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Fran De Aquino

Gravitational
Energy
Control

March
2020
Gravitational Energy Control
Fran De Aquino

Gravitational Energy Control

March
2020
Gravitational Energy Control

This book is a intellectual property of Professor Fran De Aquino.

Copyright © 2020 by Fran De Aquino


All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic,
magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the
permission from Professor Fran De Aquino.
PREFACE

This is a set of 83 selected articles published by Dr. Fran


De Aquino along 20 years; all of them developed starting from the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity (first article). Together they
provide the theoretical foundations for the Technology of Control of
the Gravitational Energy. The author is Professor Emeritus of
Physics of Maranhao State University, UEMA, and Titular
Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE.
To my sons and grandsons.
xi

CONTENTS
Page Number
(at bottom center)

1. Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity ……………………………… 15

2. Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic Field through Gas or Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure ……. 91

3. Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology …………………………………………………………… 165

4. The Gravitational Spacecraft ……………………………………………………………………………… 186

5. Possibility of controlled nuclear fusion by means of Gravity Control ……………………………………. 228

6. High-power ELF radiation generated by modulated HF heating of the ionosphere can cause
Earthquakes, Cyclones and localized heating …………………………………………………………….. 231

7. The Universal Quantum Fluid …………………………………………………………………………….. 248

8. The Gravitational Mass of a Charged Supercapacitor …………………………………………………….. 256

9. Beyond the Material Universe …………………………………………………………………………….. 260

10. On the Cosmological Variation of the Fine Structure Constant …………………………………………. 285

11. The velocity of neutrinos ………………………………………………………………………………… 289

12. Proca Equations and the Photon Imaginary Mass ……………………………………………………….. 292

13. Gravity Control by means of Modified Electromagnetic Radiation …………………………………….. 295

14. Transmission of DNA Genetic Information into Water by means of


Electromagnetic Fields of Extremely-low Frequencies …………………………………………………. 302

15. A Possible Explanation for Anomalous Heat Production in Ni-H Systems ……………………………... 308

16. Engineering the Ni-H Bomb ……………………………………………………………………………... 316

17. Gravitational Shockwave Weapons ……………………………………………………………………… 319

18. A System to convert Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical Energy ……………………………… 326

19. Superconducting State generated by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified Gravitational Interaction ………343

20. Gravitational Separator of Isotopes ……………………………………………………………………….353

21. Gravitational Atomic Synthesis at Room Temperature …………………………………………………..365

22. Ultrafast Conversion of Graphite to Diamond in Gravitational Pressure Apparatus ………………….….373

23. Artificial Gravitational Lenses …………………………………………………………………………… 382

24. Gravitational Blueshift and Redshift generated at Laboratory Scale……………………………………... 391


xii

25. Quantum Reversal of Soul Energy ………………………………………………………………………..399

26. Gravitational Ejection of Earth’s Clouds ………………………………………………………………… 410

27. New Gravitational Effects from Rotating Masses ……………………………………………………….. 416

28. Gravitational Holographic Teleportation ………………………………………………………………… 424

29. Scattering of Sunlight in Lunar Exosphere Caused by Gravitational Microclusters of Lunar Dust …….. 429

30. Correlation between the Earth’s Magnetic Field and the Gravitational Mass of the Outer Core ……….. 435

31. Electromagnetic Method for blocking the action of Neutrons, apha-particles, beta-particles and
gamma-rays upon Atomic Nuclei. ……………………………………………………………………….. 440

32. Relativistic Kinetic Projectiles …………………………………………………………………………... 448

33. Repulsive Gravitational Force Field …………………………………………………………………....... 452

34. Bose-Einstein Condensate and Gravitational Shielding …………………………………………………. 458

35. The Gravitational Mass of the Millisecond Pulsars ……………………………………………………… 461

36. The Bipolar Linear Momentum transported by the Electromagnetic Waves:


Origin of the Gravitational Interaction………………………………………………………….. 464

37. On the Existence of Black Holes ………………………………………………………………………… 471

38. A New Form of Matter-Antimatter Transformation …………………………………………………….. 474

39. How Masers can remove the Geostationary Satellites …………………………………………………... 478

40. Divergence in the Stefan-Boltzmann law at High Energy Density Conditions …………………………. 482

41. Gravitational Tunneling Machine ……………………………………………………………………….. 487

42. How the Thrust of Shawyer’s Thruster can be Strongly Increased ……………………………………… 494

43. Quantum Gravitational Shielding ………………………………………………………………………... 499

44. A Solution for Reducing the Pollution of the Atmospheric Air …………………………………………. 506

45. How a Strong Solar Coronal Mass Ejection can Eject Dust from the Earth’s Surface to the Atmosphere .511

46. A New Approach on the Photoelectric Effect …………………………………………………………… 515

47. The Origin of Water on the Earth, and the Reason why there is More Water on the Earth
than on the other Terrestrial Planets .......................................................................................................... 522

48. How a Planet with Earth’s size can have a Gravitational Field Much Stronger than
the Neptune .……………………………………………………………………………………………… 529

49. Gravitational Condensation of Atmospheric Water Vapor ………………………………………………. 534


xiii

50. The Intrinsic Magnetic Field of Magnetic Materials and Gravitomagnetization ………………………... 538

51. The Genesis of the Earth’s Moon ………………………………………………………………………... 543

52. The Gravitational Heat Exchanger ………………………………………………………………………. 550

53. The Gravitational Scanner ……………………………………………………………………………….. 555

54. Gravitational Generation of Rain ……………………………………………………………………........ 558

55. A System to Generate Intense Fluxes of Extremely-Low Frequency Radiation ……………………….... 562

56. The Beginning and End of Time in our Universe ……………………………………………………….. 565

57. Improvements in the Design of the Gravitational Motor ………………………………………………... 570

58. Method for Obtaining Quantum Vacuum ……………………………………………………………….. 574

59. The Gravitational Invisibility ……………………………………………………………………………. 579

60. Control of the Gravitational Energy by means of Sonic Waves....……………………………………….. 586

61. Nuclear Fission by means of Terahertz Sonic Waves……………………………………………………..590

62. Electromagnetic Radiation can affect the Lift Force………………………………………………………593

63. How a Massive Planet can affect Human Consciousnesses when Passing Nearby the Sun ………………599

64. Quantum Controller of Gravity ....................................................................................................................609

65. Transforming a Quantum Controller of Gravity into a Gravitational Spacecraft ………………………….616

66. Gravitational Motor: Using the Quantum Controller of Gravity……………………………………………620

67. The Gravelectric Generator: Conversion of Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical Energy…………624

68. Asteroid Redirect ............................................................................................................................................632

69. Activation of Autophagy Process in Cancerous Cells at Quasi-Zero Gravity Environments ……………....635

70. Conversion of Kinetic Energy into an Electromagnetic Pulse


by means of Control of the Gravitational Mass ……………………………………………………………..640

71. Searching for the Gravific Photons ……………………………………………………………………….... 643

72. Directional Control of Weight Forces in Rotating Bodies …………………………………………………. 646

73. Negative Gravitational Mass in a Superfluid Bose-Einstein Condensate ……………………………………653

74. Gravitational Interaction between Photons and Unification of All the Fundamental Interactions ………......657

75. Controlling the Gravitational Mass of a Metallic Lamina and the Gravity Acceleration above it…………...664

76. Electromagnetic Control of the Gravitational Mass of a Ferrite Lamina


and the Gravity Acceleration above it……………………………………………………………………......671
xiiii

77. The origin of the Ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray particles ……………………………………………… 676

78. An Experiment to show that there is Gravitational Interaction among photons, because
they have non-null Imaginary Gravitational Mass ……..…………………………………………….. 678

79. Gravitational Micro-Thrusters …………………………………………………………………………...681

80. Gravity Control: The Greatest Challenge in Contemporary Physics ……………………………………688

81. The Observed Magnitude of Cosmological Constant directly derived from the
Quantization Theory of Gravity ………………………………………………………………………...693

82. Experimental set-up to check the decreasing of the Gravitational Mass in Metallic Discs subjected to an
alternating voltage of extremely low frequency………………………………………………………….696

83. Decreasing of the Gravitational Mass in materials with Extremely High Permeability subjected to an
Alternating Magnetic Field of Extremely Low Frequency………………………………………………701
Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2008-2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Abstract: Starting from the action function, we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and the inertial
masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that the strong equivalence
principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein's equations are preserved. In fact, such equations
are deduced here directly from this new approach to Gravitation. Moreover, we have obtained a
generalized equation for the inertial forces, which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation.
Also, we have deduced the equation of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic
field and the reciprocal fine structure constant directly from this new approach. It was also possible to
deduce the expression of the Casimir force and to explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter,
without assuming existence of vacuum fluctuations. This new approach to Gravitation will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in Cosmology.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Unified Field.


PACs: 04.60.-m; 98.80.Qc; 04.50. +h

Contents

1. Introduction 3

2. Theory 3

Generalization of Relativistic Time 4

Quantization of Space, Mass and Gravity 6

Quantization of Velocity 7

Quantization of Time 7

Correlation Between Gravitational and Inertial Masses 8

Generalization of Lorentz's Force 12

Gravity Control by means of the Angular Velocity 13

Gravitoelectromagnetic fields and gravitational shielding effect 14

Gravitational Effects produced by ELF radiation upon electric current 26

Magnetic Fields affect gravitational mass and the momentum 27

Gravitational Motor 28

Gravitational mass and Earthquakes 28

The Strong Equivalence Principle 30

15
2

Incorporation of the Mach's Principle into Gravitation Theory 30

Deduction of the Equations of General Relativity 30

Gravitons: Gravitational Forces are also Gauge forces 31

Deduction of Entropy Equation starting from the Gravity Theory 31

Unification of the Electromagnetic and Gravitational Fields 32

Elementary Quantum of Matter and Continuous Universal Fluid 34

The Casimir Force is a gravitational effect related to the Uncertainty Principle 35

The Shape of the Universe and Maximum speed of Tachyons 36

The expanding Universe is accelerating and not slowing down 38

Gravitational and Inertial Masses of the Photon 39

What causes the fundamental particles to have masses? 40

Electron’s Imaginary Masses 41

Transitions to the Imaginary space-time 44

Explanation for red-shift anomalies 50

Superparticles (hypermassive Higgs bosons) and Big-Bang 51

Deduction of Reciprocal Fine Structure Constant and the Uncertainty Principle 53

Dark Matter, Dark Energy and Inflation Period 53

The Origin of the Universe 59

Solution for the Black Hole Information Paradox 61

A Creator’s need 63

The Origin of Gravity and Genesis of the Gravitational Energy 64

Explanation for the anomalous acceleration of Pioneer 10 66

New type of interaction 68

Appendix A 71

Allais effect explained 71

Appendix B 74

References 75

16
3

1. INTRODUCTION
b
S = −α ∫a ds
Quantum Gravity was originally
studied, by Dirac and others, as the where α is a quantity which
problem of quantizing General characterizes the particle.
Relativity. This approach presents In Relativistic Mechanics, the
many difficulties, detailed by Isham action can be written in the following
[1]. In the 1970's, physicists tried an form [3]:
t2 t2
even more conventional approach: S = ∫ Ldt = − ∫ αc 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1 t1
simplifying Einstein's equations by
assuming that they are almost linear, where
and then applying the standard L = −αc 1 − V 2 c 2
methods of quantum field theory to is the Lagrange's function.
the thus oversimplified equations. But In Classical Mechanics, the
this method, too, failed. In the 1980's Lagrange's function for a free-particle
a very different approach, known as is, as we know, given by: L = aV 2
string theory, became popular. Thus where V is the speed of the particle
far, there are many enthusiasts of
and a is a quantity hypothetically [4]
string theory. But the mathematical
given by:
difficulties in string theory are
formidable, and it is far from clear that
a=m 2
they will be resolved any time soon. where m is the mass of the particle.
At the end of 1997, Isham [2] pointed However, there is no distinction about
out several "Structural Problems the kind of mass (if gravitational
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory". At mass, m g , or inertial mass mi ) neither
the beginning of this new century, about its sign (±) .
the problem of quantizing the The correlation between a and
gravitational field was still open. α can be established based on the
In this work, we propose a new
fact that, on the limit c → ∞ , the
approach to Quantum Gravity.
relativistic expression for L must be
Starting from the generalization of the
reduced to the classic expression
action function we have derived a
theoretical background that leads to L = aV 2 .The result [5] is: L = αV 2 2c .
the quantization of gravity. Einstein's Therefore, if α = 2 ac = mc , we obtain
General Relativity equations are L = aV 2 . Now, we must decide if
deduced directly from this theory of m = mg or m = mi . We will see in this
Quantum Gravity. Also, this theory work that the definition of m g includes
leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field, providing a mi . Thus, the right option is m g , i.e.,
consistent unification of gravity with a = mg 2 .
electromagnetism.
Consequently, α = m g c and the
2. THEORY generalized expression for the action
of a free-particle will have the
We start with the action for a following form:
(1)
b
free-particle that, as we know, is S = −m g c ∫ ds
a
given by
or

17
4

t2
S = − ∫ mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt (2) sign if m g < 0 . Consequently, we will
t1 r
express the momentum p in the
where the Lagrange's function is
following form
L = −mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (3) r
r
m gV r
t2 p = = M gV (4)
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt , 1−V 2 c2
1
r
preceded by the plus sign, cannot The derivative dp dt is the
have a minimum. Thus, the integrand inertial force Fi which acts on the
of Eq.(2) must be always positive.
Therefore, if m g > 0 , then necessarily particle. If the force is perpendicular
to the speed, we have r
t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then t < 0 . The r mg
possibility of t < 0 is based on the Fi =
dV
(5)
1 − V 2 c 2 dt
well-known equation t = ± t0 1 − V 2 c 2
However, if the force and the speed
of Einstein's Theory. have the same direction, we rfind that
Thus if the gravitational mass r mg
of a particle is positive, then t is also Fi =
dV
(6)
(1 − V c )
3
2 2
2
dt
positive and, therefore, given by
t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 . This leads to the From Mechanics [6], we know that
r r
well-known relativistic prediction that p ⋅ V − L denotes the energy of the
the particle goes to the future, if particle. Thus, we can write
V → c . However, if the gravitational r r mg c 2
mass of the particle is negative, then Eg = p ⋅ V − L = = M g c2 (7)
t is negative and given by 1 −V 2 c2
t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, the Note that Eg is not null for V =0, but
prediction is that the particle goes to that it has the finite value
the past, if V → c . Consequently,
m g < 0 is the necessary condition for E g 0 = mg 0 c 2 (8)
the particle to go to the past. Further Equation (7) can be rewritten in
on, a correlation between the the following form:
gravitational and the inertial masses mg c 2
will be derived, which contains the E g = mg c −
2
− mg c 2 =
possibility of m g < 0 . 1−V c 2 2

The Lorentz's transforms follow ⎡ ⎤


⎢ ⎞⎥
the same rule for m g > 0 and m g < 0 , mg ⎢ 2 ⎛⎜ mi c 2 2 ⎟⎥
= mi c + − mi c =
i.e., the sign before 1 − V 2 c 2 will be mi ⎢ ⎜ 1−V 2 c2 ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝144424443⎠⎥
(+ ) when m g > 0 and (− ) if m g < 0 . ⎢⎣ EKi ⎥⎦
The momentum, as we know, mg m
r r = (Ei 0 + EKi ) = g Ei (9)
is the vector p = ∂L ∂V .Thus, from mi mi
Eq.(3) we obtain r By analogy to Eq. (8), Ei 0 = mi 0 c 2 into
r mgV r the equation above, is the
p = = M gV
± 1−V 2 c2 inertial energy at rest. Thus,
Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the total inertial
The (+ ) sign in the equation above
will be used when m g > 0 and the (− )
energy, where E Ki is the kinetic

18
5

inertial energy. From Eqs. (7) and (9) ∂Φ Gm g


we thus obtain =
∂r r 2 1 − V 2 c 2
mi 0 c 2
Ei = = M ic2. (10) By definition, the gravitational
1−V c 2 2
potential energy per unit of
For small velocities (V <<c) , we gravitational mass of a particle inside
obtain a gravitational field is equal to the
Ei ≈ mi 0 c 2 + 12 miV 2 (11) gravitational potential Φ of the field.
Thus, we can write that
where we recognize the classical U (r )
expression for the inertial kinetic Φ=
m′g
energy of the particle.
The expression for the Then, it follows that
gravitational kinetic energy, E Kg , is
∂U (r ) ∂Φ m g m ′g
easily deduced by comparing Eq.(7) Fg = − = − m ′g = −G
with Eq.(9). The result is ∂r ∂r r 2 1 −V 2 c2
mg
EKg = EKi . (12)
mi If m g > 0 and m ′g < 0 , or m g < 0 and
In the presented picture, we
r m ′g > 0 the force will be repulsive; the
can say that the gravity, g , in a force will never be null due to the
gravitational field produced by a existence of a minimum value for m g
particle of gravitational mass M g ,
(see Eq. (24)). However, if m g < 0
depends on the particle's gravitational
and m ′g < 0 , or m g > 0 and m ′g > 0
energy, E g (given by Eq.(7)), because
the force will be attractive. Just
we can write
for m g = mi and m ′g = mi′ we obtain
Eg Mg c2
g = −G = −G 2 2 (13) the Newton's attraction law.
r 2c2 rc On the other hand, as we
Due to g = ∂Φ ∂r , the expression of know, the gravitational force is
the relativistic gravitational potential, conservative. Thus, gravitational
Φ , is given by energy, in agreement with the energy
GM g Gm g conservation law, can be expressed
Φ=− =− by the decrease of the inertial energy,
r r 1−V 2 c2 i.e.,
Then, it follows that ΔE g = −ΔEi (14)
This equation expresses the fact that
GM g Gmg φ
Φ=− =− = a decrease of gravitational energy
r r 1−V 2 c2 1−V 2 c2 corresponds to an increase of the
inertial energy.
where φ = − Gm g r . Therefore, a variation ΔEi in
Then we get E i yields a variation ΔEg = −ΔEi in E g .
∂Φ ∂φ Gm g Thus Ei = Ei0 + ΔEi ; Eg = Eg0 + ΔEg = Eg0 −ΔEi
= =
∂r ∂r 1 − V 2 c 2 r 2 1 − V 2 c 2 and
whence we conclude that
Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 (15)
Comparison between (7) and (10)
shows that Eg0 = Ei0 , i.e., m g 0 = mi 0 .
Consequently, we have

19
6

The minimum energy of a particle


Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0 (16) is obviously its inertial energy at rest
However Ei =Ei0 +EKi.Thus, (16) becomes m g c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we can write
E g = Ei 0 − EKi . (17 ) n2h2
= mg c 2
Note the symmetry in the equations of 8m g L2max
Ei and E g .Substitution of Ei0 = Ei − EKi Then from the equation above it follows
into (17) yields that
E i − E g = 2 E Ki (18) mg = ±
nh
(23)
Squaring the Eqs.(4) and (7) and cLmax 8
comparing the result, we find the whence we see that there is a minimum
following correlation between value for m g given by
gravitational energy and momentum :
E g2 mg (min) = ±
h
(24)
= p + mg c .
2 2 2
(19) cLmax 8
c2 The relativistic gravitational mass
The energy expressed as a function of
the momentum is, as we know, called (
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c )
2 − 2
1
, defined in the
Hamiltonian or Hamilton's function: Eqs.(4), shows that
H g = c p + mg c .
2 2 2
(20 ) M g (min) = mg (min) (25)
Let us now consider the problem The box normalization leads to the
of quantization of gravity. Clearly there is conclusion that the propagation number
r
something unsatisfactory about the k = k = 2π λ is restricted to the
whole notion of quantization. It is
important to bear in mind that the values k = 2π n L . This is deduced
quantization process is a series of rules- assuming an arbitrarily large but finite
of-thumb rather than a well-defined 3
cubical box of volume L [8]. Thus, we
algorithm, and contains many
ambiguities. In fact, for electromagnetism have
we find that there are (at least) two L = nλ
different approaches to quantization and From this equation, we conclude that
that while they appear to give the same Lmax
theory they may lead us to very different nmax =
quantum theories of gravity. Here we will λmin
follow a new theoretical strategy: It is and
known that starting from the Schrödinger Lmin = nmin λ min = λ min
equation we may obtain the well-known
Since nmin = 1. Therefore, we can write
expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of that
edge length L [ 7 ]. The result now is Lmax = nmax Lmin (26)
n2h2 From this equation, we thus conclude
En = n = 1,2,3,... (21) that
8m g L2
2 2
L = nLmin (27 )
Note that the term h 8m g L (energy) or
will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax Lmax
is the maximum edge length of a cubical
L= (28)
n
box whose maximum diameter
Multiplying (27) and (28) by 3 and
d max = Lmax 3 (22) reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain
is equal to the maximum length scale of
the Universe.

20
7

d max From this equation one concludes


d = nd min or d= (29) that we can have V = Vmax or
n
Equations above show that the length V = Vmax 2 , but there is nothing in
(and therefore the space) is quantized.
between. This shows clearly that Vmax
By analogy to (23) we can also
conclude that cannot be equal to c (speed of light in
vacuum). Thus, it follows that
M g (max) =
nmax h
(30) n =1 V = Vmax
cLmin 8
n=2 V = Vmax 2
since the relativistic gravitational mass,
(
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c 2 )− 12
, is just a
n=3 V = Vmax 3 Tachyons
........ ..................
multiple of m g .
n = nx − 1 V = Vmax (nx − 1)
Equation (26) tells us that
Lmin = Lmax nmax . Thus, Eq.(30) can be −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
rewritten as follows n = nx V = Vmax nx = c ←
2 n = nx + 1 V = Vmax (nx + 1) Tardyons
M g (max ) =
n max h
(31)
cLmax 8 n = nx + 2 V = Vmax (nx + 2)
Comparison of (31) with (24) shows that ...............
...........................
M g (max ) = n 2
max m g (min ) (32 ) where nx is a big number.
which leads to following conclusion that Then c is the speed upper limit of
M g = n 2 m g (min ) (33) the Tardyons and also the speed lower
This equation shows that the limit of the Tachyons. Obviously, this limit
gravitational mass is quantized. is always the same in all inertial frames.
Substitution of (33) into (13) leads Therefore c can be used as a reference
to quantization of gravity, i.e., speed, to which we may compare any
speed V , as occurs for the relativistic
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
g= = n 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟=
⎟ factor 1 −V 2 c2 . Thus, in this factor, c
r2 ⎝ (rmax n )
2

= n 4 g min (34 ) does not refer to maximum propagation
speed of the interactions such as some
From the Hubble's law, it follows that authors suggest; c is just a speed limit
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2)
~ ~
which remains the same in any inertial
Vmin = Hl min = H (d min 2)
~ ~ frame.
The temporal coordinate x 0 of
whence
space-time is now x 0 = Vmax t ( x 0 = ct
Vmax d max
= is then obtained Vmax →c ).
when
Vmin d min
Equations (29) tell us that
~
Substitution of Vmax = nV = n Hl into this ( )
d max d min = nmax . Thus the equation ~ 0
equation yields t = x Vmax = 1 nH x l .
0
( )( )
above gives ~
On the other hand, since V = H l and
V max
V min = (35 ) V = Vmax n we can write that
( )
n max
l = Vmax H −1 n .Thus x 0 l = H (nt) = Ht max .
~ ~ ~
which leads to following conclusion
V max Therefore, we can finally write
V = (36 )
n
this equation shows that velocity is also (~
)( )
t = 1 nH x 0 l = t max n (37)
quantized.
which shows the quantization of time.

21
8

From Eqs. (27) and (37) we can


easily conclude that the spacetime is not Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V
1 − (V c )
2
continuous it is quantized.
Now, let us go back to Eq. (20) From the Eq.(16) we obtain:
Eg = 2Ei 0 − Ei = 2Ei 0 − (Ei 0 + ΔEi ) = Ei 0 − ΔEi
which will be called the gravitational
Hamiltonian to distinguish it from the
inertial Hamiltonian H i : However, Eq.(14) tells us that −ΔEi = ΔEg ;
what leads to Eg = Ei0 + ΔEg or mg = mi0 + Δmg .
H i = c p 2 + mi 0 c 2 .
2
(38)
Thus, in the expression of Δ p we
( )
Consequently, Eq. (18) can be rewritten
in the following form: can replace m g − Δm g for mi 0 , i.e,
H i − H g = 2ΔH i (39) mi0 V
Δp =
where Δ H i is the variation on the
1 − (V c )
2

inertial Hamiltonian or inertial kinetic We can therefore write


energy. A momentum variation Δp yields
Δp
a variation Δ H given by: =
V c
(42)
mi 0 c 1 − (V c )
i 2

ΔHi = ( p + Δp) c2 + mi0 c4 − p2c2 + mi0 c4 (40)


2 2 2
By substitution of the expression above
By considering that the particle is into Eq. (41), we thus obtain:
initially at rest ( p = 0) . Then, Eqs. (20),
(38) and (39) give respectively: Hg = mgc , 2
⎢⎣
(
mg = mi 0 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) − 12
− 1⎤mi 0
⎥⎦
(43)
Hi = mi0c2 and
For V = 0 we obtain mg = mi0 .Then,
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞
ΔH i = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ mi 0 c 2 mg (min) = mi0(min)
⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Substitution of m g (min ) into the quantized
By substituting H g , H i and ΔH i into expression of M g (Eq. (33)) gives
Eq.(39), we get
M g = n 2 mi 0(min )
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎛ Δp ⎞

mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0. (41) where mi 0 (min ) is the elementary
⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c ⎥
⎣ ⎦ quantum of inertial mass to be
determined.
This is the general expression of the For V = 0 , the relativistic
correlation between the gravitational and
inertial mass. Note that expression M g = mg 1 −V 2 c2 becomes
for Δ p > m i 0 c ( )
5 2 , the value of m g Mg = Mg0 = mg0 . However, Eq. (43) shows
becomes negative. that m g 0 = mi 0 . Thus, the quantized
Equation (41) shows that mg expression of M g reduces to
decreases of Δm g for an increase of
mi 0 = n 2 mi 0 (min )
Δp . Thus, starting from (4) we In order to define the inertial quantum
obtain number, we will change n in the

p + Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V expression above for ni . Thus we have

1 − (V c )
2

m i 0 = n i2 m i 0 (min ) (44 )
By considering that the particle is initially
at rest ( p = 0) , the equation above gives

22
9

which shows the quantization of accuracy of one part in 10 7 .


inertial mass; ni is the inertial Posteriorly, Eötvos experiment has
quantum number. been repeated with accuracy of one
We will change n in the quantized part in 10 9 . In 1963, the experiment
expression of M g for n g in order to was repeated with an even greater
define the gravitational quantum accuracy, one part in 1011 . The result
number. Thus, we have was the same previously obtained.
In all these experiments, the
M g = n g2 mi 0(min ) (44a ) ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than 10 −17 , which
is much smaller than the accuracy of
Finally, by substituting mg 10 −11 obtained in the previous more
given by Eq. (43) into the relativistic precise experiment.
expression of M g , we readily obtain Then, we arrive at the
conclusion that all these experiments
mg
Mg = = say nothing in regard to the relativistic
1−V 2 c2 behavior of masses in relative motion.

⎢⎣
(
= M i − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 )
− 12
− 1⎤ M i
⎥⎦
(45 ) Let us now consider a planet in
the Sun’s gravitational field to which,
in the absence of external forces, we
By expanding in power series apply Lagrange’s equations. We
and neglecting infinitesimals, we arrive at the well-known equation:
2 2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
arrive at: ⎛ dr ⎞ 2GM i
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r
⎛ V2 ⎞
M g = ⎜1 − 2

⎟M i

(46) r2

=h
⎝ c ⎠ dt
where M i is the inertial mass of the
Thus, the well-known expression for Sun. The term E = − GM i a , as we
the simple pendulum know, is called the energy constant;
period, T =2π (Mi Mg )(l g) , can be rewritten a is the semiaxis major of the Kepler-
in the following form: ellipse described by the planet
l ⎛⎜ V2 ⎞ around the Sun.
T = 2π 1+ 2 ⎟ for V << c By replacing M i into the
g ⎜⎝ 2c ⎟

differential equation above for the
Now, it is possible to learn why expression given by Eq. (46), and
Newton’s experiments using simple expanding in power series, neglecting
penduli do not find any difference infinitesimals, we arrive, at:
between M g and M i . The reason is
due to the fact that, in the case of ⎛ dr ⎞
2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
2
2GM g 2GM g ⎛ V 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
penduli, the ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r r ⎜⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
10 −17 , which is much smaller than the
accuracy of the mentioned Since V = ωr = r (dϕ dt ) , we get
experiments.
Newton’s experiments have 2 2 2
⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM g 2GM g r ⎛ dϕ ⎞
been improved upon (one part in ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r c 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
60,000) by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
which is the Einsteinian equation of the
(1784–1846). In 1890, Eötvos planetary motion.
confirmed Newton’s results with

23
10

Multiplying this equation by Gmg


(dt dϕ )2 and remembering that g =−
r 2 1 − V 2 c2
(dt dϕ ) = r
2 4 2
h , we obtain
⎛ dr ⎞
2
⎛ r 4 ⎞ 2GMg r3 2GMg r
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + r 2 = E⎜ 2 ⎟ + + where V is the velocity of the mass
⎝ dϕ ⎠ ⎜h ⎟ h2 c2
⎝ ⎠ mg , in respect to the observer. V is
Making r = 1 u and multiplying both
also the velocity with which the
members of the equation by u 4 , we
get observer moves away from mg . If
2 3
⎛ du ⎞ E 2GMgu 2GMgu the observer is inside the gravitational
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + u2 = 2 + +
⎝ dϕ ⎠ h h2 c2 mg , then, V
field produced by is the
This leads to the following expression
GMg ⎛ 3 u2h 2 ⎞
velocity with which the observer
d 2u ⎜1 + ⎟
+ u =
dϕ 2 h 2 ⎜⎝ c2 ⎟⎠ escapes from mg (or the escape
In the absence of term 3h 2 u 2 c 2 , the velocity from the gravitational field of
integration of the equation should be mg ). Since the gravitational field is
immediate, leading to 2π period. In
created by a particle with non-null
order to obtain the value of the
gravitational mass, then obviously,
perturbation we can use any of the
V < c . If V << c the escape velocity is
well-known methods, which lead to
given by
an angle ϕ , for two successive
perihelions, given by mg M g′
6G 2 M g2 1
M g′ V 2 = G
2π +
2
r
c 2h 2
Calculating per century, in the case of whence we obtain
Mercury, we arrive at an angle of 43”
for the perihelion advance. 2Gmg
This result is the best V2 =
theoretical proof of the accuracy of r
Eq. (45).
Now consider a relativistic By substituting this expression into
particle inside a gravitational field. the equation of g , above obtained,
The condition for it to escape from the the result is
gravitational field is that its inertial
kinetic energy becomes equal to the ∂Φ Gmg
absolute value of the gravitational g= =
∂r r 2 1− 2 Gm rc2
energy of the field, which is given g

GM g M ′g
U (r ) = − = whence we recognize the
r
Schwzarzschilds’ equation. Note in
Gmg M g′ this equation the presence of m g ,
=−
r 1−V 2 c2 whose value, according to Eq. (41)
can be reduced or made negative. In
Since Φ = U (r ) M g′ and g = ∂Φ ∂r
then, we get

24
11

this case * , the singularity g → ∞ , frequency of a wave, measured in units


produced by Schwzarzschilds’ radius of universal time, remains constant
r = 2Gmg c2 , (m g = m i ), obviously
during its propagation, and that it can be
expressed by
does not occur. Consequently, Black ∂ψ
ω0 =
Hole does not exist. ∂t
For V << c we get 1−V c ≅1+V 2c .
2 2 2 2 where dψ dt is the derivative of the
eikonal ψ with respect to the time.
Since V =2Gmg r , then we can write that
2
On the other hand, the frequency
Gmg φ of the wave measured in units of own
1−V 2 c2 ≅ 1+ 2
= 1+ time is given by
rc c2 ∂ψ
ω=
Substitution of 1−V 2 c2 =1+ φ c2 into the ∂T
well-known expression below Thus, we conclude that
ω ∂t
T = t 1− V 2 c2 =
ω 0 ∂T
which expresses the relativistic
whence we obtain
correlation between own time (T) and
ω t 1
universal time (t), gives = =
⎛ φ ⎞ ω0 T ⎛ φ ⎞
T = t ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
It is known from the Optics that the By expanding in power series, neglecting
infinitesimals, we arrive at:
⎛ φ ⎞
*
This can occur, for example, in a stage of ω = ω 0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
gravitational contraction of a neutron star (mass > ⎝ c ⎠
2.4M~), when the gravitational masses of the In this way, if a light ray with a frequency
neutrons, in the core of star, are progressively ω 0 is emitted from a point where the
turned negative, as a consequence of the increase gravitational potential is φ1 , it will have a
of the density of magnetic energy inside the
neutrons, Wn = 12 μ0 Hn2 , reciprocally produced by frequency ω1 . Upon reaching a point
the spin magnetic fields of the own neutrons, where the gravitational potential is φ 2 its
( ) ( )
r r r frequency will be ω 2 . Then, according to
Hn = 12 μ0 Mn 2π rn3 = γ n eSn 4πmnrn3 due to the
equation above, it follows that
decrease of the neutrons radii, rn , along the very
⎛ φ ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
strong compression at which they are subjected. ω1 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 12 ⎟ and ω 2 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 22 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
−6
Since Wn ∝ rn , and ρ n ∝ rn−3 , then Wn
Thus, from point 1 to point 2 the
increases much more rapidly – with the decrease frequency will be shifted in the
of rn – than ρ n . Consequently, the ratio interval Δω = ω1 − ω 2 , given by
Wn ρ n increases progressively with the ⎛φ −φ ⎞
Δω = ω 0 ⎜ 2 2 1 ⎟
compression of the neutrons star. According to ⎝ c ⎠
If Δω < 0 , (φ1 > φ 2 ) , the shift occurs in the
Eq. (41), the gravitational masses of the neutrons
can be turned negative at given stage of the
compression. Thus, due to the difference of direction of the decreasing frequencies
pressure, the value of Wn ρ n in the crust is (red-shift). If Δω > 0 , (φ1 < φ 2 ) the blue-
smaller than the value in the core. This means shift occurs.
that, the gravitational mass of the core becomes Let us now consider another
negative before of the gravitational mass of the consequence of the existence of
crust. This makes the gravitational contraction correlation between M g and M i .
culminates with an explosion, due to the repulsive
gravitational forces between the core and the Lorentz's force is usually written in
crust. Therefore, the contraction has a limit and, the following form:
consequently, the singularity does not occur.

25
12
r r r r
d p dt = qE + qV × B surface dA )is equal to the energy dU
r r absorbed per unit volume (dU dV ) .i.e.,
where p = mi 0V 1 − V 2 c 2 . However,
r
Eq.(4) tells us that p = mgV 1 − V c .
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(47)
dV dxdydz dAdz
2 2

Therefore, the expressions above must Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed


be corrected by multiplying its members of radiation) into the equation above
by m g mi 0 ,i.e., gives
r r dU (dU dAdt ) dD
r mg
p =
mg mi 0V
=
mgV r
= p
dP = = = (48)
dV v v
mi 0 mi 0 1 − V 2 c2 1 − V 2 c2 Since dPdA = dF we can write:
and
r
dp d ⎛ r m g ⎞
dFdt =
dU
(49)
= ⎜⎜ p
r r r m
⎟ = qE + qV × B g
dt dt ⎝ mi 0 ⎟⎠ mi 0
( ) v
However we know that dF= dp dt , then
That is now the general expression for
Lorentz's force. Note that it depends on dp =
dU
(50)
v
mg . From Eq. (48), it follows that
When the force is perpendicular to dVdD
the speed, Eq. (5) gives dU = dPd V = (51)
v
( )
r r
dp dt = mg dV dt 1−V2 c2 .By comparing Substitution into (50) yields
dVdD
with Eq.(46), we thus obtain dp = (52 )
(mi0 1−V 2
c 2
)(r r
)
r r
dV dt = qE + qV × B
or
v2
Note that this equation is the expression Δp 1 D V
of an inertial force. ∫0 dp = ∫0 ∫0 dVdD
Starting from this equation, well- v2
known experiments have been carried whence
VD
out in order to verify the relativistic Δp = (53)
expression: m i 1−V
c . In general, 2 2 v2
This expression is general for all types of
the momentum variation Δp is waves including non-electromagnetic
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the waves such as sound waves. In this
applied force during a time interval Δt . case, v in Eq.(53), will be the speed of
Note that there is no restriction sound in the medium and D the intensity
concerning the nature of the force F , of the sound radiation.
i.e., it can be mechanical, In the case of electromagnetic
electromagnetic, etc. waves, the Electrodynamics tells us that
For example, we can look on the v will be given by
momentum variation Δp as due to dz ω c
v= = =
absorption or emission of dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
electromagnetic energy by the particle 2 ⎝ ⎠
(by means of radiation and/or by means
of Lorentz's force upon the charge of the where kr is the real part of the
r r
particle). propagation vector k ; k = k = k r + iki ;
In the case of radiation (any
type), Δp can be obtained as follows. It ε , μ and σ, are the electromagnetic
is known that the radiation pressure , characteristics of the medium in which
dP , upon an area dA = dxdy of a the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating ( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the
volume d V = dxdydz of a particle( the
relative dielectric permittivity and
incident radiation normal to the
ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where

26
13

μ r is the relative magnetic permeability ⎧


⎪ ⎡ R4ω 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
mg (disk ) ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.12 ×10−13 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0(disk )
and μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ; σ is the ⎪⎩ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
electrical conductivity). For an atom Note that the effect of the
inside a body, the incident (or emitted) electromagnetic radiation applied upon
radiation on this atom will be propagating the disk is highly relevant, because in the
inside the body, and consequently, absence of this radiation the index of
σ=σbody, ε=εbody, μ=μbody. refraction, present in equations above,
It is then evident that the index of becomes equal to 1. Under these
refraction nr = c v will be given by circumstances, the possibility of strongly
reducing the gravitational mass of the
εμ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (54)
c
nr =
2
disk practically disappears. In addition,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ the equation above shows that, in
On the other hand, from Eq. (50) follows practice, the frequency f of the
that radiation cannot be high, and that
U ⎛c⎞ U extremely-low frequencies (ELF) are
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr most appropriated. Thus, if the frequency
v ⎝c⎠ c
of the electromagnetic radiation applied
Substitution into Eq. (41) yields
upon the disk is f = 0.1Hz (See Fig. I (a))
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪ and the radius of the disk is R = 0.15m ,

mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
2 r⎟
(55)
⎢ ⎥⎪ and its angular speed

⎩ ⎣
⎝ mi0c ⎠
⎦⎭ (
ω = 1.05×10 rad / s ~ 100,000 rpm ,
4
) the
If the body is also rotating, with an result is
angular speed ω around its central axis, m g (disk ) ≅ −2.6mi 0(disk )
then it acquires an additional energy
This shows that the gravitational mass of
equal to its rotational energy
(E )
= 1 2 Iω 2 . Since this is an increase
k
a body can also be controlled by means
of its angular velocity.
in the internal energy of the body, and In order to satisfy the condition
this energy is basically electromagnetic, U << ΔU , we must have dU dt <<dΔU dt ,
we can assume that E k , such as U , where Pr = dU dt is the radiation power.
corresponds to an amount of By integrating this expression, we
electromagnetic energy absorbed by the get U = Pr 2 f . Thus we can conclude
body. Thus, we can consider E k as an
that, for U << ΔU , we must have
increase ΔU = E k in the electromagnetic
Pr 2 f << 12 Iω 2 , i.e.,
energy U absorbed by the body.
Consequently, in this case, we must Pr << Iω 2 f
replace U in Eq. (55) for (U + ΔU ) . If By dividing both members of the
U << ΔU , the Eq. (55) reduces to expression above by the area S = 4πr 2 ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ we obtain
⎪ ⎛ Iω 2 n r ⎞

m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mi 0 Iω 2 f
⎜ 2m c 2 ⎟ ⎥ Dr <<
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ 4πr 2
⎩ ⎣
For σ << ωε , Eq. (54) shows that Therefore, this is the necessary condition
in order to obtain U << ΔU . In the case
n r = c v = ε r μ r and n r = μσc 2 4πf in of the Mumetal disk, we must have
the case of σ >> ωε . In this case, if the D r << 10 5 r 2 watts / m 2( )
body is a Mumetal disk
( )
From Electrodynamics, we know
μ r = 105,000 at 100gauss; σ = 2.1 × 10 S.m −1
7
that a radiation with frequency f
( )
with radius R , I = 1 2 mi 0 R 2 , the equation
propagating within a material with
electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and
above shows that the gravitational mass σ has the amplitudes of its waves
of the disk is

