.
the tinae when
From
and his industry enormous.
element,preponderant at the start,gained
his marked
religiousexperience(1738) inspired as the meetings went on.
III. Achievements.
of itinerant evangelism he
^The Assembly produced
him
for his mission
Confession
of Faith
(q.v.),the
traveled,mostly on horseback, about forty-five the Westminster
hundred
miles annually,during a periodof more
Large and Shorter Catechisms, the Directory for
the Public Worship of God and the Form
of Church
than
fifty years, and preached throughout this
Government, the last providing for the erection
period not less than twice a day on the average.
Ireland.
of presbyteriesin England and
These
In addition he wrote
extensively,and was
very
formularies were
of all important developments
alert to take account
completelyset aside in the land
Frederic
Loofs
has
of their birth by Charles
Professor
As
of his era.
II., (1660) but with
have
dominated
the
Presbyterian
remarked: "In the many-sidedness of his education, amendments
of
countries.
churches
See also
interest in all branches
in English-speaking
and in his unwearied
S. Schapf
David
Presbyterianism.
knowledge, he is without a peer amongst revival
"

"

"

preachersin

any

age."

Charles Wesley, though an

able preacher,was
He
above all the hymnist of early Methodism.
lived and moved
and had his being in sacred song.
Of the several thousand
poeticalproductions with
few are
which
he is credited not
a
universally
adjudged to be masterpieces. See Wesleyan
C. Sheldon
Henry
Chtjeches; Methodism.

The
CONFESSION."
trinal
docformulated
by the Westminster
Assembly of divines (1644-1647), consisting of
with appended proof-texts.
thirty-threearticles,
The
Confession embodying the five^
points of
Calvinism
divine sovereignty,human
impotence,
limited
atonement, irresistible grace, and final
last creed
drawn
is the
by
perseverance
up
Calvinist theologians;
it appears to have exhausted
of doctrine,if
the impulsefor elaborate statements
indeed the hour has not forever passed for such
attempts. Excepting the Tridentine Creed, it is
the ablest,most highly reasoned confession of faith
since the 5th. century.
With omissions concerning
church government and discipline,
it is the doctrinal
standard
of the American
Presbyterian churches,
and the system contained in it is prescribedfor all
and
tions,
addifurther omissions
office-bearers. With
for more
it was
than a hundred
years after
can
1648 adopted "for substance of doctrine" by AmeriIt appears
also
Congregational churches.
of the Baptists.
in the Philadelphia Confession
More
recently the Presbyterian body has drawn
"Brief Statement
of the Reformed
a
Faith,"
up
which
presents more
simply and with changed
inserting
emphasis the content of the Confession,
and missions,denying
sections on the Holy Spirit,
damnation
of infants dying in infancy,
and bringing
the love of God into the foreground.
WESTMINSTER

statements

"

"

WESLEYAN

WESSEL,
as

Wessel

CHURCHES."

See Methodism.

also
(1419-1489)."Known
His
theology

JOHANN
Harmenss

Gansfort.
_

basically Augustinian^
mysticism. He was
of profound religiousexperience, and
man
a
engaged in vigorous criticism of those aspects of
ritual which
the prevaiUng R.C. theology and
For this reason
formalism.
he
encouraged mere
was

called
is sometimes
the Reformation."

one

of the "reformers

before

BROOKE
FOSS
(1825-1901)."
WESTCOTT,
for his
Anglican bishop and scholar; best known
Canon,
commentaries, works on the New Testament
and his jointproduction with Fenton John Anthony
Hort

of a criticaledition of the Greek

New

Testament.

ASSEMBLY."
A
WESTMINSTER
synod
formulated the Westminster
(1643-1648) which
Standards, embodying the doctrines of Puritanism
in England, after a century of struggle.
of
Act
The
I. Antecedents.
Uniformity,
1559, requiring the use of the Book of Common
"

Cv

WESTPHALIA,
given to

A. "Rf'Pkx^th

OF."
A name
monly
comcollection of treaties negotiated
PEACE

DICTIONARY

473

OF

RELIGION

between
1645 and 1648 at the cities of Osnabriick
and Munster, and finally
signed in October of the
latter year.
the Emperor,
to these treaties were:
The parties
and Spain, and the United
the kings of France
The independence of the Netherlands
Netherlands.
was
was*
acknowledged, and that of Switzerland
received Western
confirmed. Sweden
Pomerania;
the Upper Palatinate was
permanently united to
Bavaria and the Duke's electoral dignity was
firmed;
conbut the Count Palatine was
restored to his
realm and an eighth electorate created
diminished
1624 was
taken as a normal
The
for him.
year
the Protestant claim
year (a compromise between
contention for 1630),and
of 1618 and the CathoUc
restored as far as possible to the
Germany was
For the firsttime the Reformed
status of that year.
churches were
granted equal toleration with adlierThis was
the
of the Augsburg Confession.
ents
first European peace, and its unsatisfactoryterms
concerned
effective because all Europe was
became
in preventing another conflict.
Henry
C. Vedder
OF

"WHEEL

LIFE.

"

See Samsara.

AND

ETHICS

wm

often among
uncivilized peopleswidows
quently
the wives of relatives,
and this is also frethe practice of early civilizations. This
widelydistributed in the form of the
usage is most
brother of
a
Levirate,according to which custom
the widow.
the dead husband is compelled to marry
limited to
the Levirate was
Among the Hebrews
had no children.
the case in which the dead husband
For this reason
the practicehas been supposed by
to have grown
out of ancestor
some
worship; but
other peoples this limitation does not
as
among
obtain,it is probable that the practiceprimitively
had its originin the notion of the wife as property;
in the desire to protectthe property
cases
or in some
of the family.
notable
Both
and Christianity
Judaism
are
for the consideration which they accord to widows.
The relief of widows
is made
a
prime virtue by
widow's
both.
The
thropy
philanpensions of modern
thus be said to have had a primitive
may
and early
prototype in the practicesof Judaism
Charles
A. Ellwood
Christianity.
More

become

OF
TREATMENT
WIDOWS,
(CHRISTIAN).
Biblical
of the many
No explanation is needed
and later references to widows
as
an
important
class of social dependents. But in the later Apostolic
made
to provide for
an
attempt was
age
them
by enrollingthose entirelydestitute in an
funds
order supported from
the church
(I Tim.
less
or
copied more
5:9ff.). This treatment was
the
for some
four centuries and
systematically
duties
and
are
privileges of enrolled widows
described in detail in the Apostolic Constitutions
references
the other
(especiallyiii,1-8). But
few and the "widows"
were
eventuallyabsorbed
are
orders.
or by religious
by the deaconesses (q.v.)
B. S. Easton
WILLIAM
(1759-1833)."
WILBERFORCE,
and social reformer; the leader
English statesman
pation
in the emanciof the movement
in England resulting
of slaves, 1806; a supporter of Catholic
emancipation; one of the founders of the Church
Missionary Society and of the Bible Society.
"

GEORGE
(1714-1770)."English
Calvinistic
Methodist; a companion and
collaborator with the Wesleys in the beginnings of
established the innovation
the Methodist
movement;
of out-door preaching,gaining a reputationas
a
preacher and evangelist both in England and

WHITEFIELD,

America.
The
FRIARS."
English designation
of the order of the Carmelites
(q.v.).

WHITE
for members

The

WHITSUNDAY."

seventh

the
Easter, commemorating
Spiriton the day of Pentecost

Sunday

after

gift of the Holy

(seeActs, chap. 2).

HINRICH
JOHANN
(1808-1881).
WICHERN,
social and religiousworker; noted as
German
the founder of the Inner Mission
(q.v.),

"

Sin or moral delinquencyon

WICKEDNESS.
its active side; usually referringto evil that is
with
intent to injure, and
wilfully committed
as
calumny,
includingsuch wrongs
torture,cruelty,
terrorism,etc., in contrast with injuriousconduct
due
to
ignorance or involuntarily committed.
and individualis appliedboth socially
The term

WILFRID
(ca.634-709)." English archbishop,
who
succeeded
in displacing the Celtic by the
advanced
ecclesiastical discipline.He
Roman
and is
and of architecture,
the cause
of education
for the evangelization of the
especially noted
Frisians.

istically.

of determining
^That power
possessedby man
action in a given direction on the basisof
deliberate choice.
conceived and
The word "wUl" is very variously
defined. It has often been representedas a specific
psychological"faculty,"and the analysisof moral
if the "will" arbitrarily
action has been pictured
as
of decision. As a matter
stepped in at the moment
of fact the will is simply one
aspect of a total,
indivisible psychological
complex. It might be
informally described as the capacity of a person
self-controlledin his acts
to be deliberate and
time
rather than merely impulsive. At the same
the impulses furnish the dynamic which leads to
action
is so immediately emotional
When
response
are
that it calls for no thought or dehberation,we
of having willed the act, in fact,
conscious
not
there are some
reflexactions which we cannot will
to prevent, such as winking the eyes if a sudden
thrust at them is made.
In ethical conduct the action of the will indicates
that a good end is not only rationallyapproved
but that the person
consciously pledges himself
to devote his energiesto the fulfilment of the end.
The will is thus the self unified in conscious

"

WICLIF.

WILL.

"

See Wtclifpe.

TREATMENT
OF." The
tion
prohibiis common
of the remarriage of widows
among
uncivilized peoples,
though curiouslyenough
many
similar
find
prohibitionof
no
people do we
among
The
the remarriage of widowers.
prohibition of
to be connected
the remarriage of widows
seems
of her
with the idea of the wife as the property
precededby the
cases
was
husband, and in some
still earlier practice of killingwives at funerals,
The
especiallythose of chiefs or prominent men.
of their
the funeral pyre
on
burning of widows
husbands
was
common
practicein India, which
a
into the 19th. century until suppersisteddown
pressed
by the British government, the last case
immolation
Such
was
reported being in 1877.
the part of the
on
usually voluntary in a measure
victim, death being considered
preferableto the
nence
to fastingand abstifate of a widow, condemned
The
under the control of her husband
s kin.
of child
in India still,
status
of widows
especially
widows,is deplorable.

WIDOWS,

"

William

of Occam

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The
with a rational choice.
action in accordance
physical
of the will" is thus not so much
"freedom
a metaquestion as it is a question of the ability
and to
of a person so to discipUne his emotions
unify them with his best ideals that action may be
rational rather than left to mere
impulse
deliberately
See
is best.
to hap-hazard conceptionsof what
or
Motive; Voluntarism; Value.
Smith
Birney
Gerald
WILLIAM
OCCAM."
See
OF
Occam,
William
of.

474

Church
in England. At the same
time he
of social reform and piety.
active in matters
WITCHCRAFT."

This

word

and

sorcery

was

refer

the same
sort of beliefs and practices,
practically
or
namely the use of magic powers
spiritagencies
for purposes, usually,but not always, private and
to

malevolent.
in
Witchcraft,

narrower

sense,

refers to the

arts of the female

is a

sorceress, or witch, while sorcery

generalterm coveringthe arts of both the

more

sorcerer

GEORGE
SIR
WILLIAMS,
(1821-1905)."
English merchant; noted as the founder of the
Young Men's Christian Association (q.v.);also a
prominent leader in missionary and Bible society

ETHICS

AND

of the
sorcerer

secret

and
Sorceress.
For a general statement
methods
of sorcery, see Magic.
Both the
and the witch are supposedly in control of
sometimes
magical and sometimes
powers,

spiritistic.
Among

activities.

