Volum 2011 PDF

ANALELE
UNIVERSITII DIN ORADEA
FASCICULA
EDUCAIE FIZIC I SPORT
EDITURA UNIVERSITII DIN ORADEA

2011
Refereni
Prof.univ.dr. Miklos Bnhidi University of West Hungary, Gyr
Prof.univ.dr. Jaromir Simonek University of Constantine the Philosofer, Nitra
Prof.univ.dr. Iacob Haniu Universitatea din Oradea
Prof.univ.dr. Octavian Bc Universitatea din Oradea
Conf.univ.dr. Petru Mrcu Universitatea din Oradea
Colectivul de redacie:
Dana Cristea
Anca Deac
Paul Drago
Ioan Feflea
Mihai Ile
Gheorghe Lucaciu
Marius Marinu
Petru Pean
Anca Pop
Alina Suciu
Mariana Szabo-Alexi
Paul Szabo-Alexi
Mirela tef
Ioan Trifa
Responsabilitatea pentru coninutul lucrrilor incluse n prezentul volum,
revine n exclusivitate autorilor.
ADRESA
Universitatea din Oradea
Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport
Str. Universitii nr. 1, 410087
Oradea
I. S. S. N. 1224 - 5100
CUPRINS
Biro Francisc
Biro Francisc
Bocu Traian, David

Sergiu, Kollos Ciprian,
Popovici Cornelia, Kiss
Mihai
Cristea Dana, Oros
Simona, Lucaciu
Gheorghe, Mrcu Petru
Dumitrescu Gheorghe,
Pean Petre, Maroti
tefan
Hainbuch Friedrich
Marcu Vasile, Buha
Sorin
Roman Clin
Sabu Anca,
Pantea
Mdlina, Oros Simona
Suciu Alina
Szabo-Alexi
Mariana,
Szabo-Alexi Paul, anta
Cristian
Trifa Ioan
Trifa Ioan
Studiu, msurtori i observaii privind nivelul

pregtirii echipelor de handbal i comportamentul
acestora n competiii colare de nivel gimnazial
Studii i experimente didactice privind contribuia
handbalului la realizarea competenelor generale i
specifice, a valorilor i atitudinilor stabilite pentru
aria curricular Educaie Fizic i Sport prin
noile programe (2009)
Activitile de educaie fizic i sport colar vzute
prin prisma sntii publice
11
20
Studiu privind atractivitatea leciilor de educaie

fizic pentru elevii din ciclul gimnazial
27
Turneul din anul 1932 al echipei de fotbal Clubul

Atletic Oradea n Frana i Elveia
34
Antrenarea forei de apucare previne cderea

Abordarea
sistemic
a
managementului
organizaiilor sportive
Identificarea spaiilor publicitare din cadrul
competiiilor internaionale de handbal (analiz i
propuneri)
Studiu asupra opiunilor studenilor privind
disciplinele educaie fizic i sport i limbi
strine
Rolul mijloacelor de informare mass-media n
promovarea sportului romnesc (1940-1964)
Propuneri privind evaluarea pregtirii fizice a
juctorilor libero n jocul de volei
Antrenamentul n artele mariale privit ca proces
complex, dinamic i stadial
Dezvoltarea sporturilor de iarn n Asia i Oceania
40
101
118
129
133
139
149
160
CONTENTS
Biro Francisc
Biro Francisc
Bocu Traian, David

Sergiu, Kollos Ciprian,
Popovici Cornelia, Kiss
Mihai
Cristea Dana, Oros
Simona, Lucaciu
Gheorghe, Mrcu Petru
Dumitrescu Gheorghe,
Pean Petre, Maroti
tefan
Hainbuch Friedrich
Marcu Vasile, Buha
Sorin
Roman Clin
Study, measurements and observations about the

level of the handball teams and their behavior in
secondary school competitions
Studies and academic researches about the
handballs contribution to achieving of the specific
and general competences,values and skills
School physical education and sports activities seen
from the point of view of public health
11
20
Study on the attractiveness of physical education

classes for students in secondary schools
27
The 1932 tournament of the Athletic Club Oradea

football team in France and Switzerland
34
Grip-strength training prevents falling

Systemic approach on sports organizations
management
The identification of the publicity areas during the
international handball competitions
(analisys and approaches)
Sabu Anca, Pantea A study on the students' options for:"physical
Mdlina, Oros Simona
education and sport"and "foreign languages"
Suciu Alina
The role of mass- media informational means in
promoting romanian sports (1940-1964)
Szabo-Alexi Mariana, Proposals for evaluation of physical preparation of
Szabo-Alexi Paul, anta the libero player in volleyball
Cristian
Trifa Ioan
Martial arts training as a complex, dinamic and
stage process
Trifa Ioan
Winter sports development in Asia and Oceania
40
101
118
129
133
139
149
160
STUDIU, MSURTORI I OBSERVAII PRIVIND NIVELUL

PREGTIRII ECHIPELOR DE HANDBAL I
COMPORTAMENTUL ACESTORA N COMPETIII
COLARE DE NIVEL GIMNAZIAL
STUDY, MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ABOUT
THE LEVEL OF THE HANDBALL TEAMS AND THEIR
BEHAVIOR IN SECONDARY SCHOOL COMPETITIONS
Biro Francisc1
Rezumat
Studiul se nscrie n tematica elaborat de catedra de handbal a F.E.F.S. din
Universitatea Oradea pentru cercetarea tiinific organizat pentru i
prinstudeni avnd caracter de cunoatere aprofundat a metodicii predrii
handbalului la unitti gimnaziale din mediul rural, cu efective mici de elevi.
Colectivul care a efectuat cercetarea a fost compus dintr-un student al F.E.F.S.
(Szabo G.) i ase profesori care predau educaie fizic la ase coli din zona
Marghita-Scuieni-Jud. Bihor i a cuprins un eanion de 60 de elevi (cte 10 biei
din fiecare coal) care practicau handbalul n leciile de educaie fizic, n diverse
activiti sportive i competiii cea mai important fiind Cupa VALEA IERULUI
25-27 mai 2007; o competiie tradiional ajuns la a 40-a ediie. Au fost
investigate i s-a urmrit:
1) Formele, specificul i calitatea seleciei pentru formarea echipelor
representative colare (prin observaie i masurtori la 4 indici biomotrici de
maxim semnificaie (talie, alergarea de vitez, sritura n lungime far elan
i aruncarea mingii de oin cu elan de 3 pai) consemnai n cele 6 fie de
nregistrare ale echipelor.
2) Nivelul pregtirii sportive apreciate prin cei 4 indici mai sus mentionai i
prin fia de observaie, nregistrri actografice, n lectie i n competiii fiind
consemnate individual, pentru toti cei 60 de subieci.
3) Randamentul n competitii al fiecrui elev si al fiecrei echipe (prin analiza
clasamentului final i a nregistrrilor pentru fiecare elev).
n pofida numrului mic de elevi i a condiiilor slabe de baz material, la
colile gimnaziale din mediul rural handbalul poate fi predat prin leciile de
educaie fizic, activiti sportive dar i prin competitii sportive; la un bun nivel
didactic elevii ndrgind acest sport i beneficiind de efectele lui asupra dezvoltrii
1
Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport
motrice i fizice, asupra strii de sntate, asupra formrii componentelor,

atitudinilor i comportamentelor cerute Educaiei Fizice i Sportului colar.
Cuvinte cheie: educaie fizic, handbal, competiii sportive, clase de gimnaziu.
Abstract
Introduction: The study registers in the elaborated theme of the handballs desk of
F.E.F.S,from the University Oradea,for the scientific research organized for and
through students,having a depth type of knowledge of the methodology of the
handballs teaching for the secondary school students part of the rustic environment
with few pupils. The aim of the research is to investigate the methods by which
handball is taught at the secondary school classes from Bihor,for the fulfillment of
P.E.s objectives. Those who did the research were :one student of the
F.E.F.S.(Szabo G.) and six professors who teach physical education at six schools
located in the Marghita-Scuieni-. Bihor area and it included 60 students (10 boys
from each school) who practised handball ,sport activities and competitions,the
most import one being the Valea Ierului Cup 25-27 May 2007, a traditional
contest,which now took place for the 40-th time. The objectives of the research:
the investigations included:
-the types,the specific and the quality of the teams selection (through the
measurement of 4 biometrical indices of maximum significance: height, speed
running, lenght jump and the throwing of the oina ball) recorded in the teams six
files.
-the level of the athletic training through the four biometrical indices mentioned
before and through the files and actografic recordin,these being registered
individually in classes and competitions for all the 60 subjects in the 6 files.
-the efficiency in athletic competitions of each student and team (through the
analization of the final classification and the pupils recordings).
Conclusions: Despite the low number of students and of the poor material state ,at
the secondary schools from the rural area handball can be teached through P.E.,
athletic activities and contests ,the students coming up with loving the the game
and benefiting of its effects upon the physical and motoric development,of the
health and the shaping of the aptitudes and behavior requested by P.E.
Key words : physical education, handball, school competitions, secondary school
MOTIVAREA ALEGERII TEMEI
Studiul se nscrie n tematica elaborat de catedra de handbal a F.E.F.S. din
Universitatea Oradea pentru cercetarea tiinific organizat pentru i
prinstudeni avnd caracter de cunoatere aprofundat a metodicii predrii
handbalului la unitti gimnaziale din mediul rural cu efective mici de elevi.
ORGANIZAREA INVESTIGRIILOR
Colectivul care a efectuat cercetarea a fost compus dintr- un student al
F.E.F.S. (Szabo G.) i ase profesori care predau educaie fizic la ase coli din
zona Marghita-Scuieni-Jud. Bihor i a cuprins un eanion de 60 de elevi (cte 10
biei din fiecare coal) care practicau handbalul n lecia de educaie fizic,
activiti sportive i competitii cea mai important fiind cupa VALEA IERULUI
25-27 mai 2007; o competiie tradiional ajuns la a a-40-a ediie.
Observaiile i msurtorile s-au efectuat n semestrul al-II- lea al anului
colar 2006-2007 la cele 6 echipe colare (Slacea, Adoni, Otomani, Buduslu,
Cherechiu i Albi) prin asistare la orele de educaie fizic si activiti sportive i n
competiia mai sus amintit.
OBIECTIVELE CERCETRII I INSTRUMENTELE DE LUCRU
Au fost investigate i s-a urmrit:
4) Formele, specificul i calitatea seleciei pentru formarea echipelor (prin
observaie i masurtori la 4 indici biomotrici de maxim semnificaie
(talie, alergarea de vitez, sritura n lungime de pe loc i aruncarea mingii
de oin cu elan de 3 pai) consemnai n cele 6 fie ale echipelor.
5) Nivelul pregtirii sportive apreciate prin cei 4 indici mai sus mentionai i
prin fia de observaie precum i nregistrri actografice, n lectii i n
competiii fiind consemnate individual, pentru toti cei 60 de subieci.
6) Randamentul n competiii al fiecrui elev si a fiecrei echipe (prin analiza
clasamentului final i a nregistrrilor).
7) Prognozarea clasamentului, prin diagnosticarea potenialului msurat.
DATE SEMNIFICATIVE REZULTATE I INTERPRETAREA LOR
1) REFERITOR LA FORMELE, SPECIFICUL I CALITATEA
SELECIEI.
Pentru formarea colectivelor sportive i a echipelor reprezentative

colare profesorii se confrunt cu situaii i greuti specifice colilor cu
numr mic de elevi:
Selecia restrns (datorit numrului mic de elevi);
Alctuirea unor colective mixte (biei+fete, uneori i echipe, n
campionatul intern);
Alctuirea unor colective (echipe) cu elevi din toate clasele (V-VIII).
Este evident c nivelul seleciei este foarte sczut i prin aceasta pregtirea
si randamentul n competiii au mult de suferit, fiind deseori sczute dar nu lipsite
de interes, atractivitate, dramatism si chiar spectaculozitate.
Menionm c investigaiile au adus n evident si existenta unor elevi cu
evidente aptitudini pentru practicarea handbalului de performan:
- Elevi cu talii excepionale sau foarte bune (S.I.-179 cm, V.P.-178 cm,
B.R.-178 cm, P.G.-178 cm, etc.);
- Elevi cu vitez foarte bun (L.F.-4,3, B.R.-4,3, S.I.-4,3 etc.);
Elevi cu detent (n trenul inferior) foarte bun (S.I.- 237 cm,

V.P.228 cm, B.R.-230 cm, etc.)
Elevi cu fort-detent n brae foarte bun: (B.B.- 42m, A.A.- 50m,
N.G.- 50m, N.J.- 48m, etc.).
Investigaiile, avnd i caracter de selecie pentru handbal, cu ajutorul

acestora am constituit lotul elevilor selecionabili, acetia fiind semnalai seciei de
handbal de la Liceul Transilvania Oradea (7 fete, din total de 60).
2) REFERITOR LA NIVELUL PREGTIRII FIZICE, TEHNICE,
TACTICE i competiionale a elevilor respectiv echipelor.
Printr- un singur calificativ poate fi apreciat ca slab n general dar n fiecare
echip au existat elevi cu nivele de pregtire (i mai ales aptitudini) foarte bune
acetia fcnd ca nivelul competitiei s fie bun (Slacea: 4 elevi, Mdras cu 2
elevi de 10, 2 elevi cu 9-8, Otomani 3 elevi cu 9-8, Buduslu cu 1 elev de 10, 3 cu
9-8, Albi-3 elevi cu 10, 2 elevi cu 9, Cherechiu 1 elev cu 10, 3 cu 9, Adoni-1 elev
cu 10; 3 elevi cu 9). Numrul elevilor cu note sub 8 a fost de 24 de elevi din totalul
de 60.
Aceste aprecieri sunt fcute dup comportarea n lectii de antrenamente,
dar mai ales n jocuri, estimaiile permind prognozarea clasamentului cu mult
precizie (exceptie pentru locurile IV-V)
Observaiile privind potentialul sportiv al echipelor este redat n tabelul
cu datele rezultate din competitii.
CONCLUZII SI PROPUNERI
Investigaia a pus n eviden cu date foarte bine obiectivizate i
argumentate, aspectele eseniale privind predarea hanbalului n gimnaziu din
mediul rural i nivelul pregtirii handbalistice a elevilor i echipelor colare
permind formularea urmtoarelor concluzii:
1) n pofida numrului mic de elevi i a condiiilor slabe de baz material, la
colile gimnaziale din mediul rural handbalul poate fi predat prin lecia educaie
fizic; prin activiti sportive i competitii, la un bun nivel didactic, elevii
ndrgind acest sport i beneficiind de efectele lui asupra dezvoltrii motrice i
fizice, asupra strii de sntate, asupra formrii componentelor, atitudinilor i
comportamentelor cerute Educaiei Fizice i Sportului colar.
2) Aproape n fiecare coal se ntlnesc elevi cu aptitudini pentru handbalul de
performan, selecia sportiv fiind ns deficitar datorit unor factori ce in de
concepia social, legislaia i organizarea sportului colar etc.
3) Sistemele competiionale colare pentru handbal sunt foarte srace n coninut
i eficien datorit ineriei, cauzate de aceleai mentaliti sociale nguste; sau
datorit subfinanrii nvmntului etc. Exist ns forme i resurse care se cer
mai mult utilizate, mai ales c nu necesit mari cheltuieli: campionatele colii,
competiiile cu caracter local sau intercomunal etc.
4) n predarea handbalului trebuiesc utilizate toate formele prevzute de planul i

programa de nvmnt, deoarece au mpreun o aciune sumativ (educaia
fizic, activiti i competiii) benefic n practicarea sportului de performan
de ctre elevi.
Bibliografie
1. ALEXE N. i colab., Potenialul biomotric al populaiei colare clasele VVIII, C.N.E.F.S., Bucureti, 1981.
2. BIRO F., ndrumar pentru orientare i selecie n handbal, Editura Universitii
din Oradea,Oradea, 2003.
3. BOTA, I., Handbal-Modele de joc i pregtire, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureti,
1984.
4. BOTA, M., BOTA, I., Handbal, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureti, 1987.
5. BOTA, I. MACOVEI, B., Handbal- Antrenamentul portarului, Editura SportTurism, Bucureti, 1983.
6. BRIL M.S., Selecia n jocurile sportive, Editura Cultur Fizic Sport,
Bucureti, 1980 (traducere 1983).
7. COLIBABA-EVULE, D., BOTA, I., Jocuri sportive, Teorie i Metodic,
Editura Aldin, 1998.
8. CSUDOR, G., Handbal, Instruirea echipelor colare, Editura Sport- Turism,
Bucureti, 1986.
9. DRAGNEA A., Msurare i evaluare n educaie fizic i sport, Editura SportTurism, Bucureti, 1984.
Talia
Al. v.
S.L.L.
(cm)
30 m
(cm)
(Sec)
Ar. M.
oin
metri
Clasament
Echipa
Clasament
Nr.
Crt.
Clasament
Anexe
Tabel nr. 1 Diagnoza potenialului motric al echipelor colare incluse n studiu
Clasament
motricitate
Slacea
168
II
5''1
212
48
Otoman i
155,8
VI
6''0
197
VI
35
VI
VI
Buduslu
166,7
III
5''7
206
IV
42
IV
Albi
169,4
5''4
210,8
II
47,8
II
II
Cherechiu
160
5''6
199,4
43
III
Adoni
160,8
IV
5''5
208
III
42,1
IV
III
Tabel nr. 2 Diagnoza potenialului tehnico-tactic al echipelor colare incluse n

studiu
Nr.
Crt
Echipa
Nota
10
Nota
8-9
Nota
Sub 8
Clasament
Calificativ
EX.
Calificativ
F.B.
Calificativ
B/S
CLASAMENT
Slacea
II
Otoman i
VI
VI
Buduslu
IV
Albi
II
Cherechiu
IV
Adoni
III
III
TOTA L
10
26
24
10
STUDII I EXPERIMENTE DIDACTICE PRIVIND

CONTRIBUIA HANDBALULUI LA REALIZAREA
COMPETENELOR GENERALE I SPECIFICE, A
VALORILOR I ATITUDINILOR STABILITE PENTRU ARIA
CURRICULAR EDUCATIE FIZIC I SPORT PRIN
NOILE PROGRAME (2009)
STUDIES AND ACADEMIC RESEARCHES ABOUT THE
HANDBALLS CONTRIBUTION TO ACHIEVING OF THE
SPECIFIC AND GENERAL COMPETENCES,VALUES AND
SKILLS
Biro Francisc1
Rezumat
Acest sudiu i propune s analizeze contribuia jocului de handbal la
realizarea obiectivelor generale ale curriculum- ului de educaie fizic i sport la
nivelul claselor de gimnaziu din judeul Bihor. Scopul lucrrii este de a evidenia
rolul handbalului ca mijloc al educaiei fizice pentru clasele de gimnaziu. Am
cuprins n investigaie patru coli din Judetul Bihor (Slacea, Marghita, Gurbediu,
Borod) i patru profesori de educaie fizic care au experimentat efectele practicrii
handbalului la clasele V-VIII pe parcursul a 3-4 ani colari prin lecii de educaie
fizic, activiti sportive i competitii colare avnd constituite eantioane martor i
experiment de 10-20 elevi (n fiecare coal) cuprinznd astfel un numr total de
140 subieci (80 biei i 60 fete).
n concluzie toate cele patru experimente didactice au atestat cu argumente
suficiente contribuia handbalului la realizarea competenelor cerute educaiei fizice
i sportului colar de noile coninuturi ale programelor colare.
Cuvinte cheie: handbal, clase de gimnaziu, competene, aria curricular
Abstract
Introduction: this study s purpose is to to analize the contribution of the
handball at the general targets of the P.E.s curriculum aimed at the secondary
school from the Bihor district. The subjects of the research: we included in our
research four schools from the Bihor district (Slacea, Marghita, Gurbediu, Borod)
and 4 P.E. teachers who experimented the effects of practicing handball in the
secondary school during 3-4 school years through physical education,sport
1
11
competitions and athletic activities.These included 10-10 students from each

school,which means 140 subjects (80 boys and 60 girls) from all the schools.
Results:
The objectification of the measurements was realized with antrhropometric
indices (wasit,weight and P.T.) and with motility indices (speed.the long
jump without moose,the throwing of the oina ball).
The average statics of each group of students were calculated at the initial
and final evaluations(annex 1-4) and compared with the average statics on
country.
During each research were utilized questionnaires(addresses to the
professors and to the students),observation files,school documents were
consulted(notebooks).
In conclusion, all these four academic researches attested with enough
evidence the contribution of the handball at the accomplishments requested by
physical education in the new school program.
Key words : handball,secondary school,skills,curricular area
I MOTIVAREA ALEGERII I ACTUALIZAREA TEMEI
n permanentul proces de modernizare a nvamntului romnesc i
adoptarea recomandrilor Parlamentului european si a Consiliul uniunii europene
privind competenele-cheie din perspectiva nvrii pe parcursul ntregii vieti
(2006/962 E.C.) s-a procedat la conturarea unui profil de formare European
structurat pe opt domenii de competene cheie.
Aria curriculara educatie fizic i sport la clasele V-VIII, avnd o nou
program (din anul 2009) are menirea s-i aduc contribuia specific la realizarea
dezvoltrii complexe a personalitii autonome i creative a elevilor, programele
avnd n componen:
- Competenele generale;
- Valorile si aptitudinile;
- Competenele specifice i coninuturi (pe fiecare clas);
- Sugestii metodologice etc.
ntregul coninut al programei este axat pe dobndirea de ctre elevi a
cunostinelor necesare acionrii asupra dezvoltrii fizice i dezvoltrii calitilor
motrice ct i iniierea n practicarea unor discipline/probe sportive :
- Trei probe atletice;
- Elemente acrobatice i srituri;
- 1-2 jocuri sportive.
12
Contribuia handbalului la realizarea noilor cerine se cere, deci, cunoscut

i analizat ct mai obiectiv.
II ORGANIZAREA CERCETRII
Catedra de handbal din F.E.F.S. a Universitii Oradea i-a stabilit, n
cadrul planului de cercetare tiinific, organizarea unor experimente didactice la
uniti colare din Judeul Bihor la care au fost cooptate cadre didactice care i-au
elaborat lucrri metodico-tiinifice cu teme din handbalul colar.
Astfel am cuprins n investigaie patru coli din Judetul Bihor (Slacea,
Marghita, Gurbediu, Borod) si patru profesori de educaie fizic, care au
experimentat efectele practicrii handbalului la clasele V-VIII pe parcursul a 3-4
ani colari prin lecii de educaie fizic, activiti sportive i competitii colare
avnd constituite eantioane martor i experiment de cte 10-20 elevi (n fiecare
coal) cuprinznd astfel un numr total de 140 subieci (80 biei i 60 fete).
La toate colile au fost utilizate mijloace din handbal, atent selecionate n
programele de pregatire anual, semestriale i pe tot ciclul gimnazial, urmrindu-se
n mod special efectele practicrii handbalului att la grupele experimentate ct i
la grupele martor.
n concluzie toate cele patru experimente didactice, au atestat cu argumente
III.
DATE REZULTATE I INTERPRETRI
Obiectivizarea msurtorilor s-a realizat prin indici antropometrici (talie,
greutate, perimetru toracic i prin indicii de motricitate specifici handbalului
(alergarea de vitez pe 50 m, sritura n lungime fr elan, aruncarea mingii de oin
si alergarea de rezisten pe 600-1000 m).
Mediile statistice ale fiecrui eantion de elevi au fost calculate la testrile
iniiale i finale (anexa 1-4) i comparate cu mediile statistice pe ar
(M.T.S.1999).
n cadrul fiecrui experiment au mai fost utilizate chestionare (adresate
cadrelor didactice i elevilor); fie de observaii i au fost consultate mai multe
documente colare (caietul profesorului, catalog etc.)
IV
CONSTATRI I CONCLUZII
4.1
DATE PRIVIND INFLUENAREA PRACTICRII HANDBALULUI
ASUPRA DEZVOLTARII SOMATICE
n toate cele cinci experimente au fost evideniate diferene medii ale
creterii taliei att la biei ct i la fete de 5-9 cm, cu o medie mai mare la grupele
experimentale fa de cele martor. Au fost nregistrate i talii excepionale de 173174 cm la fete i 180-182 cm la biei.
Dei indicii somatici. sunt influenai de fenomenele de cretere, toate
experimentele pun n eviden (la grupele experimentale) creteri realizate prin
masa muscular spre deosebire de grupele martor unde predomin esutul adipos.
13
La toate grupele experimentale att la biei ct i la fete au fost nregistrate

medii ale creterilor tuturor indicilor antropometrici superioare celor ale grupelor
martor dar i mediilor statistice pe ar ale copiilor de 14 ani (M.T.S.1993).
Toate cele patru experimente mai evideniaz, la grupele experimentale, o
foarte bun stare de snatate precum i puine deficiene fizice (obiectivizate prin
numr redus de mbolnviri).
4.2
DEZVOLTAREA CALITILOR MOTRICE
La grupele experimentale au fost nregistrate date medii i individuale mai
bune cu 12 i chiar timpi foarte buni la unii subiecti (71, 72). Detenta
membrelor inferioare a crescut n medie cu 16-20 cm; comparativ mai mult la
grupele experimentale fa de grupa martor n cadrul probelor de sritur n
lungime, la care au fost nregistrate i valori individuale de excepie (230-240 cm,
la biei i 225-230 cm la fete).
Alergarea de rezisten pe 800 m a pus de asemenea n eviden diferene
medii mai bune cu 25-30 secunde la grupele experimentale fa de cele martor.
Cele mai evidente diferene ntre grupele experimentale i martor s-au
nregistrat la aruncarea mingii de oin la distan (cu 8-10m mai mult la fete i 1015m mai mult la biei).
Dei uneori nu au fost nregistrate diferene evidente ntre mediile
subiecilor din grupele experimentale fa de cele ale grupelor martor toate
experimentele au demonstrat clar, prin rezultate mai bune eficacitatea mijloacelor
propuse de noi.
4.3
Contribuia practicrii handbalului asupra formrii unor cunotine,
priceperi si deprinderi precum i a formrii unor atitudini i comportamente corecte
i a unor caliti morale i de voin a fost pus n eviden prin fia de observaii,
chestionare si metode actografice adresate att subiecilor din grupele
experimentale ct si martor.
Toi elevii din grupele experimentale i-au nsuit corect elementele
tehnice i tactice de baz ale handbalului, pe care- l practic cu
plcere i eficien, uneori organizndu-i singur jocul bilateral (spre
deosebire de elevii din grupele martor)
Analiza situaiilor privind purtarea i randamentul la nvtur,
confirm c elevii care practic handbalul au rezultate evident mai
bune (diferene medii de 2-3 puncte la notare)
Chestionnd profesorii care predau alte obiecte de nvmnt de la
toate cele patru coli, acetia au pus n eviden (prin rspunsurile la
chestionare) faptul c au remarcat multe atitudini, trsturi i
comportamente pozitive. Remarc prezena unor nsuiri la elevii ce
practic handbalul: sociabilitate, deschidere spre noi relaii i
uurin n integrarea n colective noi, disciplin, stpnirea de sine,
voin si perseveren, fair play, comportare civilizat n coal i n
societate, formarea rapid a unor deprinderi de munc, posibiliti
14
de integrare rapid n liceu, orizont de cunoatere mult mai larg,

etc., aceste caliti se ntlnesc la elevii din grupele experimentale n
proporie de 75-80%; pe cnd la copiii care nu practic handbalul
calitile mai sus menionate sunt prezente doar la 25-30%.
n concluzie toate cele patru experimente didactice au atestat cu argumente
Bibliografie
1. ALEXE N. i colab., Potenialul biomotric al populaiei colare clasele VVIII, C.N.E.F.S., Bucureti, 1981.
2. BIRO F., ndrumar pentru orientare i selecie n handbal, Editura Universitii
din Oradea, Oradea, 2003.
3. BOTA, I., Handbal-Modele de joc i pregtire, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureti,
1984.
4. BOTA, M., BOTA, I., Handbal, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureti, 1987.
5. BOTA, I. MACOVEI, B., Handbal- Antrenamentul portarului, Editura SportTurism, Bucureti, 1983.
6. BRIL M.S., Selecia n jocurile sportive, Editura Cultur Fizic Sport,
Bucureti, 1980 (traducere 1983).
7. COLIBABA-EVULE, D., BOTA, I., Jocuri sportive, Teorie i Metodic,
8. CSUDOR, G., Handbal, Instruirea echipelor colare, Editura Sport- Turism,
Bucureti, 1986.
9. DRAGNEA A., Msurare i evaluare n educaie fizic i sport, Editura SportTurism, Bucureti, 1984.
15
Fig.nr.1 Tabel cu date finale rezultate din experimental nr.1 privind contributia handbalului la realizarea obiectivelor
educatiei fizice si sportului la nivel gimnazial.
Medii ale indicilor antropometrici
Grupe(sex)
Nr.
subiecti
Talie (cm)
Experiment(B)
10
160,2
Martor(B)
10
Diferente(E/B)
Greutate
(kg)
Medii inregistrate la probe de control
Perimetru
toracic
(cm)
Alergare
viteza
30-50 m
(sec)
Aruncarea
mingii de
oina (m)
Alergarea de
rezistenta
600-1000 m
(min,sec)
7,88
Saritura
in
lungime
de pe loc
(cm)
186,8
45,3
83-77,1
36,8
410
153,5
40,8
78,6-70,6
8,20
170,3
25,5
450
6,7
4,5
4,4-6,5
0,32
16,5
11,3
040
Experiment(F)
10
155,5
47,8
90,6-82,8
8,46
164,2
23,1
410
Martor(F)
Diferente(E/F)
10
154,8
0,7
45,8
2
82,9-7,5
7,7-6,3
9,21
0,7
151,0
13,2
17,0
6,1
435
025
Experiment realizat in perioada 1994 1998 la Gimnaziul Salacea Judetul Bihor Profesor Molnar P.
16
Fig.nr 2. Tabel cu date finale rezultate din experimentul nr.2 privind contributia handbalului la realizarea obiectivelor
Grupe(sex)
Nr.subiecti
Talie
Experiment
Martor
diferenta
17
17
166
157
9
Indici antropometrici
Perimetru
greutate
toracic
(cm)
55,8
48,0
6,8
79
76
3
Naveta
23,9
25,6
1,7
Alergarea
de viteza
30-50m
(sec)
7,3
8,4
1,1
Probe de control
Saritura Aruncarea
in
mingii de
lungime oina (m)
de pe loc
(cm)
203
36
164
28
39
8
Alergare
rezistenta
(min, sec)
306
405
100
Experimentul nr.2 realizat in perioada 1996-1999, Scoala Marghita, Profesor Haias V.

NOTA:
Experimentul s-a desfasurat pe parcursul a doi ani scolari numai cu subiecti baieti grupa martora (17B) realizand
programul de handball in lectii, iar cea experimental (17) in lectii si activitati (clasele VI-VII).
17
Fig.nr.3 Tabel cu date finale rezultate din experimentul nr.3 privind contributia handbalului la realizarea obiectivelor
Grupe(sex)
Experiment(B)
Martor(B)
Diferente(E/B)
Experiment(F)
Martor(F)
Diferente(E/F)
Nr.subiecti
10
10
10
10
Medii ale indicilor

antropometrici
Talie
Greutate
(cm)
(kg)
167,7
167,1
1,6
161,1
165,0
-3,3
59,0
54,4
4,6
56,3
55,7
0,6

Perimetru
toracic
(cm)
81,8-74,3
82,1-77,7
(-0,3)-3,4
81,5-73,7
82,3-76,7
(-0,8)-(3,0)
Alergare
viteza 3050 m (sec)
Saritura in
lungime
de pe loc
(cm)
Aruncarea
mingii de
oina (m)
7,7
8,2
0,5
7,9
7,9
0
172,3
165,7
6,6
158,0
157,2
0,8
36,4
28,1
8,3
35,8
26,8
9,0
Alergarea
de
rezistenta
600-1000
m
(min,sec)
353
426
023
353
421
029
Experimentul nr.3.Perioada 2004-2006, Scoala Gurbediu, Profesor Popa Roman Florin

Nota:
Experimentul s-a desfasurat numai in lectiile de educatie fizica pe parcursul a doi ani scolari pentru grupa experimental
baieti si fete, fiind folosite mijloace special selectate din handbal si alocarea a20-25 de minute din lectie (pentru grupele
martor s-au folosit mijloace obisnuite si 10-15 minute din lectie).
18
Fig.nr.4 Tabel cu date finale rezultate din experimentul nr.4 privind contributia handbalului la realizarea obiectivelor
Grupe(sex)
Experiment(B)
Martor(B)
Diferente(E/B)
Experiment(F)
Martor(F)
Diferente(E/F)
Nr.subiecti
10
10
20
10
10
20
Medii ale indicilor

antropometrici
Talie
Greutate
(cm)
(kg)
171,0
167,9
3,1
167,0
161,9
5,1
68,4
62,7
5,7
59,5
56,1
3,4

Perimetru
toracic
(cm)
90,7-85,2
88,3-81,2
2,4-4,0
91,3-83,4
82,5-78,8
8,8-4,6
Alergare
viteza 3050 m (sec)
Saritura in
lungime
de pe loc
(cm)
Aruncarea
mingii de
oina (m)
7,63
8,75
1,2
8,32
8,88
0,56
197,2
177,3
19,9
168,4
150,6
17,8
41,6
35,4
6,2
29,2
23,9
5,3
Alergarea
de
rezistenta
600-1000
m
(min,sec)
359
416
057
320
334
021
Experimentul nr.4 realizat in perioada 2002-2007, coala Borod, Profesor Rus Cristian
19
ACTIVITILE DE EDUCAIE FIZIC I SPORT COLAR

VZUTE PRIN PRISMA SNTII PUBLICE
SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS
ACTIVITIES SEEN FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PUBLIC
HEALTH
Bocu Traian, David Sergiu, Kollos Ciprian, Popovici Cornelia, Kiss Mihai1
Rezumat
Introduce re
Mai multe structuri i-au asumat, prin misiunea lor, asigurarea sntii
populaiei att prin metode i mijloace specifice, n cazul Ministerului Sntii, ct
i prin mijloacele educaiei fizice i sportului, n cazul fiecreia dintre acestea. Ca
urmare aceste structuri sunt chemate s participe la politicile de asigurare a
sntii publice: Ministerul Sntii, prin activitile de sntate public;
Ministerul Educaiei, prin activitile de educaie fizic i sport colar i universitar;
Autoritatea Naional pentru Sport i Tineret, prin activitile de sport pentru toi.
Proble matica abordat
Activitile de educaie fizic i sport fac parte dintre activitile curriculare,
prevzute n programa colar ca urmare a misiunii sale de promovare a sntii i
de educaie pentru sntate. De aceea obiectivele generale ale educaiei fizice sunt
aceleai cu cele ale sntii publice, fiind diferite doar mijloacele specifice de
aplicare. Activitile de educaie fizic i sport, reprezint numai o parte din
necesarul activitilor fizice sistematice necesare pentru atingerea obiectivului de
asigurare a sntii.
Concluzii
Activitatea fizic regulat aduce indivizilor de orice gen sau vrst, inclusiv
celor cu dizabiliti, o serie de beneficii fizice, sociale i psihice. Profilaxia
primordial i primar impun adoptarea unor politici sanitare naionale i programe
adecvate, viznd campania naional antifumat, lansarea unui program de
alimentaie sntoas, prevenirea hipertensiunii arteriale i promovarea activitilor
fizice regulate. Programa colar actual este neadecvat principalelor configuraii
biopsihomotrice care ar trebui s diferenieze participanii n cadrul activitilor
fizice.
Universitatea de Medicin i Farmacie Iuliu Haieganu Cluj Napoca
20
Propuneri
Insuficiena orelor de educaie fizic curriculare pentru atingerea
obiectivelor de sntate. Necesitatea completrii diferenei de micare cu activiti
fizice individuale extracurriculare. Necesitatea crerii cadrului necesar angrenrii
unui numr ct mai mare de practicani n activitile de educaie fizic extracolare
- nfiinarea de Asociaiile sportive colare (universitare). Necesitatea amenajrii
spaiilor didactice pn la asigurarea acestora, conform normativelor n amenajarea
teritoriului i n construcii. Este necesar ca fiecare activitate de educaie fizic i
sport, indiferent dac este curricular sau extracurricular, s fie monitorizat
printr-un sistem informatic, n vederea formrii la elevi/studeni a unor portofolii de
activiti, n vederea evalurii finale. Programa ar trebui s prevad verificarea
anual a nivelului condiiei fizice la populaia colar i universitar i ca urmare
distribuirea subiecilor n cteva categorii de efort i activiti fizice
corespunztoare.
Cuvinte cheie: educaie fizic i sport, sntate public, profilaxie, scutiri
medicale, practicarea sistematic a exerciiilor fizice
Abstract
Introduction
Several structures have assumed through the ir mission the provision of
health care to the population, both by specific methods and means in the case of the
Ministry of Health, and by the means of physical education and sport in the case of
each of these. As a result, these structures participate in the public health care
provision policies: Ministry of Health through public health activities; Ministry
of Education through school and university physical education and sports
activities; National Authority for Sport and Youth through sports activities for all.
Main issues
Physical education and sports activities are part of activities included in the
school curriculum as a result of its mission to promote health and health education.
This is why the general aims of physical education are those of public health, with
different specific means of application. Physical education and sports activities are
only a part of the systematic physical exercise activities required for the attainment
of the aim to provide health.
Conclusions
Regular physical exercise physically, socially and mentally benefits both
male and female individuals of all ages, including disabled persons. Primordial and
primary prevention requires the adoption of adequate national health policies and
programs, aimed at a national anti-smoking campaign, launching a healthy diet
program, preventing arterial hypertension and promoting regular (systematic)
physical exercise. The inadequate school curriculum requires a real differentiated
application, with the verification of physical fitness in the school and university
population
21
Proposals
An insufficient number of curricular physical education classes for the
attainment of health objectives. A need for individual extracurricular physical
activities to cover the difference of physical exercise requirements. The necessity to
create a framework in order to attract a large number of participants to
extracurricular physical exercise activities creation of school (university) sports
associations. A need to make sports teaching facilities availab le, according to
territorial planning and building norms. All physical education and sports activities,
whether curricular or extracurricular, should be monitored by a computerized
system, in order for pupils/students to develop portfolios of activities, with a view
to the final evaluation. The inadequate school curriculum requires a real
differentiated application, with the verification of physical fitness in the school and
university population every year and the assignment to the adequate physical
exercise category and activities.
Keywords : physical education and sports, public health, prevention, medical
exemptions, promoting regular (systematic) physical exercise
Introduce re
Sectoarele implicate n asigurarea sntii populaiei
Mai multe structuri i-au asumat, prin misiunea lor, asigurarea sntii
populaiei att prin metode i mijloace specifice, n cazul Ministerului Sntii, ct
i prin mijloacele educaiei fizice i sportului, n cazul fiecreia dintre acestea. Ca
urmare aceste structuri sunt chemate s participe la politicile de asigurare a
sntii publice:
- Ministerul Sntii - prin activitile de sntate public
- Ministerul Educaiei, Cercetrii, Tineretului i Sportului - prin activitile de
educaie fizic i sport colar i universitar
- Autoritatea Naional pentru Sport i Tineret - prin activitile de sport pentru
toi
Ne propunem abordarea importanei activitilor de educaie fizic i sport
colar, prin prisma a dou repere: sntatea public i scutirile medicale.
Activitile de educaie fizic i sport colar vzute prin pris ma
sntii publice.
Axa sntate public - educaie fizic, cu misiunile fiecrei variabile din
componena acesteia, interferenele i obiectivele comune pe care aceste variabile
le comport, trebuie vzut ca o coloan vertebral pe traseul creia este necesar s
fie elaborate i implementate toate politicile naionale pentru sntate din cadrul
crora s nu lipseasc activitile de educaie fizic i sport (Fig. 1).
a) Sntatea public
Sanatatea publica combin abordri multidisciplinare i intersectoriale.
Scopurile asistenei de sntate public sunt promovarea sntii, prevenirea
mbolnvirii i mbuntirea calitii vieii (prelungirea vieii de bun calitate)
22
(Lupu .c. 2004). Acestea sunt implementate prin eforturi organizate i utilizarea
eficient a resurselor materiale i intelectuale ale societii i prin iniiative
individuale (Conferinta What is public Health ?, Debreczen, 1992) (1).
Fig. 1 Axa sntate public-educaie fizic i sport