27
14

attenuated by e−1=0.37 (37%) when it ∇.DG = − ρ


penetrates a distance z, given by †
∂BG
z=
1 ∇ × EG = −
∂t
ω 1 2 εμ ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 − 1⎞⎟ ∇.BG = 0
⎝ ⎠
For σ >>ωε , equation above reduces to ∂DG
∇ × H G = − jG +
z=
1 ∂t
πμfσ where DG = 4ε rG ε 0G E G is the
In the case of the Mumetal subjected to gravitodisplacement field ( ε rG is the
an ELF radiation with frequency
gravitoelectric relative permittivity of the
f = 0.1Hz , the value is z = 1.07 mm .
medium; ε 0G is the gravitoelectric
Obviously, the thickness of the Mumetal
disk must be less than this value. permittivity for free space and E G = g
Equation (55) is general for all is the gravitoelectric field intensity); ρ is
types of electromagnetic fields including the density of local rest mass in the local
gravitoelectromagnetic fields (See Fig. I rest frame of the matter;
(b)).
BG = μ rG μ 0G H G is the gravitomagnetic
Transmitter field ( μ rG is the gravitomagnetic relative
ELF electromagnetic radiation

permeability, μ 0G is the gravitomagnetic


permeability for free space and H G is
Mumetal disk the gravitomagnetic field intensity;
Motor
jG = −σ G E G is the local rest-mass
current density in this frame ( σ G is the
gravitoelectric conductivity of the
Balance medium).
Then, for free space we can write
(a)
that
⎛ GM ⎞
DG = 4ε 0G EG = 4ε 0G g = 4ε 0G ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
Gravitoelectric
Field But from the electrodynamics we know
that
q
D = εE =
Acceleration
4πr 2
By analogy we can write that
Mg
DG =
Gravitomagnetic 4πr 2
Field
By comparing this expression with the
(b) previous expression of DG , we get
Fig. I – (a) Experimental set-up in order to measure the 1
gravitational mass decreasing in the rotating Mumetal ε 0G = = 2.98 × 10 8 kg 2 .N −1 .m − 2
disk. A sample connected to a dynamometer can measure 16πG
the decreasing of gravity above the disk. (b) which is the expression of the
Gravitoelectromagnetic Field.
gravitoelectric permittivity for free
space.
The Maxwell-like equations for The gravitomagnetic permeability
weak gravitational fields are [9] for free space [10,11] is
16πG
† μ 0G = 2
= 3.73 × 10 −26 m kg
Quevedo, C. P. (1978) Eletromagnetismo c
McGraw-Hill, p.269-270.
We then convert Maxwell-like equations

28
15

for weak gravity into a wave equation for ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G 2 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
free space in the standard way. We
conclude that the speed of Gravitational ⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
Waves in free space is ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
1
v= =c ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
ε 0G μ 0G ⎪ ⎛ BG2 ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0 (55a)
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥⎪
This means that both electromagnetic ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎭
and gravitational plane waves propagate ⎩
at the free space with the same speed. where ρ = mi 0 V .
Thus, the impedance for free space is This equation shows how the
EG 16πG gravitational mass of a particle is altered
ZG = = μ0G ε 0G = μ0G c = by a gravitomagnetic field.
HG c
A gravitomagnetic field, according
and the Poynting-like vector is
r r r to Einstein's theory of general relativity,
S = EG × H G arises from moving matter (matter
For a plane wave propagating in the current) just as an ordinary magnetic
vacuum, we have E G = Z G H G . Then, it field arises from moving charges. The
Earth rotation is the source of a very
follows that
weak gravitomagnetic field given by
r 1 r 2 ω 2 r 2 c 2ω 2
S = EG = h = h0i
2
μ 0G ⎛ Mω ⎞
2Z G 2Z G 32πG BG ,Earth = − ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 10 −14 rad .s −1
16π ⎝ r ⎠ Earth
which is the power per unit area of a
harmonic plane wave of angular Perhaps ultra-fast rotating stars can
frequency ω . generate very strong gravitomagnetic
In classical electrodynamics the fields, which can make the gravitational
density of energy in an electromagnetic mass of particles inside and near the star
negative. According to (55a) this will
field, We , has the following expression
occur if BG > 1.06c μ 0G ρ . Usually,
We = 12 ε r ε 0 E 2 + 12 μ r μ 0 H 2
however, gravitomagnetic fields
In analogy with this expression we produced by normal matter are very
define the energy density in a weak.
gravitoelectromagnetic field, WG , as Recently Tajmar, M. et al., [12]
follows have proposed that in addition to
WG = 12 ε rG ε 0G EG2 + 12 μ rG μ 0G H G2 the London moment, B L ,
For free space we obtain ( )
( BL = − 2m* e* ω ≅ 1.1×10−11ω ; m and
*

μ rG = ε rG = 1 e* are the Cooper-pair mass and charge


ε 0G = 1 μ 0G c 2 respectively), a rotating superconductor
E G H G = μ 0G c should exhibit also a large
gravitomagnetic field, BG , to explain an
and
BG = μ 0 G H G apparent mass increase of Niobium
Cooper-pairs discovered by Tate et
Thus, we can rewrite the equation of WG al[13,14]. According to Tajmar and Matos
as follows [15], in the case of coherent matter, BG
2
⎛ 1⎞ 2 2 1 ⎛B ⎞ B2 is given by: BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr where ρ c
WG = 1⎜ ⎟c BG + μ0G ⎜ G ⎟ = G
2⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ μ0G ⎟
⎝ μ0G c ⎠
2
⎝ ⎠ μ0G is the mass density of coherent matter
and λ gr is the graviphoton wavelength.
Since U G = WGV , (V is the volume of the By choosing λ gr proportional to the local
particle) and nr = 1 for free space we density of coherent matter, ρ c . i.e.,
can write (55) in the following form

29
16

1 ⎛ m gr c ⎞ By means of (55c) it is possible to


= ⎜⎜ ⎟ = μ 0G ρ c
⎟ check the changes in the gravitational
λ2gr ⎝ h ⎠ mass of the coherent part of a given
we obtain material (e.g. the Cooper-pair fluid). Thus
⎛ 1 ⎞ for the electrons of the Cooper-pairs we
BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr = −2ωρc μ0G ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = have
⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠
= −2ω ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 2 ⎞
= mie + 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥m =
BG
and the graviphoton mass, m gr , is m ge 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
⎢ μ ρ
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c ⎦
Note that if we take the case of no ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥
local sources of coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) , ⎢
= mie + 2 1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ m =
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
the graviphoton mass will be zero. μ ρ
⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
⎣⎢ ⎦
However, graviphoton will have non-zero
mass inside coherent matter (ρ c ≠ 0 ) . = mie + χ e mie
This can be interpreted as a
consequence of the graviphoton gaining where ρ e is the mass density of the
mass inside the superconductor via the electrons.
Higgs mechanism due to the breaking of In order to check the changes in
gauge symmetry. the gravitational mass of neutrons and
It is important to note that the protons (non-coherent part) inside the
minus sign in the expression for BG superconductor, we must use Eq. (55a)
can be understood as due to the and BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr [Tajmar and
change from the normal to the
coherent state of matter, i.e., a switch Matos, op.cit.]. Due to μ 0G ρ c λ2gr = 1 ,
between real and imaginary values that expression of BG can be rewritten in
for the particles inside the material the following form
BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr = −2ω (ρ ρ c )
when going from the normal to the
coherent state of matter. Consequently,
in this case the variable U in (55) Thus we have
must be replaced by iU G and not by U G ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ BG2 ⎞
only. Thus we obtain mgn = min − 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ UG ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2 1− ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0 (55b)
2 r⎟
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎛ 4ω2 (ρn ρc )2 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ ⎢
⎩ = min − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
Since U G = WGV , we can write (55b) ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
for nr = 1 , in the following form
= min − χnmin
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ WG ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0
2
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc c ⎠
2 ⎟ ⎥⎪ mgp = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G ⎟ −1⎥m =
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎜ μ0G ρ p c ⎟
2 ⎥ ip
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ B 2
⎞ ⎥⎪⎬m (55c)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ − ⎡ ⎤
( )2 ⎞⎟
G
2 ⎟
1 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c c ⎠ ⎥⎪ i 0 ⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρc ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ − 1⎥mip =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
where ρ c = mi 0 V is the local density ⎢ ⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
of coherent matter. = mip − χ p mip
Note the different sign (inside
the square root) with respect to (55a).

30
17

where ρ n and ρ p are the mass density Δm g = m g − m i 0 = − χ p m i 0


of neutrons and protons respectively.
In Tajmar’s experiment, induced By comparing this expression with
accelerations fields outside the Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi which has been
superconductor in the order of 100 μg , at
obtained from Tajmar’s experiment, we
−1
angular velocities of about 500rad .s conclude that at angular velocities
were observed. ω ≈ 500rad .s −1 we have
Starting from g = Gm g (initial ) r we
χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
(
can write that g + Δg = G mg(initial) + Δmg r . ) From the expression of m gp we get
Then we get Δg = GΔmg r . For
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ B G2 ⎞ ⎥
Δg =ηg =ηGmg(initial) r it follows that χ p = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ =
⎜ μ 0G ρ p c ⎟
2
Δ m g = η m g (initial ) = η m i . Therefore a ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
variation of Δg = ηg corresponds to a ⎡ ⎤
( )
2
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρ c 2 ⎞ ⎥
gravitational mass variation Δmg = ηmi0 . = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
Thus Δg ≈ 100μg = 1×10−4 g corresponds ⎢

⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥

to where ρ p = m p V p is the mass density
Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi 0 of the protons.
On the other hand, the total In order to calculate V p we need
gravitational mass of a particle can be
expressed by to know the type of space (metric) inside
the proton. It is known that there are just
mg = Nnmgn + N pmgp + Nemge + N p ΔE c2 = 3 types of space: the space of positive
Nn (min − χnmin ) + N p (mip − χ pmip ) + curvature, the space of negative
curvature and the space of null
+ Ne (mie − χemie ) + N pΔE c2 = curvature. The negative type is
= (Nnmin + N pmip + Nemie ) + N pΔE c2 − obviously excluded since the volume of

− (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N p ΔE c2 =


the proton is finite. On the other hand,
the space of null curvature is also
= mi − (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N pΔE c2 excluded since the space inside the
proton is strongly curved by its enormous
where ΔE is the interaction mass density. Thus we can conclude that
energy; N n , N p , N e are the number of inside the proton the space has positive
neutrons, protons and electrons curvature. Consequently, the volume of
respectively. Since min ≅ mip and the proton, V p , will be expressed by the
ρ n ≅ ρ p it follows that χn ≅ χ p and 3-dimensional space that corresponds to
a hypersphere in a 4-dimentional space,
consequently the expression of mg i.e., V p will be the space of positive
reduces to curvature the volume of which is [16]
2ππ π
mg ≅ mi0 − (2Npχpmip + Neχemie ) + NpΔE c2 (55d ) Vp = ∫ ∫ ∫ rp sin
3 2
χ sin θdχdθdφ = 2π 2 r p3
000

Assuming that Ne χemie <<2Np χ pmip and In the case of Earth, for example,
ρ Earth << ρ p . Consequently the
Np ΔE c2 <<2Npχpmip Eq. (55d) reduces to
curvature of the space inside the Earth is
approximately null (space approximately
mg ≅ mi0 − 2Npχpmip = mi − χpmi (55e) flat). Then V Earth ≅ 3 π r Earth .
4 3

or
For rp = 1.4 ×10−15 m we then get

31
18

mp ⎡ 2⎤
ρp = ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3 ⎛ ω 2 ⎞
Vp χ = 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜
* 4 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.84 × 10−4
⎢ * 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥
Starting from the London moment ⎦
it is easy to see that by precisely From this equation we then obtain
measuring the magnetic field and the
angular velocity of the
superconductor, one can calculate the
ρ * ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3
mass of the Cooper-pairs. This has Note that ρ p ≅ ρ * .
been done for both classical and high-Tc Now we can calculate the
superconductors [17-20]. In the
graviphoton mass, m gr , inside the
experiment with the highest precision to
date, Tate et al, op.cit., reported a Cooper-pairs fluid (coherent part of the
disagreement between the theoretically superconductor) as
predicted Cooper-pair mass in Niobium
of m* 2me = 0.999992 and its m gr = μ 0G ρ * h c ≅ 4 × 10 −52 kg
experimental value of 1.000084(21) ,
Outside the coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) the
where me is the electron mass. This
graviphoton mass will be zero
anomaly was actively discussed in the
literature without any apparent solution (m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c = 0 . )
−1
[21-24]. Substitution of ρp, ρc =ρ and ω ≈ 500rad.s
*
If we consider that the apparent
mass increase from Tate’s into the expression of χ p gives
measurements results from an increase
in the gravitational mass m*g of the χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
Cooper-pairs due to BG , then we can
write Compare this value with that one
obtained from the Tajmar experiment.
m *g m *g
= * = 1.000084 Therefore, the decrease in the
2m e mi gravitational mass of the superconductor,
expressed by (55e), is
Δm *g = m *g − m *g (initial ) = m *g − m i* =
m g ,SC ≅ mi ,SC − χ p mi ,SC
= 1.000084 m i* − mi* =
≅ mi ,SC − 10 − 4 mi ,SC
−4
= +0.84 × 10 mi* =χ *
m i* This corresponds to a decrease of the
−4
where χ = 0.84 × 10 .
* −2
order of 10 % in respect to the initial
From (55c) we can write that gravitational mass of the superconductor.
However, we must also consider the
⎡ 2⎤ gravitational shielding effect, produced
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥ * −2
m*g = mi* + 2 1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ mi = by this decrease of ≈ 10 % in the
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ*c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G ⎠ ⎥ gravitational mass of the particles inside
⎦ the superconductor (see Fig. II).
= mi* + χ * mi* Therefore, the total weight decrease in
the superconductor will be much greater
−2
than 10 % . According to Podkletnov
where ρ * is the Cooper-pair mass
experiment [25] it can reach up to 1% of
density. the total weight of the superconductor
(5000rpm) . In this
Consequently we can write −1
at 523.6rad .s
experiment a slight decrease (up to
≈ 1% ) in the weight of samples hung
above the disk (rotating at 5000rpm) was

32
19

observed. A smaller effect on the order acceleration, g ′ , upon the particle m ′g ,


of 0.1% has been observed when the
r GM g
disk is not rotating. The percentage of is g ′ = − g = + μ̂ . This means that
weight decrease is the same for samples R2
of different masses and chemical in this case, the gravitational flux, φ g′ ,
compounds. The effect does not seem to
diminish with increases in elevation through the particle m ′g will be given by
above the disk. There appears to be a φ g′ = g ′S = − gS = −φ g , i.e., it will be
“shielding cylinder” over the disk that symmetric in respect to the flux when
extends upwards for at least 3 meters.
No weight reduction has been observed
m′g = mi′0 (third case). In the second case
under the disk. (m′g ≅ 0) , the intensity of the
It is easy to see that the decrease
gravitational force between m ′g and M g
in the weight of samples hung above the
disk (inside the “shielding cylinder” over will be very close to zero. This is
the disk) in the Podkletnov experiment, equivalent to say that the gravity
is also a consequence of the acceleration upon the particle with mass
Gravitational Shielding Effect showed in m ′g will be g ′ ≅ 0 . Consequently we can
Fig. II.
write that φ g′ = g ′S ≅ 0 . It is easy to see
In order to explain the
Gravitational Shielding Effect, we start that there is a correlation between
with the gravitational field, m ′g m i′0 and φ g′ φ g , i.e.,
r GM g
g=− μ̂ , produced by a particle
R2 _ If m ′g mi′0 = −1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = −1
with gravitational mass, M g . The
gravitational flux, φ g , through a spherical _ If m ′g m i′0 = 1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = 1
surface, with area S and radius R ,
concentric with the mass M g , is given _ If m ′g m i′0 ≅ 0 ⇒ φ g′ φ g ≅ 0
by
r r Just a simple algebraic form contains the
φ g = ∫ gdS = g ∫ dS = g S = requisites mentioned above, the
S S
correlation
=
GM g
2
(4πR ) = 4πGM
2
g
φ g′
=
m ′g
R
φ g mi′0
Note that the flux φ g does not depend on
By making m ′g mi′0 = χ we get
the radius R of the surface S , i.e., it is
the same through any surface concentric
with the mass M g . φ g′ = χ φ g
Now consider a particle with
gravitational mass, m ′g , placed into the This is the expression of the gravitational
flux through m ′g . It explains the
gravitational field produced by Mg.
Gravitational Shielding Effect presented
According to Eq. (41), we can in Fig. II.
have m′g mi′0 = −1, m′g mi′0 ≅ 0 ‡ , m′g mi′0 = 1, As φg = gS and φ g′ = g ′S , we obtain
etc. In the first case, the gravity

‡ g′ = χ g
The quantization of the gravitational mass
(Eq.(33)) shows that for n = 1 the gravitational This is the gravity acceleration inside m ′g .
mass is not zero but equal to mg(min).Although the Figure II (b) shows the gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle is never null,
shielding effect produced by two particles
Eq.(41) shows that it can be turned very close to
zero.
at the same direction. In this case, the

33
20

gravity acceleration inside and above the flux on the surface α returns from O′ to
second particle will be χ 2 g if m g 2 = m i1 . O and is detected by the
These particles are representative galvanometer G . That is, there is no
of any material particles or material deflection for the cathodic rays. Then it
r r
substance (solid, liquid, gas, plasma, follows that eVB = eEy since FB = FE .
electrons flux, etc.), whose gravitational
mass have been reduced by the Then, we get
factor χ . Thus, above the substance, the Ey
V =
gravity acceleration g ′ is reduced at the B
same proportion χ = m g mi 0 , and, This gives a measure of the velocity of
the electrons.
consequently, g ′ = χ g , where g is the Thus, by means of the
gravity acceleration below the substance. experimental set-up, shown in Fig. III, we
Figure III shows an experimental can easily obtain the velocity V of the
set-up in order to check the factor χ electrons below the body β , in order to
above a high-speed electrons flux. As we calculate the theoretical value of χ . The
have shown (Eq. 43), the gravitational experimental value of χ can be obtained
mass of a particle decreases with the
by dividing the weight, Pβ′ = m gβ g ′ of
increase of the velocity V of the particle.
~
Since the theory says that the the body β for a voltage drop V across
factor χ is given by the correlation the anode and cathode, by its
m g mi 0 then, in the case of an electrons weight, Pβ = m gβ g , when the voltage
flux, we will have that χ = mge mie where ~
V is zero, i.e.,
m ge as function of the velocity V is Pβ′ g′
χ = =
given by Eq. (43). Thus, we can write Pβ g
that
According to Eq. (4), the gravitational
mass, M g , is defined by
m ge ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬ mg
mie ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ 1−V c
2 2
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ Mg =
1 − V 2 c2
Therefore, if we know the velocity V of
the electrons we can calculate χ . ( mie is While Eq. (43) defines m g by means of
the electron mass at rest). the following expression
When an electron penetrates the ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric field E y (see Fig. III) an electric m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
force, FE = −eE y , will act upon the
r In order to check the gravitational mass
electron. The direction of FE will be of the electrons it is necessary to know
r the pressure P produced by the
contrary to the direction of E y . The
r electrons flux. Thus, we have put a
magnetic force FB which acts upon the piezoelectric sensor in the bottom of the
r glass tube as shown in Fig. III. The
electron, due to the magnetic field B , is electrons flux radiated from the cathode
r r
FB = eVBμ̂ and will be opposite to FE is accelerated by the anode1 and strikes
because the electron charge is negative. on the piezoelectric sensor yielding a
By adjusting conveniently B we pressure P which is measured by
r r means of the sensor.
can make FB = FE . Under these
circumstances in which the total force is
zero, the spot produced by the electrons

34
21

g g′ < g g′ < 0

mg = mi mg < mi mg < 0

g g g

(a)

Particle 2 P2 = mg 2 g′ = mg 2 ( x g )
mg 2
g′ < g due to the gravitational
g′ shielding effect produced by mg 1

mg 1 = x mi 1 ; x < 1
Particle 1
mg 1 P1 = mg 1 g = x mi 1 g
g

(b)

Fig. I I – The Gravitational Shielding effect.

35
22

Let us now deduce the correlation piezoelectric sensor is the resultant of


between P and M ge . all the forces Fφ produced by each
When the electrons flux strikes electrons flux that passes through
the sensor, the electrons transfer to it each hole of area S φ in the grid of the
a momentum Q = neqe = ne MgeV . anode 1, and is given by
Since Q = FΔt = 2Fd V , we conclude that ⎛ αnSφ ⎞ ~ 32
F = nFφ = n(PSφ ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
M VV
⎛F⎞
2d ⎝ 2ed ⎠
ge

M ge = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V2
⎝ ne ⎠ where n is the number of holes in the
The amount of electrons, ne , is given grid. By means of the piezoelectric
sensor we can measure F and
by ne = ρSd where ρ is the amount of
consequently obtain M ge .
electrons per unit of volume
We can use the equation
(electrons/m3); S is the cross-section
above to evaluate the magnitude of
of the electrons flux and d the
the force F to be measured by the
distance between cathode and
piezoelectric sensor. First, we will find
anode.
the expression of V as a function of
In order to calculate ne we will ~
V since the electrons speed V
start from the Langmuir-Child law and ~
the Ohm vectorial law, respectively depends on the voltage V .
given by We will start from Eq. (46)
~ 3 which is the general expression for
and J = ρ cV , (ρ c = ρ e )
V2
J =α Lorentz’s force, i.e.,
r
( )
d dp r r r mg
where J is the thermoionic current = qE + qV × B
− 32
dt mi 0
density; α = 2.33 × 10 − 6 A.m −1 .V is
~ When the force and the speed
the called Child’s constant; V is the have the same direction Eq.
r r (6) gives
voltage drop across the anode and dp mg dV
=
cathode electrodes, and V is the dt (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 dt
3

velocity of the electrons.


By comparing the Langmuir- By comparing these expressions we
Child law with the Ohm vectorial law obtain r
we obtain mi 0 dV r r r
~ = q E + q V ×B
( )
3

αV
3

1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
2

ρ= 2
ed V In the case of electrons accelerated
Thus, we can write that by a sole electric field (B = 0) , the
~ 3

αV S 2
equation above gives
ne = r r ~
( )
edV r dV eE 2eV
and a= = 1−V c
2 2

dt mie mie
⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞
M ge = ⎜⎜ ~ 3 ⎟⎟ P Therefore, the velocity V of the
⎝ α VV 2 ⎠ electrons in the experimental set-up
Where P = F S , is the pressure to be is
~
measured by the piezoelectric
( 2eV
)
3

V = 2ad = 1 − V 2 c 2 4
sensor. mie
In the experimental set-up the
From Eq. (43) we conclude that
total force F acting on the

36
23

Dynamometer (D)

d
~
Collimators g’= χ g ↓g + Vy
Grid d Collimators B
O’ +
α γ
F
e V
y Ey O⋅ e

Anode 1 Filaments Cathode Anode 2


Piezoelectric − G ↓iG
sensor
- +

~
V

+ −

Fig. III – Experimental set-up in order to check the factor χ above a high-speed electrons flux.
The set-up may also check the velocities and the gravitational masses of the electrons.

37
24

mge ≅ 0 when V ≅ 0.745c . Substitution If we have nSφ ≅ 0.16m 2 and


of this value of V into equation above d = 0.08m in the experimental set-up
~
gives V ≅ 479.1KV . This is the then it follows that
~
F = 1.82 × 1014 M geVV
3
voltage drop necessary to be applied 2

across the anode and cathode ~


electrodes in order to obtain mge ≅ 0 . By varying V from 10KV up to 500KV
we note that the maximum value for
Since the equation above can ~
be used to evaluate the velocity V of F occurs when V ≅ 344.7 KV . Under
~ these circumstances, V ≅ 0.7c and
the electrons flux for a given V , then
M ge ≅ 0.28mie . Thus the maximum
we can use the obtained value of V to
r value for F is
evaluate the intensity of B in order to
produce eVB = eE y in the Fmax ≅ 1.9 N ≅ 190 gf
~
experimental set-up. Then by Consequently, for Vmax = 500 KV , the
adjusting B we can check when the piezoelectric sensor must satisfy the
electrons flux is detected by the following characteristics:
galvanometer G . In this case, as we
have already seen, eVB = eE y , and − Capacity 200gf
the velocity of the electrons flux is − Readability 0.001gf
calculated by means of the
expression V = E y B . Substitution of Let us now return to the
explanation for the findings of
V into the expressions of m ge and
Podkletnov’s experiment. Next, we
M ge , respectively given by will explain the decrease of 0.1% in
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪ the weight of the superconductor
1
mge = ⎨1 − 2⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mie when the disk is only levitating but not
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ rotating.
Equation (55) shows how the
and gravitational mass is altered by
m ge electromagnetic fields.
M ge = The expression of nr for
1−V 2 c2 σ >> ωε can be obtained from (54),
yields the corresponding values of in the form
m ge and M ge which can be compared μσ c 2
nr =
c
= (56 )
with the values obtained in the v 4πf
experimental set-up:
Substitution of (56) into (55) leads to
(
m ge = χmie = Pβ′ Pβ mie ) ⎧


μσ ⎛ U ⎞
2 ⎤⎫


mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
F ⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞ ⎪ ⎢ 4πf ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥⎪
M ge = ⎜ ⎟ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
~3 ⎜ αnS φ ⎟
VV 2 ⎝ ⎠ This equation shows that atoms of
ferromagnetic materials with very-
where Pβ′ and Pβ are measured by high μ can have gravitational
the dynamometer D and F is masses strongly reduced by means
measured by the piezoelectric of Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
sensor. electromagnetic radiation. It also
shows that atoms of superconducting

38
25

materials (due to very-high σ ) can other hand the transition temperature,


also have its gravitational masses for high critical temperature (HTC)
strongly reduced by means of ELF superconducting materials, is in the
electromagnetic radiation. order of 10 2 K . Thus (58a) gives
Alternatively, we may put ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎪ ~ 10−9 ⎤⎪
Eq.(55) as a function of the power mg,CPfluid = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬mi,CPfluid (58b)
density ( or intensity ), D , of the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρCPfluid ⎥⎦⎪

radiation. The integration of (51)
Assuming that the number of Copper-
gives U =VD v . Thus, we can write
pairs per unit volume is N ≈ 10 26 m −3
(55) in the following form:
[27] we can write that
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
ρ CPfluid = Nm* ≈ 10 −4 kg / m 3
2
⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
⎢ (57)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Substitution of this value into (58b)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ yields
where ρ = mi 0 V .
For σ >> ωε , nr will be given by mg,CPfluid = m − 0.1 mi,CPfluid
i,CPfluid
(56) and consequently (57) becomes
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ This means that the gravitational
⎪ ⎛ μσ ⎞ ⎪
⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (58)
D
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ masses of the electrons are
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ decreased of ~10%. This
⎣ ⎦⎭
corresponds to a decrease in the
In the case of Thermal gravitational mass of the
radiation, it is common to relate superconductor given by
m g ,SC N (m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 )
the energy of photons to
temperature, T, through the = =
relation, mi , SC N (mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 )
hf ≈ κT ⎛ m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
where κ = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / °K is the ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
Boltzmann’s constant. On the other
hand it is known that ⎛ 0.9mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
D = σ BT 4 ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
where σ B = 5.67 × 10 −8 watts / m 2 ° K 4 = 0.999976
is the Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant. Where ΔE is the interaction energy.
Thus we can rewrite (58) in the Therefore, a decrease of
following form (1 − 0.999976) ≈ 10 , i.e., approximately
−5

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσσ 3
⎞ ⎪ 10 −3% in respect to the initial
⎢ − 1⎥⎬mi0 (58a)
⎜ hT ⎟
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + B
⎢ ⎜ 4πκρ c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass of the

⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ superconductor, due to the local
Starting from this equation, we can thermal radiation only. However, here
evaluate the effect of the thermal we must also consider the
radiation upon the gravitational mass gravitational shielding effect
of the Copper-pair fluid, m g ,CPfluid . produced, in this case, by the
Below the transition temperature, Tc , decrease of ≈ 10 − 3% in the
gravitational mass of the particles
(T Tc < 0.5) the conductivity of the inside the superconductor (see Fig.
superconducting materials is usually II). Therefore the total weight
larger than 10 22 S / m [26]. On the decrease in the superconductor will

39
26
r r
be much greater than ≈ 10 − 3% . This J = Δ eVd
can explain the smaller effect on the where Δe is the density of the
order of 0.1% observed in the
free electric charges ( For cooper
Podkletnov measurements when the
disk is not rotating. conductors Δe = 1.3 × 1010 C / m 3 ).
Let us now consider an electric Therefore increasing Vd produces an
current I through a conductor increase in the electric current I .
subjected to electromagnetic Thus if mge is reduced 10 times
radiation with power density D and
frequency f .
(m ge ≈ 0.1me ) the drift velocity Vd is
Under these circumstances the increased 10 times as well as the
gravitational mass mge of the electric current. Thus we conclude
that strong fluxes of ELF radiation
electrons of the conductor, according upon electric/electronic circuits can
to Eq. (58), is given by suddenly increase the electric
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ currents and consequently damage
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ μσD ⎞ ⎪
m ge = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬m e these circuits.
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Since the orbital electrons
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
−31 moment of inertia is given
where me = 9.11 × 10 kg .
by I i = Σ (mi ) j rj , where mi refers to
2

Note that if the radiation upon


the conductor has extremely-low inertial mass and not to gravitational
frequency (ELF radiation) then mge mass, then the momentum L = I iω of
can be strongly reduced. For the conductor orbital electrons are not
affected by the ELF radiation.
example, if f ≈ 10−6 Hz , D ≈ 10 5 W / m 2
Consequently, this radiation just
and the conductor is made of copper affects the conductor’s free electrons
( μ ≅ μ0 ; σ = 5.8×107 S / mand velocities. Similarly, in the case of
ρ = 8900kg / m3 ) then superconducting materials, the
⎛ μσD ⎞ momentum, L = I iω , of the orbital
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ 1 electrons are not affected by the
⎝ 4πfρc ⎠
gravitomagnetic fields.
and consequently mge ≈ 0.1me . r r
The vector D = (U V )v , which we
According to Eq. (6) the force
may define from (48), has the same
upon each free electron is given by r
direction of the propagation vector k
r and evidently corresponds to the
r m ge dV r r
Fe = = eE
(1 − V c2 ) 2
Poynting vector. Then D can be
2
3
dt r r
replaced by E× H .Thus we can write
D = 12 EH = 12 E(B μ) = 12 E[(E v) μ] = 12 (1 vμ)E2 .
where E is the applied electric field.
For σ >> ωε Eq. (54) tells us that
Therefore, the decrease of mge
v = 4πf μσ . Consequently, we obtain
produces an increase in the velocity
V of the free electrons and σ
D = 12 E 2
consequently the drift velocity Vd is 4πfμ
also increased. It is known that the This expression refers to the
density of electric current J through instantaneous values of D and E .
a conductor [28] is given by The average value for E 2 is equal to
1 E 2 because E varies sinusoidaly
2 m

40
27

( E m is the maximum value for E ). penetrates the magnetic field, its


Substitution of the expression of D negative inertial mass increases, but
into (58) gives its total inertial mass decreases, i.e.,
⎧ although there is an increase of
⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
μ ⎛σ ⎞ E
2
⎪ ⎪
⎟⎟ 2 − 1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
inertial mass, the total inertial mass
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪ (which is equivalent to gravitational
⎣ ⎦⎭ mass) will be reduced.
Since E rms = E m 2 and E = 12 E m2 we 2
On the other hand, Eq.(4)
can write the equation above in the shows that the velocity of the body
following form must increase as consequence of
⎧ ⎡ the gravitational mass decreasing
3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ Erms 2

−1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
since the momentum is conserved.
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ 2
⎥⎪ Consider for example a spacecraft
⎦⎭ with velocity Vs and gravitational
Note that for extremely-low
mass M g . If M g is reduced to m g
frequencies the value of f − 3 in this
then the velocity becomes
V s′ = (M g m g )V s
equation becomes highly expressive.
Since E = vB equation (59a)
can also be put as a function of B , In addition, Eqs. 5 and 6 tell us that
i.e., the inertial forces depend on m g .
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ σ ⎞ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ Only in the particular case of
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ 2
− 1⎥⎬mi 0 (59b) m g = m i 0 the expressions (5) and
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4πfμc ⎠ ρ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(6) reduce to the well-known
For conducting materials with Newtonian expression F = mi 0 a .
σ ≈ 10 S / m ; μ r = 1 ; ρ ≈ 10 kg / m3
7 3
Consequently, one can conclude that
the expression (59b) gives the inertial effects on the spacecraft
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ≈ 10 −12 ⎞ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ will also be reduced due to the
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜
⎢ ⎟⎟ B − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 decreasing of its gravitational mass.
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Obviously this leads to a new
This equation shows that the concept of aerospace flight.
decreasing in the gravitational mass Now consider an electric
of these conductors can become current i = i0 sin2πft through a
experimentally detectable for
conductor. Since the current density,
example, starting from 100Teslas at r r r r
10mHz. J , is expressed by J = di dS = σE ,
One can then conclude that an then we can write that
interesting situation arises when a E = i σS = (i0 σS ) sin 2πft . Substitution
body penetrates a magnetic field in of this equation into (59a) gives
the direction of its center. The ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
i4μ
gravitational mass of the body mg = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+ 3 20 2 4 3 sin4 2πft −1⎥⎬mi0 (59c)
decreases progressively. This is due ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 64π c ρ S f σ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
to the intensity increase of the If the conductor is a supermalloy rod
magnetic field upon the body while it
penetrates the field. In order to
(1 × 1 × 400mm) then μr = 100,000
understand this phenomenon we (initial); ρ = 8770kg / m 3 ; σ = 1.6 ×106 S / m
might, based on (43), think of the and S = 1 × 10 −6 m 2 . Substitution of
inertial mass as being formed by two these values into the equation above
parts: one positive and another yields the following expression for the
negative. Thus, when the body

41
28

gravitational mass of the supermalloy Δp P2


rod =
m i 0 c 2 ρ 2 cv 3

⎩ ⎢⎣
( )
mg(sm) =⎧⎨1−2⎡ 1+ 5.71×10−12i04 f 3 sin42πft −1⎤⎫⎬mi(sm)
⎥⎦⎭
Substitution of this expression into
(41) gives
Some oscillators like the HP3325A ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
(Op.002 High Voltage Output) can mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬mi 0 (60)
generate sinusoidal voltages with ⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
extremely-low frequencies down to ⎩
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to This expression shows that in the
case of sound waves the decreasing
20V (into 50Ω load). The maximum
of gravitational mass is relevant for
output current is 0.08 App . very strong pressures only.
Thus, for i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 A pp ) It is known that in the nucleus
and f < 2.25 × 10 −6 Hz the equation of the Earth the pressure can reach
values greater than 1013 N / m 2 . The
above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at equation above tells us that sound
waves produced by pressure
2πft = π 2 ; for f ≅ 1.7 × 10−6 Hz at
variations of this magnitude can
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 × 10 5 s ≅ 40.8h it shows cause strong decreasing of the
that m g ( sm ) ≅ − mi ( sm ) . gravitational mass at the
This leads to the idea of the surroundings of the point where the
Gravitational Motor. See in Fig. IV a sound waves were generated. This
type of gravitational motor (Rotational obviously must cause an abrupt
Gravitational Motor) based on the decreasing of the pressure at this
possibility of gravity control on a place since pressure = weight /area =
ferromagnetic wire. mgg/area). Consequently a local
It is important to realize that instability will be produced due to the
this is not the unique way of opposite internal pressure. The
decreasing the gravitational mass of conclusion is that this effect may
a body. It was noted earlier that the cause Earthquakes.
expression (53) is general for all Consider a sphere of radius r
types of waves including non- around the point where the sound
electromagnetic waves like sound waves were generated (at ≈ 1,000km
waves for example. In this case, the depth; the Earth's radius is 6 ,378km ).
velocity v in (53) will be the speed of If the maximum pressure, at the
sound in the body and D the intensity explosion place ( sphere of radius r0 ),
of the sound radiation. Thus from (53) is Pmax ≈ 1013 N / m 2 and the pressure
we can write that
at the distance r = 10km is
Δp V D D
= = Pmin = (r0 r ) Pmax ≈ 10 N / m then we can
2 9 2
mi c mi c ρcv 2
consider that in the sphere
It can easily be shown that
D = 2π 2 ρf 2 A 2 v where A = λP 2πρv 2 ; P = PmaxPmin ≈ 10 N / m .Thus assuming
11 2

A and P are respectively the v ≈ 103 m / s and ρ ≈103 kg/ m3 we can


amplitude and maximum pressure calculate the variation of gravitational
variation of the sound wave. mass in the sphere by means of the
Therefore we readily obtain equation of m g , i.e.,

42
29

⎧ ⎡ i4μ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
α = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢ 64π c ρ S f σ
3 2 2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Axis
of the
Rotor
Ferromagnetic wire F = mg g = α mi g

P = mi g

~ One plate of ferromagnetic wire


of the Rotor
ELF current
source

Several plates of
ferromagnetic wire

Rotor of the Motor

Fig. IV - Rotational Gravitational Motor

43
30

r
force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from
Δmg = mg (initial) − mg = Eq.(13) we can obtain the
r r r
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravitational force, Fg . Thus, Fi ≡ Fg
⎪ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
= mi 0 − ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 = leads to

⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 2ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ mg r m′g mg
a ≡G ≡

⎛ P2 ⎞
2 ⎤ 1−V c
2 2 2
3
( ⎛ )
⎜ r′ 1−V c ⎟
2 2 ⎞
2
1 −V 2 2
c
= 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ρV ≈ 1011 kg ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ρ cv ⎠ ⎥ ⎛ m′g ⎞ mg mg
⎣ ⎦ r
≡ ⎜⎜G 2 ⎟⎟ ≡g (61)
The transitory loss of this great ( )
⎝ r′ ⎠ 1−V 2 c2 2
3
( 3
)
1−V 2 c2 2
amount of gravitational mass may whence results
r r
evidently produce a strong pressure a≡g (62 )
variation and consequently a strong
Consequently, the equivalence is
Earthquake.
evident, and therefore Einstein's
Finally, we can evaluate the
equations from the General Relativity
energy necessary to generate those
continue obviously valid.
sound waves. From (48) we can write
The new expression for Fi
D max = Pmax v ≈ 10 16 W / m 2 . Thus, the
released power is P0 = Dmax(4πr02 ) ≈ 1021W
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) shows that the
inertial forces are proportional to the
and the energy ΔE released at the gravitational mass, m g . This means
time interval Δt must be ΔE = P0 Δt . that these forces result from the
Assuming Δt ≈ 10 s we readily obtain
−3
gravitational interaction between the
ΔE = P0 Δt ≈ 1018 joules ≈ 10 4 Megatons particle and the other gravitational
This is the amount of energy released masses of the Universe, just as
by an earthquake of magnitude 9 Mach’s principle predicts. Therefore
(Ms =9) , i.e., E = 1.74×10(5+1.44Ms ) ≅ 1018 joules. the new expression for the inertial
forces incorporates the Mach’s
The maximum magnitude in the principle into Gravitation Theory, and
Richter scale is 12. Note that the sole furthermore reveals that the inertial
releasing of this energy at 1000km effects upon a particle can be
depth (without the effect of reduced because, as we have seen,
gravitational mass decreasing) the gravitational mass may be
cannot produce an Earthquake, since reduced. When m g = mi 0 the
the sound waves reach 1km depth
with pressures less than 10N/cm2. nonrelativistic equation for inertial
r r
Let us now return to the Theory. forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to
The equivalence between r r
Fi = mi 0 a . This is the well-known
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational fields assumed m g ≡ mi Newton's second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
because the inertial forces were given Theory the motion of a free-particle is
r r
by Fi = mi a , while the equivalent described by means of δS = 0 [29].
r r Now based on Eq. (1), δS = 0 will be
gravitational forces, by Fg = mg g .
given by the following expression
Thus, to satisfy the equivalence
r r r δS = − m g cδ ∫ ds = 0. (63 )
( a ≡ g and Fi ≡ Fg ) it was necessary
which also describes the motion of
that m g ≡ mi . Now, the inertial the particle inside the gravitational

44
31

field. Thus, Einstein's equations from number n is very large (Classical


the General Relativity can be derived limit). Therefore, just under these
starting from δ (S m + S g ) = 0 , where circumstances the Einstein's
S g and S m refer to the action of the equations from the General Relativity
can be used in order to “classicalize”
gravitational field and the action of the quantum theory by means of
the matter, respectively [30]. approximated description of the
The variations δS g and δS m can spacetime.
be written as follows [31]: Later on we will show that the

∫( )
c3 length d min of Eq. (29) is given by
δSg = Rik − 12 gik R δg ik − g dΩ (64)
16πG ( )
1
≈ 10 −34 m (70)
~ ~
d min = k l planck = k Gh c 3 2
1
(65 )
2c ∫
δS m =− Tik δg ik − g dΩ (See Eq. (100)). On the other hand,
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the we will find in the Eq. (129) the length
scale of the initial Universe, i.e.,
metric tensor and Tik the matter's dinitial ≈10−14m. Thus, from the Eq. (29)
energy-momentum tensor:
we get: n = dinitial dmin = 10−14 10−34 ≈ 1020
Tik = (P + ε g )μ i μ k + Pg ik (66 )
this is the quantum number of the
where P is the pressure and εg = ρgc2 spacetime at initial instant. That
is now, the density of gravitational quantum number is sufficiently large
energy, E g , of the particle; ρ g is then for the spacetime to be considered
the density of gravitational mass of approximately “continuous” starting
the particle, i.e., M g at the volume from the beginning of the Universe.
Therefore Einstein's equations can be
unit. used even at the Initial Universe.
Substitution of (64) and (65) into Now, it is easy to conclude why
δS m + δS g = 0 yields the attempt to quantize gravity
c3
16πG
( 8πG
)
∫ Rik − 2 gik R − c 4 Tik δg − g dΩ = 0
1 ik
starting from the General Relativity
was a bad theoretical strategy.
Since the gravitational
whence,
interaction can be repulsive, besides
⎛⎜ R − 1 g R − 8πG T ⎞⎟ = 0 (67)
⎝ ik 2 ik c4
ik

attractive, such as the
electromagnetic interaction, then the
because the δg ik are arbitrary.
graviton must have spin 1 (called
Equations (67) in the following form graviphoton) and not 2.
Rik − 12 g ik R = 8π4G Tik (68) Consequently, the gravitational forces
c
are also gauge forces because they
or
are yielded by the exchange of the
Rik − 12 gδ ik R = 8π4G Tik . (69) so-called "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
c
are the Einstein's equations from the such as the electromagnetic forces
General Relativity. and the weak and strong nuclear
It is known that these equations forces.
are only valid if the spacetime is Let us now deduce the Entropy
continuous. We have shown at the Differential Equation starting from Eq.
beginning of this work that the (55). Comparison of Eqs. (55) and
spacetime is not continuous it is (41) shows that Unr = Δpc . For small
quantized. However, the spacetime velocities, i.e., (V << c ) , we have
can be considered approximately
Unr << mi 0 c 2 . Under these
“continuous” when the quantum

45
32

circumstances, the development of T (∂Ei ∂T ) = 2EKi (77)


( )
Eq. (55) in power of Unr mi 0 c 2 gives However, Eq.(18) shows that
⎛ Unr ⎞
2 2EKi =Ei −Eg .Therefore Eq.(77) becomes
mg = mi 0 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ mi 0
2 ⎟
(71) Eg = Ei − T (∂Ei ∂T ) (78)
⎝ i0 ⎠
m c
In the particular case of thermal Here, we can identify the energy E i
radiation, it is usual to relate the with the free-energy of the system-F
energy of the photons to the and E g with the internal energy of
temperature, through the relationship the system-U. Thus we can write the
hν ≈ kT where k = 1.38×10−23 J K is Eq.(78) in the following form:
the Boltzmann's constant. Thus, in U = F − T (∂F ∂T ) (79)
that case, the energy absorbed by the This is the well-known equation of
particle will be U = η hν ≈ ηkT , Thermodynamics. On the other hand,
where η is a particle-dependent remembering that ∂Q = ∂τ +∂U (1st
absorption/emission coefficient. principle of Thermodynamics) and
Therefore, Eq.(71) may be rewritten F = U − TS (80)
in the following form: (Helmholtz's function), we can easily
⎡⎛ nrηk ⎞2 T 2 ⎤ obtain from (79), the following
mg = mi0 − ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥mi0 (72) equation
⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ mi0 ⎥⎦ (81)
2
∂Q = ∂τ + T∂S .
For electrons at T=300K, we have For isolated systems, ∂τ = 0 , we have
⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2
∂Q = T∂S (82)
⎜ 2 ⎟ ≈ 10 −17
⎝ c ⎠ me which is the well-known Entropy
2

Comparing (72) with (18), we obtain Differential Equation.