natural

races

primitivepeoples. The
"

toward

varies
is
sorcery

sorcery

attitude

of the

greatly,among

the practice of
to all
common
members
of the group,
others
the
among
is somewhat
of a public character with a
sorcerer
recognized status, still others regard the art with
disfavor and in extreme
consider all sorcery
cases
evil and a constant
to the legitimate
as
menace
functions
of life. Sorcery, both
good and bad,
is especially
associated with the cause
and cure
of
disease,the bringing of misfortune upon others or
the counteracting of evil sorcery of enemies.
In
WILLIBRORD
(ca.657-738). fact,the only way to avert evil magic, as in sickness,
(orWILBRORD)
more
powerful but
English missionary and apostle to the Frisians, is through the magic of some
adept at the art.
carrying out the work begun by Wilfrid (q.v.); friendly
The development of
in active missionarypropaganda.
Am,ong the culture races.
spent a long career
Europe occurred chieflyunder
sorcery in medieval
BENEDIKT
the form
of witchcraft,although the witch had
GEORG
JOHANN
WINER,
the
long previously,e.g., among
philologistand orientalist, been known
(1789-1858). German
She seems
Hebrews, Greeks and Romans.
always
professorat Leipzig,noted as a grammarian of the
Greek of the New
Testament.
to have been regardedas an evilly
disposed person
in league with evil spirits.The
general cycle of
In ancient Greek usage, practical beliefs in the Middle Ages with reference to demons
WISDOM.
and the devil furnished a fertile soil for the spread
skill or unusual
tion
capacity; also a deep appreciaof belief in
witchcraft.
The
rites of witchcraft
of the problems and needs of life. It is one
often conceived
inversions of Christian
and
Christian
were
of the cardinal virtues in Greek
as
beliefs and ceremonies, the witches celebratinga
Vices.
In the Old
and
thought. See Virtues
Black
Mass
and holding specialcommunion
with
is the discernment
of right
wisdom
Testament
the devil. They were
instrument through
supposed to have the power
a quasi-personified
relationships,
to transform
themselves
into animals, to ride
is revealed.
Thus
the
which
the will of God
broomsticks
Literature" comprises proverbs,maxims,
"Wisdom
through the air at night, to inflictall
innocent
to eat
and parabolicsayings,the philosophical
expressions sorts of torments
upon
persons,
children or to kill them
in connection
with the
of later pre-ChristianJewish thinkers,designed to
with the divine
teach practicalethics,consonant
making of their vile potions. All untoward
ness,
of Job, Proverbs,
the books
will. It includes
happenings, abnormal
psychic phenomena, sickwell as certain apocryphal books
readilytransformed by the excitable
etc.,were
as
Ecclesiastes,
craft.
of Solomon, Tobit, Fourth
such as the Wisdom
imagination of those times into evidences of witchIn modem
ethical
Maccabees, and Jesus ben-Sira.
that the history
craft
still holds a
It may readilybe seen
of witchconscientiousness
or
theory wisdom
falls into two
parts, first the actual practice
place of cardinal importance.
of the art by persons believingthemselves
to have
of perseOF." See Wisdom
BOOK
op
superior powers, and second the waves
WISDOM,
cution
directed against persons
supposed to be
Solomon.
minds
witches by people whose
saturated with
were
church and
the delusion that it was
See Wisdom.
LITERATURE."
a reality. The
WISDOM
civil authorities in the Middle
Ages Seem
largely
An
SOLOMON."
OF
WISDOM
apocryphal to have regarded the matter as a delusion but to the
it was
always a serious reality.
appearing in Greek, mind of the masses
book of the Wisdom
Literature,
With
the early Renaissance, however, the beUef
Jew of the
the product probably of an Alexandrian
seemed
the seeking out and
canonical
to gain prestigeand
1st.
by
century B.C., recognized as
the best expression of
It was
the R.C. church.
punishment of those guiltyof witchcraft was taken
through the Inquisition. With
pre-ChristianJewish philosophy, great in thought
up by the Church
an
well as in language. See Apocrypha.
apparently unquestioned belief in the whole
as
"philosophy" of sorcery, religiousleaders
savage
disbelieved
PATRICK
STEPHEN
condemned
those who
as
NICHOLAS
practically
WISEMAN,
of great
were
atheists;old,ill-favored and friendless women
(1802-1865). English cardinal; a man
the most
tastic
fanhe
on
of
singledout for public vengeance
leadership. While
learning and
power
When
the persecutionof supposed
evidence.
devoted Romanist, he believed the church
was
a
often
of conwitches was
at its height accusations
were
elements
should
assimilate the worthful
temporary
of weakminded
based on
the wild statements
or
science.
He
and
was
culture
very
neurotic girls.The lack of any knowledge of the
influentialin increasingthe prestigeof the Catholic
ROGER
(ca. 1604-1684)."
in
Island.
Born
of the colony of Rhode
to Massachusetts
as
a
England, he came
preacher
trouble
and teacher,but as a Baptist encountered
for declaringagainst state interference in religious
to
Banished
from Massachusetts,he went
matters.
Rhode
Island,founding (1636)the firstcolony where
practiced. He
complete religioustoleration was
returned to England where he joinedthe "Seekers,"

WILLIAMS,

Pounder

some

the

"

"

"

"

"

475

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

AND

ETHICS

Woman

of abnormal psychic phenomena such

primitivepeoplesgenerallyhas been found to be one
of respect and of considerable influence.
them
Primitive
to be regarded as signs
For example, persons
in women," allegedby
and as effects of witchcraft.
hetairism,or "communism
with
Lubbock, Morgan and others,has not been found
hysteriaare often insensitive to pain in
of the favorite
to exist.
certain parts of the body and one
Marriage is usually of the monogamic
the thrusting type, and the wife has considerable control over
the
methods of detecting the witch was
children and social influence in general. Under the
of needles into the flesh to discover these spots
maternal
form of the family and society,which is
taken as proofthat the person
which, if found, were
in league with the devil. Various ordeals by
usually considered
was
primitive (see Family), not
fireand water were
appliedto suspects on the suppoonly did the mother and her kin control the children,
sition
his follower from
but many
of the most
essential social and religious
that the devil would
save
functions remained
in the hands
of women.
An
injury. During the 15th. to 17th. centuries it is
extreme
tortured and
estimated that millions of persons were
example of a maternal people are the Zuni
of New
whom
the husband
is a
Mexico, among
put to death for witchcraft.
in the 17th.
The
delusion spread to America
guest in the house of his wife and her people all his
life. The rightof divorce also rests exclusivelyin
especiallyfostered by Cotton
century and was
in Massachusetts.
Here it died out finally her hands.
Mather
maternal
Among
peoples in general
The law againstwitches
have extensive social and political
through its very excesses.
women
rights,
often sharing even
in deliberations
in England was
not repealed until 1735.
concerning
Irving
King
dominant
in matters
war.
or
They are
peace
CONCORD
OF."
An
and have a part in
temptedpertaining to the household
atWITTENBERG,
rites.
most religious
agreement entered into by the Reformers
in 1536 in settlement of the eucharistic controversy.
But all this was
changed with the advent of the
The
Luther, Butzer, patriarchal
principleparticipantswere
system (q.v.) This system presupposed
Melanchthon.
The
verbal
outcome
and
the religious,social,and politicalsubjection of
was
a
submission by the others to the Lutheran
Even among
the most extreme
positions, woman.
patriarchal
and a friendlytruce, but the churches did not concur
and the
peoples, however, such as the Hebrews
in the agreement.
who was
a wife and
Romans, the woman
mother,
although she had no legalrights,held a respected
A
member
of primitive society and honored positionin the social lifewith considerWIZARD.
able
in spell,charm
trained in the use of magic powers
influence.
the wild Teutonic
tribes
Among
and rite and
consequently capable of controlhng of North Europe, whose patriarchalsystem was
retained considerable vestiges
less developed,women
demons, spiritsand ghosts in the interest of his
of their ancient
clients. See also Shamaj^tism.
maternal
rights, especially in
true

ds

nature

caused
hysteria,

"

matters.
religious
In general,however, among
the ancient patriarchal
had
peoples of Europe and Asia the woman
FRAGMENTS."
A postWOLFENBEUTTEL
countries
humous no part in politics,
except that in some
work by Hermann
Samuel
Reimarus
lished female succession to the throne was
pubpermitted.
The Mosaic law made divorce exclusively
by Lessing in the latter part of the 18th.
a privilege
work
The early Roman
law also gave
comprised five fragments, of the husband.
century. The
and dealt with the questionsof revelation,
miracle, the husband alone the rightof divorce,and greatly
and other religious
limited the rightsof inheritance and of property on
questionsfrom the deistic point
of view.
the part of women.
In India, the same
state of
was
dependence of women
recognized as basic in
CHRISTIAN
the laws of Manu, and has continued
down
to the
WOLFF,
(1679-1754)." German
philosopher, professor at Halle and
Marburg.
present.
modified
the
He
the Mediterranean,
In the civilizations arovmd
systematized and
philosophy
of Leibniz, making philosophy a comprehensive
the amelioration
of the condition of women
began
science as
conceived
several centuries before the Christian era.
Thus
by the
system of human
in Rome
Enlightenment (q.v.). By giving a completely
women
acquired the rightsof inheritance
of the existence and
rational accoimt
attributes
and
later full property rights. Already in the
of God, he offended pietistic
had gained the
1st. century B.C., Roman
orthodoxy which insisted
women
on the primary place of the supernatural.
right to divorce their husbands.
By the middle
of this century, their status had become
that of
THOMAS
WOLSEY,
almost complete "personal and proprietary independence,"
(ca.1475-1530)." English
and cardinal.
Under
statesman
pation
Henry VIII. the
amounting to almost complete emanciconcentrated
poUticaland ecclesiastical power
was
socially,
economically,and morally. Owing
of brilliant gifts,
in Wolsey, a man
to the simultaneous
mon
though of uncomdisintegrationof the Roman
He
pride.
strengthened the positionof the
family life they failed to retain a positionof social
in
tried to secure
European politics,
English king
respect and honor.
Many loose forms of marriage
the papacy
but failed through the
election to
to be practiced,childlessness was
came
frequent,
of Charles V., and eventually fell from
and divorce common.
jealousy
his position of power
through his failure to secure
The influence of the earlyChurch was in general
from Rome
a divorce for the king from
Catherine of
while at the
to restrict the legalrightsof women,
Aragon.
time exaltingher social and religious
same
position.
of the family
In aiming to re-establish the stability
RELIGIOUS
AND
ETHICAL
WOMAN,
it naturally,and perhaps of necessity,took the
STATUS
OF.
in
Many
misconceptions have preas
vailed
patriarchal family of the Old Testament
in primitive
regarding the status of woman
the main
Thus
its model.
a
semi-patriarchal
society. While always the weaker sex and subject type of the family was established,
although the
to the domination,and at times the brutality,
of
toward
Code
of Justinian
tended
liberalityin
her
not
position was
so
ency
man,
degraded as often
The tendrecognizingthe legalrightsof women.
represented. With the exception of the Australian
in the opposite
of the Canon Law, however, was
aborigines,who are probably not true primitives direction,
and continued to be so through the Middle
and whose
social system may
be considered more
time the influence of the Church
Ages. At the same
or
less degenerate,
the Dosition of woman
tended to exalt the social and religiousposition
of
among

WO

See Odhin.

DAN."

"

DICTIONARY

Woolston, Thomas

OF

EELIGION

first through recognizingthe general

and women
in matters
men
of religion

AND

ETHICS

476

WORKS

OF MERCY."
Deeds of a compassionate
character,designed to alleviate sufferingof
and
and
kind.
R.C.
orders
such
the
Sisters of
morality,
secondly through inculcating any
as
Many
the veneration of the Virgin as the type of a pure
Mercy and the Fathers of Mercy are associations
woman,

equalityof

and sanctified motherhood.

