1.1.

Introduction - Approach to Data Management- from

files to Database
A file is a collection of records or documents dealing with an organization, person, area or subject. A
file, in the computer world, is a self contained piece of information available to the operating system
or any number of individual programs. In a computer, a file system is the collection of files, where the
files are placed logically for storage and retrieval.
File-Based System
Advantages of File Based system

File-based systems was the first method to store data in computers. The data was stored
and retrieved sequentially from the disk.

File based systems are an early attempt to computerise the manual filing system (organizing
the files with the help of papers). For example, a manual file can be set up to hold all the details
relating to a particular matter as a project, product, task, client or employee. In an organisation
there could be such files which may be labeled and stored.

The manual filing system works good when the number of items to be stored is small. It even
works quite well when the number of items stored is quite large and they are only needed to be
stored and retrieved. However, a manual file system crashes when the referencing of files are
not proper and processing of information in the files are carried out.

Drawbacks of File Based system

There were certain drawbacks in using the file-based approach which will be discussed in detail
using the below example.
Example:
In a university, a large number of students are enrolled and they have the option of
choosing various courses. The personal details of students, fees paid by them, the number and
details of the courses available, the number and the details of faculty members in various
departments are the separate files in the university system. Consider the effort to answer the
following queries.

Figure 1.0 : File Based System

Annual fees paid by the students of Computer science department.

Number of students requiring transportation facility from a particular area.

This year's revenue from students as compared to last year.

Number of students choosing different courses in different departments.

As shown in Figure1.0, in a file-based system, different programs in the same application may be
interacting with different private data files.
Thus
a.

the

drawbacks
Data

of
Redundancy

the

file
and

system

are:

Inconsistency

Since data resides in different private data files, the file system leads to uncontrolled duplication of
data. This duplication leads to wastage of a lot of store room. This also costs time and money to
enter the data more than once. For example, the address information of student may have to be
duplicated in transport details data file (Figure 1.0). The data in a file system can become

inconsistent if multiple persons modify the data concurrently. For example, if any student changes
the residence and the change is notified to only his/her file and not to bus list. Entering wrong data is
also

another

reason

b.

for

inconsistency.

Unanticipated

Queries

Handling sudden/ad-hoc queries can be difficult in a file-based system, because it requires changes
in the existing programs. For example, finding the number of faculty members(Faculty Details Data
file in figure1.0) who used the transport facility (Transport Details Data File in figure1.0) in this year
may

be

difficult

as

separate

c.

file

system

is

used

to

store

the

Data

details.
Isolation

Though data used by different programs in the application may be related, they reside in isolated
data files. For example, there is a relationship between the course details (Course Details data file)
and student details (Student Personal Details data File), but they stand isolated as shown in Figure
1.0.
d.

Concurrent

Access

Anomalies

In large multi-user systems the same file or record may need to be accessed by multiple users
simultaneously. Handling this in a file-based system is difficult. For example, the transport details
may

be

accessed

by

both

e.

faculty

and

students

simaltaneously

(Figure

Security

1.0)
Issues

In data-intensive applications, security of data is a major concern. Users should be given access
only to required data and not the whole database. The data in a file-based system can be made
secure only by additional programming in each application. For example, the student marks should
be accessed only by the faculty members and not by the fellow students (Figure 1.0).
f.

Integrity

Issues

In any application, there are some data integrity rules that need to be maintained. These could be in
the form of certain conditions/constraints on the elements of the data records. In a file-based system,
all these rules need to be explicitly programmed in the application program. For example, the salary
structure of each faculty will be dependant on their designation as well as on any other conditions
which
g.

needs

to

be

explicitly
Recovery

programmed

(Figure

1.0).
Issues

System failures or loss of connection to remote systems should be dealt by the file system. In the

event of operating system failure or "soft" power failure, special routines in the file system must be
invoked similar to individual program failure. The damaged structures must also be corrected by the
file system . These may occur as a result of an operating system failure for which the OS is not able
to notify the file system, power failure or reset. The file system must also record events to allow the
analysis of systemic issues as well as the problems with specific files or directories.For example,
during the admission process of students if there is a system failure, the non recovery of data will
cause issues (Figure 1.0).
It may be noted that, facing the above issues like concurrent access, integrity security problems,
etc., is possible in a file-based system. Though all these are general issues of concern to any dataintensive application (An application which processes huge volume of data simultaneously), each
application has to handle all these problems on its own. The application programmer should bother
not only about implementing the application business process but also about handling these general
issues.
Database

Approach

In order to overcome the limitations of the file-based approach, the concept of database and the
Database

Management

System

(DBMS)

was

introduced

in

1960's.

The Database Management System (DBMS) is the System that works on a database which is a
static storage. The user interacts with database through DBMS. The purpose of a DBMS is to
provide an efficient way of storing and retrieving the data quicker for both single-user and multi-user
systems.
Database Management largely involves:

Storage of Data

Manipulation of the data

Access restriction for unauthorized users

We shall discuss in detail about this in the next section.

For further reading you may refer the websites below.

1.2. Types of Databases

The

following

are

the

types

Hierarchical Database Management System (HDBMS)

Network Database Management System (NDBMS)

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

of

Data

Bases.

Hierarchical Database Management System(HDBMS)

Figure 1.1 : Hierarchical Database Management System

A hierarchical database is controlled in pyramid fashion, similar to the branches of a tree

extending downwards.

The related fields or records are grouped together so that there are higher-level records
and lower-level records.

The root record is the parent record at the top of the pyramid. (i.e, Segment which has
no parent record).

A "leaf" is a segment with no children. In figure 1.2 leaf segment is at the botton and it
does not have children.

A child record maps to only one parent record to which it is linked. In contrast, a parent
record may have one or more child records linked to it.

Databases strive by moving from the top to bottom.

A record search is performed by starting at the top of the pyramid and working down
through the tree from parent to child until the correct child record is found.

Example of HDBMS

Figure 1.2 : Animals Heirarchy

In Figure 1.2, Animals is the root record, Fish and Mammals are the child records of Animals, Fresh
Water and Marine are the sub child of the Animals, Halibut, Rainbow Trout, Dog and Cat are the
leafs.

Advantages

This database type can be accessed and updated rapidly because of the tree-like
structure and the relationships between records are defined in advance.

Disadvantages

Each child in a tree may have only one parent and relationships or linkages between
the children are not permitted, even if they seem right from a logical standpoint.

Hierarchical databases are so firm in their design that adding a new field or record
requires that the entire database be redefined.

Network Database Management System(NDBMS)

Figure 1.3 : Network Database Management System

A network database seems more similar to a cobweb or interconnected network of

records.

Parents are termed 'owners' and Children are termed 'members'.

In network database, each child or member can have one or more parents (or owners).

Example

of

NDBMS

In Figure 1.4, The Store node is parent or Owner. Customer node, Manager node and Salesman
node are the children or members of the Store node. They also act as the parent or owner of Order
node, where in store, customer, manager and salesman are interconnected. Items node has a single
parent or owner which is the Salesman node.

Figure 1.4 : Network representation in a Store Management

Advantages

A lot of connections can be made between the different types of data and the network
databases, and they work more flexibly.

Disadvantages

Network databases must be described in advance.

There is a limit to the number of connections which can be made between records.

Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)

Relational databases connect the information (Data) in different files by using common
information elements (data elements) or a key field.

Information (Data) is stored in different tables in relational databases, each having a key
field which is used to uniquely identify each row.

Each table has a key field that uniquely identifies each row which is the principle, and
these key fields can be used to connect one table of information (data) to another.

In relational databases, a relation is a table or file filled with data, rows or records are
termed as tuples, and columns are termed as attributes or fields.

Figure 1.5 : Relational Database Management System

The above Figure 1.5 shows the relationship between the Student Table and Course Table. The
primary key of Student Table ie Student ID and the primary key of Course Table ie Course ID. These
are referenced in the StudentCourse Table (Refer to Section 2.2 for more details about primary key).
This table works as mapping between the student and course details and its used to get the reports
similar to the number of students taking up a particular course etc.
Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)
Example of RDBMS

Figure 1.6 : Tables in Relational Model

Please refer figure 1.6 which explains about RDBMS. It has three tables (i.e Database1, Database2,
Database3). All these three tables have a unique column called Social Security No.(SSN*) which is
identified as a Key field to link all the three tables. This key field is used to uniquely identify each
row.

This

represents

the

relationship

between

the

tables.

Advantage

The database server and application tools can be easily installed and upgraded.

RDBMS permits multiple database users to access a database simultaneously.

Authorization and privilege control features in an RDBMS permit the DBA (Database
Administrator) to restrict the access to authorized users and grant privileges to individual users
derived from the types of database tasks they need to perform.

RDBMSs support a generic language called "Structured Query Language" (SQL). The SQL
syntax is simple and the language uses standard English language keywords and phrasing,
making it fairly intuitive and easy to learn.

Supports data independence

RDBMS is simple and flexible.

RDBMS is more effective since SQL is very easy to learn.

Reduces redundancy of information.

Disadvantage

Searching for a data or information can take extra time as compared to other methods.

1.2. Types of Databases

The

following

are

the

types

Hierarchical Database Management System (HDBMS)

Network Database Management System (NDBMS)

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

of

Data

Bases.

Hierarchical Database Management System(HDBMS)

Figure 1.1 : Hierarchical Database Management System

A hierarchical database is controlled in pyramid fashion, similar to the branches of a tree

extending downwards.

The related fields or records are grouped together so that there are higher-level records
and lower-level records.

The root record is the parent record at the top of the pyramid. (i.e, Segment which has
no parent record).

A "leaf" is a segment with no children. In figure 1.2 leaf segment is at the botton and it
does not have children.

A child record maps to only one parent record to which it is linked. In contrast, a parent
record may have one or more child records linked to it.

Databases strive by moving from the top to bottom.

A record search is performed by starting at the top of the pyramid and working down
through the tree from parent to child until the correct child record is found.

Example of HDBMS

Figure 1.2 : Animals Heirarchy

In Figure 1.2, Animals is the root record, Fish and Mammals are the child records of Animals, Fresh
Water and Marine are the sub child of the Animals, Halibut, Rainbow Trout, Dog and Cat are the
leafs.

Advantages

This database type can be accessed and updated rapidly because of the tree-like
structure and the relationships between records are defined in advance.

Disadvantages

Each child in a tree may have only one parent and relationships or linkages between
the children are not permitted, even if they seem right from a logical standpoint.

Hierarchical databases are so firm in their design that adding a new field or record
requires that the entire database be redefined.

Network Database Management System(NDBMS)

Figure 1.3 : Network Database Management System

A network database seems more similar to a cobweb or interconnected network of

records.

Parents are termed 'owners' and Children are termed 'members'.

In network database, each child or member can have one or more parents (or owners).

Example

of

NDBMS

In Figure 1.4, The Store node is parent or Owner. Customer node, Manager node and Salesman
node are the children or members of the Store node. They also act as the parent or owner of Order
node, where in store, customer, manager and salesman are interconnected. Items node has a single
parent or owner which is the Salesman node.

Figure 1.4 : Network representation in a Store Management

Advantages

A lot of connections can be made between the different types of data and the network
databases, and they work more flexibly.

Disadvantages

Network databases must be described in advance.

There is a limit to the number of connections which can be made between records.

Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)

Relational databases connect the information (Data) in different files by using common
information elements (data elements) or a key field.

Information (Data) is stored in different tables in relational databases, each having a key
field which is used to uniquely identify each row.

Each table has a key field that uniquely identifies each row which is the principle, and
these key fields can be used to connect one table of information (data) to another.

In relational databases, a relation is a table or file filled with data, rows or records are
termed as tuples, and columns are termed as attributes or fields.

Figure 1.5 : Relational Database Management System

The above Figure 1.5 shows the relationship between the Student Table and Course Table. The
primary key of Student Table ie Student ID and the primary key of Course Table ie Course ID. These
are referenced in the StudentCourse Table (Refer to Section 2.2 for more details about primary key).

This table works as mapping between the student and course details and its used to get the reports
similar to the number of students taking up a particular course etc.
Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)
Example of RDBMS

Figure 1.6 : Tables in Relational Model

Please refer figure 1.6 which explains about RDBMS. It has three tables (i.e Database1, Database2,
Database3). All these three tables have a unique column called Social Security No.(SSN*) which is
identified as a Key field to link all the three tables. This key field is used to uniquely identify each
row.

This

represents

the

relationship

between

the

tables.

Advantage

The database server and application tools can be easily installed and upgraded.

RDBMS permits multiple database users to access a database simultaneously.

Authorization and privilege control features in an RDBMS permit the DBA (Database
Administrator) to restrict the access to authorized users and grant privileges to individual users
derived from the types of database tasks they need to perform.

RDBMSs support a generic language called "Structured Query Language" (SQL). The SQL
syntax is simple and the language uses standard English language keywords and phrasing,
making it fairly intuitive and easy to learn.

Supports data independence

RDBMS is simple and flexible.

RDBMS is more effective since SQL is very easy to learn.

Reduces redundancy of information.

Disadvantage

Searching for a data or information can take extra time as compared to other methods.

1.2. Types of Databases

The

following

are

the

types

Hierarchical Database Management System (HDBMS)

Network Database Management System (NDBMS)

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

of

Data

Bases.

Hierarchical Database Management System(HDBMS)

Figure 1.1 : Hierarchical Database Management System

A hierarchical database is controlled in pyramid fashion, similar to the branches of a tree

extending downwards.

The related fields or records are grouped together so that there are higher-level records
and lower-level records.

The root record is the parent record at the top of the pyramid. (i.e, Segment which has
no parent record).

A "leaf" is a segment with no children. In figure 1.2 leaf segment is at the botton and it
does not have children.

A child record maps to only one parent record to which it is linked. In contrast, a parent
record may have one or more child records linked to it.

Databases strive by moving from the top to bottom.

A record search is performed by starting at the top of the pyramid and working down
through the tree from parent to child until the correct child record is found.

Example of HDBMS

Figure 1.2 : Animals Heirarchy

In Figure 1.2, Animals is the root record, Fish and Mammals are the child records of Animals, Fresh
Water and Marine are the sub child of the Animals, Halibut, Rainbow Trout, Dog and Cat are the
leafs.

Advantages

This database type can be accessed and updated rapidly because of the tree-like
structure and the relationships between records are defined in advance.