Let us now consider the
1 ⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2

EKi = ⎜ ⎟ . (73) Eq.(55) in the ultra-relativistic case


2 ⎝ c ⎠ mi 0 where the inertial energy of the
The derivative of E Ki with respect to particle E i = M i c 2 is much larger than
temperature T is its inertial energy at rest mi 0 c 2 .
∂E Ki
= (nrηk c ) (T mi 0 ) (74) Comparison of (4) and (10) leads to
2

∂T Δp = EiV c 2 which, in the ultra-


Thus, relativistic case, gives
∂E
T Ki = r 2
(n ηkT)2 (75) Δp = EiV c ≅ Ei c ≅ Mi c . On the other
2

∂T mi0 c hand, comparison of (55) and (41)


Substitution of EKi = Ei − Ei0 into (75) shows that Unr = Δpc . Thus
gives Unr = Δpc ≅ Mi c2 >> mi0c2 . Consequently,
⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei 0 ⎞ (nrηkT )
2

T⎜ + ⎟= (76) Eq.(55) reduces to


⎝ ∂T ∂T ⎠ mi 0 c 2
By comparing the Eqs.(76) and (73) m g = mi 0 − 2 Un r c 2 (83 )
and considering that ∂Ei0 ∂T = 0
because E i 0 does not depend on T , Therefore, the action for such
particle, in agreement with the Eq.(2),
the Eq.(76) reduces to is

46
33

t2
S = −∫t mgc2 1 − V 2 c2 dt = complete description of the
1 electromagnetic field. This means
t2
( )
= ∫t − mi + 2Unr c2 c2 1 −V 2 c2 dt = that from the present theory for

[ ]
1
gravity we can also derive the
= ∫t − mic2 1 − V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1 − V 2 c2 dt. (84)
t2
equations of the electromagnetic
1
field.
The integrant function is the Due to Un r = Δpc ≅ M i c 2 the
Lagrangean, i.e.,
second term on the right hand side of
L = −mi0c2 1−V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1−V 2 c2 (85) Eq.(86) can be written as follows
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by Δpc⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥=
)
means of the well-known general ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
formula:
H = V (∂L ∂V ) − L.
=⎢
( )
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥M i c 2 =
The result is ⎢⎣ 1 − V c ⎥⎦
2 2

H=
mi0c2
+ Unr ⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c2 − 2 ⎤
⎥.
)
(86) = Qϕ =
QQ′
=
QQ′
1−V c2 2

⎣ 1−V c ⎦
2 2
⎥ 4πε0 R 4πε0 r 1 − V 2 c 2
The second term on the right hand whence
QQ ′
side of Eq.(86) results from the
particle's interaction with the (4V 2
)
c 2 − 2 M ic 2 =
4πε 0 r
electromagnetic field. Note the
similarity between the obtained (
The factor 4V 2 c 2 − 2 becomes )
Hamiltonian and the well-known equal to 2 in the ultra-relativistic case,
Hamiltonian for the particle in an then it follows that
QQ ′
electromagnetic field [32]: 2M i c 2 = (88 )
4πε 0 r
H = mi0c2 1 − V 2 c2 + Qϕ. (87) From (44), we know that there is a
minimum value for M i given by
in which Q is the electric charge and M i (min) = mi (min) . Eq.(43) shows that
ϕ , the field's scalar potential. The mg (min) = mi0(min) and Eq.(23) gives
quantity Q ϕ expresses, as we mg (min) = ± h cLmax 8 = ± h 3 8 cdmax .
know, the particle's interaction with
Thus we can write
the electromagnetic field in the same
way as the second term on the right Mi(min) = mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax (89)
hand side of the Eq. (86). According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2
It is therefore evident that it is
the same quantity, expressed by is correlated to (QQ′ 4πε0r)min =Qmin2
4πε0 rmax,
different variables. i.e.,
2
Thus, we can conclude that, in Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2 (90 )
ultra-high energy conditions 4πε 0 rmax
( 2 2
)
Unr ≅ M i c > mi 0 c , the gravitational where Qmin is the minimum electric
and electromagnetic fields can charge in the Universe ( therefore
be described by the same equal to minimum electric charge of
Hamiltonian, i.e., in these
the quarks, i.e., 13 e ); rmax is the
circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from maximum distance between Q and
that Hamiltonian we may obtain a Q ′ , which should be equal to the so-

47
34

called "diameter", dc , of the visible matter in the


Universe is
nU VU ≅ 10 particles/ m
46
we can 3
conclude
Universe ( d c = 2lc where l c is obtained
that these particles fill all space in the
from the Hubble's law for V = c , i.e., Universe, by forming a Continuous 4
~
l c = cH −1 ). Thus, from (90) we readily Universal Medium or Continuous
obtain Universal Fluid (CUF), the density of
which is
Qmin = πε 0 hc 24 (dc d max ) = nU m i 0(min )
ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3
( ~
= πε 0 hc 2 96H −1 d max = ) VU
Note that this density is much smaller
= 13 e (91) than the density of the Intergalactic
whence we find (
Medium ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . )
d max = 3 .4 × 10 30 m The extremely-low density of the
This will be the maximum "diameter" that Continuous Universal Fluid shows that its
the Universe will reach. Consequently, local gravitational mass can be strongly
Eq.(89) tells us that the elementary affected by electromagnetic fields
quantum of matter is (including gravitoelectromagnetic fields),
pressure, etc. (See Eqs. 57, 58, 59a,
mi 0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10−73 kg 59b, 55a, 55c and 60). The density of
this fluid is clearly not uniform along the
Universe, since it can be strongly
This is, therefore, the smallest indivisible compressed in several regions (galaxies,
particle of matter. stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the
Considering that, the inertial mass normal state (free space), the mentioned
of the Observable Universe is fluid is invisible. However, at super
MU = c 2H0G ≅10 kg and that its volume
3 53 compressed state it can become visible
by giving origin to the known matter
is V U = 4
3
π R U3 = 4
3
π (c H 0 )3 ≅ 10 79 m 3 , since matter, as we have seen, is
where H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble quantized and consequently, formed by
an integer number of elementary
constant, we can conclude that the
number of these particles in the quantum of matter with mass mi 0(min ) .
Observable Universe is Inside the proton, for example, there are
nU =
MU
≅ 10125 particles n p = m p mi0(min) ≅ 1045 elementary quanta
mi 0(min ) of matter at supercompressed state, with
By dividing this number by VU , we get volume V proton n p and “radius”
nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 Rp 3 n p ≅ 10 −30 m .
VU
Therefore, the solidification of the
Obviously, the dimensions of the
matter is just a transitory state of this
smallest indivisible particle of matter
Universal Fluid, which can back to the
depend on its state of compression. In
primitive state when the cohesion
free space, for example, its volume is
conditions disappear.
VU nU . Consequently, its “radius” is
Let us now study another aspect
RU 3 nU ≅ 10 −15 m . of the present theory. By combination of
If N particles with diameter φ fill gravity and the uncertainty principle we
will derive the expression for the Casimir
all space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if force.
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, An uncertainty Δmi in mi
with this diameter, necessary to fill produces an uncertainty Δp in p and
all 1m 3 is N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the
number of smallest indivisible particles of 4
At very small scale.

48
35

therefore an uncertainty Δmg in m g , ⎛ 2 ⎞ hc


ΔF = −⎜ ⎟ l2 =
⎝ π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
which according to Eq.(41) , is given
by
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎡⎛ 960 ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎡ ⎤ = −⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ π 2 ⎟l planck ⎥ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
2
⎛ Δp ⎞ 4
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦

Δmg = Δmi − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Δmi (92)
⎢ Δ
⎝ i ⎠
m c ⎥ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
⎣ ⎦ = −⎜ 0 ⎟ (97 )
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
4
From the uncertainty principle for
position and momentum, we know or
that the product of the uncertainties of ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
the simultaneously measurable F0 = −⎜ 0 ⎟ 4 (98)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r
values of the corresponding position which is the expression of the Casimir
and momentum components is at
least of the magnitude order of h , (
force for A = A0 = 960 π 2 l planck
2
. )
i.e., This suggests that A0 is an
Δ p Δr ~ h elementary area related to the
Substitution of Δp ~ h Δr into (92) yields existence of a minimum length
~
⎡ ⎤ d min = k l planck what is in accordance
h Δmi c ⎞
2

Δmg = Δmi − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥Δmi (93) with the quantization of space (29)

⎣ ⎝ Δr ⎠ ⎥
⎦ and which points out to the existence
Therefore if of d min .
h
Δr << (94 ) It can be easily shown that the
Δmi c minimum area related to d min is the
then the expression (93) reduces to: area of an equilateral triangle of side
2h
Δm g ≅ − (95) length d min ,i.e.,
Δrc
Note that Δmg does not depend on
( )
Amin = 43 d min
2 ~ 2
( )
= 43 k 2 l planck
On the other hand, the maximum
mg . area related to d min is the area of a
Consequently, the uncertainty sphere of radius d min ,i.e.,
ΔF in the gravitational ~ 2
Amax = πd min
2
= πk 2 l planck
force F = − Gmg m′g r , will be given by
2

Thus, the elementary area


Δmg Δm′g A0 = δ A d min
2 ~ 2
= δ A k 2l planck (99)
ΔF = −G =
(Δr )2 must have a value between Amin and
Amax , i.e.,
⎡ 2 ⎤ hc ⎛ Gh ⎞
= −⎢ 2⎥ 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟
(96) <δA <π
3

⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
4
The previous assumption that
(
A 0 = 960 π l planck
2 2
) shows that
( ) 1
The amount Gh c 3 2 = 1.61 × 10 −35 m ~2
δ A k = 960 π 2 what means that
is called the Planck length, l planck ,( the ~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
length scale on which quantum
fluctuations of the metric of the space Therefore we conclude that
time are expected to be of order
~
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 −34 m. (100 )
unity). Thus, we can write the The n − esimal area after A0 is
expression of ΔF as follows

49
36

A = δ A (ndmin ) = n 2 A0 (101) we conclude that Lmax ≅ 1030 m . From


2

It can also be easily shown that the Hubble's law and (22) we have
the minimum volume related to d min that

( )
is the volume of a regular tetrahedron
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2 ) =
~ ~ ~
of edge length d min , i.e., 3 2 HLmax
( )
Ω min = 122 d min3
( ) ~
= 122 k 3 l 3planck ~
where H = 1.7 × 10−18 s −1 . Therefore we
The maximum volume is the volume
obtain
of a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
Vmax ≅ 1012 m / s .
Ω max = ( 43π )d min = ( 43π )k 3l 3planck
3 ~

Thus, the elementary volume This is the speed upper limit imposed
~3 3
Ω 0 = δ V d min = δ V k l planck must have a
3
by the quantization of velocity (Eq.
36). It is known that the speed upper
value between Ω min and Ω max , i.e.,
( )< δ
limit for real particles is equal to c .
2
12< 43π V However, also it is known that
On the other hand, the n − esimal imaginary particles can have
volume after Ω 0 is velocities greater than c
(Tachyons). Thus, we conclude that
Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = n3Ω0 n = 1,2,3,...,nmax . Vmax is the speed upper limit for
The existence of nmax given by imaginary particles in our ordinary
(26), i.e., space-time. Later on, we will see that
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min = also exists a speed upper limit to the
= (3.4 × 1030 ) k l planck ≈ 1064
~ imaginary particles in the imaginary
space-time.
shows that the Universe must have a Now, multiplying Eq. (98) (the
finite volume whose value at the expression of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
present stage is
Ω 0 = (d p d min )3 δ V d min
⎛ πn2 A0 ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
Ω Up = nUp = δ V d 3p F = n2 F0 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 = −⎜ ⎟ 4 (102)
3 3

⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
where d p is the present length scale
This is the general expression of the
of the Universe. In addition as
( )
Casimir force.
12 < δ V < 3
2 4π
we conclude that the Thus, we conclude that the
Universe must have a polyhedral Casimir effect is just a gravitational
space topology with volume between effect related to the uncertainty
the volume of a regular tetrahedron principle.
of edge length d p and the volume of Note that Eq. (102) arises only
the sphere of diameter d p . when Δmi and Δmi′ satisfy Eq.(94). If
A recent analysis of only Δ m i satisfies Eq.(94), i.e.,
astronomical data suggests not only Δmi <<h Δrc but Δmi′ >> h Δrc then
that the Universe is finite, but also Δm g and Δm′g will be respectively
that it has a dodecahedral space
given by
topology [33,34], what is in strong
accordance with the previous
Δ m g ≅ − 2 h Δ rc and Δ m ′g ≅ Δ mi
theoretical predictions.
From (22) and (26) we have
that Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
(100) gives dmin ≅ 10−34 m and nmax ≅ 10 64

50
37

hc ⎛ GΔmi′ ⎞ hc ⎛ GΔmi′c 2 ⎞ Δmi >> h Δrc


ΔF = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 2 ⎠ (Δr )3 ⎜⎝ πc 4 ⎟⎠ Δmi′ >> h Δrc
hc ⎛ GΔE ′ ⎞ In this case, Δmg ≅ Δmi and
= ⎜ ⎟ (103)
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 4 ⎠ Δm ′g ≅ Δmi′ . Thus,
However, from the uncertainty
ΔF = −G
Δmi Δmi′
= − G
(ΔE c 2 )(ΔE ′ c 2 ) =
principle for energy and time we know (Δr )2 (Δr )2
that
⎛ G ⎞ (h Δt ) ⎛ Gh ⎞ hc ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
ΔE ~ h Δt (104) = −⎜ 4 ⎟ = −⎜ 3 ⎟ 2 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
=
⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c Δt ⎠
2
Therefore, we can write the
expression (103) in the following ⎛ 1 ⎞ hc 2
= −⎜ ⎟ l =
⎝ 2π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
form:
hc ⎛ Gh ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 960 2 ⎞ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
ΔF = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟= = −⎜ ⎟ 4 ⎜ 2 planck ⎟
l = −⎜ 0 ⎟
(Δr )3 ⎝ c 3 ⎠⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr )
4

⎛ 1 ⎞ whence
=
hc
3 planck ⎜
l2 ⎟ (105) ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
(Δr ) ⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠
F = −⎜⎜ ⎟ 4 (107)
From the General Relativity Theory ⎟r
⎝ 1920⎠
we know that dr = cdt − g 00 . If the The force will be attractive and its
field is weak then g 00 = −1 − 2φ c and 2 intensity will be the fourth part of the
dr = cdt (1 + φ c 2 ) = cdt (1 − Gm r 2c 2 ) .
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr ≅ cdt . We can also use this theory to
Thus, if dr = dr′ then dt = dt ′ . This explain some relevant cosmological
means that we can change (Δt ′c ) by phenomena. For example, the recent
(Δr ) into (105). The result is discovery that the cosmic expansion
of the Universe may be accelerating,
hc ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ and not decelerating as many
ΔF = 4 ⎜
l planck ⎟ =
(Δ r ) ⎝ π ⎠ cosmologists had anticipated [35].
We start from Eq. (6) which
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 480 2 ⎞ r
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 l planck ⎟ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
shows that the inertial forces, Fi ,
⎝1π4 2 4 3⎠
4

1
A0
whose action on a particle, in the
2
case of force and speed with same
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc direction, is given by
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 960 ⎠ (Δ r ) r
4
mg r
Fi = a
or (1 − V 2 c 2 )3
2

⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc
F0 = ⎜ ⎟ 4 Substitution of m g given by (43) into
⎝ 960 ⎠ r
the expression above gives
whence
r ⎛ ⎞
⎛ πA ⎞ hc Fi = ⎜
3

2 ⎟ m ar
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 (106) ⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )3
2
(1 − V 2
c )
2 2 ⎟ i0

⎝ 960⎠ r
Now, the Casimir force is repulsive, whence we conclude that a particle
and its intensity is half of the intensity with rest inertial mass, mi 0 , subjected
r
previously obtained (102). to a force, Fi , acquires an
Consider the case when both Δmi r
acceleration a given by
and Δmi′ do not satisfy Eq.(94), and

51
38
r
r Fi
a =
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟m
⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )
3
2
(1 − V 2
c2 )
2 ⎟ i0

δ
By substituting the well-known
β
expression of Hubble’s law for
~ ~ S C β
velocity, V = Hl , ( H = 1.7 × 10 −18 s −1 is
the Hubble constant) into the Photons
r
expression of a , we get the
acceleration for any particle in the
expanding Universe, i.e., Fig. V – Gravitational deflection of light about
r
r Fi the Sun.
a= Since δ and β are very small we can
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3

2 ⎟ write that
~ 2 2 2 2 ⎟mi 0
⎝(
⎜ 1− H l c ) (
~ 2 2 2 32
1− H l c ⎠ ) δ = 2β and β =
Vy
Obviously, the distance l increases c
with the expansion of the Universe. Then
Under these circumstances, it is easy 2V y
to see that the term δ=
c
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3

2 ⎟ Consider the motion of the
⎝ (
⎜ 1− H~2 2 2 2
l c
3

) ( ~2 2 2 2 ⎟
1− H l c ⎠ ) photons at some time t after it has
passed the point of closest approach.
decreases, increasing the acceleration of We impose Cartesian Co-ordinates
the expanding Universe. with the origin at the point of closest
Let us now consider the approach, the x axis pointing along its
phenomenon of gravitational path and the y axis towards the Sun.
deflection of light. The gravitational pull of the Sun is
A distant star’s light ray, M gS M gp
under the Sun’s gravitational force P = −G
field describes the usual central force r2
hyperbolic orbit. The deflection of the where M gp is the relativistic
light ray is illustrated in Fig. V, with gravitational mass of the photon and
the bending greatly exaggerated for a M gS the relativistic gravitational mass
better view of the angle of deflection.
The distance CS is the of the Sun. Thus, the component in a
distance d of closest approach. The perpendicular direction is
angle of deflection of the light ray, δ , F y = −G
M gS M gp
sin β =
is shown in the Figure V and is r2
δ = π − 2β . M gS M gp d
where β is the angle of the = −G
d +c t
2 2 2
d + c 2t 2
2
asymptote to the hyperbole. Then, it
follows that According to Eq. (6) the expression of
tan δ = tan(π − 2 β ) = − tan 2 β the force Fy is
From the Figure V we obtain ⎛ ⎞ dV
⎜ m gp ⎟ y
Vy Fy = ⎜ ⎟⎟ dt
tan β = ⎜ (1 − V 2 c 2 )2
3
.
c ⎝ y ⎠
By substituting Eq. (43) into this
expression, we get

52
39

⎛ ⎞ m gp = +
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
⎜ 3 2 ⎟ dV y ⎜ ⎟i
Fy = ⎜ −
⎜ (1 − V y c ) (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 ⎟
2 2 3
⎟ M ip 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
dt
⎝ y ⎠ This means that the gravitational and
For V y << c , we can write this inertial masses of the photon are
imaginaries, and invariants with
expression in the following form
F y = M ip (dV y dt ). This force acts on
respect to speed of photon, i.e.
M ip = mip and M gp = m gp .On the other
the photons for a time t causing an
hand, we can write that
increase in the transverse velocity
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
Fy mip = mip (real ) + mip (imaginary ) = ⎜ ⎟i
dV y = dt 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
M ip
and
Thus the component of transverse 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
velocity acquired after passing the mgp = mgp(real ) + mgp(imaginary) = ⎜ ⎟i
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
point of closest approach is
M gp (
d − GM gS ) This means that we must have
Vy = ∫ dt = mip (real ) = m gp (real ) = 0
(d )
3
M ip 2
+ c 2t 2 2 The phenomenon of gravitational
− GM gS ⎛ M gp ⎞ − GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞ deflection of light about the Sun
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ shows that the gravitational
dc ⎜⎝ M ip ⎟ dc ⎜ mip ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ interaction between the Sun and the
Since the angle of deflection δ photons is attractive. Thus, due to the
is given by gravitational force between the Sun
2V y and a photon can be expressed by
δ = 2β =
c F = −G M g (Sun ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 , where
we readily obtain m gp (imaginary ) is a quantity positive and
2V y − 2GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞
δ= = ⎜ ⎟ imaginary, we conclude that the
c 2 ⎜ m ⎟
c d ⎝ ip ⎠ force F will only be attractive if the
If m gp mip = 2 , the expression above matter ( M g (Sun ) ) has negative
gives imaginary gravitational mass.
4GM gS The Eq. (41) shows that if the
δ =− inertial mass of a particle is null then its
c2d gravitational mass is given by
As we know, this is the correct m g = ± 2Δp c
formula indicated by the experimental where Δp is the momentum variation due
results.
to the energy absorbed by the particle. If
Equation (4) says that
the energy of the particle is invariant,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ then Δp = 0 and, consequently, its
⎛ Δp ⎞
m gp
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mip
⎜ mip c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass will also be null. This

⎩ ⎢

⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ is the case of the photons, i.e., they have
Since m gp mip = 2 then, by making an invariant energy hf and a momentum

Δp = h λ into the equation above we h λ . As they cannot absorb additional


energy, the variation in the momentum
get
will be null (Δp = 0) and, therefore, their
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
mip = + ⎜ ⎟i gravitational masses will also be null.
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠ However, if the energy of the
Due to m gp mip = 2 we get particle is not invariant (it is able to
absorb energy) then the absorbed
energy will transfer the amount of motion

53
40

(momentum) to the particle, and making the vortex (particle) gain or lose
consequently its gravitational mass will mass. If real motion is what makes real
be increased. This means that the mass then, by analogy, we can say that
motion generates gravitational mass. imaginary mass is made by imaginary
On the other hand, if the motion. This is not only a simple
gravitational mass of a particle is null generalization of the process based on
then its inertial mass, according to Eq. the theory of the imaginary functions, but
(41), will be given by also a fundamental conclusion related to
2 Δp the concept of imaginary mass that, as it
mi = ± will be shown, provides a coherent
5 c explanation for the materialization of the
From Eqs. (4) and (7) we get fundamental particles, in the beginning of
⎛ Eg ⎞ ⎛p ⎞ the Universe.
Δp = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ΔV = ⎜ 0 ⎟ΔV
It is known that the simultaneous
⎝c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
disappearance of a pair
Thus we have (electron/positron) liberates an amount of
⎛ 2p ⎞ 2 ⎛p ⎞ energy, 2mi 0e(real )c 2 , under the form of
mg = ±⎜ 20 ⎟ΔV and mi = ± ⎜⎜ 20 ⎟⎟ΔV
⎝ c ⎠ 5⎝c ⎠ two photons with frequency f , in such a
Note that, like the gravitational mass, the way that
inertial mass is also directly related to the
motion, i.e., it is also generated by the
motion. 2mi 0e(real )c 2 = 2hf
Thus, we can conclude that is the Since the photon has imaginary masses
motion, or rather, the velocity is what associated to it, the phenomenon of
makes the two types of mass. transformation of the energy 2mi 0e(real )c 2
In this picture, the fundamental
particles can be considered as into 2hf suggests that the imaginary
immaterial vortex of velocity; it is the energy of the photon, mip (imaginary )c 2 ,
velocity of these vortexes that causes the
fundamental particles to have masses. comes from the transformation of
That is, there exists not matter in the imaginary energy of the electron,
usual sense; but just motion. Thus, the mi 0e(imaginary )c 2 , just as the real energy of
difference between matter and energy the photon, hf , results from the
just consists of the diversity of the motion
transformation of real energy of the
direction; rotating, closed in itself, in the
electron, i.e.,
matter; ondulatory, with open cycle, in
the energy (See Fig. VI).
Under this context, the Higgs 2m i 0 e (imaginary )c 2 + 2m i 0 e (real )c 2 =
mechanism † appears as a process, by
= 2m i 0 p (imaginary )c 2 + 2 hf
which the velocity of an immaterial vortex
can be increased or decreased by

Then, it follows that



The Standard Model is the name given to
the current theory of fundamental particles and mi 0e(imaginary ) = − mip (imaginary )
how they interact. This theory includes: Strong
interaction and a combined theory of weak and
electromagnetic interaction, known as The sign (-) in the equation above, is due
electroweak theory. One part of the Standard to the imaginary mass of the photon to
Model is not yet well established. What causes be positive, on the contrary of the
the fundamental particles to have masses? The imaginary gravitational mass of the
simplest idea is called the Higgs mechanism. This matter, which is negative, as we have
mechanism involves one additional particle, already seen.
called the Higgs boson, and one additional force
type, mediated by exchanges of this boson.

54
41

Real Particles Imaginary Particles


(Tardyons) (Tachyons)

Real Inertial Mass Imaginary Inertial Mass

Non-null Null Non-null Null

V<c c < V ≤ Vmax*


v=∞
**
v=c
V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<Vmax V 0≤v<Vmax

Vortex Anti-vortex Vortex Anti-vortex


(Particle) (Anti-Particle) Real Photons (Particle) (Anti-particle) Imaginary Photons
( “virtual” photons )

(Real Bodies) (Real Radiation) (Imaginary Bodies) (Imaginary Radiation)

* Vmax is the speed upper limit for Tachyons with non-null imaginary inertial mass. It has been previously
~
(
obtained starting from the Hubble's law and Eq.(22). The result is: Vmax = 3 2 HLmax ≅ 10 12 m. s −1 . )
**
In order to communicate instantaneously the interactions at infinite distance the velocity of the quanta
(“virtual” photons) must be infinity and consequently their imaginary masses must be null .

Fig. VI - Real and Imaginary Particles.

Thus, we then conclude that Thus, the electron, the neutron


and the proton have respectively,
mi0e(imaginary) = −mip(imaginary) = the following masses:
Electron
=− 2
3
(hf c ) i =
e
2
mi 0e(real) = 9.11×10−31 kg

=− 2 (h λec) i = − 23 mi0e(real)i
3 mi 0e(im) = − 2 mi 0e(real)i
3

where λe = h mi0e(real) c is the Broglies’


⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
wavelength for the electron. ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(real) ⎞ ⎥⎪
mge(real) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
By analogy, we can write for
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(real) =
the neutron and the proton the ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(real) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
following masses:
= χ e mi 0e(real)
mi 0neutron(imaginary ) = − 2 mi 0 neutron(real ) i
3

mi 0 proton(imaginary ) = + 2 mi 0 proton(real ) i
3 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
The sign (+) in the expression of mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) is due to the fact ⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
that mi 0 neutron(imaginary ) and ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= χ e mi 0e(im)
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) must have contrary
signs, as will be shown later on.

55
42

where η n , η pr and η e are the


Neutron absorption factors respectively, for the
mi0n(real) = 1.6747×10−27 kg neutrons, protons and electrons;
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J /º K is the Boltzmann
constant; Tn , T pr and Te are the
mi0n(im) = − 2 m
3 i0n(real)
i
temperatures of the Universe,
respectively when neutrons, protons
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ and electrons were created.
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Un(real) ⎞
mgn(real) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪m In the case of the electrons, it
⎜m 2⎟ ⎥⎬ i0n(real) = was previously shown that η e ≅ 0.1 .
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0n( )
real c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, by considering that
= χn mi0n(real) Te ≅ 6.2 ×10 K , we get
31

U e(im ) = η e kTe i = 8.5 × 10 7 i


⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It is known that the protons were
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Un(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
mgn(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ − created at the same epoch. Thus, we
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi0n(im) = will assume that
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0n(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ U pr (im ) = η pr kT pr i = 8.5 × 10 7 i
= χn mi0n(im) Then, it follows that
Proton χ e = −1.8 × 10 21
mi0pr(real) =1.6723×10−27kg
χ pr = −9.7 × 1017
mi0pr(im) = + 2
3 i0 pr(real)
m i Now, consider the gravitational forces,
due to the imaginary masses of two
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(real) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪ electrons, Fee , two protons, F prpr , and
mgpr(real) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(real) =
⎜ 2⎟ one electron and one proton, Fepr , all at
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(real)c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ rest.
= χ prmi0pr(real) 2
m ge (im )
(− 2 mi 0e(real )i )
2

−Gχ e2
3
Fee = −G = =
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r2 r2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(im) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
mgpr(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(im) = mi20e(real ) + 2.3 ×10 −28
⎜ 2⎟ 4
= + Gχ e2 =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(im)c ⎠ ⎥⎪ ( repulsion)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ 3 r2 r2
= χ prmi0pr(im) 2
2 ⎛⎜ + 2
mi0 pr(real)i ⎞⎟
mgpr(im) 2 ⎝ ⎠
= −Gχ pr
3
where U (real ) and U (im ) are Fprpr = −G 2 2
=
r r
respectively, the real and imaginary 4 mi0 pr(real) + 2.3 ×10−28
2

energies absorbed by the particles. = + Gχ 2pr = (repulsion)


3 r2 r2
When neutrons, protons and
electrons were created after the Big-
mge(im)mgpr(im)
bang, they absorbed quantities of Fepr = −G =
electromagnetic energy, respectively r2
given by ⎛⎜ − 2
i ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ + 2
i ⎞⎟
3 i0e(real) ⎠ 3 i 0 pr(real) ⎠
m m
U n(real ) = η n kTn U n(imaginary) = η n kTn i = −Gχe χ pr ⎝ ⎝ =
r2
U pr (real ) = η pr kT pr U pr (imaginary) = η pr kT pr i
4 mi0e(real)mi0 pr(real) − 2.3×10−28
= − Gχe χ pr =
U e(real ) = η e kTe U e(imaginary) = η e kTe i 3 r2 r2
(atraction)

56
43

Note that charge of the neutron is null. Thus, it is


−28
e 2
2.3 × 10 necessary to assume that
Felectric = =
4πε 0 r r2 2
qn = qn+ + qn− = 4πε0 G mgn
+
(imaginary) i +
Therefore, we can conclude that
e2 −
Fee = F prpr ≡ Felectric = + (repulsion) + 4πε0 G mgn(imaginary) i =
4πε 0 r 2
and = 4πε 0 G ⎛⎜ χ n mi+0n(imaginary) i ⎞⎟ +
⎝ ⎠
Fep ≡ Felectric = −
e2
4πε0r 2
(atraction) (
+ 4πε0 G χ n mi−0n(imaginary) i = )
These correlations permit to define the = 4πε G [χ (+
0 n
2
mi0n i )+ χ (−
2
n
2 )]
mi0n i 2 = 0
3 3
electric charge by means of the
following relation:
We then conclude that in the neutron,
half of the total amount of elementary
q= 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i quanta of electric charge, q min , is negative,
while the other half is positive.
For example, in the case of the In order to obtain the value of
electron, we have the elementary quantum of electric
charge, q min , we start with the
qe = 4πε 0 G m ge(imaginary) i = expression obtained here for the
electric charge, where we
(
= 4πε 0 G χ e mi 0e(imaginary)i = ) change mg (imaginary) by its quantized
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ e 2
mi 0e(real)i 2 = ) expression mg (imaginary) = n 2 mi0(imaginary)(min) ,

4πε G (χ )
3

= 0 e
2 mi 0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C derived from Eq. (44a). Thus, we get
3
In the case of the proton, we get q = 4 πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i =

q pr = 4πε 0 G mgpr(imaginary) i = = 4 πε 0 G n 2 m i 0 (imaginary )(min )i =

(
= 4πε 0 G χ pr mi 0 pr(imaginary)i = ) = 4 πε 0 G [n (±2 2 m i 0 (min )i )] i =
( )
3

= 4πε 0 G + χ pr 2 mi 0 pr(real)i 2 = = m 2 4 πε 0 G n 2 m i 0 (min )


4πε G (− χ )
3 3
= 0 pr
2 mi 0 pr(real) = +1.6 ×10−19 C
3
This is the quantized expression of the
electric charge.
For the neutron, it follows that For n = 1 we obtain the value of
q n = 4πε 0 G m gn (imaginary ) i = the elementary quantum of electric
(
= 4πε 0 G χ n m i 0 n (imaginary )i = ) charge, q min , i.e.,

(
= 4πε 0 G − χ n 2 m i 0 n (real )i 2 = ) q min = m 2 4πε 0 G mi 0(min ) = m3.8 × 10 −83 C
4πε G (χ )
3 3
= 0 n
2 m i 0 n (real )
3
where mi0(min) is the elementary
However, based on the quantization of
the mass (Eq. 44), we can write that quantum of matter, whose value
previously calculated, is
χ n 2 mi0n(real) = n 2 mi0(min) n≠0 −73
3 mi0(min) = ±3.9 ×10 kg .
Since n can have only discrete values
The existence of imaginary mass
different of zero (See Appendix B), we
associated to a real particle suggests
conclude that χ n cannot be null. the possible existence of imaginary
However, it is known that the electric

57
44

particles with imaginary masses in the whole space must be finite −


Nature. inasmuch as the particle is somewhere.
In this case, the concept of wave On the other hand, if
associated to a particle (De Broglie’s +∞
waves) would also be applied to the ∫−∞ Ψ
2
dV = 0
imaginary particles. Then, by analogy, the interpretation is that the particle will
the imaginary wave associated to an not exist. However, if
imaginary particle with imaginary +∞
masses miψ and m gψ would be ∫−∞ Ψ
2
dV = ∞ (108)
described by the following expressions The particle will be everywhere
r r simultaneously.
pψ = hkψ In Quantum Mechanics, the wave
Eψ = hωψ function Ψ corresponds, as we know,
to the displacement y of the
Henceforth, for the sake of simplicity,
we will use the Greek letterψ to stand undulatory motion of a rope.
r However, Ψ , as opposed to y , is not a
for the word imaginary; pψ is the
measurable quantity and can, hence,
momentum carried by the ψ wave and be a complex quantity. For this reason,
r
Eψ its energy; kψ = 2π λψ is the it is assumed that Ψ is described in the
x − direction by
propagation number and λψ the −(2π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Ψ0 e
wavelength of the ψ wave; ωψ = 2πfψ This is the expression of the wave
is the cyclical frequency. function for a free particle, with total
r
According to Eq. (4), the energy E and momentum p , moving in
r
momentum pψ is the direction + x .
r r As to the imaginary particle, the
pψ = M gψ V
imaginary particle wave function will be
where V is the velocity of the ψ denoted by Ψψ and, by analogy the
particle. expression of Ψ , will be expressed by:
By comparing the expressions of
r
pψ we get − (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
Ψψ = Ψ0ψ e
h
λψ =
M gψ V Therefore, the general expression of
It is known that the variable the wave function for a free particle can
quantity which characterizes the De be written in the following form
Broglie’s waves is called wave function,
−(2π i h )(E( real )t − p( real ) x )
usually indicated by symbol Ψ . The Ψ = Ψ0(real )e +
wave function associated with a
− (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
material particle describes the dynamic + Ψ0ψ e
state of the particle: its value at a
particular point x, y, z, t is related to the It is known that the uncertainty
probability of finding the particle in that principle can also be written as a
place and instant. Although Ψ does function of ΔE (uncertainty in the
not have a physical interpretation, its
energy) and Δt (uncertainty in the
square Ψ 2 (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a time), i.e.,
particular point x, y, z, t is proportional
to the probability of finding the particle ΔE.Δt ≥ h
in that place and instant.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the This expression shows that a
probability P of finding the particle
variation of energy ΔE , during a
described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on

58
45

time interval Δt , can only be


χ = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + (Δp mi 0 c ) − 1⎤ ⎫⎬
2
detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE . Consequently, ⎩ ⎢ ⎣ ⎥ ⎦⎭
a variation of energy ΔE , during a
time interval Δt < h ΔE , cannot be Since the condition to make
experimentally detected. This is a the particle imaginary is
limitation imposed by Nature and not
by our equipments. λg
λi <
Thus, a quantum of energy 2π
ΔE = hf that varies during a time and
interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE (wave
period) cannot be experimentally λg h h λ
= = = i
detected. This is an imaginary 2π M g c χM i c 2πχ
photon or a “virtual” photon.
Now, consider a particle with Then we get
energy M g c 2 . The DeBroglie’s
gravitational and inertial wavelengths 1
χ< = 0.159
are respectively λ g = h M g c and 2π
λi = h M i c . In Quantum Mechanics,
However, χ can be positive or
particles of matter and quanta of
negative ( χ < +0.159 or χ > −0.159).This
radiation are described by means of
wave packet (DeBroglie’s waves) means that when
with average wavelength λi .
− 0.159 < χ < +0.159
Therefore, we can say that during a
time interval Δt = λi c , a quantum of
the particle becomes imaginary.
energy ΔE = Mgc2 varies. According Under these circumstances, we can
to the uncertainty principle, the say that the particle made a
particle will be detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE , transition to the imaginary space-
time.
i.e., if λi c ≥ h M g c 2 or λi ≥ λ g 2π .
Note that, when a particle
This condition is usually satisfied becomes imaginary, its gravitational
when M g = M i . In this case, λ g = λi and inertial masses also become
and obviously, λi > λi 2π . However, imaginary. However, the factor
χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) remains
when M g decreases λ g increases
real because
and λ g 2π can become bigger than
λi , making the particle non- M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg
χ = = = = real
detectable or imaginary. M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi
According to Eqs. (7) and (41)
we can write M g in the following
form:

mg χ mi
Mg = = = χM i
1−V 2
c 2
1−V 2
c 2

where

59
46

Body
χ Ordinary Space-time
0≤V < c
+0.159
0≤V ≤ ∞

Imaginary Body

0 Imaginary Space-time

“Virtual” Photons ( V = ∞ )
−0.159
Ordinary Space-time

Real Photons ( V = c )

Fig. VII – Travel in the imaginary space-time. Similarly to the “virtual” photons,
imaginary bodies can have infinite speed in the imaginary space-time.

60
47

Real particle Real particle


Δt1 ΔE

Δt2 c (speed upper limit)

Δt3

(a)

Imaginary Space-time Ordinary Space-time

Δt3

Δt2 Vmax
(speed upper limit)

ΔE
Δt1
Imaginary particle Imaginary particle
(b)
Fig. VIII – “Virtual” Transitions – (a) “Virtual” Transitions of a real particle to the imaginary
space-time. The speed upper limit for real particle in the imaginary space-time is c.
(b) - “Virtual” Transitions of an imaginary particle to the ordinary space-time. The
speed upper limit for imaginary particle in the ordinary space-time is Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1
Note that to occur a “virtual” transition it is necessary thatΔt=Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3 <ℏ/ΔE
Thus, even at principle, it will be impossible to determine any variation of energy in
the particle (uncertainty principle).