However, ecclesiastical devoted to works of mercy.
writers of the ascetic trend represented woman
in
WORLD
the main as a temptress,and the Roman
Church
CONFERENCE
ON
FAITH
AND
ORDER.
refused to allow her to take sacred orders.
In October 1910 the American
Episcopal
with
the
The
Reformation.
invited all the churches
Church
Changes came
throughout the
Protestant
world which confess our
leaders in general repudiated ascetic
Lord Jesus Christ as God
and
Savior
doctrines and practices,and recognized the equal
to unite in arranging for a World
Conference for the consideration of questionsof the
right of the wife to divorce with the husband, if
Biblical ground. But
Faith and Order
there
of the Church
of Christ.
This
was
they left the
authoritarian
of family life intact, and
in the behef that all Christian Churches
wasdone
type
but little. The
enlarged the legalrightsof women
are in accord in the desire to lay aside self-will and
real beginningsof the modern
for the
to put on
the mind
which
is in Christ Jesus our
movement
social,legal,and political
emancipation of woman
Lord,and that such a conference,held in a spiritof
tion.
and in the desire to appreciate
love and humility,
to be found in the period of the French Revoluare
In October, 1789, Parisian women
petitioned the convictions of other Christians,would remove
the National Assembly for equal political
of the prejudice and
mutual
rights. much
ignorance
cation
In 1790, Mary WoUstoncraft
and thus preengendered by centuries of division,
published her "Vindipare
the way for directlyconstructive effort toward
of the Rights of Women,"
and these dates
such
of
the
modern
taken
the
manifestation
of the visible unity of Christians
are
beginning
as
a
usually
This
is not
in the one Church,which is the Body of Christ,
Movement."
movement
"Woman's
will convince
to be attributed so
the world that God
the Son was
as
directly to the influence of
cratic
demoto the rise of individualism,
sent by the Father to redeem
mankind.
as
Christianity,
A deputation was sent to the AngUcan Churches
government, and machine industry in the
and
of changed
world.
another
to the Free
modern
in England,
account
Churches
Partly on
Scotland and Ireland,
economic
and political
and as soon
as
conditions,
partlyon account
possibleafter
the Armistice a third was
of the spread of scientificideas and generalenlightsent to Europe and the
enment,
in
the complete emancipationof woman
nople,
East, which visited Athens, Smyrna, Constantiworld
be far away.
cannot
the modem
Already
Sofia, Bucharest, Belgrade, Alexandria,
alloccupationsfor which she is physically Cairo, Jerusalem,Damascus, Rome, Stockholm
practically
and Christiania. Nearly two
milhon
and mentally fit have been opened to her. In
pamphlets,
different aspects of the movement, have
education she has practically
the same
opportunities explaining^
been publishedand distributed all over
the world.
only a few universities in the civilized
as
man,
A preliminarymeeting was
her their degrees.
held in Geneva,
world
yet withholdingfrom
her
In
most
legal Switzerland,in August, 1920, attended
by 120
English-speakingcountries
while
delegatesfrom 40 different countries and aU the
rights are on a level with those of man,
Trinitarian groups
famiUes
For
or
enfranchisement,alreadyachieved
except Rome.
complete political
the first time in a thousand
in the United
States (1920), is apparently near
years, East and West
freedom
of woman,
hand.
In all this new
met together in an earnest effort to find the road
at
of Christians. A
loss of
to the reunion
Continuation
however, there is to be discerned some
of 55 members
social respect and honor.
living in the United
Evidently a democratic, Committee
be developed
nople,
ethical family life of stable type must
India,Japan, Australia,
England, ConstantiStates,
the necessary
China, Czecho-Slovakia, Russia, Serbia,
as
complement of the woman's
if it is not to result in disaster.
movement
Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Germany, Sweden,
Charles
land
A. Ellwood
Denmark, Norway, Hungary, Canada, Switzerand Scotland, was
THOMAS
appointed to carry on the
(1669-1731)."EngWOOLSTON,
lish
and
such
movement
to
of the Bible
discussion
in interpretation
deist who wrote
a
promote
and
throughout the world of the fundamental
questions
Christianity,emphasizing the allegoricalor
for the World
prisonment
Conference
itself.
as will prepare
symbolical expositionof miracles. He suffered imRobert
H. Gardiner
for his writings.
CONCORDAT
The agreement
OF."
WORMS,
reached in 1122 by Pope CaUxtus II. and Emperor
WORD."
See Logos.
of Investitures.
Henry V. which ended the War
investiture by
has a variety By its terms the Emperor conceded
WORD
OF
GOD.
This term
the spiritualpowers
of the
of meanings, all,however, embodying a common
ring and crozier (i.e.,
from God.
element
bishop)and the free election of bishops and abbots.
(1) It is used to
a
message
The
for a call or illumination of a prophet, by
account
Pope conceded to the Emperor the right of
investiture of bishopswith "regaUa,"i.e.,
of his experience as not in
poUtical
pointing to the source
himself but in a revelation of God.
(2)It is applied power.
in Jesus Christ as that which
to the divine nature
DIET
OF."
with God and became
incarnate in Christ;or a
WORMS,
Commonly denotes the
was
Lord.
The
meeting of the firstimperialdiet called by Charles V.,
designation of the risen and glorified
immediate
originof the word in this reference lies in 1521.
is memorable
Diet at Worms
that at
The
as
in the Platonic-Stoic philosophy,in which the term
Luther
heard on
which Martin
was
a
charge of
reason
Logos (=word) signifiesboth immanent
had
been
excommunicated
less
The concept also appears
and spoken word.
by
heresy. Luther
"memra"
Pope Leo X., and the bull was pubHshed in Germany
developed in the Hebrew
philosophically
word.
September 21, 1520. The papal legate demanded
or
(3) The word of God as used in the Acts
that the ban of the empire should be proclaimed
of the Apostles forms the essential content of the
word
the
against the heretic,but Charles had agreed at his
(4) For Luther
message.
preacher's
coronation
not
to proclaim the ban
against any
(5) Its
is "the gospel of God
concerning his Son."
without
to the Holy Scriptures, German
modem
giving him a hearing. Luther
appUcation is chiefly
but defended
summoned
to Worms, therefore,
the word of God.
was
which either "are" or "contain"
himself vigorouslyand refused to retract anything
C. A. Beckwith
See Bible; Logos.
"

"

"

in

DICrriONARY

477

his

of

until convinced

books

his

RELIGION

OF

error

from

pubUshed by Charles,
Scripture. A decree was
but not passed by the Diet, and issued May
26,
but falselydated May 8.
It declared the ban of
and
adherents
the empire against Luther and all his
commanded

his books

WORSHIP.

be burned.
Henry

to

C. Vedder

Exercises,public or private,performed
of divine prescriptionor as expressive
as
a matter
of relationship
to the deity.
of one's feelings
in an
1. The originof worship. Worship arose
endeavor to perform some
acts which
were
thought
to be pleasing to the deity,such as the offeringof
sacrifices,
singing hymns of praise,and executing
The worshiper found himself gainsacred dances.
ing
certain emotional
experiencesfrom these acts,
and these he interpretedas the inner evidence of
In proportion as these experiences
divine favor.
felt
in intensity
and interest,
the worship was
grew
to be significant.
"

"

in the
tians
and of the Christhe former of these
to lay less stress upon
was
two
aspects of worship, although sacramental
ritual is stillbased on the idea that God has prescribed
of which
certain forms upon
the observance
the sacraments
not
his favor depends. Yet
are
thought of as for the advantage of God, but of men;
of grace.
So that it is the second
they are means
phase of worship its value to the religious
person
that is reallyprominent. It expresses and thereby
intensifies his rehgiousfeelings.
3. Ritual
and
spontaneity. Again there are
which worship tends.
The one
two forms toward
is the repetitionof regular and traditional practices,
the other is the free,extemporaneous
exprestion of feeUng. The former carries all those emotional
values that attach to symbolism and the
experience of continuitywith the religiousspirits
of the past, the latter emphasizes the immediacy
of religious
experienceand its individual character
Probably different temperaments find religious
help
in different ways.
Perhaps all might be benefited
of both
the ritual and
by the use
spontaneous
worship. A good hymn admirably combines both
characteristics.
G. Scares
Theodore
2. Christian

worship.
"

The

tendency

AND

ETHICS

WRATH

Xystus

OF

GOD."
Reaction of the divine
who disobeythe will of God.
The
Hebrews
shared
their conception of the
divine anger with other ancient peoples,only in their
it was
directed against disobedient
case
Israehtes
the enemies of Israel. As an essential feature of
or
their eschatologicalprogram,
taken
also by
over
the apostles,it was
to be completelyrevealed in
the "Day of the Lord."
By poets as Dante, by
painters as Michael
Angelo, by theologians as
Jonathan
Edwards, the wrath of God, dissociated
from his good will,is presented as a horribletravesty
the divine justice. Ritschl maintained
on
that
God's wrath is an Old Testament
representation;
far as it appeared in the New
so
Testament
it
signifiedGod's purpose to annihilate those who
his will in his
obdurately and finally oppose
kingdom. The
alleged conflict,sometimes
trayed
porin doctrines of the Atonement, between
God's
wrath
and
his mercy
is a purely human
invention.
C. A. Beckwith

against those
justice

spiritualreligionof the Hebrews

WU-WEI.

^A Taoist doctrine of laissez-faire

to the Tao or order of
quiescent submission
nature.
By this attitude of non-activitythe soul
of man
was
thoughtto be made pliableand open to
the harmonious
working of the universal law of Ufe
and so might grow naturallyto the perfectionof all
"

or

its powers.

"

"

WYCLIFFE

1384)

"

(or WYCLIF),
JOHN
Enghsh preacher and reformer.

(ca. 1320Wycliffe's

FIVE
SACRED."
THE
fl) A
CathoUc
in the Roman
in commemoration
offices,
of Jesus Christ, the
of the Passion
varies among
of which
those who
observe
content
it. (2) A feast in the R.C. church
observed
on
the Friday after the 3rd Sunday in Lent, established
for a like purpose.

influence was
first felt at Oxford.
Not until after
his admission
to the doctorate
(1372) did he show
signs of opposition to orthodoxy and the papacy.
In 1376 he firstproclaimed that the unrighteousness
of the clergy should
them
to forfeit their
cause
time a
at the same
property privileges. He was
great popular preacher and a vigorous philosopher
and theologian,leaning to realism in the scholastic
controversy. Graduallyhe developed his doctrine
of the supremacy
of the Scriptureswhich
he proclaimed
through his secular priestsand itinerant
He
also
translated
the
preachers.
Vulgate into
time he assailed the papal
English. At the same
and sacerdotal power, declaringthe king to be the
vicar of God.
Further
he rejected the doctrine
of transubstantiation
as
blasphemous, foolish,
and unphilosophical. He
declared the individual
God
and
to be directly responsible to
priestly
mediation
His
views
were
petuated
perunnecessary.
by the Lollards (q.v.)in England and
Hus
i
n
who
in
influenced
turn
by
(q.v.) Bohemia,
Luther.

FRANCISCO
DE
XAVIER,
(1506-1552)."
of the original
Spanish R.C. missionaryto India,
one

in the 6th. century

"

WOUNDS,

devotion

to take the Jesuit vows.

He was
of
seven
a
man
attractive personality,
and of wide learningwith an
unusual
giftfor organization,distinguishedas an
He
worked
preters
indefatigableworker.
through interin India, the
Malay Archipelago,and
Japan, accomphshing
conversions, and
many
consolidatinghis gains by thorough organization.
He
beatified in 1619
and
canonized
was
in 1621.

XAVIERIAN
BROTHERS."
A R.C. association
of teaching brothers,organized in 1839 by Theodor
Jakob
tion,
Rycken (1797-1871) for Christian educawith especialattention to orphans and deafThe
mutes.
educational
work
of the order has
been
extended
from
The
Belgium to America.
patron saint is St. Xavier.

XENOPHANES."

who
Greek philosopher

lived

severelycriticized the
anthropomorphic conceptions of deity in Homer
and
Hesiod, and defined God as the immutable
ultimate

He

B.C.

reality.

XIMENES,

DE

CISNEROS,

FRANCISCO

(1436-1517). A Spanish cardinal who lived in one

of the great periods of Spanish historyand helped
to rehabilitate Spain. As archbishop of Toledo,
confessor of Queen Isabella,
reformer of the clergy,
and evangelistto the Moors, he won
admiration.
"

He

chancellor of Castile and regent durmade

ing
Charles'
death.
minority after Ferdinand's
He was
in which
also Grand
Inquisitorof Castile,
office he exalted the church
by punishment of
heretics.
was

XYSTUS."

Same

as

Sixtus (q.v.),
pope.

Tahweh

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

The
YAHWEH.
pronunciation commonly
form of the Hebrew
given by scholars to the original
in
Version
is
the Revised
for God, which
name
transcribed as Jehovah (q.v.). The early Hebrews
national God
alongside
a
as
thought of Yahweh
the neighboring
of other and similar gods among
weh
peoples. Through the work of the prophets Yahto be thought of as the only god of the
came
credited with
pre-eminent
a
universe, and was
passion for justiceand a glowing hatred for sin.
history the
Through the entire range of Hebrew
personal interest in and love
thought of Yahweh's
of.
for Israel persisted.See Israel, Religion

AND

is

"

ETHICS

admixture

an

478

of Iranian,Assyrian, Maniand Christian elements,so

and Persian name
a Kurdish

gion

Smith
J. M. Powis
YAJTJR-VEDA." The book of Uturgy of early
Vedic religion
consistingof hymns and formulae to
with the details of the
be recited in connection
ritual was
the
sacrifices. Since
acquiring the
which
character of a coercive magic these formulae
accompanied every act have the nature of magic
spells. There are two types of this Veda called
Black accordingto the arrangement of
White
or

chaean, Mohammedan,
from Yazdan,
named
for God.

YGGDRASIL."

The
world-tree of Teutonic
its roots in the imderworld
and
branches in the world of men
and in Asgard,the
home
of the gods. Its significanceis doubtful
but probably the life-giving
of nature
are
powers
thus symbolized
the three worlds.
as a tree feeding

mythology with

YI-KING.

"

One

of the Chinese canonical

books

consistingof the gradual elaboration by a succession

of writers of a primitivesystem of divination.
YIMA.
The
of the
original ancestor
race
He
according to the Iranian-Aryans. See Yama.
was
a great king,favorite of Ahura
Mazda, rulingin
and plenty. When
evil began
a golden age of peace
the earth he estabhshed
to multiply on
hidden
a
earthlyrealm of the blest where he continued to rule.
"

materials.
YOGA.

YAMA.

mythical ancestor of the

firstentered the heavenlyrealm

^The

"

Indoof the
land

Aryans. He
the ruler of that happy
and became
dead
the ancestors dwell in bUss in the presence
where
the god of the
Later he is known
as
of Varuna.
In the developed philosophic
dead and of death.
fades away.
of India the figureof Yama
religion
god of
He
again, however, as a Hindu
appears
Hell in the later hterature and as Yen-lo-wang, one
Buddhism.
of the gods of Hell in Chinese and Korean
form of the later god, Jizo, of
He is the original
Japan.

See Yima.
old
soul of
the characteristic
of fihal piety, loyaltyand patriotismof

"The

YAMATO-DAMASHH."

Japan,"a phrase used

to express

attitude
the Japanese.