Disadvantages

Each child in a tree may have only one parent and relationships or linkages between
the children are not permitted, even if they seem right from a logical standpoint.

Hierarchical databases are so firm in their design that adding a new field or record
requires that the entire database be redefined.

Network Database Management System(NDBMS)

Figure 1.3 : Network Database Management System

A network database seems more similar to a cobweb or interconnected network of

records.

Parents are termed 'owners' and Children are termed 'members'.

In network database, each child or member can have one or more parents (or owners).

Example

of

NDBMS

In Figure 1.4, The Store node is parent or Owner. Customer node, Manager node and Salesman
node are the children or members of the Store node. They also act as the parent or owner of Order

node, where in store, customer, manager and salesman are interconnected. Items node has a single
parent or owner which is the Salesman node.

Figure 1.4 : Network representation in a Store Management

Advantages

A lot of connections can be made between the different types of data and the network
databases, and they work more flexibly.

Disadvantages

Network databases must be described in advance.

There is a limit to the number of connections which can be made between records.

Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)

Relational databases connect the information (Data) in different files by using common
information elements (data elements) or a key field.

Information (Data) is stored in different tables in relational databases, each having a key
field which is used to uniquely identify each row.

Each table has a key field that uniquely identifies each row which is the principle, and
these key fields can be used to connect one table of information (data) to another.

In relational databases, a relation is a table or file filled with data, rows or records are
termed as tuples, and columns are termed as attributes or fields.

Figure 1.5 : Relational Database Management System

The above Figure 1.5 shows the relationship between the Student Table and Course Table. The
primary key of Student Table ie Student ID and the primary key of Course Table ie Course ID. These
are referenced in the StudentCourse Table (Refer to Section 2.2 for more details about primary key).
This table works as mapping between the student and course details and its used to get the reports
similar to the number of students taking up a particular course etc.
Relational Database Management System(RDBMS)
Example of RDBMS

Figure 1.6 : Tables in Relational Model

Please refer figure 1.6 which explains about RDBMS. It has three tables (i.e Database1, Database2,
Database3). All these three tables have a unique column called Social Security No.(SSN*) which is
identified as a Key field to link all the three tables. This key field is used to uniquely identify each
row.

This

represents

the

relationship

between

the

tables.

Advantage

The database server and application tools can be easily installed and upgraded.

RDBMS permits multiple database users to access a database simultaneously.

Authorization and privilege control features in an RDBMS permit the DBA (Database
Administrator) to restrict the access to authorized users and grant privileges to individual users
derived from the types of database tasks they need to perform.

RDBMSs support a generic language called "Structured Query Language" (SQL). The SQL
syntax is simple and the language uses standard English language keywords and phrasing,
making it fairly intuitive and easy to learn.

Supports data independence

RDBMS is simple and flexible.

RDBMS is more effective since SQL is very easy to learn.

Reduces redundancy of information.

Disadvantage

Searching for a data or information can take extra time as compared to other methods.

1.4. Functions of Database

The

following

are

the

functions

which

are

performed

by

typical

DBMS:

a. Data Definition
The DBMS provides the functions to describe the structure of the data in the application. These
include defining and modifying the record structure, the type and size of fields and the various
constraints/conditions to be satisfied by the data in each field.

Figure 1.9 : Example of Data Definition

Example:
In Figure1.9 Attributes such as Name, Email Address,.., State are the defined columns of the
Student table. Each column has specific length, type and rules applicable to the corresponding
columns. So here Attribute (i.e Columns) represents data elements and Length, Type, Rules
represent the data definitions.
b.

Data

Manipulation

The DBMS must be able to handle requests from the users to retrieve, update and delete the
existing data in the database, and add new data to the database .The DBMS performs these
operations in the database .
c.

Data

Dictionary

Management

The data dictionary stores the definition of data elements (information elements) and their
relationships.This information is called as metadata.The metadata contains the definition of data,
data type, integrity constraints, relationship between data elements etc. Any change made in a
database structure is automatically reflected in the data dictionary. The DBMS provides the data
abstraction and it removes structural and data dependency from the system.

d.

Data

Security

&

Integrity

Data integrity is an important component of information security. It refers to the consistency and
accuracy of data is stored in a database. Data integrity ensures that the data entered into the
database is accurate, valid, and consistent. The DBMS includes the functions which manage the
integrity and security of data in the application. These can be easily invoked by the application and
hence the application programmer need not code these functions in his/her programs.
e.

Data

Concurrency

&

Consistency

The DBMS makes sure that multiple users can access the database concurrently without
compromising the integrity of the database. In a single-user database, the user can modify data in
the database without being concerned that other users would modify the same data at the same
time. However, in multi-user database, several simultaneous transactions can update the same data
at same time. Transactions executing at the same time should produce meaningful and consistent
results. Hence, the control of data concurrency and data consistency is vital in multiuser database.
Data

concurrency

means

that

many

users

can

access

data

at

the

same

time.

Data consistency means that each user sees a consistent view of data, including visible changes
made by the user's own transactions and transactions of other users.
f.

Data

Backup

&

Recovery

The DBMS provides the backup and data recovery procedures to ensure data safety and integrity.
DBMS system provides special utilities which allow the DBA to perform routine and special backup
and restore procedures. Recovery Management handles the recovery of the database after a failure.
g.

Performance

Optimizing the performance of the queries is one of the important functions of a DBMS. The DBMS
has a set of programs that form the Query Optimizer which evaluates the different implementations
of

query

and

selects

the

best

among

them.

Thus the DBMS provides a convenient and effective environment to use when a large volume of
data and many transactions are to be processed in the environment.

1.4. Functions of Database

The

following

are

the

functions

which

are

performed

by

typical

DBMS:

a. Data Definition
The DBMS provides the functions to describe the structure of the data in the application. These
include defining and modifying the record structure, the type and size of fields and the various
constraints/conditions to be satisfied by the data in each field.

Figure 1.9 : Example of Data Definition

Example:
In Figure1.9 Attributes such as Name, Email Address,.., State are the defined columns of the
Student table. Each column has specific length, type and rules applicable to the corresponding
columns. So here Attribute (i.e Columns) represents data elements and Length, Type, Rules
represent the data definitions.
b.

Data

Manipulation

The DBMS must be able to handle requests from the users to retrieve, update and delete the
existing data in the database, and add new data to the database .The DBMS performs these
operations in the database .

c.

Data

Dictionary

Management

The data dictionary stores the definition of data elements (information elements) and their
relationships.This information is called as metadata.The metadata contains the definition of data,
data type, integrity constraints, relationship between data elements etc. Any change made in a
database structure is automatically reflected in the data dictionary. The DBMS provides the data
abstraction and it removes structural and data dependency from the system.
d.

Data

Security

&

Integrity

Data integrity is an important component of information security. It refers to the consistency and
accuracy of data is stored in a database. Data integrity ensures that the data entered into the
database is accurate, valid, and consistent. The DBMS includes the functions which manage the
integrity and security of data in the application. These can be easily invoked by the application and
hence the application programmer need not code these functions in his/her programs.
e.

Data

Concurrency

&

Consistency

The DBMS makes sure that multiple users can access the database concurrently without
compromising the integrity of the database. In a single-user database, the user can modify data in
the database without being concerned that other users would modify the same data at the same
time. However, in multi-user database, several simultaneous transactions can update the same data
at same time. Transactions executing at the same time should produce meaningful and consistent
results. Hence, the control of data concurrency and data consistency is vital in multiuser database.
Data

concurrency

means

that

many

users

can

access

data

at

the

same

time.