61
48

Thus, if the gravitational mass of the mg (imaginary)


particle is reduced by means of the M g (imaginary) = =
absorption of an amount of 1−V 2 c2
mg i mg i
electromagnetic energy U , for = =
example, we have i V 2 c2 −1 V 2 c2 −1
This expression shows that
χ=
Mg ⎧
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 ( )2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬ imaginary particles can have
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ velocities V greater than c in our
ordinary space-time (Tachyons).
This shows that the energy U of the The quantization of velocity (Eq. 36)
electromagnetic field remains acting shows that there is a speed upper
on the imaginary particle. In limit Vmax > c . As we have already
practice, this means that calculated previously, Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 ,
electromagnetic fields act on (Eq.102).
imaginary particles. Note that this is the speed
The gravity acceleration on a upper limit for imaginary particles in
imaginary particle (due to the rest of our ordinary space-time not in the
the imaginary Universe) are given imaginary space-time (Fig.7)
by because the infinite speed of the
“virtual” quanta of the interactions
g ′j = χ g j j = 1,2,3,..., n. shows that imaginary particles can
have infinite speed in the imaginary
where χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) space-time.
While the speed upper limit
and g j = − Gm gj (imaginary ) r . 2
j Thus, for imaginary particles in the
the gravitational forces acting on the ordinary space-time is
particle are given by Vmax ≈ 10 m.s , the speed upper limit
12 −1

for real particles in the imaginary


Fgj = M g (imaginary) g ′j =
space-time is c , because the
(
= M g (imaginary) − χGmgj (imaginary) r j2 = ) relativistic expression of the mass
( )
= M g i − χGmgj i r j2 = + χGM g mgj r j2 .
shows that the velocity of real
particles cannot be larger than c in
any space-time. The uncertainty
Note that these forces are real. principle permits that particles make
Remind that, the Mach’s principle “virtual” transitions, during a time
says that the inertial effects upon a interval Δt , if Δt < h ΔE . The
particle are consequence of the “virtual” transition of mesons emitted
gravitational interaction of the from nucleons that do not change of
particle with the rest of the Universe. mass, during a time interval
Then we can conclude that the
Δt < h mπ c 2 , is a well-known
inertial forces upon an imaginary
particle are also real. example of “virtual” transition of
Equation (7) shows that , in particles. During a “virtual”
the case of imaginary particles, the transition of a real particle, the
relativistic mass is speed upper limit in the imaginary
space-time is c , while the speed
upper limit for an imaginary particle

62
49

in the our ordinary space-time is of the bodies ;


Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 . (See Fig. 8). M i 2 = mi 2 1 − V2 c and mi 2 is the
2 2

There is a crucial total inertial mass of the bodies of


cosmological problem to be solved: region 2.
the problem of the hidden mass. Now consider that from
Most theories predict that the Eq.(7), we can write
amount of known matter, detectable Eg M gc2
and available in the universe, is only ξ = = = ρgc2
about 1/100 to 1/10 of the amount V V
needed to close the universe. That where ξ is the energy density of
is, to achieve the density sufficient matter.
to close-up the universe by Note that the expression of ξ
maintaining the gravitational only reduces to the well-known
curvature (escape velocity equal to expression ρc 2 , where ρ is the
the speed of light) at the outer sum of the inertial masses per
boundary. volume unit, when m g = mi .
Eq. (43) may solve this
problem. We will start by substituting Therefore, in the derivation of the
the expression of Hubble's law for well-known difference
~ 8πGρU ~ 2
velocity, V = Hl , into Eq.(43). The −H
expression obtained shows that 3
particles which are at distances which gives the sign of the curvature
( )( ) ~
l = l0 = 5 3 c H =1.3×1026 m have
of the Universe [36], we must use
ξ = ρ gU c 2 instead of ξ = ρ U c 2 .The
quasi null gravitational mass
m g = m g (min ) ; beyond this distance, result obviously is
8πGρ gU
the particles have negative ~
− H2 (109)
gravitational mass. Therefore, there 3
are two well-defined regions in the where
M gU M g1 + M g 2
Universe; the region of the bodies
ρ gU = = (110)
with positive gravitational masses VU VU
and the region of the bodies with
M gU and VU are respectively the
negative gravitational mass. The
total gravitational mass of the first total gravitational mass and the
region, in accordance with Eq.(45), volume of the Universe.
will be given by Substitution of M g 1 and M g 2
mi1 into expression (110) gives
M g1 ≅ M i1 = ≅ mi1
1 − V1 2 c 2 ⎡ ⎤
3 2
miU + ⎢ − m − m ⎥
⎢ ⎥
i2 i2
where mi1 is the total inertial mass 1−V22 c2 1−V22 c2
ρgU = ⎣ ⎦
of the bodies of the mentioned VU
region; V1 << c is the average
velocity of the bodies at region 1. where miU = mi1 + mi 2 is the total
The total gravitational mass of the
inertial mass of the Universe.
second region is
The volume V1 of the region 1
⎛ ⎞
M g 2 = 1 − 2⎜
1
− 1⎟ M i 2 and the volume V 2 of the region 2,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − V2 c
2 2
⎠ are respectively given by
where V2 is the average velocity

63
50

V 1 = 2π 2 l 03 and V 2 = 2π 2 l c3 −V 1 the anomalies in the spectral red-


shift of certain galaxies and stars.
~ Several observers have
where l c = c H = 1.8 × 10 26 m is the noticed red-shift values that cannot
so-called "radius" of the visible be explained by the Doppler-
Universe. Moreover, ρ i1 = mi1 V1 and Fizeau effect or by the Einstein
ρi 2 = mi 2 V 2 . Due to the hypothesis effect (the gravitational spectrum
shift, supplied by Einstein's theory).
of the uniform distribution of matter
This is the case of the so-
in the space, it follows that
called Stefan's quintet (a set of five
ρi1 = ρi2 .Thus, we can write
galaxies which were discovered in
m i1 V 1 ⎛ l 0 ⎞
3
1877), whose galaxies are located
= = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.38
mi 2 V 2 ⎜⎝ l c ⎟⎠ at approximately the same distance
from the Earth, according to very
Similarly, reliable and precise measuring
miU mi 2 mi1 methods. But, when the velocities of
= =
VU V 2 V1 the galaxies are measured by its
Therefore, red-shifts, the velocity of one of
⎡ ⎛ l ⎞3 ⎤ them is much larger than the
V2
mi 2 = m iU = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥ m iU = 0.62 m iU velocity of the others.
VU ⎢⎣ ⎝ l c ⎠ ⎥⎦ Similar observations have
and mi1 = 0.38miU . been made on the Virgo
constellation and spiral galaxies.
Substitution of mi 2 into the Also the Sun presents a red-shift
expression of ρ gU yields greater than the predicted value by
the Einstein effect.
It seems that some of these
1.86 1.24 anomalies can be explained if we
miU + − − 0.62 miU
1 −V22 c2 1 −V22 c2 consider the Eq.(45) in the
ρgU = calculation of the gravitational mass
VU of the point of emission.
The expression of the
Due to V 2 ≅ c , we conclude that the gravitational spectrum shift was
term between bracket is much larger previously obtained in this work. It is
than 10miU . The amount miU is the the same supplied by Einstein's
mass of matter in the universe (1/10 theory [37], and is given by
φ −φ
to 1/100 of the amount needed to Δω = ω1 − ω2 = 2 2 1 ω0 =
close the Universe). c
Consequently, the total − Gmg2 r2 + Gmg1 r1
mass = ω0 (111)
c2
1.86 1.24 where ω1 is the frequency of the
miU + − − 0.62 miU
1 − V22 c 2 1 − V22 c 2 light at the point of emission ; ω 2 is
the frequency at the point of
must be sufficient to close observation; φ1 and φ 2 are
the Universe. respectively, the Newtonian
There is another cosmological gravitational potentials at the point
problem to be solved: the problem of of emission and at the point of
observation.

64
51

In Einstein theory, this been fully defined as yet, but it is


expression has been deduced from known that it is located between
T = t − g 00 [38] which correlates 1.8M~ and 2.4M~. Thus, if the mass
own time (real time), t , with the of the star exceeds 2.4M~ , the
temporal coordinate x0 of the space- contraction will continue.
According to Hawking [40]
time ( t = x 0 c ). collapsed objects cannot have mass
When the gravitational field is
less than hc 4G = 1.1 × 10 −8 kg . This
weak, the temporal component g 00
means that, with the progressing of
of the metric tensor is given by the compression, the neutrons
goo =−1−2φ/ c2 [39].Thus, we readily cluster must become a cluster of
obtain superparticles where the minimal
T = t 1 − 2Gm g rc 2 (112 ) inertial mass of the superparticle is
This is the same equation that we
have obtained previously in this mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg. (113)
work.
Curiously, this equation tell us Symmetry is a fundamental
that we can have T < t when m g > 0 attribute of the Universe that
enables an investigator to study
; and T > t for m g < 0 . In addition, if
particular aspects of physical
m g = c 2 r 2G , i.e., if r = 2Gm g c 2 systems by themselves. For
(Schwarzschild radius) we obtain T =0. example, the assumption that space
Let us now consider the well- is homogeneous and isotropic is
known process of stars' gravitational based on Symmetry Principle. Also
contraction. It is known that the here, by symmetry, we can assume
destination of the star is directly that there are only superparticles
correlated to its mass. If the star's with mass mi ( sp) = 1.1 × 10−8 kg in the
mass is less than 1.4M~ cluster of superparticles.
(Schemberg-Chandrasekhar's limit), Based on the mass-energy of
it becomes a white dwarf. If its mass the superparticles ( ~1018 GeV ) we
exceeds that limit, the pressure can say that they belong to a
produced by the degenerate state of putative class of particles with mass-
the matter no longer energy beyond the supermassive
counterbalances the gravitational Higgs bosons ( the so-called X
pressure, and the star's contraction bosons). It is known that the GUT's
continues. Afterwards there occurs theories predict an entirely new
the reactions between protons and force mediated by a new type of
electrons (capture of electrons), boson, called simply X (or X boson
where neutrons and anti-neutrinos ). The X bosons carry both
are produced. electromagnetic and color charge, in
The contraction continues order to ensure proper conservation
until the system regains stability of those charges in any interactions.
(when the pressure produced by the The X bosons must be extremely
neutrons is sufficient to stop the massive, with mass-energy in the
gravitational collapse). Such systems unification range of about 1016 GeV.
are called neutron stars. If we assume the
There is also a critical mass superparticles are not hypermassive
for the stable configuration of Higgs bosons then the possibility of
neutron stars. This limit has not the neutrons cluster become a

65
52

Higgs bosons cluster before the superparticles' relativistic inertial


becoming a superparticles cluster mass M i ( sp ) is
must be considered. On the other
Unr ηnr kT
hand, the fact that superparticles
must be so massive also means that
= 2 ≈ 10−8 kg
M i( sp) ≅ (115)
c2 c
it is not possible to create them in Comparing with the superparticles'
any conceivable particle accelerator inertial mass at rest (113), we
that could be built. They can exist as conclude that
free particles only at a very early
stage of the Big Bang from which
the universe emerged. Mi( sp) ≈ mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg (116)
Let us now imagine the
Universe coming back to the past.
There will be an instant in which it From Eqs.(83) and (115), we obtain
will be similar to a neutrons cluster, the superparticle's gravitational
such as the stars at the final state of mass at rest:
gravitational contraction. Thus, with m g ( sp ) = mi ( sp ) − 2 M i ( sp ) ≅
the progressing of the compression,
ηn r kT
the neutrons cluster becomes a (117 )
≅ − M i ( sp ) ≅ −
superparticles cluster. Obviously, c2
this only can occur before 10-23s Consequently, the superparticle's
(after the Big-Bang). relativistic gravitational mass, is
The temperature T of the
mg ( sp)
Universe at the 10-43s< t < 10-23s M g (sp) = =
period can be calculated by means 1−V 2 c 2
of the well-known expression[41]: ηnr kT
= (118)
T ≈ 10 (t 10 ) − 23 − 2
(114) c 2 1−V 2 c 2
1
22

− 43
Thus at t ≅ 10 s (at the first Thus, the gravitational forces
spontaneous breaking of symmetry) between two superparticles ,
according to (13), is given by:
the temperature was T ≈ 10 32 K
(∼1019GeV).Therefore, we can r r M g(sp) M 'g(sp)
assume that the absorbed F12 = −F21 = −G μˆ 21 =
r2
electromagnetic energy by each
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
superparticle, before t ≅ 10 −43 s , was ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟( ηn κT ) ⎥ μˆ 21 (119)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2
r
U =ηkT >1×109 J (see Eqs.(71) and ⎣ ⎦
(72)). By comparing with
mi(sp)c ≅ 9×10 J , we conclude that
2 8
Due to the unification of the
U > m i ( sp )c . Therefore, the gravitational and electromagnetic
(
unification condition Unr ≅ Mi c > mi c
2 2
) interactions at that period, we have
is satisfied. This means that, before
t ≅ 10 −43 s ,the gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions were
unified.
From the unification condition
( )
Unr ≅ Mi c2 , we may conclude that

66
53

r r M g ( sp) M 'g ( sp) component of its position at that


F12 = −F21 = G μˆ 21 = time ,i.e., a particle cannot be
r2
precisely located in a particular
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc direction without loss of all
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟(ηκ T ) ⎥ μˆ 21 =
⎢⎜⎝ mi( sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2 knowledge of its momentum
⎣ ⎦ component in that direction . This
2
means that in intermediate cases
=
e
(120)
4πε0 r 2 the product of the uncertainties of
From the equation above we can the simultaneously measurable
write values of corresponding position
and momentum components is at
⎡⎛ M ⎞2 G ⎤ least of the magnitude order of h ,
⎢⎜ i(sp) ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟(ηκT )2 hc⎥ = e
2
(121)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5h ⎠ ⎥ 4πε0 Δp.Δr ≥ h (127)
⎣ ⎦
Now assuming that
2 This relation, directly obtained here
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞

⎜m
⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎝ c 5 h ⎟⎠
(ηκT )2 = ψ (122) from the Unified Theory, is the well-
⎝ i ( sp ) ⎠ known relation of the Uncertainty
the Eq. (121) can be rewritten in the Principle for position and
following form: momentum.
According to Eq.(83), the
e2
ψ= =
1
(123) gravitational mass of the
4πε0 hc 137 superparticles at the center of the
which is the well-known reciprocal cluster becomes negative when
fine structure constant. 2η n r kT c > m i ( sp ) , i.e., when
2

For T = 10 32 K the Eq.(122)


gives mi(sp)c2
T > Tcritical= ≈1032K.
2
2ηnr k
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
ψ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ 5 ⎟
(η n r κ T )2 ≈ 1 (124 )
⎝ m i ( sp ) ⎠ ⎝ c h ⎠ 100
According to Eq. (114) this
temperature corresponds to tc ≈10−43s .
This value has the same order of
magnitude as the exact value(1/137) With the progressing of the
of the reciprocal fine structure compression, more superparticles
constant. into the center will have negative
From equation (120) we can gravitational mass. Consequently,
write: there will be a critical point in which
the repulsive gravitational forces
⎛ M g ( sp ) M 'g ( sp ) ⎞ r
⎜G
⎜ r ⎟r = h

(125 ) between the superparticles with
⎝ ψ c r ⎠ negative gravitational masses and
The term between parentheses has the superparticles with positive
the same dimensions as the linear gravitational masses will be so
r strong that an explosion will occur.
momentum p . Thus, (125) tells us
that This is the event that we call the Big
r r
p ⋅ r = h. (126) Bang.
A component of the momentum of a Now, starting from the Big
particle cannot be precisely Bang to the present time.
specified without loss of all Immediately after the Big Bang, the
knowledge of the corresponding superparticles' decompression

67
54

begins. The gravitational mass of during a period of time tc ≈10−43s


the most central superparticle will .Thus,
only be positive when the
temperature becomes smaller than dcr − dinitial = 12 g(tc ) = χ
2
( )
GMi(U )
dcr dinitial
(tc )2 (130)
the critical temperature, Tcritical ≈ 1032 K .
At the maximum state of The Eq.(83), gives
compression (exactly at the Big
Bang) the volumes of the mg (sp) 2Unr 2ηnr kT
χ= = 1− = 1−
superparticles were equal to mi(sp) mi(sp) c 2 mi(sp) c 2
the elementary volume Ω 0 = δ V d min 3

and the volume of the Universe was Calculations by Carr, B.J


Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = δ V d initial
3
where d initial [41], indicate that it would seem
reasonable to suppose that the
was the initial length scale of the fraction of initial primordial black
Universe. At this very moment the hole mass ultimately converted into
average density of the Universe was photons is about 0.11 . This means
equal to the average density of the that we can take
superparticles, thus we can write η = 0.11
Thus, the amount η M iU c 2 ,
3
⎛ dinitial⎞ Mi(U)

⎜d ⎟ =m
⎟ (128) where M iU is the total inertial mass
⎝ min ⎠ i( sp)
of the Universe, expresses the total
where M i (U ) ≈ 10 53 kg is the inertial
amount of inertial energy converted
mass of the Universe. It has already into photons at the initial instant of
been shown that the Universe(Primordial Photons).
~ −34
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 m. Then, from It was previously shown that
Eq.(128), we obtain: photons and also the matter have
imaginary gravitational masses
dinitial ≈ 10−14 m (129) associated to them. The matter has
After the Big Bang the negative imaginary gravitational
Universe expands itself from d initial mass, while the photons have
positive imaginary gravitational
up to d cr (when the temperature
mass, given by
decrease reaches the critical
temperature Tcritical ≈ 10 32 K , and the 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
M gp (imaginary ) = 2M ip (imaginary ) = + ⎜ ⎟i
gravity becomes attractive). Thus, it 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
expands by d cr − d initial , under
effect of the repulsive gravity where M ip (imaginary) is the imaginary
inertial mass of the photons.
g = gmaxgmin = Then, from the above we can

[ (12 dinitial)2 ] [G ( 12 dcr )2 ]


conclude that, at the initial instant of
= G(12 Mg(U ) ) 1
2
Mi(U ) = the Universe, an amount of
imaginary gravitational mass,
=
2G Mg(U )Mi(U )
=
2G ∑m ( g sp) Mi(U )
=
total
M gm (imaginary ) , which was associated
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial to the fraction of the matter
2G χ∑mi(sp)Mi(U ) 2GMi(U ) χ transformed into photons, has been
= = converted into imaginary
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial
gravitational mass of the primordial

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55

total
photons, M gp (imaginary ) , while an where m gp (imaginary ) (the imaginary
amount of real inertial mass of the gravitational mass of the photon) is
a quantity positive and imaginary,
(real) =η MiU c , has been
total 2
matter, Mim
and M gSun (imaginary ) (the imaginary
converted into real energy of the
N gravitational mass associated to the
primordial photons, E p = ∑ hf j , i.e., matter of the Sun) is a quantity
j =1 negative and imaginary.
The fact of the gravitational
interaction between the imaginary
gravitational masses of the
(imaginary) + M im( real) =
total total
M gm
primordial photons and the
= M gp (imaginary) + M ip( real)
total total
imaginary gravitational mass of the
1424 3
Ep matter be attractive is highly
c2 relevant, because it shows that it is
necessary to consider the effect of
this gravitational interaction, which is
(imaginary ) = M gp (imaginary ) and
total total
where M gm
equivalent to the gravitational effect
produced by the amount of real
(real) = M im(real) = ηM iU ≅ 0.11M iU
E p c 2 ≡ M iptotal total
(real) ≅ 0.22M iU ,
total
gravitational mass, M gp
sprayed by all the Universe.
It was previously shown that, for the This means that this amount,
photons equation: M gp = 2 M ip , is which corresponds to 22% of the
valid. This means that total inertial mass of the Universe,
must be added to the overall
M gp(imagimary) + M gp(real) = computation of the total mass of the
14444244443 matter (stars, galaxies, etc., gas and
M gp
dust of interstellar and intergalactic
(
= 2 M ip(imagimary) + M ip(real)
14444244443
) media). Therefore, this additional
portion corresponds to what has
M ip
been called Dark Matter (See Fig.
By substituting M gp(imaginary) = 2Mip(imaginary) IX).
into the equation above, we get On the other hand, the total
amount of gravitational mass at the
M gp (real ) = 2M ip (real ) initial instant, M gtotal , according to
Eq.(41), can be expressed by
Therefore we can write that M gtotal = χ M iU
(real ) = 2 M ip (real ) = 0.22 M iU
total total
M gp This mass includes the total
The phenomenon of negative gravitational mass of the
total
gravitational deflection of light about matter, M gm (− ) , plus the total
the Sun shows that the gravitational gravitational mass, total
M gp ( real ) ,
interaction between the Sun and the
photons is attractive. This is due to converted into primordial photons.
the gravitational force between the This tells us that we can put
Sun and a photon, which is given by
M gtotal = M gm ( − ) + M gp ( real ) = χ M iU
total total

F = −G M gSun (imaginary ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 ,


whence

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56

At the Initial Instant

M iU

Imaginary spacetime

Real spacetime
(imaginary) + Mip( real) ) + Mim(real)
total total total total
Mgp Mgm (imaginary

Primordial Photons
total
M gp (imaginary) + M iptotal
( real )
1
42 43
Ep
c2

∼ 10-14 m

Fig. IX – Conversion of part of the Real Gravitational Mass of the Primordial Universe into
Primordial Photons. The gravitational effect caused by the gravitational interaction of imaginary
gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the imaginary gravitational mass associated to
the matter is equivalent to the effect produced by the amount of real gravitational mass,
(real ) ≅ 0.22 M iU , sprayed by all Universe. This additional portion of mass corresponds to what
total
M gp
has been called Dark Matter.

70
57

( −) = χ M iU − 0.22M iU (
M g ( sp ) = ⎛⎜1 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) ⎤ ⎞M
total − 12
M gm
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠ i ( sp )
In order to calculate the value
of χ we can start from the By comparing this expression with
expression previously obtained for the equation above, we obtain
χ , i.e.,
1
m g ( sp ) 2η n r kT T ≅ 1 .5
χ= =1− =1− 1− V 2 c2
mi ( sp ) mi ( sp ) c 2 Tcritical
where Substitution of this value into the
expressions of χ and M gmtotal
(− ) results
mi ( sp ) c 2
Tcritical = = 3.3 × 10 32 K in
2ηn r k
χ = −0.5
and
and
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ i(sp) ⎟ 2
2 ⎜ ⎟c
Mi(sp)c ⎜⎝ 1 −V c ⎟⎠
2 2
T
T= = = critical ( − ) ≅ −0.72 M iU
total
M gm
2ηnr k 2ηnr k 1 − V 2 c2
This means that 72% of the total
We thus obtain energy of the Universe ( M iU c 2 ) is
due to negative gravitational mass
1
χ =1− of the matter created at the initial
1 − V 2 c2 instant.
Since the gravitational mass
By substitution of this expression is correlated to the inertial mass (Eq.
total
into the equation of M gm (41)), the energy related to the
(− ) , we get
negative gravitational mass is where
there is inertial energy (inertial
⎛ ⎞ mass). In this way, this negative
⎜ 1 ⎟
total
M gm = ⎜⎜ 0 . 78 − M iU
2 ⎟
(−) gravitational energy permeates all
1 − V 2
c ⎟
⎝ ⎠ space and tends to increase the rate
of expansion of the Universe due to
On the other hand, the Unification produce a strong gravitational
condition ( Unr ≅ Δpc= MiUc2 ) previously repulsion between the material
shown and Eq. (41) show that at the particles. Thus, this energy
initial instant of the Universe, corresponds to what has been
M g (sp ) has the following value: called Dark Energy (See Fig. X).
The value of χ = −0.5 at the
initial instant of the Universe shows
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Un ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ that the gravitational interaction was

Mg(sp) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎬Mi(sp) ≅ 0.1Mi(sp)
⎜ Mi(sp) ⎟ ⎥ repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ repulsive until the temperature of the
Universe is reduced down to the
Similarly, Eq.(45) tells us that critical limit, Tcritical . Below this
temperature limit,

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58

Negative
Gravitational Mass of Matter

72%
22%

6% Positive Gravitational Mass


carried by the primordial photons
Positive
Gravitational M ass of
M atter

Fig. X - Distribution of Gravitational Masses in the Universe. The total


energy related to negative gravitational mass of all the matter in the
Universe corresponds to what has been called Dark Energy. While
the Dark Matter corresponds to the total gravitational mass carried by the
primordial photons, which is manifested in the interaction of the
imaginary gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the
imaginary mass of matter.

72
59

the attractive component of the imaginary bodies. Just as the real


gravitational interaction became particles constitute the real bodies.
greater than the repulsive The idea that we make about
component, making attractive the a consciousness is basically that of
resultant gravitational interaction. an imaginary body containing
Therefore, at the beginning of the psychic energy and intrinsic
Universe – before the temperature knowledge. We can relate psychic
decreased down to Tcritical , there energy with psychic mass (psychic
occurred an expansion of the mass= psychic energy/c2). Thus, by
Universe that was exponential in analogy with the real bodies the
time rather than a normal power-law psychic bodies would be constituted
expansion. Thus, there was an by psychic particles with psychic
evident Inflation Period during the mass. Consequently, the psychic
beginning of the expansion of the particles that constitute a
Universe (See Fig. XI). consciousness would be equivalent
With the progressing of the to imaginary particles, and the
decompression the superparticles psychic mass , mΨ ,of the psychic
cluster becomes a neutrons cluster. particles would be equivalent to the
This means that the neutrons are imaginary mass, i.e.,
created without its antiparticle, the
antineutron. Thus, this solves the mΨ = mi(imaginary) (131)
matter/antimatter dilemma that is
unresolved in many cosmologies.
Now a question: How did the Thus, the imaginary masses
primordial superparticles appear at associated to the photons and
the beginning of the Universe? electrons would be elementary
It is a proven quantum fact psyche actually, i.e.,
that a wave function may collapse,
and that, at this moment, all the m Ψ photon = m i (imaginary ) photon =
possibilities that it describes are
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
suddenly expressed in reality. This = ⎜ ⎟ i (132 )
means that, through this process, 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
particles can be suddenly
materialized. mΨelectron = mi(imaginary)electron =
The materialization of the
primordial superparticles into a ⎛ hf electron ⎞
=− 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ i =
critical volume denotes knowledge 3
⎝ c2 ⎠
of what would happen with the =− 2 mi0(real)electron i (133)
Universe starting from that initial 3

condition, a fact that points towards


the existence of a Creator. The idea that electrons have
It was shown previously the elementary psyche associated to
possible existence of imaginary themselves is not new. It comes
particles with imaginary masses in from the pre-Socratic period.
Nature. These particles can be By proposing the existence of
associated with real particles, such as psyche associated with matter, we
in case of the photons and electrons, as
are adopting what is called
we have shown, or they can be
associated with others imaginary
panpsychic posture. Panpsychism
dates back to the pre-Socratic period;
particles by constituting the

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60

χ ≅ − 0 .5
t =0 t ≈ 15 billion years
t ≈ 10 −43 s

T = Tcritical = 3.3 ×1032 K T = 2 .7 K


Inflation Period

Fig. XI – Inflation Period. The value of χ ≅ −0.5 at the Initial Instant of the Universe shows that the
gravitational interaction was repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains repulsive until the temperature of
the Universe is reduced down to the critical limit, Tcritical . Below this temperature limit, the
attractive component of the gravitational interaction became greater than the repulsive component,
making attractive the resultant gravitational interaction. Therefore, at beginning of the Universe −
before the temperature to be decreased down to Tcritical , there occurred an expansion of the Universe
that was exponential in time rather than a normal power-law expansion. Thus, there was an evident
inflation period during the beginning of the expansion of the Universe.

74
61

remnants of organized panpsychism function must have been generated


may be found in the Uno of in a consciousness with a psychic
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s mass much greater than that
Divine Flow. The scholars of needed to materialize the Universe
Miletus’s school were called (material and psychic).
hylozoists, that is, “those who This giant consciousness, in
believe that matter is alive”. More its turn, would not only be the
recently, we will find the greatest of all consciences in the
panpsychistic thought in Spinoza, Universe but also the substratum of
Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin, everything that exists and,
among others. The latter one obviously, everything that exists
admitted the existence of proto- would be entirely contained within it,
conscious properties at the including all the spacetime.
elementary particles’ level. Thus, if the consciousness we
We can find experimental refer to contains all the space, its
evidences of the existence of volume is necessarily infinite,
psyche associated to electron in an consequently having an infinite
experiment similar to that commonly psychic mass.
used to show the wave duality of This means that it contains all
light. (Fig. XII). One merely the existing psychic mass and,
substitutes an electron ray (fine therefore, any other consciousness
electron beam) for the light ray. Just that exists will be contained in it.
as in the experiment mentioned Hence, we may conclude that It is
above, the ray which goes through the Supreme Consciousness and
the holes is detected as a wave if a that there is no other equal to It: It is
wave detector is used (it is then unique.
observed that the interference Since the Supreme
pattern left on the detector screen is Consciousness also contains all time;
analogous with that produced by the past, present and future, then, for It
light ray), and as a particle if a the time does not flow as it flows for
particle detector is used. us.
Since the electrons are Within this framework, when
detected on the other side of the we talk about the Creation of the
metal sheet, it becomes obvious Universe, the use of the verb “to
then that they passed through the create” means that “something that
holes. On the other hand, it is also was not” came into being, thus
evident that when they approached presupposing the concept of time
the holes, they had to decide which flow. For the Supreme
one of them to go through. Consciousness, however, the
How can an electron “decide” instant of Creation is mixed up with
which hole to go through? Where all other times, consequently there
there is “choice”, isn’t there also being no “before” or “after” the
psyche, by definition? Creation and, thus, the following
If the primordial superparticles question is not justifiable: “What did
that have been materialized at the the Supreme Consciousness do before
beginning of the Universe came Creation?”
from the collapse of a primordial On the other hand, we may
wave function, then the also infer, from the above that the
psychic form described by this wave

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62

Light

(a)

Dw

Light

(b)

Dp

Electrons ?
(c)

Fig. XII – A light ray, after going through the holes in the metal sheet, will be detected as a
wave(a) by a wave detector Dw or as a particle if the wave detector is substituted for the wave
detector Dp. Electron ray (c) has similar behavior as that of a light ray. However, before going
through the holes, the electrons must “decide” which one to go through.

76
63

existence of the Supreme such as the electromagnetic forces and


Consciousness has no defined limit the weak and strong nuclear forces.
(beginning and end), what confers Thus, the gravitational forces are
upon It the unique characteristic of produced by the exchange of “virtual”
uncreated and eternal. photons. Consequently, this is
If the Supreme Consciousness is precisely the origin of the gravity.
eternal, Its wave function ΨSC shall Newton’s theory of gravity does
never collapse (will never be null). not explain why objects attract one
Thus, for having an infinite psychic another; it simply models this
observation. Also Einstein’s theory
mass, the value of ΨSC 2
will be always
does not explain the origin of gravity.
infinite and, hence, we may write that Einstein’s theory of gravity only
describes gravity with more precision
+∞
∫−∞ ΨSC dV = ∞ than Newton’s theory does.
2
Besides, there is nothing in both
theories explaining the origin of the
By comparing this equation with Eq. energy that produces the gravitational
(108) derived from Quantum forces. Earth’s gravity attracts all
Mechanics, we conclude that the objects on the surface of our planet.
Supreme Consciousness is This has been going on for well over
simultaneously everywhere, i.e., It is 4.5 billions years, yet no known energy
omnipresent. source is being converted to support
Since the Supreme Consciousness this tremendous ongoing energy
contains all consciences, it is expected expenditure. Also is the enormous
that It also contain all the knowledge. continuous energy expended by
Therefore, It is also omniscient. Earth’s gravitational field for
Consequently, It knows how to maintaining the Moon in its orbit -
formulate well-defined mental images millennium after millennium. In spite of
with psychic masses sufficient for its the ongoing energy expended by
contents to materialize. In this way, It Earth’s gravitational field to hold
can materialize everything It wishes objects down on surface and the Moon
(omnipotence). in orbit, why the energy of the field
All these characteristics of the never diminishes in strength or drains
Supreme Consciousness (infinite, its energy source? Is this energy
unique, uncreated, eternal, expenditure balanced by a conversion
omnipresent, omniscient and of energy from an unknown energy
omnipotent) coincide with those source?
traditionally ascribed to God by most The energy W necessary to
religions. support the effort expended by the
It was shown in this work that gravitational forces F is well-known
the “virtual” quanta of the gravitational and given by
interaction must have spin 1 and not 2,
and that they are “virtual” photons M g mg

r
(graviphotons) with zero mass outside W = Fdr = −G
∞ r
the coherent matter. Inside the
coherent matter the graviphoton mass
is non-zero. Therefore, the According to the principle of energy
gravitational forces are also gauge conservation, this energy expenditure
forces, because they are yielded by the must be balanced by a conversion of
exchange of "virtual" quanta of spin 1, energy from another energy type.

77
64
The Uncertainty Principle tells us never diminishes in strength or
that, due to the occurrence of drains its energy source.
exchange of graviphotons in a time If an experiment involves a large
interval Δt < h ΔE (where ΔE is the number of identical particles, all
energy of the graviphoton), the energy described by the same wave function
variation ΔE cannot be detected in the Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these
system M g − m g . Since the total energy particles in x, y, z, t is proportional to
W is the sum of the energy of the n the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is
graviphotons, i.e., W = ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ...+ ΔEn , known as density of probability. If Ψ is
then the energy W cannot be detected complex then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus,
as well. However, as we know it can be ρ ∝ Ψ2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly, in the case
converted into another type of energy, of psychic particles, the density of
for example, in rotational kinetic psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be
energy, as in the hydroelectric plants,
expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is
or in the Gravitational Motor, as shown
in this work. known that ΨΨ2 is always real and
It is known that a quantum of positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an
energy ΔE = hf which varies during a imaginary quantity. Thus, as the
time interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE modulus of an imaginary number is
(wave period) cannot be always real and positive, we can
experimentally detected. This is an transform the proportion ρΨ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in
imaginary photon or a “virtual” photon. equality in the following form:
Thus, the graviphotons are imaginary
photons, i.e., the energies ΔEi of the ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ (134)
graviphotons are imaginaries energies
and therefore the energy where k is a proportionality constant
W = ΔE1 + ΔE 2 + ... + ΔE n is also an (real and positive) to be determined.
imaginary energy. Consequently, it In Quantum Mechanics we have
belongs to the imaginary space-time. studied the Superpositon Principle,
According to Eq. (131), which affirms that, if a particle (or
imaginary energy is equal to psychic system of particles) is in a dynamic
energy. Consequently, the imaginary state represented by a wave function
space-time is, in fact, the psychic Ψ1 and may also be in another
space-time, which contains the
dynamic state described by Ψ2 then,
Supreme Consciousness. Since the
Supreme Consciousness has infinite the general dynamic state of the
psychic mass, then the psychic space- particle may be described by Ψ ,
time has infinite psychic energy. This is where Ψ is a linear
highly relevant, because it confers to combination(superposition)of Ψ1 and Ψ2 ,
the psychic space-time the i.e.,
characteristic of unlimited source of Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ2 (135 )
energy. Complex constants c1 and c2
This can be easily confirmed by
respectively indicates the percentage
the fact that, in spite of the enormous
of dynamic state, represented
amount of energy expended by Earth’s
by Ψ1 and Ψ2 in the formation of the
gravitational field to hold objects down
on the surface of the planet and general dynamic state described by Ψ .
maintain the Moon in its orbit, the In the case of psychic particles
energy of Earth’s gravitational field (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.),

78
65
by analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer 2
∇ 2 ΨΨ +
p Ψ
2
ΨΨ = 0 (137 )
to the different dynamic states the h
psychic particle assume, then its
general dynamic state may be Because the wave functions are
described by the wave function ΨΨ , capable of intertwining themselves, the
given by: quantum systems may “penetrate”
each other, thus establishing an
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn (136) internal relationship where all of them
are affected by the relationship, no
longer being isolated systems but
The state of superposition of wave
becoming an integrated part of a larger
functions is, therefore, common for
system. This type of internal
both psychic and material particles. In
relationship, which exists only in
the case of material particles, it can be
quantum systems, was called
verified, for instance, when an electron
Relational Holism [44].
changes from one orbit to another.
The equation of quantization of
Before effecting the transition to
mass (33), in the generalized form,
another energy level, the electron
leads us to the following expression:
carries out “virtual transitions” [42]. A
kind of relationship with other electrons m i (imaginary ) = n 2 m i 0 (imagynary )(min )
before performing the real transition. Thus, we can also conclude that the
During this relationship period, its wave psychic mass is also quantized, due to
function remains “scattered” by a wide mΨ = mi (imaginary ) (Eq. 131), i.e.,
region of the space [43] thus
superposing the wave functions of the m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (138 )
other electrons. In this relationship the
electrons mutually influence one where
another, with the possibility of m Ψ (min ) = − 2
3
(hf min )
c2 i =
intertwining their wave functions ‡‡ .
When this happens, there occurs the =− 2
3
m i 0 (real ) min i (139 )
so-called Phase Relationship
according to quantum-mechanics It was shown that the minimum
concept. quantum of real inertial mass in the
In the electrons “virtual” Universe, mi 0(real ) min , is given by:
transition mentioned before, the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the m i 0 (real ) min = ± h 3 8 cd max =
electrons is described, as we know, by = ± 3 . 9 × 10 − 73 kg (140 )
Schrödinger’s wave equation. By analogy to Eqs. (132) and (133),
Otherwise, it is general for material the expressions of the psychic masses
particles. By analogy, in the case of associated to the proton and the
psychic particles, we may say that the neutron are respectively given by:
“listing” of all the possibilities of the
psyches involved in the relationship will m Ψ proton = m i (imaginary ) proton =
be described by Schrödinger’s
equation – for psychic case, i.e., =+ 2
3
(hf proton c2 i =)
=+ 2
3
m i 0 (real ) proton i (141 )
‡‡
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and
particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the
possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their
wave functions.
79
66
m Ψneutron = mi (imaginary )neutron =

=− 2 (hf neutron )
c2 i =
F = G M i (imaginary) mi (imaginary) r 2 =

( ΔE ⎞
)
3

=− 2 mi 0(real )neutron i (142 ) ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
3 ≅⎜ c ⎟G i (real )i mi (real )i
The imaginary gravitational ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
masses of the atoms must be much ⎝ c ⎠
smaller than their real gravitational Therefore, the total gravity is
masses. On the contrary, the weight of M i (real )
the bodies would be very different of g real + Δg (imaginary ) = −G −
r2
the observed values. This fact shows
that mi (imaginary ) proton and mi (imaginary )neutron

( ΔE ⎞
)
⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
−⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
must have contrary signs. In this way, ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
the imaginary gravitational mass of an ⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
atom can be expressed by means of
the following expression Thus, the imaginary gravitational mass
of a body produces an excess of

(ΔE ⎞
mi (imaginary )atom = N ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟i ) gravity acceleration, Δg , given by
⎝ c ⎠
where, ΔE , is the interaction energy.
By comparing this expression with the

( )
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ M
following expression Δg ≅ ⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜ e
m + m + m + ⎟
mi (real )atom = N ⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 ⎟ ⎝
p n
c2 ⎠
⎝ c ⎠
Thus,
In the case of soft atoms we can
mi (imaginary )atom << mi (real )atom
consider ΔE ≅ 2 × 10 −13 joules . Thus, in
Now consider a monatomic body with this case we obtain
real mass M i (real ) and imaginary mass Mi
M i (imaginary ) . Then we have
Δg ≅ 6 ×10 −4 G (143)
r2
In the case of the Sun, for example,
⎛ ΔE i ⎞ there is an excess of gravity
Σ⎜ mi (imaginary )atom + 2a ⎟
M i (imaginary ) acceleration, due to its imaginary
= ⎝
c ⎠
= gravitational mass, given by
M i (real ) ⎛ ΔE a ⎞
Σ⎜ mi (real )atom + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ (
Δg ≅ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS
r2
ΔE ΔE ⎞

(
n⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 + 2a ⎟i ) At a distance from the Sun of
= ⎝
c c ⎠ r = 1.0 × 1013 m the value of Δg is

⎛ ΔE ΔE a ⎞
n⎜ m e + m p + m n + 2 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c c ⎠ Δg ≅ 8 × 10 −10 m.s −2

(
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ )
ΔE ⎞
≅⎜ c ⎟i Experiments in the pioneer 10
⎜ ΔE ⎟ spacecraft, at a distance from the Sun
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ of about 67 AU or r = 1.0 × 1013 m [45],
Since ΔE a << ΔE . measured an excess acceleration
The intensity of the gravitational towards the Sun of
forces between M g (imaginary ) and an
Δg = 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10 −10 m.s −2
imaginary particle with mass
m g (imaginary ) , both at rest, is given by