A fi declarat sntos sau sntos clinic n urma unui examen medical de
bilan anual n cazul colarilor, constituie un deziderat. Procentul celor declarai
sntoi trebuie s fie ct mai ridicat sau n orice caz s creasc n urma metodelor
i mijloacelor aplicate prin politici de stat.
b) Epidemiologia
Epidemiologia este tiina medical care se ocup, prin cooperri
multidisciplinare, cu identificarea factorilor de agresiune pentru sntate i
stabilirea metodelor si mijloacelor de neutralizare a acestora. ntre disciplinele
chemate s coopereze n vederea prevenirii mbolnvirilor, prin metode i mijloace
specifice considerm c face parte i educaia fizic i sportul, precum i activitile
fizice extracurriculare, practicate sistematic. Avnd ca scop depistarea cauzelor
modificabile ale bolilor, epidemiologia joac un rol central n profilaxie (Bocan,
1999). Epidemiologie nseamn i prevalena sau incidena unei boli n populaie,
nu neaprat contagioase; spre exemplu: epidemiologia obezitii; cifoscolioza-date
epidemiologice (2); epidemiologia morii subite (Brion, 2010).
23
c) Profilaxia
Unul din cele trei atribute ale practicii de medicin general l constituie
Asistena medical primar, sau Asistena primar a strii de sntate (APSS) cu
aplicarea n practic a treptelor de prevenie. Se disting patru nivele de profilaxie,
corespunztoare diferitelor faze de evoluie sau absen a bolii: profilaxia
primordial, primar, secundar i teriar (Bocu i Tache, 2004).
Profilaxia reprezint ansamblul msurilor medico-sanitare care se iau pentru
prevenirea apariiei i a rspndirii bolilor. Ca ramur a medicinii aceasta se ocup
cu studierea i aplicarea msurilor profilactice (3). Profilaxia nu mai poate fi redus
numai la metodele ei clasice. Medicina omului sntos urmrete s intervin activ
n aprarea sntii prin punerea in valoare a activitilor fizice practicate
sistematic, a excursiilor i a vieii n aer liber, folosirea factorilor naturali de
ntrire a organismului (aer, soare, munte, mare). Exerciiile fizice au rol deosebit
n reducerea stresului cotidian n vederea gestionrii acestuia, ajut la meninerea
greutii ideale etc. MOS promoveaz o alimentaie raional, tiinific, cu
combaterea exceselor alimentare care pot s d uc la obezitate i alte boli de
nutriie.
Activitile de educaie fizic i sport constituie o component n toate cele
patru nivele, dar cea mai important misiune o au n primele dou, primordial i
primar. Profilaxia primordial i primar impun adoptarea unor politici sanitare
naionale i programe adecvate, viznd campania naional antifumat, lansarea unui
program de alimentaie sntoas, prevenirea hipertensiunii arteriale i promovarea
activitilor fizice regulate (sistematice) (Bocan, 1999; Lupu i Zanc, 1999; Bocu,
2007).
Primele dou niveluri ale profilaxiei se adreseaz ntregii populaii, sunt
caracteristice medicinei profilactice i se caracterizeaz printr-un cost redus i o
eficien ridicat. Ultimele dou niveluri sunt specifice medicinii curative (clinice),
se adreseaz individului bolnav i se caracterizeaz printr- un cost ridicat i o
eficien redus.
d) Practicarea sistematic a exerciiilor fizice
Practicarea sistematic a activitilor fizice nseamn prestarea acestora cu o
frecven minim de 3 ori pe sptmn a cte 30-60 minute, cu efort de intensitate
moderat. Frecvena leciilor de educaie fizic din programa colar este de 1-2
ore/sptmn. Se deduce c diferena de 3-4 ore trebuie asigurat din activiti
extracurriculare, n cadrul Asociaiilor sportive colare sau universitare.
Ca urmare se constat:
- Insuficiena orelor de educaie fizic curriculare pentru atingerea obiectivelor
de sntate.
- Necesitatea completrii diferenei de micare cu activiti fizice individ uale
extracurriculare.
24
- Necesitatea crerii cadrului necesar angrenrii unui numr ct mai mare de

practicani n activitile de educaie fizic extracolare nfiinarea de
Asociaiile sportive colare (universitare)
- Necesitatea amenajrii spaiilor didactice pn la asigurarea acestora, conform
normativelor n amenajarea teritoriului i n construcii 4-5 mp/elev; 6
mp/student .
f) Educaia fizic
Activitile de educaie fizic i sport fac parte dintre activitile curriculare,
prevzute n programa colar ca urmare a misiunii sale de promovare a sntii i
de educaie pentru sntate. De aceea obiectivele generale ale educaiei fizice sunt
aceleai cu cele ale sntii publice, fiind diferite doar mijloacele specifice de
aplicare. n cadrul leciilor practice de educaie fizic se pun bazele formrii unor
deprinderi corecte de via, precum i a unui stil de via favorabil sntii. Stilul
de via se refer la atitudinile, obiceiurile si comportamentele persoanei n viaa
cotidian. Activitile de educaie fizic i sport, reprezint numai o parte din
necesarul activitilor fizice sistematice necesare pentru atingerea obiectivului de
asigurare a sntii. Deoarece noiunile legate de stilul i modul de via viznd
activitile fizice au caracter preponderent practic dar i unul teoretic, aceste noiuni
teoretice ar trebui predate n coal, n cadrul unor lecii interdisciplinare
suplimentare, ntr-un cadru mai larg al formrii competenelor sociale i civice.
Scutirile medicale
Al doilea reper pe care l amintim este cel al scutirilor medicale de la orele
de educaie fizic i sport. Un instrument important de orientare i lucru n favoarea
sntii colare l reprezint bilanul anual al strii de sntate. n urma analizrii
acestor bilanuri s-a constatat c tipurile de boli care fac parte din aceeai grup,
mai des ntlnite n coli, n ordine procentual sunt urmtoarele:
- obezitatea i disfunciile tiroidiene (boli de nutriie);
- viciile de refracie (boli de vedere);
- tulburrile de ritm i valvulopatii (boli cardiovasculare);
- deformrile coloanei vertebrale i viciile de postur (deficiene fizice).
Toate bolile cuprinse n nomenclatorul OMS sunt codificate spre uurarea
monitorizrii acestora i spre simplificarea calculelor statistice. Din analiza
bilanurilor anuale efectuate de ctre medicii colari reiese c starea de sntate a
tinerilor este legat de existena sau inexistena spaiilor didactice pentru
practicarea activitilor de educaie fizic i sport n acele uniti colare.
Redm principalele dou cauze ale numeroaselor scutiri medicale
nregistrate n rndul elevilor i studenilor:
a) Programa colar actual este neadecvat principalelor configuraii
biopsihomotrice care ar trebui s diferenieze participanii n cadrul activitilor
fizice. Programa nu prevede i nu impune o aplicare difereniat real a
activitilor de educaie fizic i sport n raport cu potenialul individual.
Aceasta ar trebui s prevad verificarea anual a nivelului condiiei fizice la
25
populaia colar i universitar i ca urmare distribuirea subiecilor n cteva

categorii de efort i activiti fizice corespunztoare.
b) Sistemul de evaluare trebuie s fie interactiv, adic s fie acceptat de ctre
practicani prin posibiliti suplimentare de opiune fa de cel existent. Este
necesar ca fiecare activitate de educaie fizic i sport, indiferent dac este
curricular sau extracurricular, s fie monitorizat printr-un sistem informatic,
n vederea formrii de ctre elevi/studeni a unor portofolii de activiti, n
vederea evalurii finale. La ora actual sistemul de evaluare este impus
unilateral de ctre cadrul didactic i n prea mic msur agreat de ctre
practicani. De asemenea, coninutul programei ar trebui efectuat n echip, sau
cel puin n tandem de ctre cadrele didactice, tocmai pentru ca s poat fi
introduse modaliti tehnice moderne de predare, monitorizare i evaluare.
Din cadrul cercetrilor personale suntem n msur s oferim sistemul de
evaluare SpManager 2009 ca o metod interactiv, elaborat n vederea stimulrii
elevilor/studenilor de a participa cu plcere i fr stres la leciile de educaie
fizic i sport/lucrrile practice precum i la activitile extracurriculare. Metoda
const ntr-un software avnd ca scop monitorizarea activitilor de educaie fizic
i sport desfurate de elevi/studeni pe parcursul anului, n vederea ntocmirii
portofoliului de activiti anuale, necesar evalurii finale (Bocu .c., 2008). Soluia
optim de aplicare o constituie prestarea activitilor n colaborare, tocmai pentru
ca modalitile tehnice moderne de predare, monitorizare i evaluare s fie sub
control.
Bibliografie
Bocu T, Tache S. Educaia fizic i sportul, parte integrant a asistenei primare a
strii de sntate (APSS). Palestrica Mileniului III, 2004; 2(16): 35-41.
Bocu T. Activitatea fizic n viaa omului contemporan. Ed. Casa crii de tiin,
Cluj-Napoca, 2007
Bocu T, Clinici T, Kollos C, Monea C, Kiss M, David S. Software pentru
monitorizarea activitilor de educaie fizic i sport n vederea evalurii
finale a studenilor. Palestrica Mileniului III, 2008; 31 (1): 49-55.
Bocan IS. Epidemiologie practic. Ed. Medical Universitar Iuliu Haieganu,
Cluj-Napoca, 1999
Brion R. La mort subite des jeunes sportifs. Science&Sports, 2010; 25 (6): 330-333
Lupu I, Zanc I. Sociologie medical. Teorie i aplicaii. Ed. Polirom Iai, 1999.
Lupu I, Zanc I, Sndulescu C. Sociologia sntii. De la teorie la practic. Ed.
Tiparg, Cluj-Napoca, 2004
Web-site-uri vizitate
(1)http://facultate.regielive.ro/proiecte/medicina/starea_de_sanatate_si_caracteristic
ile_ei_in_romania 552.html consultat n 2010
(2)http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologie consultat n 2010
(3)http://www.dexonline.news20.ro/cuvant/profilaxie.html consultat n 2010
26
STUDIU PRIVIND ATRACTIVITATEA LECIILOR DE

EDUCAIE FIZIC PENTRU ELEVII DIN CICLUL
GIMNAZIAL
STUDY ON THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION CLASSES FOR STUDENTS IN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
Cristea Dana1 , Oros Simona, Lucaciu Gheorghe, Mrcu Petru.
Rezumat
Educaia fizic perceput ca parte a educaiei generale n colile de toate
gradele, trebuie s rspund nevoilor generale ale tinerilor: meninerea unei stri
optime de sntate, favorizarea dezvoltrii fizice armonioase, ameliorarea
capacitii motrice generale, formarea obinuinei de practicare independent i
sistematic a exerciiilor fizice, dezvoltarea armonioas a personalitii.
Procesul de reformare a sistemului de nvmnt romnesc ca i a societii
n ansamblu, impune dup prerea noastr, o reorientare a strategiilor didactice, n
sensul operaionalizrii instrumentelor optime pentru creterea gradului de
atractivitate a leciilor de educaie fizic.
Disciplina educaie fizic este prevzut n curricula pentru nvmntul
gimnazial ca disciplina obligatorie. n prezentul studiu am urmrit identificarea
opiunilor elevilor n legtur cu educaia fizic respectiv cu aspectele care ar faceo mai atractiv, precum i motivarea preferinelor acestora.
Metoda utilizat n derularea acestui studiu, este ancheta sociologic prin
aplicarea unui chestionar care nregistreaz datele cu privire la opiunile i
propunerile elevilor n legtur cu desfurarea leciilor de educaie fizic.
Chestionarul, ca instrument de nregistrare a datelor, a fost aplicat unui eantion
eterogen din punct de vedere al vrstei, genului, mediului de reziden, n structura
cruia sunt cuprini elevi din toate cele patru clase de gimnaziu, din coli aflate pe
raza municipiului Oradea.
Analiza datelor nregistrate pune n eviden ca tendin general
orientarea majoritii elevilor ctre leciile de educaie fizic pe care le consider
utile, cu un accent pentru subiecii care practic o disciplin sportiv n timpul lor
liber, precum i o serie de aspecte ce se pot constitui ca propuner i adresate n
aceeai msur profesorilor, conducerilor unitilor de nvmnt dar i
1
Un iversitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport
27
administraiei locale i centrale pentru creterea gradului de atractivitate a

educaiei fizice ca disciplin de nvmnt.
Cuvinte cheie: educaie fizic, opiuni, atractivitate.
Abstract
Physical education perceived as part of general education in schools of all
levels, must meet the general needs of young people: maintaining an optimal state
of health, fostering harmonious physical development, improve the overa ll driving
ability, training habit of independent and systematic practice of physical exercises,
the harmonious development of personality.
The process of reforming the Romanian educational system and society as a
whole, in our view requires a shift in teaching strategies within the meaning of
optimal operational tools to increase the attractiveness of physical education
classes.
"Physical education" is provided in the curricula for secondary schools as a
compulsory subject. In this study we sought to identify options in relation to
physical education students concerned with issues that would make it more
attractive and motivating their preferences.
The method used in carrying out this study, the sociological investigation
by applying a questionnaire to record details about the options and proposals
relating to the conduct of students in physical education classes. Questionnaire as a
tool for recording data was applied to a heterogeneous sample in terms of age,
gender, residence, structure in which are included students from all four classes of
junior high schools in the municipality of Oradea.
Recorded data reveal as a general trend the orientation of most students
to physical education lessons that they considered usefull, with an emphasis on
subjects practicing a sport in their spare time and a number of issues that can be the
proposals made as much to teachers, school managements and local and central
government to increase the attractiveness of physical education as a subject.
Keywords: physical education, options, attractiveness.
Introduce re
Educaia fizic perceput ca parte a educaiei generale n colile de toate
gradele, trebuie s rspund nevoilor generale ale tinerilor: meninerea unei stri
optime de sntate, favorizarea dezvoltrii fizice armonioase, ameliorarea
capacitii motrice generale, formarea obinuinei de practicare independent i
sistematic a exerciiilor fizice, dezvoltarea armonioas a personalitii.
Procesul de reformare a sistemului de nvmnt romnesc ca i a so cietii
n ansamblu, impune dup prerea noastr, o reorientare a strategiilor didactice, n
sensul operaionalizrii instrumentelor optime pentru creterea gradului de
atractivitate a leciilor de educaie fizic.
28
Scop
n prezentul studiu am urmrit identificarea opiunilor elevilor n legtur
cu educaia fizic respectiv cu aspectele care ar face-o mai atractiv, precum i
motivarea preferinelor acestora.
Ipote z
Cunoaterea realitii din activitatea practic poate contribui la creterea
atractivitii orelor de educaie fizic din ciclul gimnazial.
Metode
n vederea realizrii studiului am conceput, la nceput, un chestionar format
din 29 de itemi pe care le-am implementat la ase instituii de nvmnt din
municipilu Oradea. Dup prelucrarea datelor obinute, am finalizat un chestionar cu
24 de ntrebri, din care 15 nchise i 9 deschise, pe care le-am folosit n cercetarea
noastr. Datele obinute au fost prelucrate statistic pe calculator folosind programul
SPSS.
Coninut
La chestionarul folosit, au rspuns 372 de elevi din 6 instituii de
nvmnt din municipiul Oradea. Acest eantion este reprezentativ populaiei
colare studiate avnd o eroare estimat de 0,05. S-a folosit pentru calcul formula
N
lui Taro Yamane: n
, n care n reprezint numrul de cazuri din eantion,
1 e2 N
N numrul total al populaiei supus cercetrii (7459, dup situaia statistic a
Inspectoratului colar Judeean Bihor din 29 IV 2011) i e reprezint eroarea de
reprezentativitate (RotariuT,. Ilu P., 1997, Ancheta sociologic i sondaj de opinie,
p.122). Repartizarea pe coli a elevilor este prezentat n tabelul nr. 1 i graficul
nr. 2:
Tabelul nr. 1 coala de provenien i numrul de elevi
Nr. crt.
coala
Nr. elevi
Procente
1.
Liceul Teologic Greco Catolic Oradea
36
9,7%
2.
Liceul teoretic Onisifor Ghibu Oradea
73
19,6%
3.
SO8 Ioan Slavici Oradea
77
20,7%
4.
c.gen.11 Oradea.
67
18,0%
5.
SO8 D. Cantemir
60
16,1%
6.
SO8 Oltea Doamna
59
15,9%
7.
Total
372
100,0%
29
Graficul nr. 1 Repartizarea elevilor pe coli, n procente

La prima ntrebare: Ct de mult v plac leciile de educaie fizic?, 85,5%
dintre elevi au rspus c mult i foarte mult, fa de 14,5% crora nu le provoac
nicio plcere de a participa la orele de educaie fizic. Situaia exact a
rspunsurilor este trecut n tabelul nr.2 i graficul 2.
Tabelul nr. 2 Aprecierea orelor de educaie fizic
Nr. crt. ntre barea Numr rsp. Procente
1.
foarte puin
7
1,9%
2.
puin
10
2,7%
3.
deloc
9,9%
4.
mult
128
34,4%
5.
foarte mult
190
51,1%
6.
Total
372
100,0%
Graficul nr. 2 Aprecierea orelor de educaie fizic
30
La ntrebarea a 3-a: Ct de atractive apreciai c sunt leciile de educaie

fizic ce se desfoar n coala n care studiai?, marea majoritate a elevilor,
79%, au rspuns c orele sunt atractive i foarte atractive, n comparaie cu cei
21% care apreciaz c orele nu sunt atractive. Numrul rspunsurilor elevilor, pe
categorii, este trecut n urmtorul tabel i grafic(tabelul nr. 3, graficul nr. 3):
Tabelul nr. 3 Atractivitatea orelor de educaie fizic
Nr. crt. ntre barea
Numr rsp. Procente
1.
foarte putin atractive
9
2,4%
2.
puin atractive
26
7,0%
3.
monotone
43
11,6%
4.
atractive
174
46,7%
5.
foarte atractive
120
32,3%
6.
Total
372
100,0%
Graficul nr. 3 - Atractivitatea orelor de educaie fizic

La ntrebarea nr. 4, care este legat direct de itemul precedent: Motivai
rspunsul (de la ntrebarea anterioar, 3), elevii au precizat faptul c orele de
educaie fizic le plac fiindc, n marea majoritate a cazurilor, profesorii le permit
s practice jocurile sportive.
Rspunsurile de la ntrebarea nr.15: Care factor considerai c este mai
important pentru ca leciile de educaie fizic s fie atractive ?, marea
majoritate, 67,5% dintre elevi, consider c att condiiile materiale ct i cadrul
didactic contribuie la perceperea orelor ca fiind atractive. Rspunsurile elevilor
sunt vizualizate n tabelul nr. 4 i graficul nr. 4:
31
Tabelul nr. 4 Factorii care contribuie la atractivitatea orelor de educaie fizic

Nr. crt. ntre barea
Numr rsp. Procente
1.
Cadrul didactic
33
8,9%55
2.
Condiiile materiale specifice
88
23,7%
3.
Ambele
251
67,5%
4.
Total
372
100,0%
Graficul nr. 4 Factorii care contrinuie la realizarea atractivitii orelor

ntrebarea nr. 16, solicit un rspuns n ceea ce privete opiunea lor pentru
jocurile sportive sau micri selecionate din discipline le sportive individuale : n
coninutul leciei de educaie fizic ai prefera s se regseasc: predominant
jocurile sportive, predominant disciplinele sportive individuale, sau ambele n
egala msur?. Mai mult de jumtate dintre elevii chestionai, 52,7%, prefer
jocurile sportive, 43,3% dintre elevi consider c ambele sunt importante i numai
o mic parte dintre ei, 4,0%, prefer s efectueze numai micri din disciplinele
sportive individuale. Rspunsurile sunt trecute n tabelul 5 i graficul 5:
Tabelul nr. 5 Coninutul leciilor de educaie fizic
Nr.
ntre barea
Numr rsp.
crt.
1.
predominant jocurile sportive
196
2.
predominant disciplinele sportive
15
individuale
3.
ambele n egala msur
161
4.
Total
372
Procente
52,7%
4,0%
43,3%
100,0%
32
Graficul nr. 5 Opiunile privind coninutul orelor de educaie fizic

Concluzii
1. Orele de educaie fizic, n proporie de 85,50%, sunt pe placul elevilor
din ciclul gimnazial care studiaz n unitile de nvmnt din
municipiul Oradea, datorit, n special (79% dintre cei chestionai),
faptului c leciile sunt atractive i foarte atractive.
2. Factorii care contribuie la realizarea atractivitii orelor, pentru 67,50%
dintre respondeni, sunt determinate de cadrul didactic i condiiile
materiale specifice n egal msur.
3. n privina coninutului leciilor, 52,70% sunt de prere c atractivitatea
orelor se datoreaz folosirii jocurilor sportive, iar 43,30% sunt de acord
c att jocurile sportve ct i deprinderile motrice efectuate n cadrul
sporturile individuale, n egal msur rezolv, acest deziderat.
Bibliografie
1. Chelcea, S., Marginean, I., Cauc, I., (1998)-Cercetarea sociologic,
Destin, Deva
2. Dragnea, A. coord., (2006)-Educaie fizic i sport teorie i didactic,
FEST, Bucureti
3. RotariuT,. Ilu P., (1997)-Ancheta sociologic i sondaj de opinie,
Polirom, Bucureti
4. Scarlat, E., Scarlat, B.M., (2006)-ndrumar de educaie fizic colar,
Didactic i Pedagogic, R.A., Bucureti
Editura
Editura
Editura
Editura
33
TURNEUL DIN ANUL 1932 AL ECHIPEI DE FOTBAL

CLUBUL ATLETIC ORADEA N FRANA I ELVEIA
THE 1932 TOURNAMENT OF THE ATHLETIC CLUB
ORADEA FOOTBALL TEAM IN FRANCE AND
SWITZERLAND
Dumitrescu Ghorghe 1 , Pean Petre, Maroti tefan
Rezumat
Lucrarea abordeaz o perioad important din istoria echipei de fotbal
Clubul Atletic Oradea i contribuie la mai buna cunoatere n rndul specialitilor
i a publicului larg a trecutului acestei structuri sportive reprezentative pentru
sportul bihorean din prima jumtate a secolului XX.
Ne-am propus ca, pe baza informaiilor gsite n presa local i documente
aflate n colecii particulare, s prezentm primul mare turneu al unei echipe de
fotbal din Oradea n Europa de Vest, eveniment ncheiat cu un mare succes i care
a contribuit la promovarea fotbalului de la noi din ar.
n cadrul activitii de documentare n vederea elaborrii lucrrii am studiat
articole din presa ordean din perioada 1931 1932, am purtat discuii cu
persoane care sunt n posesia unor documente referitoare la tema studiat i am
consultat o serie de materiale iconografice care au completat cunoaterea nostr
privind acest eveniment.
Pe baza datelor obinute, sunt prezentate rezultatele, aprecierile din presa
internaional i local referitoare la evoluia fotbalitilor de la Clubul Atletic
Oradea. Acest turneu, pe lng rezultatele obinute, a reprezentat o promovare a
fotbalului din ara noastr n Frana i Elveia, precum i un succes financiar.
Cuvinte cheie: fotbal, pres, turneu.
Abstract
The paper work approaches an important period from the history of Athletic
Club Oradea football team and it contributes to a better acknowledgement of the
past of this sportive structure, representative for sports in Bihor county during the
first half of the 20th century.
Our purpose, based on information found in the local press and documents
from private collections, is to present the first great tournament of a football team
34
from Oradea in Western Europe, event which ended with a great success and which
contributed to the promotion of football in our country.
Within the documentation activities regarding the elaboration of this paper
work, we have studied articles from the local press between 1931 and 1932, we
have talked to persons who have certain documents regarding the studied theme
and we have consulted a series of iconographic materials which completed our
knowledge regarding this event.
Based on the obtained data, the results are presented, the appreciations from
the international and local press referring to the evolution of the Athletic Club
Oradea football players. This tournament, besides the obtained results, represented
a promotion of football from our country in France and Switzerland, as well as a
financial success.
Keywords : football, media, tournament.
Introduce re
La nceputul anilor `30, ca urmare a reorganizrii activitii fotbalistice pe
plan naional, dar i a noii viziuni a conducerii Clubului Atletic Oradea, din dorina
acesteia de a optimiza activitatea care s conduc la obinerea unor performa ne
mai bune, echipa de fotbal a trecut prin o serie de transformri. Odat cu instalarea
noii echipe manageriale s-a imprimat un nou stil de conducere, s-a acionat pentru
mbuntirea procesului de pregtire, s-a adoptat o viziune modern n relaiile cu
echipele de fotbal din rile cu un fotbal dezvoltat din Europa. Ca o prim msur
au fost transferai la Oradea o seam de juctori de valoare precum tefan
Czinczer, Iuliu Bodola, Andrei Glanzmann, Elemer Kocsis, Nicolae Kovcs i alii.
De asemenea, conductorii clubului, n mod deosebit tefan Kovcs, preedintele
executiv al cestuia, Sndor Klein, secretarul clubului, Gyula Grnstein, eful seciei
de fotbal, contieni de faptul c pentru a progresa, juctorii ordeni, pe lng
pregtirea asigurat, trebuie s ia contact cu fotbalul din alte ri, c pentru a fi
cunoscui pe plan internaional, sunt necesare aciuni de promovare n rile cu un
fotbal dezvoltat. Astfel, s-a nscut ideea organizrii unui turneu n ri din Europa
de Vest.
Evenimente legate de pregtirea turneului
Preparativele pentru organizarea unui turneu de pregtire i promovare a
fotbalului din Oradea n Frana i Elveia au nceput nc din primele zile ale lunii
octombrie a anului 1931 (Nagyvrad, 2 octombrie 1931). Dup o bogat
coresponden i numeroase convorbiri telefonice cu persoanele de contact din
Frana i Elveia, cu reprezentanii unor echipe din orae franceze i elveiene
Paris, Rennes, Marseille, Tours, Nice, Monteuil, Lille, Montpellier, Nimes,
Bordeaux, Servette, Geneva, Zrich i Lugano s-au pus la punct principalele
aspecte organizatorice legate de programul vizitelor i desfurarea jocurilor ce
urma s le susin echipa de fotbal Clubul Atletic Oradea n cadrul acestui turneu
(Nagyvrad, 4 decembrie 1931; Nagyvrad, 23 decebrie 1931).
35
Pentru soluionarea numeroaselor i anevoioaselor probleme, organizatorul

turneului, Gyula Grnstein, i organizatorul de competiii al Clubului Atletic
Oradea, Kroly Krger, au beneficiat de sprijinul lui dr. Zoltn Imre, ordean aflat
la specializare n Elveia, al dr. Bla Grnberger, medic originar din Oradea i
cunoscut pentru valoarea sa profesional la Paris, i al lui Dori Krschner,
antrenorul echipei SP Montpellier, fostul juctor al echipei ordene (Heller, 1981).
n o serie de probleme legate de obinerea vizelor pentru paaport, de
contactele cu oficialitile franceze i cele elveiene, organizatorii au avut sprijin
din partea nsrcinatului cu afaceri al Romniei la Paris, domnul Dinu Cesianu, i
al consulului Romniei la Geneva, domnul Stamatel.
Odat cu sosirea de la Bucureti a paaportului colectiv pentru cei douzeci
de membri ai delegaiei, preparativele legate de plecarea spre Frana au intrat n
faza final (Nagyvrad 12 ianuarie 1932).
Desfurarea turneului
n seara zilei de miercuri, 13 ianuarie 1932, din gara Oradea, echipa de
fotbal Clubului Atletic Oradea, n frunte cu Theodor Vasca, conductorul
delegaiei, nsoit de Gyula Grnstein, organizatorul turneului, dr. Zoltn Imrei,
medicul echipei, Mikls Schternberg i Kroly Krger, organizatorul de competiii,
avnd n componen juctorii
Istvn Czinczer, Endre Glacmann, Dndor Moke, Gheorghe Ciolac, Ionel
Romanescu, Elemr Kocsis, Iuliu Bodola, Iuliu Mikczi, Nicolae Kovcs, Rbert
Brger, Ferancisc Ronnay, Sami Zauber, Gyrgy Kdr, a plecat spre Frana
(Nagyvrad, 15 ianuarie 1932).
n Frana, ntre 19 ianuarie i 9 februarie, Clubul Atletic Oradea a susinut
nou jocuri ctignd ase dintre ele (Racing Club de France Paris 2 1, FC
Montreuil 5 3, Olimpique Lille 5 2, Selecionata Tours 10 1, OGC Nice 7 1,
Espagnole Bordeaux 4 1) i a pierdut trei (Stade Rennaise Universitaire Club 0
- 1, Olimpique Marseille 1 2, SP Montpellier 2 3). Prin jocul prestat, prin
rezultatele obinute, juctorii ordeni au ctigat simpatia publicului francez
(Heller, 1981). De asemenea, presa francez a apreciat valoarea echipei din Oradea.
Astfel, dup victoria cu 2 1 n faa echipei pariziene Racing Club de France,
ziarul de sport l`Auto, citat de ziarul ordean Nagyvrad, a elogiat jocul ordenilor
i a apreciat c victoria n faa ocupantei locului I n campionatul francez reprezint
un rezultat de nivel european.
Ca o expresie a recunoaterii valorii echipei ordene i a importanei
turneului pentru imaginea Romniei n Frana, ncepnd cu cel de al doilea joc
delegaia ordean a beneficiat de sprijinul nsrcinatului cu afaceri al Romniei la
Paris, Dinu Cesianu (Nagyvrad 26 ianuarie 1932).
Aprecierile elogioase la adresa Clubului Atletic Oradea dup evoluia din
Frana au fcut ca turneul din Elveia s se deruleze sub naltul patronaj al
ministrului de externe al Romniei, prinul Dimitrie I. G. Ghica. Totodat delegaia
ordean a fost sprijinit de consulul onorific al Romniei la Geneva, domnaul
36
Stamatel, motiv pentru care a fost ales pre edinte de onoare al Clubului Atletic
Oradea (Nagyvrad, 16 februarie 1932).
Chiar dac prin prisma rezultatelor bilanul nu a fost deosebit (FC Zrich 1
1, FC Lugano 2 2, Selecionata oraului Geneva 2 3) iubitorii fotbalului i
presa elveian au apreciat evoluia echipei ordene. La cteva zile de la ncheierea
turneului, ziarul Neue Zrcher Zeitung Neue titra: Zrich-ul este i astzi nc sub
influena jocului strlucitor al CAO (Nagyvrad, 26 februarie 1932).
Echipa care a participat la turneul n Frana i Elveia din 1932. De la stnga la

dreapta: Grnstein Gyula (organizatorul turneului), dr. Imrei Zoltn (Medicul
echipei), Schternberg Mikls, Krger Kroly (organizatorul de competiii),
Czinczer Istvn, Glacmann Endre, Moke Dndor, Ciolac Gheorghe, Romanescu
Ionel, Kocsis Elemr, Bodola Gyula, Mikczi Gyula, Kovcs Miklos, Brger
Rbert, Vasca Theodor (conductorul delegaiei), Ronnay Ferenc, Zauber Sami,
Kdr Gyrgy. (Sursa: Albumul Nicolae Kovcs)
Evenimentele de dup ncheierea turneului
Delegaia Clubului Atletic Oradea a ajuns acas cu acceleratul de Budapesta
n dimineaa zilei de 23 februarie 1932, ora 7,00, fiind ntmpinat la sosire de
ctre viceprimarul dr. Petric ((Nagyvrad, 24 februarie 1932).
Turneul, pe lng valoarea sa sportiv i propagandistic, a constituit i un
succes financiar. n urma acestei aciuni clubul a ctigat o sut douzeci de mii de
lei iar juctorii au fost recompensai cu prime cuprinse ntre douzeci i treizeci de
mii lei (Arena Sporturilor, 1936).
37
Ca semn de apreciere a evoluiei echipei n turneul din Frana i Elveia,

autoritile locale au organizat, n ziua de luni 27 februarie 1932, la restaurantul
Palace, un banchet la care au fost invitai peste o sut cincizeci de persoane. Printre
cei prezeni, alturi de juctori, ceilali membri ai delegaiei i invitai, au fost
prezeni prefectul Ghica, generalul Eliade, primarul Sofronie i viceprimarul dr.
Petric. n timpul desfurrii banchetului s-a aflat c n urma hotrrii Federaiei
Romne de Fotbal Asociaie, Clubul Atletic Oradea a fost suspendat pe timp de o
lun, din 24 februarie pn n 24 martie 1932, i amendat cu suma cinci mii lei. n
motivarea deciziei se arat c pe timpul desfurrii turneului echipa a evoluat sub
titulatura de NAC (Nagyvradi Athletikai Club), c membrii delegaiei au purtat
insigna clubului inscripionat in limba maghiara i c n discuiile dintre juctori i
o parte a conductorilor s-a utilizat cu precdere limba maghiar (Nagyvrad, 2
martie 1932).
Fa de aceast decizie a Federaiei Romne de Fotbal Asociaie au luat
poziie prin declaraii publice att reprezentani ai forurilor centrale i regionale de
fotbal, ct i conductorii C lubului Atletic Oradea. Astfel, Bucur Brsu
reprezentantul Federeaiei Romne de Fotbal Asociaie i dr. Manoil Camil,
preedintele districtului de fotbal Oradea, au aprobat decizia, iar Popper Ern,
preedintele seciei de fotbal, i dr. Pelle Jnos, preedinte Clubului Atletic Oradea
s-au pronunat mpotriva deciziei (Nagyvrad, 10 martie 1932).
Concluzii
Aciunea a reprezentat primul mare turneu al unei echipe de fotbal din
Oradea n Europa de Vest, eveniment ncheiat cu un succes deosebit i a contribuit
la promovarea fotbalului de la noi din ar.
Calitatea jocurilor, rezultatele bune obinute au fcut o bun propagand,
att echipei, ct i fotbalului romnesc.
Turneele au contribuit la o folosirea util a pauzelor competi ionale care
n aceast perioad erau foarte mari.
Aceste jocuri au contribuit la acumularea unei experiene pe plan
internaional i la creterea valorii juctorilor.
Turneul, pe lng valoarea sa sportiv i propagandistic, a constituit i un
succes financiar, contribuind att la echilibrarea bugetului clubului, ct i la
premierea juctorilor.
Bibliografie
* * * A NAC Europra szl gyzelme Prisban [Victoria CAO la Paris este de
nivel european] Nagyvrad, janur 26 1932, LXII vfolyam, pag. 5.
* * * A NAC Franciaorszgban, [CAO n sudul Franei] Nagyvrad, december 4
1931, LXI vfolyam, pag. 8.
* * * A NAC ragyog szereplse Genfben [Evoluia strlucitoare a CAO la
Geneva] Nagyvrad, februr 16 1932, LXII vfolyam, pag. 5
38
* * * A NAC turja Delfranciaorszgban, [Turneul CAO n sudul Franei]

Nagyvrad, october 2, 1931, LXI vfolyam, pag. 7.
* * * Bukarestbl megjtt husz szemelyre szoloo kollektiv utlevelk [A sosit de
la Bucureti paaportul colectiv pentru douzeci de persoane] Nagyvrad, janur 12
1932, LXII vfolyam, pag. 5.
* * * Elutazott a NAC Prisba [CAO a plecat la Paris] Nagyvrad, janur 15,
LXII vfolyam, pag. 8.
* * * Genf htf este telefonon kereste a NAC-ot franciaorszgi turja gyben
[Geneva a telefonat la CAO n legtur cu turneul su n Frana] Nagyvrad,
december 23, LXI vfolyam, pag. 8.
Heller, H., M., A Nagyvrad zsidsg dnt szerepe a vros sportletnek
fellenditsben [Rolul hotrtor al evreilor ordeni n revigorarea sportului din
ora], n: A tegnap vrosa. A Nagyvrad zsidsg emlkknyve, Grosswardein
Society in Israel, Tel Aviv,1981: 230 234.
* * * Kedden reggel hazarkezett dicssges turautjrol a NAC [Mari dimineaa
CAO s-a ntors din turneul su glorios] Nagyvrad, februr 24 1932, LXII
vfolyam.
* * * Turneele echipei CAO, Arena Sporturilor, 5 octombrie, anul I, nr. 3 1936,
pag. 3.
* * * Zrich mg ma isa NAC ragyog jtknak hatsa alatt [Zrich-ul este i
astzi nc sub influena jocului strlucitor al CAO] Nagyvrad, februr 26 1932,
LXII vfolyam, pag. 8.
39
ANTRENAREA FOREI DE APUCARE PREVINE CDEREA

GRIP-STRENGTH TRAINING PREVENTS FALLING
Hainbuch Friedrich1
Cuvinte cheie: for muscular, persoan vrstnic, persoan cu afeciuni cardiace,
cdere, prevenie
Keywords: muscle strength, elderly, cardiac heart patients, falls, prevention
Rezumat
Determinarea forei de apucare ofer informaii privind starea genera a forei
musculare; este un indicator pentru abilitile fizice ale persoanelor vrstnice. De
asemenea ajut la formarea unei opinii despre fora muscular total a persoanelor
de vrsta a treia, se coreleaz cu dieta i poate fi folosit pentru evaluarea evoluiei
bolii. Abilitile manuale presupun suficient fo r de apucare pentru toate
activitile vieii de zi cu zi. Scderea forei de apucare este un semn de for
muscular general redus la persoanele de vrsta a treia, de aceea se coreleaz
puternic cu un risc crescut de czturi i fracturi, cu independe n sczut i
mortalitate crescut. Odat cu vrsta, scade continuu i parabolic. Datorit
simplitii procedurii de msurare efectuat n trecut cu un dinamometru mecanic
(nc preferat i astzi de ctre unii cercettori), testul a fost introdus n
diagnosticarea clinic i n testele de exerciii fiziologice, de exemplu, pentru
Testul de Fitness Groningen pentru persoane de peste 55 de ani. Att valorile
normale utilizate pentru programul de computer ct i metodele de cercetare au fost
suficient verificate.
Fora suficient de apucare este de o importan vital n prevenirea i evitarea
czturilor la senectute pentru a nu ajunge la dependen de ngrijire fizic, la
pierderea abilitii de a se descurca singuri i pentru a menine calitatea vieii c t
mai mult i ct mai independent posibil.
Studiul se ocup de mbuntirea forei de apucare prin antrenarea acesteia, ceea
ce se poate face fr risip de timp sau bani cu ajutorul unui echipament de
antrenament al forei de apucare ca un aspect al preveniei primare.
Grupul de studiu a constat n 19 brbai ntre 65 i 69 de ani cu boli cardiace, cu
vrsta medie de 67,4 ani.
Rezultatele pot fi rezumate n cinci puncte:
1. Fora minim n mna dreapt a fost de 245,1 N, iar n mna stng de
210,1 N. Valoarea maxim a forei n mna dreapt a fost de 325,9 N,
1
University of Co logne, Medical School, Anatomy Institute II
40
respectiv de 304,8 N n cea stng (8 participani).