Data consistency means that each user sees a consistent view of data, including visible changes
made by the user's own transactions and transactions of other users.
f.Data

Backup

&

Recovery

The DBMS provides the backup and data recovery procedures to ensure data safety and integrity.
DBMS system provides special utilities which allow the DBA to perform routine and special backup
and restore procedures. Recovery Management handles the recovery of the database after a failure.

g.Performance
Optimizing the performance of the queries is one of the important functions of a DBMS. The DBMS
has a set of programs that form the Query Optimizer which evaluates the different implementations
of

query

and

selects

the

best

among

them.

Thus the DBMS provides a convenient and effective environment to use when a large volume of
data and many transactions are to be processed in the environment.

2.1. Entity Relationship Modeling

Introduction
The Entity-Relationship model (or ER model) is a way of graphically representing the logical
relationships of objects in order to create a database. Creation of an ER diagram is the first step in
designing a database. It helps the designer(s) to understand and to specify the desired components
of the database and the relationships among those components. An ER model is a graphical
representation which contains entities or "items", relationships among the entities and attributes of
the

entities

and

relationships.

The following are the three basic elements in the ER model.

Entities : Any objects or items

Attribute: The Attribute is nothing but a property of an entity

Relationships : The links between various entities

Let us take University database as an example and try to understand how ER model is arrived at.
Example:
A university consists of a number of departments. Each department offers several courses. Each
course includes a number of modules. Students enroll in a particular course and study modules
towards the completion of that course. Each module is taught by a lecturer from the appropriate
department, and each lecturer teaches a group of students.
Entities
Entities are real world items or concepts that exist on their own and are represented as objects or

things of interest. An entity type is a collection of entities that share a common definition.
Identify all nouns in our university example,
A university consists of a number of departments. Each department offers several courses. Each
course includes a number of modules. Students enroll in a particular course and study modules
towards the completion of that course. Each module is taught by a lecturer from the appropriate
department,

and

each

lecturer

teaches

group

of

students.

This scenario consists of students, lecturers, modules, courses and departments. So here the
physical things(Physical things are those which exist in this world, that we can touch, feel etc.) like
students, lecturers and abstract things(An abstract thing is an idea or a concept in your mind. It is
not something that you can physically reach out and touch, smell, hear, taste, see) like
modules,department etc., make an entity type. If we take students as an entity type, then each
student in the university is an entity. The entities are represented as nouns in the description
because they are objects or things.
We can touch an entity of physical things and feel the entity of abstract things but an entity type is
simply an idea. Student is an idea of physical things (entity type) while Scott, Nancy, Lindsey, and
Mackenzie are touchable (Student names are entities). Department is an idea of abstract things
(entity type) while IT,CSE,ECE and CIVIL are entities.
Entity Diagrams

In an E-R Diagram, an entity is usually drawn as a rectangle.

The box is labeled with the name of the entity type. The entities identified in our
example are shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 : Entities

Weak

Entity

If an entity depends on another existing entity then it is considered as weak. A weak entity cannot be
identified by its own attributes. A weak entity is represented by double rectangles in E-R diagram.
Example:

SubModule is a good example for weak entity. The SubModule will be meaningless without a Module
entity and so it depends on the existence of Module as shown in Figure 2.2

Figure 2.2 : Weak Entity

Attributes
Attributes represent properties, facts, aspects or details of an entity. There are attributes or particular
properties

that

describe

each

entity.

In our University database each student in the university will have a Student ID, Name, Course taken
etc. Similarly each lecturer will have his/her own properties of ID, Name, department etc.
Attributes will have a name, an associated entity and properties of an entity. Attributes are often
nouns

also.

Attributes in ER diagram

In an E/R Diagram attributes are represented by an oval.

A line is used to link an attribute to its entity.

The figure below represents the entities and their corresponding attributes in the University
database.

Figure 2.3 : Entities and Attributes

Multivalued

Attribute

A multivalued attribute is an attribute that has more than one value attached to it. For instance if
phone number and graduating degree are the attributes of an Entity called Person, then those
attributes could have multiple values, as a person could have multiple phone numbers or could hold
multiple graduating degrees. We represent a multivalued attribute by double oval in E-R diagram.
Single Valued Attribute: Attribute that holds a single value; in Our example the attributes of Students
such as Roll number, Age, Date of Birth, City etc., can have only a single value.
In our example, a Student can have multiple phone numbers, and so Phone number is a multivalued
attribute.

Figure 2.4 : Multivalued Attributes

Relationships
The association between two or more entities is called a relationship. In our University database,
each student studies several Modules and each Lecturer teaches several Students. Here the entity
types Student - Modules and Lecturer - Students have a relationship. The Verbs most often describe
relationships

between

entities.

Identify the verbs(relationships) in our University database example:

A university consists of a number of departments. Each department offers several courses. Each
course includes a number of modules. Students enroll in a particular course and study modules
towards the completion of that course. Each module is taught by a lecturer from the appropriate a
department, and each lecturer teaches a group of students.
Each relationship has a name, a set of entities that participate in it, a degree and a cardinality ratio.
The degree is the number of entities that participate in that relationship(most have degree 2, For
example in figure 2.3 each Lecturer teaches several Students, so we can say that this relationship
has degree 2. Here the degree is 2 because it has two entities related to it).
Relationships

in

an

ER

diagram

Relationships are denoting links between two entities.

The name of the relationship is given in a diamond box (For example Belongs to as
shown in Figure 5.1).

Cardinality
Each

Ratio

entity

can

be

involved

in

three

types

of

relationships

as

shown:

One to One (1:1)

Each student belongs to one University. We can illustrate this ratio by writing ones on
the lines indicating the relationship as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 : One-one Mapping

The notation for the 1:1 relationship is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 : One-one Mapping

One to Many (1:M)

A lecturer teaches many students, and this One to Many relationship is illustrated in
figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7 : One-Many

The notation for the 1:M relationship is shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8 : One-Many

Many to Many (M:M)

Each student takes many modules, and each module is taken by many students as
shown in figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9 : Many-Many

Making

E/R

Models

Till now we have seen how to identify the basic elements in an ER Diagram. Finally, to make an E/R
model you need to identify:

Entities

Attributes

Relationships

Cardinality ratios

Now lets see how an ER model will look like when all these elements are put together. The final ER
Model of our University database is shown in the Figure 2.10. In this figure we have shown the
entities and the relationship between the entities which depict the complete ER model of a
University. Here

Department,

Course,

Module,

Lecturer

and

Student

are

the

entities.

The relationships in the Figure 2.10 are defined as Department Offers many Courses and those two
entities have One to Many relationship. A Department Assigns Many Lecturers(One(1) To Many(n)).
Each Lecturer teaches Many Students(One(1) To Many(n)). Every Student takes several
Modules(Many(n) To Many(n)). Every Module includes Many Courses(Many(n) To Many(n)). A
Course is enrolled by Many Students(One(1) to Many(n)).

The

ER

Model

for

the

above

example

is

given

below:

The complete ER Model for our University database will be as shown in the diagram below. It is an
Integrated ER model containing the Entities and Relationships for a University database.