80
67
Note that the general expression for electromagnetic interaction which,
the gravity acceleration of the Sun is as we know, is conveyed by the
exchange of “virtual” photons.
(
g = 1+ ≈ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS If electrons, protons and neutrons
have psychic mass, then we can infer
r2
Therefore, in the case of the that the psychic mass of the atoms are
gravitational deflection of light about Phase Condensates *** . In the case of
the Sun, the new expression for the the molecules the situation is similar.
deflection of the light is More molecular mass means more
(
δ = 1+ ≈ 6 ×10 − 4 ) 4GM iS
(144)
atoms and consequently, more psychic
mass. In this case the phase
c2d
Thus, the increase in δ due to the condensate also becomes more
excess acceleration towards the Sun structured because the great amount
can be considered negligible. of elementary psyches inside the
Similarly to the collapse of the condensate requires, by stability
real wave function, the collapse of the reasons, a better distribution of them.
psychic wave function must suddenly Thus, in the case of molecules with
also express in reality all the very large molecular masses
possibilities described by it. This is, (macromolecules) it is possible that
therefore, a point of decision in which their psychic masses already constitute
there occurs the compelling need of the most organized shape of a Phase
realization of the psychic form. Thus, Condensate, called Bose-Einstein
this is moment in which the content of Condensate ††† .
the psychic form realizes itself in the The fundamental characteristic of
space-time. For an observer in space- a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we
time, something is real when it is in the know, that the various parts making up
form of matter or radiation. Therefore, the condensed system not only behave
the content of the psychic form may as a whole but also become a whole,
realize itself in space-time exclusively i.e., in the psychic case, the various
under the form of radiation, that is, it consciousnesses of the system
does not materialize. This must occur become a single consciousness with
when the Materialization Condition is psychic mass equal to the sum of the
not satisfied, i.e., when the content of psychic masses of all the
the psychic form is undefined consciousness of the condensate. This
(impossible to be defined by its own obviously, increases the available
psychic) or it does not contain enough knowledge in the system since it is
psychic mass to materialize §§ the proportional to the psychic mass of the
respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, ***
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of
there must always be a production of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers,
“virtual” photons to convey the psychic super fluids, superconductors and magnets are
interaction to the other psychic examples of phase condensates more structured.
†††
particles, according to the quantum Several authors have suggested the possibility of
field theory, only through this type of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the
brain, and that it might be the physical base of
quanta will interaction be conveyed, memory, although they have not been able to find a
since it has an infinite reach and may suitable mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis.
be either attractive or repulsive, just as Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein
condensates in living tissues abound (Popp, F.A
Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New
§§
By this we mean not only materialization proper Scientist, May89, p.41; Rattermeyer, M and Popp,
but also the movement of matter to realize its F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
psychic content (including radiation).
81
68
consciousness. This unity confers an correlated to Ψ and Ψ 2
Ψ1 . Only 2
Ψ2
‡‡‡

individual character to this type of a simple algebraic form fills the


consciousness. For this reason, from requirements of interchange of the
now on they will be called Individual indices, the product
Material Consciousness.
ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = ΨΨ2 2 .ΨΨ2 1 =
We can derive from the above
that most bodies do not possess = A1, 2 = A2,1 = A (145 )
individual material consciousness. In In the above expression, A is due to
an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of
elementary psyches in the iron the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always
molecules does not constitute Bose- positive. From equations (143) and
Einstein condensate; therefore, the (134) we get
iron rod does not have an individual A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 =
consciousness. Its consciousness is
mΨ1 mΨ 2
consequently, much more simple and = k2 (146)
constitutes just a phase condensate V1 V2
imprecisely structured made by the The psychic interaction can be
consciousness of the iron atoms. described starting from the psychic
The existence of consciousnesses mass because the psychic mass is the
in the atoms is revealed in the source of the psychic field. Basically,
molecular formation, where atoms with the psychic mass is gravitational mass,
strong mutual affinity (their m Ψ ≡ m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the
consciousnesses) combine to form equations of the gravitational
molecules. It is the case, for instance interaction are also applied to the
of the water molecules, in which two Psychic Interaction. However, due to
Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen atom. the psychic mass, m Ψ , to be an
Well, how come the combination
imaginary quantity, it is necessary to
between these atoms is always the
put mΨ into the mentioned equations
same: the same grouping and the
same invariable proportion? In the in order to homogenize them, because
case of molecular combinations the as we know, the module of an
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the imaginary number is always real and
chemical substances either mutually positive.
attract or repel themselves, carrying Thus, based on gravity theory,
out specific motions for this reason. It we can write the equation of the
is the so-called Chemical Affinity. This psychic field in nonrelativistic
phenomenon certainly results from a Mechanics.
specific interaction between the ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (147 )
consciousnesses. From now on, it will
be called Psychic Interaction.
Mutual Affinity is a
dimensionless psychic quantity with ‡‡‡
Quantum Mechanics tells us that Ψ do not have
which we are familiar and of which we a physical interpretation or a simple meaning and
have perfect understanding as to its also it cannot be experimentally observed. However
such restriction does not apply to Ψ
2
meaning. The degree of Mutual , which is
Affinity, A , in the case of two known as density of probability and represents the
consciousnesses, respectively probability of finding the body, described by the
described by ΨΨ1 and ΨΨ 2 , must be wave function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the
moment t. A large value of Ψ
2
means a strong
possibility to find the body, while a small value of
Ψ 2 means a weak possibility to find the body.
82
69
It is similar to the equation of the attractive, if A is positive
gravitational field, with the difference (expressing positive mutual affinity
that now instead of the density of between the two psychic bodies), and
gravitational mass we have the density repulsive if A is negative (expressing
of psychic mass. Then, we can write negative mutual affinity between the
the general solution of Eq. (147), in the two psychic bodies). Contrary to the
following form: interaction of the matter, where the
ρ Ψ dV opposites attract themselves here, the
Φ = −G ∫ (148) opposites repel themselves.
r2
This equation expresses, with A method and device to obtain
nonrelativistic approximation, the images of psychic bodies have been
potential of the psychic field of any previously proposed [46]. By means of
distribution of psychic mass. this device, whose operation is based
Particularly, for the potential of on the gravitational interaction and the
the field of only one particle with piezoelectric effect, it will be possible
psychic mass mΨ1 , we get: to observe psychic bodies.
Expression (146) can be
G m Ψ1
Φ=− (149 ) rewritten in the following form:
r
Then the force produced by this field
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (153)
V1 V2
upon another particle with psychic
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are
mass mΨ 2 is
r r imaginary quantities. However, the
∂Φ
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 = product mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One
∂r
can then conclude from the previous
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
= −G (150) expression that the degree of mutual
r2 affinity between two consciousnesses
By comparing equations (150) and depends basically on the densities of
(146) we obtain their psychic masses, and that:
1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
r r A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (151) between them)
k r
In the vectorial form the above 2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
equation is written as follows A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
r r VV
FΨ 12 = − FΨ 21 = − GA 12 22 μ̂ (152 ) between them)
k r 3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
connecting the mass centers (psychic between them)
mass) of both particles and oriented 4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 . A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
In general, we may distinguish between them)
and quantify two types of mutual In this relationship, as occurs in the
affinity: positive and negative case of material particles (“virtual”
(aversion). The occurrence of the first transition of the electrons previously
type is synonym of psychic attraction, mentioned), the consciousnesses
(as in the case of the atoms in the interact mutually, intertwining or not
water molecule) while the aversion is their wave functions. When this
synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (152) happens, there occurs the so-called
r r
shows that the forces FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are Phase Relationship according to
quantum-mechanics concept.
83
70
Otherwise a Trivial Relationship takes
place.
The psychic forces such as the
gravitational forces, must be very weak
when we consider the interaction
between two particles. However, in
spite of the subtleties, those forces
stimulate the relationship of the
consciousnesses with themselves and
with the Universe (Eq.152).
From all the preceding, we
perceive that Psychic Interaction –
unified with matter interactions,
constitutes a single Law which links
things and beings together and, in a
network of continuous relations and
exchanges, governs the Universe both
in its material and psychic aspects. We
can also observe that in the
interactions the same principle
reappears always identical. This unity
of principle is the most evident
expression of monism in the Universe.

84
71

APPENDIX A: Allais effect explained


≅ 1.3 × 10−18 kg.m −3 that can work as a
A Foucault-type pendulum slightly gravitational shielding and explain the
increases its period of oscillation at sites Allais and pendulum effects. Below this
experiencing a solar eclipse, as compared layer, the density of the lunar atmosphere
with any other time. This effect was first increases, making the effect of
observed by Allais [47] over 40 years ago. gravitational shielding negligible.
Also Saxl and Allen [48], using a torsion During the solar eclipses, when the
pendulum, have observed the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth,
phenomenon. Recently, an anomalous two gravitational shieldings Sh1 and Sh2 ,
eclipse effect on gravimeters has become
are established in the top layer of the lunar
well-established [49], while some of the
atmosphere (See Fig. 1A). In order to
pendulum experiments have not. Here,
understand how these gravitational
we will show that the Allais gravity and
shieldings work (the gravitational shielding
pendulum effects during solar eclipses
effect) see Fig. II. Thus, right after Sh1
result from a shielding effect of the Sun’s
gravity when the Moon is between the Sun (inside the system Moon-Lunar
atmosphere), the Sun’s gravity
and the Earth. r r
The interplanetary medium includes acceleration, g S , becomes χ g S where,
interplanetary dust, cosmic rays and hot according to Eq. (57) χ is given by
plasma from the solar wind. Its density is
inversely proportional to the squared
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
distance from the Sun, decreasing as this 2
n D
distance increases. Near the Earth-Moon χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
r
(1A)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
system, this density is very low, with ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
(
values about 5 protons/ cm3 8.3×10−21 kg m3 . ) The total density of solar radiation D
However, this density is highly variable. It arriving at the top layer of the lunar
can be increased up to atmosphere is given by
( −19
~ 100 protons / cm 1.7 ×10 k g m [50].
3
)
3
D = σT 4 = 6.32 × 10 7 W / m 2
The atmosphere of the Moon is Since the temperature of the surface of the
very tenuous and insignificant in Sun is T = 5.778 × 10 3 K and
comparison with that of the Earth. The
average daytime abundances of the
σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W .m −2 .K −4 . The density of
elements known to be present in the lunar the top layer is ρ ≅ 1.3 × 10−18 kg.m−3 then
atmosphere, in atoms per cubic Eq. (1A) gives §§§
centimeter, are as follows: H <17, He 2-
40x103, Na 70,K 17, Air 4x104, yielding χ = − 1 .1
~8x104 total atoms per cubic
( −16
)
−3
centimeter ≅ 10 kg.m [51]. According to The negative sign of χ shows that
Öpik [52], near the Moon surface, the r r
χg S , has opposite direction to g S . As
density of the lunar atmosphere can reach
values up to 10 −12 kg.m −3 .The minimum
previously showed (see Fig. II), after
the second gravitational shielding
possible density of the lunar atmosphere is
in the top of the atmosphere and is §§§
essentially very close to the value of the The text in red in wrong. But the value of
interplanetary medium. χ = −1 .1 is correct. It is not the solar radiation
Since the density of the that produces the phenomenon. The exact
interplanetary medium is very small it description of the phenomenon starting from the
cannot work as gravitational shielding. same equation (1A) is presented in the end of my
However, there is a top layer in the lunar paper: “Scattering of Sunlight in Lunar Exosphere
Caused by Gravitational Microclusters of Lunar Dust”
atmosphere with density (2013).

85
72
(Sh2) the gravity acceleration χgr S g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 0 .4 ) g S − (− 0 .4 )g Moon =
2

r r
becomes χ 2 g S . This means that χ 2 g S ≅ g ⊕ − 9.6 × 10 − 4 m.s − 2 =
r
has the same direction of g S . In (
= 1 − 9.7 × 10 − 5 g ⊕) (4 A )
addition, right after the lunar (Sh2) This decrease in g increases the
r
gravity becomes χg moon . Therefore, the pendulum’s period by about
total gravity acceleration in the Earth g⊕
T′ =T = 1 .000048 T
will be given by ( )
1 − 9 .4 × 10 − 5 g ⊕
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon (2 A) This corresponds to 0.0048% increase
in the pendulum’s period. Jun’s
abstract [53] tells us of a relative
Since g S ≅ 5.9 × 10 −3 m / s 2 and change less than 0.005% in the
−5
g moon ≅ 3.3 × 10 m / s Eq. (2A), gives
2 pendulum’s period associated with the
1990 solar eclipse.
For example, if the density of the
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1 .1) g S − (− 1 .1)g Moon =
2
top layer of the lunar atmosphere
≅ g ⊕ − 7 .1 × 10 − 3 m .s − 2 = increase up to 2.0917 × 10−18 k g m 3 , the
(
= 1 − 7 .3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) (3 A ) value for χ becomes

This decrease in g increases the χ = −1.5 × 10 −3


period T = 2π l g of a paraconical
Thus, we obtain
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1.5 × 10−3 ) g S − (− 1.5 × 10−3 )g Moon =
pendulum (Allais effect) in about 2

g⊕
T′ = T = 1.00037 T
(
1 − 7.3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) ≅ g ⊕ − 6.3 × 10−8 m.s −2 =
This corresponds to 0.037% increase ( )
= 1 − 6.4 × 10−9 g ⊕ (5 A)
in the period, and is roughly the value So, the total gravity acceleration in the
(0.0372%) obtained by Saxl and Allen Earth will decrease during the solar
during the total solar eclipse in March eclipses by about
1970 [48].
As we have seen, the density of 6.4 × 10 −9 g ⊕
the interplanetary medium near the
Moon is highly variable and can reach The size of the effect, as measured
values up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 with a gravimeter, during the 1997
(1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 .) eclipse, was roughly (5 − 7 ) × 10 −9 g ⊕
When the density of the [54, 55].
interplanetary medium increases, the The decrease will be even
top layer of the lunar atmosphere can smaller forρ ≳ 2.0917 ×10-18kg.m-3. The
also increase its density, by absorbing lower limit now is set by Lageos
particles from the interplanetary satellites, which suffer an anomalous
medium due to the lunar gravitational
acceleration of only about 3 × 10 −13 g ⊕ ,
attraction. In the case of a density
increase of roughly 30% during “seasons” where the satellite
( )
1.7 × 10 k g m , the value for χ
−18 3 experiences eclipses of the Sun by the
Earth [56].
becomes
χ = − 0 .4
Consequently, we get

86
73

Top layer of the Moon’s atmosphere


(Gravitational Shielding)
Interplanetary medium
≈ 10 −19 kg m 3
≈10−18 kg.m-3
Solar radiation ≈10−17 kg.m-3
≈10−12 kg.m-3 r
χg Moon
r Sh1 r Moon r Sh2 r r r r Earth
gS χg S g Moon χg Moon χ 2 g S χ 2gS g⊕

Fig. 1A – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shielding around the Moon – The top layer of the
Moon’s atmosphere with density of the order of 10-18 kg.m-3 , produces a gravitational shielding
r r
when subjected to the radiation from the Sun. Thus, the solar gravity g S becomes χ g S after the
r r
first shielding Sh1 and χ 2 g S after the second shielding Sh 2 . The Moon gravity becomes χ g Moon
after Sh 2 . Therefore the total gravity acceleration in the Earth will be given by
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon .

87
74

APPENDIX B n2h2 n2h2


En = = (3B)
In this appendix we will show 8mg L2 8η 2 mi L2
why, in the quantized gravity equation
(Eq.34), n = 0 is excluded from the From this equation we can easily
sequence of possible values of n . conclude that η cannot be
Obviously, the exclusion of n = 0 , zero (E n → ∞ or E n → 0 ) . On the
0

means that the gravity can have only other hand, the Eq. (2B) shows that the
discrete values different of zero. exclusion of η = 0 means the exclusion
Equation (33) shows that the of m g = 0 as a possible value for the
gravitational mass is quantized and
given by gravitational mass. Obviously, this also
means the exclusion of M g = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) (Relativistic mass). Equation (33) tells
us that M g = n 2 m g (min ) , thus we can
Since Eq. (43) leads to conclude that the exclusion of Mg = 0
implies in the exclusion of n = 0 since
mg(min) = mio(min)
mg(min) = mi0(min) = finite value (elementary
quantum of mass). Therefore Eq. (3B)
where
is only valid for values of n and η
different of zero. Finally, from the
mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9×10−73kg
quantized gravity equation (Eq. 34),
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
is the elementary quantum of inertial g =− = n 2
⎜− ⎟=
r2 ⎜ (r )2 ⎟
mass. Then the equation ⎝ max n ⎠
for M g becomes = n 4 g min
we conclude that the exclusion of n = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) = n 2 mi (min ) means that the gravity can have only
discrete values different of zero.
On the other hand, Eq. (44)
shows that
M i = ni2 mi 0(min )
Thus, we can write that
2
Mg ⎛n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or M g = η 2 M i (1B)
M i ⎝ ni ⎠

where η = n ni is a quantum number


different of n .
By multiplying both members of
Eq. (1B) by 1 − V 2 c 2 we get
mg = η 2 mi (2B)
By substituting (2B) into Eq. (21)
we get

88
75

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90
Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic Field
through Gas or Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2007-2010 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

It is shown that the gravity acceleration just above a chamber filled with gas or plasma at ultra-low
pressure can be strongly reduced by applying an Extra Low-Frequency (ELF) electromagnetic field
across the gas or the plasma. This Gravitational Shielding Effect is related to recent discovery of
quantum correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass. According to the theory samples
hung above the gas or the plasma should exhibit a weight decrease when the frequency of the
electromagnetic field is decreased or when the intensity of the electromagnetic field is increased. This
Gravitational Shielding Effect is unprecedented in the literature and can not be understood in the
framework of the General Relativity. From the technical point of view, there are several applications for
this discovery; possibly it will change the paradigms of energy generation, transportation and
telecommunications.

Key words: Phenomenology of quantum gravity, Experimental Tests of Gravitational Theories,


Vacuum Chambers, Plasmas devices. PACs: 04.60.Bc, 04.80.Cc, 07.30.Kf, 52.75.-d.

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 02

II. THEORY 02
Gravity Control Cells (GCC) 07

III. CONSEQUENCES 09
Gravitational Motor using GCC 11
Gravitational Spacecraft 12
Decreasing of inertial forces on the Gravitational Spacecraft 13
Gravity Control inside the Gravitational Spacecraft 13
Gravitational Thrusters 14
Artificial Atmosphere surrounds the Gravitational Spacecraft. 15
Gravitational Lifter 15
High Power Electromagnetic Bomb (A new type of E-bomb). 16
Gravitational Press of Ultra-High Pressure 16
Generation and Detection of Gravitational Radiation 17
Quantum Gravitational Antennas. Quantum Transceivers 18
Instantaneous Interstellar Communications 18
Wireless Electric Power Transmission, by using Quantum Gravitational Antennas. 18
Method and Device using GCCs for obtaining images of Imaginary Bodies 19
Energy shieldings 19
Possibility of Controlled Nuclear Fusion by means of Gravity Control 20

IV. CONCLUSION 21
APPENDIX A 42

APPENDIX B 70

References 74

91
2

I. INTRODUCTION
It will be shown that the local In general, the momentum variation
gravity acceleration can be controlled by Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F
means of a device called Gravity Control is the applied force during a time
Cell (GCC) which is basically a recipient interval Δt . Note that there is no
filled with gas or plasma where is applied restriction concerning the nature of the
an electromagnetic field. According to force F , i.e., it can be mechanical,
the theory samples hung above the gas electromagnetic, etc.
or plasma should exhibit a weight For example, we can look on the
decrease when the frequency of the momentum variation Δp as due to
electromagnetic field is decreased or absorption or emission of electromagnetic
when the intensity of the electromagnetic energy by the particle.
field is increased. The electrical In the case of radiation, Δp can be
conductivity and the density of the gas or obtained as follows: It is known that the
plasma are also highly relevant in this radiation pressure, dP , upon an area
process.
dA = dxdy of a volume d V = dxdydz of
With a GCC it is possible to
convert the gravitational energy into a particle ( the incident radiation normal
rotational mechanical energy by means to the surface dA )is equal to the
of the Gravitational Motor. In addition, a energy dU absorbed per unit volume
new concept of spacecraft (the (dU dV ) .i.e.,
Gravitational Spacecraft) and aerospace
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(2)
flight is presented here based on the dV dxdydz dAdz
possibility of gravity control. We will also
see that the gravity control will be very Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed
important to Telecommunication. of radiation) into the equation above
gives
II. THEORY dU (dU dAdt ) dD
It was shown [1] that the relativistic dP = = = (3)
dV v v
gravitational mass M g = m g 1 − V 2 c2
and the relativistic inertial mass Since dPdA = dF we can write:
M i = mi 0 1 − V 2 c 2 are quantized, and dFdt=
dU
(4)
v
given by M g = n g2 mi 0(min ) , M i = ni2 mi 0(min ) However we know that dF = dp dt , then
where n g and ni are respectively, the
dp =
dU
(5)
gravitational quantum number and the v
inertial quantum number ; From this equation it follows that
mi 0(min ) = ±3.9 × 10 kg is the elementary
−73
U ⎛c⎞ U
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr
quantum of inertial mass. The masses v ⎝c⎠ c
m g and mi 0 are correlated by means of Substitution into Eq. (1) yields
the following expression: ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎜
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜

U
nr ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0

⎥⎪
(6)
⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ ⎝
2


mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0 . (1) ⎩ ⎣
mi0 c
⎦⎭
⎢ ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Where U , is the electromagnetic energy
Where Δp is the momentum variation on absorbed by the particle; nr is the index
the particle and mi 0 is the inertial mass of refraction.
at rest.
92
3
Equation (6) can be rewritten in Equation (9) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
the following form E B = ω k r = v , i.e., E = vB = vμH .
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪ Then, Eq. (8) can be rewritten in the

mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 (7) following form:
⎢ ⎜ ρ c2 r ⎟ ⎥

⎩ ⎣⎢
⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎦⎥⎭ W = 12 (ε v2μ)μH 2 + 12 μH 2 (12)
Where W = U V is the density of For σ << ωε , Eq. (9) reduces to
electromagnetic energy and ρ = mi 0 V c
v=
is the density of inertial mass. ε r μr
The Eq. (7) is the expression of the Then, Eq. (12) gives
quantum correlation between the ⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 2
gravitational mass and the inertial mass W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH = μH2 (13)
⎢⎣ ⎝ εr μr ⎠ ⎥⎦
as a function of the density of
electromagnetic energy. This is also the This equation can be rewritten in the
expression of correlation between following forms:
B2
gravitation and electromagnetism.
W = (14)
The density of electromagnetic μ
energy in an electromagnetic field can be or
deduced from Maxwell’s equations [2] W = ε E2 (15)
and has the following expression
W = 12 ε E 2 + 12 μH 2 (8) For σ >> ωε , Eq. (9) gives

It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [3] v= (16 )
μσ
and
dz ω Then, from Eq. (12) we get
v= = =
c
(9) ⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ W = 12 ⎢ε⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2

2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠
Where kr is the real part of the ≅ 12 μH2 (17)
r
propagation vector k (also called phase Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite (17)
r in the following forms:
constant [4]); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ,
B2
are the electromagnetic characteristics of W ≅ (18)

the medium in which the incident (or
emitted) radiation is propagating or
⎛σ ⎞ 2
( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the relative W ≅⎜ ⎟E (19 )
⎝ 4ω ⎠
dielectric permittivity and ε0 = 8.854×10−12F/ m
By comparing equations (14) (15) (18)
; μ = μrμ0 where μ r is the relative and (19) we see that Eq. (19) shows that
magnetic permeability and μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m; the better way to obtain a strong value of
W in practice is by applying an Extra
σ is the electrical conductivity). It is
Low-Frequency (ELF) electric field
known that for free-space σ = 0 and
ε r = μ r = 1 then Eq. (9) gives
(w = 2πf << 1Hz ) through a mean with
v=c (10) high electrical conductivity.
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq.
From (9) we see that the index of (7), gives
refraction nr = c v will be given by ⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
⎪ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E 4 ⎥⎪
c εμ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε) + 1⎞⎟ (11)

mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1 ⎬mi0 (20)
nr = 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎟⎠ ρ 2 ⎥⎪
2
⎪⎩ ⎢
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This equation shows clearly that if an

93
4
electrical conductor mean has j lamp
ρ << 1 Kg.m −3
and σ >> 1 , then it is
σ Hg plasma = = 3.419 S .m −1 (23)
E lamp
possible obtain strong changes in its Substitution of (22) and (23) into (20)
gravitational mass, with a relatively small yields
ELF electric field. An electrical conductor
mean with ρ << 1 Kg.m−3 is obviously a
mg(Hg plasma) ⎧⎪ ⎡ E 4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.909×10
⎢ −17
−1⎥⎬ (24)
mi(Hg plasma) ⎪ ⎢ f 3 ⎥⎪
plasma. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
There is a very simple way to test Thus, if an Extra Low-Frequency electric
Eq. (20). It is known that inside a
field E ELF with the following
fluorescent lamp lit there is low-pressure
Mercury plasma. Consider a 20W characteristics: E ELF ≈ 100V .m −1 and
T-12 fluorescent lamp (80044– f < 1mHZ is applied through the
F20T12/C50/ECO GE, Ecolux® T12), Mercury plasma then a strong decrease
whose characteristics and dimensions in the gravitational mass of the Hg
are well-known [5]. At around plasma will be produced.
T ≅ 318.15 K , an optimum mercury
0
It was shown [1] that there is an
vapor pressure of P = 6 ×10−3Torr= 0.8N.m−2 additional effect of gravitational shielding
is obtained, which is required for produced by a substance under these
maintenance of high luminous efficacy conditions. Above the substance the
throughout life. Under these conditions, gravity acceleration g 1 is reduced at the
the mass density of the Hg plasma can same ratio χ = m g mi 0 , i.e., g1 = χ g ,
be calculated by means of the well-
( g is the gravity acceleration under the
known Equation of State
substance). Therefore, due to the
ρ=
PM 0
(21) gravitational shielding effect produced by
ZRT
the decrease of m g (Hg plasma ) in the region
Where M 0 = 0.2006 kg.mol −1 is the
where the ELF electric field E ELF is
molecular mass of the Hg; Z ≅ 1 is the
compressibility factor for the Hg plasma; applied, the gravity acceleration just
R = 8.314 joule.mol −1 . 0 K −1 is the gases above this region will be given by
m g (Hg plasma)
universal constant. Thus we get g1 = χ (Hg plasma) g = g=
ρ Hg plasma ≅ 6.067 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (22) mi (Hg plasma)
The electrical conductivity of the Hg ⎧⎪ ⎡ E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
plasma can be deduced from the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909 × 10 −17 ELF − 1⎥ ⎬ g (25)
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣
3
f ELF ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
continuum form of Ohm's Law j = σE ,
since the operating current through the The trajectories of the
lamp and the current density are well- electrons/ions through the lamp are
known and respectively given by determined by the electric field E lamp along
i = 0.35A [5] and jlamp = i S = i π4 φint
2
, where the lamp. If the ELF electric field across
φint = 36.1mm is the inner diameter of the the lamp E ELF is much greater than E lamp ,
lamp. The voltage drop across the the current through the lamp can be
electrodes of the lamp is 57V [5] and the interrupted. However, if EELF <<Elamp, these
distance between them l = 570mm . Then trajectories will be only slightly modified.
the electrical field along the lamp E lamp is Since here Elamp = 100 V .m−1 , then we can
given by Elamp = 57V 0.570m = 100 V.m−1 . max
arbitrarily choose E ELF ≅ 33 V . m −1 . This
Thus, we have means that the maximum voltage drop,
which can be applied across the metallic

94
5
plates, placed at distance d , is equal to mg1(Hg plasma)
the outer diameter (max * ) of the χ1(Hg plasma) = =
max
mi1(Hg plasma)
bulb φlamp of the 20W T-12 Fluorescent
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
lamp, is given by ⎪ EELF ⎪
φlamp ≅ 1.5 V
max max
Vmax = E ELF
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.909×10
⎢ −17 (1)
− 1⎥⎬ (27)
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
3
⎣ ⎦⎭
max
Since φlamp = 40.3mm [5]. Then, above the second lamp, the
max
Substitution of EELF ≅ 33 V.m−1 into gravity acceleration becomes
(25) yields r r r
mg (Hg plasma) g 2 = χ 2(Hg plasma) g1 = χ 2(Hg plasma) χ1(Hg plasma) g (28)
g1 = χ (Hg plasma) g = g= where
mi (Hg plasma)
mg 2(Hg plasma)
⎧⎪ χ 2(Hg plasma) = =
⎡ 2.264× 10−11 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3
− 1⎥⎬g (26) mi 2(Hg plasma)
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ELF ⎦⎥⎪⎭ ⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ E ELF
Note that, for f < 1mHz = 10 −3 Hz , the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909 × 10 −17 (2 )
− 1 ⎥⎬ (29)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 3
f ELF ( 2) ⎥⎪
gravity acceleration can be strongly ⎣ ⎦⎭
reduced. These conclusions show that Then, results
the ELF Voltage Source of the set-up
g2 ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
EELF ⎤⎫⎪
(1)
shown in Fig.1 should have the following = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3 − 1⎥⎬ ×
characteristics: g ⎪ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
- Voltage range: 0 – 1.5 V ⎧
⎪ ⎡ 4
EELF ⎤⎫⎪
- Frequency range: 10-4Hz – 10-3Hz × ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 ( 2)
− 1⎥⎬ (30)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 3
f ELF( 2) ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
In the experimental arrangement
shown in Fig.1, an ELF electric field with From Eq. (28), we then conclude that if
intensity E ELF = V d crosses the χ1(Hg plasma ) < 0 and also χ 2(Hg plasma ) < 0 ,
fluorescent lamp; V is the voltage drop then g 2 will have the same direction
across the metallic plates of the
of g . This way it is possible to intensify
capacitor and max
d = φlamp = 40.3mm .
several times the gravity in the direction
When the ELF electric field is applied, r
of g . On the other hand, if χ1(Hg plasma ) < 0
the gravity acceleration just above the r
lamp (inside the dotted box) decreases and χ 2(Hg plasma ) > 0 the direction of g 2 will
according to (25) and the changes can r
be contrary to direction of g . In this case
be measured by means of the system will be possible to intensify and
balance/sphere presented on the top of r r
become g 2 repulsive in respect to g .
Figure 1.
In Fig. 2 is presented an If we put a lamp above the second
experimental arrangement with two lamp, the gravity acceleration above the
fluorescent lamps in order to test the third lamp becomes
r r
gravity acceleration above the second g 3 = χ 3(Hg plasma) g 2 =
r
lamp. Since gravity acceleration above = χ 3(Hg plasma) χ 2(Hg plasma) χ1(Hg plasma) g (31)
the first lamp is given by
r r or
g1 = χ1(Hg plasma ) g , where

*
After heating.

95
6
g3 ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
4 Table1 presents the theoretical
EELF (1) ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3 − 1⎥⎬ × values for g 1 and g 2 , calculated
g ⎪ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ respectively by means of (25) and
(30).They are also plotted on Figures 5,
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ EELF (2) ⎪ 6 and 7 as a function of the
× ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17
− 1⎥⎬ ×
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(2) ⎥⎪
3 frequency f ELF .
⎣ ⎦⎭
Now consider a chamber filled
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫ with Air at 3 × 10 −12 torr and 300K as
⎪ EELF ⎪
× ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3
(3)
− 1⎥⎬ (32) shown in Figure 8 (a). Under these
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(3) ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ circumstances, the mass density of the
If f ELF (1) = f ELF (2 ) = f ELF (3 ) = f and air inside the chamber, according to Eq.
(21) is ρ air ≅ 4.94 × 10 −15 kg.m −3 .
E ELF (1) = E ELF (2 ) = E ELF (3 ) = V φ = If the frequency of the magnetic
= V0 sin ωt 40.3mm = field, B , through the air is f = 60 Hz then
= 24.814V0 sin 2πft. ωε = 2πfε ≅ 3 × 10 −9 S / m . Assuming that
Then, for t = T 4 we get the electric conductivity of the air inside
the chamber, σ (air ) is much less than ωε ,
E ELF (1) = E ELF (2 ) = E ELF (3 ) = 24.814V0 .
Thus, Eq. (32) gives i.e., σ (air ) << ωε (The atmospheric air
3 conductivity is of the order of
g3 ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.237×10−12 03 − 1⎥⎬ (33) 2 − 100 × 10 −15 S .m −1 [6, 7]) then we can
g ⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ rewritten the Eq. (11) as follows
For V0 = 1.5V and f = 0.2mHz
(t = T 4 = 1250s = 20.83min) the gravity
nr(air) ≅ ε r μr ≅ 1 (34)
r
acceleration g 3 above the third lamp will
From Eqs. (7), (14) and (34) we thus
be given by
r r obtain
g 3 = −5.126 g
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Above the second lamp, the gravity ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞ ⎪
mg(air) = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ nr(air) ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi(air) =
acceleration given by (30), is
r r ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μair ρairc
2
⎠ ⎥⎪
g 2 = +2.972g . ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
According to (27) the gravity acceleration
above the first lamp is
{ [ ]}
= 1 − 2 1 + 3.2 ×106 B4 −1 mi(air) (35)
r r
g1 = -1,724g
Therefore, due to the gravitational
Note that, by this process an
r shielding effect produced by the
acceleration g can be increased several
r decreasing of m g (air ) , the gravity
times in the direction of g or in the
acceleration above the air inside the
opposite direction.
chamber will be given by
In the experiment proposed in Fig.
m g (air )
1, we can start with ELF voltage g ′ = χ air g = g =
sinusoidal wave of amplitude V0 = 1.0V m i (air )
and frequency 1mHz . Next, the frequency
will be progressively decreased down
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 3 . 2 × 10 6 B 4 − 1 g ]}
to 0.8mHz , 0.6mHz , 0.4mHz and
Note that the gravity acceleration
0.2mHz . Afterwards, the amplitude of the
above the air becomes negative
voltage wave must be increased to
for B > 2.5 × 10 −2 T .
V0 = 1.5V and the frequency decreased
in the above mentioned sequence.
96
7
For B = 0.1T the gravity nitrogen atoms of the air in the
acceleration above the air becomes ionization chamber (See Fig. 3(c))
increasing the electrical conductivity of
g ′ ≅ −32.8 g the air inside the chamber. The high-
speed alpha particles hit molecules in
Therefore the ultra-low pressure air the air and knock off electrons to form
inside the chamber, such as the Hg ions, according to the following
plasma inside the fluorescent lamp, expressions
works like a Gravitational Shield that in
practice, may be used to build Gravity O2 + H e+ + → O2+ + e − + H e+ +
Control Cells (GCC) for several practical N 2 + H e+ + → N 2+ + e − + H e+ +
applications.
Consider for example the GCCs of
It is known that the electrical
Plasma presented in Fig.3. The
conductivity is proportional to both the
ionization of the plasma can be made of
concentration and the mobility of the ions
several manners. For example, by
and the free electrons, and is expressed
means of an electric field between the
by
electrodes (Fig. 3(a)) or by means of a
RF signal (Fig. 3(b)). In the first case the
σ = ρ e μe + ρi μi
ELF electric field and the ionizing electric Where ρ e and ρ i express respectively
field can be the same. ( )
the concentrations C m 3 of electrons
Figure 3(c) shows a GCC filled
and ions; μ e and μ i are respectively the
with air (at ambient temperature and 1
atm) strongly ionized by means of alpha mobilities of the electrons and the ions.
particles emitted from 36 radioactive ions In order to calculate the electrical
sources (a very small quantity of conductivity of the air inside the
Americium 241 † ). The radioactive ionization chamber, we first need to
element Americium has a half-life of 432 calculate the concentrations ρ e and ρ i .
years, and emits alpha particles and low We start calculating the disintegration
energy gamma rays (≈ 60 KeV ) . In order constant, λ , for the Am 241 :
0.693 0.693
to shield the alpha particles and gamma λ= = = 5.1 × 10 −11 s −1
rays emitted from the Americium 241 it is T
1
2 432 (
3.15 × 10 7
s )
sufficient to encapsulate the GCC with 1

epoxy. The alpha particles generated by Where T = 432 years is the half-life of
2

the americium ionize the oxygen and the Am 241.


One kmole of an isotope has mass
† equal to atomic mass of the isotope
The radioactive element Americium (Am-241) is
widely used in ionization smoke detectors. This expressed in kilograms. Therefore, 1g of
type of smoke detector is more common because Am 241 has
it is inexpensive and better at detecting the 10 −3 kg
smaller amounts of smoke produced by flaming = 4.15 × 10 −6 kmoles
fires. Inside an ionization detector there is a small 241 kg kmole
amount (perhaps 1/5000th of a gram) of One kmole of any isotope contains the
americium-241. The Americium is present in
oxide form (AmO2) in the detector. The cost of Avogadro’s number of atoms. Therefore
the AmO2 is US$ 1,500 per gram. The amount of 1g of Am 241 has
radiation in a smoke detector is extremely small.
N = 4.15 × 10−6 kmoles×
It is also predominantly alpha radiation. Alpha
radiation cannot penetrate a sheet of paper, and
it is blocked by several centimeters of air. The × 6.025 × 1026 atoms kmole = 2.50 × 1021 atoms
americium in the smoke detector could only pose
a danger if inhaled.
Thus, the activity [8] of the sample is

97
8
R = λN = 1.3 × 10 disintegrations/s.
11
ρ air = 1.1452kg.m . Thus, for d = 2cm ,
−3

σ air ≈ 10 3 S .m −1 and f = 60 Hz Eq. (20)


However, we will use 36 ionization
gives
sources each one with 1/5000th of a
mg (air)
gram of Am 241. Therefore we will only χ air = =
use 7.2 × 10 −3 g of Am 241. Thus, R mi(air)
reduces to: ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
μ ⎛ σ air ⎞ Vrms
3
⎪ ⎪
4

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 − 1⎥⎬ =
R = λN ≅ 10 9 disintegrations/s ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ d ρair ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
This means that at one second, about { [
= 1 − 2 1 + 3.10×10−16Vrms
4
−1 ]}
10 9 α particles hit molecules in the air Note that, for Vrms ≅ 7.96KV , we obtain:
and knock off electrons to form ions χ (air ) ≅ 0 . Therefore, if the voltages
O2+ and N 2+ inside the ionization chamber.
range of this GCC is: 0 − 10KV then it is
Assuming that each alpha particle yields possible to reach χ air ≅ −1 when
one ion at each 1 10 9 second then the
Vrms ≅ 10KV .
total number of ions produced in one
second will be Ni ≅ 1018 ions. This It is interesting to note that σ air can
corresponds to an ions concentration be strongly increased by increasing the

ρ i = eN i V ≈ 0.1 V (C m 3 )
amount of Am 241. For example, by
using 0.1g of Am 241 the value of R
Where V is the volume of the ionization increases to:
chamber. Obviously, the concentration of
electrons will be the same, i.e., ρ e = ρ i . R = λN ≅ 1010 disintegrations/s
For d = 2cm and φ = 20cm (See Fig.3(c))
we obtain This means Ni ≅ 1020 ions that yield
V = π4 (0.20) (2 × 10 −2 ) = 6.28 × 10 −4 m 3 The ρ i = eN i V ≈ 10 V (C m 3 )
2

n we get: Then, by reducing, d and φ


respectively, to 5mm and to 11.5cm, the
ρ e = ρ i ≈ 10 2 C m 3 volume of the ionization chamber
reduces to:
This corresponds to the minimum V = π4 (0 .115 ) (5 × 10 −3 ) = 5 .19 × 10 −5 m 3
2

concentration level in the case of


conducting materials. For these Consequently, we get:
materials, at temperature of 300K, the
mobilities μ e and μ i vary from 10 up ρ e = ρ i ≈ 10 5 C m 3
to 100 m 2V −1 s −1 [9]. Then we can assume
Assuming that μ e = μi ≈ 10 m 2V −1 s −1 ,
that μe = μi ≈ 10 m2V −1s −1 . (minimum
then the electrical conductivity of the air
mobility level for conducting materials).
inside the ionization chamber becomes
Under these conditions, the electrical
conductivity of the air inside the
ionization chamber is σ air = ρ e μ e + ρ i μ i ≈ 10 6 S .m −1

σ air = ρ e μ e + ρ i μ i ≈ 10 3 S .m −1 This reduces for Vrms ≅ 18.8V the voltage


necessary to yield χ(air) ≅ 0 and reduces
At temperature of 300K, the air
density inside the GCC, is

98
9
to Vrms ≅ 23.5V the voltage necessary to Thus, the local inertia is just the
reach χ air ≅ −1 . gravitational influence of the rest of
matter existing in the Universe.
If the outer surface of a metallic Consequently, if we reduce the
sphere with radius a is covered with a gravitational interactions between a
radioactive element (for example Am spacecraft and the rest of the Universe,
241), then the electrical conductivity of then the inertial properties of the
the air (very close to the sphere) can be spacecraft will be also reduced. This
strongly increased (for example up effect leads to a new concept of
to σ air ≅ 10 6 s.m −1 ). By applying a low- spacecraft and space flight.
frequency electrical potential Vrms to the Since χ air is given by
sphere, in order to produce an electric
field E rms starting from the outer surface ⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
mg(air) ⎪ ⎢ μ0 ⎛ σair ⎞ Vrms
4

of the sphere, then very close to the χair = = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 − 1⎥⎬
sphere the low-frequency electromagnetic mi0(air) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ a ρair ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
field is E rms = Vrms a , and according to
Eq. (20), the gravitational mass of the air Then, for σ air ≅ 106 s.m −1 , f = 6Hz , a = 5m,
in this region expressed by
ρair ≅ 1Kg.m−3 and Vrms = 3.35 KV we get
⎧ ⎡
μ0 ⎛σair ⎞ Vrms
3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
4
mg(air) = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬mi0(air) ,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ a ρair ⎥⎪ χ air ≅ 0
⎦⎭
can be easily reduced, making possible Under these conditions, the gravitational
to produce a controlled Gravitational forces upon the spacecraft become
Shielding (similar to a GCC) surround approximately nulls and consequently,
the sphere. the spacecraft practically loses its inertial
This becomes possible to build a properties.
spacecraft to work with a gravitational Out of the terrestrial atmosphere,
shielding as shown in Fig. 4. the gravity acceleration upon the
The gravity accelerations on the spacecraft is negligible and therefore the
spacecraft (due to the rest of the gravitational shielding is not necessary.
Universe. See Fig.4) is given by However, if the spacecraft is in the outer
space and we want to use the
g i′ = χ air g i i = 1, 2, 3 … n gravitational shielding then, χ air must be
replaced by χ vac where
Where χ air = m g (air ) mi 0 (air ) . Thus, the
gravitational forces acting on the
⎧ ⎡ 3
μ0 ⎛ σvac ⎞ Vrms ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
4
spacecraft are given by mg(vac)
χvac = = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬
mi0(vac) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ a ρvac ⎥⎪
Fis = M g g i′ = M g (χ air g i ) ⎦⎭

By reducing the value of χ air , these The electrical conductivity of the


ionized outer space (very close to the
forces can be reduced.
spacecraft) is small; however, its density
According to the Mach’s principle;
(
is remarkably small << 10 −16 Kg.m −3 , in )
“The local inertial forces are such a manner that the smaller value of
determined by the gravitational the factor σ vac3
ρ vac
2
can be easily
interactions of the local system with the compensated by the increase of Vrms .
distribution of the cosmic masses”.