^The Hindu science of gainingcomplete

of the self in order to break the bondage
and reaUze the state of bHss. It
of the world of sense
involves ascetic practices,severe
control of the
steady concentration
senses, physicaland mental exercises^
of attention and meditation
until the
rapt mystic state of ecstasy and full illumination
several forms
of yoga
attained. There
are
are
suited to the varied capacities
of men.
The Hathamethod
of restraining
the senses
and
yoga is a severe
mastering the body in order to make possiblethe
of the mind.
concentration
Bhakti-yoga secures
result by a whole-souled
devotion
the same
to a
The
personal God or an ideal master.
Raja-yoga
of mental concentration.
The highest
is a method
form is the Jnana-yoga or the way
of union through
knowledge in which the soul concentrates
upon
intended
methods
to lead to the
itself. AH
are
same
result,the reahzation of the union of the soul
the realiwith God
zation
or, in the atheistic groups,
of the true status of the soul as possessing
complete existence,knowledge and bUss.
"

mastery

YIN."
In Chinese
and
YANG
thought the
First Cause, containingwithin
"Great Extreme"
or
formative powers
or
itself material (ki)and energy
which came
(li),
gave rise to the Yang and Yin from
of the universe.
all the succeeding phenomena
YOGA
centrated
conThe
Yang is the active,light,male principle
OP.
in heaven; the Yin is the passive,dark,
All phenomenal
female principleconcentrated in earth.
YOGI.
thingspartake of both and their interaction
yoga method
the working of Tao is the history of the
under

India,

gions
Reli-

ascetic who
practicesthe
This consists of
to attain salvation.
of the physicalsenses, specialbodily
rigiddiscipline
concentration
breathings, mental
postures and
according to a prescribedrule all of which leads
finallyto the mystic ecstasy and the knowledge of
the true nature of the soul.
^A Hindu

"

imiverse.

See

PHILOSOPHY."

"

the
^A mystic diagram possessing
magical power of an amulet or charm used by the
See
Hindu
sects who worship the Sakti of Shiva.
YANTRA.

"

Sakti.

YOMEI.

Songs of praisein honor of the

heroic beings of Zoroastrian
reUgion.
gatheredinto a book of 21 hymns.

YASHTS.
angeUc and

They

are

"

See 0-Y6mei;

Wang

Yang

Ming.

"

YOM

KIPPUR.

"

See Atonement,

Day

op.

BRIGHAM
(1801-1877)." American
YOUNG,
Mormon
leader;the second presidentof the Church
^The Zoroastrian book of Uturgy consisting
lished
estabof Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints,who
Yasna
72
chapters. The
ceremony
Mormonism
on
a
footing in Utah.
secure
and is an
around the haoma
interesting
centers
See Mormonism.
in the formation
to the central positionof soma
parallel
of the ritual and hterature of Vedic religion.
ASSOCIATION.
CHRISTIAN
YOUNG
MEN'S
in London, June
An
6,
organization founded
for all those
^The generalname
YAZATAS.
1844, by George WiUiams, at that time a clerk
of lower
rank
than
divine and
angelic powers
later
He was
in a large mercantile establishment.
Mazda
Spentas
Ahura
(Ormazd) and the Amesha
knighted by Queen Victoria and known as Sir George
in Zoroastrian reUgion.
of the organizadeclared purpose
Wilhams.
The
tion
the "spiritualdevelopment of young
of demon-worshipers in
was
A
YEZIDIS.
YASNA.
of

"

"

"

"

group

Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Caucasus, whose

reli-

men."

479

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

after the order of the London

Associations
nental
Association were
early estabUshed in leading conticities. The first Association established in
America
North
in Montreal, November
was
25,
1851; the first Association in the United States
at Boston, December
29, 1851.
Among the most notable characteristics of the
the following
:
are
presentday Association Movement
all activities.
1. The rehgiousmotive dominates
2. It is broadlyinter-denominational,
drawing its
leadershipfrom the membership of all evangelical
churches.
mittee
3. Its activitiesand privileges,
includingcomand boys upon
service,are open to all men
basis and conditions.
the same
of governing boards
4. Its officers and members
must
be chosen from the membership of evangelical
churches,thus vestingthe control of the Association
within these churches.
and seeks to
5. It recognizesthe imity of man
him in all his faculties. To this end it has a
serve
of
comprehensive and widely diversified program
activities social,
mental, physical,
rehgious,and
"

economic.
of activities
to adapt its program
conditions and needs of men, serving
differing
in student
in commercial
life,in
men
pursuits,
in rural
and
industrial life,in the army
navy,
the
best adapted to meet
Ufe, etc., by methods
6. It seeks

to the

needs of the

emphasizes the importance of work

boys. Here also its activities are widely

7. It
among

ETHICS

Young People's Societies

of this Committee isin New York City. Its General

A yearbook,with up
Secretaryis John R. Mott.
to date statistical and other information
regarding
the Association Movement
in all lands is regularly
issued by this Committee.
at present
There
are
1979 organized Associations in the United States.
Frank
H. Burt
YOUNG
PEOPLE'S
SOCIETIES."
I. The
Beginnings.
If records were
available,we should
doubtless find that young
people'sorganizationsof
less permanent character had existed in
a more
or
century. Incidental notices of such young
every
men's devotional societies,
that of Dr. Anthony
as
Horneck
at Westminster, 1678, show
what was
us
all through Christian
taking place sporadically
"

history.
tional
1677, Cotton Mather belonged to a devosociety meeting on
Sunday evenings. A
printed "Constitution,"dated 1724, indicates that
such societies became
in New
common
land.
Engfairly
The Holy Club of Oxford University,
1729,
formed by four young
was
men
including John
and Charles Wesley. Rules for the devotional hfe
and for Christian service were
carefullymade and
practised. Out of this grew the Wesleyan revival,
with its far-reaching
and philanresults in religious
thropic
Zinzendorf's Senfkorn Orden,
movements.
with
its
rules
follow
"to
Halle, Germany, 1715,
Christ
to love your
neighbor, and to strive for
In

"

the

concerned.

men

AND

conversion
of Jews and heathen,"seems
not
to have been
perpetuated. But at Basel, 1758,
Pastor Mayenrock organizedthe young men
of his
congregationinto a societywith a five-fold pledge:
to abide by the teaching of the Word;
to shun
sectarianism;to be true to God, to oneself and to
aU men;
to reprove
others of their faults; to
retail no
gossip. Out of this grew the German
which became
national
Jiinglingsvereine,
part of the Inter-

calculated to appeal to boys of

diversified and
most
and
to
different circumstances
effectively
contribute to them.
8. There is constantlyemphasized the thought
rather than an
Association
of a Movement
an
and leadership of
institution. The
responsibility
Y.M.C.A,
and of the membership is stressed.
business men
II. Earlt
Forms
Organization.
op
Its conventions and conferences to a degree unusual
By the
end of the first third of the 19th. century, the organization
in rehgious organizationsare composedof laymen.
of young
attained
the
9. A trained executive staff of employed officers
people had
and
form
of a movement.
the executive
Among
as
serves
agent of the governing dimensions
be mentioned
Professional schools have been
Association bodies.
important social organizationsmay
for
the singing schools. By 1800, sixty singing books
estabhshed for the thorough training of men
for these schools were
in existence.
of the
Out
this new
profession.
the church
choir and
singing school grew
10. The
some
provision of suitable and adequate
remarkable
desired
choral societies. Temperance societies
equipment for the conduct of the work
had a remarkable
where the organization
is emphasizedin all communities
growth in the first third of the
19th. century. These have always been composed to
of an Association is proposed. The organization
of young
a largeextent
of Associations in cities and at railroad and
people. In 1829,New York
State alone had 1000 societies with over
is not
industrial centers
encouraged unless the
100,000
members.
concerned, through its citizens,is
community
The growth of the Sunday school brought to the
wilhng to provide such equipment. This principle
front two significant
of young
does not apply in student and rural centers, nor in
people. One
groups
definite non-equipment was the senior classes,
made
teen
foura
sections of cities where
up of those over
of age who
wished
Bible
to continue
be undertaken.
work may
years
has so adapted
Association Movement
11. The
study. The other group was the Teachers' Meeting,
and boys that it is
where the Sunday school lesson for the following
men
itselfto the needs of young
Each
Sunday was
taught. The earnest
estabUshed in all parts of the world.
people
now
young
local Association is an independent self-governing who so largelydo the teachingin our Sunday schools
States are
here found immediate
Associations of the United
unit. The
help and the inspirationof
fellowship. The
missionary challenge
closelyrelated in state and national organizations. Christian
found a warm
in the heart of youth. See
the Associations of other nations
In similar manner,
response
and
Missionary
Movement.
national
their
organizations,
have established
Along with all these
related in a world's
other organizations,
there grew up the strictly
devotional
are
all national Movements
land.
with headquartersat Geneva, Switzersocieties. Revivals
frequently inspired the
organization
people to hold meetings by themselves for
young
tions
the revival passed,
and Bible study. When
12. The representative
assemblyof the Associaprayer
the International these temporary organizations
continued for a time.
as
of the United States is known
But it is safe to say that since the days of the
Convention (thistitle surviving from the
Wesleys there has been no time in which such
period in which the Associations of the United
not meeting somewhere
were
organized as a unit). It
States and Canada
were
groups, few or many,
tive
for the deepening of the devotional hfe.
and functions through an Execumeets
triennially
hundred
Each of these types of association has gone on up
of approximately two
Committee
to the present. Each
and known
has contributed
as
selected by the Convention
members
something
The
headquarters to others and nearly all have accepted something
the International Committee.
"

"

"

Young People's Societies

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

has
Some have grown rapidly,
from others.
none
died altogether.
tion
AssociaMen's
Chkistian
Young
III. The
Association
Christian
Women's
Young
AND
of the
(qq.v.)are the most notable organizations
19th. century.
Society
the
in
People's
Young
IV. The
the
that
time
At
the same
Local
Church.
Y.M.C.A.
was
expandingto meet the needs of young
"

and
organizingyoung
men
boys, pastors were
people'ssocieties in their churches. Sometimes a
a
formed after a revival,as when
society was
organized the "Pastor's
pastor at Marengo, 111.,
sick
Helpers" in 1857-58, for purposes of prayer,
times
SomeSunday school and mission work.
visiting,
it was
organizedclass such as an Episcopal
an
clergyman in 1873 utiUzed for parish visitation.
Sometimes
it was
simply the gettingtogether of a
guidance
of young
peopleunder the pastor's
group
for devotional

or

other purposes,

such

as

we

find at

Rochester,N.Y., in 1848. The important pointis

that considerably before 1850, and very rapidly
nations
churches of all denomiafter 1850, wide-awake
people for
were
organizing their yoimg
Pledges were
Christian
growth and usefulness.
was
sometimes
used, but the church covenant
usually considered sufficient. By 1881, there were

AND

ETHICS

direction. The League was

formed in 1889 by the
of five or more
less general organizations

union

competing for supremacy

Episcopal Church, and

V.

"

Clubs. Edward
this is found in the Lend-a-Hand
One
Is Ten"
Times
Hale's story, "Ten
Everett
"Look up and
(1870),centers about four mottoes:
Look forward and not back; Look out
not down:
The
book received
hand."
and not in; Lend
a
and Look-up Legions and Lend-aa cordial welcome
Hand
Clubs multiphed, all seeking Dr. Hale's
wide
guidance. He could easilyhave formed a worldwoiild have
of such clubs,and
federation
of time, the
In course
notable service.
rendered

within

the

Methodist
by the
General Conference of 1892.
A Board
of Control
named
and
by the denomination determines policies
plans. In other words, the Epworth
approves
League both in the local church and in the denomination
is part of the church organization,and not in
an
independententity. The result is that
any sense
there are few, if any, young
societies other
people's
than
Epworth Leagues in Methodist Episcopal
was

approved

churches.
As distinctfrom the connectional

type of society
represented by the Epworth League the Baptist
Young People's Union of America is a federation
of all young
organizations in Baptist
people's^

churches,whatever their name

In its intent^it was

form of constitution.
or
to include all the
Baptist young- people of the United States (north
and south) and Canada.
The
great contribution
of the B.Y.P.U.A. has been the study-courseidea.
Four series of studies (Bible,Church History and
Pohty, Christian Work and MissionaryKnowledge,
and Science and General Literature)were
arranged.
These became
the Christian Culture Courses, presented
in four-yearcycles. The
(1 )to
purpose was
read the Bible through; (2) to cover
the denomination's
mission
work;
(3) to study Messianic
Expectation,Life of Christ,Apostolic Age, and
Christian Ethics. The
B.Y.P.U.A.
has never
been under denominational
control,but has always
worked heartily
denominational
to advance
poKcies

in existence.
of such organizations
Young
Organizations
of
General
People.
It is inevitable that when a largenumber
of societies of a particular
type are organized,
a general
the leaders will get togetherand form
central organization. That central orgamzation
or
and programs.
in its turn will direct and inspirethe local societies
The young
societies. An instance of
and will seek to form new

hundreds

480

societies in
people's

other denominations
the other of these two types of
organization,connectional
or
federal, but have
ment.
nothingto add to our understanding of the move-