Figure 2.10 : University ER Model

Summary

ER Diagrams play a major role in database designing.

The ER Diagrams act as a non-technical communication tool.

This tool is used by both technical and non-technical users.

Entities represent real world things; They can be conceptual as a transaction or physical
as a bank.

Figure 2.11 : ER Model Summary

For further reading you may refer the websites below.
http://lynnbob.com/bob/articles/EntityRelationship1.htm
http://www.studytonight.com/dbms/er-diagram.php

2.2. Normalization - First Normal Form, Second Normal

Form and Third Normal Form
The database design technique that is used to organize tables in a manner that reduces redundancy
and dependency of data is called Normalization. It is the scientific process of decomposing complex
tables(Relations) into smaller and easily manageable tables. The use of normalization is to
accurately access data from database. Without normalization, database systems can be inaccurate,
redundant, slow and inefficient. They might not produce the data that is expected. Listed below are

the

advantages

of

normalization.

Advantages

Smaller, simpler and well-structured relations.

Avoids unnecessary duplication of data. That is, it helps to reduce redundancy.

Provides data integrity.

Helps to avoid update anomalies. That is, it isolates data so that additions, deletions, and
modifications of a field can be made in just one table. The changes are then propagated to the
rest of the database through the defined relationships.

Save storage space.

Edgar Codd invented the relational model and he proposed the theory of normalization with the
introduction of First Normal Form. He continued to extend the theory with Second and Third Normal
Forms. Later Edgar Codd joined with Raymond F. Boyce to develop the theory of Boyce-Codd
Normal Form(BCNF).
Theory of Normalization is still developing. For example, the discussions on 6th Normal Form are in
progress. However, in most practical applications normalization achieves its best in Third Normal
Form. The evolution of Normalization theories is illustrated below:

Figure 2.12 : Normalization Evolution

Let's

understand

What

few

is

things

before

we

KEY

proceed

--

A KEY is a value used to uniquely identify a row in a table. It could be a single column or a
combination

of

multiple

columns.

Note: The columns in a table that are NOT used to uniquely identify a record or row in a table are
called non-key columns.

What

is

primary

Key?

A primary key is a single column value that is used to uniquely identify a database record.

Figure 2.13 : Primary Key

The primary key column in a table must always have a value.

The primary key column in a table cannot have duplicate values. Each primary key value
must be unique.

The primary key values cannot be modified.

The primary key column should have a value when a new record is inserted into the table.

Example:
The table below contains the details of students. Here studentId is Primary Key which is used to
uniquely identify the details of a student from the table.

Figure 2.14 : Primary Key Illustration

Composite

Key

If two or more columns are used to uniquely identify a record then combination of those multiple
columns

constitutes

composite

key.

In the Student table given below, we have StudentId, TestId and Mark. Here one student can take
multiple tests and one test can be taken by multiple students. In this case in order to uniquely
identify the mark of a student in a test we require both StudentId and TestId. This is a composite key.
Student Table

Table 2.1
Functional

Dependency

In simple terms, functional dependency can be explained as follows. If you know one attribute then
you can get another attribute. Then both these attributes are said to be functionally dependent. In
the Student table given below, we can get the attribute 'Name' if you know the attribute 'StudentId',
then Name and StudentId are functionally dependent. Here we can say StudentId is determinant and
Name as dependent.
For example, let's consider the Student table given below. Table 2.2 stores student details(StudentId,
Name, Languages Known), student's department details (Dept_No, Dept_Name) and lecturer details
(LecturerInCharge, Designation) for Students.
In this approach, we keep repeating the languages known and department details data for all the
students in the same field. This is called an UnNormalized table. Instead of storing the same data
again and again, we could normalize the data and create related tables.

Let's see how we can normalize the table,create related tables and learn forms with the Student
table(which

is

not

normalized):

Student Table (UnNormalized Table):

Table 2.2
First

Normal

Form

To move from unnormalized form to first normal form all multi-valued attributes (called repeating
groups) should be removed. The repeating groups nust be eliminated. All attributes must be atomic.

Table 2.2 is not in 1NF since there are repeating groups (more than 1 value in a field). The column
"Languages Known" has(English, Hindi and Tamil) in the Row(Tuple)1 and (English and Hindi) in the
Row(Tuple) 2 .To satisfy 1NF we can create separate rows for each value in Languages Known by
duplicating

the

values

in

the

remaining

columns.

Table

1NF

2.3

represents

the

same.
Rules

Each column in a table should contain single value.

Each record needs to be unique as shown in Table 2.3

Table 2.3 : 1NF Form

Second

Normal

Form

Partial functional dependencies must be removed. If two attributes of a table are combined to form a

composite key, then the non-key attributes of that table must depend on both the attributes of the
composite key. They must not depend on one of the attributes, which is the part of the composite
key.
2NF Rules

Rule 1- The table should be in 1NF.

Rule 2- The Single Column must be used as Primary Key.

A relation in 1NF will be in second normal form (2NF) if there are no partial dependencies.

Partial dependency
It is the functional dependency on part of the primary key instead of the entire primary key.
It is clear that we can't move forward to make our simple database in 2nd Normalization form unless
we partition the columns in Table 2.3. Here, assume that StudentId and Dept_No together act as the
key (Composite key). As per 2NF all non-key attributes must be dependent on whole key.
In Table 2.3 the attribute 'Dept_Name' is functionally dependent on whole key (StudentId+Dept_No).
That is, you can get the department name only if you know both StudentId and Dept_No. All other
column attributes can be identified by just providing 'StudentId'. So for all other columns StudentId
acts as the primary key. So split the table as given below to satisfy 2NF.
Student

Table 2.4
Department

Table 2.5
Languages

Table 2.6
Introducing

Foreign

Key

A foreign key is a field in a table that matches the primary key column of another table. The crossreference

tables

can

be

achieved

In Table 2.7,Dept_No is the foreign Key

Table 2.7

by

Foreign

Key.

Figure 2.15 : Foreign Key

Foreign key refers primary key of another table. It helps to connect the two tables.

The values of a foreign key and a primary key may be different.

The foreign key ensures that a row in a table is mapped to a corresponding row in another
table.

Foreign key does not have to be unique; most often it is not unique.

Foreign Key

Figure 2.16 : Foreign Key Illustration

Why
Foreign

do
key

is

you
required

in

Referential

need
RDBMS

for

a
the

concept

foreign
of

Referential

key?
Integrity.
integrity

It is a concept used in database to ensure that there is consistency in table relationships. If one table
has a foreign key to another table, then the concept of referential integrity states that you cannot add
a record to the table that contains the foreign key unless there is a corresponding record in the
link/relationship with the other table.

For example, consider the Figure 2.16 given in the previous page, where Dept_No in the Student
table is foreign key of Dept_No in Department table. Here let's try to add a student with StudentId as
"103" and Dept_No as "D003" in Student table as shown below. But the entry for Dept_No "D003" is
not present in Department table which means we have added a student to a department which does
not exist. This leads to inconsistency of data across related tables. Hence RDMS has the concept of
referential integrity which does not allow to add a record to the table that contains the foreign key
unless

there

is

corresponding

record

in

the

table

to

which

it

is

linked.