99
10
It was shown that, when the Fgj = M g (imaginary) g ′j =
gravitational mass of a particle is
reduced to ranging between + 0.159 M i
( )
= M g (imaginary) − χGmgj (imaginary) r j2 =

to − 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary [1], ( )


= M g i − χGmgj i r j2 = + χGM g mgj r j2 .
i.e., the gravitational and the inertial Note that these forces are real. Remind
masses of the particle become that, the Mach’s principle says that the
imaginary. Consequently, the particle inertial effects upon a particle are
disappears from our ordinary space-time. consequence of the gravitational
However, the factor interaction of the particle with the rest of
χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) remains real the Universe. Then we can conclude that
the inertial forces upon an imaginary
because spacecraft are also real. Consequently, it
M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg can travel in the imaginary space-time
χ = = = = real
M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi using its thrusters.
Thus, if the gravitational mass of the It was shown that, imaginary
particle is reduced by means of particles can have infinite speed in the
absorption of an amount of imaginary space-time [1] . Therefore, this
electromagnetic energy U , for example, is also the speed upper limit for the
we have spacecraft in the imaginary space-time.
Since the gravitational spacecraft
χ=
Mg ⎧
( ⎫
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 − 1⎤⎥⎬
2
) can use its thrusters after to becoming
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ an imaginary body, then if the thrusters
This shows that the energy U of the produce a total thrust F = 1000kN and
electromagnetic field remains acting on the gravitational mass of the spacecraft
the imaginary particle. In practice, this is reduced from M g = M i = 10 5 kg down
means that electromagnetic fields act on
imaginary particles. Therefore, the to M g ≅ 10 −6 kg , the acceleration of the
electromagnetic field of a GCC remains spacecraft will be, a = F Mg ≅ 1012m.s−2 .
acting on the particles inside the GCC
With this acceleration the spacecraft
even when their gravitational masses
crosses the “visible” Universe
reach the gravitational mass ranging
( diameter= d ≈ 10 m ) in a time interval
26
between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i and
Δt = 2d a ≅ 1.4 × 107 m.s −1 ≅ 5.5 months
they become imaginary particles. This is
very important because it means that the Since the inertial effects upon the
GCCs of a gravitational spacecraft keep spacecraft are reduced by
−11
on working when the spacecraft M g M i ≅ 10 then, in spite of the
becomes imaginary. effective spacecraft acceleration be
Under these conditions, the gravity a = 1012 m. s −1 , the effects for the crew
accelerations on the imaginary and for the spacecraft will be equivalent
spacecraft particle (due to the rest of the to an acceleration a′ given by
imaginary Universe) are given by Mg
a′ = a ≈ 10m.s −1
g ′j = χ g j j = 1,2,3,..., n. Mi
This is the order of magnitude of the
acceleration upon of a commercial jet
Where χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) aircraft.
and g j = − Gmgj (imaginary) r . 2
j Thus, the On the other hand, the travel in the
gravitational forces acting on the imaginary space-time can be very safe,
spacecraft are given by because there won’t any material body
along the trajectory of the spacecraft.

100
11
Now consider the GCCs presented rotor in order to become negative the
in Fig. 8 (a). Note that below and above acceleration of gravity inside half of the
the air are the bottom and the top of the
chamber. Therefore the choice of the
(
rotor g ′ = (χ steel ) χ air g ≅ χ air g = − ng .
2
)
Obviously this causes a torque
material of the chamber is highly
relevant. If the chamber is made of steel, T = (− F ′ + F )r and the rotor spins with
for example, and the gravity acceleration angular velocity ω . The average
below the chamber is g then at the power, P , of the motor is given by
bottom of the chamber, the gravity
becomes g ′ = χ steel g ; in the air, the P = Tω = [(− F ′ + F )r ]ω (36)
Where
gravity is g′′ = χairg′ = χairχsteelg . At the top
g′′′ = χsteelg′′ = (χsteel) χairg .
2
of the chamber, F ′ = 12 m g g ′ F = 12 m g g
Thus, out of the chamber (close to the
top) the gravity acceleration becomes and m g ≅ mi ( mass of the rotor ). Thus,
g ′′′ . (See Fig. 8 (a)). However, for the
Eq. (36) gives
steel at B < 300T and f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz , we mi gω r
have P = (n + 1) (37)
2
mg (steel) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ (steel) B 4 ⎤⎫ On the other hand, we have that
⎢ ⎪
χ steel = = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ ≅ 1 − g′ + g = ω 2r (38)
mi(steel) ⎪ ⎢ 4πfμρ(steel) c
2 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Therefore the angular speed of the rotor
Since ρ steel = 1.1 × 10 6 S .m −1 , μ r = 300 and is given by
ρ (steel ) = 7800k .m −3 . ω=
(n + 1)g (39)
Thus, due to χ steel ≅ 1 it follows r
that By substituting (39) into (37) we obtain
g ′′′ ≅ g ′′ = χ air g ′ ≅ χ air g the expression of the average power of
If instead of one GCC we have the gravitational motor, i.e.,
P = 12 mi (n + 1) g 3 r (40)
three GCC, all with steel box (Fig. 8(b)), 3
then the gravity acceleration above the
second GCC, g 2 will be given by Now consider an electric generator
coupling to the gravitational motor in
g 2 ≅ χ air g1 ≅ χ air χ air g
order to produce electric energy.
and the gravity acceleration above the Since ω = 2πf then for f = 60 Hz
third GCC, g 3 will be expressed by
we have ω = 120 πrad . s − 1 = 3600 rpm .
g 3 ≅ χ air g ′′ ≅ χ air g
3
Therefore for ω = 120πrad .s −1 and
n = 788 (B ≅ 0.22T ) the Eq. (40) tell us
that we must have
III. CONSEQUENCES
r=
(n + 1)g = 0.0545m
These results point to the
2
ω
possibility to convert gravitational energy Since r = R 3 and mi = ρπR 2 h where ρ ,
into rotational mechanical energy. R and h are respectively the mass
Consider for example the system density, the radius and the height of the
presented in Fig. 9. Basically it is a motor rotor then for h = 0.5m and
with massive iron rotor and a box filled −3
ρ = 7800 Kg .m (iron) we obtain
with gas or plasma at ultra-low pressure
(Gravity Control Cell-GCC) as shown in
Fig. 9. The GCC is placed below the mi = 327.05kg

101
12
mg ( Al )
Then Eq. (40) gives g l′ = g l = χ Al g l ≅ −10−9 g l l = 1,2,..,n
mi ( Al )
P ≅ 2.19 × 105 watts ≅ 219 KW ≅ 294HP (41)
This shows that the gravitational motor Where g l is the external gravity in the
can be used to yield electric energy at direction l . We thus conclude that the
large scale. gravity acceleration inside the spacecraft
The possibility of gravity control becomes negligible if g l << 10 9 m .s −2 .
leads to a new concept of spacecraft This means that the aluminum shell,
which is presented in Fig. 10. Due to the under these conditions, works like a
Meissner effect, the magnetic field B is gravity shielding.
expelled from the superconducting shell. Consequently, the gravitational
The Eq. (35) shows that a magnetic forces between anyone point inside the
field, B , through the aluminum shell of spacecraft with gravitational mass, m gj ,
the spacecraft reduces its gravitational
mass according to the following and another external to the spacecraft
expression: (gravitational mass m gk ) are given by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r r m gj m gk
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎪ F j = − Fk = −G μ̂
nr ( Al) − 1⎥⎬mi( Al) (42)
⎜ B ⎟
mg ( Al) = ⎨1 − 2 1 + r jk2
⎢ ⎜ μc ρ
2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎝ ( Al) ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ where m gk ≅ mik and m gj = χ Al mij .
If the frequency of the magnetic field is Therefore we can rewrite equation above
f = 10 −4 Hz then we have that in the following form
σ ( Al ) >> ωε since the electric r r mij mik
F j = − Fk = − χ Al G μˆ
conductivity of the aluminum r jk2
−1
is σ ( Al ) = 3.82 × 10 S .m . In this case, the
7
Note that when B = 0 the initial
Eq. (11) tell us that gravitational forces are
r r mij mik
μc 2σ ( Al ) F j = − Fk = −G μ̂
nr ( Al ) = (43) r jk2
4πf
Substitution of (43) into (42) yields Thus, if χ Al ≅ −10 −9 then the initial
⎧ ⎡ σ ( Al ) B 4 ⎤⎫⎪ gravitational forces are reduced from 109
⎪ ⎥⎬mi ( Al ) (44)
mg ( Al ) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1 times and become repulsives.
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4πfμρ 2
( ) c 2
⎥⎪
⎣ Al
⎦⎭ According to the new expression
r r
Since the mass density of the Aluminum for the inertial forces [1], F = m g a , we
is ρ ( Al ) = 2700 kg .m −3 then the Eq. (44) see that these forces have origin in the
can be rewritten in the following form: gravitational interaction between a

{ [ ]}
mg( Al) particle and the others of the Universe,
χ Al = = 1 − 2 1 + 3.68×10−8 B4 −1 (45) just as Mach’s principle predicts. Hence
mi( Al) mentioned expression incorporates the
In practice it is possible to adjust B in Mach’s principle into Gravitation Theory,
order to become, for example, and furthermore reveals that the inertial
χ Al ≅ 10 . This occurs to B ≅ 76 .3T .
−9 effects upon a body can be strongly
reduced by means of the decreasing of
(Novel superconducting magnets are
its gravitational mass.
able to produce up to 14.7T [10, 11]).
Then the gravity acceleration in Consequently, we conclude that if
any direction inside the spacecraft, g l′ , the gravitational forces upon the
spacecraft are reduced from 109 times
will be reduced and given by
then also the inertial forces upon the

102
13
spacecraft will be reduced from 109 times radioactive material, it is possible to
when χ Al ≅ −10 −9 . Under these increase the air conductivity inside the
conditions, the inertial effects on the GCC up to σ (air) ≅ 106 S .m−1 . Then
crew would be strongly decreased. for f = 10 Hz ; ρ (air ) = 4.94 × 10−15 kg.m −3
Obviously this leads to a new concept of
(Air at 3 ×10-12 torr, 300K) and we obtain
{[ ] }
aerospace flight.
Inside the spacecraft the χ air = 2 1 + 2.8 × 1021 B 4 − 1 − 1 (57)
gravitational forces between the For B = BGCC = 0.1T (note that, due to
dielectric with gravitational mass, M g
the Meissner effect, the magnetic field
and the man (gravitational mass, m g ), BGCC stay confined inside the
when B = 0 are superconducting box) the Eq. (57) yields
r r M g mg
Fm = − FM = −G μ̂ (46)
r2 χ air ≅ −10 9
or
r Mg
Fm = −G 2 m gˆμ = − m g g M ˆμ (47 ) Since there is no magnetic
r field through the dielectric presented in
r mg Fig.10 then, Mg ≅ Mi . Therefore if
FM = +G 2 M gˆμ = + M g g mˆμ (48)
r M g ≅ Mi =100Kg and r = r0 ≅ 1m the
If the superconducting box under M g
gravity acceleration upon the man,
(Fig. 10) is filled with air at ultra-low according to Eq. (55), is
pressure (3×10-12 torr, 300K for example) a man ≅ 10m .s −1
then, when B ≠ 0 , the gravitational mass
of the air will be reduced according to Consequently it is easy to see that this
(35). Consequently, we have system is ideal to yield artificial gravity
inside the spacecraft in the case of inter-
g ′M = (χ steel ) χ air g M ≅ χ air g M (49)
2
stellar travel, when the gravity
g m′ = (χ steel ) χ air g m ≅ χ air g m (50)
2
acceleration out of the spacecraft - due
r r to the Universe - becomes negligible.
Then the forces Fm and FM become
r The vertical displacement of the
Fm = −m g (χ air g M )ˆμ (51) spacecraft can be produced by means of
r
FM = + M g (χ air g m )ˆμ (52) Gravitational Thrusters. A schematic
diagram of a Gravitational Thruster is
Therefore if χ air = −n we will have shown in Fig.11. The Gravitational
r
Fm = +nmg g M μ̂ (53) Thrusters can also provide the horizontal
r displacement of the spacecraft.
FM = −nM g g m μ̂ (54) The concept of Gravitational
r r Thruster results from the theory of the
Thus, Fm and FM become repulsive.
Gravity Control Battery, showed in Fig. 8
Consequently, the man inside the (b). Note that the number of GCC
spacecraft is subjected to a gravity increases the thrust of the thruster. For
acceleration given by example, if the thruster has three GCCs
r Mg
aman = ngMˆμ = −χ air G 2 ˆμ (55) then the gravity acceleration upon the
r gas sprayed inside the thruster will be
Inside the GCC we have, repulsive in respect to M g (See Fig.
⎧ ⎡ σ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ 11(a)) and given by
m ⎪
χair = g(air) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + (air)2 2 − 1⎥⎬ (56) Mg
mi(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ 4πfμρ(air)c ⎥⎦⎪ a gas = (χ air ) (χ steel ) g ≅ −(χ air ) G
3 4 3
⎩ ⎭
r02
By ionizing the air inside the GCC
(Fig. 10), for example, by means of a Thus, if inside the GCCs, χair ≅ −109
103
14
(See Eq. 56 and 57) then the equation Let us now calculate the
above gives gravitational forces between two very
Mi close thin layers of the air around the
a gas ≅ +10 27 G
r02 spacecraft. (See Fig. 13).
The gravitational force dF12 that
For M i ≅ 10kg , r0 ≅ 1m and m gas ≅ 10 −12 kg
dm g1 exerts upon dm g 2 , and the
the thrust is
F = m gas a gas ≅ 10 5 N
gravitational force dF21 that dm g 2 exerts
Thus, the Gravitational Thrusters are upon dm g1 are given by
able to produce strong thrusts. r r dmg2 dmg1
Note that in the case of very dF12 = dF21 = −G μ̂ (58)
r2
strong χ air , for example χ air ≅ −10 9 , the Thus, the gravitational forces between
gravity accelerations upon the boxes of the air layer 1, gravitational mass m g1 ,
the second and third GCCs become very
and the air layer 2, gravitational mass
strong (Fig.11 (a)). Obviously, the walls
m g 2 , around the spacecraft are
of the mentioned boxes cannot to stand
the enormous pressures. However, it is r r G mg1 mg 2
F12 = −F21 = − 2 ∫ ∫ dmg1dmg 2ˆμ =
possible to build a similar system with 3 r 0 0
or more GCCs, without material boxes. mg1mg 2 mi1mi 2
Consider for example, a surface with = −G ˆ
μ = −χ air χ air G ˆμ (59)
several radioactive sources (Am-241, for r2 r2
example). The alpha particles emitted At 100km altitude the air pressure is
from the Am-241 cannot reach besides 5.691×10−3 torr and ρ(air) = 5.998×10−6 kg.m−3 [12].
10cm of air. Due to the trajectory of the By ionizing the air surround the
alpha particles, three or more successive spacecraft, for example, by means of an
layers of air, with different electrical oscillating electric field, E osc , starting
conductivities σ 1 , σ 2 and σ 3 , will be
from the surface of the spacecraft ( See
established in the ionized region (See Fig. 13) it is possible to increase the air
Fig.11 (b)). It is easy to see that the conductivity near the spacecraft up to
gravitational shielding effect produced by σ (air) ≅ 106 S .m−1 . Since f = 1Hz and, in
these three layers is similar to the effect
produced by the 3 GCCs shown in Fig. this case σ (air ) >> ωε , then, according to
11 (a).
Eq. (11), nr = μσ(air)c 2 4πf . From
It is important to note that if F is
force produced by a thruster then the Eq.(56) we thus obtain
spacecraft acquires acceleration ⎧ ⎡ σ B4 ⎤⎫⎪
m ⎪
a spacecraft given by [1] χair = g(air) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + (air) 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (60)
mi(air) ⎪ ⎢ 4πfμ0ρ(air)c ⎥
F F ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
a spacecraft = = Then for B = 763T the Eq. (60) gives
M g (spacecraft) χ Al M i (inside) + mi ( Al )
Therefore if χ Al ≅ 10 −9 ;
and mi ( Al ) = 100 Kg (inertial mass of the
M i(inside) = 104 Kg
{ [ ]}
χ air = 1 − 2 1+ ~ 104 B 4 − 1 ≅ −108 (61)
aluminum shell) then it will be necessary By substitution of χ air ≅ −108 into Eq.,
F = 10kN to produce
(59) we get
a spacecraft = 100m .s −2 r r
Note that the concept of Gravitational
m m
F12 = −F21 = −1016 G i1 2 i 2 μ̂ (62)
r
Thrusters leads directly to the
Gravitational Turbo Motor concept (See
Fig. 12).
104
15
−8
If mi1 ≅ mi 2 = ρ air V1 ≅ ρ air V2 ≅ 10 kg , and aspect of the flight dynamics of a
Gravitational Spacecraft.
r = 10 −3 m we obtain Before starting the flight, the
r r
F12 = −F21 ≅ −10−4 N (63) gravitational mass of the spacecraft, M g ,
These forces are much more intense must be strongly reduced, by means of a
than the inter-atomic forces (the forces gravity control system, in order to
which maintain joined atoms, and r
produce – withr a weak thrust F , a strong
molecules that make the solids and
acceleration, a , given by [1]
liquids) whose intensities, according to r
r F
the Coulomb’s law, is of the order of a=
1-1000×10-8N. Mg
Consequently, the air around the In this way, the spacecraft could be
spacecraft will be strongly compressed strongly accelerated and quickly to reach
upon their surface, making an “air shell” very high speeds near speed of light.
that will accompany the spacecraft If the gravity control system of the
during its displacement and will protect spacecraft is suddenly turned off, the
the aluminum shell of the direct attrition gravitational mass of the spacecraft
with the Earth’s atmosphere. becomes immediately equal to its inertial
In this way, during the flight, the mass, M i , (M g′ = M i ) and the velocity
attrition would occur just between the “air r r
shell” and the atmospheric air around V becomes equal to V ′ . According to
her. Thus, the spacecraft would stay free the Momentum Conservation Principle,
of the thermal effects that would be we have that
produced by the direct attrition of the M gV = M g′ V ′
aluminum shell with the Earth’s Supposing that the spacecraft was
atmosphere. traveling in space with speed V ≈ c , and
Another interesting effect produced that its gravitational mass it was
by the magnetic field B of the M g = 1Kg and M i = 10 4 Kg then the
spacecraft is the possibility of to lift a
velocity of the spacecraft is reduced to
body from the surface of the Earth to the
Mg Mg
spacecraft as shown in Fig. 14. By V′ = V= V ≈ 10−4 c
ionizing the air surround the spacecraft, ′
Mg Mi
by means of an oscillating electric field, Initially, when the velocity of the
E osc , the air conductivity near the r
spacecraft is V , its kinetic energy is
Ek = (Mg −mg )c2. Where Mg = mg 1 − V 2 c2 .
spacecraft can reach, for example,
σ (air ) ≅ 10 6 S .m −1 . Then for f = 1Hz ;
At the instant in which the gravity control
B = 40.8T and ρ(air) ≅ 1.2kg.m−3 (300K and system of the spacecraft is turned off,
1 atm) the Eq. (56) yields the kinetic energy becomes
Ek′ = (Mg′ − m′g )c . Where Mg′ = m′g 1 − V ′2 c2 .
2

χ air = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + 4.9 ×10−7 B4 − 1⎤⎥⎫⎬ ≅ −0.1 We can rewritten the expressions of
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ E k and E k′ in the following form

Ek = (MgV − mgV )
Thus, the weight of the body becomes c2
Pbody = mg (body) g = χ air mi (body) g = mi(body) g ′ V
Ek′ = (M g′V ′ − m′gV ′)
Consequently, the body will be lifted on c2
the direction of the spacecraft with V′
acceleration Substitution of M gV = M g′ V ′ = p ,
g ′ = χ air g ≅ +0.98m.s −1
Let us now consider an important
105
16
mgV = p 1−V c and m′gV ′ = p 1 − V ′ c into
2 2 2 2 Obviously this electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) will induce heavy currents
the equations of E k and E k′ gives in all electronic equipment that mainly
( ) pcV contains semiconducting and conducting
2
Ek = 1 − 1 − V 2 c 2 materials. This produces immense heat

E ′ = (1 − c )
2 that melts the circuitry inside. As such,
pc
1 − V ′2 2
while not being directly responsible for
V′
k
the loss of lives, these EMP are capable
Since V ≈ c then follows that of disabling electric/electronic systems.
Therefore, we possibly have a new type
E k ≈ pc of electromagnetic bomb. An
electromagnetic bomb or E-bomb is a
On the other hand, since V ′ << c we get well-known weapon designed to disable
( ) pcV ′ electric/electronic systems on a wide
2
E k′ = 1 − 1 − V ′ 2 c 2 = scale with an intense electromagnetic
⎛ ⎞
pulse.
⎜ ⎟ Based on the theory of the GCC it
⎟ pc ≅ ⎛⎜ V ′ ⎞⎟ pc
2

≅ 1−
1
is also possible to build a Gravitational
⎜ V ′2 ⎟ V′ ⎝ 2c ⎠
⎜ 1 + 2 + ... ⎟ Press of ultra-high pressure as shown in
⎝ 2c ⎠ Fig.15.
Therefore we conclude that E k >> E k′ . The chamber 1 and 2 are GCCs
Consequently, when the gravity control with air at 1×10-4torr, 300K
system of the spacecraft is turned off, (σ (air ) ≈ 10 S .m ; ρ (air ) = 5 × 10 kg .m −3 .
6 −1 −8
)
occurs an abrupt decrease in the kinetic
Thus, for f = 10 Hz and B = 0.107T we
energy of the spacecraft, ΔE k , given by
have
⎧ ⎡ σ (air) B 4 ⎤⎫
ΔEk = Ek − Ek′ ≈ pc ≈ M g c 2 ≈ 1017 J ⎪ ⎢
χ air = ⎨1− 2 1+

−1⎥⎬ ≅ −118
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4πfμ0 ρ(air) c
2 2 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
By comparing the energy ΔE k with the
inertial energy of the spacecraft, The gravity acceleration above the
E i = M i c 2 , we conclude that air of the chamber 1 is
r
ΔE k ≈
Mg
Ei ≈ 10 − 4 M i c 2
g1 = χ stellχ air gˆμ ≅ +1.15×103ˆμ (64)
Mi Since, in this case, χ steel ≅ 1 ; μ̂ is an
The energy ΔE k (several megatons) unitary vector in the opposite direction of
r
must be released in very short time g.
interval. It is approximately the same Above the air of the chamber 2 the
amount of energy that would be released gravity acceleration becomes
in the case of collision of the spacecraft ‡ .
r
However, the situation is very different of g2 = (χ stell ) (χair ) gˆμ ≅ −1.4 × 105ˆμ (65)
2 2

a collision ( M g just becomes suddenly


equal to M i ), and possibly the energy r
Therefore the resultant force R acting on
ΔE k is converted into a High Power m2 , m1 and m is
Electromagnetic Pulse.

In this case, the collision of the spacecraft would
release ≈1017J (several megatons) and it would be
similar to a powerful kinetic weapon.

106
r r r r
17
r r r
R = F2 + F1 + F = m2 g 2 + m1 g1 + mg = The GCCs can also be applied
on generation and detection of
= −1.4 × 105 m2ˆμ + 1.15 × 103 m1ˆμ − 9.81mˆμ = Gravitational Radiation.
≅ −1.4 × 105 m2ˆμ (66) Consider a cylindrical GCC (GCC
antenna) as shown in Fig.16 (a). The
where gravitational mass of the air inside the
⎛π 2 ⎞ GCC is
m 2 = ρ steel Vdisk 2 = ρ steel ⎜ φ inn H⎟ (67 ) ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
⎝4 ⎠ ⎪ σ (air ) B 4
mg (air ) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬mi (air ) (68)
Thus, for ρ steel ≅ 10 4 kg .m −3 we can write ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4πfμρ 2
(air ) c 2
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
that By varying B one can varies mg (air) and
F2 ≅ 109 φinn 2
H
consequently to vary the gravitational
field generated by mg (air) , producing then
For the steel τ ≅ 105 kg.cm−2 = 109 kg.m−2
gravitational radiation. Then a GCC can
consequently we must have work like a Gravitational Antenna.
−2
F2 Sτ < 10 kg .m ( Sτ = πφinnH see Fig.15).
9
Apparently, Newton’s theory of
This means that gravity had no gravitational waves
10 9 φ inn
2
H because, if a gravitational field changed
< 10 9 kg .m − 2 in some way, that change took place
πφ inn H
instantaneously everywhere in space,
Then we conclude that and one can think that there is not a
φinn < 3.1m wave in this case. However, we have
For φinn = 2m and H = 1m the Eq. (67) gives already seen that the gravitational
interaction can be repulsive, besides
m2 ≅ 3 × 10 4 kg
attractive. Thus, as with electromagnetic
Therefore from the Eq. (66) we obtain interaction, the gravitational interaction
R ≅ 1010 N must be produced by the exchange of
Consequently, in the area S = 10 −4 m 2 of "virtual" quanta of spin 1 and mass null,
the Gravitational Press, the pressure is i.e., the gravitational "virtual" quanta
R (graviphoton) must have spin 1 and not
p = ≅ 1014 N .m − 2 2. Consequently, the fact of a change in
S
a gravitational field reach
This enormous pressure is much
instantaneously everywhere in space
greater than the pressure in the center of
occurs simply due to the speed of the
the Earth ( 3.617 × 1011 N .m −2 ) [13]. It is graviphoton to be infinite. It is known that
near of the gas pressure in the center of there is no speed limit for “virtual”
the sun ( 2 × 1016 N .m −2 ). Under the action photons. On the contrary, the
of such intensities new states of matter electromagnetic quanta (“virtual”
are created and astrophysical photons) could not communicate the
phenomena may be simulated in the lab electromagnetic interaction an infinite
for the first time, e.g. supernova distance.
explosions. Controlled thermonuclear Thus, there are two types of
fusion by inertial confinement, fast gravitational radiation: the real and
nuclear ignition for energy gain, novel virtual, which is constituted of
collective acceleration schemes of graviphotons; the real gravitational
particles and the numerous variants of waves are ripples in the space-time
material processing constitute examples generated by gravitational field changes.
of progressive applications of such According to Einstein’s theory of gravity
Gravitational Press of ultra-high the velocity of propagation of these
pressure. waves is equal to the speed of light (c).
107
18
Unlike the electromagnetic waves the be detectable even if the gravitational
real gravitational waves have low interaction mass of the nuclei of the antennas are not
with matter and consequently low scattering. strongly reduced, then we propose to
Therefore real gravitational waves are replace the gas at the nuclei of the antennas
suitable as a means of transmitting by a thin dielectric lamina. The dielectric
information. However, when the distance lamina with exactly 108 atoms (103atoms ×
between transmitter and receiver is too 103atoms × 102atoms) is placed between the
large, for example of the order of magnitude plates (electrodes) as shown in Fig. 17.
of several light-years, the transmission of When the virtual gravitational radiation
information by means of gravitational waves strikes upon the dielectric lamina, its
becomes impracticable due to the long time gravitational mass varies similarly to the
necessary to receive the information. On the gravitational mass of the dielectric lamina of
other hand, there is no delay during the the transmitter antenna, inducing an
transmissions by means of virtual electromagnetic field ( E , B ) similar to the
gravitational radiation. In addition the transmitter antenna. Thus, the electric
scattering of this radiation is null. Therefore current in the receiver antenna will have the
the virtual gravitational radiation is very same characteristics of the current in the
suitable as a means of transmitting transmitter antenna. In this way, it is then
information at any distances including possible to build two similar antennas whose
astronomical distances. nuclei have the same volumes and the same
As concerns detection of the types and quantities of atoms.
virtual gravitational radiation from GCC Note that the Quantum Gravitational
antenna, there are many options. Due to Antennas can also be used to transmit
Resonance Principle a similar GCC antenna electric power. It is easy to see that the
(receiver) tuned at the same frequency can Transmitter and Receiver (Fig. 17(a)) can
absorb energy from an incident virtual work with strong voltages and electric
gravitational radiation (See Fig.16 (b)). currents. This means that strong electric
Consequently, the gravitational mass of the power can be transmitted among Quantum
air inside the GCC receiver will vary such as Gravitational Antennas. This obviously
the gravitational mass of the air inside the solves the problem of wireless electric power
GCC transmitter. This will induce a magnetic transmission.
field similar to the magnetic field of the GCC The existence of imaginary masses has
transmitter and therefore the current through been predicted in a previous work [1]. Here
the coil inside the GCC receiver will have the we will propose a method and a device using
same characteristics of the current through GCCs for obtaining images of imaginary
the coil inside the GCC transmitter. bodies.
However, the volume and pressure of the air It was shown that the inertial
inside the two GCCs must be exactly the imaginary mass associated to an electron is
same; also the type and the quantity of given by
atoms in the air inside the two GCCs must 2 ⎛ hf ⎞
be exactly the same. Thus, the GCC m ie (ima ) = ⎜ 2 ⎟i =
2
m ( )i (69 )
antennas are simple but they are not easy to 3 ⎝c ⎠ 3 ie real
build. Assuming that the correlation between the
Note that a GCC antenna radiates gravitational mass and the inertial mass
graviphotons and gravitational waves (Eq.6) is the same for both imaginary and
simultaneously (Fig. 16 (a)). Thus, it is not real masses then follows that the
only a gravitational antenna: it is a gravitational imaginary mass associated to
Quantum Gravitational Antenna because it an electron can be written in the following
can also emit and detect gravitational form:
"virtual" quanta (graviphotons), which, in ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪
turn, can transmit information mge(ima) = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ 2 nr ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬mie(ima)

⎢ ⎥
(70)
instantaneously from any distance in the ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎪
⎥⎦⎭
Universe without scattering. ⎩
Due to the difficulty to build two similar Thus, the gravitational imaginary mass
GCC antennas and, considering that the associated to matter can be reduced, made
electric current in the receiver antenna can

108
19
negative and increased, just as the obtain an image of the imaginary body of
gravitational real mass. mass m g (ima ) placed in front of the board.
It was shown that also photons have
In order to decrease strongly the
imaginary mass. Therefore, the imaginary
gravitational effects produced by bodies
mass can be associated or not to the matter.
placed behind the imaginary body of mass
In a general way, the gravitational
forces between two gravitational imaginary im g , one can put five GCCs making a
masses are then given by Gravitational Shielding as shown in
r r ( )( )
iM g img M g mg Fig.18(c). If the GCCs are filled with air at
F = −F = −G 2
μˆ = +G 2 μˆ (71) 300Kand 3 ×10−12torr.Then ρair = 4.94×10−15kg.m−3
r r
and σair ≅1×10 S.m . Thus, for f = 60 Hz and
−14 −1
Note that these forces are real and
repulsive. B ≅ 0.7T the Eq. (56) gives
Now consider a gravitational
mg (air)
imaginary mass, mg (ima) = img , not associated χ air = = ⎧⎨1− 2⎡ 1+ 5B 4 −1⎤⎫⎬ ≅ −10−2 (73)
mi(air) ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
with matter (like the gravitational imaginary
mass associated to the photons) and For χ air ≅ 10 −2 the gravitational shielding
another gravitational imaginary mass presented in Fig.18(c) will reduce any value
M g (ima ) = iM g associated to a material of g to χ air 5
g ≅ 10 −10 g . This will be
body. sufficiently to reduce strongly the
Any material body has an imaginary gravitational effects proceeding from both
mass associated to it, due to the existence sides of the gravitational shielding.
of imaginary masses associated to the Another important consequence of the
electrons. We will choose a quartz crystal correlation between gravitational mass and
(for the material body with gravitational inertial mass expressed by Eq. (1) is the
imaginary mass M g (ima ) = iM g ) because possibility of building Energy Shieldings
quartz crystals are widely used to detect around objects in order to protect them from
forces (piezoelectric effect). high-energy particles and ultra-intense fluxes
By using GCCs as shown in Fig. 18(b) of radiation.
and Fig.18(c), we can increase the In order to explain that possibility, we
r start from the new expression [1] for the
gravitational acceleration, a , produced by
momentum q of a particle with gravitational
the imaginary mass im g upon the crystals.
mass M g and velocity V , which is given by
Then it becomes
mg q = M gV (74)
a = − χ air
3
G (72 )
r2 where Mg = mg 1−V 2 c2 and mg = χ mi [1].
As we have seen, the value of χ air can be Thus, we can write
increased up to χ air ≅ −10 (See Eq.57).
9
mg χ mi
Note that in this case, the gravitational
= (75)
1−V 2 c2 1−V 2 c2
forces become attractive. In addition, if m g
is not small, the gravitational forces between Therefore, we get
the imaginary body of mass im g and the M g = χM i (76 )
crystals can become sufficiently intense to It is known from the Relativistic Mechanics
be easily detectable. that
Due to the piezoelectric effect, the
gravitational force acting on the crystal will
UV
q= 2 (77 )
c
produce a voltage proportional to its
where U is the total energy of the particle.
intensity. Then consider a board with
hundreds micro-crystals behind a set of This expression is valid for any velocity V of
GCCs, as shown in Fig.18(c). By amplifying the particle, including V = c .
the voltages generated in each micro-crystal By comparing Eq. (77) with Eq. (74)
and sending to an appropriated data we obtain
acquisition system, it will be thus possible to
109
20
U = M gc 2
(78) our ordinary space-time. It goes to the
Imaginary Universe. On the other hand,
It is a well-known experimental fact that
when the gravitational mass of the particle
M i c 2 = hf (79) becomes greater than + 0.159 M i , or less
Therefore, by substituting Eq. (79) and Eq.
(76) into Eq. (74), gives than − 0.159M i , i.e., when χ > 0.159 , the
particle return to our Universe.
q=
V h
χ (80) Figure 19 (a) clarifies the
c λ
phenomenon of reduction of the momentum
Note that this expression is valid for any
for χ > 0.159 , and Figure 19 (b) shows the
velocity V of the particle. In the particular
case of V = c , it reduces to effect in the case of χ < 0.159 . In this case,
the particles become imaginary and
q=χ
h
(81) consequently, they go to the imaginary
λ space-time when they penetrate the electric
field E . However, the electric field E stays
By comparing Eq. (80) with Eq. (77), we
at the real space-time. Consequently, the
obtain
particles return immediately to the real
U = χhf (82) space-time in order to return soon after to
the imaginary space-time, due to the action
Note that only for χ = 1 the Eq. (81) and Eq. of the electric field E . Since the particles are
(82) are reduced to the well=known moving at a direction, they appear and
expressions of DeBroglie (q = h λ ) and disappear while they are crossing the region,
Einstein (U = hf ) . up to collide with the plate (See Fig.19) with
⎛V ⎞ h
Equations (80) and (82) show for a momentum, q m = χ ⎜ ⎟ , in the case
example, that any real particle (material ⎝ c ⎠λ
particles, real photons, etc) that penetrates a h
region (with density ρ and electrical of the material particle, and q r = χ in the
λ
conductivity σ ), where there is an ELF case of the photon. Note that by
electric field E , will have its momentum q making χ ≅ 0 , it is possible to block high-
and its energy U reduced by the factor χ , energy particles and ultra-intense fluxes of
given by radiation. These Energy Shieldings can be
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫ built around objects in order to protect them
m ⎪ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E4 ⎥ ⎪
χ = g = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 −1 ⎬ (83) from such particles and radiation.
mi ⎪ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪ It is also important to note that the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
gravity control process described here points
The remaining amount of momentum to the possibility of obtaining Controlled
and energy, respectively given by Nuclear Fusion by means of increasing of
(1 − χ ) ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟ h and (1 − χ ) hf , are
the intensity of the gravitational interaction
⎝ c ⎠λ between the nuclei. When the gravitational
transferred to the imaginary particle forces FG = Gmgm′g r2 become greater than
associated to the real particle § (material
particles or real photons) that penetrated the the electrical forces FE = qq ′ 4πε 0 r 2
mentioned region. between the nuclei, then nuclear fusion
It was previously shown that, when the reactions can occur.
gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to Note that, according to Eq. (83), the
ranging between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , gravitational mass can be strongly
increased. Thus, if E = E m sin ωt , then the
i.e., when χ < 0.159 , it becomes imaginary
[1], i.e., the gravitational and the inertial average value for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 ,
masses of the particle become imaginary. because E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the
Consequently, the particle disappears from
maximum value for E ). On the other hand,
§
As previously shown, there are imaginary particles
Erms = Em 2 . Consequently, we can replace
associated to each real particle [1].

110
21
4
E for E . In addition, as j = σE (Ohm's
4 with 10μm -diameter, it is necessary that
rms
vectorial Law), then Eq. (83) can be rewritten the current through the wire, i rms , have the
as follows following intensity
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫

χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + K r 2rms3 − 1⎥ ⎬ (84) irms > 4.24 k A
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Obviously, this current will explode the
where K = 1.758× 10−27 and j rms = j 2 . carbon wire. However, this explosion
Thus, the gravitational force equation becomes negligible in comparison with the
can be expressed by very strong gravitational implosion, which
occurs simultaneously due to the enormous
FG = Gmgm′g r2 = χ2Gmi0mi′0 r2 = increase in intensities of the gravitational
forces among the carbon nuclei produced by
2
⎧ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫⎪ means of the ELF current through the

= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ K r 2rms3 −1⎥⎬ Gmi0mi′0 r2 (85) carbon wire as predicted by Eq. (85). Since,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ in this case, the gravitational forces among
the carbon nuclei become greater than the
repulsive electric forces among them the
In order to obtain FG > FE we must have
result is the production of 12C + 12C fusion
⎧ ⎡ μr jrms
4 ⎤⎫ qq′ 4πε0 reactions.
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
⎨1− 2 1+ K 2 3 −1⎥⎬ > (86) Similar reactions can occur by using a
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪ Gmi0 mi′0
⎦⎭ lithium wire. In addition, it is important to
The carbon fusion is a set of nuclear note that j rms is directly proportional
fusion reactions that take place in massive 3

stars (at least 8M sun at birth). It requires high to f 4 (Eq. 87). Thus, for example,
−8
temperatures ( > 5×108 K ) and densities if f = 10 Hz , the current necessary to
produce the nuclear reactions will be
( > 3 × 10 9 kg .m −3 ). The principal reactions are:
23 i rms = 130 A .
Na + p + 2.24 MeV
12
C + 12C → 20
Ne + α + 4.62 MeV IV.CONCLUSION
24
Mg + γ +13.93 MeV The process described here is clearly
In the case of Carbon nuclei ( C) of a thin 12 the better way in order to control the gravity.
This is because the Gravity Control Cell in
carbon wire ( σ ≅ 4 ×104 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2.2 ×103 S.m−1 ) this case is very easy to be built, the cost is
Eq. (86) becomes low and it works at ambient temperature.
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ e2 The Gravity Control is the starting point for
⎪ ⎢ −39 jrms
⎥⎬ >
⎨1− 2 1+ 9.08×10 −1 the generation of and detection of Virtual
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎪ 16πε0Gm2p
⎦⎭ Gravitational Radiation (Quantum
whence we conclude that the condition for Gravitational Transceiver) also for the
the 12C + 12C fusion reactions occur is construction of the Gravitational Motor and
3 the Gravitational Spacecraft which includes
jrms > 1.7 ×1018 f 4 (87) the system for generation of artificial gravity
If the electric current through the carbon wire presented in Fig.10 and the Gravitational
has Extremely-Low Frequency (ELF), for Thruster (Fig.11). While the Gravitational
example, if f = 1μHz , then the current Transceiver leads to a new concept in
Telecommunication, the Gravitational Motor
density, j rms , must have the following value:
changes the paradigm of energy conversion
jrms > 5.4 ×1013 A.m−2 (88) and the Gravitational Spacecraft points to a
Since j rms = i rms S where S = πφ 2 4 is the new concept in aerospace flight.
area of the cross section of the wire, we can
conclude that, for an ultra-thin carbon wire

111
22

Fixed pulley g1=-g


g g
g1≅ 0

Inside the dotted box the gravity


g1=g acceleration can become different of g
Low-pressure Hg Plasma mg (Hg plasma )
(ρ ≅ 6×10-5Kg.m-3, σ ≅ 3.4 S.m-1@ 6×10-3Torr) g1 = χ Hg plasma g = g
mi (Hg plasma )

ELF Voltage Source


(0 – 1.5V, 1mHz – 0.1mHz)

20W T-12 Fluorescent Lamp lit


(F20T12/C50/ECO GE, Ecolux® T12)
EELF
Metallic Plate

Extra Low-Frequency Electric Field 220V, 60 Hz


(1mHz – 0.1mHz)

Fig. 1 – Gravitational Shielding Effect by means of an ELF electric field through


low- pressure Hg Plasma.

112
23

Inside the dotted box the gravity


acceleration above the second lamp
becomes
g 2 = χ 2 Hg plasma g1 =
= χ 2 Hg plasma (χ 1Hg plasma g )
g

g
2 g2

1 χ 2 Hg plasma
fELF(2)

g1
χ1Hg plasma
fELF(1)

Fig. 2 – Gravity acceleration above a second fluorescent lamp.

113
24

mg (Hg )
g1 =
plasma
g
mi (Hg plasma )

Electrodes
Low-density plasma ~ ELF Voltage Source
Electrodes

(a)
mg (Hg )
g1 =
plasma
g
mi (Hg plasma )

Low-density plasma RF Signal RF


Transmitter

g ~
ELF Voltage Source
(b)

Radioactive ions sources


(Americium 241)
φ

d • Air @ 1 atm, 25°C • ~ V, f

Insulating holder Epoxy Ionization chamber


Aluminium, 1mm-thickness

(c)

Fig. 3 – Schematic diagram of Gravity Control Cells (GCCs).