follow

one

Several

or

denominations

have
officially
for instance, the
in
Reformed
Church
America, the Society of
of Christ,
the CongregationalFriends,the Disciples
ists. The
United
the
has
EvangeUcal Church
Keystone League of Christian Endeavor; and the
United Brethren have the Young People'sChristian
founded on
Elndeavor Union of the United Brethren Church.
King's Daughters organizationwas
The Interdenominational Young People's Comrthese mottoes
(1886). Today as the International
mission
was
Order of the King's Daughters and Sons, with their
organized by representativesof the
leading denominations and including the United
silver cross and their motto, "In His Name," they
at Philadelphiain 1917 for the purorganized Societyof C.E.
to the spiritof the earlierunare
loyalsuccessors
pose
local chapters draw
of framing common
The
movement.
topicsfor young people's
praver-meetings,and of studying young
their membership either from the community as such
people's
church.
problemsfrom the standpoint of young people'ssofrom a single
cieties.
or
This Commission
has alreadydeveloped a
A Christian Endeavor Societybelongs distinctly
to a local church though a few are found elsewhere.
the
sympathetic understanding among
leading
Its overhead
workers in the young people'sfield.
organization is interdenominational.
the first C.E. Society
This rapid survey will fitlyclose with a brief
Dr. Francis E. Clark formed
mention
of the Student
constitution
Volunteer Movement
in
in its
Portland, Maine, 1881. The
outlook toward
to be won
for Christ. Its
a world
gathered up the best features in current yoiing
and the attractive
sionary
originis to be traced to the formation of the mispeople'schurch organizations,
cordial support. The three outstanding
departmentof the collegeY.M.C.A. (1880).
won
name
In 1886, the movement
the prayer-meeting
laimched
features were
cration
pledge,the consewas
at Northwork.
when
100 men
took the Volunteer
Copies
field,
meeting and the committee
pledge:
"I am
Accounts
sent broadcast.
God willing,
to become
of the constitution were
willingand desirous,
a
of
mailed
to hundreds
of the organization were
foreignmissionary," In 1888, an organizationwas
with the watchword, "The
of evangelicaldenominations
Pastors
effected,
evangeUzation
papers.
of the world in this generation." The quadrennial
the new
tion.
organizaand young peopleaUke welcomed
conventions
have been notable from every point of
In six years
(1887), 7000 societies were
A weekly
view.
The
movement
has developed missionary
reported with nearly 500,000 members.
the Christian
knowledge and enthusiasm in colleges,
was
purchased in 1886, now
seminaries,
paper
trustees
of the
United
and churches; has largelyincreased the giving to
The
World.
Endeavor
missions;and has sent thousands of "Volimteers"
Society of Christian Endeavor are chosen from the
to the foreignfield.
O. Erb
Frank
denominational leaders of the country, but the
voice in their
such have
no
denominations
as
THE
YOUNG
WOMEN'S
CHRISTIAN
CIATION.
ASSOselection.
A volimtary organizationfor rehgious,
The Epworth League is the Methodist
protest
physicaland social culture. The Association took
againsta church societyimder non-denominational

adopted Christian Endeavor;

"

form

in 1855

young

women

out

of the

OF

DICTIONARY

481

union

of two

of

groups

England by

organized in

RELIGION

Lady

The
first
Robarts.
Kinnaird
Miss
Emma
and
association in the United States was
organizedin
Boston in 1866.
It is the ultimate aim of the Association to help
to become
women
Christians,and
girlsand young
character.
to aid in the development of Christian
is in some
the Association
And
as
an
institution,
imperfect,a visible expressionin a
sense, however
community of the love of Christ in terms that any
the resources
It aims to make
girlcan understand.
or college
of the Christian peopleof the cityor town
available in a given place and at any time.
The Association does its thinking about young
of the wliole hfe:
in terms
body, mind,
women
and spirit.Its institutions are planned to supplement
of
deficienciesand to make
good meagerness
opportunity. It conceives of a girlas less than
in measure
ideal Christian woman
as
body,
an
mind, or soul is allowed to grow to the neglectof the
other.
It is interdenominational
a way
by which
of a community who are members
the young
women
of different church communions
may associate their
efforts. It is self-directed. It is not an organization
moved
to do
of one
altruistically
group of women
good to girlsof another and less favored class,
but it is an
together of young women.
associating
is the vdtimate authority
The member
"

"

._

Christian Associations^
are
Women's
Young
organized in four different types of communities
collegesand
cities,
towns, counties and districts,
schools.
Among the activitiesconducted by Young
"

Christian

Women's
in

Associations

are:

and
arts
sciences, vocational
study, domestic
training,business law, parliamentary law, current
topics, Bible and mission study, etc.; religious
cafeterias;
types;
meetings; clubs of various
boarding residences; residential
room
registries;
ences;
and conferand transient hotels; summer
camps
vacation
homes; employment bureaus;
_

and

health centers.

ZACHARIAS."
shown
as
influence,

of wide
Pope, 741-752; a man
by extant correspondence with

Boniface.
Moslem
The
tax for the benefit of
It is a reUgious duty in Islam to give
the poor-rate is merely the minimum
requiredby the law.
ZAKAT."
the poor.
alms, and

ZARATHUSHTRA."
"

party of

Jewish

War
of
in the Jewish-Roman
culminated
and
to
66-70
a.d.
Trusting the promises of God
helps
the children of Abraham, thinking that God
an
those who
help themselves, the Zealots made
for
unsuccessful but determined effort by arms
C. W. Votaw
national independence.
An important sect of Japanese Buddhism
main divisions,
Rinzai, founded by Eisai
(1145-1215) and Sodo, founded by Dogen (1200Hindu
the ancient
1253). It laid stress upon
method
of attainingenhghtenment by dhyana or
of man
is one
Since the inner nature
meditation.
there is no need for formal
with ultimate reality

ZEN.
with two

"

Zeno

of Verona

No one Association includes allof these activities,

those which are undertaken
in any one
place being
determined
by the character and needs of the
The
Association
is adapted
community.
program
also to the particularneeds of specialgroups
as,
for example, indxistrial workers, colored
girls,
foreign born
students,
foreign women
women,
Indian girls,
etc.
The
Christian Associations of
Young Women's
local communities
are
organized into a national
association called The
Christian
Young Women's
Association of the United States of America.
The
National
Board
is the executive body of this National
Association,appointed to carry out the poUcies adopted by the voting delegates
at the national
conventions which are the regularbusiness meetings
of the National Association.
Through the Foreign and Overseas Department
of the National Board the Young Women's
Christian
Association
of the United
States co-operateswith
of the World's
the work
Committee
by sending
secretaries from
the United States for work
in
lands.
Funds
for the carrying on
of the
foreign
work in a foreigncountry are raised in the country
itself. The salaries of secretaries from the United
States and
grants towards
buildingsor advance
Board.
The
are
paid by the National
program
secretaries from the United States are
under
the
of the coundirection of the national committees
tries
to which
at present
are
they go. There
than
1000
more
organized Associations in the
United
is constantly
the niunber
States, and
E. Burton
Margaret
growing.

YOUTH.

"

See Adolescence.

YULETIDE."
The
Christmas (q.v.)
or
The name
is Scandinavian, being a feast
celebratingthe turning of the year in pre-Christian
times, and becoming identified with the Christian
festival which fellin the same
Some
of the
season.
such as burning the yule-log
Christmas customs
traceable to the old Scandanavian
feast.
are
YULE

season.

ritual or laborious study. The truth is in man's own

heart and may
be reahzed in contemplation. This
form of religionappealed to the military class of
Japan because of its simpUcity, its identification
of the religious
Hfe with the normal
performance of
duty and loyalty and because of its guarantee
of a spiritual
control weaving the destinies of men.
Owing to the adherence of the samurai it has had
influence on Japanese life.
a large

See Zoroaster.

patriots in
Palestine in the 1st. century a.d.
Beginning in
resistance to Roman
with
taxation, the
6 a.d.
Zealot
movement
rapidly through sixty
grew
Paul),
years (during the ministries of Jesus and
ZEALOTS.

ETHICS

Classes

language
subjects,

physicaltraining,commercial

AND

ZEND-AVESTA."
of Zoroastrianism
Books.
ZENDS.
ZENO

"

OF

The originalsacred writings

Sacred
(q.v.). See A vesta;

See Zoroastrianism.

(ca.342-260

CITIUM

philosopher,
regarded

as

the

founder

B.C.)."Greek
of Stoicism

(q.v.).
ZENO
OF
Greek
ELIA."
5th. century B.C.; regarded as
"dialectic" form
of argument,
is the ascertaining
of truth by a
of propositions.

philosopher of the
the founder of the
the aim of which

logicalarrangement

ZENO
OF VERONA."
Bishop and patron saint
of Verona; an
early Latin writer. The tractates
of Zeno are
the earliest examples of Latin
among
sermons.
They are Pauline in their interpretation

Zephyrinus

DICTIONARY

of Christianity.
His bishopric was
the second half of the 4th. century.

OF

RELIGION

probably in

ZEPHYRINUS
(ca.198-217)." Bishop of
in the list of popes.

Rome,

appears

ZERVAN
AKARANA."
"Boundless
time." The
First Cause
of post-Zoroastrianspeculation,akin
to Fate, who
ordered the movements
verse
of the uniand was
the final master
of destiny. He
as a Uon-headed
figurein Mithraic sculpture.
appears
Parsi Theosophy he loses personalityand
In modern
becomes
the one
universal spiritual
realitybeneath
the phenomenal world.
ZEUS."
The
The name

chief deity of the Hellenic pantheon.

is from a common
Aryan root
meaning "sky,"and is coupled with the word for
"father"
various
Roman
peoples. The
among
parts
Ju-piterand the Sanskrit Dyaus+pitar are counterand functionally. See Greek
philologically
Religion.
BARTHOLOMAEUS
ZIEGENBALG,
(1683Protestant
1719). First German
missionary to
India; sent by the Danish king. He translated the
New
Testament
and a large part of the Old Testament
into Tamil, the first translation
into an
"

Indian

vernacular.

ZIKR."

See Dhikr.

NICOLAUS
LUDWIG
(1700nobleman
and
rehgious leader.
of Pietist parents and educated
Bom
under Pietist
his life to furthering
surroundings, he devoted
religion. On his estate at Berthelsdorf
of Herrnhut
the village
where the persee founded
cuted
wanderers from Moravia
settled,and formed
Zinzendorf
the Bohemian
Brethren
was
a
(q.v.).
of splendid
and unselfishdevotion.
man
gifts,

ZINZENDORF,
1760). German
"

Eractical

intended
ZIONISM.
^A modem
to
movement
re-establish the Jews in an
autonomous
wealth
commonin Palestine.
The movement
has two distinct
one
looking towards a protection
purposes,
against oppression and discrimination,the other
which is suffertoward the preservationof Judaism
ing
from the disintegratinginfluences in modern
cultural environments.
In the many
years since the loss of their national
independence by the conquest of Jerusalem in 70
ment
the Jews never
gave up their hope for a re-establishof their national life. It is the central thought
of their liturgy,both in the synagog
and in private
funerals.
This
devotion, as at weddings and
tangible expression when in
thought gained more
the longing
especiallycritical days of persecution
became
So we find the expulfor freedom
acute.
sions
from Spain (1492),Portugal (1496) southern
Italy (1510), and other places followed by the
of David
The
Messianic
Reubeni.
movement
terrible butcheries in Poland, due to the Cossack
succeeded
rebellion in 1648, were
by the almost
of Shabbetai
Zebi
world-wide
movement
(1666)
to which the millenarian expectationsof the English
contributed.
Puritans also
of renationaliThe two currents in the movement
zation of the Jewish people are stronglyevident in
ously
two
pamphlets which appeared almost simultaneof the
19th. century.
the middle
about
of Thorn,
Hirsch KaUscher
orthodox Talmudist
an
pubUshedin 1859 a Hebrew pamphlet Seeking Zion,
of the
the re-estabUshment
which he advocated
in
of preserving
Jews in Palestine as the only means
Judaism,while Moritz He3" Q81 1-1875),a radical
"

AND

ETHICS

482

communist
and co-worker
of Karl
Marx, in a
German
pamphlet Rom
und
Jerusalem
(1862),
advocated
the same
idea on
the opposite ground
that the Jew can
shed his national identity.
never
The
did not, however, receive a
movement

practical impetus until,

politicalconditions seemed

the
19th. century,
call for a radical
and
immediate solution of the Jewish
question.
Roumania, where the Jews suffered from renewed
persecutionafter the Congress of BerUn (1878) had
decreed their full emancipation,
and Russia, where
after the assassination of Czar Alexander
II. (1881)
of brutal reaction began, made
an
era
the Jewish
Leon
questionacute.
Pinsker,a Russian physician,
published in 1882 a German
Autopamphlet
Emancipation, in which he practically
repeated the
ideas of Hess that the Jews will always suffer because
they represent a different nationality,and therefore
their only salvation
lies in renationalizing
themselves.
A considerable number
of Jews from
Russia and Roumania
emigrated to Palestine where
in 1882 the first agricultural
colony,Rishon Lezion,
This was
founded.
was
followed by similar enterprises
which were
patronized by a net of societies,
"Lovers
of
Zion."
called
New
life came
into this charitable rather than
in

to

movement
political
through Theodore Herzl (18601904),correspondent for a Vienna paper in Paris.