Student

Table 2.8

Department

Table 2.9
Transitive

functional

dependencies

When changing a non-key column might cause any of the other non-key columns to change, it is
called transitive functional dependency. Attributes that are not a part of the key must not depend on
any non-key attribute.
Consider the table 2.9. Changing the non-key column Lecturer In Charge , may change Designation.
Here Dept_No acts as the key. All other columns are non-key attributes. As per 3NF non-key
attributes should not be dependent on any other non-key attributes but 'Lecturer In Charge' is

dependent on 'Designation'. Both Lecturer In Charge and Designation are non-key attributes. So it
forms transitive dependency. So, to satisfy 3NF let's split the table in a short while.
Third

Normal

Form

Third normal form (3NF) is the third step in database normalization and it builds on the first (INF)and
second

normal

forms(2NF).

The Third Normal Form(3NF) states that all column references in the referenced data that are not
dependent on the primary key should be removed. Another way of putting this statement is that only
foreign key columns should be used to reference another table, and the other columns from the
parent

table

should

not

exist

in

the

reference

table.

The Second Normal form(2NF) covers in case of multi-column primary keys. 3NF is meant to cover
single

column

keys

as

mentioned

in

transitive

functional

dependencies

3NF

above.

Rules

Rule 1- The table should be in 2NF.

Rule 2- The table has no transitive functional dependencies which is explained above.

We need to divide our table if it has to be moved from second normal form(2NF) into Third Normal
form(3NF). In table 2.1 Dept_No acts as the key. All other columns are non-key attributes. The nonkey attributes should not be dependent on any other non-key attributes as per third normal form. The
'Designation' is dependent on 'Lecturer In Charge' and these are non key attributes in the Lecturer
table explained. It forms transitive dependency. So, to satisfy 3NF split the table as follows.
Student

Table 2.10

Department

Table 2.11

Lecturer

Table 2.12

Languages

Table 2.13
The example given above cannot be decomposed further to attain higher forms of normalization
because it is already normalized to the highest level.Normally only complex data bases would need
next levels of normalization.

2.3. Joins

What

are

Joins?

A join is a technique where records from two or more tables are retrieved through a single SQL
query and shown as a single output. As it forms a set, It can be saved as a table or used as it is. A
join is a means of combining columns from two tables by using values common to both tables. It
allows us to combine data from more than one table into a single result set. A join condition is used
in

the

WHERE

clause

of

select,

update

and

delete

queries.

Note: The query will give results from two tables as Cartesian product(A Cartesian product is defined
as all possible combinations of rows in all tables). If join condition is omitted. The first table's rows
are joined with all rows of the second table. For example, if the first table has 30 rows and the
second table has 10 rows, the result will be 30 * 10, or 300 rows. This query will take a long time to
execute.
Let's

use

the

two

tables

below

to

Table "Student"

Table 2.14
Table "Department"

Table 2.15

explain

the

join

conditions.

In the above example the column that is common between both the tables is Dept_No. Using
Dept_No,the Student and Department tables can be joined to combine data from both the tables as
shown below.

Figure 2.17 : Joining of tables

Lets consider a scenario to retrieve the details of student who belong to 'CSE' department. We have
to join two tables based on the common column present in the two tables.

Figure 2.18 : Mapping data

Result: After joining two tables:

Table 2.16

3.1. Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

A Data Base Management System that is based on a relational model is called as RDBMS.
Relational model is the most successfully used Data Base Management System Model (DBMS)
model.
Relational model represents data in the form of a table. A table is a two dimensional array which
contains

rows

and

columns.

Consider a scenario of a college where we need to maintain huge amount of student details. All
these

student

details

are

stored

in

table

as

mentioned

in

Figure

3.1.

In Figure 3.1, (as discussed in Section 2 ER model) students is the entity and Name is one of the
attributes of this students entity. Other attributes are RollNo and Phone. The table given below
contains rows and columns. Each row contains data related to an entity/students. Each column
contains the data related to an attribute.

Figure 3.1 : Student Table

Figure 3.1 shows the data represented in relational model and the terms that are used to refer to
various components of a table. The terms mentioned below are used in relational model.

Tuple

Row

A single row that is available in the table is called as tuple. Each row in the table represents the data
of a single entity. For example, in Figure 3.1 s1, Louis Figo, 454333 represents a row.
Attribute

Column

A column in the table stores an attribute of the entity. For example, in Students table (Figure 3.1)
Louis Figo, Rahul, etc. are the attributes as highlighted in figure.
Column

Name

Each column that is available in the table is given a name. This name is used to refer to values in the
column. In Students table (Figure 3.1), RollNo, Name and Phone are the column names of the table.
Table

Name

Each table is provided with a name. The name that is provided is used to refer to the table. The
name of the table depicts the contents of the table. In the above Figure 3.1, Students is the name of
the table.
Structured

Query

Language

(SQL)

Relational database management systems ( RDBMS) use SQL (Structured Query Language) for
data manipulation and retrieval. SQL is the standard language for relational database systems. It is a
non-procedural

language.

Non-procedural language requires the programmer to specify what the program should do, rather
than providing the sequential steps indicating how the program should perform a task.
SQL Commands are divided into three categories, depending upon what they do:

DDL (Data Definition Language)

DML (Data Manipulation Language)

DCL (Data Control Language)

Related Video/Material Links:

http://www.trainsignal.com/blog/videos/free-video-sql-101-data-definition-language

http://www.sqlcourse.com/index.html
http://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_intro.asp
http://www.studytonight.com/dbms/rdbms-concept.php

3.2. Introduction to Data Definition Language(DDL)

Data Definition Language ( DDL) statements are used to create and modify the structure of your
tables and any other objects in the database. Some of the DDL commands are CREATE, ALTER and
DROP.
CREATE statement
A CREATE statement in SQL is used to create a table.
The general syntax of the CREATE statement is given below:
Syntax:
CREATE

TABLE

table_name

column_name1

data_type

column_name2

constraints,

data_type

constraints,

data_type

constraints,

...
column_nameN
);
where,
table_name

column_name1,
data_type

is

the

column_name2,....
is

the

data

type

name

,column_nameNfor

the

column

is

of
the
like

name
char,

the
of
date,

table

the

columns

number

etc.

constraints - constraints are used to validate or limit the type of data that can go into a
table.
Constraints are optional for the columns.
We will focus on a few constraints now:

NOT NULL

PRIMARY KEY

FOREIGN KEY

UNIQUE

NOT NULL: The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to not accept NULL values. This means
that

this

column

must

contain

some

value

while

inserting

or

updating

record.

PRIMARY KEY: Primary key uniquely identifies each record in the database. So a primary key
column cannot contain NULL values.(Refer Section 2 for more details about Primary Key).
FOREIGN KEY: A foreign key is a column in a table that matches the primary key column of another
table. The foreign key can be used to map two tables. (Refer Section 2 for more details about
Foreign

Key).

UNIQUE: Unique constraints are used to make sure that no duplicate values are entered in specific
columns that do not participate in a primary key. A column defined as UNIQUE can contain NULL
values.
Basic SQL DATA types :

CHAR: The CHAR data type is used for storing fixed length character strings with a
maximum size of 2000 bytes. The CHAR(n) holds fixed length of n characters.

DATE: It allows to define the Date attributes as Date fields in the database. Here the
DATE data type stores year, month, and day values.

NUMBER: It allows to define a column as number field. Only number values can be stored
in the database.