(a) GCC where the ELF electric field and the ionizing electric field can be the same. (b) GCC
where the plasma is ionized by means of a RF signal. (c) GCC filled with air (at ambient
temperature and 1 atm) strongly ionized by means of alpha particles emitted from radioactive
ions sources (Am 241, half-life 432 years). Since the electrical conductivity of the ionized air
depends on the amount of ions then it can be strongly increased by increasing the amount of Am
241 in the GCC. This GCC has 36 radioactive ions sources each one with 1/5000th of gram of
Am 241, conveniently positioned around the ionization chamber, in order to
obtain σ air ≅ 10 3 S.m −1 .

114
25

Gravitational Shielding
Spacecraft

a Mg

g’ = χair g

Erms (low frequency)


χair

g = G mg / r2

mg

The gravity accelerations on the spacecraft (due to the rest of the Universe) can be controlled by
means of the gravitational shielding, i.e.,
g’i = χair gi i = 1, 2, 3 … n
Thus,
Fis= Fsi = Mg g’i = Mg (χair gi)
Then the inertial forces acting on the spacecraft (s) can be strongly reduced. According to the Mach’s
principle this effect can reduce the inertial properties of the spacecraft and consequently, leads to a new
concept of spacecraft and aerospace flight.

Fig. 4 – Gravitational Shielding surround a Spherical Spacecraft.

115
26

V = V0 t = T /4 EELF (1) fELF (1) g1 / g EELF (2) fELF (2) g2 / g


(Volts) (s) ( min) (V/m) (mHz) Exp. Teo. (V/m) (mHz) Exp. Teo.
250 4.17 24.81 1 - 0.993 24.81 1 - 0.986
312.5 5.21 24.81 0.8 - 0.986 24.81 0.8 - 0.972
1.0 V 416.6 6.94 24.81 0.6 - 0.967 24.81 0.6 - 0.935
625 10.42 24.81 0.4 - 0.890 24.81 0.4 - 0.792
1250 20.83 24.81 0.2 - 0.240 24.81 0.2 - 0.058
250 4.17 37.22 1 - 0.964 37.22 1 - 0.929
312.5 5.21 37.22 0.8 - 0.930 37.22 0.8 - 0.865
1.5V 416.6 6.94 37.22 0.6 - 0.837 37.22 0.6 - 0.700
625 10.42 37.22 0.4 - 0,492 37.22 0.4 - 0.242
1250 20.83 37.22 0.2 - -1,724 37.22 0.2 - 2.972

Table 1 – Theoretical Results.

116
27

f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3

g1/g 1

g1/g

1.0V

g1/g
-1
1.5V

-2

Fig. 5- Distribution of the correlation g1/ g as a function of f ELF

117
28

f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g2/g
1.5V

g2/g 1

g2/g 1.0V

-1

-2

Fig. 6- Distribution of the correlation g2 / g as a function of f ELF

118
29

f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g2/g

1.5V

gi/g 1

g1/g

1.5V
-1

-2

Fig. 7- Distribution of the correlations gi / g as a function of f ELF

119
30

Inductor
Air at ultra-low pressure
Steel Box

g ′′′ ( For B < 300T χ steel ≅ 1 then g ′′′ ≅ g ′′ )

g ′′′ = χ steel g ′′ = (χ steel ) χ air g


2

g ′′ = χ air g ′

g ′ = χ steel g

(a)

g 3 = χ 3 χ 2 χ1 g
χ3 GCC 3

g 2 = χ 2 χ1 g
Steel Boxes χ2 GCC 2

g1 = χ 1 g
χ1 GCC 1

(b)

Fig. 8 – (a) Gravity Control Cell (GCC) filled with air at ultra-low pressure.
(b) Gravity Control Battery (Note that if χ1 = χ 2−1 = −1 then g ′′ = g )

120
31

g’’= g
Gravity Control Cell
(Steel box)

R
g’
r
Massive Rotor
r
g

Gravity Control Cell


(Steel box)

g ′ = (χ steel ) χ air g and g ′′ = (χ steel )4 (χ air )2 g


Note that 2 therefore for

χ steel ≅ 1 and χ air (1) = χ air


−1
(2 ) = − n we get
g ′ ≅ − ng and g ′′ = g

Fig. 9 – The Gravitational Motor

121
32

Dielectric Gravity Control Cell- GCC


Aluminum Shell Superconducting
Shell

Superconducting
Ring

FM
Mg

Superconducting mg
Box Fm

μ̂

Fig. 10 – The Gravitational Spacecraft – Due to the Meissner effect, the magnetic field
B is expelled from the superconducting shell. Similarly, the magnetic field BGCC, of the
GCC stay confined inside the superconducting box.

122
33

Gas

Mg mg a μ
gas
GCC GCC GCC
FM Fm

Gas

Material boxes
(a)

g’’’= χair 3 g’’= χair 3 χair 2 χair 1 g

σ3 <σ2 (χair 3)

g ’’ = χair 2 g ’ = χair 2 χair 1 g


σ2 <σ1 (χair 2)
g ’= χair 1 g
σ1 (χair 1)

Am - 241
g

(b)

Fig. 11 – The Gravitational Thruster .


(a) Using material boxes. (b) Without material boxes

123
34

Gas Helix
HIGH

GCC GCC GCC SPEED Motor axis

GAS
Gas

Fig. 12 - The Gravitational Turbo Motor – The gravitationally accelerated gas, by


means of the GCCs, propels the helix which movies the motor axis.

124
35

Eosc

dmg2

dF12 r
dF21
Air Layer 1 Air Layer 2
dmg1

Spacecraft

Fig. 13 – Gravitational forces between two layers of the “air shell”. The electric field Eosc
provides the ionization of the air.

125
36

Eosc

Spacecraft

μ̂

r
( )
g ′ = χ air gμˆ ≅ + 0.98m.s −2 μˆ

χair

Eosc

Fig. 14 – The Gravitational Lifter

126
37

φinn

m2 H
Sτ B g 2 ≅ −1.4 × 10 6 m .s −2

Chamber 1 Air 0.20


−2
g m1 g1 ≅ +3 × 10 m .s
3 g
0.20
Chamber 2 Air 0.20

m g = −9.81m .s −2 H

S
P=R/S

Fig. 15 – Gravitational Press

127
38

Graviphotons
v=∞
GCC

Coil
i Real Gravitational Waves
v=c
f

(a) GCC Antenna

GCC GCC

Graviphotons
v=∞

i i

f f

Transmitter (b) Receiver

Fig. 16 - Transmitter and Receiver of Virtual Gravitational Radiation.

128
39

103atoms

Dielectric 102atoms

103atoms

f Graviphotons f
v=∞

Dielectric
(108 atoms)

Transmitter Receiver

(a)

Conductor Conductor

Microantenna

(b)
Fig. 17 – Quantum Gravitational Microantenna

129
40

(iM )(im ) M g mg
F = −G = +G
g g
v
2
r r2
Crystal

F F

iMg Mg = Mi
Imaginary body
img (Mi = inertial mass)
(a)

Crystal

F GCC GCC GCC F =Mg a ≅Mi a

iMg a = - (χair )3Gmg / r2


Imaginary body
img
χair → -109
(b)

g χair g χair2g χair3g χair4 g χair5 g χair5 g A


M
P Data
L
GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC Y
Acquisition
F System
I
Imaginary body
E
χair5g’ χair5g’ χair4g’ χair3g’ χair2g’ χair g’ g’ img R

χair ≅ 10-2
micro-crystals
⏐ Gravitational Shielding ⏐

Display
(c)

Fig.18 – Method and device using GCCs for obtaining images of imaginary bodies.

130
41
χ > 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞h
qm = χ ⎜ ⎟ qm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
⎛V ⎞ h associated to the
qi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟ q i = 0*
material particle
⎝ c ⎠λ
E, f ρ,σ
h h
qr = χ qr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
q i = [1 − χ ]
h qi = 0 real photon
λ
(a)
* There are a type of neutrino, called "ghost” neutrino, predicted by General Relativity, with zero mass
and zero momentum. In spite its momentum be zero, it is known that there are wave functions that
describe these neutrinos and that prove that really they exist.
χ < 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞ h
qm = χ ⎜ ⎟ qm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
⎛V ⎞ h qi = 0 associated to the
qi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
qr = χ qr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
q i = [1 − χ ]
h qi = 0 real photon
λ
(b)
Fig. 19 – The phenomenon of reduction of the momentum. (a) Shows the reduction of
momentum for χ > 0.159 . (b) Shows the effect when χ < 0.159 . Note that in both cases, the
material particles collide with the cowl with the momentum q m = χ (V c )(h λ ) , and the
h
photons with q r = χ . Therefore, that by making χ ≅ 0 , it is possible to block high-energy
λ
particles and ultra-intense fluxes of radiation.

131
42

APPENDIX A: THE SIMPLEST METHOD TO CONTROL THE GRAVITY

In this Appendix we show the simplest


method to control the gravity.
Consider a body with mass density ρ and
i0
the following electric characteristics: μ r , ε r , σ
(relative permeability, relative permittivity and
electric conductivity, respectively). Through this
body, passes an electric current I , which is the
IDC
sum of a sinusoidal current iosc = i0 sin ωt and
the DC current I DC , i.e., I = I DC + i0 sin ωt
; ω = 2πf . If i0 << I DC then I ≅ I DC . Thus, the I = IDC + iosc
current I varies with the frequency f , but the
variation of its intensity is quite small in
comparison with I DC , i.e., I will be practically
constant (Fig. 1A). This is of fundamental
importance for maintaining the value of the
gravitational mass of the body, m g , sufficiently
stable during all the time. t
The gravitational mass of the body is given
by [1]
Fig. A1 - The electric current I varies with
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ nrU ⎞ ⎥⎪ frequency f . But the variation of I is quite small
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+

⎜ ⎟ −1 m
⎜ m c2 ⎟ ⎥⎬ i0
( A1) in comparison with I DC due to io << I DC . In this
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ way, we can consider I ≅ I DC .

It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [11] and


where U , is the electromagnetic energy
dz ω
absorbed by the body and nr is the index of v= = =
c
( A4)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
refraction of the body. 2
Equation (A1) can also be rewritten in the 2 ⎝ ⎠
following form
where kr is the real part of the propagation
r
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ nrW ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ vector k (also called phase constant );
⎪ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mg ⎢ r
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
( A2 ) k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the
mi 0 ⎪

⎣ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎪
⎦⎥ ⎭
⎩ electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in
which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating( ε = εrε0 ; ε 0 = 8.854 ×10 F / m
−12
where, W =U V is the density of
electromagnetic energy and ρ = mi 0 V is the ;μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). It is
density of inertial mass. known that for free-space
The instantaneous values of the density of σ = 0 and ε r = μ r = 1 . Then Eq. (A4) gives
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations v=c
and has the following expression From (A4), we see that the index of refraction
nr = c v is given by
W = 12 ε E 2 + 12 μH 2 ( A3)
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ ( A5)
c 2
where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
instantaneous values of the electric field and the
magnetic field respectively.

132
43
that ω κr = v. ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
Equation (A4) shows 3
⎪ μ ⎛σ
Thus, E B = ω k r = v , i.e., mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 − 1 ⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪
E = vB = vμH ( A6) ⎣ ⎦⎭
Then, Eq. (A3) can be rewritten in the following ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ0 ⎞⎛ μrσ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪

3
form:
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟E − 1⎥⎬mi0 =
( )
W = 12 ε v2μ μH2 + 12 μH2 ( A7) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣
3 2 ⎜ 2 3⎟
⎝ 256π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

For σ << ωε , Eq. (A4) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪

c = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟E 4 − 1⎥⎬mi0
v= ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

ε r μr
( A14)
Then, Eq. (A7) gives Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value for

⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies


W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH 2 = μH 2 sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value for E ).
⎣ ⎝ ε r μr ⎠ ⎦
On the other hand, Erms = Em 2 . Consequently,
This equation can be rewritten in the following
forms:
we can change E 4 by E rms
4
, and the equation
above can be rewritten as follows
B2
W= ( A8) ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
μ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟Erms − 1⎥⎬mi0
or
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

W =ε E2 ( A9 )
Substitution of the well-known equation of the
Ohm's vectorial Law: j = σE into (A14), we get
For σ >> ωε , Eq. (A4) gives
⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫⎪

v= ( A10) mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 r 2 rms3 −1⎥⎬mi0 ( A15)
μσ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Then, from Eq. (A7) we get
where j rms = j 2 .
⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞ Consider a 15 cm square Aluminum thin
W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅ foil of 10.5 microns thickness with the following
⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠ characteristics: μr =1 ; σ = 3.82×107 S.m−1 ;
≅ 12 μH2 ( A11) ρ = 2700 Kg .m −3 . Then, (A15) gives
Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite (A11) in
⎧⎪ ⎡ j4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 6.313×10−42 rms − 1⎥⎬mi0 ( A16)
⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
the following forms: 3
⎪⎩ ⎣ f
B2
W ≅ ( A12 ) Now, consider that the ELF electric
2μ current I = I DC + i 0 sin ω t , (i0 << I DC )
or
passes through that Aluminum foil. Then, the
⎛ σ ⎞ 2
W ≅⎜ ⎟E ( A13 ) current density is
⎝ 4ω ⎠ I rms I DC
By comparing equations (A8) (A9) (A12) and jrms = ≅ ( A17)
(A13), we can see that Eq. (A13) shows that the
S S
where
best way to obtain a strong value of W in
S = 0.15m(10.5 × 10 −6 m) = 1.57 × 10 −6 m 2
practice is by applying an Extra Low-Frequency
(
(ELF) electric field w = 2πf << 1Hz through a )
medium with high electrical conductivity. If the ELF electric current has
Substitution of Eq. (A13) into Eq. (A2),
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 × 10 Hz ,
−6
gives then, the
gravitational mass of the aluminum foil, given by
(A16), is expressed by

133
44
⎧⎪ ⎡ I4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ known Function Generator HP3325A (Op.002
m g = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.89 × 10 − 25 DC4 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 = High Voltage Output) that can generate
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ sinusoidal voltages with extremely-low
⎪⎩ S
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and
{ [ ]}
frequencies down to
= 1 − 2 1 + 0.13I DC
4
− 1 mi 0 ( A18) amplitude up to 20V (40Vpp into 500Ω load). The
Then, maximum output current is 0.08 App ; output

χ=
mg
mi0
{ [
≅ 1−2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
−1 ]} ( A19) impedance <2Ω at ELF.
Figure A4 shows the equivalent electric
circuit for the experimental set-up. The
For I DC = 2.2 A , the equation above gives electromotive forces are: ε1 (HP3325A) and ε 2
⎛ mg ⎞
( A 20 )
(12V DC Battery).The values of the resistors are
χ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≅ −1
⎟ : R1 = 500Ω − 2W ; ri1 < 2Ω ; R2 = 4Ω − 40W ;
⎝ i0 ⎠
m
This means that the gravitational shielding ri 2 < 0.1Ω ; R p = 2 .5 × 10 −3 Ω ; Rheostat (0≤
produced by the aluminum foil can change the R ≤10Ω - 90W). The coupling transformer has the
gravity acceleration above the foil down to following characteristics: air core with diameter
g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g ( A21) φ = 10 mm ; area S = πφ 2 4 = 7.8 × 10 −5 m 2 ;
Under these conditions, the Aluminum foil works
basically as a Gravity Control Cell (GCC). wire#12AWG; N1 = N2 = N = 20; l = 42mm;
In order to check these theoretical L1 = L2 = L = μ0 N (S l ) = 9.3 ×10 H .Thus, we
2 −7

predictions, we suggest an experimental set-up


get
shown in Fig.A2.
A 15cm square Aluminum foil of 10.5 Z1 = (R1 + ri1 )2 + (ωL )2 ≅ 501Ω
microns thickness with the following composition:
and
Al 98.02%; Fe 0.80%; Si 0.70%; Mn 0.10%; Cu
0.10%; Zn 0.10%; Ti 0.08%; Mg 0.05%; Cr Z2 = (R 2 + ri 2 + R p + R ) + (ωL )
2 2

0.05%, and with the following characteristics:


μr =1; σ = 3.82×107 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2700Kg.m−3 ,is For R = 0 we get Z 2 = Z 2min ≅ 4Ω ; for
**
fixed on a 17 cm square Foam Board plate of R = 10Ω the result is Z 2 = Z 2max ≅ 14Ω . Thus,
6mm thickness as shown in Fig.A3. This device 2
⎛ N1 ⎞
(the simplest Gravity Control Cell GCC) is placed
Z min
1,total = Z1 + Z min
1, reflected = Z1 + Z min
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ 505Ω
on a pan balance shown in Fig.A2.
Above the Aluminum foil, a sample (any
⎝ N2 ⎠
2
type of material, any mass) connected to a ⎛ N1 ⎞
dynamometer will check the decrease of the local Z max
1,total = Z1 + Z max
1, reflected = Z1 + Z max
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ 515Ω
gravity acceleration upon the sample ⎝ N2 ⎠
(g ′ = χ g ) ,due to the gravitational shielding The maxima
following values:
rms currents have the
produced by the decreasing of gravitational mass
( )
of the Aluminum foil χ = m g mi 0 . Initially, the I 1max = 1
2 ,total = 56mA
40V pp Z1min
sample lies 5 cm above the Aluminum foil. As (The maximum output current of the Function
shown in Fig.A2, the board with the dynamometer Generator HP3325A (Op.002 High Voltage
can be displaced up to few meters in height. Output) is 80mApp ≅ 56.5mArms);
Thus, the initial distance between the Aluminum
ε2
foil and the sample can be increased in order to I 2max = = 3A
check the reach of the gravitational shielding Z 2min
produced by the Aluminum foil.
and
In order to generate the ELF electric
current of f = 2 μHz , we can use the widely- I 3max = I 2max + I1max ≅ 3A

The new expression for the inertial forces,


**
Foam board is a very strong, lightweight (density: r r
24.03 kg.m-3) and easily cut material used for the (Eq.5) Fi = M g a , shows that the inertial forces
mounting of photographic prints, as backing in picture are proportional to gravitational mass. Only in the
framing, in 3D design, and in painting. It consists of particular case of m g = m i 0 , the expression
three layers — an inner layer of polystyrene clad with
outer facing of either white clay coated paper or brown above reduces to the well-known Newtonian
r r
Kraft paper. expression Fi = m i 0 a . The equivalence

134
45
( )
r r
between gravitational and inertial forces Fi ≡ Fg ⎧⎪ ⎡ j4 ⎤⎫⎪
[1] shows then that a balance measures the mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 6.313×10−42 rms −1⎥⎬mi0 =
⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3
gravitational mass subjected to ⎪⎩ ⎣ f
acceleration a = g . Here, the decrease in the
⎧⎪ ⎡ I4 ⎤⎫⎪
gravitational mass of the Aluminum foil will be
measured by a pan balance with the following
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.89×10−25 DC4 −1⎥⎬mi0 =
characteristics: range 0-200g; readability 0.01g. ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ S ⎥⎦⎪⎭
The mass of the Foam Board plate is:
≅ 4.17 g , the mass of the Aluminum foil is: { [
= 1− 2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
]}
−1 mi0 ( A22)
≅ 0.64 g , the total mass of the ends and the
For I DC ≅ 3 A the equation above gives
electric wires of connection is ≅ 5 g . Thus,
initially the balance will show ≅ 9.81g .
m g ≅ − 3 .8 m i 0
According to (A18), when the electric current
through the Aluminum foil
Note that we can replace the Aluminum foil for
(resistance rp
*
= l σS = 2.5 ×10−3 Ω ) reaches the this wire in the experimental set-up shown in
value: I 3 ≅ 2.2 A , we will get m g ( Al ) ≅ − mi 0 ( Al ) . Fig.A2. It is important also to note that an ELF
electric current that passes through a wire - which
Under these circumstances, the balance will makes a spherical form, as shown in Fig A5 -
show: reduces the gravitational mass of the wire (Eq.
9.81g − 0.64 g − 0.64 g ≅ 8.53g A22), and the gravity inside sphere at the same
and the gravity acceleration g ′ above the proportion, χ =mg mi0 , (Gravitational Shielding
Aluminum foil, becomes g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g . Effect). In this case, that effect can be checked
It was shown [1] that, when the by means of the Experimental set-up 2 (Fig.A6).
gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to the Note that the spherical form can be transformed
into an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat,
gravitational mass ranging between + 0.159 M i for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
to − 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary, i.e., the possible to coat with a wire several forms, such
as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc.
gravitational and the inertial masses of the
The circuit shown in Fig.A4 (a) can be
particle become imaginary. Consequently, the
modified in order to produce a new type of
particle disappears from our ordinary space-time.
Gravitational Shielding, as shown in Fig.A4 (b).
This phenomenon can be observed in the
In this case, the Gravitational Shielding will be
proposed experiment, i.e., the Aluminum foil will
produced in the Aluminum plate, with thickness
disappear when its gravitational mass becomes
h , of the parallel plate capacitor connected in the
smaller than + 0.159 M i . It will become visible point P of the circuit (See Fig.A4 (b)). Note that,
again, only when its gravitational mass becomes in this circuit, the Aluminum foil (resistance R p )
smaller than − 0.159M i , or when it becomes (Fig.A4(a)) has been replaced by a Copper wire #
greater than + 0.159M i . 14 AWG with 1cm length ( l = 1cm ) in order to
Equation (A18) shows that the gravitational produce a resistance Rφ = 5.21 × 10 −5 Ω . Thus,
mass of the Aluminum foil, mg ( Al ) , goes close to the voltage in the point P of the circuit will have
zero when I 3 ≅ 1.76 A . Consequently, the the maximum value V pmax = 1.1 × 10 −4 V when
gravity acceleration above the Aluminum foil also the resistance of the rheostat is null (R = 0 ) and
goes close to zero since
g ′ = χ g = m g ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) . Under these the minimum value V pmin = 4.03 × 10 −5 V when

circumstances, the Aluminum foil remains R = 10Ω . In this way, the voltage V p (with
invisible. frequency f = 2 μHz ) applied on the capacitor
Now consider a rigid Aluminum wire # 14
AWG. The area of its cross section is will produce an electric field E p with intensity

S = π (1.628 × 10 −3 m ) 4 = 2.08 × 10 −6 m 2 E p = V p h through the Aluminum plate of


2

If an ELF electric current with thickness h = 3mm . It is important to note that this
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 × 10 Hz passes through
−6 plate cannot be connected to ground (earth), in
other words, cannot be grounded, because, in
this wire, its gravitational mass, given by (A16),
will be expressed by

135
46
this case, the electric field through it will be null
††
insulation layer with relative permittivity εr
.
According to Eq. A14, when and dielectric strength k . A voltage source is
connected to the Aluminum foil in order to provide
p =Vp
Emax max
h = 0.036 V / m, f = 2μHz and
a voltage V0 (rms) with frequency f . Thus, the
σ Al = 3 . 82 × 10 7 S / m , ρ Al = 2700kg / m3 electric potential V at a distance r , in the
(Aluminum), we get interval from r0 to a , is given by
m ( Al )
χ = ≅ − 0 .9
m i ( Al ) V=
1 q
( A23)
4πε r ε 0 r
Under these conditions, the maximum current
density through the plate with thickness h will be In the interval a < r ≤ b the electric potential is

given by j max = σ Al E max


p = 1.4 ×10 A / m (It is
6 2
V =
1 q
( A24 )
4πε 0 r
well-known that the maximum current density
supported by the Aluminum is ≈ 10 A / m ).
8 2 since for the air we have ε r ≅ 1 .
Since the area of the plate is Thus, on the surface of the metallic
spheres (r = r0 ) we get
A= (0.2) = 4×10 m , then the maximum current is
2 −2 2

i max = j max A = 56kA . Despite this enormous V0 =


1 q
( A25)
current, the maximum dissipated power will be 4πε r ε 0 r0
( )
2
just P max = i max R plate = 6.2W , because the
Consequently, the electric field is

E0 =
1 q
( A26)
resistance of the plate is very small, i.e.,
4πε r ε 0 r02
R plate = h σ Al A ≅ 2 × 10−9 Ω . By comparing (A26) with (A25), we obtain
V0
Note that the area A of the plate (where
the Gravitational Shielding takes place) can have E0 = ( A27)
r0
several geometrical configurations. For example,
it can be the area of the external surface of an Vb at r = b is
The electric potential
ellipsoid, sphere, etc. Thus, it can be the area of
1 q ε r V 0 r0
the external surface of a Gravitational Spacecraft. Vb = = ( A28 )
In this case, if A ≅ 100m , for example, the
2 4πε 0 b b
maximum dissipated power will be Consequently, the electric field Eb is given by
Pmax ≅ 15.4kW , i.e., approximately 154W / m 2 . 1 q ε rV0 r0
All of these systems work with Extra-Low Eb = = ( A29)
4πε 0 b 2 b2
( −3
)
Frequencies f <<10 Hz . Now, we show that,
From r = r0 up to r = b = a + d the electric
by simply changing the geometry of the surface
of the Aluminum foil, it is possible to increase the field is approximately constant (See Fig. A7).
working frequency f up to more than 1Hz. Along the distance d it will be called E air . For
Consider the Aluminum foil, now with r > a + d , the electric field stops being constant.
several semi-spheres stamped on its surface, as Thus, the intensity of the electric field at
shown in Fig. A7 . The semi-spheres have r = b = a + d is approximately equal to E0 ,
radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and are joined one to
i.e., Eb ≅ E 0 . Then, we can write that
another. The Aluminum foil is now coated by an
ε rV0 r0 V0
≅ ( A30)
††
When the voltage Vp is applied on the capacitor, the b2 r0
charge distribution in the dielectric induces positive whence we get
and negative charges, respectively on opposite sides of
the Aluminum plate with thickness h. If the plate is not b ≅ r0 ε r ( A31)
connected to the ground (Earth) this charge Since the intensity of the electric field through the
distribution produces an electric field Ep=Vp/h through air, E air , is Eair ≅ Eb ≅ E0 , then, we can write that
the plate. However, if the plate is connected to the
q ε rV0 r0
ground, the negative charges (electrons) escapes for Eair =
1
= 2 ( A32)
the ground and the positive charges are redistributed 4πε0 b 2 b
along the entire surface of the Aluminum plate making
Note that ε r refers to the relative permittivity of
null the electric field through it.

136
47
the insulation layer, which is covering the 1 3

⎛ Eair ⎞ ⎛b⎞
( A39)
2 2
Aluminum foil. σ air = 2α⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
If the intensity of this field is greater than ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝a⎠
the dielectric strength of the air 3 × 10 V / m ( 6
) If the insulation layer has thickness
there will occur the well-known Corona effect. Δ = 0.6 mm , ε r ≅ 3.5 (1- 60Hz),
Here, this effect is necessary in order to increase
the electric conductivity of the air at this region k = 17kV / mm (Acrylic sheet 1.5mm thickness),
(layer with thickness d). Thus, we will assume and the semi-spheres stamped on the metallic
ε rV min
r V min surface have r0 = 0.9 mm (See Fig.A7) then
min
Eair = 0 0
= 0
= 3×106 V / m
b 2
r0 a = r0 + Δ = 1.5 mm. Thus, we obtain from Eq.
and (A33) that
ε rV max
r V max
V0min = 2.7kV
max
Eair = 0 0
= = 1×107 V / m ( A33)
0

b 2
r0 V0max = 9kV ( A40)
The electric field E min
air ≤ E air ≤ E max
air will From equation (A31), we obtain the following
produce an electrons flux in a direction and an value for b :
ions flux in an opposite direction. From the b = r0 ε r = 1.68×10−3 m ( A41)
viewpoint of electric current, the ions flux can be
Since b = a + d we get
considered as an “electrons” flux at the same
direction of the real electrons flux. Thus, the d = 1.8 × 10 −4 m
current density through the air, j air , will be the Substitution of a , b , d and A(32) into (A39)
double of the current density expressed by the produces
1 1
well-known equation of Langmuir-Child
3 3 3
σ air = 4.117×10−4 Eair = 1.375×10−2 V0
2 2

4
j = εrε0
2e V 2
= α
V2
= 2.33×10−6 V
2
( A34) Substitution of σ air , E air (rms ) and
9 me d2 d2 d2 ρ air = 1.2 kg .m −3 into (A14) gives
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6
is the
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
called Child’s constant. = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
Thus, we have mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3 ⎩ ⎣
V2
jair = 2α 2 ( A35) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
−21 V0
d = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 4.923×10 − 1⎥⎬ ( A42)
where d , in this case, is the thickness of the air ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎦⎪

layer where the electric field is approximately
For V0 = V0 = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the result is
max
constant and V is the voltage drop given by
1 q 1 q mg (air)
V = Va − Vb = − = ≅ −1.2
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 b mi0(air)
⎛ b − a ⎞ ⎛ ε r r0 d ⎞
= V0 r0ε r ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟V0 ( A36) Note that, by increasing V0 , the values of
⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠ E air and σ air are increased. Thus, as show
By substituting (A36) into (A35), we get (A42), there are two ways for decrease the value
3 3 3

2α ⎛ ε r r0dV0 ⎞ 2α ⎛ ε r r0V0 ⎞
2 2
⎛b⎞ 2 of m g (air ) : increasing the value of V0 or
jair = ⎜ ⎟ = 1⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =
d 2 ⎝ ab ⎠ d 2 ⎝ b2 ⎠ ⎝ a⎠ decreasing the value of f .
3 Since E0
max
= 107 V / m = 10kV / mm and
2α ⎛ b ⎞2
( A37)
3

= 1 Eair⎜ ⎟
2
Δ = 0.6 mm then the dielectric strength of the
d2 ⎝ a⎠ insulation must be ≥ 16.7kV / mm . As
According to the equation of the Ohm's vectorial mentioned above, the dielectric strength of the
Law: j = σE , we can write that acrylic is 17kV / mm .
σair =
jair
( A38) It is important to note that, due to the
strong value of E air (Eq. A37) the drift velocity
Eair
Substitution of (A37) into (A38) yields vd , (vd = jair ne = σ air Eair ne) of the free
charges inside the ionized air put them at a

137
48
distance x = vd t = 2 fvd ≅ 0.4m , which is much means of a convenient process, several semi-
−4
spheres can be stamped on its surface. The
greater than the distance d =1.8 ×10 m .
semi-spheres have radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and
Consequently, the number n of free charges
decreases strongly inside the air layer of are joined one to another. Next, take an acrylic
thickness d ‡‡ , except, obviously, in a thin layer, sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness (See
very close to the dielectric, where the number of Fig.A8 (a)). Put a heater below the Aluminum
free charges remains sufficiently increased, to plate in order to heat the Aluminum (Fig.A8 (b)).
When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated up, the
maintain the air conductivity with σ air ≅ 1.1S / m
acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are
(Eq. A39). pressed, one against the other, as shown in Fig.
The thickness h of this thin air layer close A8 (c). The two D devices shown in this figure are
to the dielectric can be easily evaluated starting used in order to impede that the press
from the charge distribution in the neighborhood compresses the acrylic and the aluminum to a
of the dielectric, and of the repulsion forces distance shorter than y + a . After some seconds,
established among them. The result is remove the press and the heater. The device is
h = 0.06e 4πε 0 E ≅ 4 × 10−9 m . This is, therefore, ready to be subjected to a voltage V0 with
the thickness of the Air Gravitational Shielding. If frequency f , as shown in Fig.A9. Note that, in
the area of this Gravitational Shielding is equal to
this case, the balance is not necessary, because
the area of a format A4 sheet of paper,
the substance that produces the gravitational
i.e., A = 0.20 × 0.291= 0.0582m , we obtain the
2
shielding is an air layer with thickness d above
following value for the resistance R air of the the acrylic sheet. This is, therefore, more a type
of Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external
Gravitational Shielding: Rair = h σair A≅ 6×10−8 Ω.
gravitational shielding.
Since the maximum electrical current through this It is important to note that this GCC can be
air layer is i max = j max A ≅ 400 kA , then the made very thin and as flexible as a fabric. Thus, it
maximum power radiated from the Gravitational can be used to produce anti- gravity clothes.

( ) 2
These clothes can be extremely useful, for
Shielding is Pair max
= Rair iair
max
≅ 10kW . This example, to walk on the surface of high gravity
means that a very strong light will be radiated planets.
from this type of Gravitational Shielding. Note that Figure A11 shows some geometrical
this device can also be used as a lamp, which will forms that can be stamped on a metallic surface
be much more efficient than conventional lamps. in order to produce a Gravitational Shielding
Coating a ceiling with this lighting system effect, similar to the produced by the semi-
enables the entire area of ceiling to produce light. spherical form.
This is a form of lighting very different from those An obvious evolution from the semi-
usually known. spherical form is the semi-cylindrical form shown
in Fig. A11 (b); Fig.A11(c) shows concentric
max
Note that the value Pair ≅ 10kW , defines the metallic rings stamped on the metallic surface, an
power of the transformer shown in Fig.A10. Thus, evolution from Fig.A11 (b). These geometrical
the maximum current in the secondary is forms produce the same effect as the semi-
i smax = 9kV 10 kW = 0.9 A . spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using
concentric metallic rings, it is possible to build
Above the Gravitational Shielding, σ air is Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or
reduced to the normal value of conductivity of the spacecrafts with several formats (spheres,
( )
atmospheric air ≈ 10 −14 S / m . Thus, the power ellipsoids, etc); Fig. A11 (d) shows a Gravitational
Shielding around a Spacecraft with ellipsoidal
radiated from this region is
( ) σ A=
form.
= (d − h ) i air
max max 2
Pair air
The previously mentioned Gravitational

= (d − h )Aσ (E ) ≅ 10
Shielding, produced on a thin layer of ionized air,
max 2 −4 has a behavior different from the Gravitational
air air W
Now, we will describe a method to coat the Shielding produced on a rigid substance. When
Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic in the the gravitational masses of the air molecules,
necessary dimensions (Δ = a − r0 ) , we propose
inside the shielding, are reduced to within the
range + 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , they go to
the following method. First, take an Aluminum
the imaginary space-time, as previously shown in
plate with 21cm × 29.1cm (A4 format). By
this article. However, the electric field E air stays
‡‡
Reducing therefore, the conductivity σ air , to the at the real space-time. Consequently, the
molecules return immediately to the real space-
normal value of conductivity of the atmospheric air.

138
49
time in order to return soon after to the imaginary since the shielding does not stop to work, due
space-time, due to the action of the electric to its extremely short permanence at the
field E air . imaginary space-time. Under these
circumstances, the gravitational mass of the
In the case of the Gravitational Shielding Gravitational Shielding can be reduced to
produced on a solid substance, when the
molecules of the substance go to the imaginary m g ≅ 0 . For example, m g ≅ 10 −4 kg . Thus, if
space-time, the electric field that produces the the inertial mass of the Gravitational Shielding is
effect, also goes to the imaginary space-time
together with them, since in this case, the
mi 0 ≅ 1kg , then χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −4 . As we
substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly have seen, this means that the inertial effects on
the spacecraft will be reduced by χ ≅ 10 . Then,
connected to the metal that produces the electric −4
field. (See Fig. A12 (b)). This is the fundamental
in spite of the effective acceleration of the
difference between the non-solid and solid −2
spacecraft be, for example, a = 10 m.s , the
5
Gravitational Shieldings.
Now, consider a Gravitational Spacecraft effects on the crew of the spacecraft will be
that is able to produce an Air Gravitational equivalent to an acceleration of only
Shielding and also a Solid Gravitational mg
Shielding, as shown in Fig. A13 (a) §§ . Assuming a′ = a = χ a ≈ 10m.s −1
that the intensity of the electric field, E air ,
mi 0
This is the magnitude of the acceleration upon
necessary to reduce the gravitational mass of
the passengers in a contemporary commercial
the air molecules to within the range
jet.
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , is much smaller Then, it is noticed that Gravitational
than the intensity of the electric field, E rs , Spacecrafts can be subjected to enormous
accelerations (or decelerations) without imposing
necessary to reduce the gravitational mass of any harmful impacts whatsoever on the
the solid substance to within the range spacecrafts or its crew.
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , then we Now, imagine that the intensity of the
conclude that the Gravitational Shielding made of electric field that produces the Gravitational
ionized air goes to the imaginary space-time Shielding around the spacecraft is increased up
before the Gravitational Shielding made of solid to reaching the value E rs that reduces the
substance. When this occurs the spacecraft does gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational
not go to the imaginary space-time together with Shielding to within the range
the Gravitational Shielding of air, because the air + 0.159 m i < m g < −0.159 mi . Under these
molecules are not rigidly connected to the
spacecraft. Thus, while the air molecules go into circumstances, the solid Gravitational Shielding
the imaginary space-time, the spacecraft stays in goes to the imaginary space-time and, since it is
the real space-time, and remains subjected to the rigidly connected to the spacecraft, also the
effects of the Gravitational Shielding around it, spacecraft goes to the imaginary space-time
together with the Gravitational Shielding. Thus,
§§ the spacecraft can travel within the imaginary
The solid Gravitational Shielding can also be space-time and make use of the Gravitational
obtained by means of an ELF electric current through Shielding around it.
a metallic lamina placed between the semi-spheres As we have already seen, the maximum
and the Gravitational Shielding of Air (See Fig.A13 velocity of propagation of the interactions in the
(a)). The gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational imaginary space-time is infinite (in the real space-
Shielding will be controlled just by means of the
time this limit is equal to the light velocity c ). This
intensity of the ELF electric current. Recently, it was
means that there are no limits for the velocity of
discovered that Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be
the spacecraft in the imaginary space-time. Thus,
added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it into a good
the acceleration of the spacecraft can reach, for
electrical conductor. It was found that the electrical
conductivity increased up to 3375 S/m at 77°C in example, a = 109 m.s −2 , which leads the
samples that were 15% nanotubes by volume [12]. It spacecraft to attain velocities
−1
is known that the density of α-Alumina is 3.98kg.m-3 V ≈ 10 m.s (about 1 million times the speed
14

and that it can withstand 10-20 KV/mm. Thus, these of light) after one day of trip. With this velocity,
values show that the Alumina-CNT can be used to after 1 month of trip the spacecraft would have
make a solid Gravitational Shielding. In this case, the 21
traveled about 10 m . In order to have idea of
electric field produced by means of the semi-spheres
this distance, it is enough to remind that the
will be used to control the gravitational mass of the
diameter of our Universe (visible Universe) is of
Alumina-CNT. 26
the order of 10 m .