The Dreyfus
affairin France in 1895 clearly
showed
that antipathy to the Jews was always sure to meet
with popular response.
This
inspired Herzl to
write his pamphlet D*er Judenstaat (1896),in which
he advocated the estabhshment
of a Jewish commonwealth
in Palestine along the lines of British
from
colonies,proceeding
a
chartered company
to
commonwealth.
autonomous
an
The
of
success
this publication was
phenomenal. His sympathizers
called a congress
in Basel in 1897 which was
followed by ten others and drew constantly larger
The culmination
of the efforts of Zionism
masses.
when the British minister Balfour in a note
came
issued Nov. 2, 1917,expressed the sympathy of his
wards
government with Zionist endeavors, followed afterby similar expressions on the part of the
foreignsecretaries of Prance and Italyand of the
president of the United States,Woodrow
WUson,
Sept.5, 1918.
Herzl stronglyopposed all colonization
While
as useless charity,
as long as the charter guaranteeing
to the settlers autonomy
should not be granted, the
slow progress
of the movement
and the evident
to make
unwillingnessof Sultan Abdul Hamid
any
concession,encouraged a "temporary action" which
led to the foundation of model
farms, schools and
institutions
in
Palestine. In
this
sociological
activity various ideals are noticed which led to
divisions in the ranks of the Zionists.
The Russian
intellectuals whose
main
spokesman is Asher
Guenzburg, known
by his pseudonym, "Ahad
Ha-Am," opposed the Herzl idea which was mainly
Kultur.
a distinct Jewish
political.They demand
An orthodox fraction,called "Mizrachi," founded
in 1902 by Rabbi
Isaac Jacob Reines (1839-1915)
wish to utilize the facihties of an independent Jewish
state for the sake of perpetuating Jewish
religious
thus followingHirsch Kalischer.
practices,
Finally
the Po-ale Zion represent the socialist elements
all
to
reUgious ideals, are
which, antagonistic^
endeavoring to find in Palestine a place where the
be put into effect. They are
socialistic ideas can
to the national
also divided
as
language. The
socialist element
the Yiddish
which
is
proposes
spoken by the greater majority of the Jewish
people, while the "Kultur -Zionists" insist on the
restoration of the Hebrew
the official language
as
of the Jewish commonwealth.
GOTTHARD
DeUTSCH
_

483

ZIONITES."

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

2wingli,Huldreich

with

Zionism.

See

AND

The most important literaryproduct

ZOHAR.
known
the
as
of the Jewish mysticalmovement
The book dates from the 14th. century
Kabbala.
of the
and consists of an allegorical
interpretation
Pentateuch in terms of the symbohsm of the group.
"

whose
luminaries (heavenly) blessedness is
conjoined. I choose the holy, good Aramaiti
I abjure
(Humble Devotion), she shall be mine.
ing
theft,and cattle-stealing,
plundering and devastatthe villages
of Mazda-worshipers."
Later, under
the gradually formed
hereditary caste of priests,
"Magi," minute
injimctions for ceremonials of

purification
developed.
A

ZOROASTRIANISM."
founded by Zoroaster

Persian

reUgion

(Zarathushtra).

The traditional date of his

Prophet.
I, The
Evidence
birth,based on Greek sources, is 660 B.C.
it probable that he
makes
is accumulating which
of his activity
The scene
lived as earlyas 1000 B.C.
Persia
to have
been Western
is usually assumed
for
some
reasons
(Adarbaijan), but there are
believingthat he may have lived in Bactria.
ethical
Zoroastrianism
was
II. Teachings.
an
from
the old popular
reform
movement
away
Iranian nature
worhip,which must have been very
Abstract
Indians.
similar to that of the Vedic
pomorphic
moral figurestook the place of the concrete,anthro"

"

nature

gods.

As

spread

the

rehgion
the

was

adopted by the kings and

there came
return of
a
the nature gods (daevas(especially
Mithra, who had
been
repudiated by Zoroaster), elaborate fireceremonies,the sacrifice of the ox, the exposure of
the bodies of the dead to vultures, next-of-kin
marriage, astrology, divination and magic, and
among

masses

ancestor-spirits.Zoroaster became
figure and a mythology grew up

supernatural

around
him.
Mithraism
marks
recrudescence of the religious
a
elements which Zoroaster sought to suppress.
The bloom of the rehgion
is to be placed in the
period of the Achaemenian
kings( 558-330 B.C.).
Under the Sassanians (226-641 a.d.)the old popular
and practicespreponderatedover
the
superstitions
higher elements which were too abstract and ethical
for a popular reUgion. The Mohammedan
invasion
and consequent persecution (from 636 a.d.), and
the
Mongol invasions, completely crushed the
religion. Many fled to India with their sacred
books and formed the nucleus for the present community
of Parsees.
W. E. CijARK

of
of the powers
Zoroaster
taught a duahsm
Good and Evil (Light and Darkness). On the one
Mazda
"The Wise," who wills and
Ahura
side was
creates all that is good. On the other side is Angra
or
Ahriman, who creates
Mainyu "Hostile Spirit,"
to lead
all that is bad, and does all that he can
to
and Right. AUied
from the Good
men
away
mortal
the six Amesha
Ahura
Mazda
Spentas "Imare
ZOSIMUS."
"Good Thought,"
Pope, 417-418.
Holy Ones"" Vohu Manah
Asha
"Sovereignty,
"Truth, Right," Khsathra
ZUCCHETTC"
A
skull-cap worn
by R.C.
Kingdom of God, Aramaiti "Devotion, Piety,"
tality."
"ImmorHaurvatat
ecclesiastics,
covering the tonsure.
"Welfare, Health,"Ameratat
Apparently these are not archangels but
ZURICH
Allied to Ahriman
A
creed
CONSENSUS."
are
approved
parts of the divine essence.
such as Mithra
churches settingforth the
by the Swiss Reformed
the daevas "demons"
(Vedic Mitra)
Reformed
Church
doctrine of the Lord's Supper;
and
Verethraghna (Vedic Indra). In India, on
formulated
the nature
shiped
the contrary, the devas are
by Calvin and BuUinger in 1549 and
gods worFire alone of the old gods
in the Rig Veda.
approved in 1551, but never
becoming a formal
confession.
and
his
remains
holy. The origin of Ahriman
Mazda
not
relation to Ahura
are
clearlydefined,
HULDREICH
is destined to triumph ultimately.
ZWINGLI,
but the Good
(1481-1531)." Swiss
is
reformer.
He
the son
of a peasant farmer,
In the field of battle,the present world, man
was
the chief magistrate of his village. His uncle was
At death,
Good
and Evil.
free to choose between
a
and by his advice young
the bridge which leads
to cross
priest,
when
comes
Zwingh was educated
a man
the
for
Church.
After preUminary schooling at
to the other world, there is a strict reckoning of his
Basel and
he was
Bern
sent
to the University
works.
For the good the bridge is broad and leads
of Vienna in 1500,and after two years there matricuit is "narrow
lated
a
to paradise; for the wicked
as
at Basel,where
he took his degree of B.A. in
razor's edge so that he falls into hell"; those who
1504 and M.A. in 1506.
He became
neither good or bad go to an intermediate limbo.
are
priestin the
town
of Glarus and devoted
be counterhimself to humanistic
balanced
Bad deeds cannot be undone, but can
A
in
There is no forgiveness studies.
with
Erasmus
friendship formed
by good deeds.
In later speculationat least, 1514 had a great influence on him.
He had already
of sins or divine grace.
the publicationof
not it is ascribed to the earliest period, begun the study of Greek, and
whether
or
the Greek
N.T. by Erasmus in 1516 set him to the
man
there is a final resurrection and judgment. Ahriserious study of the Scriptures. He
served
as
and the wicked are to be cast into the abyss
down
forever.
The mountains are to be smoothed
chaplain of the Glarus contingent in two Italian
earth an eternal Kingdom
and there is to ensue
on
campaignsand his experience led him to strong
of God for the righteous.
oppositiontowards the mercenary system. In 1516
he was
called to Einsiedeln,
and there continued his
The old religion
not ritualistic.In it was no
was
studies.
His growing fame as scholar and preacher
no
mysticism,no asceticism,
metaphysics. It was a
led to his call to Zurich, to be chief preacher at
not to flee the world,
was
practicalethics. Man
the Great Minster,
evil by "good thoughts,
but to combat
and overcome
Beginning his work with the
for
New Year of 1518 by daily
The great reverence
of the Gospels
good words, good deeds."
expositions
Gaush
Urvan
"Ox-Spirit"shows the practical, and Epistles his faithful preaching prepared the
for reform,which began in 1523 and was
urably
measagricultural background of the rehgion. The
way
followingpassage from an old confession of faith is
completed within two years. On Maundy
I confess
significant."I repudiate the Daevas.
Thursday, April 13, 1525, the Lord's Supper was
myself a worshiper of Mazda, a Zarathushtrian, administered for the first time in Zurich according
to the reformed
of the Daevas, a prophet of the Lord,
rite. The Zurich reformation
as
was
an
enemy
radical than the German, and a break with
more
praisingand worshiping the Immortal Holy Ones
Luther and his followers was
the inevitable though
(Amesha Spentas). To the Wise Lord I promise
all good; to him, the good, beneficent,righteous,unfortunate consequence.
See Marburg, Colloquy
all the best; to him from
Part of the Swiss cantons
faithful
AT.
remained
glorious,
venerable,I vow
whom
is the cow, the law, the (celestial)
Cathohc faith; civU war
luminaries, to the Roman
ensuedi
_

Huldreicb

Zwingli,

and,

at

The

reform

battle

the

of

Kappel,

suffered

triumphed

under

leadership

the

Zwingli

was

check,

but

severe

of

Henry

killed.

of

finally

q.v.)

original

be

exist

in

only

"Nothing

of

things

conclude

to

love,

his
of

infected
like

good

desire

disease;

real

for

essence

are

but

God,

of

actual

is

it is

him

this

as

of
under

This

free
from

made

Zwingli

leads

which

he

determination
his

wisdom,

blessed.

to

of

the

divine

concerning
While

doctrine

his
Calvin.

anticipated

once

of

election,
is

Election

will,
those

inclined

in
who
to

the

distinction
are

the

to

he

Zurich

be

theory

of

so

radical

after

his

consideration
would
a

He
of

validity

the
it

old.

measure

be

as

decision,
success

imperilled
as

rejection
Henry

After

Zwingli

cluded
con-

infants,

on

circumcision
this

to

by

arguments

the

are

channels;

faith.

led

was

the

final

that

less

conferred

covenant,

new

the

by

supported

practical

the

outward

They

to

be

of
hence

only

confesses,

should

words

grace.

response

he

as

baptism

given

in

only
time,

the
and

stiU

the
either

recipient.

the

in

are

grace,

ments.
sacra-

that

grace,

represents,"

spiritual

ers
reformthe

idea

is"

sacraments

of_

come

for

less

in

the

other

of

part

"This

"This

"seals"

children

was

expiated

of
the

the

on

words

inward

an

the

divine

convey

mean

that

that

that

theory,

from

altogether

faith

to

can

than

adopted

death

doctrine

the

to

the

interpreted

even

rather

Zwingli

sacrificial

divergence

rejected

of

election,"

of

world.

regard

maintained

trary
arbimotive.

election

Anselmic

his

Luther,
purely

symbol
by

the

without

or

of

atonement,

actually

nature.

of

"the

by

chief

He

not

the

had

with

wavering

tion.
redemp-

provided

the

grace

expression

an

of

symbols

Adam

transgression
has

has
nature

transgression
is

for

law,

goodness,

his

Adam's

human

sins

institution,

edge
knowl-

no

rational

examination

sacraments

He

was

justified

to

God

with

saved.
self-

the

As

of

was

by

reality

Son

the

to

from

law

for

punished

justly

We

law,

it is

us

"

of

moral

The

in

derived

only

"sin"
sin.

Zwingli

be

are

that

will

God,

of

gift

in

Zwingli's

this

Adam's

of

sin

taint
"

constitutes
God's

this

yet

the

might
in

whole

the

and

was

reformers

God

This

evil.

called

improperly

of

and

corrupted

Cause,

himself

finds

with

the

led

other

Socrates

equal

and

It

that

the
like

be

one

revealed

Zwingli

sin

to

good
and

had

men

of

origin

but

God

scandahzed

he

that

The

He

is

the

seen
fore-

purely.

extreme

by

the

will

divine

the

the

determined

without

being.
him

in

the

Arminius,

concluded

divine

to

that

faith.

by

of

matter

by
by

finally

Zwingli

went

never

is

we

so

which

true

him,

Faith

all
love.

things,

all-pervading.

existing

that

and

arguing

there

is

he

maintaining
and

of

and

has

from

not

Hence,
activity

all

heathen;

is

on

sum

all

alone

who

that

him."

divine

the

of

But

tine's
Augus-

elect,

be

taught

conditioned

was

the

must

conceived

wisdom

fountain

him,

exists

through

idea

of

484

(afterwards

election

faith

based

He

Good,"
power,

and

of

traces

primarily

was

Scriptures.

including

source'

is

the

"highest

the

excellence,

the

of

clear

it

though

study

to

bears

theology

influence,

ETHICS

Aquinas
that

election

Zwingli's

He

Thomas

Bulhnger

(q.v.).