Now let's see how to implement the SQL queries with examples:
Example1:
With the help of CREATE statement, let's create Students table with columns as RollNo, Name and
Phone as shown below.
CREATE TABLE Students (
RollNo NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
Name CHAR(25) NOT NULL,

Phone NUMBER
);
Here "Students" is the name of the table. RollNo, Name and Phone are the columns of the table.
NUMBER and CHAR(25) are the data types which convey what kind of data that particular column
will hold.
Here RollNo is given as PRIMARY KEY which means that this particular column will not accept any
duplicate values. The other two columns are defined as NOT NULL which conveys that these two
columns will not accept NULL values.

Note: NULL specifies that the column doesn't have any value or the column is empty.
Example2:
Let's see another example using the Create Statement.
The query below is used to create "employees" table with columns such as employee_id, first_name,
etc.
CREATE TABLE employees (
employee_id NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
first_name CHAR(10) NULL,
last_name CHAR(10) NOT NULL,
email CHAR(25) NOT NULL,
phone_number NUMBER NOT NULL,
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
job_id CHAR(10),
salary NUMBER,
commission_pct NUMBER,
manager_id NUMBER,
department_id NUMBER
);
Example3:
In Example1 and Example2 we explained how to create primary key and NOT NULL constrains.

Now let's see how to implement foreign key constraints. To implement foreign key we need two
tables

that

are

dependent

on

each

other.

In Example 2 we have employees table which contains the department_id as one of the columns but
does not have department details. Now let's create a department table which contains details of the
department

such

as

department_id

CREATE

and

department

TABLE

department_id

name.
department(

NUMBER

PRIMARY

KEY,

department_name

CHAR(10)

);
Consider a scenario where we need to identify the department_name of an employee. In this case
the employees table is dependent on department table to get the department name based on the
common column department_id. Foreign key constraint comes into picture in this case. The syntax
below

creates

foreign

key.

(For

more

details

about

Foreign

key

CREATE

TABLE

employees

employee_id

NUMBER

PRIMARY

first_name

CHAR(10)

last_name

CHAR(10)

email
phone_number

NOT

NUMBER

hire_date

DATE

Section

2).
(
KEY,

NULL,
NOT

CHAR(25)

refer

NULL,

NOT
NOT

NULL,

NULL,
NULL,

job_id

CHAR(10),

salary

NUMBER,

commission_pct

NUMBER,

manager_id

NUMBER,

department_id

NUMBER

FOREIGN

KEY

REFERENCES

department(department_id

);
DROP

statement

The DROP command is used to remove a table from the database . If you drop a table, all the rows
in the table are deleted and the table structure is removed from the database permanently. Once a
table is dropped using DROP command , we cannot retrieve the data / table back. So we should be

careful

while

using

this

command.

Syntax:
DROP

TABLE

table_name;

Example1:
The following command is used to permanently remove the Students table structure/definition along
with

the

data

that

DROP

was

created.

TABLE

Students;

After execution of the above command the entire Students table is removed from the database. We
cannot

get

back

any

data

about

Students

table.

Example2:
Let's see how the employees table definition/structure is removed from the database.
DROP

TABLE

employees;

After execution of the above command the entire employees table is removed from the database.
We cannot get back any data about employees table.
ALTER

statement

The ALTER statement helps to modify the structure of an existing table in the database.
Once you've created a table within a database, you may wish to modify it's definition at some
instance. ALTER statement allows you to make changes to the structure of a table without deleting
or
General
Syntax
ALTER

recreating
syntax
for

of
adding

TABLE

Alter
a

it.

statement
column

table_name

to

ADD

is

given

the

existing

column_name

below.
table:
data_type;

Example:
Let's see how we can alter or edit the structure of the Students table that we created using CREATE
statement in Section 3.2.1 using SQL queries. Let's assume that we have to add a new column
called
ALTER

'gender'
TABLE

to

the

existing

Students

Students

ADD

gender

table

CHAR(10);

In the above example the "gender" column with the data type as CHAR(10) has been added to the
existing Students table.

Syntax
ALTER

for
TABLE

adding

table_name

ADD

constraints:

CONSTRAINT

clause

where: A CONSTRAINT clause is optional in the above ALTER TABLE statement for defining the
constraint.
Example:
In the example below Unique constraint is applied to Phone column in order to avoid duplicate
phone
ALTER

numbers
TABLE

getting

inserted

employees

ADD

into

the
UNIQUE

table.
Phone;

The constraint UNIQUE has been added on column Phone of employees table to show unique data.

3.3. Introduction to Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data manipulation language (DML) is a family of computer language that includes commands which
permit users to manipulate data in a database. This manipulation involves inserting data into
database tables, retrieving existing data, deleting data from existing tables and modifying existing
data.
DML commands:

INSERT - To add a new row into a table

UPDATE - To update existing records within a table

DELETE - To delete records in a table

SELECT - To retrieve records from a table

INSERT Statement
The INSERT statement inserts new rows into an existing table.
The syntax for INSERT statement is as follows.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (col1,col2,col3,....)
VALUES (vallue1,value2,value3,.....);
Example 1:

Now let's see how to insert the details of students into Students table. The following is the structure
of the Students table. Let's see how to insert the details of a student named David.

Table 3.1
In the query given below RollNo, Name, Phone and Gender are the columns defined in the Students
table. Using INSERT statement the corresponding values 100, David, 9830028200, Male are
inserted
INSERT

into
INTO

those

Students(RollNo,

columns.

Name,

VALUES

Phone,

Gender)

(100,'David',9830028200,'Male');

Similarly, we can insert details of another student named 'Peter'. Let's try to ignore a column which
accepts
INSERT

NULL
INTO

value

Students(RollNo,

Name,

during
Gender)

VALUES

insertion.
(200,'Peter','Male');

In the above query we have given values only for three columns (RollNo, Name, Gender). Though
we didn't mention Phone, the record will be successfully inserted because it is not mandatory to
provide values for the columns which can accept NULL values during insertion. In Students table
Phone and Gender are the columns which can accept NULL values. For Peter's record Phone
column

will

be

empty.

The data we inserted is represented in the table below:

Table 3.2
Example
Let us assume employees table structure as below:

2:

Table 3.3
Query:
INSERT INTO employees (First_Name,Last_Name,Email,Phone_Number,
Hire_Date,Job_ID,Salary,Commission_PCT,Manager_ID,Age,Department_ID)
VALUES ('George', 'Gordon','GGORDON',6505062222,
'01-JAN-07','SA_REP',9000,.1,148,25,80);
Result:
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("E668292"."EMPLOYEES"."EMPLOYEE_ID")
In the above query we are trying to insert the details of an employee without providing value for
Employee_ID column. Employee_ID column is a NOT NULL column. So it is mandatory to provide
value for the same. Since we tried to insert some data excluding the NOT NULL column value, the
execution of the query gives an error. Since we didn't give any value for the Employee_ID column
the value that will get into the table would be NULL. So it has thrown as error as "cannot insert NULL
into EMPLOLYEE_ID column".
Let's now insert a row by providing Employee_ID column value.
INSERT INTO employees
(Employee_ID,First_Name,Last_Name,Email,Phone_Number,
Hire_Date,Job_ID,Salary,Commission_PCT,Manager_ID,Age,Department_ID)
VALUES (10,'George', 'Gordon','GGORDON',6505062222,

'01-JAN-07','SA_REP',9000,.1,148,25,80);
Inserting another employee:
INSERT INTO employees
(Employee_ID,First_Name,Last_Name,Email,Phone_Number,
Hire_Date,Job_ID,Salary,Commission_PCT,Manager_ID,Age,Department_ID)
VALUES (11,'James', 'Keats','j_keats@gm',6505062221,
'01-JAN-07','SA_REP',7000,.1,148,25,80);
The inserted data is represented in table format below:

Table 3.4
SELECT
Select
General

Statement
statement

is

syntax

used
of

to
the

retrieve
Select

the

data

from

statement

the
is

database
given

table.
below:

Syntax:
SELECT

column_list

FROM

table_name

WHERE

search_condition

where

column_list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved.

table_name is the name of the table from which the information is retrieved.

search_condition specifies the conditions based on which rows will be retrieved.