2. Efectele quantificabile semnificative ale antrenamentului au fost vizibile
dup doar patru sptmni.
3. Diferena dintre valorile testului iniial i cele obinute dup patru
sptmni este semnificativ.
4. Metodele de testare pentru msurtorile statistice individuale ne permit s
afirmm cu o probabilitate de eroare de 1% c aceste mbuntiri pentru
grupa de vrst de 65-69 este semnificativ i astfel antrenamentul se poate
aplica la ntreaga populaie.
Compararea valorilor critice calculate t dau o probabilitate de eroare de
0,1%.
5. Impresiile pozitive ale participanilor privind succesul antrenamentului ne
permit s concluzionm c ei se simt i mai n siguran dect nainte. Toi
participanii intenioneaz s continue antrenamentul i dup perioada de o
lun.
Abilitile manuale necesit suficient for de apucare pentru efectuarea
activitilor zilnice i fora de apucare redus este considerat un semn de
diminuare a forei musculare generale la persoanele de vrsta a treia, prin urmare
crete considerabil riscul de cdere i fractur, cu abilitate sczut de a se
autongriji i cu mortalitate crescut. Sunt necesare i alte studii pentru a descoperi
care sunt inconvenienele, costurile i beneficiile acestui tip de antrenament al
forei de apucare n comparaie cu ceea ce implic consecinele reducerii
czturilor.
Abstract
Grip strength is a certain parameter of condition of general state of muscle strength
in old age and a good indicator for the elderly to maintain their everyday life
competencies (ADL=activities of daily living) as well as participation in social
contact. That is why a lower grip strength signalizes a reduced body muscle
strength in general for elderly people.
Lower muscle strength correlates with markedly higher risk of fall and of fractures
with lessened independence and increased mortality.
This study will show that a training program of about 4 weeks for increasing grip
strength completed by 65-69-year-old men with heart disease does in fact
contribute to a significant improvement in grip strength.
1. Introduction
In the middle ages people as young as 35 years of age were deemed old and wise,
and only 100 years ago average life expectancy was just less than 50 years.
Industrialized countries succeeded in raising this value by over 50% in the
twentieth century. Improved nutrition, higher standards of living, better educa tion,
fewer taxing working conditions, improved private and public hygienic conditions,
reduced danger of epidemic disease and the successful battle against infectious
41
diseases through the use of antibiotics, highly developed medical technology as

well as a lower birth rate are factors which have contributed to an increase in the
age of the population and a rise in life expectancy for newborns. Previously there
have been isolated cases of individuals living to a very old age. Yet due to the fact
that more and more people are reaching a very high age nowadays, average life
expectancy could very well shift upwards as a whole [47]. People born in Germany
today have a very good chance of reaching an age of over 80 years. Women live on
the average to an age of almost 81 years, men to almost 75 years [129]. Due to
further improvements in medical technology and living conditions for the elderly,
average life expectancy will likely continue to rise, and 100-year-olds will no
longer prove an exception amongst the German population in the future.
All organ systems continue to function long-term when they are continuously and
constantly activated in the form of movement or physical activity, even at and
especially at advanced age.
It can further be expected that the number of elderly and therewith their percentage
of the entire population will rise considerably in the next 40 years.
This being the case it may be predicted that in the second half of ones life, as a
lack of movement gradually produces a restrictive effect on the primarily physical
ability of increasing numbers of predominately elderly persons, sufficient activity
is essential in order to maintain quality of health and life.
There now exists a great deal of evidence that athletic exercise and/or physical
activity can slow the aging process and delay degenerative processes.
This paper intends to bring about a heightened appreciation of these connections
and to prove using one selected medical parameter, i.e. hand grip strength, that it is
worthwhile also for older, previously (athletically) inactive persons to be inspired
to (athletic) exercise or physical activity and to integrate more movement into their
everyday life activities as a fixed and essential part in order to maintain their
everyday life competencies as well as participation in social contact by staying
healthy.
1.1 Uncertainty of movement in old age and falls
It was stated for the first time in a scientific journal in 1943 by Brger & Hauss that
of the dynamic changes occurring in old age, de clining physical ability is the
predominant one [18]. Today this rather imprecise statement can be proved
exactly with comprehensive numerical data.
Approximately one third of men over 65 years fall at least once a year. This rate
rises further as age increases, and attains a value of 40-50% for 80-89-year-olds.
Conceivably old age itself does not represent an independent risk factor for the
incidence of falls, but is instead merely an indicator for an increase in other risk
factors with age. One out of every five to ten falls suffered by elderly persons
results in injury, one of every 20-30 falls leads to a fracture, and about every
hundredth fall causes a hip fracture. In prospective studies 75% of patients were
42
able to walk independently unaided before a fracture resulting from a fall, after a
fracture a mere 15% were. Hip fractures have a postoperative mortality of over
10% in the Federal Republic of Germany. In addition to the somatic effects of a
fall, up to 70% of elderly persons who have fallen report fearing further falls and a
subsequent loss of self-confidence, an increasing restriction of everyday actvities
and a subsequent vicious circle of continuing loss of locomotory abilities [29, 37,
101,126, 127] .
It is the goal of most elderly persons to be healthy, content, fulfilled and happy
while growing old. [36, 94]. Being physically active and possessing the ability to
cope with everyday challenges depends to a great extent on physical capability to
function and ability. Of the age cohort of 65-69-year-old men discussed here,
approximately 40% are athletically active two or more hours per week according to
a health survey conducted over the telephone from the year 2003 [118]. In order for
an aging person to be able to live as independently as possible, they must be
capable of taking care of themselves and also participate in social life. In addition,
everyday chores and activities must be mastered, from so-called private activities
(washing, getting dressed and eating), to instrumental activities (cle aning,
shopping), to participation in social life [125]. The ability to manoeveur ones way
independently through constantly changing surroundings diminishes more rapidly
with increasing age. Many elderly persons can indeed still navigate their home
environment, but have increasing difficulties outside to react suitably to external
influences on their posture standing in a moving bus, being able to stabilize
themselves, balancing on one leg for a short period of time, etc. because the
necessary strength in the leg, arm and hand musculature is not available [39] in
order to, for instance, better catch oneself when beginning to fall. Becker et al.
succeeded in showing that persons over the age of 60 years exhibit significantly
fewer falls after taking part in balance and strength training for more than one year
than persons of the same age who had not received any intervention measures [14].
In the context of the present study prevention means, on the one hand, to stop
non- fallers from becoming fallers, and, on the other, to prevent fallers from
falling again [141]. Interventions can on the one hand be geared to minimizing
the risk of falling, on the other to improve protective control measures as well as
physical parameters, and therewith to reduce the risk of injuries. Complete
restriction of freedom of movement to prevent elderly people from falling in some
health care facilities, however, seems counterproductive as well as being
incompatible with human dignity [141].
All organ systems, including the muscular system, remain functional in the long
term only if they are activated continuously and constantly as a part of movement
activities. Sufficient movement is essential for maintaining quality of health and
life, especially as lack of movement gradually produces a limiting effect on the
physical performance in everyday life for increasing numbers of predominately
elderly persons. Staying healthy while aging and keeping all important physical
43
and mental biomarkers at an acceptable level to lead as independent a life as

possible succeeds thus particularly well accompanied by physical activities and a
suitable attitude towards life, as has been shown by, among others, Meusel,
Paffenbarger, Rowe/Kahn and Spirduso [82, 96, 97, 115, 126, 127].
1.2
Grip strength Indicator of the condition of bodily muscle strength in old
age: Previous publications and current state of research
The main human biomarkers are subdivided into physical and mental. The physical
include: grip strength, muscular reaction (by measuring visual and auditory
reaction time); parameters of lung function such as one second volume, vital
capacity and residual volume.
The mental include: visual reaction; auditory reaction; hearing test; concentration;
topological, associative and numeric memory.
In an American epidemiological study of 2,462 persons aged 35-70 years
Hochschild [48] attempted to construct an index of aging. This study involved
making it possible to measure aging in order to evaluate a therapy which is able to
retard this same process. With the Ageon vitality testing device it is possible to
determine the rate of aging, for which so-called biomarkers can also be
incorporated. These typically involve physiological functions, which,
unsurprisingly, decline with advancing age.
For every one of the in total 12 biomarkers normal values were calculated for the
977 men and 1485 women aged 35 to 70 years, who participated in the study. A
statistical method was selected to make it possible despite the divergent units to
summarize the results in a single number, termed standardized biological age. This
number is in turn used to calculate a test age for each individual.
Accordingly, Hochschild defines aging as the decline in mental and physical
functions, which are precisely the functions which influence the activities of daily
living. It is apparent that reaction time, decision speed, memory, hearing, vision,
lung function and muscular strength are crucial for daily life, from driving a car to
private and professional requirements. These functions strongly influence the
quality of life and this is what qualifies them as biomarkers for aging [48].
Ludwig responded thus to this line of argument: In science not only pure reason
governs, but also common sense (Max Planck), and co mmon sense tells us that if
the rate of aging due to a variety of unrelated markers that correlate with
chronological age is demonstrably decelerated by a given experimental variable
(e.g. calorie restriction), the rate of aging of the entire organism has been modified
too. For a small number of biomarkers to be representative for many others, it is
unnecessary to look at the full spectrum of age changes to know what is going on
[48]. Hochschilds results suggest the same.
44
Grip strength
(Kg)
age
Figure 1: Decline in individual grip strength with age, from: Kallmann et al. 1990, p.
M83.
Kallmann et al. (see fig. 1) demonstrated in a study of the role of muscle loss in
age-related decline in grip strength that grip strength does in fact decline over the
course of aging, yet not, as hitherto believed linearly, but parabolically [26, 61].
The highest grip strength value for men is achieved in the fourth decade of life
(between the ages of 30 and 39 years). Afterwards it decreases parabolically: in the
fifth decade of life by about 5%, in the sixth by about 12%, in the seventh by about
25% and in the period between the ages of 80 and 89 years by about 34%, relative
to 100 kilogram grip strength between the ages of 40 and 49 years. Grip strength
also continues to decrease more and more the longer an illness lasts; daily chores
become progressively more difficult [124].
Determination of hand strength provides information about the general condition of
muscular strength; it serves as an indicator for the physical performance of an
aging person [135]. Additionally it allows inferences to be made concerning the
overall muscular strength of an elderly person, correlates with nutrition level and
can be used for evaluation of the aging process. Sufficient grip strength is a
precondition for manual skills necessary for performing tasks of everyday life.
Reduced grip strength is a sign of generally diminished muscular strength of
elderly persons and strongly correlates with considerably heightened risk of fall
and fracture, with diminished ability to help oneself and with increased mortality
[54, 98, 105, 135]. It decreases continuously throughout the course of the aging
process [48, 61]. Due to the simplicity of the measuring procedure, performed in
the past with a mechanical dynamometer (still preferred yet today by some
researchers [6]), the test has been introduced in clinical diagnostics and in exercise
45
physiology tests, e.g. for the Groningen Fitness Test for elderly of over 55 years
[66]. Both the normal values used for the computer program as well as the research
methods have been sufficiently verified [5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 31, 41, 45, 46, 57, 76,
79, 90, 102, 104, 107, 111]. For the device used in this study it is also important to
mention that no additional tests or study results from the manufacturer of the
device were taken into account for the normal values used here.
Improvements in grip strength following a set training program have also been
demonstrated, even when certain illnesses are present [2, 83, 119, 139, 143].
Rantanen et al. [104] performed a grip strength measurement of 6,089 healthy men
aged 45-68 years and repeated the same 25 years later. They found that members of
the group with the lowest grip strength in the first measurement, regardless of
whether they were corpulent or thin, of medium or heavy body weight, exhibited
the highest mortality rate in the following 25 years.
Functional impairment frequently occurs in senescence in the form of reduced
mobility and gait uncertainty. Besides cognitive and sensory impairments, loss of
mobility and uncertainty of gait pose the greatest threat to the ability to lead a selfdetermined and independent life. The risk of falling increases dramatically. Fall
frequency rises by approximately 10% per decade of life [104]. Fear of falling
leads to a loss of self-confidence and further reduction of activities [67, 136].
1.3
Epidemiology of falls
Falls are the most common non natural, and seventh most common cause of death
overall for persons of over 65 years. About 30% of over 65- year-old persons living
at home [134] and more than 50% of over 90-year-olds [27] fall at least once a
year, of these approximately 25% more than three times per year. Nursing home
residents fall two to three times more frequently [72]. Up to 50% of elderly persons
who are hospitalized following a fall die within the next 12 months [118].
The severity of fall consequences increases with age, because factors such as
osteoporosis and delayed reaction times can make even apparently harmless falls
dangerous [118]. Slowly gliding to the floor can cause an osteoporotic femur to
break. A non-osteoporotic femur will break in a fall from standing position, if no
protective reaction dampens the collision and if the re is no adipose tissue
surrounding the trochanter to absorb the energy of the fall and lower it below the
critical fracture threshold. For the consquences of a fall not only bone hardness, but
other variables of the falls mechanics are also important: direction of fall,
protective reaction, collision, absorption of energy resulting from the fall, for
instance by adipose padding and/or hand brace support [88].
About 5% of falls result in fractures, about 1-2% in a proximal femur fracture, 90%
of these fractures are fall- related [62]. The Statistical Yearbook for the Federal
Republic of Germany 2003 recorded that 71.1% of inpatients discharged from the
hospital in the age group of 75 years and over had been treated for a fracture of the
femur neck due to a fall; other conditions exhibited significantly lower percentages
46
[129]; 14-36% of patients die in the first 12 months following the fracture, many of
the survivors lose competence in activities of daily living [147]. Only 14-21%
return to their previous level of independence after the incident [59].
The average cost of treating a fracture not including the additional costs of
rehabilitation, care and other miscellaneous resulting costs amounts to, in Western
Europe, for instance in Austria, circa 6,700. Based on current demographic
trends, the number of fractures will double by the year 2040 (see www.medunigraz.at/unfallchirurgie/forschung/ osteoporose html).
10-20% of all falls result in injuries. Contusions are, functionally speaking, just as
serious as fractures. Elderly persons are often helpless following a fall and no
longer capable of standing up again by themselves. This has prognostic relevance
and indicates increasing reliance on help [62]. Even falls not resulting in injuries
have other consequences, approximately 30% of patients injured in falls are afraid
of falling again. Many avoid physical activity for fear of falling a vicious circle of
inactivity, isolation, depression and neediness [136].
1.3.1
Definition: What is a fall?
A fall is understood as an involuntary, sudden, uncontrolled falling or gliding
down of the body from a position of standing, sitting or lying [37]. A fall or nearfall is also understood to have occurred if such an incident is prevented only by
exceptional circumstances not owing to the person affected, e.g. by being caught
before falling down by another person [37].
1.3.2
Etiology
Activities of daily living are complex orchestrations of movement in upright
posture. They require control of posture and balance, i.e. the ability to maintain
stability of the bodys center of gravity in every phase of movement, even when
disturbed by external forces. Prerequisites for this stability are an intact sensory
system (visual, vestibular), the processing of information in the central nervous
system (CNS) and also a minimum of muscular strength for the motor systems
[52]. All of these factors are impaired in senescence by disease-related or agerelated physiological changes, thus limiting adaptability to surroundings. A fragile
old person falls in everyday life situations which a younger person effortlessly
masters, because the former loses his or her balance. The problem does not begin
with the first fall. This first fall is instead the first visible decompensation of
postural control, the step from stumbling to falling [3, 10].
Factors which affect postural control negatively are risk factors for falls. Many
have doubtless been identified: age [100], muscle weakness, poor balance, gait
disorder, cognitive deficits, impairment of vision, multi- medication,
benzodiazepine, poor or unsuitable living or dwelling conditions and domestic
sources of danger as well as fear [73] resulting from previous falls [30, 68, 89, 99,
116, 133, 145]. The risk of a fall increases with the number of risk factors [133].
47
Falls always have multifactorial causes, including intrinsic, extrinsic, age-related

physiological or disease-related as well as situative risk factors.
Strength and balance parameters such as low grip strength [98] or an uncertain onelegged stand are, amongst several others, reliable predictors of falls [136].
1.3.3
Fall prevention (Training) as primary prevention
Patients who have fallen frequently require both rehabilitation for the falls effects
and fall prevention. Rehabilitation is in fact also fall prevention, for otherwise it
would have no purpose. In practise it is not useful to consider extrinsic and intrinsic
causes independently of one another. From the clinical point of view it is critical
that actually all risk factors are capable of being influenced. Fall prevention
subsequently has two approaches [71]:
1. elimination of as many risk factors as possible and
2. positive influence on risk factors by engaging in strength, balance and gait
training [69, 109, 110].
The intervention should not correspond to a monocausal perspective. Initiating a
multifactorial intervention instead is always more promising, as each inter vention
benefits the patient many times over. Motoric intervention thus not only affects the
motor system, but the improved motor skill which has been improved for
instance grip strength generates heightened self-confidence, alleviates fear, which
in turn then improves gait and balance. Tinetti et al., Mllenhoff, Marburger et al.
and Lapier et al. [134, 85, 74, 63] have observed that throwing and catching,
especially while moving, by constantly shifting ones center of gravity forwards,
backwards and sideways increases the relative support area. In fall prevention the
strengthening of the musculature [145] has been most extensively studied [28, 84,
117, 120, 132, 140]. Scott et al. offer a detailed review of studies published prior to
2000 in English and French on best practise exercise and training programs for fall
prevention, together with evaluations of their effectiveness [122]. A similar
overview of randomized controlled studies of fall prevention published previous to
the year 2000 is provided by Gardner et al. [43].
A simple handshake reveals much about a participants vitality. The measurement
of grip strength not only provides information about the actual muscular strength
of the hands, but also about the neuromuscular coordination of the many muscles
needed to close the hand into a fist, as well as their condition in terms of function,
training, and maintenance.
The normal values converted to Newton (N) for the age group of 65-69-year-olds
vary quite considerably in the previously conducted studies:
Nikolaus & Pientka assume a normal value of 331 N as maximum grip strength for
men over 65 years; values that exceed 50% lead to a strong increase in fall risk
[91]. Montoye & Lamphiear specify an average value of 321 N for 50-69 year-old
men [86], and Hyatt et al. assume a value of 320.9 N for 76-year-old men [54].
Agnew & Maas cite a converted value of 403.3 N for the age group of 56-65-year-
48
olds and of 229.2 N for the age group of 66-90-year-olds [1]. The converted values
provided by Gilbertson & Barber-Lomax appear to be most realistic: their tests
using a Jamar dynamometer produced for the right hand a minimum value of
278.30 N and a maximum value of 513.35 N for 65-69-year-old men, and for the
left hand a minimum grip strength of 238.67 N and maximum strength of 415.25 N
[44].
Ewald & Kohler produced much higher normal values for 60-69-year-old men of
424.5 N (converted) [40]. It is especially noteworthy that for most of these studies
a Jamar dynamometer was used, which only measures grip strength in kilograms.
The German Society of General Practice and Family Medicine (Deutsche
Gesellschaft fr Allgemeinmedizin und Familienmedizin) maintains that:
Interventions which lead to improved balance and/or strength can reduce potential
danger from falls for home-dwelling elderly persons. The effects are poor, so that a
recommendation to participate in such training programs should only be given after
consideration of the patients life situation. Training programs for reducing the
incidence of falls by increasing strength are effective when they aim to produce a
demonstrable increase of strength in individual functional muscle groups [37].
In the space of just two paragraphs a contradiction becomes apparent (the effects
are poor / training programs are effective).
1.4
Objectives
The present study aims firstly to examine the contradiction published by the
German Society of General Practice and Family Medicine. Secondly, it will be
demonstrated that due to both population aging trends and the e mpty coffers of the
public health system, it has become necessary to chart an alternative course if a
collapse of the public health budget is to be averted. It is in senescence that fall
incidence and with it the rate of particularly severe clinical condit ions and
corresponding costs increase due to declining muscle strength in the elderly. It is
indisputable that reduction in strength and muscle cannot be primarily attributed to
old age, but to physical inactivity and therefore not something essential to the
aging process itself [55, 56].
This paper aims to demonstrate the following:
It is of utmost importance to guard against decline in strength in senescence.
Grip strength is one significant parameter for vitality analysis of the elderly and an
important indicator of the ability to guard against falls relative to body strength and
thus reduce their possible serious aftereffects or, ideally, to avoid them altogether.
It is also worthwhile for elderly, previously inactive adults to allow themselves to
be inspired to engage in a form of movement or physical activity and to anchor
these exercise activities in their everyday life as a set, essential way of maintaining
health and competence in activities of daily living.
The hypothesis which states that it is possible to train strength in the hand in order
to measurably improve grip strength shall be put to the test.
49
It is necessary to test the grip strength parameter upon completion of the training
program to verify whether and how the measured value rep resenting this parameter
improves, remains constant or worsens as a result of the ongoing aging process
which itself will continue throughout the training period.
2.
Material and Methods
2.1
Participants
As described in great detail above, hand strength declines from the 40th year of life
along a parabolic curve (fig. 1).
After preliminary considerations, an age cohort of 65-69-year-olds - division of
cohorts according to age is today standard practice [144] was prescribed the
training program since this group was the largest of all cardiac sport groups
available each week. Also, an optimal training continuity was possible because of
the participants reliability and the fact that many of them had already known each
other for years and that they by and large still possessed the mental and physical
alertness to start physical activity again.
As the group was composed exclusively of participants with CHD, a certain group
homogeneity of performance was also provided for (100-120 W on an ergometer
bike with a maximum pulse of 110-120 beats per minute).
Recruitment of participants was exceptionally easy. 19 male participants aged 6569 (average age of 67.4) all right-handed were drawn from heart sports groups.
Further criteria for ensuring group homogeneity were, as mentioned previously,
cardiovascular impairment with/without by-pass or stent surgery as well as regular,
daily medication (e.g. Macumar for anticoagulation) and beta-blockers in some
cases.
The screening and selection criteria excluded any neuromuscular or orthopedic
dysfunctions, which could have possibly hindered grip strength performance.
All participants had to be willing to integrate grip strength training three times a
day into their daily routine for a period of either half a year or one year.
2.2 Equipment and the measuring process
The Wrzburg-based company Systems of Medical Technology (SMT) provided
their Ageon vitality testing device on loan for this study.
A device produced by the company Ageon was used (year of manufacture 2003,
serial number 01004, voltage of 100-240 V/50-60 Hz).
In order to avoid errors when measuring, care was taken that the entire device was
stored, transported and used at an environmental temperature of approximately 20
degrees Celsius and atmospheric pressure of 700-1060 Pa and humidity of 10100%.
The device was equipped with an integrated 15 TFT display with a touch screen
panel, charging stations, radio data transmission capabilities, an ISDN modem and
a ventilation-free system.
50
Computer specifications:
VIA Eden 667 MHz, primary storage: 128 MB RAM, hard drive: HDD 40 GB and
IDE CD-ROM drive.
Documentation:
Output of both graphical and numerical data was possible via a color printer. All
test results were saved in the patient database.
Software:
Operating system Microsoft Windows XP Professional, Ageon application and
analysis software, automated interactive audiovisual user navigation, automated
charging management, patient database, PC Anywhere Host Edition.
Sensor:
Combination sensor with exchangable hand grips (small/large), grip strength range
of 0-50 N.
The legal protection provisions and standards for emission, for electrical safety for
electrical medical devices, for emitted interference and immunity to interference
were complied with in accordance with CE marking.
The test person clasps the sensor in the respective hand and presses the handle
down with the fingers. Grip strength was exerted on two electrical pick-ups, which
measure the force precisely in Newtons (1 N =1 kg m/s). Only the highest
recorded value was stored for analysis. In addition, a strength curve was plotted.
Reference values were adapted from the literature listed above. The sensor was put
back into its storage recess upon completion of the test.
Scale: N (1 N=1 kg m/s)
Previously, pneumatic, spring and hydraulic-based strength measuring devices
were tested. It was demonstrated that only the hydraulic system, as built into the
Ageon device, measures force [76, 77, 78], while the others merely measure grip
pressure, not force [107].
A standard measuring position for participants, as required by the American
Society of Hand Therapists and the American Society for Surgery of the Hand, was
used:
sitting with upright body posture leaning against the back rest of the chair,
feet flat and placed fully upright on the floor, knees open hip-wide
shoulders in a neutral, relaxed position,
arms unsupported,
elbows at a 90 degree angle,
forearm in neutral rotation,
wrist position with dorsal flexion of 0-30 degrees and ulnar deviation of 0-15
degrees [76].
The patient performed three measurement trials with his dominant (for all
participants first with the right hand) and then with the non-dominant hand; each
time the second trial was used [76, 77, 78]; Hamilton et al. [45] and Robertson et
51
al. [108] demonstrated that for each group of three trials, the second trial should be
taken.
Concerning the problem of participant cooperation: According to the British
Association of Hand Therapists and the American Society of Hand Therapists it is
essential that participants be able to perform satisfactory hand flexion in other
words that they not suffer from e.g. rheumatoid arthritis.
Furthermore, participants should not suffer sensitivity to cold, as otherwise the cold
aluminum handle could possibly adversely affect their pain.
This problem was basically eliminated, as the measurements were taken in rooms
exclusively heated to room temperature and the entire device was always kep t at
virtually constant room temperature of between 22-24 degrees Celsius.
All participants trained with Energetics-brand grip strength training equipment,
whose round grips were padded with a foam plastic tube approximately 5 mm thick
and could therefore be comfortably gripped by the hands, regardless of size.
Before starting the test series, all instruments were checked and calibrated. All 19
participants were tested again for tenderness when pressure was applied in the form
of a firm handshake. An observer was always present at each measurement. This
was true of the initial measurement as well as those taken after four, eight, twelve,
26 and 52 weeks.
2.2.1
Procedure
Initial test
Preliminary detailed explanation of the testing procedure.

Upon assuming the standardized sitting position, three right-hand grip strength
measurements.
Afterwards, three measurements on the left hand. The second measurement of the
right and left hand for each participant was used.
Hand-out of leaflet describing training reco mmendations: hand warm- up, three
times daily (morning, midday, evening) three sets of 15 closings and openings of
the Energetics grip strength training equipment. Between sets the hands should be
relaxed. It was of utmost importance to ensure to exhale at the commencement of
the exercise and to inhale when slowly opening the training equipment (otherwise
risk of pressure breathing!).
Guidance and random observation of participants; inspection of the training log.
Interim test (after 4 weeks)
measurements.
Break, relaxation.
Results report and brief discussion.
52
Inspection of training log.

measurements.
measurements.
measurements.
Preliminary final test (after 52 weeks)
measurements.
Participants were tested for maximum right and left-hand grip strength with grip
strength sensors on the Ageon vitality testing device at two initial testing
appointments taking place on two consecutive days. Beforehand they had been
given an introduction to the testing device for measuring grip strength, first in
practice and then twice in testing mode. The second of the in total three trials was
taken for analysis. The results were displayed immediately afterwards on the
monitor as a curve with the maximum strength value for both the right as well as
for the left hand.
Upon completion each participant received a leaflet on performing the training. In
addition, each was obligated to keep a detailed training log, in which day of the
53
week, date, time, duration of training, any incidents, anomalies or peculiarities of

physical or mental nature were to be recorded.
2.2.2 Training guidelines
It is true that the American Geriatrics Society et al. write in their Guidelines for
Fall Prevention for Elderly Persons that even though prevention has demonstrated
many proven advantages, the optimal type of prevention remains, as concerns
duration and intensity of exercises for fall prevention, unclear [4], but a clear,
well-defined training program was still agreed upon with the subjects, and they
were also required to keep a log about their program.
Interim tests were conducted exactly four, eight, twelve and 26 weeks later as well
as the preliminary final test after one year. There were no absences or other
incidents.
2.2.3 Performance of measurements
After all necessary preparations had been made; the device was turned on quietly
by means of a toggle switch on the back. The system automatically started the test
program. After this the grip strength sensor was taken from its storage recess and
snapped upwards until it was locked into place. Then the device was calibrated for
the day of testing. Calibration was always performed before each test to eliminate
the possibility of any measurement errors.
Personal details for each participant, e.g. last name, first name (for protection of
privacy only the initials were entered), sex, date of birth, height in cm and weight
in kg as well as left or right handedness, were entered by typing on the keyboard
displayed on the touchscreen.
The grip strength test was selected instead of the automatic test run, since only the
single result was required. The sensor was gently pulled vertically from the sensor
holder to measure grip strength.
The participant took the blinking sensor in his right hand, so that he would be able
to exert optimal pressure on the finger grip surface. If necessary the plastic hand
grip was exchanged to fit the participants hand size. For this the grip bracket was
removed from the metal sensor with a forceful pull and the hand grip suitable for
the participant was attached with firm pressure.
By clicking the Introduction button the participant receives an introduction to the
testing procedure. In the following mode it was possible to p ractice the test once
before a total of three trials were performed starting with the dominant hand in
this case the right hand for all participants and then after a short break the left
hand. Each time the second of the three trials was taken and was output by the
program as the maximum strength value.
Because the plastic hand grip is a free-moving part, it was important to press it as
firmly as possible onto the handle. What was important for this test was not the
duration of the press, but solely the maximum force exerted on the sensor. For this
54
reason, only the maximum value of the plotted curve was needed to calculate the
grip strength vitality parameter.
The participants were instructed to press the sensor together briefly as firmly as
possible. Pressing longer but with less force would have adversely affected the
result.
On the Grip Strength screen the results could be viewed by means of a pressuretime-chart. The right and left hand results were displayed separately.
2.2.4 Statistics
Training and changes in performance are among the central phenomena in sports. It
is the task of empirical research to test whether the changes claimed can be
substantiated. Mathematical statistical analysis also aims to determine whether it is
possible to generalize the changes observed in samples. For measurement of
change in general one of the key questions is whether changes in one trait which
have been measured from a sample at different points in time are significant and
thus capable of being generalized for the entire population. As the data obtained are
characterized by an interval scale and normally distributed variables, the t-test for
matched, dependent (correlating) samples is the suitable test for the proposed line
of inquiry. Statistically, this involved the testing of one variable (grip strength) for
a group of participants under two different conditions, i.e. it involves the
comparison of variables which were measured before and after the training phases.
Using the test statistic t it is possible to calculate whether the difference of the
means significantly deviates from zero.
The participants were first measured before starting with training and then after
four, eight, twelve, 26 and 52 weeks. In the t-test the results of the initial
measurement are compared with those of the first and those of the second test.
The basis for testing differences for dependent samples is the distribution of
differences between the two test series. It must be determined whether the average
difference between the test series is large enough to verify a significant
improvement in grip strength and subsequently a significant difference in the initial
distributions.
As the study did not involve the testing of more than two variables in at least two
groups, the Bonferroni correction factor will be omitted. The statistical significance
level for all analyses is set at p<0.05, where p> 0.05 is not significant, p<0.05 is
weakly significant, p<0.01 is significant and p<0.001 is highly significant [16,
142].
To test for a significant difference from zero, the t-test is used. All statistical
analysis was performed with the SPSS program, version 14.0.
The distribution of differences (d) between the test series which define
improvement provides the basis for testing differences for dependent samples. The
results of analysis will show whether average difference (d) between the respective
test series var0001/var0002, var0001/var0003, var0001/var0004, var0005/var0006,
55
var0005/var0007,
var0005/var0008,
var0001/var0009,
var0001/var0011,
var0005/var0010 and var0005/var0012 is large enough to verify a significant
improvement and thus a significant difference in the initial distributions. It is
necessary to check whether a sample (of differences) with the mean (d) belongs to
the population as a whole, or not.
3.
Results
All 19 men completed the one-year training phase and they are continuing to train
as well.
3.1
Descriptive results
Prior to reviewing the individual test results, we shall briefly describe the
participants age structure and occupations. As mentioned previously, the study
involved 19 (n=19) 65-69-year-old men, three of which were 65, 66 and 67 years
old, four 68 and six 69 years old (see fig. 2). The average age was 67.4 years. All
participants were retired. Thirteen participants were former civil servants from
various ministries; one each of the remaining six was a doctor, baker, mason,
businessman, banker and insurance salesman.
Age groups of participants
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
65
66
67
age
68
69
Figure 2: Age groups of participants
3.2
Measurements
Var0001 Left-hand grip strength (in N) at the start

Var0002 - Left-hand grip strength (in N) after 4 weeks
Var0005 - Right-hand grip strength (in N) at the start
56
Var0006 - Right-hand grip strength (in N) after 4 weeks

See measurement tables 1 and 2 in appendix
3.2.1 Statistical results

a) Left-hand grip strength at the start / after 4 weeks
N
Var0001
Minimum
19
19
Var0002
210.10
220.60
Ma ximum
304.80
313.90
Mean
266.5947
276.9789
Std.
Deviation
27.80932
25.34041
Improvement after 4 weeks (grey)
grip strength left hand (N)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3 4
5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
Figure 3: Left-hand grip strength at the start (black) and after 4 weeks (grey)
b) Right-hand grip strength after 4 weeks

N
Var0005
Var0006
Minimum
19
19
245.90
263.70
Ma ximum
325.90
338.90
Mean
295.5158
312.1158
Std.
Deviation
21.98543
19.88602
57
grip strength right hand (N)

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3
4 5
6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
Figure 4: Right-hand grip strength at the start (black) and after 4 weeks (grey)
c) Left-hand grip strength after 8 weeks
N
Var0001
Minimum
19
19
Var0003
210.10
229.40
Ma ximum
304.80
326.00
Mean
266.5947
285.9053
Std.
Deviation
27.80932
25.54174

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
d) Right-hand grip strength after 8 weeks
N
Var0005
Var0007
Minimum
19
19
245.90
276.80
Ma ximum
325.90
352.50
Mean
295.5158
327.6158
Std.
Deviation
21.98543
19.05615
58
grip strenght right hand (N)

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3 4
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
e) Left-hand grip strength after 12 weeks

N
Var0001
Minimum
19
19
Var0004
Ma ximum
210.10
237.40
304.80
334.10
Mean
266.5947
293.5379
Std.
Deviation
27.80932
26.48264

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3 4
5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
f) Right- hand grip strength after 12 weeks

N
Minimum
Ma ximum
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Var0005
19
245.90
325.90
295.5158
21.98543
Var0005
19
293.30
359.50
340.2237
17.78184
59

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3
4 5
6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
g) Left-hand grip strength after 26 weeks

N
Var0001
Minimum
19
19
Var0009
210.10
244.50
Ma ximum
304.80
347.80
Mean
266.5947
301.6526
Std.
Deviation
27.80932
28.47824

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3
4 5
6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
h) Right-hand grip strength after 26 weeks

N
Var0005
Var0010
Minimum
19
19
245.90
306.10
Ma ximum
325.90
368.50
Mean
295.5158
348.2842
Std.
Deviation
21.98543
17.25879
60

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3
5 6
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
i) Left- hand grip strength after one year

N
Var0001
Minimum
19
19
Var0011
Ma ximum
210.10
249.10
304.80
354.80
Mean
266.5947
306.3368
Std.
Deviation
27.80932
29.39679

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
3 4
5 6
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
Figure 11: Left-hand grip strength at the start (black) and after one year (grey)
k) Right-hand grip strength after one year

N
Var0005
Var0012
Minimum
19
19
245.90
308.50
Ma ximum
325.90
369.00
Mean
295.5158
349.0842
Std.
Deviation
21.98543
16.75723
61

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
2 3
4 5
6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
participants
Figure 12: Right-hand grip strength at the start (black) and after one year (grey)
3.2.2
Correlations
a) Left-hand grip strength after 4 weeks

Left-hand
strength at
start
VAR00001
VAR00002
.969(**)
.000
19
1
Pearson Correlation
Significance (2-tailed)
N
Left-hand
Pearson Correlation
grip
strength
N
after 4
weeks
** Correlation is at the level of 0.01 (2-tailed) significant.
19
b) Right-hand grip strength after 4 weeks

Right-hand
strength at
start
Pearson Correlation
VAR00005
VAR00006
.993(**)
.000
19
1
N
Right-hand Pearson Correlation

grip
strength
N
after 4
weeks
19
62
c) Left-hand grip strength after 8 Weeks

Left-hand
strength at
start
VAR00001
VAR00003
.940(**)
.000
19
Pearson Correlation
N
Left-hand
Korrelation nach Pearson
strength
after 8
N
weeks
1
19
d) Right-hand grip strength after 8 Weeks

Right-hand
strength at
start
VAR00005
VAR00007
.969(**)
.000
19
1
Pearson Correlation
N

strength
after 8
N
weeks
19
e) Left-hand grip strength after 12 weeks

Left-hand
strength at
start
VAR00001
VAR00004
.895(**)
.000
19
Pearson Correlation
N
Left-hand
Pearson Correlation
strength
after 12
N
weeks
1
19
f) Right-hand grip strength after 12 weeks

Right-hand
strength at
start
Pearson Correlation
VAR00005
VAR00008
.932(**)
N

strength
after 12
N
weeks
.000
19
1
19
63
g) Left-hand grip strength after 26 weeks

Left-hand
strength at
start
VAR00001
VAR00009
.845(**)
.000
19
Pearson Correlation
N
Left-hand
Pearson Correlation
strength
after 26
N
weeks
1
19
h) Right-hand grip strength after 26 weeks

Right-hand
strength at
start
Pearson Correlation
Right-hand
strength
after 26
weeks
Pearson Correlation
VAR00005
VAR00010
.895(**)
.000
19
1
N
N
19
i) Left-hand grip strength after one year

Left-hand
strength at
start
Pearson Correlation
Left-hand
strength
after 1 year
Pearson Correlation
VAR00001
VAR00011
.819(**)
.000
19
1
N
N
19
k) Right-hand grip strength after one year

Right-hand
strength at
start
Pearson Correlation
Right-hand
strength
after 1 year
Pearson Correlation
VAR00005
VAR00012
.892(**)
.000
19
N
N
19
64
3.2.2.1
Improvements in left- hand and right-hand grip strength comparing 12

weeks and one year
Left-hand grip strength after 12 weeks and 1 year

Left-hand
strength
after 12
weeks
Left-hand
strength
after 1 year
Pearson Correlation
VAR00004
VAR00011
.984(**)
.000
19
1
N
Pearson Correlation
N
19
Right-hand grip strength after 12 weeks and 1 year