God

AND

RELIGION

OF

DICTIONARY

by

than
of

by

the

of

infant
C.

clusion
con-

which

his

reform

adoption
baptism.
Vedder

the

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grant
Edited and amplified by Frank
Lewis, Ph.D., Librarian of The Crozer TheologicalSeminary,
the basis of titles suggested by contributors.
such
To meet
Many of those who use this dictionary may wish to read further on the topics treated.
wishes this bibliography is prepared. It is in no sense
exhaustive, but can be used to start readers in the
investigationof the subjects listed.
profitable
is prepared primarily for EngUsh readers,preference has been given in the bibUography
As this volume
written in other languages. The
few non-English
of works
in English, or English translations
to books
on

which
are
titles call attention to volumes
important for those who may find them useful.
will be
titles do not suggest their relation to the topics with which
whose
Works
they are connected
with the subject mentioned.
found, on examination, to contain a chapter, or section,deahng specifically
of the best material on the topic.
of each offer some
the relevant portions
Such books are selected because
such brief lists
The alphabetical order of the references is for convenience.
Any attempt to arrange
according to value would be futile. Each title is important in its own
way.

ENCYCLOPEDIAS
J. M.
and

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The

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12

1901-1906.

v.

and James
John M'CUntock
paedia
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Ecclesiastical
Literature.

12

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v.

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V.

and

Baldwin, ed.

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Psychology. 3 v.
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Encyclopedia. 15 v.
James
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James
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1908-.
Ethics.
15 v.

The
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ReUgion

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of
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Andrew

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G.
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Gerhard
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G.

Lea:

1.
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v.

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Henry Wace:

1902.

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New
S. N. Patten:
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1907.

1920.

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Aesthetics.

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E. B. Bax:

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to.
Africa,Missions
David
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of

an

Ancestor

Exjsedition

Zambesi
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1866.
Christus
line
Ellen C. Parsons:
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Price

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The

History

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1918.
.

1910.
W.
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The

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The
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2
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A. B.
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N.
M.

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Africa,ReUgions of.

Africa,Religions of.
E.
W.
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Rise and

Worship.

J. J. M.

to the

1903.
S. E. Taylor:
See also under

The

1903.
Heath:
Richard
1895.
Anabaptism.
Balthasar
Hubmaier.
1905.
H. C. Vedder:

1900.
Aesthetics.
1909.
Kate Gordon:
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2 V.
1891, 1893.
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Mary

Faber:
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of the Ancient
Vallenses and Albigenses.

1838.
S. R. Maitland:
Documents
Facts
and
of the History, Doctrine, and Rites
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1832.
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Adolescence.

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Theology

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The

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Old

1904.
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Zoroastrian
Dhalla:
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Theology.
Pp. 96-142; 236-242.
7 v.
A. Harnack:
1896History of Dogma.
,See Index for "Angel."
1900.
Pp. 289-306.
E. Schiirer: History of the Jewish People in the
See Index
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1891.
of Jesus Christ.
7 vols.
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Animals, Worship of.

1897.
1904.
Fields

E. S. Hartland:
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1891.
The
W.
M.
F. Petrie:
ReUgion of Ancient
1906.
Egypt.
485

DICTIONARY

RELIGION

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Animism.

1910.
Marett:
R. R.
2d. ed.
1914.

1919.
Development of

of ReUgion.

Threshold

Principlesof

Herbert Spencer: The

3

Religion.

Aristotle and
The

E. B.
E. B.

Tylor: Primitive

Culture.

v.

C. Burkitt:

1913.
F. C. Porter:
1905.
Writers.

1903.

M.

L.

and

Christian Apocalypses. Christian

The
Apocryphaand Pseudein EngUsh. 2 v.
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O. Duchesne:
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v. 2.

Arminianism

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out
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1907.
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lonia
Baby-

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V.

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AND

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Many

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Edith
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Missions in Action.
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MisForces in Home
L. C. Barnes:
1912.
Mary E. and L. C. Barnes: The New America.
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H. P. Douglass: Christian
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H. P. Douglass: The Home
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DICTIONARY

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The
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A. C. McGiffert:
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AND

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W. A. Brown:
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18967 v.
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H. R. Mackintosh:
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G. F. Moore:
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ReUgious
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Forces
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in

the

Amerioa.

1909.
Messiah.

Maronites.
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and

1897.

H.
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Philip Melanchthon.
Joseph Stump: The Life of PhilipMelanchthon.

the Masoretico-

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A
A

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1902.

Abel Stevens:
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W. J. Townsend
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DICTIONARY

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OF

Methodism.

RELIGION

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Missions.
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Modern
Albert Reville: Native
1884.
Peru.
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G. B. Winton:

ReUgions of Mexico
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and

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Midrash.
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R. T. Herford:
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Samuel

the Midrash.
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1906.
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the Midrash.

ETHICS

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Joseph Cohn:

AND

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G. A. Gordon:
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J. B. Mozley:
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Eight Lectures on
1865.
J. H. Newman:
Two
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Johannes
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Old Testament
H. P. Smith:
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1910-1917.

Modernism.

MilitaryReligiousOrders.
F. D. Leete: Christian Brotherhoods.
The
F. C. Woodhouse:
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1912.

ReUgious

Millenarianism.
Jesus Is Coming. Various
W. E. Blackstone:
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Christian ApocaF. C. Burkitt:
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1918.
S. J. Case: The Millennial Hope.
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R. H. Charles:
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1913.
V
PremiUenarianism
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H. F. Rail: Modern
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Christian Hope.
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J.H.Snowden:
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Russell and Russellism.

1915.
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B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt have edited several
volumes
of Papyri xmder various titles.
George Milligan: Selections from the Greek
Papyri. 1910.
Moulton:
From
J. H.
Egyptian RubbishHeaps. 1916.
A. H. Sayce: Aramaic
Papyri Discovered at
Assuan.
1906.

L.

Gell:

Maintenance

of

the

Parochial

2d. ed.
1909.
Parish Life under Queen
W. P. M. Kennedy:
Elizabeth.
1914.
S. L. Ware : Elizabethan Parish in Its Ecclesiastical
and Financial Aspects. 1908.
Webb:
and
Beatrice
Sidney Webb
EngUsh
Local
the Revolution
Government
from
to the
MunicipalCorporations Act. 3 v. 1906-.

System.

Parsis.
Martin
Haug: Essays on the Sacred Language,
Writings, and Religion of the Parsis; ed. and
1916.
enlarged by E. W. West.
Dosabhai
Framji Karaka:
History of the

Parsis.

1884.
Moulton:
v.

J. H.
1917.
See also under

The

Treasure

of

the Magi.

Persia,Religionsof.

Passover.
W.

E. Barton:
"The Samaritan
Passover," The
Court,
1908.
v. 22.
J. W. Beer: The Jewish Passover and the Lord's
Supper. 1874.
Union
Rabbis:
Central
of American
Union
Haggadah. 1907.

Open

and

Congresses.

of Peace.
1869-.
Peace Congress: Proceedings.1909,
1911, 1913, 1915.
American
Peace Society: History of the American
Peace Society and Its Work.
1914.
A. P. Higgins: The
Hague Peace Conferences
and Other International Conferences
Concerningthe
Laws and Usages of War.
1909.
International Peace Congress: Reports. 1904,
1906, 1908, 1910, 1912.
See also under MiUtarism.
War.

Peasants
E.
1899.

Parish.
P.

Movements

Advocate
American

B.

The

Bax:

Peasants

War

in Germany.

Modern
Janssen:

Cambridge
Johannes

People

at

History, v. 2. 1907.
History of the German
the Close of the Middle
Ages. 16 v.

1896-1911.
Penance.
F. G. Belton:
Manual for Confessors. 1916,
M. J. O'Donnell:
in the Early Church.
Penance
1907.
A History of Penance.
2 v.
O. D. Watkins:
1920.
of Penance.
H. U. Whelpton: The Sacrament
1917.

Penology.
H. M. Boies: Science of Penology. 1901.
C. R. Henderson:
Cause
and Cure
of Crime.
1914.
International Prison Congress. Report of Proceedings.
1890-.
T. M. Osborne:
Society and Prisons, 1916.
Maurice
Parmelee:
Criminology. 1918.
See also under Prison Reform.

Perfection,Perfectionism.
P. T. Forsyth: Christian Perfection. 2d. ed.
1910,

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

ETHICS

AND

504

A. Mahan:
The ScriptureDoctrine of Christian
Philosophy of Religion.
Perfection.
1839.
George Galloway: The Philosophy of Religion.
Holiness by Faith: a Manual
H. C. G. Moule:
1914.
of Keswick
Teaching. 1906.
G. W. F. Hegel: Lectures on the Philosophyof
J. Wesley: A Plain Account of Christian Perfection. ReHgion. 3 v.
1895.
1840.
W.
E. Hocking:
The
in
Meaning of God
Persecutions.

(Hanserd Knollys Society): Tracts

on

Liberty

of Conscience
and Persecution.
1846.
E. G. Hardy:
Christianityand the Roman
Government.
1894.
The
A. Harnack:
Expansion of Christianityin
the First Three Centuries.
1904.
H. C. Lea:
of the
History of the Inquisition
Middle Ages. 1908-1911.
Persecution
in the Early
H.
B. Workman:
1906.
Church.

Human
Experience. 1912.
Harald
H^ffding: The Philosophy of Religion.
1906.
E. W. Lyman:
Problems.
Theology and Human
1910.
Josiah Royce:
The
Problem
of Christianity.
2 V.
1913.
W. R. Sorley: Moral
Values and the Idea of
God.
1918.
J. Watson:
The PhilosophicalBasis of Rehgion.
1907.
Pietism.

Persia,Religionsof.

Personalism.
Personalism.
B. P. Bowne:
1908.
and the Problems
R. T. FlewelUng: Personalism
of Philosophy. 1915.
and
J. R. Illingworth: Personahty: Human
Divine.
1894.

Personality.
J. W. Buckham:
Personalityand the Christian
Ideal.
1909.
Harald
H^ffding:The Philosophy of Rehgion.
1906.
Problems
John Laird:
of The Self. 1917.
Rabindranath
Tagore: Personahty. 1917.
Pharisees.
R. T. Herford:
Pharisaism, Its Aim and Its
Method.
1912.
The Rehgions
W. O. E. Oesterleyand G. Box:
and Worship of the Synagogue. 1907.
E. Schiirer: History of the Jewish People in the
1885-1894.
Time of Jesus Christ.

PhilippineIslands,Missions to.
C. W. Briggs: The ProgressingPhihppines. 1913.
The New
Era in the Phihppines.
A. J. Brown:
1903.
1st. ed.
J. B. Devins:
1905.

An

Observer

in the

Phihppines.

Helen B. Montgomery: Christus Redemptor; an

Outhne
Study of the Island World of the Pacific.
1906.
and
Modern
R. E. Speer: Missions
History.
1904.
V. 2.

PhilippineIslands,Religions of.
C. M. Skinner:
Myths and Legends of Our New
Possessions
1899.
H.P.Willis:
Our

PhilippineProblem.

Philosophy in Relation
E.

E.

M.

A History of the German

in Europe and America.
1899.
A. C. McGiffert:
Protestant
Thought before
Kant.
1911.
A. W. Nagler: Pietism and Methodism.
1918.
M.

A. V. W. Jackson:
Persia, Past and Present.
1906.
A. V. W. Jackson:
Religion of Ancient Persia.
1908.
Own
L. H.
Mills:
Our
ReUgion in Ancient
Persia.
1913.
G.F.Moore:
History of ReUgions. v. 1. Rev.
ed.
1920.
1914.
J. H. Moulton:
Early Zoroastrianism.

Boutroux:

to

1905.

Religion.
Science

and

Religion in

Contemporary Philosophy. 1909.

gious
ReliRise of Modern
The
C. McGiffert:
Ideas.
1915.
The Idea of God
Andrew
Seth Pringle-Pattison:
in the Light of Recent Philosophy. 1917.
Philosophy and Religion.
Hastings Rashdall:
A.

1909.

See also under Philosophyof Religion.

G.

Brumbaugh:

Baptist Brethren

Pilgrims.
William Bradford : History of Plymouth Plantation.
2 V.
1620-1647.
1912.
John
Brown:
The
of New
Pilgrim Fathers
3d. Amer.
England and Their Puritan Successors.
ed.
1896.
H. M. and M. Dexter:
The England and Holland
of the Pilgrims. 1906.
Plato and

Platonism.

Works:
tr. by Benj.Jowett. 2d. ed.
5v.
1875.
P. E. More:
Platonism.
1917.
J.A.Stewart:
Plato's Doctrine of Ideas.
1909.
Eduard
Zeller: Plato and the Older Academy.
1876.
Pluralism.
PluraUstic Universe.
Wilham
James:
1909.
of Ends; or, Pluralism
James Ward : The Realm
and Theism.
1912.