The three clauses used in the SELECT statement:

Table 3.5
Example

1:

If we want to view the details of all students after inserting the values in the Students table, the query
below

can

be

executed.

FROM

Students;

SELECT
Result:

Table 3.6
Here

denotes

all

the

columns

and

rows

of

the

table.

Example

2:

Let's assume that we want to select a row from Students table whose roll no is 200.
To

retrieve

SELECT

this
name

the

following

FROM

query

Students

is

executed.

WHERE

RollNo=200;

Result:

Table 3.7
Example

3:

Now let's consider a scenario where we need to retrieve the Salary from employees table whose first
name
SELECT

is

George.
Salary

The
FROM

query

for

employees

the

scenario

WHERE

will

be

first_name=

as

follows:

'George'

There are chances that there are more than one employees with first name as George. The above
query will retrieve all the employees whose first name is George. But if we need only one specific
employee whose first name is George then we can add one more condition in WHERE clause which
will

help

in

retrieving

the

exact

required

data.

SELECT

Salary

WHERE

first_name=

FROM

'George'

AND

employees

employee_id=

10

Result:

Table 3.8
In the above query we have added two conditions with the help of the "AND" key word. AND checks
for both the conditions and will retrieve the record which matches both. So salary of the employee(i.e
George as shown in result) is retrieved from the employees table whose FIRST_NAME is "George"
and EMPLOYEE_ID is equal to 10.
So far we saw how to retrieve data from one table. Now let's see how to retrieve data from more
than
To

one
retrieve

or

combine

data

from

table.

more

than

one

table

we

use

Joins.

Joins:
Join command is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database. Join command
creates

set

that

can

be

saved

as

table

or

used

as

it

is.

A Join is a means of combining fields from two tables by using values common to each other.
A Join condition can be used in the WHERE clause of SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE statements.
(Refer
The
SELECT

Section
following
col1,

in

is

the

col2,

this

document

syntax
col3...

for
FROM

WHERE table_name1.col2 = table_name2.col1;

Example:
Let's assume that Department table has the following data.

Table 3.9

for
joining
table_name1,

more

details)

two

tables:
table_name2

The employees table has the following data:

Table 3.10
The column that is common between the two tables is Department_ID. So using Department_ID we
can join Department table and employees table. Please find below query for the same.
SELECT employee_Id, first_name,department_name,department_id
FROM department,employees
WHERE department.department _id = employees.department_id;
Result:

Table 3.11
Here data from employees table and department table are joined and displayed.
Department_Id from department table is compared with Department_Id from employees table and
the records that have same value for Department_ Id(i,e. 80) have been displayed.
UPDATE Statement
Let' see how to modify the existing rows in a table.
In Section 3.3.1 we saw how to insert the records into a table. Here we will see how to update the
inserted records.
The UPDATE statement modifies the set of existing table rows.
General syntax for the UPDATE statement is given below.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET (column_name1 = value,column_name2=value,..)

WHERE condition;
Note: The WHERE clause in the above syntax specifies which record or records should be updated.
All records will be updated, if we omit the WHERE clause in UPDATE statement.
Let's see a few examples for the UPDATE statement.
Example 1:

Table 3.12
Let's update the Name "David" in the students tables to "John".
We use the below query for the same.
UPDATE students SET name = 'John' WHERE rollno = 100;
Result:
1 row updated.
Students table will look like this now:

Table 3.13
Example

2:

employees table has the following data:

Table 3.14
Now we want to update the salary of the employee whose manager_ID is 148.
We use the below query for the same.

UPDATE employees SET salary = 10500 WHERE manager_id = 148;

Result:
2 rows updated.
In the above query employees table is updated with the salary value 10500 for the rows which have
the manager_id as 148.
There were two rows which had manager_id as 148 and they have been updated with salary value
as 10500 from 9000 and 7000 respectively.
employees table will look like this now:

Table 3.15
DELETE
The

Statement

DELETE

The

statement

DELETE

is

used

to

statement

delete
syntax

the
is

rows

from

given

table.
below.

Syntax:
DELETE

FROM

table_name

WHERE

condition

If we include the WHERE clause, the statement deletes only those records that satisfy the condition.
If we omit the WHERE clause, the statement deletes all records from the table, but the table still
exists without records.
Example

1:

Students table has the data as shown below:

Table 3.16
If we want to delete a row from the above table whose RollNo is 100, we use the below query.
DELETE FROM Students WHERE ROLLNO = 100;

Result:
1 row deleted.
After deleting the record, Students table will look like this:

Table 3.17
Example

2:

employees table has the following data:

Table 3.18
Now let's delete the employee details whose hire date is 1st Jan 07.
DELETE FROM employees WHERE hire_date = '01-JAN-07';
Result:
2 rows deleted.
Two rows which have the Hire_Date value as '01-JAN-07' have been deleted from employees table
(Refer Example 2 of Sec3.2.1).
Note : The DELETE statement is different from the DROP statement. The DELETE statement
deletes some (or all) data from the table but the table exists in the data base. The DROP statement
removes the table permanently from the data base.

3.4. Introduction to DCL(Data Control Language)

The Data Control Language (DCL) component of the SQL language and it is used to provide
privileges to the users to access or to manipulate the database. The following are two main
commands:

GRANT - This command is used to grant privileges to a user.

REVOKE - This command is used to revoke (remove) privileges from a user.

GRANT command
In order to do anything within a database you must be given the appropriate privileges. Database
operates in a closed system where you cannot perform any action at all unless you have been
authorized to do so. This includes logging onto the database, creating tables, manipulating data (ie
select, insert, update and delete) in tables created by other users, etc.
Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name ON table_name TO user_name;
Where,

privilege_name is the access right or privilege granted to the user.

table_name is the name of the table in the database.

user_name is the name of the user to whom an access right is being granted.

Example:
GRANT SELECT ON employees TO user10;
This command grants a SELECT permission on employees table to user10.
REVOKE command
The SQL command is used to revoke a privilege on a table.
Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_name ON table_name FROM user_name;
Where,

privilege_name is the access right or privilege revoked from the user.

table_name is the name of the table in the database.

user_name is the name of the user from whom an access right is being revoked.

Example:
REVOKE SELECT ON employees FROM user10;

This command will REVOKE a SELECT privilege on employees table from user10. If you REVOKE
SELECT privilege on a table from a user, then the user is not able to SELECT data from that table
anymore.