Right-hand
strength
after 12
weeks
Right-hand
strength
after 1 year
Pearson Correlation
VAR00008
VAR00012
.987(**)
.000
19
1
N
Pearson Correlation
N
19
3.2.2.2
Improvements in left- hand and right-hand sgrip trength comparing 26

weeks and one year
Left-hand grip strength after 26 Weeks and one year

Correlations
Left-hand
strength
after 26
weeks
Left-hand
strength
after 1 year
Pearson Correlation
VAR00009
VAR00011
.997(**)
.000
19
N
Pearson Correlation
N
19
65
Right-hand grip strength at 26 weeks and one year

Correlations
Right-hand
strength
after 26
weeks
Right-hand
strength
after 1 year
VAR00010
VAR00012
.999(**)
.000
19
1
Pearson Correlation
N
Pearson Correlation
N
19
3.2.3
Test statistic t
a) Test for paired samples: Left-hand grip strength after 4 weeks

Statistics for paired samples
Mean
Left-hand
strength at
start
Left-hand
strength
after 4
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
266.5947
19
27.80932
6.37990
276.9789
19
25.34041
5.81349
Test for paired samples
Mean
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
95% Confidence Interval
Deviation
of the Difference
Lower
10.38421
7.01960
1.61041
13.76755
Sig. (2tailed)
df
Upper
7.00087
6.448
18
.000
66
b) Test for paired samples: Right-hand grip trength after 4 weeks

Mean
Right-hand
strength at
start
Right-hand
strength
after 4
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
295.5158
19
21.98543
5.04380
312.1158
19
19.88602
4.56216
Mean
16.60000
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
3.25372
.74645
Lower
Upper
18.16824
15.03176
Sig. (2tailed)
df
22.238
18
.000
c) Test for paired samples: Left-hand grip strength after 8 weeks

Mean
Left-hand
strength at
start
Left-hand
strength
after 8
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
266.5947
19
27.80932
6.37990
285.9053
19
25.54174
5.85968
Mean
19.31053
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
9.49531
2.17837
Lower
Upper
23.88712
14.73393
8.865
Sig. (2tailed)
df
18
.000
67
d) Test for paired samples: Right-hand grip strength after 8 weeks

Mean
Right-hand
strength at
start
Right-hand
strength
after 8
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
295.5158
19
21.98543
5.04380
327.6158
19
19.05615
4.37178
Mean
32.10000
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
5.86316
1.34510
Lower
Upper
34.92596
29.27406
Sig. (2tailed)
df
23.864
18
.000
e) Test for paired samples: Left-hand grip strength after 12 weeks

Mean
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Left-hand
strength at
start
266.5947
19
27.80932
6.37990
Left-hand
strength
after12
weeks
293.5379
19
26.48264
6.07553
Mean
26.94000
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
12.51878
2.87200
Lower
Upper
32.97000
20.90000
9.381
Sig. (2tailed)
df
18
.000
68
f) Test for paired samples: Right-hand grip strength after 12 weeks

Mean
Right-hand
strength at
start
Right-hand
strength
after 12
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
295.5158
19
21.98543
5.04380
340.2237
19
17.78184
4.07943
Mean
44.70000
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
8.43943
1.93614
Lower
Upper
48.77000
40.64000
Sig. (2tailed)
df
23.090
18
.000
g) Test for paired samples: Left-hand grip strength after 26 weeks

Mean
Left-hand
strength at
start
Left-hand
strength
after 26
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
266.5947
19
27.80932
6.37990
301.6526
19
28.47824
6.53336
Mean
35.05000
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
15.66072
3.59282
Lower
Upper
42.60000
27.50000
9.750
Sig. (2tailed)
df
18
.000
69
g) Test for paired samples: Right-hand grip strength after 26 weeks

Mean
Right-hand
strength at
start
Right-hand
strength
after 26
weeks
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
295.5158
19
21.98543
5.04380
348.2842
19
17.25879
3.95944
Mean
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
52.76000 10.11891
2.32144
Lower
Upper
57.64000
47.89000
Sig. (2tailed)
df
22.730
18
.000
i) Test for paired samples: Left-hand grip strength after one year
Mean
Left-hand
strength at
start
Left-hand
strength
after 1 year
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
266.5947
19
27.80932
6.37990
306.3368
19
29.39679
6.74409
Mean
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
17.25628
3.95886
Sig. (2tailed)
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
39.71400
df
48.05.
Upper
31.42000
10.030
18
.000
70
k) Test for paired samples: Right-hand grip strength after one year
Mean
Right-hand
strength at
start
Right-hand
strength
after 1 year
Standard
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
295.5158
19
21.98543
5.04380
349.0842
19
16.75723
3.84437
Mean
53.56000
Paired Differences
Std. Error
Standard
Mean
Deviation
of the Difference
10.33253
2.37044
Lower
Upper
58.54000
48.58000
22.590
df
18
Sig. (2tailed)
.000
The preconditions for applying the statistical tests for depend ent samples require
both an interval scale for variables as well as a near-normal distribution of
differences (d). This was indeed the case.
Improvement in left-hand grip strength from 5065.3 N (sum of participants 19
measured values at the start) to 5262.6 N (sum of the 19 measured values after 4
weeks) results in a t- value of 6.448. It had to determined whether this improvement
is large enough to make it possible to state in general that hand strength training of
the form described here is effective enough to improve grip strength. Certainty
occurred at the 1% level. Since it is still assumed that the participants improved in
each case, a one-sided test will be applied. For alpha a = 1% and f =18 for the onesided test produces a critical value of t0.01;18 = 2.55 [16].
Since 6.448 > 2.55, the test turned out in favor of the alternative hypothesis. It may
be assumed with a 1% error of probability that grip strength training of the form
described here leads to a significant improvement in left-hand grip strength for men
with CHD aged 65-69 years in as little as four weeks.
As the other t-values of t = 8.865, t = 9.381, t = 9.758, t = 22.590, t = 10.030, t =
22.730, t = 9.750, t = 23.090 and t = 9.381 were also mostly considerably larger
than the critical value of 2.55, it can be claimed that this type of grip strength
training leads to significant improvements in grip strength even after four, eight,
twelve 26 and 52 weeks.
71
Calculations for correlation produce with r = .969, r = .993, r = .940, r = .969, r =

.895, r = .932, r = .845, r = .895, r = .819, and r = .892 a high correlation for the
cohort of 65-69-year-old men after four, eight, twelve, 26 and 52 weeks.
4.
Discussion
4.1
Aging processes
Every organism is affected throughout the course of life to varying degrees by
infectious disease, tumors, arteriosclerosis, mechanical, chemical and thermal
traumata so that in senescence the pathological mechanisms come to the fore,
making it progressively more difficult to separate them from the aging process
itself [47].
The aging process and the development of (chronic and acute) diseases are subject
to immense individual variation. Aging is not a disease. Nevertheless, the elderly
suffer afflictions more often and are more frequently ill than younger persons. The
cardiovascular system (arterial hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure)
and the locomotion apparatus (dorsopathy, osteoarthritis, rheumatic disorders) are
primarily affected. The aging process and the development of diseases depend on
many different factors (genetic predisposition, enironmental influences, ind ividual
lifestyle) [92]. It is characteristic for typical geriatric patients that several diseases
appear simultaneously (multimorbidity), which influence one another reciprocally
and lead to loss of function. These have consequences in physical, mental and
social areas and threaten the patients independence. Both the number of diseases
as well as the severity of the disease are only loosely connected with the function.
There are patients with a number of serious disorders who experience no loss of
function.
On the other hand, even a single disorder (e.g. a stroke) can lead to severe loss of
function. The particular function determines the need for treatment, and the
disorder the possible therapies [92]. Age-related physiological losses of function
are however not as serious as those associated with physical disabilities or
disorders. Accordingly, it is not aging per se, but the accompanying disorders
which pose a threat to homeostasis at any age. Not all tissues and organs are
uniformly affected by limitations of function (owing to individual variability).
Furthermore, with advancing age an increasing interindividual dispersion of
findings occurs. Differentiating between physiological, age-related changes and
pathological processes is not always easy; and the boundaries between the two are
frequently not clearly defined [138].
With rising life expectancy and increasing age the difficulty of differentiating
between primary and secondary aging effects increases significantly [47].
A loss of independence is frequently the common final result of many chronic
diseases afflicting the elderly [47, 64].Where it is possible to make good use of
functional resources, even older patients can be successfully rehabilitated. Training
of functional abilities, including and in particular muscle training, aims at
72
providing the greatest possible independence for the person affected. Thus, in
senescence despite a possibly long-term disability it could also be possible to live a
self-determined life with a high level of satisfaction and quality of life [64, 65, 92].
4.1.1
Age-related changes in musculature (sarcopenia)
4.1.1.1 Definition and cause of sarcopenia
The primary function of the musculature is to produce power and generate
performance or work by converting chemical to mechanical energy. Muscle
strength and work are required to maintain structural integrity and an upright body
posture necessary for movement, respiration, digestion and, in the end, basically all
bodily functions [67, 112]. Human muscle strength peaks between 20 and 30 years
of life.
By the age of 70, a person has already lost approximately 30% of his or her
muscular strength and ca. 40% of his or her muscle mass. These losses
progressively gain momentum with increasing age, irrespective of muscle group
[67]. There are however great differences amongst the muscle groups as regards the
extent of strength loss. While the present paper is concerned mostly with the
skeletal muscle, many age-related changes can similarly be observed in the cardiac
muscle and the smooth musculature.
Rosenberg was the first to use the term sarcopenia (from the Greek: poverty of
flesh), to describe age-related degenerative loss of muscle mass [112]. Nowadays,
sarcopenia is used to refer to all age-related changes to skeletal muscle mass, as
well as the effects of changes to the innervation of the central and peripheral
nervous system and to the hormonal status, inflammatory processes and modified
energy and protein intake [38].
There are many definitions of sarcopenia in the relevant literature, which are all
essentially very similar. Sarcopenia is defined as a progressive, involuntary loss of
muscle strength, muscle mass and muscle quality with advancing age. Yarasheski
refers to it as an imbalance between muscle protein synthesis and proteolysis, in
which the net muscle protein balance is negative. He also describes sarcopenia as
an age-related change in muscle protein quantity and quality, having adverse
effects on muscle structure, bodily constitution and functions [146].
Roubenhoff et al. also define sarcopenia as an age-related change in muscle
quantity and quality which is a consequence of normal aging and does not require
any precursor disease to occur, although the loss of muscle mass may be
accelerated by chronic disease. Roubenhoff furthermore sees sarcopenia as a
complex, multifactorial process, which begins in middle age and accelerates after
the age of 75 years. Sarcopenia affects all elderly individuals. Yet it has not been
determined which relative contribution each of these factors makes. The causes of
loss of muscle quality and mass may be neural, or muscular or hormonal [114].
73
Skeletal muscle is composed of fibers which vary in their structural, functional,

molecular and metabolic type and is therefore an extreme ly heterogeneous tissue
[112].
The relevant literature lists the reduction in muscle fiber cross-section, the
declining number of muscle fibers and the accompanying loss of overall muscle
cross-section as fundamental, age-related changes in muscle fiber. The results of
many studies and tests indicate that with an almost constant ratio of type I to type II
fibers, the loss of muscle mass in senescence is primarily a result of a reduction in
size of type II fibers [67]. Yet it has not been conclusively established whether this
is due to non- use, disease, or it is simply intrinsic to the aging process. The
reduction of both muscle fiber types and above all the decrease in the muscle fiber
cross-section of type II fibers lead to a higher relative percentage of type I fibers in
the musculature of the elderly. Notwithstanding this fact, Lexell et al. were able to
verify a considerable variety of number and size of fibers in all age groups [67].
In many morphological studies it was possible by means of ultrasound, computer
tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and by directly measuring biopsies of
tissues from cadavers to establish an overall reduction in the entire muscle crosssection for different muscle groups of the extremities, without citing an exact cause
(see above) [38]. Lexell et al. measured muscle cross-section by performing
muscle biopsies on cadavers and discovered a musculature reduction of 40%
between the age of 20 and 80 years. The average muscle loss by the age of 50
amounted to approximately 10%, and increased considerably afterwards [67]. In a
more recent study, Janssen et al. measured the skeletal muscle mass of 268 men
and 200 women aged between 18 and 88 years with magnetic resonance imaging.
They discovered that both relative to body mass (38.4 vs. 30.6%) and in absolute
terms (33 vs. 21 kg), men have more muscle mass than women, but that they also
lose this mass at a significantly higher rate with progressing age. The mechanism
which leads to this greater loss of muscle mass for men is not ye t fully understood,
but it is assumed to be primarily caused by hormonal factors [58].
Elderly men and women who suffer chronic lack of movement and are less
physically active have less skeletal muscle mass and also a larger degree of
physical impairment [114]. Doherty concedes that it is indeed difficult to arrive at a
cause based only upon cross-sectional studies, but notes that the results of a
number of studies have shown that strength training can reverse sarcopenia. In
Dohertys view this is sound proof of the relationship between physical activity and
skeletal muscle mass and strength [38].
As described in detail above, the pathogenesis of sarcopenia is a multifactorial
process. The primary cause is still unknown. The result of the various mechanisms
and influencing factors is a reduction of muscle quantity and quality. It is the
primary cause of physical impairment and weakness in the elderly.
4.1.1.2
Consequences of sarcopenia for general level of health and quality of life
74
Sarcopenia, intensifying with age, does produce risks. For this reason, the resulting
physiological changes can lead to bone demineralization, and therefore also to an
increased risk of osteoporosis. One crucial precondition for mobility is muscle
strength. This is diminished as a consequence of sarcopenia. This has been shown
in a number of studies, in which the extremities were tested under isometric and
isotonic conditions.
In the majority of such studies, groups of healthy young, middle-aged and old men
and women were compared with each other. Knee extensors were tested most often
because of their functional importance, the availability of comparably historical
data and relative ease of measurement [38].
Cross-sectional studies by Hollmann/Hettinger established that strength either
declines very slightly or remains almost constant between the ages of 30 and 55
years, but diminishes afterwards at an accelerated rate (up to 30% in the eighth
decade of life), taking maximum strength in late puberty as the base criterion [50].
Metter et al. also report an initial minor loss of strength which then increases
considerably after the age of 50 to approximately 12-14% per decade [81].
As mentioned above, there are some differences among the muscle groups as
regards the amount of strength loss. For men, the decline in muscle strength of the
lower extremities is greater than that of the upper [103]. Frontera et al. were able to
show a clear relationship between muscle strength and muscle mass in their study.
Young men were indeed fundamentally stronger than older men, but after adjusting
the strength values for muscle mass differences between the two groups were
hardly noticeable [42]. Roubenhoff confirms that though the relationship between
muscle mass and muscle strength evolves linearly, the relationship between muscle
strength and physical functionality does not [114].
4.1.1.3 Importance of strength in the aging process
As early as the times of ancient Greece, the positive influence of strength training
on life habits in senescence was known and appreciated. The most famous example
is the legendary wrestler Milo of Croton, born in the sixth century BC in the Greek
colony of Croton in Southern Italy. He secured an eternal place in the history of the
Olympic Games by becoming the Olympic wrestling champion as a boy in the
category for young wrestlers in 540 BC at the sixtieth Olympic Games and was
wrestling champion each year up to the 66th Olympic Games. A great many tales
exist about his legendary strength, according to which he carried a newborn calf on
his back every day until the Olympic took place. By the time the events took place,
he was carrying a four-year-old cow on his back (see Braindex free online
encyclopedia, at www.braindex.com/encyclopedia index. php/Milo of Croton).
Muscle mass declines throughout the aging process, from the age of twenty to the
age of seventy years by about 30-40% [49, 50, 75]. There is a considerable
associated loss of strength which can have significant consequences for health and
quality of life. This loss of strength is predominately due to a lack of exercise or
75
movement of any type, and only to a lesser extent as a result of the aging process
[56].
Loss of strength in senescence also means loss of competence in activities of
everyday life, e.g. when climbing stairs, when transporting objects or even when
engaging in activities on vacation.
According to the Bonn-based Study of Sports in Senescence (BAS) 61-70-year-old
elderly persons subjectively estimated their strength loss within the previous five
years depending upon their rate of athletic activity (no sports, up to 2 hours per
week, 2 or more hours per week) as follows (in %):
Slight worsening 51, 43, 41
Considerable worsening 17, 17, 8
Unchanged 29, 37, 44
Minor improvement 32, 41, 50
Great improvement 1, 4, 4 [95].
It is noticeable that more than twice as many elderly people (17%) who reported
either no or only up to 2 hours per week of athletic activity felt a considerable
worsening of strength, while only 8% of those who were more athletically active
were of this opinion. Furthermore, the figures show that more than 2/3 of those
who practised no sports at all found their strength to have worsened (in contrast to
32% who observed an improvement. This ratio clearly improves for those
athletically active 50%/50%).
The BAS also discovered that the positive effects of regular athletic activities in
age groups of over 60 years were much more evident than amongst age groups of
up to 60 years, which means the older the group is and thus the more clearly a
decline in motoric skills is to be expected, the more noticeable are the benefits of
regular athletic activity [95].
Upon comparison of the statements given by non-athletes and athletes regarding
strength it is noticeable that the non-athletes reported a worsening in body strength
much more frequently with 72% than did the athletes (54%), who for their part
more frequently stated that their strength had remained unchanged or had eve n
improved. No differences were to be found in the explanations produced for these
changes by either the athletes or the non-athletes. Improvements were consistently
explained by regular exercise, and considerable worsening in equal parts by
illness/injury or the aging process. Even for slight worsening, both groups
predominately identified the aging process itself as the cause. Only about 1% to 2%
of responses cited lack of exercise as the cause of worsening. If no changes in
motor skills had been identified, no comments regarding the causes were made,
despite the fact that regular exercise certainly may have contributed significantly to
their retention [95].
Jette & Branch could demonstrate that for over 75- year-olds, only 72% of men and
44% of women were capable of lifting a 4.5 kg weight [60]. Strength performance
consists not only of dynamic strength, but also postural strength. Thus, strength
76
training produces the greatest benefits for the passive and active locomotion muscle
apparatus. Improved strength performance proves useful both for athletic activity
as well as for the activities of daily living for the elderly [17].
A further argument for strength training in senescence is the fact that the
musculature acts as a pump which transports blood from the bodys periphery back
to the heart. A strong musculature results in a better flow of blood due to
capillarization and thus in an improved supply of oxygen to the muscles and bones
as well, demonstrably improving their osteonal structure [50, 93].
From the health perspective, a well-preserved skeletal musculature is
orthopedically not only significant for effective functioning of the locomotion and
posture muscle apparatuses, but provides as well the precondition for the
physiologically essential demands made of the cardiopulmonary system from the
point of view of internal medicine, as well as the central nervous system, especially
the brain, from both the neurological and p sychiatric perspective [50]. The
importance of the last point in particular has become clear in recent years. It was
possible to verify an intensively working biofeedback system between muscular
metabolism and certain brain regions, such as the limbic system, associated with
mental repercussions. It is certainly conceivable that some depressive conditions
occurring in senescence with the effect of inadequate stimulation on the part of
muscular metabolism can be traced back to specific areas of the brain [50].
4.2 Changes in the age structure of society: Demographic shifts in a long- living
population
In the approaching decades we face a considerable increase in the percentage of
elderly persons as part of the entire German population. The average age will
similarly be affected so that by 2050 an ever larger number of progressively o lder
adults will be visible in our society. This demands actions. Although the number of
athletically active senior citizens has increased in recent years, the group of
inactive elderly persons is several times larger. The aging elderly ought to and must
be informed and motivated to exercise regularly, if they intend to retain their
physical and mental intactness and independence as long as possible, without
becoming an increasing burden to our social system, which already is overtaxed.
Endurance training can make a significant contribution to this as its effects produce
benefits especially for those of advanced age, as this study shows, and can be an
important means of reaching the above stated goals.
Demographic change in our population today and increasing life expectancy, which
has risen on average by 30 years in the last 100 years, require us to act. The reasons
for a sharply growing interest in sports for the elderly can easily be recognized in
the preoccupation - triggered by demographic trends - of our politicians, of science
and the media will the issues of an aging society. The growing number of elderly
people and their new life conditions are leading to an increasing demand for
predominately health-promoting exercise and sports opportunities.
77
The demographic shifts in numbe rs

Approximately 82 million people live in the Federal Republic of Germany (status:
December 31, 2003), of which 42m (51%) are women and 40m (49%) men. 17.6m
(21%) are children and young people under 20 years of age. 46m (57%) are of
working age, from 20 to 60 years old, and 18.4m (22%) are aged 60 years and
older.
2003: 82 million people in The Federal Republic of Germany (fig. 13 and 18)
Under 20 years:
17.6m
21%
Between 20 und 60 years:
46.0m
57%
Over 60 years:
18.4m
22%
21%
22%
57%
Figure 13:
Age structure for the population in Germany (status: December 31, 2003)
50 years prior, in the year 1950, these age groups were of the following sizes: The
population in both parts of Germany (69.2m) was composed of 21m (30%) young
persons under 20 years of age, 38.1m (55%) persons of working age (20 to 60 years
old) and 10.1m (15%) elderly people over 60 years.
1950: 69.2 million persons (Fig. 14)
Under 20 years:
21.0m
30%
Between 20 and 60 years: 38.1m
55%
Over 60 years:
10.1m
15%
15%
30%
55%
Figure 14: Age structure for the population of Germany in 1950
78
1900 The greatest part of the 56.3m persons living in the former German Republic
24.9m (about 44%) were younger than 20 years, 27m men and women (48%) were
between 20 and 60 years old and 4.4m (8%) were aged 60 years and older.
1900: 56.3 million people (Fig. 15)
Under 20 years:
24.9m
44%
Between 20 and 60 years: 27.0m
48%
Over 60 years:
4.4m
8%
8%
44%
48%
Figure 15: Age structure of the population in Germany in 1900
The development of the average life expectancy in past decades corresponds with
this data: it has risen noticeably. A girl born around 1900 had an average life
expectancy of 48 years, a newborn boy 45 years. For a child born today, a life
expectancy 30 years higher is calculated (in the former Federal Republic, women:
80.5 and men: 74.7 years). Even in comparison to 1970, average life expectancy
has risen by about seven years.
The primary reason for increasing life expectancy for the population in the
twentieth century is the drastically falling infant and childhood mortality rates. The
decrease in infant and childhood mortality resulted in considerable gro wth in the
part of the population which reaches a higher age. Future increases in life
expectancy are expected to primarily arise from gains in senescence. A woman
who is 60 years old today can count on living another 23 years on average (as
opposed to 14 years in 1900 and 19 years in 1970). For a 60- year-old man
additional average life expectancy today is 19 years (as opposed to 13 years in
1900 and 15 years in 1970).
79
Percentage of over 80-year-olds in the population of Germany

Mill.
Mill.
Fig. 16: Population percentage of over 80- year-olds. source [129].

Individual age groups
In the year 2000: Younger than 20:
Older than 60:
In the year 2050: Younger than 20:
21.3%
23.0%
16.3%
40,00%
35,00%
30,00%
25,00%
20,00%
15,00%
10,00%
5,00%
0,00%
Older than 60:
35.8%
2000
1-20 years over 60
2050
1-20 years
over 60
Figure 17: Individual age groups in 2000 and in 2050
80
This trend will continue in all likelihood, and especially the number of elderly
people will grow considerably in the future. The percentage of persons over 80
years of age, which in 1900 made up approximately 0.5% of the population and has
presently risen to 4%, may further increase to about 12% by 2050 (see fig. 16) [24].
Men Age Women
Figure 18: Age structure of the population of Germany on December 31, 2005
Source [129].
In Germany the numeric ratio of older to younger persons will experience a

considerable shift in the decades to come: In 2050 according to the Federal
Statistical Offices latest population projection half of the population will be
older than 48 years and one-third 60 years or older (Fig. 17). The population figure
in Germany will also even assuming increased immigration from abroad fall in
the long term. The president of the Federal Statistical Office, Johann Hahlen,
reported these facts when presenting the results of the Federal Statistical Offices
11th coordinated population projection up to the year 2050 [129].
Results of the 11th coordinated population projection:
The results described here are based on two variants of development scenarios,
assuming nearly constant birth rates, an increase in life expectancy by about seven
years and a migration balance of 100,000 or 200,000 persons per year. These
variants define the limits of a corridor, within which population size and age
structure will evolve, if currently observed demographic trends continue to be
effective.
81
They are referred to as the medium populations lower and upper limits. Birth
numbers will continue to fall in the future. A low birth rate causes the number of
potential mothers to become increasingly smaller. Even today the cohorts of
newborn girls are numerically smaller than those of their mothers. Once these girls
have reached adulthood and if they too have on average fewer than 2.1 children, the
future number of children will continue to drop, because then fewer potential
mothers will potentially be alive at that time.
The number of deaths will increase in spite of rising life expectancy because
the numerically strong cohorts will grow to old age.
The number of deaths will increasingly exceed the number of births. This will lead
to a rapidly growing birth deficit which can no longer be compensated by net
immigration. Consequently, Germanys total population, which has been
decreasing since 2003, will continue to fall. If the demographic situation continues
to develop along current lines, the number of inhabitants will fall from almost 82.5
million in 2005 to a figure astimated at about 72 million in 2050.
The relations between old and young people will change noticeably. In late 2005
20% of the population were younger than 20 years old, and the proportion of those
65 years old and older was 19%. The remaining 61% were so-called working-age
persons (20 to 65 years). In 2050, however, just about half of the population will be
of working age, more than 30% will be 65 years old or older and circa 15% will be
younger than 20 years old.
As early as 2010 the number of children and adolescents aged under 20 years will
be almost 10% less than it is today, and then continue to decrease rapidly. The
number of children of day care or school age will fall as will the number of young
people of traineeship age. Today there are nearly 4 million young people of
traineeship age, ranging from 16 to 20 years old. By 2012 this figure will amount
only to as few as about 3 million.
In the long run, the working age population will also age and shrink. Until abo ut
2015 the number of 20 to 65-year-olds will remain stable at about 50 million. This
is so because the older group of the 50 to 65-year-olds will grow rapidly enough to
offset the strong reduction in the number of those aged under 50 years and to keep
the total working age population constant for some time. Later on the number of
these older persons will also decrease.
As far as younger working age people are concerned, the age group of the 30 to 50year-olds will decrease rapidly, whilst that of the 20 to 30- year-olds (the age group
from which most university graduates are recruited) will remain stable for some
time and shrink only after 2015. Total working age population will count between
42 and 44 million in 2030 and between 35 and 39 million in 2050.
As a result, there will be a clear shift in the age structure of working-age people. At
present, 50% of working-age people belong to the medium- age group, which
includes people of 30 to 49 years, nearly 20% belong to the young age group of 20
to 29 years and 30% to the older age group of 50 to 64 years. In 2020, the medium-
82
age group will account for as little as 42%; the older one, however, will remain
almost unchanged at about 40%. The situation will be similar in 2050 (medium
group: 43%, older group: nearly 40%). The percentage of the 20 to under 30-yearolds will not change very much. As a result, older people will clearly prevail
among the working-age population.
The number of people aged 65 and older will have increased by about half by the
end of the 2030s: from currently nearly 60 million to circa 24 million. Afterwards it
will fall slightly. The 80+ population will continuously grow: from nearly 4 million
in 2005 to 10 million in 2050. Then more than 40% of those aged 65 and older will
be at least 80 years old.
Today 33 out of 100 working-age people (20 to 65 years) are less than 20 years old.
This so-called youth dependency ratio will drop just slightly, amounting to 29 in
2050.
In future, the old-age to working-age dependency ratio will shift in favor of an
increasing number of people at old age. In 2005 that ratio was 32 people at old age
(65 and older) per 100 people at working-age (20 to 65 years). The old-age
dependency ratio will rise to 50 or 52 by 2030 and to 60 to 64 by 2050.
Notwithstanding a raise in the retirement age, the old-age dependency ratio for
people aged 67 or older in 2050 would clearly exceed todays old-age dependency
ratio for people aged 65 and older.
The ratio of people who are either below or beyond working age to working-age
people (total dependency ratio) will be determined by the old age dependency ratio.
In 2005, that ratio was 65 people aged either under 20 or 65 years and older to 100
people aged between 20 and 65 years. The old-age dependency ratio will rise to
more than 80 by 2030 and to 89 or 94 by 2050 [129].
Assumptions:
The total level of birth rates remains low. Three options are assumed with this
background. They are derived from the interaction of long-term trends and presentday developments, occurring in the former territory of the Federal Republic of
Germany, in the ex-GDR and among foreign women.
The first option assumes that current age-specific trends will not change over the
next 20 years: the total fertility rate remaining at its present level of nearly 1.4
children per woman and the average age at birth rising by circa 1.6 years.
Afterwards birth ratios are assumed to remain constant during 2026-2050.
The second option assumes an increase in birth rates to 1.6 children per woman
until 2025, the average age at birth rising by one year. Birth rates remain constant
during 2026-2050.
The third option assumes that birth rates gradually decrease to 1.2 children per
woman until 2050 and that a womans average age at birth will rise by circa two
years.
Life expectancy will further increase. Two assumptions were made with regard to
life expectancy. They were derived from two different combinations of the short-
83
term (since 1970) and the long-term (since 1871) trends in the development of
mortality.
Proceeding from the base assumption, we find that mens average life expectancy
at birth will be 83.5 years in 2050 and that of women 88 years. That is a rise by 7.6
and 6.5 years, respectively, on the 2002/2004 life expectancy in Germany. The gap
between mens and womens life expectancy will narrow from 5.6 to 4.4 years. 60year-old men or women can be expected to stay alive for another 27.2 and 30.9
years, respectively.
According to the second assumption, life expectancy at birth will reach on average
85.4 years for men and 89.8 years for women by 2050. That is an increase of 9.5
years for men and 8.3 years for women as compared with 2002/2004. The gap
between mens and womens life expectancy will narrow from 5.6 to 4.4 years.
60-year-old men or women can be expected to stay alive for another 27.2 and 30.9
years, respectively. Two assumptions were made regarding the future migration
balance. They assume an annual migration surplus of 100,000 or 200,000 people,
imputing exemplary evolution in both cases. As far as real migration is concerned
it will as in the past clearly be subject to variation, so that the imputed values
should only be interpreted as long-term averages for several years. The margin
between the two assumptions was chosen taking into account average long-term
external migration, with a view of defining a corridor along which migration
processes could be supposed to evolve in the future [129].
Individual preparations for old age:
All these developments place new demands on individuals to make preparations for
old age as early as possible. For many years, the so-called three-phase model has
provided a description of a successful course through life for citizens of
industrialized countries: education - employment - retirement. This model was
thought to be reliable and supported by the state. With a successfully completed
education, one might very likely find corresponding employment, and after a
certain amount of time retire. At the age of 60 or 65 this socially-defined and
socially-recognized age-based status had been attained. The governments first
report on aging discusses the fact that economic, social and cultural developments
over the last 15 years have led to the breaking up of this life-phase model [21].
Fuzzy boundaries are replacing what were formerly clear demarcations.
The topic of the second report on the state of the elderly generation in the Federal
Republic of Germany includes:
- a persons own responsibility as an aging individual for a personally selfdetermined and socially integrated life and
- the importance of belonging to ones own generation and feeling part of intergenerational networks for quality of and satisfaction with life in senescence [22].
An aging population means that the proportion of old and very old persons in t he
population increases, while simultaneously the proportion of younger persons
decreases. At the same time the working population has to work longer. This trend
84
has existed for approximately 100 years, and will also continue in the near future
and become yet more dynamic in the two decades to come.
The rise in the number of the elderly in the population has already been firmly
anchored in the current age structure of the population. Additionally, a further
increase in life expectancy is likely and a renewed increase in the birth rate is
hardly to be expected. Even increased immigration of young people to Germany
would only have the effect of postponing inevitable demographic aging.
Demographic aging poses a central socio-political challenge which has been facing
politicians for quite some time. Population aging will lead to drastic social changes
in politics and economics and thus to an increased need to adapt.
Coping with an aging population means taking measures for political reform before
it is too late and honoring the contract between the generations in the long term
without making too heavy demands on the ever-declining, younger generations to
come.
What is realy needed now is a solution for the future which takes into consideration
the ever-aging imployees and their potential for innovation.
Lastly it must be emphasized that there is no demographic solution to the imminent
financial crisis for the social security system. Only by following a path of sensible
reforms to stabilize and support generational solidarity may we avoid this conflict
[19].
4.3
Sample analysis
The improvements in grip strength parameters demonstrate that the prescribed
training was sufficient. The grip strength training equipment used was chosen
because participants felt comfortable with it and enjoyed working with it. It was
important that the training equipment was not be replaced or exchanged, as
according to Hollmann such studies should always be performed with stress
routines and equipment which conform to one particular exercise [49].
The collected data also allow the following conclusions:
1. As early as four weeks later, improvements for all participants were verified
(fig. 3 and 4), which were however less marked for the left hand than they were for
the right.
2. All participants were right-handed; left-hand grip strength was for all usually
much lower than right-hand grip strength. Neither the baker nor the mason
exhibited exceptionally high grip strength values as may have been supposed due
to their professional background since the other participants professions involved
fewer physically demanding tasks.
3. Improvements in left- hand grip strength after four weeks were on average
approximately 3.5%, and for right- hand grip strength 5.7%; and after eight weeks
for left- hand grip circa 3.2% and for right-hand grip strength exactly 5% on
average (fig. 5 and 6). It may be noted here that the gains in left- hand grip strength
were clearly less than those for right-hand grip strength, and that the gains after
85
eight weeks were somewhat lower than those after four weeks. The greatest
strength increase was of 8% for the right hand after four weeks, and the lowest was
of 1.5% in the same period for the left hand. After eight weeks the largest increase
was 7% for the right hand and the lowest 1% for the left hand.
The measurements after twelve (fig. 7 and 8), 26 (fig. 9 and 10) and 52 weeks (fig.
11 and 12) established the following: with the exception of participant 16 (approx.
4% strength increase) all participants experienced a slight decline in strength
increase over the course of the year, of which the lowest increase in strength was
0.5% (after 12, 26 and 52 weeks, and the highest were approx. 5% (after 26 weeks;
fig. 9 and 10) and 4% (after one year) (fig. 11 and 12).
For r = .984 (left) and r = .987 (right) there is a high correlation upon comparison
of the values after 12 weeks and those after one year, which is again slightly
bettered by r = .997 (left) and r = .999 (right) when comparing the values after 26
weeks and those after one year.
All additional measurements were performed on the same day of the week and at
the same time, but not at the same of the year. Because of this, conditions for the
additional measurements were not exactly the same as for the initial test. Care was,
however, taken to ensure that the device was set up at the same location and at the
same room temperature as it had been for the initial test.
To assure optimal quality for the obtained data, participants were familiarised with
the proceedings very thoroughly and in great detail at the start of the first test.
Three measurements were performed. If results were not satisfactory, an additional
series of three measurements was performed, and the second value of each was
taken to virtually eliminate the possibility of the participant working for too long,
too short or not intensively enough.
4.4
Single case analysis
As mentioned previously, it was remarkable that the overall lower grip strength
values which had been measured in the grip strength studies discussed matched the
age cohort studied here, even though a relatively new measuring instrument was
used for the present study.
The most marked improvements were achieved by participants 10 and 11 of 8% for
right- hand grip strength after four weeks (fig. 3 and 4), and 7% after eight weeks
(fig. 5 and 6) respectively; participant 12 with 6%, and for left-hand grip strength
6%. The smallest improvements were exhibited by participant 6 of almost 4% for
the right hand (and again almost 4% after eight weeks), and participant 1 with 1.5%
for the left hand. For these participants, even after eight weeks improvement in lefthand grip strength was only 1% (fig. 5). Participant 15 was able to improve his
right- hand grip strength only by 3% (fig. 6).
Participant 8 had the highest initial values of 304.8 N (left) and 325.9 N (right).
86
In contrast, participant 10 had noticeably low initial values of 210.1 N and 246.1 N,
although he was only one year older than participant 8. Both participants had
primarily performed office tasks in their occupations.
Participant 1 had the lowest left- hand value after one year with approx. 4% increase
in strength (fig. 11); the highest value of approx. 27% was achieved by participant
12.
The smallest increase in right-hand grip strength was that of participant 15, approx.
11% (fig. 12); the greatest was 26% for participant 11.
Upon comparison of the strength measurements after 26 and 52 weeks of training,
it is remarkable that left- hand grip strength for all participants again improved
noticeably and quantitatively; nevertheless there were no improvements in righthand grip strength for participant 16, a mere 0.2 N for participants 4, 6, 7, 11 and
15, as well as 0.3 N for participant 9.
5.
Summary
Determination of grip strength provides a relatively certain impression of the
general state of muscle strength; it proves an indicator for the physical performance
ability of aging persons [135]. It also enables inferences to be made regarding the
total muscle strength for the third age people, correlates with diet and may be used
for assessment of the course of disease. Manual skills presuppose sufficient grip
strength for all activities of daily living. Diminished grip strength is a sign of
generally reduced muscular strength in the third age people, and therefore strongly
correlates with markedly higher risk of fall and of fracture, with lessened
independence and increased mortality [54, 98, 105, 135]. It declines with age
continuously and parabolically [48, 61]. Due to the simplicity of the measuring
procedure, performed in the past with a mechanical dynamometer (still preferred
yet today by some researchers [6] ), the test has been introduced in clinical
diagnostics and in exercise physiology tests, e.g. fo r the Groningen Fitness Test for
people of over 55 years [66]. Both the normal values used for the computer
program as well as the research methods have been sufficiently verified [5, 8, 9, 11,
12, 15, 31, 41, 45, 46, 57, 76, 79, 90, 102, 104, 107, 111].
Sufficient grip strength is of vital importance for preventing and avoiding falls in
senescence, in order to guard against depend ency on physical care, loss of ability to
help oneself and being bedridden, and to maintain quality of life as long and as
independently as possible.
The present study concerns itself with improvement in grip strength through
targeted grip strength training which can be performed without great expenditure of
time or money as an aspect of primary prevention.
The participant group consisted of 19 65-69-year-old men with CHD of an average
age of 67.4 years.
The basic results can be summarized in six points:
87
1. Values measured primarily at the start of the strength training in the

stocktaking of initial muscle strength values were in a similar range as those
measured by Gilbertson/Barber-Lomax: their tests using a Jamar Dynamometer
resulted in a converted right-hand minimum value of 278.30 N for 65-69-year-old
men, and a maximum value of 513.35 N; for the left hand they measured a
minimum grip strength of 238.67 N and a maximum value of 415.25 N [44]. In the
present study right- hand minimum strength was 245.1 N, and left-hand minimum
strength was 210.1 N. The maximum right- hand strength value was 325.9 N and
304.8 N for the left hand (participant 8).
2. The contradictions in statements made by the German Society of General
Practice and Family Medicine (Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Allgemeinmedizin und
Familienmedizin) that the effects of strength training are poor so that a
recommendation to participate in such training programs should only be given after
consideration of the patients life situation[37]. And: Training programs for
reducing the incidence of falls by increasing strength are effective when they aim
to produce a demonstrable increase of strength in individual functional muscle
groups [37] have been corrected to the degree that this study demonstrates there
were absolutely no poor training effects in individual muscle groups, i.e. the hands,
but that after just four weeks mostly significantly quantifiable training effects were
apparent (fig. 3 and 4).
3. For this reason, it may be stated that the training program of over 52 weeks for
increasing grip strength completed by 65-69-year-old men with heart disease does
in fact contribute to a significant improvement in grip strength. This improvement
enables the parabolically falling loss in strength to at least be postponed.
4. The correlation between values in the initial test and those after four, eight,
twelve, 26 and 52 weeks is significant.
5. The testing methods for the individually plotted statistical measurements allow
us to state with an error probability of 1% that these improvements for the age
group of 65-69-year-old men is significant and thus capable of being applied to the
population as a whole.
Comparisons of the calculated critical t-value give an error probability of 0.1%.
6. Participants positive impressions of their training successes allow us to
conclude that they also feel somewhat safer than they did before. All participants
intend to continue training beyond the one- year period.
Manual skills require sufficient grip strength to perform tasks of everyday life and
reduced grip strength is seen as a sign of generally diminished muscular strength of
third age people and therefore strongly correlates with considerably heightened risk
of fall and fracture, with diminished ability to help oneself and with increased
mortality. Therefore further studies are needed to discover how the inconveniences,
costs and benefits of this type of grip strength training compare with the costs
saved as a result of reduced fall consequences, especially upon consideration of the
cost explosion occurring in health care.
88
To learn more about grip strength, it would also be important to study what
happens to the parabolic curve which describes the loss of grip strength for
participants who stop the training program after one year:
Does the curve which has been flattened by the effects of the training program
return to its original course (for those who were not previously exercising)? If so,
in what time period?
Furthermore, it would prove worthwhile to examine how the values would evolve
for those participants who continued with their training program after one year.
Is there equipment or an exercise device with which grip strength values can be
improved more rapidly or more slowly? At which point in time does improvement
in grip strength then occure? And to what extent?
Does improvement continuously progress regularly or irregularly? From which
point in time is no further improvement measurable?
Can as in the age group of 65-69-year-old men improvements also be achieved
and quantified in the 50-65-year-old group, the 70-80-year-old group and the upper
age group? Is the same valid for women in these age groups? Of what magnitude
would they be?
Are there differences in improvement between healthy participants and those with
heart disease? It may be that by avoiding pressure breathing, heart patients exhibit
much lower improvement than healthy participants. It would be interesting to
discover whether an even lower training frequency or intensity would result in a
significant improvement in grip strength. Since according to Hollmann, the
increase in performance improvement occurs more slowly, the greater the level of
performance is [49] and conversely: the lower the initial level, the more likely an
improvement occurs, and the more evident it becomes future research might
investigate how grip strength is affected by higher or much higher training
frequency or intensity.
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Appendix
Table 1: Left-hand strength measurement values
Participa
nt
Start
4 weeks
8 weeks
12 weeks
26 weeks
1 year
1)
255.9
259.9
262.5
263.8
265.1
266.4
2)
271.3
276.7
282.2
285.2
286.4
289.3
3)
239.8
245.8
251.9
256.9
260.8
264.7
4)
271.5
279.6
286.6
290.8
295.2
298.2
5)
286.3
294.8
300.7
306.7
312.8
315.9
6)
295.6
301.5
307.5
312.1
318.3
321.4
7)
300.1
309.1
318.4
326.3
336.1
342.8
8)
304.8
313.9
326.0
334.1
347.8
354.8
9)
256.3
263.9
269.3
271.9
278.7
280.0
10)
210.1
220.6
229.4
237.4
244.5
249.1
11)
243.7
258.3
276.4
284.6
295.9
303.3
12)
262.6
278.4
295.0
311.2
327.6
334.6
13)
243.8
256.0
268.8
283.6
294.9
297.8
14)
299.3
308.3
317.5
328.6
338.5
341.2
15)
303.5
309.6
315.8
325.2
331.7
338.3
16)
263.5
276.7
284.9
296.3
308.5
318.4
17)
221.5
257.8
268.1
278.8
287.2
293.8
18)
253.8
261.4
269.3
276.0
284.3
289.7
19)
281.9
290.3
301.9
307.9
317.1
320.7
99
Table 2: Right-hand strength measurement values
Participa
nt
Start
4 weeks
8 weeks
12 weeks
26 weeks
1 year
1)
299.1
314.0
328.7
338.2
341.6
342.0
2)
294.3
311.9
327.5
334.0
337.4
339.5
3)
276.7
294.4
315.2
327.8
334.4
335.9
4)
285.6
305.1
323.4
333.1
339.7
339.9
5)
311.4
326.9
343.2
353.5
360.6
361.1
6)
320.9
333.7
347.0
353.9
360.9
361.0
7)
319.3
332.1
347.0
359.1
366.3
366.5
8)
325.9
338.9
352.5
359.5
368.5
369.0
9)
299.8
315.6
328.2
341.3
351.5
351.8
10)
246.1
265.8
284.4
298.6
306.1
309.7
11)
283.7
306.3
327.7
347.4
357.8
357.9
12)
292.5
312.9
331.6
348.2
358.6
360.1
13)
289.4
309.3
327.8
344.2
354.5
355.9
14)
301.7
313.7
326.2
339.2
349.4
350.7
15)
320.2
333.0
342.9
353.2
356.7
356.9
16)
298.3
316.1
331.9
348.5
358.9
358.9
17)
245.9
263.7
276.8
293.4
308.1
308.5
18)
302.6
317.7
330.4
343.6
350.5
350.9
19)
301.4
316.5
332.3
345.6
355.9
356.4
100
ABORDAREA SISTEMIC A MANAGEMENTULUI