Plymouth Brethren.
The
H. K. Carroll:
Rehgious Forces in the
United States.
1893.
B.
W.
Neatby: History of the Plymouth
2d. ed.
Brethren.
1902.
The History and Teaching of the
J. S. Teulon:
1883.
Plymouth Brethren.
in.
Poland, Christianity
J. H. Allen: Historical Sketch of the Unitarian
Movement
since the Reformation.
1894.
Valerian
Krasinski:
The
Religious History
of the Slavonic Nations.
1851.
Valerian Krasinski : A Sketch of the Reformation
of Poland.
2 v.
1838-1840.
1893.
W. R. Morfill: The Story of Poland.
Ethics of.
Politics,
Jane Addams:
Democracy and Social Ethics.
1902.
Politics
R. C. Brooks:
Corruption in American
and Life. 1910.
the Principlesof
Lectures
T. H. Green:
on
Political Obhgation. 1888.
of Public Morality.
A. T. Hadley: Standards
1907.
1916.
Pohtics.
Treitschke:
2 v.
H. G. von
"Ethics of States," Philosophical
J. H. Tufts:
1915.
Review.
Poor

Laws.

T. W.

Fowle:

Law.

V.

Law.

Poor

George NichoUs:
First

2d. ed.

1898.

History of the EnglishPoor

1864.
published,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

505

and E. E. Shutt:
Overseers of the
G. D. Reed
1907.
Poor Manual.
U.S. Bureau
of the Census:
Summary of State
Laws
1913.
Relating to the Dependent Classes.

Pope.
W. F. Barry: The
Papal Monarchy from
1902.
Gregory the Great to Boniface VIII.
The Rise of the Mediaeval
A. C. Fhck:
1909.
G. Kruger: The Papacy.
1909.
Latin
Church
Andre
Lagarde: The
Middle Ages. 1915.
L. Ri\Tngton: The Roman
Primacy.

St.

Church.

in

the

R. C. Reed:
A History of the
Churches
of the Worid.
1905.

Presbyterian

Priest,Priesthood.
E. R.
Bevan:
Jerusalem
under the HighPriests.
1914.
W.
R. Harper: The
Priestly Element in the
Old Testament.
2d. ed.
1905.
James
Keatinge: The Priest: His Character
and Work.
1903.
Thomas
O'Donnell:
The
Priest of To-day;
His Ideals and Duties.
1910.
Primitive

1899.

Peoples, Religionsof.

D. G. Brinton:
Religionsof Primitive Peoples.
Positivism.
1897.
Barzellotti: The Ethics of Positivism.
Giacomo
Edward
Clodd : Animism, the Seed of ReUgion.
1885.
1905.
Francis
Modem
Bowen:
E. Durkheim:
Philosophy from
gious
Elementary Forms of the Relito Schopenhauer and Hartmann.
Descartes
1877.
Life.
1915.
An Introduction
F. B. Jevons:
to the History
Auguste Comte: The Positive Philosophy. 3v.
of Religion. 1896.
1896.
The Philosophy of Common
Frederic Harrison:
J. A. Montgomery, ed. : ReUgions of the Past
Sense.
1907.
and Present.
1918.
Carveth Read:
The Origin of Man.
1920.
Pragmatism.
C. H. Toy:
Introduction
to the History of
and
John Dewey
Others: Creative Intelligence.
ReUgions. 1910.
1917.
E.B.Tylor: Primitive Culture. 4th. ed. 1903.
WilUam
James:
Pragniatism. 1907.
See also under Animism.
A. W. Moore : Pragmatism and Its Critics. 1910.
Prison Reform.
Bertrand
Russell: PhilosophicalEssays.
2d. ed.
American
F. C. S. Schiller: Studies in Humanism.
Prison
Association:
Proceedings.
1912.

Prayer.
The Meaning of Prayer. 1915.
H. E. Fosdick:
James Hastings, ed. : The Christian Doctrine of
Prayer. 1915.
The Idea of God
gions.
in Early ReliF. B. Jevons:
1910.
J. B. Pratt: The ReligiousConsciousness.
1920.
The
Drama
Annie
L. Sears;
of the Spiritual
Life.
1915.

Prayer Books.
The Book of Common
J. H. Benton:
Prayer, and
Books Connected
with Its Originand Growth.
1910.
The Book
of Common
Prayer. Many editions.
Jews: Standard
1915.
Prayer Book.
Parker:
Introduction
to the History of
James
the Successive Revisions of the Book of Common
Prayer. 1877.
See also under Mass; Litany.
Predestination.
J. Calvin:
Institutes of the Christian Religion.
W. Hastie: Theology of the Reformed
Church.
1904.
W.
G.
Watts:
The
Northrup and Robert
1894.
Sovereignty of God.
God's Choice of Men.
W. R. Richards:
1905.
Arminianism
See also under
and
Arminius;
Calvinism.

Adam:
The
Doctrine
James
of the Celestial
Originof the Soul from Pindar to Plato. 1906.
W. R. Alger: A Critical History of the Doctrine
of a Future Life.
4th. ed.
1867.
G. F. Moore:
Metempsychosis. 1914.
Constitutional
in the United

History of the
States.

2 v. in
1840.
J. B. Lightfoot: "The
Christian Ministry" in
his St. Paul's Epistle to the Phihppians. 1868.
T. M. Lindsay: The Church and the Ministry
in the Early Centuries.
1903.
A. F. Mitchell: The Westminster
Assembly, Its
Historyand Standards. 2d. ed. 1897.
one.

Prophecy, Prophets.
C. H. Cormll:
The Prophets of Israel. 1895.
A. R. Gordon:
The Prophets of the Old Testae
1917.
ment.
J. M. P. Smith:
The Prophet and His Problems.'
1914.
W.
R. Smith:
The Prophets of Israel. First
pubhshed,1882.
Protestant

Episcopal Church.

Latta

Griswold:
The
Its
EpiscopalChurch:
Teaching and Worship. 1916.
W.
R. Huntington: A Short History of the
Book
of Common
Prayer. 1893.
S. D. McConnell:
History of the American
10th. ed.
1916.
Episcopal Church.
Protestant
Church
in the U.S.A.
Episcopal
General
Journal
and
Convention:
lished
Digest. Pub-

triennially.
C.

C.

Tiffany:_ A

History of the

EpiscopalChurch in the

United

Protestant
States of America.

1895.

Pre-Existence.

Presbjrterianism.
Charles Hodge:
PresbyterianChurch

1873-.
Corinne Bacon, comp.r
Prison Reform; together
with a Discussion of the Prison of the Future
by
Thomas
Mott Osborne.
1917.
Enrico Ferri: Criminal
Sociology. 1917.
F. H. Wines:
Punishment
and
Reformation.
New
ed.
1919.
See also under Penology.

Protestantism.
Matthew
Arnold: St. Paul and Protestantism.
Several
editions.
?
1918.
George Cross: What is Christianity
PhilipSchaff: History of the Christian Church.
1888.
V. 6.
Ernst Troeltsch:
Protestantism and Progress.
1912.
Providence.
A. B. Bruce:
The Providential Order of the
World.
1897.
W. N. Clarke: The Christian Doctrine of God.
1909.
J. O. Dykes: The Divine Worker in Creation
and Providence.
1909.

George Galloway: The

DICTIONARY

OF

RELIGION

Philosophyof Religion.

1914.
Pseudo-Isadorian

Decretals.

W. F. Barry: The Papal Monarchy. 1902.

E. H. Davenport: The False Decretals.
1916.
A. C. Flick: The Rise of the Mediaeval
Church.
1909.

PsychicalResearch.
J. H. Hyslop: Science and a Future Life. 1905.
O. J. Lodge: Science and ImmortaUty.
1908.
H. Myers: Human
F. W.
PersonaUty and Its
Survival of Bodily Death.
2 v.
1903, 1907.
of the
F. W. H. Myers and Others: Phantasms
Living. 1886.
Society for Psychical Research:
Proceedings.
1882-.
E. Tanner:

Amy

Psychologyof

Studies

in

Spiritism.1910.

Religion.

Red

AND

ETHICS

506

Cross.

National
Red
American
Cross:
Manual
of
Home
Service.
2d. ed.
1917.
M. T. Boardman:
Under
the Red Cross Flag.
1915.
J. H. Dunant:
1911.
Origin of the Red Cross.
P. H. Epler: Life of Clara Barton.
1917.

Redemption.
Sidney Cave:

and Christian.
Redemption, Hindu
1919.
F. V. M. Cumont:
1903.
Mysteries of Mithra.
Oriental Religionsin Roman
F. V. M. Cumont:
Paganism. 1911.
G. F. Moore:
History of Religions. Vol. I.
Newed.
Vol. 11. 1920.
1920.
W. R. Smith:
Lectures on the Rehgion of the
Semites. New ed. 1907.
Reformation.

~^

Cambridge Modern

Ames:
The
Psychology of Religious
Experience. 1910.
G. A. Coe: The Psychology of ReUgion. 1916.
The
Varieties of Rehgious
James:
William
Experience. 1902.
The
J. B. Pratt:
Rehgious Consciousness; a
Study. 1920.
Psychological
The
E. D. Starbuck:
Psychology of Religion.

History, v. 2. 1904.
Hulme:
The Renaissance,the Protestant
Revolution,and the Catholic Reformation in Continental
Europe. 1914.
T. M. Lindsay: A History of the Reformation.
2 v.
1906-1907.
PhiUp Schaff : History of the Christian Church.
V. 6, 7.
1888, 1892.
The Reformation.
Williston Walker:
1900.

1901.

Reformed

Psychotherapy.

E. T. Corwin:
History of the Reformed
Church,
Dutch.
1895.
D, D. Demarest:
The
Reformed
in
Church
America.
4th. ed.
1889.
J. H. Dubbs:
History of the Reformed Church,
German.
1895.
J. I. Good:
Church in
History of the Reformed
the United States.
1911.
M. G. Hansen:
Reformed
The
Church in the
Netherlands.
1884.
The
G. W. Richards:
HeidelbergCatechism;
Historical and Doctrinal Studies.
1913.
See also under Reformation.

E.

S.

HippolyteBemheim:

SuggestiveTherapeutics.

1889.
tice,
J. M. Bramwell:
Hypnotism: Its History,Praced.
1907.
and Theory. New
1914.
A. A. Brill: Psychoanalysis. 2d. ed.
of Nervous
Paul Dubois:
Psychic Treatment
1909.
Disorders. 6th. ed.
P. M. F. Janet: Major Symptoms of Hysteria.
1907.

Purgatory.
The Christian Hope. 1912.
A. J. Mason:
Purgatory. 1901.
Joseph Pohle: Eschatology; or, the Catholic
Doctrine of the Last Things. 1917.

W.A.Brown:

Puritanism.

E. M.

Churches.

Reformed

EpiscopalChurch.

H. K. Carroll: The
Rehgious Forces in the
United States.
1893.
"The
R.
B. Leacock:
Organizationof the
Reformed
a
Episcopal Church
Necessity,"New
Englander. v. 45. 1886.
Reformed
"The
EpiscopalChurch," Catholic
World.
31. 1880.
V.

A Popular Historyof the Free

S. Home:
1903.
and
E. D. Hulbert: The Enghsh Reformation
1907.
Puritanism.
Reform
Judaism.
conformity.
W. B. Selbie: EngUsh Sects,a History of NonIsrael Abrahams:
Judaism.
1910.
191 2"
of the Enghsh
American
Jewish Year Book.
1899-.
R. G. Usher: The Reconstruction
Kohler:
Kaufmann
Jewish
1910.
2v.
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Theology Systematically
A History of the Congreand Historically
Walker:
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1918.
Wilhston
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Liberal
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C.
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1894.
Judaism.
1903.
Churches
David
in
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Philipson: The Reform
1907.
Judaism.
Quietism.
Schechter:
Some
Solomon
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Jeanne M. B. de la M. Guyon: Autobiographyof
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Madame
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1901.
R. A. Vaughan:
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can
Ameri-

Regeneration.

1863.

F6nelon, His Friends

Hours

with the

and

His

Mystics. 2d.

A Treatise
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Wilham
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Harold
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Phihp

Doddridge:

publishedabout
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Cairns: UnbeUef in the 18th. Century as

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E.
.

InfluW. E. H. Lecky: History of the Rise and ence

5th.
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of the Spiritof Rationahsm
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1872.
A. C. McGiffert:
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1911.

Regeneration.

Men,

Clinic in

Regeneration. First

1745.

Religion.

John

Kant.

On

on

S.

Ames:

The

Psychology

of

Rehgious

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W.
E.
G.
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Bousset: What
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Durkheim:
gious
Elementary Forms of the RehLife. 1915.
The
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B. Foster:
1909.
Strugglefor Existence.

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William Boulting: Giordano

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1912.
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Bavinck:
Herman
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G. P. Fisher: The Nature
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Revelation and the Bible.
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R. F. Horton:
in Theology. 1901
H. C. King : Reconstruction
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Orr: Revelation
James
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Catholic

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J. L. Balmez:
and CathoUcism
Protestantism
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J. J. I. von
DolUnger: History of the Church.
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4 vols.
The Faith of Our Fathers.
J. Gibbons:
1890.
A. Harnack:
7 v.
1894History of Dogma.
1900.
A. Lagarde: The Latin Church
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1915.
A. Loisy: The Gospel and the Church. 1902.
L. Rivington: The
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