ORGANIZAIILOR SPORTIVE
SYSTEMIC APPROACH ON SPORTS ORGANIZATIONS
MANAGEMENT
Marcu Vasile 1 , Buha Sorin2
Rezumat
Conceptul de sistem scoate n eviden interaciunea, corelarea, relaiile
dintre elementele ntregului, altfel spus, organizarea lui. tiina managementului
privete ntreaga natur ca o ierarhizare de sisteme care se includ i se depesc,
care reprezint aciunile ce concur n acest scop.
Prin concepte i metode de cercetare specifice i prin abordarea unei
tipologii tiinifice proprii, managementul definete fenomenul sportiv ca o
activitate sistemic orientat spre ndeplinirea unor obiective profesional sociale ale
domeniului sport.
Sistemele sunt universal prezente. Sistemele sociale sunt de regul
organizaii. Organizaia sportiv reprezint o latur a ansamblului organizaional,
fiind un sistem deschis, adaptiv, innd seama de faptul c este o component a
unor sisteme mai mari cu care are legturi bine stabilite.
Complexitatea crescnd a fenomenelor de management organizaional a
impus abordarea sistemic a acestuia. Acest concept prezint sistemul ca pe un
ansamblu de elemente organizate pe baza legturilor de intercondiionare.
Funcionarea sistemului permite atingerea unor obiective n funcie de scopul
stabilit. Ca urmare i organizaia sportiv poate fi considerat un sistem productiv
(caracterizat prin intrri, procese i ieiri), fie ca un sistem social (format din
ansamblul relaiilor interumane). De asemenea managamentul organiza iei sportive
reprezint un sistem format din subsistemul conductor (ca ansamblul managerilor
i organismelor de management participativ din respectiva organizaie) i
subsistemul condus (ca ansamblul personalului i al subdiviziunilor organizatorice
ce formeaz respectiva organizaie). Organizaia sportiv este un sistem care i
realizeaz scopul corespunztor conexiunilor prin armonizarea activitilor
resurselor umane cu resursele materiale, de energie i informaionale. Ea are un
anumit nivel de autonomie dar ca sistem deschis, prin procesul de conducere, are
legturi cu sisteme mai mari. Organizaia ca sistem nglobeaz subsisteme i este
component a unui suprasistem. Sistemul de management al organizaiilor sportive
1
2

Direcia Judeean pentru Sport i Tineret Bihor
101
cuprinde subsistemele organizatoric, informaional, decizional, tehnici i metode de

management. Scopul organizaiei sportive reprezint nsi raiunea constituirii i
existenei ei. Relaia dintre oameni i scopuri este esenial. Definitorii pentru
organizaii sunt simultan relaiile oamenilor interaciunea uman i relaiile
fiecrui om i ale tuturor mpreun cu structura de ansamblu a organizaiei
(subsistemele i domeniile organizaiei, conducerea acesteia, etc.).
Putem concluziona c abordarea sistemic reprezint viziunea asupra unui
ansamblu de elemente n interaciune, care constituie un ntreg organizat, cu
proprieti specifice i funcii proprii. Elementele (obiectele) sistemului sunt, la
rndul lor, totaliti structurale (subsisteme) n cadrul crora legile ntregului nu
sunt identice cu cele ale elementelor componente, funcionalitatea fiecrui element
constitutiv determinnd activitatea normal a ansamblului.
Cuvinte cheie : sistem, management, organizaie, abordare sistemic, management
organizaional, organizaii sportive.
Abstract
The concept of system emphasizes the interaction, correlation and
relationships between all the elements of the unit, in other words, it`s organization.
The science of management sees the whole nature as a hierarchy of systems that
include and exceed themselves, representing actions that concur for this purpose.
Due to its concepts and specific research methods and its own scientific
typology approach, the management defines the phenomenon of sports as a
systemic activity directed toward achieving social professional objectives of sports.
Systems are universally present. Social systems are usually organizations.
A sports organization is a part of the organizational assembly, being an open and
adaptive system, taking into account the fact that it is a component of larger
systems with which it has well established connections.
The increasing complexity of the organizational management phenomena
has imposed its systemic approach. This concept presents the system as a set of
elements organized based on inter-ties. The operation of the system enables the
attainment of objectives according to the goal. As a result, the sports organization
can be also considered a productive system (characterized by its inputs, processes
and outputs) or a social system (consisting of human relations assembly). Also, the
management of a sports organization represents a system composed of the leader
or driver sub-system (as the assembly of managers and participatory management
bodies of the organization) and led or driven sub-system (as the assembly of the
staff and organizational subdivisions which form the organization). The sports
organization is a system that achieves its purpose properly to the connections by
aligning the human resources activities with materia l, energy and information
resources. It has a certain degree of autonomy but as an open system, through the
management process, has links to larger systems.The organization as a system has
sub-systems and it`s a component of a superior system. The manageme nt system of
102
sports organizations includes the organizational sub-system, the information subsystem, decision making sub-system, management techniques and methods. The
purpose of sports organzation is the very reason for its creation and existence. The
relationship between people and goals is essential. Specific for the organizations
are simultaneously the human relations - human interaction - and the relation of
each individual and of all the people with the holistic structure of the organization
(the sub-systems and the ares of the organization, its directorate, etc.).
We conclude that the systemic approach is the vision of a set of interacting
elements, which constitute an organized unit, with its specific properties and
functions. The elements (objects) of the system are, in turn, structural totalities
(subsystems) within which the unit laws are not identical to those of the component
elements, the functionality of each component establishing the normal activity of
the assembly.
Keywords : system, management, organzation, systemic approach, organizational
management, sports organizations.
Introduce re
Sistemele sunt universal prezente. Sistemele sociale sunt de regul
organizaii. Orice organizaie este un sistem fr ca orice sistem social s fie
organizaie.
Organizaia este un sistem deschis, adaptiv, innd seama de faptul c este o
component a unor sisteme mai mari cu care are legturi bine stabilite prin procesul
de conducere. n acelai timp organizaia are i un grad propriu de autonomie, o
funcionare de sine stttoare. Organizaia poate fi neleas numai privind-o ca e
un sistem deschis ale crei procese interne se afl n interrelaie cu mediul.
Organizaia reprezint o colectivitate de oameni care desfoar o activitate
planificat, coordonat n scopul realizrii unor obiective comune, prestabilite,
specifice diferitelor domenii (producie, servicii, educaie, sport, etc.). n cadrul
organizaiei derularea activitilor presupune alturi de resursele umane, utilizarea
altor tipuri de resurse ntr-un mediu specific intern i extern. Oricare ar fi
organzaia ea s-a constituit contient i deliberat de ctre oameni pentru a produce
ceva de care societatea are nevoie. Obiectivul (scopul) este motivul care st la baza
apariiei organizaiei i n aceai timp este motivarea meninerii ei n continuare.
Chiar dac n timp, scopul s-a schimbat i cel prezent nu mai coincide cu cel pentru
care a fost creat, o organizaie se menine dac are un scop, dac satisface o
nevoie.
Faptul c organizaia este un sistem dinamic este dat de evoluia i
viabilitatea sa care sunt determinate de modificrile care se produc n cadrul
sistemului, n relaiile lui cu mediul. Ea este un sistem complex, probabilistic i
relativ stabil, deoarece reprezint o reuniune de componente articulate prin
numeroase legturi, supus unor factori perturbatori, dar capabil s-i menin
funcionalitatea n cadrul unor limite care i definesc maniera de comportare.
103
Totodat organizaia este un sistem autoreglabil i autoorganizabil deoarece are

capacitatea s fac fa diferitelor influene din interior i din exterior, cu ajutorul
conducerii, prin acte decizionale. Ca sistem autoreglabil, organizaia acioneaz n
concordan cu un ansamblu de norme i valori i se regleaz n funcie de mai
multe elemente. Printre acestea se numr:
elemente umane aflate n interaciune reciproc
aciune transformatoare
faptul c organizaia dispune de libertatea de alegere a mijloacelor i cilor
de aciune ca i de modalitatea de formare a scopurilor viitoare, adic are
flexibilitate
activitatea variabil a oamenilor care este strns legat de motivaie i
convingere, de satisfacie i stri morale, de comportamentul complex, de
sistemele de comunicare i informare, de modelele adaptate n procesul de
decizie i de performanele acestora.
Autoorganizarea exprim capacitatea organizaiei de a reface echilibrul
componentelor sale n raport cu perturbaiile ivite, iar autoinstruirea reflect
capacitatea pe care o are de a folosi experienele anterioare pentru optimizarea
propriei activiti.
Complexitatea crescnd a fenomenelor de management organizaional a
impus abordarea sistemic a acestuia. Acest concept definete sistemul ca un
ansamblu de elemente organizat pe baza legturilor de intercondiionare, a crui
funcionare permite atingerea unor obiective. 1 n procesul de cunoatere, orice
obiect, fenomen sau proces poate fi considerat un sistem. Ca urmare i o
organizaie poate fi considerat ca un sistem productiv (caracterizat prin intrri,
procese, ieiri) fie ca un sistem social (format din ansamblul relaiilor interumane).
De asemenea managementul oricrei organizaii spo rtive (i nu numai) reprezint
un sistem format din subsistemul conductor (ca ansamblul managerilor i
organismelor de management participativ din respectiva organizaie) i subsistemul
condus (ca ansamblul personalului i al subdiviziunilor organizatorice ce formeaz
respectiva organizaie).
Principalele caracteristici ale organizaiei ca sistem sunt:
integralitatea care exprim legturile ce se stabilesc ntre elementele
componente ale sistemului
ierarhizarea care reprezint agregarea strict dup raporturi de supra
i subordonare
dinamismul reprezentat de modificarea n timp a variabilelor
sistemului i a legturilor dintre acestea i mediu
finalitatea ca orientare spre atingerea unor obiective
Burdu, Eugen, 2007, Fundamentele managementului organizaiei, Editura Econo mic, Bucureti,
p.21
104
adaptabilitatea i stabilitatea exprimate de capacitatea sistemului de

a se adapta continuu influenei unor variabile perturbatoare,
asigurndu-i n acelai timp o stabilitate relativ
Graniele ntre subsisteme granie interne au un grad relativ crescut de
sensibilitate.
Graniele sistemelor granie externe pot fi definite att prin realitatea de
fapt ct i prin strategia general.
Graniele unui organism sportiv de tipul sistemului naional de educaie
fizic i sport nu sunt vizibile deoarece graniele unui sistem social se bazeaz pe
relaii i nu pe obiecte. Spre deosebire de grania definit a locaiei fizice, grania
extern, adic acolo unde se termin organizaia i ncepe mediul, este dependent
de opiunea managerial, de decizie.
Principalele tipuri de organizaii (care includ i pe cele sportive) pot fi
clasificate astfel:
1.
organizaii private create de indivizi sau grupuri pentru scopuri de pia
sau bunstare. Sunt gestionate de proprii lor proprietari sau manageri. Au
forme de companii, asociaii, etc., scopuri operaionale i mrimi diferite.
Ceea ce difereniaz o organizaie privat de una public, avnd n vedere
scopul, proprietatea, gestionarea, sunt criteriile pentru succesul aciunilor
care se contureaz prin conceptul de pia.
2.
organizaiile publice sunt create de Guvern pentru scopuri de grup sau
politice, fiind fundamental gestionate de reprezentanii politici i de
sistemul de drept. Criteriile pentru succes sunt de tip social sau politic.
Organizaiile publice acoper o gam larg de activiti, acestea fiind
implicate n luarea, implementarea i aplicarea politicii publice. Acestea
pot produce i bunuri private n domenii majore. De asemnea bunurile
publice sunt produse cu organizaii private (educaia, aprare, sportul,
etc.) cu o larg finanare guvernamental.
Organizaia este un sistem care i realizeaz scopul corespunztor
conexiunilor prin armonizarea activitii resurselor umane cu resursele materiale,
energetice i de informaie pentru un interval de timp relativ determinat. Ea are un
anumit nivel de autonomie dar ca sistem deschis, prin procesul de conducere, are
legturi cu sisteme mai mari. Organizaia ca sistem nglobeaz subsisteme i este
componenta unui suprasistem.
Aspectul ierarhic este caracteristic att activitii sale interne (diviziune a
muncii, conductori pe diferite nivele), ct i activiti externe; o relaie cu mediul
social n care este o parte a unui sistem (suprasistem) ierarhic superior.
D. Katz i R. Kohn indic cinci tipuri eseniale de subsisteme participante la
viaa intern a organizaiei ntr-o clasificare operaional:
subsistemul de producie (production subsystem) este cel mai
important deoarece n cadrul lui se desfoar transformrile pe
baza prelucrrii intrrilor n sistem
105
subsistemul de susinere (suportive subsystem) procur intrrile din

mediu (oameni, materiale, energii) plaseaz ieirile i realizeaz
legturile instituionale ale organizaiei cu mediul exterior
subsistemul de meninere (mentenance subsystem) asigur
interiorul organizaiei cu ceea ce este necesar realizrii n cele mai
bune condiii a activitii. Sunt cuprinse aici mecanisme de
recrutare i instruire a forei de munc, de socializare i motivare
conform normelor organizaiei, de aplicare a sanciunilor i
msurilor pentru atingerea scopurilor organizaiei
subsistemul adaptiv (adaptive subsystem) elaboreaz msuri de
corecie, de adaptare a sistemului n urma receptrii influenelor din
mediul nconjurtor
subsistemul de conducere (managerial subsystem) cuprinde
activiti organizate n vederea controlrii, coordonrii i dirijrii
numeroaselor subsisteme ale structurii organizaiei i dispune de
mecanisme de reglementare; este investit cu autoritate i putere de
decizie pentru coordonarea tuturor celorlalte subsisteme
Organizaiile ca subsisteme, trebuie s rspund obiectivelor strategice ale
sistemului din care fac parte.
Organizaiile, ca sisteme sociale de mare complexitate, trebuie s obin
eficien organizaional i s mplineasc finalitatea impus de comand social,
prin armonizarea comportamentului organizaional al subsistemelor care o
compun. 1
Teoria general a sistemelor, aplicat n domeniul socialului analiza
sistemic a organizaiei asigur o viziune nou relaiilor interumane i a acestora
cu mediul. Analiza sistemic impune analiza organizaiilor att din perspectiva
posibilitii de a corela variantele organizaionale cu resursele umane ct i din
perspectiva propriului rspuns corespunztor influenei sau reaciei mediului.
Eficacitatea i eficiena organizaiei spo rtive
O modalitate de urmrire a creterii eficienei organizaiei sportive este
capacitatea acesteia de a se adapta la cerinele mediului extern. O alt modalitate de
cretere a eficienei o reprezint accentul pus pe relaiile dintre elementele
componente ale sistemului. Aceast idee exprim esena concepiei sistemice,
potrivit creia suma elementelor unui ntreg este mai mult dect ntregul, datorit
efectului de sinergie produs de relaiile dintre elementele ntregului. 2
O alt cale de cretere a eficienei organizaiei sportive o reprezint
structura organizaiei. O structura corespunztoare poate s favorizeze obinerea
unor efecte pozitive cu un plus de eficien. Aa se explic de ce organizaiile din
1
Kat z, Daniel, Kahn, L. Robert, 1966, Psihologia social a organizaiilor, New York, Wiley
Burdu, Eugen, 2007, Fundamentele managementului organizaiei, Editura Econo mic, Bucureti,
p.21
2
106
acelai domeniu, aproximativ cu aceeai dotare obin rezultate diferite. Diferena se

datoreaz i unor structuri diferite ale organizaiilor. Aadar prin eficacitate putem
nelege ndeplinirea obiectivelor i sarcinilor previzionate, ceea ce constituie de
fapt elementul decisiv n afirmarea organizaiei sportive.
Eficiena presupune atingerea obiectivelor prin economie de energie i
mijloace chiar de realizarea de venituri superioare cheltuielilor. n practica sportiv,
ca i n domeniul educaiei, sntii sau proteciei sociale, acest parametru trebuie
neles nuanat, deorece nu venitul este obiectivul principal. Educaia fizic i
sportul sunt activiti de interes naional, sprijinite de stat, situaie n care raportul
dintre obiectivele sociale ndeplinite i costuri este mai relevant.
Componenta comercial a activitii de educaie fizic i sport are
importan major n unele organizaii cu acest profil, inclusiv n cluburile sportive
organizate ca societi sportive comerciale pe aciuni, dar obiectivele specifice
domeniului educaiei fizice i sportului prevaleaz n faa celor economice.
Dennis Lock exprim sugestiv triunghiul performan cost timp pe
deplin aplicabil i n sistemul naional de educaie fizic i sport 1 (fig.1).
Fig. 1 Triunghiul performan cost timp dup D. Lock

Prioritile manageriale se concentreaz diferit n funcie de necesitatea de a
da prioritate unuia dintre cele trei obiective: performan, cost, timp.
Un program cu resurse financiare limitate presupune atenie fa de costuri,
altul legat de o dat fix (competiie oficial) este dependent de factorul timp.
Performana (calitatea) fiind obiectul principal al activitii de educaie fizic i
sport, aceasta este prioritar n faa costului i timpului, n anumite limite.
Diagrama prezentat, unde performana joac cel mai important rol, reflect
interaciunea dintre cele trei laturi ale procesului. n funcie de prioritile i fazele
procesului (de instruire educaie, de dezvoltare a bazei materiale, de elaborare de
legi i acte normative) doar anumite prioriti vor determina ponderi diferite ale
costului, timpului i performanei.
Problemele de performan (calitate) in n primul rnd de responsabilitate
i datorie i n al doilea rnd de calitatea evalurii, controlului i coreciilor.
1
Lock, Dennis, 2000, Management de proiect, Editura Codecs, Bucureti, p.8
107
Efectul total este dat de monitorizarea atent a muncii nct aceasta s se

desfoare fr ntreruperi, conform unui plan rezonabil i realizabil. 1
Sistemul managementului organizaiilor sportive
Natura organizaiilor sportive
Pn acum am studiat din punct de vedere sistemic organizaiile ajungnd la
concluzia c acestea sunt sisteme sociale dinamice, deschise, capabile de
autoreglare i autoinstruire. Am reuit s punem n eviden subsistemele
funcionale ale organizaiei de producie, de susinere, de meninere, de adaptare i
de conducere.
Prin prisma celor artate, definirea organizaiilor se impune a fi realizat
prin reliefarea specificitii umane a acestora. n esen, organizaia este un sistem
social n care i prin care oamenii interacioneaz pentru realizarea unor scopuri
comune. Astfel, organizaia implic o form distinct de corelare att ntre oameni
i scopuri, ct i ntre oameni i structuri (n calitatea acestora din urm de parte
esenial, definitorie a sistemelor).
Scopul organizaional reprezint nsi raiunea constituirii i a existenei
organizaiilor. Simpla existen a scopului, extrem de necesar, nu este suficient.
Afirmarea scopului, enunarea sa, construcia unui scop, chiar realizabil, constituie
doar un prim pas. Este important procedura de realizare, de ndeplinire a scopului
n condiiile n care simpla adunare a unui grup de oameni sub acoperiul unui scop
comun, nu garanteaz atingerea scopului propus. Pentru aceasta trebuie observat c
orice scop organizaional este un scop general. Transformarea scopului general n
rezultate practice finale presupune:
- garania existenei unor pri comune semnificative ntre scopurile individuale,
ntre interesele i aspiraiile indivizilor care alctuiesc organizaia, acest imperativ
este aplicabil att momentului de nceput al unei organizaii ct i momentelor
ulterioare din viaa unei organizaii;
- att pe parcursul evoluiei unei organizaii, ct mai ales atunci cnd organizaia i
modific scopul general, se impune ca membrii organizaiei s participe la
modelarea i redefinirea scopului organizaional, drept condiie a pstrrii
convergenei scopurilor individuale n cadrul scopului general;
- nu mai puin importante sunt modalitile de realizare practic a coresponde nei
dintre scopul general i scopurile individuale, n acest sens fiind necesar: formularea scopului general, traducerea sa n forme
accesibile indivizilor din organizaie; n acest mod scopul
general pstrndu-i esena, se multiplic n scopuri
specifice, accesibile tuturor membrilor organizaiilor
- simultan, fiecare membru al organizaiei este confruntat cu
necesitatea nelegerii i formulrii adecvate a propriilor
interese, scopuri, drept baz pentru o comunicare real a
1
Lock, Dennis, 2000, Management de proiect, Editura Codecs, Bucureti, p.8
108
scopurilor specifice i pentru o asumare responsabil a

scopului general.
Relaia dintre oameni i scopuri este esenial, fr a epuiza prin aceasta
complexitatea i specificul organizaiei. Definitorii pentru organizaii sunt simultan
relaiile oamenilor interaciunea uman i relaiile fiecrui om i ale tuturor
mpreun cu structura de ansamblu a organizaiei (subsistemele i domeniile
organizaiei, conducerea acesteia, etc.)
Calitatea interaciunii umane este la fel de important ca i scopul
organizaional. Dobndirea statutului de membru al organizaiei i asumarea n
consecin a scopului organizaional nu garanteaz ndeplinirea obiectivelor
organizaiei dect dac natura raporturilor interumane este modelat n aceast
direcie, dect dac interaciunea uman mbrac forma cooperrii evideniinduse i depindu-se conflictele interumane. Interaciunea uman reprezint
fundamentul funcionrii unei organizaii. Concomitent structura organizaiei
influeneaz decizia nativ a interaciunii umane. Mrimea organizaiei, numrul
nivelurilor ierarhice difereniate pe vertical numrul departamentelor, al
subunitilor funcionale diferena pe orizontal complexitatea activitii
diviziunea muncii, specializarea i pun amprenta asupra ntregii activiti
organizaionale.
Analiza organizaional necesar pentru cunoaterea i realizarea eficient a
activitii organizaiilor, implic n consecin, studierea tuturor comportamentelor
enumerate pn acum oameni, scop, interaciuni umane, structur
organizaional.
Sistemele organizaiei sportive
ntreaga structur i toate procesele organizaionale rezult din combinarea,
din relaionarea oamenilor, grupurilor i liderilor. Fiecare dintre cele trei categorii
de elemente constituie un subsistem vital al organizaiei:
subsistemul individual
subsistemul grupal
subsistemul conducerii
Sistemele organizaiei se caracterizeaz prin procese specifice care rezult
din stimulii de intrare i se expim prin comportamente de ieire.
Pentru sistemul individual procesele caracteristice sunt:
motivaia
dezvoltarea
adaptarea
Pentru subsistemul grupal cuprinde procese care se desfoar n
trei planuri puternic interferente:
planul intragrupal (n interiorul grupului)
planul extragrupal
planul intragrupal la nivelul suporturilor
dintre grupuri
109
Aceste planuri sunt caracterizate de procese specifice i anume interaciunea

dintre indivizi i socializarea indivizilor n interiorul fiecrui grup; respectiv
competiia i cooperarea la nivelul relaiilor dintre grupuri.
Pentru subsistemul conducerii implic urmtoarele procese:
influenarea indivizilor i a grupului aflate
sub autoritatea liderului
adoptarea deciziei i coordonarea execuiei
acesteia conducerea propriu- zis
comunicarea cu indivizii i grupurile n
interiorul spaiului de autoritate
Principiile manage mentului organizaiilor sportive
Formularea principiilor de management acord o importan special acelor
rezultate din perspectiva sistemic alturi de acele rezultate din perspectiva aciunii
i perspectiva eficienei. 1 Acest lucru este reliefat n fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Principiile managementului organizaiilor sportive, dup I. Dumbrav

Principii generale:
Asigurarea concordanei dintre parametrii sistemului de management al
organizaiei sportive i caracteristicile sale eseniale i ale mediului ambiant. Acest
principiu presupune o permanent adaptare a sistemului de management la situaia
1
Du mbrav, Ionel, 2001, Managementul general, Editura Fundaia Ro mnia de mine, Bucureti
110
intern concret i la contextul socio-economic n care i desfoar activitatea n

vederea asigurrii unei funcionaliti eficiente, corespunztoare.
Managementul participativ care presupune implicarea alturi de manageri
a altor specialiti i reprezentani interesai cum sunt acionarii, sindicatele,
autoritile locale, beneficiari ai activitii organizaiei sportive, n exercitarea
proceselor i relaiilor de management complexe sau importante.
Motivarea tuturor factorilor implicai n activitatea de educaie fizic i
sport, care pot constitui o organizaie este foarte important. Determinat de forma
de proprietate, dar i de concepia pe care se bazeaz luarea n considerara a
participaniilor, motivarea difereniat a fiecruia, asigur funcionalitatea i
eficiena activitii manageriale.
Motivarea, ca principiu de management, exprim necesitatea unei
asemenea stabiliri i utilizri a stimulentelor i sanciuniilor materiale i morale de
ctre factorii decizionali nct s asigure o mpletire armonioas a intereselor
tuturor prilor implicate, generatoare de performane superioare ale organizaiei
sportive.1
Aplicarea cu succes a acestui principiu presupune respectarea a cel puin
dou cerine:
- adaptarea unor mijloace motivaionale adecvate, variate, graduale, privind
recompensele materiale i morale, precum i a sanciunilor;
- motivarea s se adreseze tuturor factorilor implicai, subevaluarea sau
supraevaluarea unor categorii de participani avnd efect limitativ n timp, att
asupra celorlalte categorii de participani i interese, ct i a funcionalitii n
ansamblu a organizaiei sportive.
Sistemul de management asigur exercitarea funciilor i relaiilor de
management la nivelul organizaiei sportive i este definit ca ansamblul
elementelor cu caracter decizional, organizatoric, informaional, motivaional, etc.
din cadrul organizaiilor sportive, prin intermediul cruia se exercit ansamblul
proceselor i relaiilor de management n vederea obinerii unei eficaciti i
eficiene ct mai mari.2 n continuarea i adaptarea sistemului de management sunt
importante elementele specifice fiecrei structuri a administraiei publice centrale
cu atribuii n domenil educaiei fizice i sportului, ale serviciilor publice
descentralizate judeene, corespondente fiecrei structuri sportive, alte organizaii.
Componentele sistemului de manage ment al organizaiilor sportive
Independent de elementele specifice, caracteristice fiecrei organizaii
sportive, sistemul de management cuprinde:
- subsistemul organizatoric
1
Nicolescu, Ovid iu, Verboncu, Ion, 1999, Management, ediia a III a revizu it, Editura Economic,
Bucureti, p.56, adaptare
2
Nicolescu, Ovid iu, Verboncu, Ion, 1999, Management, ediia a III a revizu it, Editura Economic,
Bucureti, p.57, adaptare
111
- subsistemul informaional
- subsistemul decizional
- subsistemul metode i tehnici de management
- alte elemente ale sistemului managerial
Potrivit lui O. Nicolescu i I. Verboncu, graficul componentelor sistemului
de management arat astfel (fig. 3):
Fig. 3 Componentele sistemului de management dup O. Nicolescu i I. Verboncu

Subsistemul organizatoric reprezint interaciunea elementelor
organizatorice formale, cu cele informale, care asigur cadrul i funcionalitatea
proceselor de munc n cadrul organizaiei sportive n perspectiva ndeplinirii
obiectivelor.
n funcie de complexitatea activitii, mijloacele de comunicare ntre
niveluri, efortul economico- financiar necesar comunicrii i soluiile organizatorice
adoptate n realizarea structurilor, ntlnim dou variabile:
numrul de niveluri care descrie nlimea piramidei;
cu ct piramida ierarhic are mai multe niveluri, cu att
conducerea se deprteaz de locul unde au loc operaiile
de baz i timpul de rspuns al sistemului se mrete;
raionamentul este valabil i n sens invers
aria de control (ponderea ierarhic) reprezint
deschiderea piramidei la baz, respectiv numrul de
subordonai care revine unui manager; acesta se modific
112
fie scznd cnd piramida este mai nalt, fie majornduse, n sens invers 1
Anca Purcrea i colaboratorii precizeaz avantajele i dezavantajele
limitrii ariei de control astfel:
a) avantaje - supervizare direct
- control direct
- comunicare rapid manager - subordonai
b) dezavantaje - supervizarea se implic n munca subordonailor
- prea multe niveluri manageriale
- costuri mari cu personalul de conducere
- comunicare greoaie ntre nivelul superior i cel de vrf 2
Creterea ariei de control i scderea numrului de niveluri ierarhice
produce dup opinia autoarei urmtoarele efecte:
a) avantaje - alegerea corect a subordonailor
- politici clare
- necesitatea delegrii de autoritate
b) dezavantaje - tendina ca supervizorii s fie ncrcai
- posibilitatea ca managerii s piard controlul asupra
subordonailor
- implicarea calitii excepionale ale managerilor
n concluzie, sistemul organizatoric ndeplinete n organizaiile sportive
urmtoarele funcii 3 :
- stabilete principalele componente organizatorice n funcie de obiective,
resurse i viziune manageriale a conducerii la nivel superior
- interconecteaz subdiviziunile organizatorice n vederea unei
funcionaliti corespunztoare
- combin resursele organizaiei respectnd o serie de cerine, punnd n
prim plan competitivitatea
- asigur cadrul necesar pentru desfurarea activitii n ansamblu, aplicnd
att criterii de ordin structural-organizatoric, ct i informaional-decizional.
Subsistemul informaional este ansamblul compartimentelor, formelor,
metodelor, procedurilor i mijloacelor prin care se realizeaz generarea, conversia,
transmiterea, redarea, prelucrarea, utilizarea i stocarea informaiei, suport necesar
pentru previzionarea i ndeplinirea obiectivelor.
Subsistemul informatic este acea parte a sistemului informaional prin care
se realizeaz prelucrarea informaiei cu ajutorul mijloacelor electronice de calcul.
1
Stncioiu, Ion, Militaru, Gheorghe, 1998, Management elemente fundamentale, Editura Teora,
Bucureti, p.124
2
Purcrea, Anca i colaboratorii, 2000, Management, elemente fundamentale, Editura Niculescu,
Bucureti, p.152
3
Nicolescu, Ovid iu, Verboncu, Ion, 1999, Management ediia a III a revizuit, Editura Ecoonomic,
Bucureti, p.58
113
Elementele subsistemului sunt:

- informaia tire nou, necunoscut
- date (data) reprezint modalitatea de transmitere a informaiei
- fluxul informaional cantitatea stabilit de informaii care circul ntre dou
elemente ale sistemului sau dou componente organizatorice
- circuitul informaional drumul pe care l parcurge informaia de la generare
pn la prelucrare
- reeaua informaional reflect modalitatea relaiei emitor receptor care
poate fi: - centralizat exist un capt de reea
- descentralizat nu exist un capt de reea
- parial descentralizat
Datele n volum mic i informaiile n cantitate ct mai mare sunt
prelucrate, eventual trecute printr-un proces de conversie (transformarea datelor
dintr- un limbaj n alt limbaj). Etapele din viaa unei informaii sunt: generare,
conversie, transmitere, redare, prelucrare, utilizare, stocare, memorare.
Sistemul informaional este separat din motive didactice de cel decizional,
n fapt ele constituind un proces informaional decizional unitar.
Timpul de rspuns al subsistemului, implicit al organizaiei n ntregul su
este legat de circuitul informaional esenial n traseul misiune-decizie-aciune. n
domeniul educaiei fizice i sportului subsistemul informaional vizeaz att nivelul
strategic ct i pe cel tactic i operaional al managementului.
Subsistemul decizional al organizaiei sportive este constituit din totalitatea
deciziilor adoptate i puse n aplicare pe diferite trepte ierarhice. El cuprinde i
deciziile luate n cadrul relaiilor externe ale organizaiei. Decizia de conducere sau
de management este componenta esenial a subsistemului decizional prin care se
desemneaz cursul de aciune ales n vederea ndeplinirii unui anumit obiectiv din
cadrul organizaiei, care are implicaie direct asupra a cel puin unei persoane,
influenndu- i aciunile i comportamentul. 1
Autorii evideniaz trei funcii principale pe care le ndeplinete subsistemul
decizional:
direcioneaz dezvoltarea de ansamblu a orga nizaiei i a componentelor
sale. Previziunile pe care se fundamenteaz evoluia activitilor
organizaiilor sportive sunt practic materializate n ansambluri de decizii
strategice, tactice sau curente fiind alctuite din: - ordine i instruciuni
emise de autoritatea central cu atribuii n educaie fizic i sport; - decizii
adoptate de instituii, administraie local, cluburi sportive de drept public;
- hotrri ale structurilor sportive asociative, federaii, cluburi sportive de
drept privat. Prin acestea se stabilesc principalele obiective urmrite,
modaliti principale de acionare, precum i resursele alocate.
1
Bucureti, p.61
114
stabilete aciunile personalului i compartimentelor organizaiei pentru

realizarea sarcinilor de serviciu, n baza deciziilor manageriale curente i
mai rar aciunile tactice care stabilesc concret cine, ce, cnd, cum, cu ce
mijloace trebuie fcut i cu ce restricii.
asigur armonizarea activitilor i personalului organizaiei.
Subsistemul metode i tehnici de management (metodologic managerial)
este alctuit din ansamblul metodelor, tehnicilor i procedurilor utilizate n
managementul organizaiei sportive.
Principalele metode i tehnici de management folosite n domeniul
educaiei fizice i sportului sunt:
generale: - managementul pe obiective; - managementul prin bugete; managementul participativ; - managementul prin excepii; - managementul
prin proiecte
specifice: - metoda diagnosticrii; - metoda delegrii; - metoda edinei; tabloul de bord
de stimulare a creativitii: - metoda brainstorming; - metoda Delbeg; metoda Delphi
Subsistemul metodelor i tehnicilor de management ndeplinete n principal
urmtoarele funcii: 1
asigurarea suportului logistic, metodologic pentru exercitarea ansamblului
proceselor i relaiilor de management i pentru principalele subsisteme prin
care acestea se operaionalizeaz. Metodele i tehnicile de management
constituie instrumentul curent pentru operaionalizarea proceselor i
relaiilor de conducere, fiind folosite frecvent edinele, delega rea, graficul
de munc, diagnosticarea, etc.
dezvoltarea potenialului managerial i de execuie, avnd n vedere
dimensiunea uman a proceselor i relaiilor de management. Folosirea
metodelor i tehnicilor de management trebuie s conduc la dezvoltarea
potenialului profesional al fiecrui salariat n condiiile n care fiecare
reprezint o personalitate difereniat prin aspiraii i posibiliti.
Scientizarea muncii de management determinat de apariia i dezvoltarea
managementului tiinific (folosirea adecvat a metodelor i tehnicilor de
conducere) dar i de profesionalizarea managementului (necesitatea
formrii unui corp de manageri special pregtii), demers facilitat de
informatizare.
Concluzii i propune ri
Managementul este un domeniu de cercetare cu caracter interdisciplinar, de
grani. n esen este tiina i arta de a conduce eficient, de a optimiza
valorificarea tuturor resurselor n vederea obinerii succesului. Managementul este
1
Bucureti, p.62
115
tiin pentru c are domeniu de referin, are principii proprii, opereaz cu metode
i tehnici specifice pentru atingerea unor obiective ale organizaiilor sportive; este
art pentru c pune n valoare cea mai important resurs, singura cu caracter
creator, care este omul. Managementul este tiin i art deopotriv pentru c n
completarea elementelor menionate caut s cultive acceptarea unor
responsabiliti economice, sociale i morale la cei care l aplic, responsabiliti
care antreneaz:
selecie de valori
genereaz competen care menine competiiile pe toate planurile i
obinerea succesului
Se impune aadar i la noi n ar modalitatea de conducere, de administrare i
de performare a organizaiilor sportive, sau pentru a folosi o expresie uzual i
definitorie managementul organizaiilor sportive.
Aa cum am artat n lucrarea noastr, structura organizaiei sportive determin
abordarea acesteia ca un sistem. Pentru a putea performa este important ca fiecare
dintre elementele constitutive ale organizaiei s performeze. La rndul lor aceste
elemente formeaz un sistem, avnd n componen elemente constitutive
(subsisteme) toate acestea aflndu-se ntr-o strns interdependen. Sntatea
fiecrui element constitutiv determin sntatea ansamblului fcndu- l s
funcioneze ca un tot unitar (sistem) i performant.
Organizaia sportiv la rndul ei, este un sistem deschis, adaptiv, innd
seama de faptul c este o component a unor sisteme mai mari cu care are legturi
armonizate prin procesul de conducere. Organizaia devine astfel un subsistem
pentru sistemul social.
Analiza sistemic a managementului organizaiilor sportive, ca expresie a
aplicrii la nivelul social a teoriei generale a sistemelor, ofer o nou perspectiv
asupra relaiilor interumane, precum i a relaiilor dintre om i mediu.
Bibliografie:
Beju, Liliana Dana (2000) - Bazele teoriei sistemelor, Editura Universitii
Lucian Blaga din Sibiu, Sibiu
Burdu, Eugen (2007) - Fundamentele managementului organizaiei,
Editura Economic, Bucureti
Constantinescu, Paul (1999) - Modelarea unitar a genezei i dezvoltrii
sistemelor, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti
Constantinescu, Paul (1990) Sinergia i geneza sistemelor, Editura
Tehnic, Bucureti
Cristea, Ioana (2000) Management sportiv compendiu, Editura Ex
Ponto, Constana
Drucker, F. Peter (2004) Managementul viitorului, Editura ASAB,
Bucureti
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Dumbrav, Ionel (2001) Managementul general, Editura Fundaiei

Romnia de mine, Bucureti
Katz, Daniel, Kahn, L. Robert (1966) Psihologia social a
organizaiilor, New York, Wiley
Lock, Dennis (2000) Management de proiecte, Editura Codecs, Bucureti
Malia, Mircea (1972) Aurul cenuiu eseuri rostite, Editura Dacia,
Bucureti
Marcu, Vasile (1980) Revista de Educaie Fizic i Sport, nr. 6, p. 12,
Pentru o abordare sistemic n cercetarea educaiei fizice i sportului
Marolicaru, Mariana (1992) Abordarea sistemic n educaie fizic,
Editura Universitii din Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca
Nicolescu, Ovidiu, Verboncu, Ion (1999) Management ediia a III a
revizuit, Editura Economic, Bucureti
Purcrea, Ana, Niculescu, Constantin, Constantinscu, Dumitru (2002)
Management. Elemente fundamentale, Editura Niculescu, Bucureti
Stncioiu, Ion, Militaru, Gheorghe (1998) Management. Elemente
fundamentale, Editura Teora, Bucureti
Verzea, Ion, Gabriel, Marc, Richet, Daniel (1999), Managementul
activitii de mentenan, Editura Polirom, Bucureti
117
IDENTIFICAREA SPAIILOR PUBLICITARE DIN CADRUL

COMPETIIILOR INTERNAIONALE DE HANDBAL
(ANALIZ I PROPUNERI)
THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE PUBLICITY AREAS DURING
THE INTERNATIONAL HANDBALL COMPETITIONS
(ANALISYS AND APPROACHES)
Roman Clin1
Rezumat
Peste 280 de echipe de club iau parte n competiiile europene de handbal n
fiecare an. Federaia European de handbal se mndrete cu faptul c ofer un total
de cinci competiii de nalt clas: Liga Campionilor, Cupa Cupelor, Cupa EHF,
Cupa Challenge i Trofeul Campionilor. Scopul cercetrii este de a identifica noi
resurse de dispunere a spaiilor publicitare pentru reclame n competiiile europene
de handbal. Obiectivele cercetrii:
Studierea modului de dispunere a spaiilor publicitare n competiiile europene
de handbal;
Aprecierea impactului pe care l au spaiile publicitare pentru spectatori i
telespectatori.
Concluzie : Ideea de baz a viitoarelor reclame este ,,3D Signs deoarece creeaz o
iluzie optic pentru telespectatori, astfel nct acetia au impresia c reclama "st n
picioare" pe terenul de joc sau n imediata vecintate a acestuia, fiind dat de un
stiker cu reclama clientului, lipit direct pe suprafaa de joc a slii de handbal.
Cuvinte cheie: handbal, spaii publicitare, competiii de handbal, reclam,
Abstract
Over 280 teams participate in European handball competitions every year.
The European Federation of handball is proud of the fact that it offers a total of of
five high-class competitions:The Champions League,The Cup of the Cups,The
EHF Cup,The Challenge Cup and the Champions Troffee.The aim of this research
is to identify new resources of disposure of publicity areas for advertising during
the European handball competitions.The aims of the research:
-The studying of the disposure of publicity areas during the European handball
competitions
1
118
-The appreciation of the impact that the publicity areas hold for the spectators and
telespectators.
Conclusion:The main idea for the future advertisements is the 3D
signs,since they create and optical illusion for the telespactators,therefore they
have the impression that the sign stands up on the court or in its immediate
neighbourhood,this being given by a stiker with the clients advertisement ,glued
directly on the handball court.
Key words : handball, advertisement areas, handball competitions, publicity
Introduce re
Peste 280 de echipe de club iau parte n competiiile europene de handbal n
fiecare an. Federaia European de handbal se mndrete cu faptul c ofer un total
de cinci competiii de nalt clas: Liga Campionilor, Cupa Cupelor, Cupa EHF,
Cupa Challenge i Trofeul Campionilor cu ajutorul celor mai bune echipe de club
din cadrul naiunilor membre ale EHF att la feminin ct i la masculin. Un loc n
startul unei competiii a Cupelor Europene este o mare onoare pentru fiecare club i
... doar cele mai bune echipe ajung n final. Drumul spre final este lung i foarte
greu din punct de vedere competitiv. Jocuri dinamice i atractive, pline de suspans
sunt garantate la acest nivel.
Ipote za cecetrii: s-a presupus c prin acest studiu vom analiza dispunerea
spaiilor publicitare din competiiile internaionale de handbal.
Obiectul cercetrii l constituie modul de dispunere a spaiilor publicitare
rezervate pentru EHF din timpul competiiilor de handbal intercluburi la nivel
european.
Scopul cercetrii este de a identifica noi resurse de dispunere a spaiilor
publicitare pentru reclam n competiiile europene de handbal.
Obiectivele cercetrii:
Studierea modului de dispunere a spaiilor publicitare n competiiile europene
de handbal;
Aprecierea impactului pe care l au spaiile publicitare pentru spectatori i
telespectatori.
Metode de cercetare utilizate
Aceste metode au fost urmtoarele: analiza teoretic i generalizarea datelor
din literatura de specialitate; analiza documentelor oficiale ale federaiei Europene
de Handbal privind organizarea i desfurarea comtetiiilor intercluburi; metoda
observaiei; metode statistico- matematice pentru interpretarea datelor rezultate din
cercetare.
Date rezultate din cercetare i interpretarea lor
119
Grafic nr. 1 Dispunerea banerelor publicitare n Cupa Challenge, Cupa Cupelor,

Cupa EHF.
Din graficul prezentat mai sus observm c pentru spaiile publicitare n
cazul celor trei competiii: Cupa Challenge, Cupa Cupelor, Cupa EHF avem dou
zone distincte rezervate pentru sponsorii EHF. Acestea sunt n interiorul
semicercului de 6 m al fiecrei echipe dou dreptunghiuri cu o suprafa de 4 m2 .
Pe marginea terenului exist dou spaii cu lungimea de 4,5 m destinate reclamei
pentru sponsorii EHF. n mijlocul terenului se afl sigla uneia dintre cele trei
competiii sportive. Lungimea spaiilor publicitare este de 17 m pentru sponsorii
EHF.
Grafic nr. 2 Dispunerea banerelor publicitare n Finala Cupei Challenge, Cupei

Cupelor, Cupei EHF.
Din graficul prezentat anterior pentru finalele celor trei competiii
desfurate sub egida forului european de handba l observm c sponsorilor EHF le
sunt atribuite n totalitate spaiile publicitare att cele prezente la nivelul solului ct
i cele din afara suprafeei de joc. Lungimeta total a spaiului publicitar este de
128 metri lungime.
Cele patru echipe ce particip la Trofeul Campionilor sunt ctigtoarele:
Ligii Campionilor, Cupei Cupelor, Cupei EHF, plus o echip gazd ce va conferi
turneului un handbal de calitate i o atmosfer unic pentru spectatori. La acest
turneu spaiile destinate publicitii sunt repartizate astfel: la nivelul spurafeei de
joc avem 4 dreptunghiuri cu lungimea de 5 m i limea de 1 m plus cercul de la
centru terenului care are diametrul de 3 m. n fara spaiului de joc avem rezervat
sponsorilor EHF dou segmente de cte 6 m.
120
Grafic nr. 3 Dispunerea banerelor publicitare n Trofeul Campionilor
Grafic nr. 4 Dispunerea banerelor publicitare n Liga Campionilor EHF

(faza grupelor)
Liga Campionilor este crema cremelor n cazul competiiilor internaionale
rezervate cluburilor pentru femei. Doar cele mai bune echipe sunt prezente n Liga
Campionilor. Cele 78 de meciuri din fiecare sezon ofer un handbal de nalt
calitate. Compartimentul de marketing al EHF ofer partenerilor oportunitatea
poziionrii logo- ului pe 2 banere de 6x1 m n fiecare col ndeprtat al camerelor
tv de fimat. n plus partenerii oficiali ai EHF au dreptul de afia dou reclame n
spaiul de poart cu dimensiuni maxime de 5x1 m.
Turneul final al Ligii Campionilor masculin/ Finala Ligii Campionilor
feminin
La acest nivel al competiiei EHF are dreptul de a acoperi n totalitate
zonele destinate reclamelor. n urmtorul grafic sunt indicate clar locurile unde pot
fi poziionate reclamele specifice.
Grafic nr. 5 Dispunerea banerelor publicitare n Faza grupelor/Finala Ligii

Campionilor
121
Tabel nr. 1 Suprafaa banerelor publicitare rezervate EHF n competiiile europene

de handbal/meci
Competiia
Cupa Challenge
Cupa EHF
Cupa Cupelor
Liga Campionilor
faza grupelor
Total
Feminin
17 m
17 m
17 m
140 m
Masculin
17 m
17 m
17 m
140 m
Total
34 m
34 m
34 m
280 m
223 m
223 m
446 m
Tabel nr. 2 Suprafaa banerelor publicitare rezervate EHF n finalele competiiilor

europene de handbal/meci
Competiia
Finala Cupa
Challenge
Finala Cupa EHF
Finala Cupa Cupelor
Trofeul Campionilor
Liga Campionilor
finala
Total finale
Feminin
128 m
Masculin
128 m
Total
256 m
128 m
128 m
32 m
140 m
128 m
128 m
32 m
140 m
256 m
256 m
64 m
280 m
524 m
524 m
1048 m
Tabel nr. 3 Suprafaa total a banerelor publicitare rezervate EHF n anul

competiional 2010-2011
Competiia
Cupa Challenge
Cupa EHF
Cupa Cupelor
Liga Campionilor
Total
Feminin
851 m
1888 m
1310 m
9100 m
13149 m
Masculin
1888 m
2058 m
1242 m
12880 m
18068 m
Total
2739 m
3946 m
2552 m
21 980 m
31217 m
Discuii
n sezonul 2006/2007 s-au desfurat 126 partide de handbal n cadrul Ligii
Campionilor EHF. Un total de 387 000 de spectatori au vizionat partidele din Liga
campionilor n acel sezon n care au fost marcate 7 446 de goluri. Tot n acel sezon
au fost produse peste 3 kilometri ai EHF Liga Campionilor de banere publicitare
pentru arenele sportive. Televiziunile care au efectuat transmiterea meciurilor s-au
122
mobilizat pentru a face un adevrat show dintr- un meci de handbal astfel c s-a
ajuns la un total de 12 camere de filmat asigur vizionarea meciurilor echipei Kiel.
Un ultim aspect este faptul c pentru a ajunge n final fiecare dintre echipe a
cltorit aproximativ 19106 kilometri n acel sezon.
EHF Champions League Show
Dispunera reclamelor pe teren i n sala de conferine

Experiena echipelor romanesti de handbal
Echipele romneti au acces spectaculos, n ultimile sezoane, n cea mai
important competiie continental. Singurul element notabil ramne performana
sportiv, pentru c bonusurile financiare nu acoper cheltuielile financiare dect
parial. Mai multe echipe de handbal din Romania au participat, n aceste sezoane,
n cea mai important competiie la nivel european - Liga Campionilor (LC).
123
Steaua Bucuresti, Fibrexnylon Svineti, Dinamo Bucureti, HCM Constana, la

handbal masculin si Oltchim Rmnicu Vlcea la handbal feminin, au jucat n
grupele Ligii Campionilor, formaia vlcean calificandu-se chiar n finala
competitiei. Pentru iubitorii de sport din Romania, ideea de a juca n Liga
Campionilor este asociat automat cu succesul financiar, printr-o analogie cu
fotbalul. Aceast impresie este cu totul greit, n condiiile n care sumele primite
de la forul european sunt mici, iar politicile de marketing a le cluburilor sunt drastic
limitate de Federatia Europeana de Handbal (EHF).
Nu se poate face o paralela ntre competiia din handbal i cea din fotbal.
Participarea n Liga Campionilor este un obiectiv pe care oricine i- l doreste, ns
doar din punctul de vedere al valorii sportive, au declarat n presa sportiv unii
dintre oficialii al Federatiei Romane de Handbal.
Fcnd o comparaie aplicat, se pot observa diferenele de constituire a
veniturilor. n cazul fotbalului, fiecare echip primeste de la UEFA minim 5,4
milioane de euro pentru accederea n grupele Ligii Campionilor. La aceast sum
se adaug bonusurile pentru rezultate, precum i sumele obinute din vanzarea
biletelor dar i bonusurile obinute de la sponsori. n schimbul sumelor, UEFA are
exclusivitate asupra drepturilor de televizare i reclamelor de pe marginea terenului
i din spatiile conexe.
n cazul handbalului, strategia este oarecum asemntoare, ns sunt diferene
financiare foarte mari. EHF i-a nfiinat o companie pentru controlarea activitatilor
de marketing - EHF Marketing GmbH. Aceasta firm are drepturi asupra a
jumtate din spaiile de reclam din slile n care se joac meciurile de handbal.
Pentru celelalte spaii libere, clubul organizator este obligat s obin aprobare i s
plteasc un procent consistent ctre companie, n cazul ncheierii de contracte pe
cont propriu. n fazele superioare (finale), EHF preia exclusivitatea asupra
majoritii spaiilor de reclam. Drepturile de televizare sunt valorificate tot de
EHF, care le vinde mai departe ctre televiziunile interesate de transmitarea
meciurilor.
n principiu, EHF atribuie 80% din totalul sumelor ncasate din activitile de
marketing ctre cluburile sportive. Bonusurile sunt ns foarte mici. n cazul
formatiei Oltchim, EHF a pltit 10.000 de euro pentru meciurile din grupa. Fiind
calificat n urmtoarea etap, Oltchim va mai primi 10.000 de euro si un bonus de
2.500 de euro pentru fiecare punct, n conditiile n care are de disputat ase jocuri
in aceasta faza. Oltchim este, n ultimii ani, o echipa cotata cu sanse bune pentru
castigarea Ligii Campionilor. Pentru accederea n semifinale, cota fix este de
30.000 de euro, iar pentru calificarea si castigarea finalei se mai adauga minimum
80.000 de euro. Potrivit estimarilor realizate de Financiarul, pe baza datelor
oficiale ale EHF, castigatoarea Ligii Campionilor la handbal feminin poate primi de
la EHF o suma cuprinsa intre 140.000 si 160.000 de euro.
n cazul competitiei masculine, sumele sunt mai mari, o echipa care ctig
Liga Campionilor poate ncasa n jur de 350000-420000 de euro.
124
Steaua, care a jucat n grupele Ligii Campionilor, a ncasat 15.000 de euro,

potrivit algoritmului EHF. Horaiu Minca, directorul de marketing al clubului
Steaua MFA, spune c din aceasta sum s-au retinut banii pentru arbitrii si oficialii
EHF i taxele pentru statul austriac. Astfel, n conturile clubului Steaua au intrat
doar aproximativ 8.000 de euro. Din punct de vedere financiar, participarea n
prima faz a competitiei e o pierdere. Marele castig este n planul imaginii, spune
Minc H. Acesta a precizat ca s-au cheltuit multi bani pentru refacerea slii de la
Buzau, unde s-au jucat meciurile de pe teren propriu, pe achiziionarea de materiale
promoionale conforme cu politica de marketing a EHF i pentru cheltuielile de
protocol. Dac se adaug i cheltuielile necesare deplasarilor, bilanul contabil a
fost n mod categoric pe minus.
n plus, pierderile financiare imediate pot fi atenuate prin concretizarea
plusului de imagine obinut. Faptul c juctorii Stelei MFA s-au fcut remarcai n
cea mai bun competiie continental ar putea duce la transferuri la echipe de top
din Occident i la intrarea unor sume n contul clubului.
Factorii limitativi pentru echipele romneti:
Fr sli i fr spectatori; n aceste conditii, participarea n Liga Campionilor
pentru echipele romanesti este un succes doar din punct de vedere sportiv.
Sumele incasate nu acoper nici pe departe cheltuielile. Daca nimeresti cu o
echipa din Islanda, numai biletele de avion costa 25.000 de euro, au declarat
oficiali ai cluburilor romneti. Marile cluburi europene, cum sunt Kiel sau
Barcelona n handbalul masculin, reusesc sa transforme LC intr-o reteta
financiara de succes, n conditiile n care ctig bani din abonamente, bilete
si din bonusurile acordate pentru fazele superioare ale competiiei.
La capitolul audienei din sli, cluburile romanesti sunt lipsite de orice ans
de a concura la acelasi nivel cu echipele occidentale. Publicul din Romania nu
este dispus s plteasc mai mult de 10 lei pentru un bilet la un meci de
handbal. n plus, Romania nu are, n prezent, nicio sal omologat pentru
organizarea de jocuri din turneele finale ale competitiilor internationale de
handbal.
Deplasri lungi pentru echipele romneti.
Reclamele 3D au fost utilizate in editia de campionat 2007-2008 a Ligii I de
fotbal, de cluburile:
Steaua (reclame: Holsten, Coca-Cola, Ceresit, Locic, Atac)
Dinamo (Orange)
Rapid (Holsten, Coca-Cola, Media-Galaxy)
Poli Timisoara (Coca-Cola, Powerade)
Universitatea Craiova (Coca-Cola)
Ideea de baz a reclamelor 3D este s creeze o iluzie optic pentru
telespectatori, cu ajutorul unor carpete asezate direct pe gazon, astfel nct acetia
s aib impresia c reclama "st in picioare".
125
Aa se vede la TV
...i iat carpeta 3D din teren
Avantajul reclamelor 3D:

Reclamele 3D pot fi aezate acolo unde mijloacele clasice de rec lam nu pot
fi utilizate din motive de securitate a jucatorilor.
In plus, reclamele 3D aezate n imediata vecintate a portilor de fotbal sunt
deosebit de eficiente din punct de vedere al expunerii TV! Golul fiind punctul
culminant al jocului de fotbal, porile...i implicit reclamele adiacente lor,
sunt prezente n toate fazele importante ale unei transmisiuni directe, dar i in
rezumatele prezentate n jurnalele de tiri sportive i n emisiunile de analiz
a etapelor!
Uneori, reclamele 3D sunt surprinse i n ziarele de sport, atunci cnd sunt
fotografiate fazele de la pori. n Liga I de fotbal, reclama de
perimetru (reclama din jurul terenului care este vizibila n transmisiunile TV)
este valorificata prin urmatoarele sisteme: LED Display reclama dinamic
(animat); Bannere rotative; Bannere fixe (prinse pe suporti metalici).
Sistemele LED Display (ecranele LED) reprezint cea mai modern soluie,
pentru implementarea reclamei de perimetru pe stadioanele de fotbal sau in salile
de sport. Sistemele LED Display au limea de 0.9 - 1 m i lungime variabil, ele
fiind asezate n zona de captare a camerelor TV.
(Marcile de mai sus aparin deintorilor de drept. Animaia i imaginea au doar

rolul de exemplificare a modalitii de afiare a spoturilor pe sistemul LED
Display)
126
n prezent, sistemele LED Display sunt folosite cu succes, n cele mai

puternice campionate din Europa, precum Anglia (Manchester United, Chelsea,
Arsenal), Spania (Real Madrid, Barcelona), Italia (Milan, Roma), Franta (Lyon,
OM), Germania (Bayern Munchen), dar i la unele meciuri din Europa League i
din competiiile interri.
Avantajele utilizarii sistemului LED Display sunt:
Posibilitatea transmiterii de mesaje publicitare. Clientul are acum
oportunitatea de a afia mesaje publicitare (slogan, nr. de telefon, oferte
speciale, etc.), pe lng soluia clasic de afiare a unui logo pe bannere fixe.
Flexibilitatea spoturile de reclam (animaiile) pot fi modificate de la
meci la meci, n funcie de obiectivele de comunicare ale clientului.
Rentabilitate - costurile de productie ale spoturilor sunt mult ma i mici, dect
cele pentru realizarea bannerelor pentru sistemele rotative sau suporturile
fixe.
Eficiena superioar impactul reclamelor dinamice este mai puternic dect
cel al bannerelor fixe, conform principiului c o imagine n micare atrage
atenia telespectatorului mai mult dect una static.
Conform unor studii efectuate n campionatul de fotbal din Spania (Primera
Division) reclama dinamic este de 2,5 ori mai eficient dect cea static. Un
minut de expunere pe sistemul LED Display ofer aproape acelai impact cu cel
produs de difuzarea la TV a unei reclame de 20 de secunde, nsa cu un nivel de
reamintire superior.
Sistemul rotativ. Sistemul rotativ este format din banere derulate sincron de
un dispozitiv, aezat pe perimetrul terenului de fotbal, n zona de captare a
camerelor TV.
Panourile de reclam sunt expuse un timp determinat, ele rotindu-se conform unui
program prestabilit. Un timp de expunere de 4-5 minute/meci, asigura o vizualizare
TV de aproximativ 90 secunde/meci.
Concluzie : Ideea de baz a viitoarelor reclame este ,,3D Signs deoarece creeaz o
iluzie optic pentru telespectatori, astfel nct acetia au impresia c reclama "st n
127
picioare" pe terenul de joc sau n imediata vecintate a acestuia, fiind dat de un

stiker cu reclama clientului, lipit direct pe suprafaa de joc a slii de handbal
Bibligrafie
1. Dragnea C.A., Mate-Teodorescu Silvia. Teoria sportului. Editura FEST,
Bucureti, 2002.
2. COLIBABA-EVULE, D., BOTA, I.. Jocuri sportive, Teorie i Metodic,
3. Constantinescu Mihaela. Marketing sportive: de la o abordare
tranzacional la o perspectiv relaional. Editrura ASE, Bucureti, 2009.
4. Oana O. Management n sport i marketing sportive. Editura CNFPA-SNA,
Bucureti, 2008.
Site-uri vizitate:
http://www.ehfmarketing.com/
http://www.sportbusiness.com/
128
STUDIU ASUPRA OPIUNILOR STUDENILOR PRIVIND

DISCIPLINELE EDUCAIE FIZIC I SPORT I LIMBI
STRINE
A STUDY ON THE STUDENTS' OPTIONS FOR:"PHYSICAL
EDUCATION AND SPORT"AND "FOREIGN LANGUAGES"
Sabu Anca 1 , Pantea Mdlina, Oros Simona
Cuvinte cheie: studeni, educaie fizic i sport, limbi strine, opiuni discipline
Keywords: students, physical education and sports, languages, options, subjects
Introduce re
Educaia fizic i sportul sunt componente ale educaiei globale, prin
coninutul lor, influennd sntatea, creterea i dezvoltarea corpului, dezvoltnd
motricitatea, procesele i fenomenele psihice i favoriznd socializarea. n acest
context, funciile educaiei fizice i sportului sunt de natur biologic, motric,
psihologic i social, ceea ce corespunde conceptului de dezvoltare echilibrat i
integrat a personalitii.
Programele de studii ar trebui s ofere o varietate de activiti sportive, iar
unitile de nvmnt s asigure dotri adecvate care s permit faciliti pentru
practicarea acestor activiti. Educaia fizic colar i universitar se pot constitui
ca forme de baz pentru educaia fizic pe termen lung, cu beneficii a ceea ce
nseamn stil de via. Cmpul de aciune al educaiei fizice ca proces continuu
este cvasinelimitat, oferind posibiliti de recompensare, reechilibrare, defulare,
mbuntire a condiiei fizice, angajare n activiti de grup etc., toate acestea
plasnd individul pe o poziie solid n raport cu el nsui i cu ceilali (Aura Bota
Exerciii fizice pentru via activ Activiti motrice de timp liber, Editura
Cartea Universitar, Bucureti, 2006, pag. 122).
nvarea i cunoaterea altor limbi contribuie la nlturarea barierelor
personale i naionale, permind europenilor s comunice, s lucreze mpreun i
s se deplaseze n alte ri.
Scop
Disciplinele educaie fizic i sport i limbi strine sunt prevzute n
planurile de nvmnt al facultilor (profil diferit de educaie fizic i sport) ca
disciplina obligatorie n anii I i II de studiu. n prezentul studiu s-a urmrit
129
identificarea opiunilor studenilor cu privire la educaie fizic - ramura sportiv,

respectiv limb strin, precum i motivaia preferinelor acestora.
Material i metod
Metoda utilizat n derularea acestui studiu este ancheta sociologic prin
aplicarea unui chestionar. Au fost construite doua tipuri de chestionar, unul
nregistrnd datele cu privire la opiunile pe ramura de sport, iar al doilea, privind
opiunea pentru limba strin. Chestionarele, ca instrumente de nregistrare ale
datelor, au fost aplicate unui eantion eterogen din punct de vedere al vrstei,
genului, anului de studiu, facultii, mediului de reziden n structura cruia sunt
cuprini studeni din cadrul Universitii din Oradea.
Rezultate i concluzii
n urma analizrii datelor nregistrate, ne-am rezumat n a analiza mai pe
larg unele din cele mai importante ntrebri considerate de noi, prezente n
chestionare. Astfel, n graficele de mai jos sunt prezentate ntrebrile i procentele
la care au rspuns studenii.
grafic nr.1
grafic nr.2
Preferinele pentru o anumit ramur de sport au la baz argumente care

invoc plcerea de a face micare, modelarea unui aspect fizic armonios,
meninerea unei bune stri de sntate, dar i caracterul obligator iu al acestei
discipline pentru susinerea examenului de licen. n ceea ce privete opiunile
privind ramura de sport, n majoritatea cazurilor, argumentele in de criterii
organizatorice orarul profesorului, precedate de practicarea sportului respect iv
din plcere pentru c mi place, ns motive precum referinele colegilor mai
mari sau flexibilitatea, tolerana profesorului sunt luate i ele n considerare.
(grafic nr.1)
Opiunea pentru o anumit limb strin nu este ntotdeauna la ndemna
studenilor, respondenii susin c: a fost obligatorie i nu am avut alt variant,
iar n cazul n care alegerea a fost posibil, au optat fie pentru c au mai studiat i
n liceu i vor s aprofundeze cunotinele, fie pentru c apreciaz c nvarea unei
sau a mai multor limbi strine este necesar i este important s cunoti o limb de
circulaie internaional. n ierarhia preferinelor privind opiunile pentru o limb
130
strin, se situeaz limba englez, urmat de limba italian, german i francez.

Preferina acestor alegeri, dar n mod special privind limba englez, au la baz
diverse motivaii precum oportuniti de angajare, socializare cu persoane din ri
strine (avnd n vedere c este o limb de circulaie internaional), aprofundare
cunotine.(grafic nr. 2)
grafic nr. 3
grafic nr. 4
Dintre respondeni, 44% consider c disciplina de educaie fizic trebuie s

se regseasc n anul I si II, motivnd faptul c n ultimul an de studiu pregtesc
proiectul de licen, 34% n fiecare an de studiu considernd necesar pentru o viat
sntoas, iar 22% doar n anul I de studiu.( grafic nr. 3)
n ceea ce privete disciplina limb strain, se observ o schimbare
comparativ cu disciplina educaie fizic. 66% dintre respondeni consider c ar fi
necesar i important s se regseasc n fiecare an de studiu.( grafic nr.4)
grafic nr. 5
grafic nr. 6
Schimbarea opiunii pentru ramura sportiv dup fiecare semestru este

susinut de ctre 34% din respondeni, fiind o ocazie bun de a ncerca mai multe
sporturi, a putea face puin din toate sporturile; 24% dintre subieci afirm c ar
vrea s schimbe opiunea n fiecare an pentru a evita monotonia, pentru
diversitate sau pentru a avea posibilitatea de a schimba profesorul sau nu n
funie de modalitatea de desfurare a leciilor. Meninerea opiunii iniiale este
131
agreat de ctre 42% din respondeni pentru a avea continuitate i a nva un

sport sau pentru c mi place alegerea fcut i programul.( grafic nr. 5)
n ceea ce priveste limba strain, majoritatea respondenilor (61%), prefer
s rmn la opiunea iniial deoarece vor s aprofundeze c unotinele asimilate,
fiind nevoie de mai mult timp pentru a nva o limb strin. 21% i doresc sa
poat alege o alt limb strin pentru a nva mai multe limbi sau dac nu sunt
rezultate bune s poat schimba opiunea; doar 18% ar schimba op iunea dup
fiecare semestru pentru c e mai greu s nvee singuri.( grafic nr. 6)
grafic nr. 7
grafic nr. 8
Pentru pstrarea i meninerea condiiei fizice, 46% dintre respondeni

susin programarea orelor de educaie fizic de dou ori pe sptmn, 34% o dat
pe sptmn, 13% de trei ori pe sptmn iar 7 % i doresc s practice sport n
fiecare zi.( grafic nr. 7)
Majoritatea respondenilor 54% consider necesar programarea orelor de
limb strin o dat pe sptmn pentru a aprofunda i perfeciona cunotinele
din liceu, 38% de dou ori pe sptmn, 6 % de trei ori pe sptmn iar 2 % n
fiecare zi.( grafic nr. 8)
Ca o concluzie putem spune c att beneficiile practicrii activitilor
sportive ct i utilitatea i aplicativitatea limbilor strine sunt evidente la acest
nivel, iar astfel rmne nc o disciplin prevzut n planul de nvmnt la
care trebuie s participe.
Bibliografie:
CHELCEA, S.; MARGINEAN,
I., CAUC, I.
BOTA AURA
- Cercetarea sociologic, Editura Destin,

Deva, 1998
- Exerciii fizice pentru via activ
Activiti motrice de timp liber, Editura
Cartea Universitar, Bucureti, 2006
132
ROLUL MIJLOACELOR DE INFORMARE MASS-MEDIA

N PROMOVAREA SPORTULUI ROMNESC
(1940-1964)
THE ROLE OF MASS-MEDIA INFORMATIONAL MEANS
IN PROMOTING ROMANIAN SPORTS
(1940-1964)
Suciu Alina 1
Cuvinte cheie: istoria sportului, mass- media, sport romnesc

Rezumat
Prezenta lucrare i propune s fac un studiu privind evoluia sportului
romnesc din perspectiva mijloacelor de informare n mas existente n perioada de
referin.
Key words: sports history, mass- media, Romanian sports
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to accomplish a study regarding the evolution
of Romanian sports from the perspective of mass informational means during the
reference period.
Introduce re
Florian Georgescu, autorul unor lucrri cu caracter sociologic, exprim cteva
caracteristici ale domeniului exerciiilor fizice: Educaia fizic i sportul sunt
cuceriri ale geniului uman, produs al unui efort istoric prin care omul s-a nlat pe
o anumit direcie a esenialitii umane. Cu alte cuvinte, esena uman a fost
influenat sau a avut ansa de a se inspira i informa din efortul istoric al tuturor
personalitilor care au contribuit la continuitatea i evoluia celui mai ndrgit i
controversat domeniu: cel al educaiei fizice i sportului. Drumul parcurs de acest
domeniu al exerciiilor fizice a cunoscut perioade de evoluie spectaculoas sau de
stagnare contemplativ, i bineneles nu l-au ocolit nici perioadele de declin.
Jocurile Olimpice sunt competiia sportiv suprem cea mai rvnit de fiecare
sportiv, antrenor sau suporter; sunt cea mai edificatoare ntrecere din punct de
vedere al rezultatelor, care atest cel mai cuvnttor afirmaiile precedente. Fr
acest etalon olimpic, sportul ar fi perceput fr acea strlucire a laurilor
rezultatelor, fr acea strlucire a eroilor olimpiadelor, care ne ncnt privirile i
1
133
ne ndeamn s vism la o lume a talentelor sportive. Toate aceste considerente

constituie argumente suficiente pentru ca mijloacele mass- media s apeleze
necontenit la aceste surse de inspiraie i de informare inep uizabile oferite de
segmentul sportiv.
Scopul acestui studiu istoric este de a analiza posibilitile de promovare i
implementare a practicii sportive n societatea vremii.
n elaborarea lucrrii s-au utilizat metoda studierii documentelor de arhiv i
a analizei de coninut a datelor publicate n sursele de informare edite i inedite.
Fondat n perioada interbelic(1927, dup alte surse edite n 1932 1 )
Asociaia Presei Sportive din Romnia se va evidenia pe plan naional i
internaional n perioada postbelic 2 . n ceea ce privete diversitatea surselor de
informare i comunicare n mas merit amintit faptul c Bucuretiul a fost
deschiztor de drumuri prin nfiinarea primului birou extern al cunoscutei Agenii
France Presse. Vechimea acestui birou este semnalat nc de pe vremea domniei
lui Cuza 3 . Prima coal de gazetari sportivi va fi nfiinat abia n anul 1946 4 .
Numrul rubricilor sportive sptmnale din cotidianele vremii i al materialelor de
propagand pentru practicarea sportului va crete semnificativ, ncepnd cu
olimpiada desfurat pe continentul australian (1956) 5 . O dovad a creterii
importanei mass- media, att din punct de vedere cantitativ, ct i calitativ, o
constituie afilierea rii noastre la Federaia Internaional a Ziaritilor
Sportivi(1957). Prezena ntr-un astfel de for internaional ne aduce cteva avantaje,
cum ar fi: distribuirea de materiale de propagand n strintate 6 , informarea
periodic cu cele mai actuale tiri legate de micarea sportiv mondial i, nu n
ultimul rnd, mbuntirea nivelului de competen al jurnalitilor notri.
Articolele publicate n presa anilor 40 ne informeaz c n partea estic a
rii(Botoani i Vaslui) micarea sportiv era aproape inexistent, motiv pe ntru
care contruciile sportive vor fi demarate imediat n aceast zon a rii 7 . Tot n
aceeai period ziarul Timpul ne informeaz despre prezena unui student romn n
cadrul Universiii din Oxford care a fost selecionat n echipa unui club de
hochei pe ghea 8 , atestnd faptul c ncepem s fim cunoscui pe plan internaional
att din punct de vedere sportiv, ct i intelectual, sportul ctignd suintori din
toate structurile sociale.
1
N. Postolache, Istoria sportului n Romnia, Editura Profexim, Bucureti, 1995., p.150

C.A. St roe, M.R.Barbu, Impactul sportului asupra economiei, Editura Universitar, Craiova, 2006,
p.57
3
L.Op rea, Atena 2004 Jocurile Olimpice din nou acas, Fundaia Ro mpres, Bucureti, 2004, p.87
4
N. Postolache, op.cit., p.192
5
A.N.R., Fond C.N.E.F.S., Dosar nr.327/ 1956, f.20
6
Ibidem, dos. nr.430/1957, f.285
7
Timpul(Bucureti), nr.1050, 4 aprilie, 1940, p.12
8
Timpul, (Bucureti), n r.962, 6 ianuarie, 1940, p.12
2
134
Dup nfiinarea O.S.P., activitatea sa va fi ngreunat de o colaboare

defectuoas cu federaiile sportive, cu mijloacele de informare mass- media i cu
instituiile de nvmnt colar i universitar. Federaiile sportive erau puin active
datorit persoanelor care activau n funciile de conducere. Deasemenea, sursele de
informare periodice erau considerate dumani, deoarece nu acordau importana
cuvenit sportului, prin urmare nu contribuiau la prosperarea intereselor
organizaiei. Un inconvenient important era atribuit i faptului c nu exista o surs
periodic de informare asupra segmentului muncitoresc, ceea ce frna creterea
semnificativ a numrului adepilor n sport din aceast clas social. n sfera
nvmntului orientarea sportiv era fcut precar, limitat, pentru a crea o
uniformizare social, mai uor controlabil n sport. Se ajunge la concluzia c ar fi
mai bine s se creeze o singur echip de sportivi 1 , mai puternic, bine pregtit,
dect mai multe echipe, care presupuneau cheltuieli suplimentare i un
management eterogen.
n primul su an de existen O.S.P. va lua cteva msuri privind
culturalizarea naiunii. n cadrul sediului propriu, O.S.P. va nfiina prima
bibliotec cu tematic sportiv. Apare, deasemenea, primul numr al ziarului
Sportul Popular. Anul urmtor(1946) ara noastr se afiliaz la Federaia
Internaional a Muncii 2 .
n anul 1950 apare prima editur dedicat lucrrilor exerciiilor fizice i se va
numi Cultur Fizic i Sport 3 . Tot cu titlu de ntietate n Bucureti se va
nregistra, n anul 1952, prima librrie cu publicaii sportive, precum i forma de
nvmnt fr frecven a Institutului de Cultur Fizic 4 . Se observ c activitatea
activitatea O.S.P. reuete, n aproape un deceniu de la nfiinare, s se extind att
n ceea ce privete numrul practicanilor exerciiilor fizice, ct i i n ceea ce
privete educarea i pregtirea acestor adepi ai sportului prin diferitele msuri care
au fost luate.
Activitatea de propagand ncepe s ia amploare n domeniul educaiei fizice
i sportului. Sarcinile Comitetului de Stat pentru Educaie fizic i Sport vizau
promovarea imaginii exerciiilor fizice cu ajutorul altor domenii de activitate, mai
reprezentative pentru societate. Astfel, interdisciplinaritatea era orientat spre:
pres, literatur, art, radio etc. Mijloacele de propagand enumerate erau
completate prin organizarea de concursuri sportive periodice n toate segmentele
sociale 5 , unele dintre acestea fiind filmate 6 , contribuind la justificarea necesitii
implicrii ct mai ample a naiunii n domeniul educaie i fizice i sportului. Un alt
obiectiv urmrit n amplificarea fenomenului sportiv era creterea numeric a
1
A.N.R., Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Propagand i agitaie , Dosar nr. 63/ 1945, f.2-4
N. Postolache, op.cit, p.192-194
3
Cultura Fzic i Sportul n R.P.R., Editura C.F.S., 1951, Bucureti, p.6
4
5
A.N.R., Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Propagand i Agitaie, dos. nr. 99/ 1949, f.8-11
6
Idem, D..J. Bh., Fond Comitetul Judeean Bihor al U.T.M.- Secia Sportiv, dos. Nr8/ 1950, f.16
2
135
spectatorilor la competiiile sportive. Meritul era atribuit eforturilor politice de

mobilizare a maselor de oameni. n acest sens, este considerat un rezultat
politicmobilizarea unui numr de 30000 de spectatori cu ocazia crosului
desfurat de 1 mai, reuit cu att mai important, deoarece a coincis cu
srbtoarea pascal a maghiarilor 1 . Deasemenea, mobilizarea numeroas a tinerilor
maghiari la ntrecerile sportive, manifestat pregnant n zona vestic a rii, intr tot
n categoria reuitelor politice ale partidului 2 . Fie suporter, fie practicant al
sportului, scopul urmrit de stat era unitar: crearea unui cadru de control al
societii, iar mijlocul cel mai accesibil de a realiza acest deziderat era atribuit
arenei sportive.
Sportul de mas devine un produs politic de mare importan, deoarece aduce
o contribuie nsemnat n formarea unui om nou, lupttor i activ care servete
intereselor partidului 3 . Asocierea sportului cu politica o ntlnim tot mai des
menionat n documentele vremii 4 . Sportul devine un mijloc de propagand
politic, fiind mai uor neles i acceptat de societate. Explicit n aceast privin
este cotidianul LEquipe care afirm c sportul este ntotdeauna n avans asupra
politicii, lucru pe care l i dovedete, constatndu-se acest lucru la olimpiada de
la Helsinki. Pentru a justifica aceste afirmaii ziarul francez exemplific concret
cteva luni avans n favoarea sportului, fa de politic 5 . Sportul devine un trm
propice de inserare a ideilor politice n rndul societii.
Promovarea intereselor politice n societate prin intermediul manifestaiilor
cultural-artistice i sportive devine mai concret orientat. Procesul de educare
multilateral a cetenilor viza o extindere a orizontului cultural prin implementarea
n contiina oamenilor a ideilor nobile a comunismului 6 . n documentele vremii,
vremii, superlativele ca form de exprimare la adresa partidului comunist sunt tot
mai des utilizate. Scopul suprem al fiecrei activiti ntreprinse, inclusiv cea
sportiv, trebuia s fie subordonat intereselor partidului 7 .
Msurile care se iau pentru mbuntirea nivelului calitativ i cantitativ al
educaiei fizice i sportului sunt imediate. Acestea cuprind: apelarea la mijloace
mass- media pentru popularizarea sportului, cu referine la sportul sovietic;
srbtorirea zilelor de 1 mai 8 i 23 august, care s cuprind n planul de munc i
domeniul sportiv; desfurarea de campionate colare cu mobilizarea unui numr
mare de elevi 9 . ntrirea sau extinderea colaborrii la nivel internaional este
prevzut prin organizarea de Jocuri Mondiale Universitare de iarn la noi n
1
A.N. R, D..J. Bh., Fond Comitetul Judeean Bihor al U.T.M.- Secia Sportiv, dos. nr.6/1949, f.1
Ibidem, dos.nr.7/1951, f.5
3
A.N.R., Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Secia Cancelarie, Dosar nr. 59/1949, f.13
4
Idem, Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Propagand i Agitaie, Dosar nr.33/ 1954, f.2
5
Idem, Fond C.N.E.F.S., Dosar nr. 359/1956, f.175
6
Idem, Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Secia Cancelarie, Dosar nr.80/1959, f.55-60
7
Ibidem, f.155
8
Idem, Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Propagand i Agitaie, Dosar nr. 31/1950, f.2-10
9
Ibidem, f.31-38
2
136
ar 1 . Aplicarea acestor iniative ntmpin uneori i anumite piedici din partea

filialelor judeene ale C.C.F.S. sau din partea sportivilor. De exemplu: este
menionat lipsa de interes fa de activitatea sportiv ncepnd de la conducerea
unor filiale C.C.F.S.2 sau sunt semnalate unele cazuri de indisciplin manifestate
de sportivi, care cer n schimbul participrii la concursuri recompense financiare
etc. 3 .
Sectorul turistic, considerat un factor de promovare al valorilor naionale, va
intra n circuitul sportiv competiional nc din 1947. Atunci a avut loc demararea
primului concurs de orientare turistic din ara noastr. ntrecerea sportiv a fost
desfurat n Munii Zrandului, organizatorii fiind sportivii ordeni 4 .
La Buenos Aires se va desfura, n anul olimpic 1960, Congresul anual al
Uniunii Internaionale a Organizaiilor de Turism. Un reprezentant romn i unul
francez au fost alei s reprezinte Regionala pentru Europa n Biroul Executiv al
organizaiei. Acest congres va constitui un bun prilej de promovare a rii noastre
prin diverse materiale de propagand (filme, brouri, afie, etc.). Astfel de aciuni
vor avea un efect benefic pe mai multe planuri. Din punct de vedere economic
influenele se vor resimi pe direcia dezvoltrii turismului, parteneriatelor n
afaceri sau investiiilor n turismul romnesc 5 ; din punct de vedere social turitii
strini au posibilitatea s cunoasc tradiiile i obiceiurile poporului romn, iar n
plan politic se poate mbunti imaginea i credibilitatea rii pe plan european i
mondial.
Organizarea primului festival de filme sportive al rilor socialiste, desfurat
la Budapesta n anul 1962, aduce filmului romnesc Turneul de fotbal U.E.F.A.,
dedicat fazei finale a primului turneu de juniori la fotbal, o medalie de argint 6 . Cu
alte cuvinte, pe lng sport, pres i turism, cinematografia romneasc se lanseaz
n circuitul internaional prin tematica sportiv.
Potrivit unei surse edite, n ultimele patru decenii se constat c n anul 1966
ara noastr era afiliat la 45 de federaii i organizaii internaionale i europene,
numrul acestora urmnd s creasc cu fiecare deceniu. Deasemenea, un numr de
29 de reprezentani romni deineau funcii de conducere i tehnice n 19 dintre
aceste federaii i organizaii 7 . Toate aceste realizri sportive demonstreaz faptul
c mijloacele de informare mass- media s-au orientat mai pregnant asupra
segmentului sportiv, beneficiile fiind resimite de ambele activiti
Concluzii
1
Ibidem, f.56-57
Ibidem, f.36
3
Ibidem, f.128
4
5
A.N.R., Fond C.C. al P.C.R.. Secia Cancelarie, dos. nr.87/1960, f.10-17
6
7
L. Du mitrescu, Romnia n lumea sportului, Ed itura pentru Tineret i Sport- Edit is, Bucureti,
1995,p.11-16
2
137
Pentru atragerea unui numr ct mai mare de practicani ai sportului se

apeleaz la multiple mijloace de propagand i agitaie, accentul punndu-se pe
mijloacele de informare care apeleaz i stimuleaz n primul rnd analizatorul
vizual.
Sportul devine un mijloc de propagand politic, fiind mai uor neles i
acceptat de societate. Scopul suprem al fiecrei activiti ntreprinse, inclusiv cea
sportiv, trebuia s fie subordonat intereselor partidului.
Conform datelor prezentate anterior, msurile care s-au luat pe plan naional
pentru mbuntirea nivelului calitativ i cantitativ al educaiei fizice i sportului
cuprind, prioritar, apelarea la mijloace mass- media pentru promovarea sportului,
modelul de referin pentru perioada studiat fiind sportul sovietic.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
A.N.R, Dir.Jud. Bh.,
A.N.R.,
A.N.R.,
A.N.R.,
Cultura
Fzic
Sportul n R.P.R.,
Dumitrescu L.,
- Fond Comitetul Judeean Bihor al U.T.M.- Secia

Sportiv
- Fond C.N.E.F.S.
- Fond C.C. al P.C.R.. Secia Cancelarie
- Fond C.C. al P.C.R.-Propagand i Agitaie
i - Editura C.F.S., Bucureti, 1951,
Oprea L.,
Postolache N.,
Stroe C.A,.Barbu M.R,
Timpul(Bucureti),
- Romnia n lumea sportului, Editura pentru --Tineret

i Sport- Editis, Bucureti, 1995
- Atena 2004 Jocurile Olimpice din nou acas, Fundaia
Rompres, Bucureti, 2004
- Istoria sportuluin Romnia, Editura Profexim,
Bucureti, 1995
- Impactul sportului asupra economiei, Editura
Universitar, Craiova, 2006
- 1940
138
PROPUNERI PRIVIND EVALUAREA PREGTIRII FIZICE A

JUCTORILOR LIBERO N JOCUL DE VOLEI
PROPOSALS FOR EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL
PREPARATION OF THE LIBERO PLAYER IN VOLLEYBALL
Szabo-Alexi Mariana 1 , Szabo-Alexi Paul, anta Cristian2
Cuvinte cheie: volei, evaluare, juctor libero, aptitudini motrice
Keywords: volleyball, evaluation, libero player, motor skills
1. Introduce re
Juctorul libero prin prisma specializrii lui, doar n aprare, necesit din
punct de vedere fizic vitez de reacie i de deplasare foarte bun; for la nivelul
membrelor inferioare; un deosebit sim de anticipare i un foarte bun plasament,
deci un foarte bun joc acrobatic.
n ceea ce privete rezistena, datorit deselor schimbri pe care le face i
timpul petrecut n afara terenului l ajut pe acesta s-i refac forele pentru o nou
intrare n teren. De aceea n pregtire se va insista pe dezvoltarea vitezei de orice
fel, asupra unor exerciii acrobatice de mare dificultate i pe dezvoltarea
principalelor componente ale coordonrii, coordonare privit ca sistem al
aptitudinilor psihomotrice.
2. Scop
Pornind de la ideea c n urma modificrilor regulamentului de joc cu
privire la apariia i introducerea juctorului libero n jocul de volei, n momentul
de fa, tehnicienii domeniului nu dispun de instrumente operaionale specifice de
evaluare a acestui post. Scopul acestei lucrri este de a contribui la mbuntirea
procesului de evaluare a pregtirii juctorului libero n jocul de volei.
3. Mijloace propuse pentru evaluarea aptitudinilor motrice
n vederea realizrii cercetrii, au fost stabilite o serie de probe de control
pentru evaluarea aptitudinilor motrice, a nivelului de pregtire muscular.
Mijloacele propuse de noi pe care le vom prezenta n continuare, sunt adaptate n
funcie de condiiile materiale disponibile.
3.1. Evaluarea forei
Fora abdominal
1
2

Universitatea Babe-Bolyai Clu j-Napoca, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport
139
Scopul acestui test este de a realiza ct mai multe ridicri de trunchi timp de
30 secunde a cte dou reprize cu o pauz de 15 secunde ntre repetri. (30 X 15
X 30).
Fig. 1 Evaluarea forei abdominale

Descriere: Subiectul se afl n culcat dorsal pe o saltea sau pe o suprafa
elastic, cu tlpile pe podea, genunchii ndoii la un unghi de 90 o , palmele la ceaf,
picioarele sunt inute de un partener. La comanda start subiectul trebuie s-i
ridice trunchiul n poziie vertical, apoi revine n culcat dorsal.
Indicaii: - se nregistreaz numrul maxim de execuii corecte timp de 30
secunde;
- nu se va lua n consideraie la numrtoare dac: subiectul nu
ridic trunchiul la vertical, nu-i ine palmele la ceaf, nu menine un unghi de 90 o
ntre coaps i gamb, sau dac n momentul ridicrii trunchiului pentru a se ajuta
i ridic ezutul de pe sol.
Materiale necesare: saltea, cronometru, partener
Fora musculaturii lombare:
Scopul acestui test este de a msura fora musculaturii lombare prin flexii i
extensii repetate timp de 30 secunde n dou reprize cu o pauz de 15 secunde ntre
repetri. (30 X 15 X 30).
Descriere: Subiectul se afl n poziia culcat facial pe banca de gimnastic
aezat transversal, cu picioarele ntinse i agate cu vrfurile la scara fix,
palmele la ceaf, coatele meninute lateral
Fig. 2 Evaluarea forei musculaturii lombare
140
Indicaii: - trunchiul se va ridica pn la orizontal

- n timpul flexiei trunchiul se ndoaie ct mai mult posibil,
- coatele ridicate i meninute lateral
Materiale necesare: banc de gimnastic, cronometru, scara fix
Fora izometric a trenului inferior:
Scopul este de a menine poziia fundamental indicat ct mai mult timp.
Se realizeaz n dou reprize cu o pauz de 5 minute ntre repetri.
Descriere: Subiectul aflat n poziie fundamental
medie cu genunchii ndoii la un unghi de 90 o ntre gamb i
coaps, trunchiul uor rotunjit aplecat la 90 o , braele ntinse
oblic-jos, cu palmele la nivelul genunchilor. Sprijinul pe sol
se face pe toat talpa, greutatea repartizat n mod egal pe
ambele picioare, deprtate la limea umerilor, privirea
nainte.
Materiale necesare: cronometru
Fig. 3 Evaluarea forei izometrice
Triplusalt :
Scopul acestui test este de a parcurge o distan ct mai mare prin srituri de
pe un picior pe cellalt. Se execut trei ncercri i se noteaz cea mai bun.
Descriere: Subiectul se afl cu ambele picioare n spatele liniei de plecare,
se execut 3 srituri consecutive maxime posibile, de pe un picior pe cellalt, cu
aterizare n ghemuit n groapa cu nisip.
Indicaii: - distana parcurs se msoar n metri (m) i centimetri (cm)
- atenia va fi ndreptat spre execuia rapid i cu posibiliti
maxime a celor 3 srituri consecutive
Materiale necesare: metru, groapa cu nisip, linia de plecare trasat cu cret
3.2. Evaluarea vitezei
Viteza de deplasare:
Scop: parcurgerea unei distane de 20 m ntr- un timp ct mai scurt. Se
execut 2 ncercri i se noteaz cel mai bun timp atins n sutimi de secund.
Fig. 4 Evaluarea vitezei de deplasare
141
Descriere: Subiectul se afl n spatele liniei de plecare n poziia culcat

facial cu braele ndoite din articulaia cotului, palmele pe sol la nivelul pieptului.
La semnalul start se execut ridicare i sprint pe distana amintit. Poziia iniial
trebuie meninut minim 3 secunde nainte de a se da startul, n acest timp
executantul trebuie s atepte n poziie nemicat.
Indicaii: - pornirea i sosirea este marcat cu dou linii trasate cu cret
- pornirea cronometrului ncepe de la prima micare efectuat de
subiect, iar oprirea cronometrului se face dup ce subiectul a trecut cu pieptul linia
de sosire.
Materiale necesare: cronometru, dou linii trasate cu cret pe sol la o
distan de 20 m., pist de alergare
Cursa - naveta 5X10 m
Scop: parcurgerea unui traseu de 5 parcursuri de 10 m lungime cu
transportul unor mingi mici (de oin) dintr- un cerc n cellalt. Se realizeaz 2
reprize cu pauz de 5 minute.
Fig. 5 Testul cursa-naveta

Descriere: Traseul este delimitat de 4 cercuri (50cm diametru), dispuse la
10 m distan, dou ntr-o parte i dou n cealalt parte n care se gsesc dou
mingi mici (oin, minge de tenis). Sportivul va porni la semnal din spatele liniei de
plecare din poziie de start i va trebui s transporte mingile pe rnd i s le aeze
dintr- un cerc n altul, astfel nct mingea s rmn n interiorul cercului.
Indicaii: - subiectul pornete la semnal din poziie de start, picioarele
deprtate antero-posterior, cu piciorul anterior n contact cu linia de plecare,
- n timpul lurii sau aezrii mingilor, subiectul trebuie s intre
cu ambele picioare n cerc
Materiale necesare: cronometru, 4 cercuri cu diametru de 50 cm trasate cu
cret pe sol, linia de start i linia de fini care se traseaz la o distan de 10 m ,
mingi de oin sau de tenis.
Deplasare lateral
142
Scop: subiectul se deplaseaz ntre dou marcaje dispuse la 4,5 m distan.

Se nregistreaz numrul total de atingeri ale marcajelor timp de 45secunde,
executat n dou reprize cu pauz de 5 minute ntre repetri.
Fig. 6 Deplasare lateral

Descriere: Subiectul se afl n poziie fundamental medie i va executa la
semnal, ct mai repede, deplasare lateral cu pai adugai dus- ntors ntre cele
dou marcaje atingnd cu mna de fiecare dat marcajul.
Indicaii: - plecarea se face din afara unei linii
- se reine numrul total de atingeri realizate.
Materiale necesare: cronometru, 2 marcaje (linii) trasate pe sol, metru
3.3. Evaluarea capacitii coordinative
Echilibru static:
Scop: Meninerea poziiei corpului ct mai mult timp. Se execut dou
ncercri i se noteaz cel mai bun timp realizat.
Fig. 7 Evaluarea echilibrului static

Descriere: subiectul se afl pe o banc de gimnastic ntoars, pe marginea
ngust n sprijin pe un picior, cellalt flectat i apropiat de genunchiul celuilalt
picior, braele meninute lateral, trunchiul n poziie vertical.
Indicaii: - cronometrul pornete n momentul n care subiectul reuete si menin echilibrul i se oprete cnd piciorul flectat atinge solul.
Materiale necesare: banc de gimnastic, cronometru
143
Coordonare senzori-motorie:
Scop: este o prob de apreciere a distanei, traseul se execut n dou
reprize cu pauz
Descriere: Subiectul trebuie s parcurg distana pe o dreapt de 9 metri
trasat pe sol cu ochii nchii i se oprete n momentul n care consider c a
parcurs cei 9 metri, ateptnd nemicat.
Fig. 8 Proba de apreciere a distanei

Indicaii: - semnalul de plecare se d dup ce subiectul a nchis ochii,
- n deplasarea sa, subiectul nu are voie s se ajute de diferite
puncte de reper (nr. de pai, etc.) i trebuie s in ochii nchii
pe tot parcursul,
- dup oprire, el trebuie s atepte nemicat pentru a se putea
verifica distana parcurs.
Precizia micrii i coordonare ochi mn:
Scop: de a executa cu precizie o preluare cu dou mini de jos dup o
rostogolire prealabil. Se execut 5 repetri i se calculeaz eficiena n procente.
Fig. 9 Proba de precizie i coordonare ochi-mn

Descriere: Subiectul se afl n poziie de start n spatele liniei de plecare
(linia de fund a terenului de volei), execut o rostogolire nainte pe saltea, ridicare
rapid, deplasare la o minge oferit de partener din terenul advers i preluare cu
dou mini de jos la punct fix.
144
Indicaii: - mingea preluat de subiect trebuie orientat spre un ptrat cu

latura de 2,5 m situat n apropierea fileului n zona 2.
Materiale necesare: saltea, mingi de volei, coechipier, marcaj de 2,5 m
desenat la fileu.
Lateralitate i ambidextrie:
Scop: de a executa cu precizie o preluare de jos dup o deplasare prealabil
spre partea stng i spre partea dreapt. Se execut pe un traseu sub form de
evantai, care prezint 6 marcaje (cercuri) trasate pe sol astfel: dou pe linia de fund
a terenului de volei , dispuse n partea stng i dreapt, dou la 3 m fa de prima
linie dispuse stnga-dreapta, i ultimele aezate la 6 m de prima linie. Traseul se
execut de 2 ori cu pauz ntre execuii
Descriere: Subiectul se afl n spatele liniei de fund a terenului de volei la
mijlocul distanei (zona 6), la semnal pornete n deplasare lateral spre primul
cerc, efectueaz preluare la punct fix din minge oferit de partener, se retrage spre
punctul de plecare, apoi se deplaseaz n direcia opus i execut preluare la
punct fix, revine la punctul de plecare, i aa mai departe la toate marcajele cu
revenire prin alergare cu spatele, ntotdeauna spre locul de plecare.
Fig. 10 Proba de lateralitate i ambidextrie

Indicaii: - plecarea se face individual din poziie de start deprtat antero-posterior
- mingea trebuie orientat spre un dreptunghi ce msoar 2,5/3 m
n apropierea fileului n zona 2
- se calculeaz eficiena execuiilor n procente
Materiale necesare: cercuri trasate pe sol cu diametru de 50 cm, mingi de
volei, marcaj de 2,5/3 m
3.4. Evaluarea rezistenei
Rezisten general:
Scop: se urmrete testarea capacitii aerobe a subiectului prin alergare
intercalat cu trecere n culcat facial i rulare pe spate timp de 1 minut.
145
Fig. 11 Evaluarea rezistenei generale

Descriere: Subiectul se afl n spatele liniei de plecare (linia de serviciu),
plecarea se face individual din picioare. Subiectul trebuie s efectueze alergare la
linia de atac (de 3 metri), trecere n culcat facial, ridicare, retragere cu spatele i
rulare pe spate pe linia de serviciu. Cronometrul se pornete cnd subiectul ncepe
alergarea.
Indicaii: Se nregistreaz numrul maxim de atingeri al liniilor de atac i de
serviciu
Materiale necesare: cronometru
Rezisten specific:
Scop: se urmrete evaluarea rezistenei specifice de joc precum i calitatea
execuiilor pe timp de 1 minut
Fig. 12 Evaluarea rezistenei specifice

Descriere: Subiectul ncearc s salveze ct mai multe mingi (lungi, scurte,
mingi aruncate stnga, dreapta), venite din terenul advers cu o anumit for i
intensitate i ncearc s le direcioneze spre zona n care se afl ridictorul (zona
2).
Indicaii: - Zona pe care trebuie s o apere subiectul are forma unui ptrat
de 6X6 m.
- Mingile sunt aruncate din terenul advers din apropierea fileului din
centru de ctre un coechipier situat pe un scaun.
Materiale necesare: mingi de volei, scaun, cronometru
3.5. Evaluarea mobilitii
Flexibilitatea frontal:
146
Scop: de a msura flexibilitatea frontal a corpului.

Indicele este exprimat de numrul centimetrilor atini cu
ambele brae sub nivelul planului de sprijin. Se execut 2
ncercri
Descriere: Din stnd pe banca de gimnastic
sau scaun, subiectul se apleac nainte cu braele ntinse pe o
linie gradat, punctul 0 fiind la nivelul tlpilor, partea de
sus se noteaz cu minus, iar partea de jos cu plus. Se execut
cu genunchi ntini i se msoar distana de la vrful
picioarelor la vrful degetelor mijlocii de la ambele mini.
Fig. 13 Evaluarea flexibilitii frontale
Indicaii: - pe tot parcursul execuiei subiectul trebuie s-i menin
genunchii ntini i apropiai
- poziia trebuie meninut cteva secunde pentru a putea fi notat
- subiectul trebuie s fie descul
Materiale necesare: banc de gimnastic sau scaun de mobilitate gradat,
metru
Evaluarea gradului de deprtare a picioarelor:
Scop: de a msura flexibilitatea muchilor adductori. Se execut 2 ncercri
Descriere: Subiectul se afl n poziia aezat
cu genunchii ndoii, tlpile pe sol i
picioarele apropiate. Din aceast poziie
subiectul las genunchii s cad n lateral
pstrnd tlpile picioarelor apropiate,
orientate talp n talp. Minile se aeaz pe
picioare i se trag clciele ct mai aproape
de zona inghinal.
Fig. 14 Evaluarea gradului de deprtare al picioarelor

Indicaii: se msoar distana dintre clcie i zona inghinal, n centimetri
Materiale necesare: metru
4. Concluzii
Pentru evaluarea din punct de vedere fizic a juctorului libero am luat n
considerare urmtoarele aspecte:
- Urmrind probele de evaluare a potenialului motric, susinute anual de ctre
toi sportivii juniori participani n sistemul competiional, se poate observa
faptul c nu exist mijloace specifice de evaluare a juctorului libero, probele
147
de control fiind realizate de ctre toi juctorii, indiferent de postul pe care

acetia l ocup n cadrul echipei.
- Avnd n vedere faptul c ncepnd cu jocurile din ediia 2004 2005,
echipelor de juniori i cadei le este permis folosirea juctorului libero, se
vede necesar elaborarea i a unor mijloace specifice de evaluare a acestui
juctor pe lng cele de pregtire specializat.
- Elaborarea unui program de antrenament i a unei baterii de teste de evaluare
este strns legat de cunoaterea solicitrilor psihofizice impuse sportivilor n
situaii competiionale, dependente de regulamentele de joc.
5. Bibliografie
1. BC, O., SZABO, MARIANA, SZABO, P. (2001) Consideraii privind
selecia i antrenamentul juctorului libero n volleyball, Sport curat
conferina tiinific internaional, pag. 24-28, Bucureti
2. DRGAN, A., i colab. (2003) - Regulamentul jocului de volei cu comentarii,
Federaia Romn de Volei, Bucureti
3. FURTADO, O., GALLAGHER, J.D., (2005) Evaluarea capacitii
motrice, Sportul de nalt Performan, nr. 482, Bucureti.
4. Buletin informativ (2008), nr. 34, Federaia Romn de Volei, Bucureti
148
ANTRENAMENTUL N ARTELE MARIALE PRIVIT CA

PROCES COMPLEX, DINAMIC I STADIAL
MARTIAL ARTS TRAINING AS A COMPLEX, DINAMIC AND
STAGE PROCESS
Trifa Ioan1
Rezumat
Antrenamentul n arte mariale este un proces ce se ntinde pe o perioad
relativ ndelungat de timp (peste zece ani), datorat n principal riscurilor ce
privesc integritatea propriei persoane, fapt pentru care acest proces prinde pe
parcursul desfurrii sale mai multe etape de dezvoltare. Fiecare dintre aceste
etape poate avea obiective i sarcini specifice care trebuie s corespund perioadei
de dezvoltare i caracteristicilor individuale.
Prezentul articol i propune s surprind acele caracteristi de dezvoltare
specifice diferitelor etape i s identifice principalele obiective i sarcini de
antrenament i instruire ce trebuie ndeplinite pe parcursul fiecrei etape.
Cuvinte cheie: antrenament, coninut, dinamic.
Abstract
Training in martial arts is a process that spans a relatively long period (in
the order of over ten years), the main cause of this beeing the riscs that refer to the
integration of ones self ,thing for which this process contains on the course of its
taking place more stages of development. Each of this stages can have objeectives
and specific tasks which must correspond to the of development and individual
caracteristics.
This article sets its goal to point out those characteristics of development
specific to every stage and identify the principal objectives and training tasks t hat
must be acomplished at each stage.
Key words: training, content, dynamics.
Termenul de antrenament provine de la cuvntul de origine englez
training, care s-ar traduce printr-un proces de instruire, exersare i/sau dezvoltare.
Antrenamentul urmrete s realizeze o serie de mbuntiri ori adaptri specifice
la nivelul acelor factori care exercit o influen crescut la realizarea scopului
propus.
Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport Oradea
149
Aspectul central al procesului de antrenament n artele mariale va fi

dezvoltarea personal pe plan fizic, psihic i spiritual, proces ce pleac de la
nelegerea i construirea bunelor raporturi interpersonale.
Procesul de antrenament n artele mariale este unul extrem de complex.
Complexitatea procesului de antrenament este dat de faptul c acesta angreneaz
organismul n ansamblul su, ns nu toate subsistemele sale sunt egal activate n
raport cu o anume solicitare i mai ales nu sunt neaprat eficiente n raport cu
aceasta.
Un individ angajat n rezolvarea unei probleme angreneaz ntregul suport
structural i funcional-energetic, ns implic de asemenea activarea unor scheme
operaionale i o serie de expectane sau convingeri, prin care se va orienta aciunea
n direcia obinerii rezultatului scontat. Pe baza acestui proces i a gradului de
adecvare a rezultatului, se vor acumula o serie de noi cunotine sau se vor forma
noi deprinderi i competene.
Dac elaborarea rspunsului are la baz procesele psihice amintite, eficiena
acestuia va depinde n mare msur de procesele psihice de a utoreglare i de
suportul funcional-energetic.
Procesul de antrenament trebuie s urmreasc o dezvoltare echilibrat ntre
toi factorii ce contribuie la elaborarea unui rspuns adaptat i eficient, sau care pot
contribui la creterea performanelor.
Procesul de antrenament specific se prezint ca un sistem organizat ce
integreaz influenele principalilor factori ai procesului de pregtire (fizic, psihic,
teoretic, tehnic i tactic), ce se afl ntr-o continu i foarte dinamic transformare
i care nu se rezum numai la unele acumulri cantitative, ci urmrete s produc
mai ales unele salturi de ordin calitativ-superior.
Procesul de antrenament urmeaz legile creterii i dezvoltrii generale,
desfurate sub interaciunea celor doi factori: genetic i de mediu. ntregul proces
se desfoar prin intermediul a dou tendine: entropic, ce acioneaz n direcia
unei transformri ireversibile (evolutiv) i antientropic, orientat ctre creterea
gradului de organizare (echilibrare). Entropia, sau msura cantitii de informaie
cu semn schimbat (deficit), introduce o destabilizare n sistem sau produce
creterea gradului de dezorganizare, ca o condiie pentru faza de dezvoltare,
exprimat printr-o reorganizare la un nivel superior (P. Popescu-Neveanu, 1978;
M. Niculescu, 2000; t. Tds, 2004).
Dezvoltarea diferitelor sisteme sau funcii ale organismului nu se realizeaz
liniar i uniform, prezentnd la un moment dat o dezvoltare inegal, ce va fi
explicat de legile heterocroniei i heteronomiei 1 . Heterocronia exprim c
dezvoltarea i maturizarea unor structuri sau funcii au ritmuri diferite i se
realizeaz la momente de timp diferite, ceea ce determin grade diferite de eficien
n raport cu anumite solicitri. Heteronomia arat c gradul de maturizare,
1
M. Nicu lescu, 2000; M. Go lu, 1993.
150
organizare i control al unor funcii sau procese ce definesc capacitatea de a aciona

autonom, se afl la nivele diferite de dezvoltare i performan n raport cu
solicitrile externe.
Desfurarea procesului de antrenament specific recla m identificarea
factorilor cu cea mai important contribuie, cunoaterea i respectarea
principalelor caracteristici ale stadiilor de dezvoltare i fixarea unor obiective sau
sarcini care s corespund din punct de vedere al tipului i gradului de solicitare.
Nivelul de dezvoltare general sau perioada optim pentru nceperea
instruirii n artele mariale (I. Hantu, 2005), se situeaz undeva n jurul vrstei de
10-11 ani, ns ncadrarea copiilor n seciile de arte mariale se poate face chiar
mai repede. Hantu va arta c n multe alte ri, precum Frana, Olanda, Germania
sau Italia, copiii sunt admii n cluburile de profil destul de devreme, ncepnd cu
vrsta de 6-7 ani.
Concepia din
fosta RDG
Antrenament
de baz
Antrenament
constructiv
Antrenament
de legtur
Antrenament
de mare
performan
Concepia din
fosta URSS
(Nabathicova)
Antrenamentul
pregtitor
Antrenament de
ncepere a
specializrii
Antrenament
aprofundat n
ramura de sport
Antrenament de
perfecionare
Concepia din
RFG (Martin)
Formare psihomotorie
Antrenament
de ncepere a
specializrii
Adncirea
specializrii
Antrenament
de mare
performan
Concepia din Romnia

Stadii
Etape
Stadiul
pregtirii de
baz
Antrenament
specializat
Specializare
aprofundat
Pregtire iniial
Pregtire
preliminar de
baz
Pregtire
specializat
Antrenament
de mare
performan
Realizarea
performanelor
maxime
Antrenament de
Meninerea
mare
performanelor
performan
maxime
Tabelul 1. Principalele concepii privind stadiile pregtirii pe termen lung (dup I. Hantu,
2005)
Ioan Hantu subliniaz necesitatea pregtirii timpurii pentru sportul de

performan i va afirma c aceast perioad de la 6 la 9 ani, poate constitui o
prim etap de pregtire. Acesta surprinde n literatura de specialitate, principalele
preri sau opinii i propune cinci etape de pregtire (tabelul 1).
Antrenamentul n artele mariale se va ealona pe parcursul a cinci etape de
pregtire: etapa pregtirii iniiale (6-9 ani); etapa pregtirii preliminare de baz (1014 ani); etapa pregtirii specializate (14-18 ani); etapa de pregtire i realizare a
marilor performane (18-21 ani); etapa obinerii i meninerii performanelor
maxime (dup 21 de ani).
151
Etapa pregtirii iniiale

nsuirea unor elemente specifice de autoaprare se poate realiza consecutiv
cu procesul de socializare ce ncepe odat cu introducerea copilului n grupele de
grdini, ns o abordare raional a confruntrii cu un alt semen de aceeai vrst
o considerm a fi prematur.
Procesul educrii unor capaciti psihomotrice poate ncepe relativ devreme
i vizeaz n general creterea experienei motrice, formarea unor deprinderi
aplicativ-practice. O atenie sporit va fi acordat mbuntirii funciei
echilibrului, dezvoltrii coordonrii i n special aspectelor ce privesc lateralitatea 1 .
Execuiile unor aciuni pe partea nendemnatic va solicita o atenie sporit, o
capacitate de concentrare crescut i o participare contient, orientat n direcia
controlului i reglrii micrii, ce ar putea avea efect i asupra realizrii micrii pe
partea ndemnatic.
Pregtirea specific n aceast etap nu trimite la confruntarea direct
dintre copii, urmrindu-se nsuirea unor gesturi simple de ntmpinare i a unor
comportamente de linitire, sub forma unor semnale, capabile s transmit
siguran i s induc o stare de calm celor implicai, ns accentul se pune pe
formarea unor deprinderi de autoprotecie i autoasigurare (coala cderii).
Deprinderile de autoprotecie se refer la formarea unor percepii specializate, care
n practic sunt cunoscute sub denumirea de simul distanei sau simul
adversarului, dar i a unor deprinderi de aciune, sau comportamente motrice
relativ stabile, menite a asigura un grad crescut de siguran i o eficien ridicat.
Acestea se refer la o serie de comportamente de oprire a luptei, cum ar fi pstrarea
distanei, interpunerea unor obstacole sau asigurarea unei situaii de avantaj, fie
solicitarea sprijinului unor teri, fie prin apelarea la o confruntare indirect (spre
exemplu: cine alearg mai repede?, cine se car mai sus?), etc.
Pe msur ce cresc, aceti copii au tendina s renune la sprijinul direct din
partea unui adult, simind nevoia de a-i soluiona singur problemele cu care se
confrunt i care pot duce la o serie de manifestri de for ce pot adesea
degenera n confruntri violente, mai ales n lipsa unor deprinderi de aciune
adecvate. La aceast vrst muli copii, n special bieii, sunt preocupai de propria
dezvoltarea fizic, fiind adesea tentai s i msoare forele cu ceilali semeni, cea
ce ar putea s le asigure o poziie mai avantajoas n cadrul grupului
Conform lui Andrei Demeter (1988, p. 17), dup vrsta de ase ani,
creterea i dezvoltarea morfo-funcional se realizeaz ceva mai rapid i mai
uniform, dect pn acum i va produce prima schimbare de nfiare (Gh.
Tnsescu), considerat a fi aproape tot att de nsemnat ca i cea din perioada
pubertar.
1
Valentina Horghidan (2000), dup ce atrage atenia asupra unor avantaje ale lateralitii, ntln ite
mai ales n sporturile colective i ch iar mai fecvent n sporturile de lupt, sublinieaz ro lul
experienei precoce chiar de la vrsta precolar n unele activiti motrice globale i cu caracter
dinamic.
152
Cu toate acestea fora de contracie muscular rmne la un nivel relativ

sczut, iar copiii antepubertari nu vor putea face fa unor ncordri musculare
mari. Demeter va mai arata c dezvoltarea cardiovascular i respiratorie este mult
deficitar la aceti copii, drept pentru care eforurile de for i de re zisten, dei nu
total contraindicate, se vor realiza la un nivel sczut de solicitare. Totodat, dat
fiind faptul c procesele de adaptare se realizeaz n paralel cu procesele de
cretere, autorul recomand realizarea unor eforturi variate de scurt durat i
pstrarea unor pauze mai lungi ntre repetri, ntre seriile de antrenament i ntre
leciile de antrenament (1988, p. 78).
Desfurarea unor activiti fizice pe parcursul acestei etape va urmri
asigurarea unei dezvoltri fizice generale ct mai armonioase, iar preocuparea
pentru educarea calitilor fizice va adreseaz n special dezvoltri vitezei i
ndemnrii. O stimulare corespunztoare, pe parcursul acestei perioade, va
contribui la realizarea unor micri destul de complexe, iar ctre finalul acesteia
controlul micrilor va fi considerabil mbuntit. Toate acestea vor fi posibile
numai dup determinarea i diferenierea caracteristicilor spaiale i dinamice ale
micrii.
Aceast etap va contribui marcant la trecerea aciunii din p lan concret n
plan mental, ns aceasta nu scap constngerilor externe, din mediul fizic i social.
Atenia se mut de pe imitarea micrilor i realizarea practic a aciunilor, ctre
formarea unor reprezentri, identificarea i descrierea verbal a aciunilor.
Activitatea mental rmne centrat pe adaptarea practic, iar singurul criteriu de
evaluare este reprezentat de reuita sau eecul aciunii, ns copilul are acum n fa
reprezentarea rezultatului practic ce trebuie atins i face efortur i s descopere noi
alternative pentru a-i satisface nevoile sau dorinele imediate.
Am putea spune c pe parcursul acestei etape se iniieaz procesul de
trecere de la confruntarea direct, pe for, ctre o confruntare indirect, bazat pe
aciunea raional. n acest scop se urmrete nsuirea deplasrilor specifice pentru
evitarea forei adversarului i dezechilibrarea acestuia, iar la sol se urmrete
utilizarea propriei greuti n aciuni de control i dominare, realizate n cadrul
jocurilor sub form de lupt i nsuirea micrilor de degajare.
Aceast etap impune atribuirea unor sarcini ce pot fi ndeplinite,
concomitent cu creterea treptat a gradului de dificultate, n vederea realizrii cu
precizie i n siguran a unor structuri motrice din ce n ce mai complexe. n plan
fizic este necesar a se utiliza cu precdere exerciii cu caracter dinamic, efectuate la
tempouri diferite sau antrennd diferite structuri de ritm, ce vor contribui printr-o
alternare judicioas a efortului cu odihna, la creterea capacitilor funcionale i la
dezvoltarea calitilor fizice generale.
Pentru realizarea acestor obiective se va apela la mijloace nespecifice din
atletism i gimnastic, utilizarea unor jocuri de micare sau a unor jocuri sub form
de lupt, ce solicit forme de deplasare i deprinderi specifice.
153
Etapa pregtirii preliminare de baz

Etapa aceasta corespunde perioadei pubertii, n care se produc o serie de
transformri profunde, att de ordin biologic ct i psihologic. ntreaga perioad
este marcat de procese de cretere i maturizare (inclusiv sexual).
Creterea n nlime este nsoit de o mrire a masei musculare, iar odat
cu aceasta crete remarcabil fora muscular (mai ales la biei). Organele interne
se dezvolt corespunztor, ns inima face fa cu greu sarcinilor impuse de aceast
dezvoltare impetuoas i ncep s apar mai frecvent momente de oboseal (A.
Demeter).
n plan nervos se produce o complicare a structurii cerebrale interne i se
nregisteaz o cretere semnificativ a sensibilitii senzorial-perceptive, mai
evident la nivelul sensibilitii vizuale, auditive i tactile. Se dezvolt plasticitatea
funcional a activitii nervoase i sistemul de autoreglare cortical, aspecte
observabile mai ales n uurina cu care acetia i nsuesc noi cunotine sau
deprinderi, ori prin marea lor capacitate de adaptare la situaii noi.
Puberi dei sunt mai capabili de a stabili singuri scopuri, reliefate n general
printr-o cretere marcant a iniiativei i tendina ctre o mai mare independen,
manifestat unele dorinele ce nu sunt nto tdeauna corelate cu condiiile existente
sau cu posibilitile proprii. Mai mult acetia nu par a fi capabili s-i urmreasc
propriile scopuri, ori nu sunt pur i simplu dispui s fac eforturi pentru a le
atinge, fiind mai curnd tentai s sar de la o activitate la alta.
La aceast vrst ntreaga activitate instructiv-educativ este centrat pe
cunoaterea de ctre elevi a realitii i surprinderea intereselor i trebuinelor
elevilor pentru a- i putea orienta n activitate sau a- i motiva n susinerea efortului
de dezvoltare personal.
n aceast etap se pstreaz preocuparea pentru realizarea unei dezvoltri
generale ct mai armonioase, acordndu-se o atenie special creterii indicilor de
manifestare a unor capaciti funcionale sau caliti motrice i dezvoltrii bagajului
de deprinderi i priceperi motrice. Pentru aceasta se vor folosi n continuare
mijoace din atletism, gimnastic sau jocuri dinamice i vor fi reluate struct urile de
micri nsuite n etapa precedent, urmrindu-se realizarea acestora la un nivel
superior de execuie, ce presupune eficien i un control mai bun al micr ii la
vitez crescut.
O atenie superioar va fi acordat dezvoltrii vitezei sub toate formele ei,
(de reacie, de execuie, de repetare sau de deplasare), avnd n vedere c la finalul
acestei perioade viteza de realizare a actelor motrice se apropie de valorile
constatate la adult (A. Demeter).
O contribuie important la realizarea unor indici superiori de manifestare a
vitezei o va avea nivelul de dezvoltare a forei. Dezvoltarea musculaturii, exprimat
n suprafaa de seciune transversal, este una relativ redus, ns se pot nregistra
unele creteri semnificative ale forei. Realizarea unor eforturi de for apare ca o
necesitate pentru dezvoltarea normal n aceast perioad i presupune efectuarea
154
unor exerciii ce utilizeaz n principal greutatea propriului corp, sau care s

provoace unele solicitri medii, fr a se recurge ns la ncordri musculare mari.
Cretera indicilor de for va avea influene pozitive att n ce privete
dezvoltarea rezistenei musculare, manifestate prin creterea numrului de repetri,
ct i asupra capacitii generale de efort, exprimat prin realizarea unui numr mai
mare de serii de antrenament sau a unui volum de munc crescut.
Dezvoltarea rezistenei generale urmrete s produc o stimulare
corespunztoare a marilor sisteme funcionale implicate n preluarea, transportul i
utilizarea oxigenului la nivel tisular. Eforturile de rezisten general vor fi
efectuate ntr- un tempo convenabil (copilului fiindu- i permis s-i regleze singur
tempoul), de la un tempo redus pn la moderat, cu o durat cuprins ntre 5 i 30
de minute (A. Demeter).
Pe parcursul acestei etape se realizeaz nsuirea tehnicii de baz,
urmrindu-se n principal formarea unor deprinderi de autoaprare i creterea
capacitii de aplicare n condiii schimbtoare i de ntrecere. Aceste deprinderi
sunt menite s satisfac nevoile crescute de siguran i confort i totodat
urmresc creterea ncrederii n capacitatea proprie de a face fa unor noi
provocri sau unor situaii conflictuale.
La aceast vrst elevii sunt mai interesai de obinerea unor rezultate
imediate care s confirme utilitatea deprinderilor i priceperilor acumulate, iar
sistemul centurilor colorate vine s satisfac cel puin n parte aceste nevoi. Cu
toate acestea, ceea ce conteaz n aceast etap, la trecerea de la o clas (centur) la
alta, nu este condiionat de eficacitatea elementelor tehnice n condiii de
ntrecere, ci vizeaz mai ales nivelul de nsuire a structurilor de micri, care s
conduc cu timpul la atingerea unui nivel tehnic superior.
Etapa pregtirii specializate
Etapa pregtirii specializate este o perioad propice depunerii unor eforturi
considerabile i susinute pentru perfecionarea deprinderilor i priceperilor
motrice, creterea abilitilor generale i atingerea unor indici superiori de
pregtire.
Adolescenii sunt mai preocupai de contextul relaiilor sociale i chiar dac
manifest nc un anume egocentrism1 acesta tinde a fi depit. Tnrul va trece
acum prin profunde transformri legate de propria identitate i stim de sine.
Activitatea acestor tineri se concentreaz pe implementarea n viaa de zi cu
zi a cunotinelor, legilor sau principiilor acumulate, elaborarea convingerilor
David Elkind arat c adolescenii au o viziune centrat pe sine i oarecum distorsionat n ce

privete importana i unicitatea lor. Muli adolesceni au tendina s manifeste o suprasensibilitate
la evalurile sociale i se consider tot timpul n centrul ateniei, ori vor supraestima unicitatea
tririlor i experienelor proprii, fcnd unele remarci precu m: prinii mei nu reuesc s n eleag
ce simt cu adevrat (M.W. Passer, R. E. Smith, p. 437).
155
personale 1 i constuirea propriilor competene n vederea creterii gradului de

independen sau auto-determinare.
n aceast etap se constat o restngere a sferei de interese, ce se manifest
n paralel cu creterea timpului alocat activitilor de pregtire i perfecionare,
putndu-se diferenia unele vrfuri motivaionale. Aceti tineri fac dovada c sunt
capabili de a-i fixa scopuri pe msura posibilitilor i mai ales de a se mobiliza n
vederea realizrii acestor obiective i creterea performanelor proprii.
Procesul de antrenament vizeaz n principal creterea gradului de siguran
i control n realizarea aciunilor, precum i capacitatea de a adapta aciunile
funcie de reacia adversarului. Prin aceasta se urmrete desvrirea pregtirii
tehnice i construirea unor strategii tactice, n vederea participrii n competiiile
sportive.
Consecutiv cu pregtirea tehnico-tactic se urmrete abilitatea de a ine sub
control emoiile. Abilitatea de a regla emoiile cuprinde ntregul proces de
percepie, evaluare a situaiei i modificare a propriilor reacii emoionale, proces
ce ncepe destul de devreme pe parcursul copilriei i va influena nu numai
comportamentul n competiiile sportive, dar va marca relaiile sociale n ansamblul
lor.
Ctre finalul aceastei etape se poate observa o mai mare stabilitate
emoional, ns tinerii care vor raporta mai puine emoii pozitive au tendina de a
manifesta o stim de sine sczut (M.W. Passer, R. E. Smith). Aceti tineri trebuie
s beneficieze de evaluri ct mai corecte, ns accentul se va pune mai ales pe
aspectele pozitive observate.
Potrivit lui Demeter odat ncheiat perioada furtunoas a dezvoltrii din
etapa pubertar, ritmul de cretere devine din ce n ce mai lent, iar ctre fritul
acestei etape, organismul se apropie de stadiul de maturizare somato-vegetativ
caracteristic adultului. Demeter consider aceast etap ca fiind extrem de prielnic
dezvoltrii tuturor calitilor motrice i n mod special fora i rezistena vor
beneficia acum de cele mai bune condiii de dezvoltare. Ponderea exerciiilor de
for va crete, dezvoltarea acesteia avnd efecte favorabile i asupra manifestrilor
vitezei i rezistenei. Dezvoltarea forei se produce mai ales datorit hipertrofiei
musculare, realizat n principal prin eforturi segmentare cu ncrcturi medii i
mari, fiind contraindicate ncordrile maxime i lucrul cu haltere grele de deasupra
trunchiului.
Eforturile de rezisten cu mobilizarea unei mari pri din totalul
musculaturii scheletice va determina creteri importante ale capacitii funcionale
a sistemului cardio-respirator, singura condiie fiind respectarea cu strictee a
principiului creterii gradate a efortului (A. Demeter).
1
Baltes i Staudinger consider c mare parte din nvtur, sau cunotinele despre natura
uman i rela iile sociale, despre stategia lurii deciziilor i rezolvarea conflictelor, ori ce privesc
abilitatea de a administra situaiile ce p rezint nesiguran, se acumuleaz n perioada cuprins ntre
13 i 25 de ani, dup care acesta tinde s rmn relat iv stabil (M.W. Passer, R. E. Smith, p. 440).
156
Pe parsursul acestei etape pregtirea fizic specific va cpta importan i

pondere tot mai crescut. Aceasta se va realiza cu mijloace de pregtire specifice i
pe intervale scurte de efort, apropiindu-se de efortul specific din competiie.
Tinerilor care au participat sistematic i au fcut eforturi continue i
contante de antrenament, aceast etap le poate aduce o serie de satisfacii n
competiiile sportive, fapt care i va apropia i mai mult de activitatea sportiv de
performan.
Etapa pregtirii i realizrii marilor performane
Aceast etap constituie un prim pas ctre maturitate, ce se instituie printrun efort continuu de obiectivare, pe fondul maturizrii proceselor de gndire i
acumulrii unui volum ridicat de cunotine faptice.
Multe din cunotinele de specialitate survin din practic, ns iniial aceste
constatri nu au neaprat valoare de adevr, abia dup ce sunt confirmate prin
metode tiinifice i completate cu cunotine ce fundamenteaz domeniul
respectiv, se asigur garania ca odat transpuse n fapte se pot obine performane
crescute.
Tnrul contient fiind de importana validrii datelor provenite din
experien, va acorda o atenie sporit pregtirii teoretice, fiind chiar recomandat s
continue pregtirea pentru activitatea profesional n domeniul tiinei sportului, ori
ntr- un domeniu conex. Aceasta i va permite o participare activ i un control
crescut n ce privete ndeplinirea sarcinilor de antrenament i realizarea unor indici
funcionali crescui.
Pe parsursul acestei etape este necesar s se asigure un nivel ridicat de
pregtire tehnico-tactic, ce va fi susinut i de o pregtire fizic i psihologic pe
msur.
Pregtirea tehnico-tactic este orientat spre descoperirerea i asigurarea
tuturor condiiilor sau cerinelor pentru controlul i reuita aciunilor. Acum este
indicat construirea unor strategii complexe prin care s se conduc adversarul n
situaii fr ieire, prin care i sunt blocate posibilitile de atac sau se afl n
imposibilitatea realizrii unei aprri eficiente.
Nivelul pregtirii fizice se apropie n aceast etap de performanele
maxime (I. Hantu), fr a se atinge rezultatele de vrf ale competitorilor seniori
(T. Bompa 1 ). Pregtirea fizic este subordonat realizrii unor adaptri superioare
la nivelul efortului din competiie i atingerea formei sportive pe perioada
competiiilor de obiectiv.
O atenie sporit va fi acordat reglrii strilor psihice ale sportivilor, prin
instituirea unor prghii sau obiceiuri de comportament, iar n acest sens este
recomandat s se apeleze la ajutor specializat.
Citat de I. Hantu, 2005, op. cit., p. 204
157
Etapa obinerii i menine rii pe rformanelor maxime

Aceast etap se subordoneaz pregtirii n vederea realizrii
performanelor sportive maxime i meninerii acestora la un nivel ct mai ridicat o
perioad lung de timp.
Obinerea unor performane ridicate la nivel mondial presupune atingerea
unor valori maxime pentru toi factori de antrenament implicai n realizarea
acestora. La acest nivel este important ca pregrirea pentru marile competiii s se
realizeze individualizat, urmrindu-se creterea capacitilor i mbuntirea
indicilor funcionali, n cele mai mici amnunte.
Sportivul beneficiaz de o experien competiional bogat, iar pregtirea
tehnico-tactic se focalizeaz pe realizarea de ctre sportiv a unui studiu aprofundat
al participrilor sale n competiii i n acelai timp, studierea potenialilor adversari
n vederea descifrrii modului lor de aciune i descoperirea eventualelor erori sau a
breelor n aprare.
Pe parcursul acestei etape de pregtire, pe fondul realizrii unor eforturi
maximale, o atenie special este acordat dinamicii efortului de antrena ment,
mbinrii efortului cu odihna i refacerea potenialului de efort al sportivului. Odat
cu trecerea timpului capacitatea de adaptare nregistreaz o uoar scdere, iar
meninerea performanelor ridicate se realizeaz prin conservarea posibilitilor
funcionale printr-o alternare judicioas a volumului cu intensitatea i asigurarea
unor mijoloace suplimentare de refacere (I. Hantu, 2005).
Formarea i desvrirea personalitii sportivilor trebuie s fie, potrivit lui
Niculescu, o preocupare continu i constant a antrenorilor, ntruct
personalitatea este cea care valorific n competiii toate acumulrile efectuate de
sportivi n munca lor zilnic, n decursul multor ani, (2000, p.95). Niculescu arat
c pe parcursul acestor etape se realizeaz interiorizarea succesiv n planul
personalitii a specificului activitii.
Bibliografie
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(2008)
2. DEMETER A.
(1988)
3. EPURAN M.,
HOLDEVICI I.,
TONIA FL.,
4. HANTU I.
(2001)
5. NICULESCU, M.,
(2000)
6. PASSER M.W.,
SMITH R. E.
(2008)
(2005)
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combat, Editura BREN, Bucureti.
Bazele fiziologice ale educaiei fizice
colare, Editura Stadion, Bucureti
,,Psihologia sportului de performan. Teorie
i practic, Editura FEST, Bucureti.
Judo. Instruire i antrenament, Editura
ANEFS, Bucureti.
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159
DEZVOLTAREA SPORTURILOR DE IARN N ASIA I

OCEANIA
WINTER SPORTS DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA AND
OCEANIA
Trifa Ioan1
Rezumat
Ultimele ediii ale Jocurilor Olimpice arat o cretere impresionant a
femonenului sportiv n Asia i Oceania. La ultima ediie a Jocurilor Olimpice de
Var, sportivii chinezi reuesc s cucereasc nu mai puin de 100 de medalii, dintre
care 51 de aur, 21 de argint i 28 de bronz, prin care aduc China pe primul loc pe
naiuni. Problematica studiului vizeaz aprecierea potenialului de dezvoltare a
sporturilor de iarn n Asia i Oceania i ncearc s estimeze dac n urmtorii ani
ne putem atepta ca o ar din regiune s ocupe o poziie de top n ierarhia
mondial.
Cuvinte cheie: evoluie, medalii, potenial.
Abstract
The last editions od the olympic games show an important growth of the
fenomenon in Asia and Oceania.At the last edition of the Summer Olympics ,the
chinese athletes manage to take over 100 medals ,51 of which golden, 21 silver
medals and 28 bronze medals, bringing China to first place in the countries
clasification. The study approaches the potential of development of winter sports in
Asia and Oceania and if in the following years we can expect a country from this
region to secure a top position in the world hierarchy.
Key words: evolution, medals, potential.
Pe plan mondial exist nc o larg dezbatere cu privire la originea schiului.
Probabil cel mai vechi schi 2 a fost descoperit n Rusia, n apropierea lacului Sidor,
fiind datat din perioada 6300-5000 .ch.
Alte importante descoperiri au fost fcute n regiunile mltinoase din
Norvegia, Finlanda i Suedia. Dintre acestea cele mai importante ar fi schiurile
Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport Oradea;

Grigori M Burov, Some Mesolithic wooden artefacts from the site of Vis I in the European North east of the USSR, (www.fis-ski.co m);
2
160
gsite la Vefsn1 (3200 .ch.), n Norvegia; n Finlanda la Salla (3000 .ch.); sau la
Kalvtrsk (3300-2700 .ch.) i Hoting (2500 .ch.), n Suedia.
Dintre reprezentri, cele mai vechi dateaz din neolitic (cu o vechime
estimat ntre 5000 i 6000 de ani), fiind descoperite la Rodoy i Bla, n Norvegia,
ns cercettorii chinezi pretind c pictogramele descoperite n regiunea Altai ar
avea o vechime cuprins ntre 10.000 i 20.000 de ani.
Avnd la baz o serie de astfel de descoperiri, Carl J. Luther 2 va susine c
schiul ar fi aprut n Asia Central de unde ar fi ajuns n Nordul Europei i America
de Nord. Chiar dac la aceast teorie ader i ali cercettori, n sprijinul acesteia
mai trebuiec nc aduse o serie de confirmri sau dovezi.
n China i Asia de nord, dei regsit destul de devreme, schiul i pstreaz
mai ales caracterul lui utilitar, iar schiul competiional dar i recreaional aa cum l
cunoatem noi azi este cu siguran de provenien scandinav. Astfel, primele
competiii consemnate n Asia se regsesc destul de trziu. n fapt, primele
activiti cu caracter sportiv i de agrement se regsesc n Australia, odat cu
apariia aproximativ n 1876 a primului club Kiandra Snowshoe, club ce va
organiza prima curs de schi n 1894. ns prima referire la utilizarea schiurilor n
Oceania, face trimitere la regiunea aurifer Otago, din Noua Zeeland 3 .
n 1909 austriacul Egon Edler von Kratzer va face primul su tur pe schiuri
n Japonia, aceasta fiind i prima referin legat de schi n Japonia. Mai apoi n
1912 avea s fondeze Clubul de Schi Alpin din Japonia, mpreun cu Ottgo Euchler
i Leopold Winkler. Tot n 1912 se face referire la nfiinarea Clubului Takada Ski
i la prima competiie de schi desfurat n Japonia.
n 1928, Japonia va participa la ntrecerile de schi fond, combinata nordic
i srituri cu schiurile din cadrul Jocurilor Olimpice de Iarn, desfurate la Saint
Moritz. La numai civa ani, Sapporo avea s fie desemnat pentru a gzdui Jocurile
Olimpice de Iarn din 1940, anulat ns datorit conflictelor militare ce vor duce
la izbucnirea celui de-al doilea rzboi mondial.
La prima ediie de dup rzboi Japonia i Germania nu aveau s participe,
n schimb Coreea de Sud va participa cu trei sportivi la ntrecerile de patinaj vitez.
Primele succese ale sportivilor asiatici la Jocurile Olimpice de Iarn ncep
la Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), cnd sportivul japonez Chiharu Igaya ctig o
medalie de argint la schi alpin, n proba de slalom masculin.
Aflat la prima ei participare la JO de Iarn, desfurate la Innsbruck n
1964, Coreea de Nord va ctiga prima medalie de argint la patinaj vitez feminin,
n ntrecerea de 3000m prin Pil Hwa Han. Sportivi nord coreeni vor mai participa
n ntrecerile de schi fond.
1
Federaia Internaional de Schi prezint date contradictorii cu priv ire la schiul descoperit la
Vefsn, ce ar data din 5100 .ch., ns vorbete i de un alt schi descoperit la Drevja, n aceeai
provincie Vefsn, datat aproximat iv din 3200 .ch. despre care am gsit i alte referine;
2
Ion Matei, Marea aventur a schiului, p.23.
3
Noua Zeeland consemneaz i p rima meniune ce se refer la schi ca i atracie turistic (1915).
161
Prima ediie a Jocurilor Olimpice de Iarn desfurat n Asia, la Sapporo

(1972), aduce Japoniei trei medalii n probele de srituri cu schiurile: una de aur
prin Kasaya Yukio, una de argint prin Akitsugu Konno i una de bronz prin Seij i
Aochi.
China particip pentru prima oar la Jocurile Olimpice de Iarn abia n
1980, avnd sportivi la cinci discipline sportive. La aceast ediie, desfurat n
Statele Unite, la Lake Placid, Japonia avea s ctige o nou medalie de argint la
srituri prin Hirokazu Yagi.
n 1984 la Sarajevo, Japonia i nscrie n palmares o medalie de argint la
patinaj vitez prin Yoshihiro Kitazawa (500m M), iar n 1988 la Calgary obine o
nou medalie de bronz n aceeai prob prin Akira Kurowa.
ncepnd cu ani 90 sporturile de iarn din Asia i Oceania vor nregistra o
dezvoltare extrem de spectaculoas, concretizate prin rezultate remarcabile la
Jocurile Olimpice.
La ediia din 1992 a Jocurilor Olimpice de la Albertville, Japonia ctig
apte medalii dintre care dou cu echipa, una de aur i una de bronz la combinata
nordic i respectiv patinaj short track 5000m; i alte cinci medalii la individual:
dou de argint, la patinaj artistic feminin prin Midori Ito i patinaj vitez prin
Toshiyuki Kurowa (500m M), i trei de bronz n cadrul ntrecerilor de patinaj
vitez (Seiko Hashimoto, 1500m F; Junichi Inoue, 500m M; Yukinori Myabe,
10.000m M).
Coreea de Sud i ncepe ascensiunea prin patru medalii: aur cu echipa la
patinaj short track (5000m M), aur i bronz la patinaj short track n proba de
1000m masculin (Kim Ki-Hoon i Lee Jun-Ho) i argint la patinaj vitez (Kim
Yoon Man, 10.000m M).
Coreea de Nord obine o nou medalie de bronz la patinaj short track n
proba de 500m feminin prin Hwang Ok-Sil.
China obine primele succese la Jocurile Olimpice de Iarn, ctignd trei
medalii de argint prin Li Yan (patinaj short track, 500m F) i Ye Qiaobo (patinaj
vitez, 1000m F i 3000m F).
Noua Zeeland obine un succes rsuntor la patruzeci de ani de la prima
participare la JO de Iarn de la Oslo. Annelise Coberger ctig o medalie de argint
n ntrecerea de slalom feminin, aceasta fiind i prima reprezentant din emisfera
sudic care ctig o medalie la JO de Iarn.
n cadrul Jocurilor Olimpice de Iarn de la Lillehammer, ntre
reprezentantele Asiei, Coreea de Sud avea s se impun prin ctigarea a ase
medalii dintre care patru de aur: una cu echipa feminin de patinaj short track
(3000m F) i trei la individual prin Chun Lee-Kyung (1000m F), Chae Ji-Hoon
(500m M), M Kim Ki-Hoon (1000m). La acestea se adaug un argint i un bronz n
ntrecerile de 1000m M, prin Chae Ji-Hoon i 1000m F, prin Kim So-Hee.
Japonia avea s ctige cinci medalii: aur cu echipa de combinat nordic i
argint la individual prin Kono Takanori; argint cu echipa la srituri; i dou medalii
162
de bronz la patinaj vitez prin Yamamoto Hiromi (5000m F) i Hori Manabu

(500m M).
China i nscrie n palmares alte trei medalii: un argint prin Zang Yanmei,
la patinaj short track 500m F; i dou de bronz, prin Chen Lu, la patinaj artistic i
Ye Qiaobo, la patinaj vitez 1000m F.
Australia dei particip la JO de Iarn nc din 1936, reuete s ctige abia
acum prima medalie de bronz, prin echipa masculin de patinaj short track (5000m
M).
Dintre trile desprinse din Uniunea Sovietic, Kazakhstanul obine trei
medalii prin Vladimir Smirnov (aur la 50km M cross country, argint la 10 km
pursuit i combinata pursuit 10+15km), iar Uzbekistanul ctig o medalie de aur
prin Lina Cheryazova, la freestyle ski n proba de aerials.
n 1998 Jocurile Olimpice de Iarn se rentorc dup 26 de ani n Japonia, la
Nagano. Investiiile i pregtirile pentru aceast ediie a JO, aduc ri gazde cel mai
important succes, clasndu-se pe locul VII pe naiuni i ctignd 10 medalii (cinci
de aur, una de argint i patru de bronz). La srituri cu schiurile echipa Japoniei
ctig ntrecerea de la trambulina mare (Large Hill), iar la individual ia aurul (prin
Funaki Kazuyoshi) i bronzul (prin Harada Masahiko) n aceeai prob i argintul
la trambulina normal (NH) prin acelai Funaki Kazuyoshi. La Freestyle ski,
Satoya Tae ctig ntrecerea de moguls i aduce o nou medalie de aur. La acestea
se adug dou medalii de aur, la patinaj short track (Nishitani Takafumi 500m M)
i patinaj vitez (Shimizu Hiroyasu 500m M), plus trei de bronz prin Uematsu
Hitoshi (patinaj ST 500m M), Shimizu Hiroyasu (patinaj vitez 1000m M) i
Okazaki Tomoni (patinaj vitez 500m F).
Coreea de sud se remarc obinnd ase medalii n ntrecerile de patinaj
short track, dintre care trei de aur: cu echipa feminin (3000m), la 1000m feminin
prin Chun Lee-Kyung i 1000m masculin prin Kim Dong-Sung; una de argint cu
echipa masculin (5000m) i dou de bronz: la 1000m F prin Won Hye-Kyung i
500m F prin Chun LeeKyung.
China se afirm reuind s ctige opt medalii, argint prin Xu Nannan la
Freestyle ski n proba de aerials feminin, bronz la patinaj artistic avnd-o ca
protagonist pe Chen Lu. La patinaj short track echipa feminin (3000m) se
claseaz a doua, n timp ce bieii vor urca pe treapta a treia a podiumului. La
individual, YANG (S) Yang ctig dou medalii de argint la 500m F i 1000m F,
iar la masculin, An Yulong (500m) i Li Jia-Jun (1000m) vor mai aduce dou
medalii de argint.
Kazakhstanul mai cucerete dou medalii de bronz, una prin Vladimir
Smirmov la Cross-country pursuit 10+15km i cealalt la patinaj vitez n proba de
5000m, prin Flyudmila Prokasheva.
Australia i va nscrie n palmares a doua medalie de bronz, prin Za li
Stegall la schi alpin, n proba de slalom feminin.
163
La Salt Lake City se confirm trendul de dezvoltare a sporturilor de iarn n Asia i

Oceania. China se afl n plin ascensiune reuind s ctige din nou opt medalii,
ntre care i dou de aur prin YANG (A) Yang la patinaj short track n probele de
500m i 1000m. Mai trece n palmares dou medalii de argint, prin echipa feminin
(3000m) i prin Li Jia-Jun n proba masculin de 1500m, la care se adaug patru
medalii de bronz: cu echipa masculin de patinaj ST (5000m), n proba de 500m
feminin prin Wang Chunlu, la 1000m feminin prin YANG (S) Yang i reuete s
urce pe podium la patinaj artistic n proba de perechi.
Coreea de Sud va obine patru medalii la patinaj short track: dou de aur i
dou de argint. Primele prin echipa feminin (3000m) i prin Ko Gi-Hyun n proba
de 1500m feminin, iar celelalte n probele de 1000m (Ko Gi-Hyun) i 1500m (Choi
Eun Kyung).
Japonia va obine doar dou medalii, un argint la patinaj vitez n proba
masculin de 500m, prin Hiroyasu Shimizu i un bronz la freestyle ski n proba
feminin de moguls, prin Tae Satoya.
Australia reuete o mare surpriz ctignd dou medalii de aur. Alisa
Camplin urc pe cea mai nalt treapt a podiumului la freestyle ski n proba de
aerials, iar Steven Bradbury iese ctigtor n proba de 1000m de patinaj ST.
La Jocurile Olimpice de la Torino, Coreea de Sud i demonstreaz
supremaia n probele de patinaj short track ctignd nu mai puin de ase medalii
de aur, trei de argint i una de bronz, ocupnd n final locul VII pe naiuni i
egalnd performana Japoniei de la Nagano. n ntrecerile de tafet, de la patinaj
short track, echipa feminim i cea masculin se dovedesc imbatabile. Coreenii
mai obin aurul la feminim prin Jin Sun Yu la 1000m i 1500m, iar la masculin
Ahn Hyun Soo ctig probele de 1000m, 1500m i se claseaz al treilea la 500m.
Choi Eun Kyung reuete s soseasc a doua n proba feminin de 1500m, iar Lee
Ho-Suk obine argintul n probele de 1000m i 1500m. La aceste medalii se adaug
un bronz obinut de Lee Kang Seok la patinaj vitez n ntrecerea de 500m.
China egaleaz Coreea ca numr de medalii dar se claseaz abia pe locul
XIV pe naiuni, reuind s ctige dou medalii de aur, patru de argint i cinci de
bronz n cadrul a patru discipline sportive: patinaj artistic, patinaj short track,
patinaj vitez i freestyle ski. La schi, n proba de aerials, este adjudecat medalia
de aur la masculin (Han Xiaopeng) i argintul la feminin (Li Nina), iar la patinaj
artistic perechile de patinatori Zhang Dan/Zhang Hao i Shen Xue/Zhao Hongbo
aduc medaliile de argint i bronz. Patinatoarea Wang Meng obine cte o medalie
de aur (500m), de argint (1000m) i de bronz (1500m), iar Yang Yang va lua
bronzul la patinaj short track 1000m. La masculin Li Jia Jun aduce bronzul n
ntrecerea de 1500m. n proba feminin de 500m patinaj vitez se obine argintul i
bronzul prin Wang Manli i respectiv Ren Hui.
Japonia are o comportare mai slab reuind c ctige o singur medalie de
aur la patinaj artistic feminin, prin Arakawa Shizuka.
164
Schiorul australian de freestyle Dale Begg Smith ctig ntrecerea

masculin de moguls, iar compatrioata sa Alisa Camplin ctig medalia de bronz
n ntrecerea feminim de aerials.
Ediia din 2010 a Jocurile Olimpice de Iarn desfurat n Canada, la
Vancover, consemneaz un nou record, fiind pentru prima dat n cadrul
ntrecerilor de iarn cnd dou ri din Asia se claseaz ntre primele zece naiuni
ale lumii.
Coreea de Sud se claseaz a cincea obinnd 14 medalii, dintre care ase de
aur, ase de argint i dou de bronz. Yu Na Kim ctig medalia de aur la patinaj
artistic feminin. Patinajul short track aduce dou medalii de aur prin Lee Jung Su
n probele masculine de 1000m i 1500m; patru medalii de argint prin: echipa
masculin (5000m), la individual Si Bak Sung i Ho Suk Lee n probele masculine
de 500m i 1000m, iar Eun Byul Lee la 1500m feminin; i dou medalii de bronz
prin Seung Hi Park n ntrecerile feminine de 1000m i 1500m. La patinaj vitez
Seung Hoon Lee ctig aurul la 10.000m i 5000m. Alte dou medalii de aur sunt
adjudecate n ntrecerile de 500m la feminin prin Sang Hwa Lee i la masculin prin
Tae Bum Mo, care mai ctig o medalie de argint n proba de 1000m.
China ctig unsprezece medalii, n cinci din cele cinsprezece discipline
sportive, cu care ocup locul VII pe naiuni. Echipa feminin de curling a Chinei se
va impune n lupta pentru medaliile de bronz. n proba de perechi la patinaj artistic
Xue Shen i H. Zhao obin aurul, iar Jian Tong i Q. Pang se vor clasa pe locul II.
Echipa feminin de patinaj short track se dovedete imbatabil, iar componentele
acesteia Meng Wang i Yang Zhou aduc Chinei nc trei medalii de aur, prima n
probele de 500m i 1000m, pentru ca cea de-a doua s se impun la 1500m. La
patinaj vitez Wang Beixing aduce bronzul n ntrecerea feminin de 500m. Deloc
surprinztor n ntrecerea feminin de aerials la freestyle ski Nina Li obine medalia
de argint i Guo Xinxin ctig bronzul, iar n ntrecerea masculin Liu Zhongqing
mai aduce o medalie de bronz.
Japonia revine dup evoluia slab de la Torino reuind s ctige cinci
medalii. Echipa feminin de patinaj vitez ctig medalia de argint n ntrecerea de
pursuit, iar la masculin Keichiro Nagashima i Joji Kato mai aduc o medalie de
argint i una de bronz n ntrecerea de 500m. La patinaj artistic Mao Asada ctig
argintul la individual feminin, iar Daisuke Takahashi obine bronzul n ntrecerea
masculin.
Kazakhstanul reuete s-i mai adauge n palmares o medalie de argint n
cadrul probei feminine de biathlon, avnd-o ca protagonist pe sportiva de 29 de
ani, Elena Khrustaleva.
Australia se menine printre favorite n ntrecerile de freestyle ski reuind s
ctige aurul n ntrecerea feminin de aerials prin Lydia Lassila i argintul n
proba masculin de moguls prin Dale Begg Smith, iar Torah Bright se impune n
ntrecerea feminin de snowboard halfpipe.
165
n loc de concluzie putem spune c exist un mare potenial de dezvoltare a

sporturilor de iarn n Asia i Oceania. Potrivit modului de evoluie a rezultatelor la
ultimele ediii ale Jocurilor Olimpice de Iarn, o mare pretendent pentru topul
ierarhiei mondiale se anun a fi China, aceasta reuind nu numai s-i
mbunteasc evoluia n cadrul probelor de patinaj dar reuete s se afirme n
discipline noi precum freestyle ski, ce presupun bune caliti acrobatice la care
aceti sportivi exceleaz, ori n unele discipline de echip cum ar fi curling.
166
167
Bibliografie
1. TRIFA IOAN
2. Website
,,Arta de a schia. Evoluie i instruire,

Editura Universitii din Oradea.
www.olympic.org
3. Website
www.fis-ski.com
4. Website
www.vancouver2010.com
(2009)
168
I.S.S.N. 1224 - 5100

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ANALELE

UNIVERSITII DIN ORADEA

EDUCAIE FIZIC I SPORT

EDITURA UNIVERSITII DIN ORADEA

Bocu Traian, David

Studiu, msurtori i observaii privind nivelul

Studiu privind atractivitatea leciilor de educaie

Turneul din anul 1932 al echipei de fotbal Clubul

Antrenarea forei de apucare previne cderea

Bocu Traian, David

Study, measurements and observations about the

Study on the attractiveness of physical education

The 1932 tournament of the Athletic Club Oradea

Grip-strength training prevents falling

STUDIU, MSURTORI I OBSERVAII PRIVIND NIVELUL

Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport

motrice i fizice, asupra strii de sntate, asupra formrii componentelor,

Pentru formarea colectivelor sportive i a echipelor reprezentative

Elevi cu detent (n trenul inferior) foarte bun (S.I.- 237 cm,

Investigaiile, avnd i caracter de selecie pentru handbal, cu ajutorul

4) n predarea handbalului trebuiesc utilizate toate formele prevzute de planul i

Tabel nr. 2 Diagnoza potenialului tehnico-tactic al echipelor colare incluse n

STUDII I EXPERIMENTE DIDACTICE PRIVIND

Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport

competitions and athletic activities.These included 10-10 students from each

Contribuia handbalului la realizarea noilor cerine se cere, deci, cunoscut

La toate grupele experimentale att la biei ct i la fete au fost nregistrate

de integrare rapid n liceu, orizont de cunoatere mult mai larg,

Medii inregistrate la probe de control

Experimentul nr.2 realizat in perioada 1996-1999, Scoala Marghita, Profesor Haias V.

Medii ale indicilor

Medii inregistrate la probe de control

Experimentul nr.3.Perioada 2004-2006, Scoala Gurbediu, Profesor Popa Roman Florin

Medii ale indicilor

Medii inregistrate la probe de control

ACTIVITILE DE EDUCAIE FIZIC I SPORT COLAR

Universitatea de Medicin i Farmacie Iuliu Haieganu Cluj Napoca

Fig. 1 Axa sntate public-educaie fizic i sport

- Necesitatea crerii cadrului necesar angrenrii unui numr ct mai mare de

populaia colar i universitar i ca urmare distribuirea subiecilor n cteva

STUDIU PRIVIND ATRACTIVITATEA LECIILOR DE

Un iversitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport

administraiei locale i centrale pentru creterea gradului de atractivitate a

Graficul nr. 1 Repartizarea elevilor pe coli, n procente

Graficul nr. 2 Aprecierea orelor de educaie fizic

La ntrebarea a 3-a: Ct de atractive apreciai c sunt leciile de educaie

Graficul nr. 3 - Atractivitatea orelor de educaie fizic

Tabelul nr. 4 Factorii care contribuie la atractivitatea orelor de educaie fizic

Graficul nr. 4 Factorii care contrinuie la realizarea atractivitii orelor

Graficul nr. 5 Opiunile privind coninutul orelor de educaie fizic

TURNEUL DIN ANUL 1932 AL ECHIPEI DE FOTBAL

Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de Educaie Fizic i Sport

Pentru soluionarea numeroaselor i anevoioaselor probleme, organizatorul

Echipa care a participat la turneul n Frana i Elveia din 1932. De la stnga la

Ca semn de apreciere a evoluiei echipei n turneul din Frana i Elveia,

* * * A NAC turja Delfranciaorszgban, [Turneul CAO n sudul Franei]

ANTRENAREA FOREI DE APUCARE PREVINE CDEREA

University of Co logne, Medical School, Anatomy Institute II

respectiv de 304,8 N n cea stng (8 participani).

diseases through the use of antibiotics, highly developed medical technology as

and mental biomarkers at an acceptable level to lead as independent a life as

Falls always have multifactorial causes, including intrinsic, extrinsic, age-related

Preliminary detailed explanation of the testing procedure.