139
50
Due to the extremely low density of the then the dielectric strength of the insulation
imaginary bodies, the collision between them must be ≥ 173kV / mm . As shown in the table
cannot have the same consequences of the below *** , 0.1mm - thickness of Mica can
collision between the real bodies. withstand 17.6 kV (that is greater
Thus, for a Gravitational Spacecraft in
than V0max = 15.6kV ), in such way that the
imaginary state, the problem of the collision in
high-speed doesn't exist. Consequently, the dielectric strength is 176 kV/mm.
Gravitational Spacecraft can transit freely in the The Gravitational Thrusters are positioned
imaginary Universe and, in this way, reach easily at the spacecraft, as shown in Fig. A13 (b).
any point of our real Universe once they can Then, when the spacecraft is in the intergalactic
make the transition back to our Universe by only space, the gravity acceleration upon the
increasing the gravitational mass of the gravitational mass m gt of the bottom of the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft in such thruster (See Fig.A13 (c)), is given by [2]
way that it leaves the range of + 0.159 M i Mg
r 10 r
a ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
10
to − 0.159M i .
r
The return trip would be done in similar
way. That is to say, the spacecraft would transit where M g is the gravitational mass in front of
in the imaginary Universe back to the departure
the spacecraft.
place where would reappear in our Universe.
For simplicity, let us consider just the effect
Thus, trips through our Universe that would delay
of a hypothetical volume
millions of years, at speeds close to the speed of
light, could be done in just a few months in the V = 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 m
3 3 7 3
of intergalactic
imaginary Universe. (
matter in front of the spacecraft r ≅ 30m . The )
In order to produce the acceleration of average density of matter in the intergalactic
a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 upon the spacecraft we propose a medium (IGM) is ρig ≈ 10−26 kg.m−3 ) ††† . Thus,
Gravitational Thruster with 10 GCCs (10
for χ air ≅ −1.6 ×10 we get
4
Gravitational Shieldings) of the type with several
semi-spheres stamped on the metallic surface, as
) (6.67 × 10 )⎛⎜⎜ 10 ⎞
−19
previously shown, or with the semi-cylindrical
form shown in Figs. A11 (b) and (c). The 10
(
a = − − 1.6 × 10 4
10 −11
2
⎟⎟ =
GCCs are filled with air at 1 atm and 300K. If the
⎝ 30 ⎠
insulation layer is made with Mica (ε r ≅ 5.4 ) and = −10 9 m.s − 2
has thickness Δ = 0.1 mm , and the semi- In spite of this gigantic acceleration, the inertial
spheres stamped on the metallic surface have effects for the crew of the spacecraft can be
strongly reduced if, for example, the gravitational
r0 = 0.4 mm (See Fig.A7) then mass of the Gravitational Shielding is reduced
a = r0 + Δ = 0.5 mm. Thus, we get
***
b = r0 εr = 9.295×10−4 m The dielectric strength of some dielectrics can have
different values in lower thicknesses. This is, for
and example, the case of the Mica.
d = b − a = 4.295 ×10 −4 m Dielectric Thickness (mm) Dielectric Strength (kV/mm)
Then, from Eq. A42 we obtain Mica 0.01 mm 200
Mica 0.1 mm 176
mg (air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪ Mica 1 mm 61
χair = = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ †††
Some theories put the average density of the
⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
Universe as the equivalent of one hydrogen atom per
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.0 ×10−18 0 3 −1⎥⎬ cubic meter [13,14]. The density of the universe,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ however, is clearly not uniform. Surrounding and
stretching between galaxies, there is a rarefied plasma
For V0 = V0max = 15.6kV and f = 0.12Hz, the result is [15] that is thought to possess a cosmic filamentary
structure [16] and that is slightly denser than the
mg (air)
χ air = ≅ −1.6 ×104 average density in the universe. This material is called
mi0(air) the intergalactic medium (IGM) and is mostly ionized
hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of
Since E 0max = V0max r0 is now given by electrons and protons. The IGM is thought to exist at a
E0max =15.6kV 0.9mm=17.3kV / mm and Δ = 0.1 mm density of 10 to 100 times the average density of the
Universe (10 to 100 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter,
i.e., ≈ 10 −26 kg.m −3 ).
140
51
−6
down to m g ≅ 10 kg and its inertial mass is Spacecraft can reach about 50000 km/h in a
few seconds. Obviously, the Gravitational
mi 0 ≅ 100kg . Then, we get Shielding of the spacecraft will reduce strongly
the inertial effects upon the crew of the
χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −8
. Therefore, the inertial spacecraft, in such way that the inertial effects of
effects on the spacecraft will be reduced by this strong acceleration will not be felt. In
χ ≅ 10−8 , and consequently, the inertial effects on addition, the artificial atmosphere, which is
possible to build around the spacecraft, by means
the crew of the spacecraft would be equivalent to of gravity control technologies shown in this
an acceleration a′ of only article (See Fig.6) and [2], will protect it from the

a = (10 −8 )(10 9 ) ≈ 10m.s − 2


mg heating produced by the friction with the Earth’s
a′ = atmosphere. Also, the gravity can be controlled
mi 0 inside of the Gravitational Spacecraft in order to
Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the maintain a value close to the Earth’s gravity as
spacecraft must have a very small diameter (of shown in Fig.3.
the order of millimeters) since, obviously, the hole Finally, it is important to note that a Micro-
through the Gravitational Shielding cannot be Gravitational Thruster does not work outside a
large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact, Micro- Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the
Gravitational Thrusters. As shown in Fig. A13 resultant upon the thruster is null due to the
(b), it is possible to place several micro- symmetry (See Fig. A15 (a)). Figure A15 (b)
gravitational thrusters in the spacecraft. This shows a micro-gravitational thruster inside a
gives to the Gravitational Spacecraft, several Gravitational Shielding. This thruster has 10
degrees of freedom and shows the enormous Gravitational Shieldings, in such way that the
superiority of this spacecraft in relation to the gravitational acceleration upon the bottom of the
contemporaries spacecrafts. thruster, due to a gravitational mass M g in front
The density of matter in the intergalactic
medium (IGM) is about 10 -26 kg.m-3 , which is of the thruster, is a10 = χ air
10
a0 where
very less than the density of matter in the
a 0 = −G M g r 2 is the gravitational acceleration
interstellar medium (~10-21 kg.m-3) that is less
than the density of matter in the interplanetary acting on the front of the micro-gravitational
medium (~10-20 kg.m-3). The density of matter is thruster. In the opposite direction, the
enormously increased inside the Earth’s gravitational acceleration upon the bottom of the
atmosphere (1.2kg.m-3 near to Earth’s surface). thruster, produced by a gravitational mass M g ,
Figure A14 shows the gravitational acceleration is
acquired by a Gravitational Spacecraft, in these
media, using Micro-Gravitational thrusters.
In relation to the Interstellar and (
a 0′ = χ s − GM g r ′ 2 ≅ 0 )
Interplanetary medium, the Intergalactic medium
requires the greatest value of χ air ( χ inside the since χ s ≅ 0 due to the Gravitational Shielding
Micro-Gravitational Thrusters), i.e., around the micro-thruster (See Fig. A15 (b)).
χ air ≅ −1.6 ×10 . This value strongly decreases
4 Similarly, the acceleration in front of the thruster
is
when the spacecraft is within the Earth’s

[ ( )] χ
atmosphere. In this case, it is sufficient
only χ air ≅ −10 in order to obtain:
‡‡‡ ′ = χ air
a10 10
a 0′ = χ air
10
− GM g r ′ 2 s

ρ atmV
a = −(χ air ) G
10

r 2
≅ where [χ (− GM
10
air g )]
r ′ 2 < a10 , since r′ > r .

) ( ) ≅ 10
Thus, for a10 ≅ 10 9 m.s −2 and χ s ≈ 10 −8 we
10
(
≅ −(− 10) 6.67 × 10 −11
1.2 10 7 4
m.s −2 ′ < 10m.s −2
(20)2 conclude that a10 . This means that
With this acceleration the Gravitational ′ << a10 . Therefore, we can write that the
a10
resultant on the micro-thruster can be expressed
‡‡‡
This value is within the range of values of χ by means of the following relation
(χ < − 10 3
)
. See Eq . A15 , which can be produced by
R ≅ F10 = χ air
10
F0
means of ELF electric currents through metals as
Aluminum, etc. This means that, in this case, if
convenient, we can replace air inside the GCCs of the Figure A15 (c) shows a Micro-Gravitational
Gravitational Micro-thrusters by metal laminas with Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings (10
ELF electric currents through them. GCCs). Thin Metallic laminas are placed after

141
52
each Air Gravitational Shielding in order to retain 1 3
⎛ Eair
⎞2⎛ b⎞2 1
the electric field E b = V0 x , produced by metallic σair=2α⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =0.029V02 (A46)
surface behind the semi-spheres. The laminas ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a⎠
with semi-spheres stamped on its surfaces are Note that b = r0 ε r ( H2O) . Therefore, here the
connected to the ELF voltage source V0 and the
value of b is larger than in the case of the acrylic.
thin laminas in front of the Air Gravitational
Consequently, the electrical conductivity of the air
Shieldings are grounded. The air inside this
layer will be larger here than in the case of
Micro-Gravitational Thruster is at 300K, 1atm.
acrylic.
We have seen that the insulation layer of a
GCC can be made up of Acrylic, Mica, etc. Now, Substitution of σ (air ) , E air (rms) and
we will design a GCC using Water (distilled ρ air = 1.2kg .m −3 into Eq. A14, gives
water, ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 ) and Aluminum semi-
radius r0 = 1 . 3 mm .
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ V5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
cylinders with Thus,
for Δ = 0.6mm , the new value of a is a = 1.9mm . =⎨1−2⎢ 1+4.54×10−20 03 −1⎥⎬ ( A47)
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
Then, we get ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
b = r0 εr(H2O) = 11.63×10−3m ( A43)
For V0 = V0 = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the result
max
d = b − a = 9.73×10−3m ( A44)
and is
1 q mg (air)
Eair = = ≅ −8.4
4πεr(air)ε 0 b 2 mi0(air)
V0 r0 This shows that, by using water instead of acrylic,
= ε r( H ) = the result is much better.
2O
ε r(air)b 2 In order to build the GCC based on the
calculations above (See Fig. A16), take an Acrylic
V0 r0 V0
= ≅ = 1111.1 V0 ( A45) plate with 885mm X 885m and 2mm thickness,
ε r(air) r0 then paste on it an Aluminum sheet with
895.2mm X 885mm and 0.5mm thickness(note
Note that
that two edges of the Aluminum sheet are bent as
V0 r0 shown in Figure A16 (b)). Next, take 342
E( H2O) =
ε r ( H2O) Aluminum yarns with 884mm length and
2.588mm diameter (wire # 10 AWG) and insert
and
them side by side on the Aluminum sheet. See in
V0 r0 Fig. A16 (b) the detail of fixing of the yarns on the
E(acrylic) =
ε r (acrylic) Aluminum sheet. Now, paste acrylic strips (with
13.43mm height and 2mm thickness) around the
Therefore, E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are much Aluminum/Acrylic, making a box. Put distilled
smaller than E air . Note that for V0 ≤ 9kV the water (approximately 1 litter) inside this box, up to
a height of exactly 3.7mm from the edge of the
intensities of E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are not acrylic base. Afterwards, paste an Acrylic lid
sufficient to produce the ionization effect, which (889mm X 889mm and 2mm thickness) on the
increases the electrical conductivity. box. Note that above the water there is an air
Consequently, the conductivities of the water and layer with 885mm X 885mm and 7.73mm
−1 thickness (See Fig. A16). This thickness plus the
the acrylic remain << 1 S.m . In this way, with
acrylic lid thickness (2mm) is equal to
E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) much smaller than E air ,
d = b − a = 9.73mm where b = r0 ε r(H2O) =11.63mm
and σ ( H 2O ) << 1 , σ (acrylic ) << 1 , the decrease in
and a = r0 + Δ = 1.99 mm , since r0 = 1.3mm ,
both the gravitational mass of the acrylic and the
gravitational mass of water, according to Eq.A14, ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 and Δ = 0.6mm .
is negligible. This means that only in the air layer Note that the gravitational action of the
the decrease in the gravitational mass will be electric field E air , extends itself only up to the
relevant. distance d , which, in this GCC, is given by the
Equation A39 gives the electrical
sum of the Air layer thickness (7.73mm) plus the
conductivity of the air layer, i.e.,
thickness of the Acrylic lid (2mm).
Thus, it is ensured the gravitational effect
on the air layer while it is practically nullified in

142
53
the acrylic sheet above the air layer, since
E (acrylic ) << E air and σ (acrylic ) << 1 .
With this GCC, we can carry out an
experiment where the gravitational mass of the
air layer is progressively reduced when the
voltage applied to the GCC is increased (or when
the frequency is decreased). A precision balance
is placed below the GCC in order to measure the
mentioned mass decrease for comparison with
the values predicted by Eq. A(47). In total, this
GCC weighs about 6kg; the air layer 7.3grams.
The balance has the following characteristics:
range 0-6kg; readability 0.1g. Also, in order to
prove the Gravitational Shielding Effect, we can
put a sample (connected to a dynamometer)
above the GCC in order to check the gravity
acceleration in this region.
In order to prove the exponential effect
produced by the superposition of the
Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three
similar GCCs and put them one above the other,
in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity
acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the GCC2
g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g .
Where χ is given by Eq. (A47).
It is important to note that the intensity of
the electric field through the air below the GCC is
much smaller than the intensity of the electric
field through the air layer inside the GCC. In
addition, the electrical conductivity of the air
below the GCC is much smaller than the
conductivity of the air layer inside the GCC.
Consequently, the decrease of the gravitational
mass of the air below the GCC, according to
Eq.A14, is negligible. This means that the GCC1,
GCC2 and GCC3 can be simply overlaid, on the
experiment proposed above. However, since it is
necessary to put samples among them in order to
measure the gravity above each GCC, we
suggest a spacing of 30cm or more among them.

143
54

Dynamometer

50 mm
g g
g′ = χ g
Sample
Aluminum foil Foam Board

GCC

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG Pan balance

Battery 12V

R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
10Ω - 90W Coupling
Transformer

Function Generation
Flexible Copper wire
HP3325A # 12 AWG

ε1

R1
500Ω - 2W
Figure A2 – Experimental Set-up 1.

144
55

Flexible Copper Wire


# 12 AWG

15 cm square Aluminum foil


(10.5 microns thickness)

Gum
(Loctite Super Bonder)

17 cm square Foam Board plate


(6mm thickness)

Aluminum foil
Foam Board

Figure A3 – The Simplest Gravity Control Cell (GCC).

145
56
I1 ε2
+ − ri 2
R
I2

GCC
ri1

ε1 ~ Rp

f = 2 μHz
Wire # 12 AWG
Gravitational
R1 Shielding
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2

(a)
ε 1 = Function Generator HP3325A(Option 002 High Voltage Output)
ri1 < 2Ω; R1 = 500Ω − 2 W ; ε 2 = 12V DC; ri 2 < 0.1Ω (Battery );
R2 = 4Ω − 40W ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω; Reostat = 0 ≤ R ≤ 10Ω − 90W
I1max = 56mA (rms ); I 2max = 3 A ; I 3max ≅ 3 A (rms )
Coupling Transformer to isolate the Function Generator from the Battery
• Air core 10 - mm diameter; wire # 12 AWG; N1 = N 2 = 20; l = 42mm

I1 ε2 T
+ − ri 2
I2 R

ri1
−5
ε1 GCC l = 1cm → Rφ = 5.23 × 10 Ω
~ l
0.5 2 h =3mm
f = 2 μHz
d
i
Wire # 12 AWG e
l
e Al 200 mm
R1 c
t
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2 r
P # 12 AWG i
c
(b)
R = 0 ⇒ V pmax = 1.1 × 10−4V Gravitational
Shielding
R = 10 ⇒ V pmin = 4.0 × 10−5V

Fig. A4 – Equivalent Electric Circuits

146
57

j
ELF electric current Wire

⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
− 27 μr j
4
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758 ×10 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ σρ 2 f 3 ⎥⎦ ⎪

Figure A5 – An ELF electric current through a wire, that makes a spherical form as shown above,
reduces the gravitational mass of the wire and the gravity inside sphere at the same proportion
χ = m g mi 0 (Gravitational Shielding Effect). Note that this spherical form can be transformed into
an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat, for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
possible to coat with a wire several forms, such as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc. The characteristics
of the wire are expressed by: μ r , σ , ρ ; j is the electric current density and f is the frequency.

147
58

Dynamometer

Rigid Aluminum wire 50 mm


# 14 AWG
Length = 28.6 m
RS= 0.36 Ω

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG

Battery 12V

R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
Coupling
Transformer

Function Generation
HP3325A Flexible Copper wire
# 12 AWG

ε1

R1
Figure A6 – Experimental set-up 2.

148
59

Gravitational Shielding Air


d
Eair ,σair
b
Insulation Δ
εr
a

r0

Aluminum Foil

~ V0 , f

Figure A7 – Gravitational shielding produced by semi-spheres stamped on the Aluminum


foil - By simply changing the geometry of the surface of the Aluminum foil it is possible to
increase the working frequency f up to more than 1Hz.

149
60

a =1.5 mm Acrylic sheet


r0 =0.9 mm
y Aluminum Plate
(a)

Heater
(b)

Press

D D
y+a

(c)

Δ=0.6 mm
r0 =0.9 mm a = 1.5 mm

(d)

Figure A8 – Method to coat the Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic (Δ = a − r0 = 0.6mm ) .


(a)Acrylic sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness and an Aluminum plate (A4) with several
semi-spheres (radius r0 = 0.9 mm ) stamped on its surface. (b)A heater is placed below the
Aluminum plate in order to heat the Aluminum. (c)When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated
up, the acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are pressed, one against the other (The two D
devices shown in this figure are used in order to impede that the press compresses the acrylic
and the aluminum besides distance y + a ). (d)After some seconds, the press and the heater are
removed, and the device is ready to be used.

150
61

Dynamometer

50 mm
g g
GCC
g′ = χ g
Sample
Acrylic/Aluminum

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG

High-voltage V0
Rheostat Oscillator
Transformer f > 1Hz

Figure A9 – Experimental Set-up using a GCC subjected to high-voltage V 0 with frequency


f > 1Hz . Note that in this case, the pan balance is not necessary because the substance of the
Gravitational Shielding is an air layer with thickness d above the acrylic sheet. This is therefore,
more a type of Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external gravitational shielding.

151
62

Gravitational Shielding

d
R
V0

GCC
Acrylic /Aluminum

V0max = 9 kV
Oscillator
V0min = 2.7 kV ~ f > 1Hz

(a)

Acrylic

Pin wire

Aluminum

Connector
(High-voltage)
(b)
10kV

Figure A10 – (a) Equivalent Electric Circuit. (b) Details of the electrical connection with the
Aluminum plate. Note that others connection modes (by the top of the device) can produce
destructible interference on the electric lines of the E air field.

152
63

(a) (b)

Metallic Rings

Metallic base

(c)

Eair
Gravitational Shielding εr

Ellipsoidal metallic base

Metallic Rings
Oscillator f
Transformer
V0
Dielectric layer
Ionized air (d)

Figure A11 – Geometrical forms with similar effects as those produced by the semi-spherical form – (a)
shows the semi-spherical form stamped on the metallic surface; (b) shows the semi-cylindrical form (an
obvious evolution from the semi-spherical form); (c) shows concentric metallic rings stamped on
the metallic surface, an evolution from semi-cylindrical form. These geometrical forms produce
the same effect as that of the semi-spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using concentric
metallic rings, it is possible to build Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or spacecrafts with
several formats (spheres, ellipsoids, etc); (d) shows a Gravitational Shielding around a Spacecraft
with ellipsoidal form.

153
64

Dielectric
Metal Dielectric Metal (rigidly connected to the spacecraft)

Spacecraft E
Spacecraft E

Non-solid Gravitational Shielding Solid Gravitational Shielding


(rigidly connected to the dielectric)

(a) (b)

Figure A12 – Non-solid and Solid Gravitational Shieldings - In the case of the Gravitational
Shielding produced on a solid substance (b), when its molecules go to the imaginary space-time,
the electric field that produces the effect also goes to the imaginary space-time together with
them, because in this case, the substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly connected (by
means of the dielectric) to the metal that produces the electric field. This does not occur in the
case of Air Gravitational Shielding.

154
65

Metal Dielectric Metal Dielectric i ELF electric current


A
l
u
Spacecraft Spacecraft m
Ers Eair i
n
u
m

Solid Gravitational Shielding Air Gravitational Shielding


(a)

Micro-Gravitational Thruster

(b)

Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Intergallactic
medium
(IGM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
m gt r
Mg
Mg ρ igmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
r2 r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ igm∼10-26kg.m-3

(c)

Figure A13 – Double Gravitational Shielding and Micro-thrusters – (a) Shows a double
gravitational shielding that makes possible to decrease the inertial effects upon the spacecraft
when it is traveling both in the imaginary space-time and in the real space-time. The solid
Gravitational Shielding also can be obtained by means of an ELF electric current through a metallic
lamina placed between the semi-spheres and the Gravitational Shielding of Air as shown above. (b)
Shows 6 micro-thrusters placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft in the directions x, y and z. Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the spacecraft
must have a very small diameter (of the order of millimeters) because the hole through the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft cannot be large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact Micro-
thrusters. (c) Shows a micro-thruster inside a spacecraft, and in front of a volume V of the
intergalactic medium (IGM). Under these conditions, the spacecraft acquires an acceleration a in
the direction of the volume V.

155
66
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Interstellar
medium
(ISM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ismV
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ ism∼10-21kg.m-3

(a)

Volume V
of the
Interplanetary
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings medium
(IPM)

Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ipmV
a=χ G 10
=χ G10

Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ ipm∼10-20kg.m-3

(b)

Volume V
of the
Earth’s
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings
atmospheric

Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ atmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ atm∼1.2kg.m-3
(c)
Figure A14 – Gravitational Propulsion using Micro-Gravitational Thruster – (a) Gravitational
acceleration produced by a gravitational mass Mg of the Interstellar Medium. The density of the
Interstellar Medium is about 105 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium (b)
Gravitational acceleration produced in the Interplanetary Medium. (c) Gravitational acceleration
produced in the Earth’s atmosphere. Note that, in this case, ρatm (near to the Earth’s surface)is about
1026 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium.

156
67

r
F’0 F2 =χair2F0 F’2=χair2F’0 F0 r
F1 =χairF0 F’1 =χairF’0
Mg Mg
S2 S1
F’0 = F0 => R = (F’0 – F2) + (F1 – F’1 ) + (F’2 – F0) = 0

(a)

Micro-Gravitational Thruster
with 10 gravitational shieldings
Gravitational Shielding

r’ χ s ≅ −10 −8 a’0 r
a’0 =χs(-GMg /r’2) a10=χair10a0 a0 = - GMg/r2
Mg Mg
R ≅ F10 = χ 10
air F0

Hole in the Gravitational Shielding

Metal
Mica
(b) Grounded Metallic laminas
1 GCC
Air Gravitational Shielding
x

10mm

ELF
~
V0 ~ 400 mm

(c)
Figure A15 – Dynamics and Structure of the Micro-Gravitational Thrusters - (a) The Micro-Gravitational
Thrusters do not work outside the Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the resultant upon the thruster is
( )
null due to the symmetry. (b) The Gravitational Shielding χ s ≅ 10 −8 reduces strongly the intensities of the
gravitational forces acting on the micro-gravitational thruster, except obviously, through the hole in the
gravitational shielding. (c) Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings (10GCCs). The
grounded metallic laminas are placed so as to retain the electric field produced by metallic surface behind the
semi-spheres.

157
68

0.885 m
Sample
Any type of material; any mass
Acrylic Box
(2mm thickness) g’= χ g
2 mm
d = 9.73 mm Air layer mg (air) = χ mi (air) 7.73 mm
Distilled Water a = 1.9 mm
3.2 mm
1.8 mm
2 mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness) V0max = 9 kV
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) Balance
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) ~ 2 Hz

Transformer
g

GCC Cross-section Front view


(a)

0.885 m

0.884 m
1mm 1mm

Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness)
Balance
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) 1.5mm
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) 0.5 mm
3.6mm

0.885 m

GCC Cross-section Side View


(b)

Fig. A16 – A GCC using distilled Water.


In total this GCC weighs about 6kg; the air layer 7.3 grams. The balance has the
following characteristics: Range 0 – 6kg; readability 0.1g. The yarns are inserted
side by side on the Aluminum sheet. Note the detail of fixing of the yarns on the
Aluminum sheet.

158
69
140 cm

70
cm Sample 5Kg
mg Any type of material; any mass

g ′′′ = χ 3 g
GCC 3 Balance

70
cm 5Kg
mg

g ′′ = χ 2 g
GCC 2 Balance

70
cm 5Kg
mg

g′ = χ g
GCC 1 Balance

Fig. A17 – Experimental set-up. In order to prove the exponential effect produced by the
superposition of the Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three similar GCCs and put them one above
the other, in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq. (A47). The arrangement
above has been designed for values of mg < 13g and χ up to -9 or mg < 1kg and χ up to -2 .

159
70

APPENDIX B: A DIDACTIC GCC USING A BATTERY OF CAPACITORS

Let us now show a new type of GCC - easy to


be built with materials and equipments that also can E max = 5 . 3 × 10 10 V / m
be obtained with easiness.
Consider a battery of n parallel plate
Therefore, if the frequency of the wave voltage
capacitors with capacitances C1 , C2 , C 3 ,…, C n ,
(
is f = 60 Hz , ω = 2πf , we ) have that
connected in parallel. The voltage applied is V ; A
ωεair = 3.3 ×10 S.m . It is known that the electric
−9 −1
is the area of each plate of the capacitors and d is
the distance between the plates; ε r ( water ) is the conductivity of the air, σ air , at 10-4 Torr and 300K,
is much smaller than this value, i.e.,
relative permittivity of the dielectric (water). Then the
electric charge q on the plates of the capacitors is σ air << ωε air

given by (
Under this circumstance σ << ωε , we can )
substitute Eq. 15 and 34 into Eq. 7. Thus, we get
q = (C1 + C2 + C3 +...+ Cn )V = n(εr(water)ε0 ) V (B1)
A
d ⎧⎪ ⎡ μ ε 3 E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
m g (air ) = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + air 2 air 2 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (air )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ c ρ air ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
In Fig. I we show a GCC with two capacitors
connected in parallel. It is easy to see that the ⎧⎪ ⎡ E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric charge density σ 0 on each area A0 = az
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 9.68 × 10 − 57 2 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (air ) (B 5 )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρ air ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
of the edges B of the thin laminas (z is the thickness
of the edges B and a is the length of them, see
Fig.B2) is given by The density of the air at 10-4 Torr and 300K is
ρ air = 1 . 5 × 10 − 7 kg . m − 3
= n (ε r ( water )ε 0 ) (B 2 )
q A
σ0 = V
A0 azd Thus, we can write
Thus, the electric field E between the edges B is
m g (air )
2σ 0 ⎛ ε r ( water ) ⎞ A χ = =
E= = 2 n⎜ ⎟
⎜ ε r (air ) ⎟ azd
V (B 3) m i (air )
ε r (air )ε 0 ⎝ ⎠
Since A = L x L y , we can write that = ⎧⎨1 − 2 ⎡ 1 + 4 . 3 × 10 − 43 E 4 − 1⎤ ⎫⎬ (B 6 )
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎦⎥ ⎭

⎛ ε r ( water ) ⎞ L x L y Substitution of E for Emax = 5.3 ×10 V / m into


10
E = 2n⎜ ⎟
⎜ ε r (air ) ⎟ azd
V (B 4 ) this equation gives
⎝ ⎠
χ max ≅ − 1 . 2
Assuming ε r ( water ) = 81 ****
(bidistilled
water); ε r (air ) ≅ 1 (vacuum 10-4 Torr; 300K); n = 2; This means that, in this case, the gravitational
Lx = L y = 0.30m ; a = 0.12m ; z = 0.1mm and shielding produced in the vacuum between the
edges B of the thin laminas can reduce the local
d = 10mm we obtain gravitational acceleration g down to
g 1 ≅ − 1 .2 g
E = 2 . 43 × 10 8 V Under these circumstances, the weight, P = + m g g ,
of any body just above the gravitational shielding
For Vmax = 220V , the electric field is becomes

P = m g g 1 = −1.2m g g
****
It is easy to see that by substituting the water for
Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) the dimensions L x , L y of the
capacitors can be strongly reduced due to
ε r (BaTiO3) = 1200 .

160
71

Lamina

Edge B of the
Gravitational
Thin Lamina
Shielding (0.1mm thickness)
εr (air) g1 = χ g χ<1
Vacuum Chamber
(INOX) E Encapsulating
(10- 4 Torr, 300K) (EPOXI)
B B
g
Parallel plate
Capacitors Insulating holder
Dielectric:
Bidistilled Water
εr (water) = 81 d = 10 mm
V (60Hz)
Vmax=220V
Lx

Vertical Cross Section

q = (C1+C2+...+Cn) V =
= n [εr (water) / εr (air)] [A/A0] V / d

εr (water) = 81 ; εr (air) ≅ 1

E = [q/A0] / εr (air) ε0 = n [εr (water) / εr (air)] [A/A0] V / d

A is the area of the plates of the capacitors and A0 the


cross section area of the edges B of the thin laminas (z is
the thickness of the edges).

Figure B1 – Gravity Control Cell (GCC) using a battery of capacitors. According to Eq. 7 , the
electric field, E, through the air at 10-4 Torr; 300K, in the vacuum chamber, produces a gravitational
shielding effect. The gravity acceleration above this gravitational shielding is reduced to χg where χ
< 1.

161
72

Gravitational Shielding Lx

Ly E a

Lamina Lamina

Vacuum Chamber
EPOXI
Thin laminas
Thickness = z
Length = a
Top view

A0 = a z ; A = Lx Ly

Figure B2 – The gravitational shielding produced between the thin laminas.

162
73

+P

Sample −P
Any type of material
Any mass
Gravitational g1 = χ g χ<1
Shielding
GCC

↓g

mgg1 = -χ g mg

Elementar Motor

GCC

Figure B3 – Experimental arrangement with a GCC using battery of capacitors. By means of this
set-up it is possible to check the weight of the sample even when it becomes negative.

163
74

REFERENCES
1. DeAquino, F. 2010. Mathematical Foundations
15. Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl. Phys. Lett.
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity.
83, 1228.
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology.
11(1), pp.173-232.
16. Davidson, K. & Smoot, G. (2008)
Wrinkles in Time. N. Y: Avon, 158-163.
2. Freire, G. F. O and Diniz, A. B. (1973)
Ondas Eletromagnéticas, Ed. USP,p.26.
17. Silk, Joseph. (1977) Big Bang. N.Y,
Freeman, 299.
3. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)
Physics, J. Willey & Sons, Portuguese
18. Jafelice, L.C. and Opher, R. (1992). The
Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
origin of intergalactic magnetic fields
due to extragalactic jets. RAS.
4. Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-
McGraw-Hill, p.255 and 269.
bib query? Bib code = 1992 MNRAS.
257. 135J. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
5. GE Technical Publications (2007),
80044 – F20T12/C50/ECO, GE Ecolux ®T12. 19. Wadsley, J., et al. (2002). The Universe
in Hot Gas. NASA.
6. Aplin, K. L. (2000) PhD thesis, The http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap
University of Reading, UK 020820. html. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
7. Aplin K. L (2005) Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76,
104501.

8. Beiser, A. (1967) Concepts of Modern


Physics, McGraw-Hill,Portuguese version
(1969) Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo, p.362-363.

9. Hayt, W. H. (1974), Engineering


Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill.
Portuguese version (1978) Ed. Livros
Técnicos e Científicos Editora S.A, RJ,
Brasil. P.146.

10. Benjegerdes, R. et al.,(2001) Proceedings


of the 2001Particle Accelerator Conference,
Chicago.
http://epaper.kek.jp/p01/PAPERS/TOAB009.PDF

11. Gourlay, S. et al., (2000) Fabrication


and Test of a 14T, Nb3Sn
Superconducting Racetrack Dipole
Magnetic, IEE Trans on Applied
Superconductivity, p.294.

12. BPE soft, Extreme High Altitude


Conditions Calculator.
http://bpesoft.com/s/wleizero/xhac/?M=p

13. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,


77th ed.1996.

14. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)


Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.

164
Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2007 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Abstract: The existence of imaginary mass associated to the neutrino is already well-known.
Although its imaginary mass is not physically observable, its square is. This amount is found
experimentally to be negative. Recently, it was shown that quanta of imaginary mass exist
associated to the electron and the photon too. These imaginary masses have unusual
properties that violate the Parity Conservation Principle. The non-conservation of the parity is
also found in the weak interactions, and possibly can be explained by means of the existence of
the imaginary masses. Also protons and neutrons would have imaginary masses associated to
them and, in this way, atoms and molecules would also have imaginary masses directly
proportional to their atomic and molecular masses. The Parity Conservation Principle holds that
the material particles are not able to distinguish their right from their left. The non-conservation
of the parity would necessarily imply capability of "choice". Thus, as the particles with imaginary
mass don't conserve the parity, they would have the elementary capability of “choosing between
their right or left”. Where there is “choice” isn’t there also psychism, by definition? This
fundamental discovery shows that, in some way, the consciousnesses are related to the
imaginary masses. This fact, make it possible to redefine Psychology on a Quantum Physics
basis.

Key words: Quantum Psychology, Quantized Fields, Unification and Mass Relations,
Quantum Mechanics, Bose-Einstein Condensation, Origin of the Universe.
PACs: 03.70.+k; 12.10.Kt; 14.80.Cp; 03.65.-w; 03.75.Nt; 98.80.Bp.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the last decades it has become evident that the theoretical foundations of
Natural Sciences are based on Physics. Today’s Chemistry is completely based on
Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Statistics, Thermodynamics and Kinetic Physics. Also
Biology becomes progressively based on Physics, as more and more biological
phenomena are being described on the basis of Quantum Physics. Modern Biophysics
is now considered a branch of Physics and no longer a secondary part of Biology and
Physiology. As regards Psychology, there are recently several authors making use of
Quantum Physics in order to explain psychic phenomena [1,2].
The idea of psyche associated with matter dates back to the pre-Socratic period
and is usually called panpsychism. Remnants of organized panpsychism may be found
in the Uno of Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s Divine Flux. Scholars of Miletus’s school
were called hylozoists, that is, “those who believe that matter is alive”. More recently,
we will find the panpsychistic thought in Spinoza, Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin,
among others. The latter one admitted the existence of proto-conscious properties at
level of elementary particles.
Generally, the people believe that there is some type of psyche associated to the
animals, and some biologists agree that even very simple animals like the ameba and
the sea anemone are endowed with psychism. This led several authors to consider the
possibility of the psychic phenomena to be described in a theory based on Physics
[3,4,5,6].
This work presents a possible theoretical foundation for Psychology based on
Quantum Physics, starting from discoveries published in a recent article [7], where it is
shown that there is a quantum of imaginary mass associated to the electron, which
would be equivalent to an elementary particle that does not conserves the parity. Thus,
besides its inertial mass the electron would have an imaginary mass that would have
elementary capacity of “choice”. The theory here presented describes the structures

165
2

and the interaction between these imaginary particles and also explain their relations
with the matter on all levels, from the atom to man. In addition, it gives us a better
understanding of life and a more complete cosmological view, which lead us to
understand our relationship with ourselves, with others, with the Universe and with
God.

2. THEORY

It was shown [7] that quanta of imaginary mass exist associated to the
electron and the photon and that these imaginary masses would have psychic
properties (elementary capacity of “choice”). Thus, we can say that, besides its
inertial mass, the electron would have a psychic mass, given by
⎛ hf electron ⎞
mΨelectron = mg (imaginary)electron =
⎜ 4
⎟ i = 43 mi (real)electron i (01)
⎝ c ⎠
23

Where mi (real )electron = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg is the real inertial mass of the electron. In the
case of the photons, it was shown that the imaginary gravitational mass of the
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
photon is: m g (imaginary ) photon =
⎜ 2 ⎟ i . Therefore, the psychic mass associated
3 ⎝c ⎠
to a photon with frequency f is expressed by the following equation:
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
m Ψ photon = m g (imaginary ) photon =
⎜ 2⎟ i (02 )
3⎝c ⎠
The equation of quantization of mass [7], in the generalized form is expressed
by: m g (imaginary ) = n 2 m g (imagynary )(min ) . Thus, we can also conclude that the psychic
mass is also quantized, due to m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) , i.e.,
m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (03)
Where
mΨ (min ) = 4
3
(hf min )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real )min i (04)

The minimum quantum of real inertial mass in the Universe, mi (real )min , is given
by [7]:
mi (real )min = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10 −73 kg (05)
By analogy to Eq. (01), the expressions of the psychic masses associated to the
proton and the neutron are respectively given by:

m Ψproton = m g (imaginary ) proton = 4


3
(hf proton )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real ) proton i (06 )

mΨneutron = m g (imaginary )neutron = 4


3
(hf neutron )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real )neutron i (07)

166
3

Where f proton and f neutron are respectively the frequencies of the DeBroglie’s
waves associated to the proton and the neutron.
Thus, from a quantum viewpoint, the psychic particles are similar to the
material particles, so that we can use the Quantum Mechanics to describe the
psychic particles. In this case, by analogy to the material particles, a particle
with psychic mass mΨ will be described by the following expressions:

r r
pψ = hkψ (08)
Eψ = hωψ (09)
r r
Where pψ = mΨV is the momentum carried by the wave and Eψ its energy;
r
kψ = 2π λψ is the propagation number and λψ = h m Ψ V the wavelength and
ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic frequency.
The variable quantity that characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is called Wave
Function, usually indicated by Ψ . The wave function associated to a material
particle describes the dynamic state of the particle: its value at a particular point
x, y, z, t is related to the probability of finding the particle in that place and
instant. Although Ψ does not have a physical interpretation, its square Ψ 2
or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a particular point x, y, z, t is proportional to the
probability of experimentally finding the particle in that place and instant.

Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the probability P of finding the particle


described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on the whole space must be finite –
inasmuch as the particle is someplace. Therefore, if
(10)
+∞
∫−∞
Ψ 2 dV = 0
The interpretation is that the particle does not exist. However, if
(11)
+∞
∫−∞
Ψ 2 dV = ∞
the particle will be everywhere simultaneously (Omnipresence).
The wave function Ψ corresponds, as we know, to the displacement y
of the undulatory motion of a rope. However, Ψ as opposed to y , is not a
measurable quantity and can, hence, be a complex quantity. For this reason, it
is admitted that Ψ is described in the x -direction by
− (2π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Be (12 )
This equation is the mathematical description of the wave associated with a free
material particle, with total energy E and momentum p , moving in the direction
+ x.
As concerns the psychic particle, the variable quantity characterizing
psyche waves will also be called wave function, denoted by ΨΨ ( to differentiate
it from the material particle wave function), and, by analogy with equation Eq.
(12), expressed by:

167
4

( )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e Ψ Ψ
(13)
− 2π i h ( E t − p x )

If an experiment involves a large number of identical particles, all described by


the same wave function Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these particles in x, y, z,
t is proportional to the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is known as density of
probability. If Ψ is complex then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus, ρ ∝ Ψ 2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly,
in the case of psychic particles, the density of psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will
be expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is known that ΨΨ2 is always real and
positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an imaginary quantity. Thus, as the modulus of an
imaginary number is always real and positive, we can transform the proportion
ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in equality in the following form:
ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ (14)
Where k is a proportionality constant (real and positive) to be determined.
In Quantum Mechanics we have studied the Superpositon Principle,
which affirms that, if a particle (or system of particles) is in a dynamic state
represented by a wave function Ψ1 and may also be in another dynamic state
described by Ψ2 then, the general dynamic state of the particle may be
described by Ψ , where Ψ is a linear combination (superposition) of Ψ1 and
Ψ2 , i.e.,
Ψ = c1Ψ1 + c2 Ψ2 (15)
Complex constants c1 e c2 respectively indicate the percentage of dynamic
state, represented by Ψ1 e Ψ2 in the formation of the general dynamic state
described by Ψ .
In the case of psychic particles (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.), by
analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic states the psychic
particle assume, then its general dynamic state may be described by the wave
function ΨΨ , given by:
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn (16)
The state of superposition of wave functions is, therefore, common for both
psychic and material particles. In the case of material particles, it can be
verified, for instance, when an electron changes from one orbit to another.
Before effecting the transition to another energy level, the electron carries out
“virtual transitions” [8]. A kind of relationship with other electrons before
performing the real transition. During this relationship period, its wave function
remains “scattered” by a wide region of the space [9] thus superposing the
wave functions of the other electrons. In this relationship the electrons mutually
influence each other, with the possibility of intertwining their wave functions 1 .
When this happens, there occurs the so-called Phase Relationship according to
quantum-mechanics concept.

1
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
functions.

168
5

In the electrons “virtual” transition mentioned before, the “listing” of all the
possibilities of the electrons is described, as we know, by Schrödinger’s wave equation.
Otherwise, it is general for material particles. By analogy, in the case of psychic
particles, we may say that the “listing” of all the possibilities of the psyches involved in
the relationship will be described by Schrödinger’s equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
p Ψ2
∇ 2 ΨΨ + ΨΨ = 0
h2
Because the wave functions are capable of intertwining themselves, the quantum
systems may “penetrate” each other, thus establishing an internal relationship where all
of them are affected by the relationship, no longer being isolated systems but
becoming an integrated part of a larger system. This type of internal relationship, which
exists only in quantum systems, was called Relational Holism [10].
It is a proven quantum fact that a wave function may collapse, and that, at this
moment, all the possibilities that it describes are suddenly expressed in reality. This
means that, through this process, particles can be suddenly materialized. Similarly, the
collapse of the psychic wave function must suddenly also express in reality all the
possibilities described by it. This is, therefore, a point of decision in which there occurs
the compelling need of realization of the psychic form. Thus, this is moment in which
the content of the psychic form realizes itself in the space-time. For an observer in
space-time, something is real when it is under a matter or radiation form. Therefore, the
content of the psychic form may realize itself in space-time exclusively under the form
of radiation, that is, it does not materialize. This must occur when the Materialization
Condition is not satisfied, i.e., when the content of the psychic form is undefined
(impossible to be defined by its own psychic) or it does not contain enough psychic
mass to materialize 2 the respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, there must always be a production of “virtual”
photons to convey the psychic interaction to the other psychic particles, according to
the quantum field theory, only through this type of quanta will interaction be conveyed,
since it has an infinite reach and may be either attractive or repulsive, just as
electromagnetic interaction which, as we know, is conveyed by the exchange of
“virtual” photons.
If electrons, protons and neutrons have psychic mass, then we can infer that the
psychic mass of the atoms are Phase Condensates 3 . In the case of the molecules the
situation is similar. More molecular mass means more atoms and consequently, more
psychic mass. In this case the phase condensate also becomes more structured
because the great amount of elementary psyches inside the condensate requires, by
stability reasons, a better distribution of them. Thus, in the case of molecules with very
large molecular masses (macromolecules) it is possible that their psychic masses
already constitute the most organized shape of a Phase Condensate, called Bose-
Einstein Condensate 4 .

2
By this we mean not only materialization proper but also the movement of matter to realize its psychic
content (including radiation).
3
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers, super
fluids, superconductors and magnets are examples of phase condensates more structured.
4
Several authors have suggested the possibility of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the brain,
and that it might be the physical base of memory, although they have not been able to find a suitable
mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis. Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates in
living tissues abound (Popp, F.A Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New Scientist, May89, p.41;
Rattermeyer, M and Popp, F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)

169
6

The fundamental characteristic of a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we


know, that the various parts making up the condensed system not only behave
as a whole but also become a whole, i.e., in the psychic case, the various
consciousnesses of the system become a single consciousness with psychic
mass equal to the sum of the psychic masses of all the consciousness of the
condensate. This obviously, increases the available knowledge in the system
since it is proportional to the psychic mass of the consciousness. This unity
confers an individual character to this type of consciousness. For this reason,
from now on they will be called Individual Material Consciousness.
It derives from the above that most bodies do not possess individual
material consciousness. In an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of elementary
psyches in the iron molecules does not constitute Bose-Einstein condensate;
therefore, the iron rod does not have an individual consciousness. Its
consciousness is consequently, much more simple and constitutes just a phase
condensate imprecisely structured made by the consciousness of the iron
atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses in the atoms is revealed in the
molecular formation, where atoms with strong mutual affinity (their
consciousnesses) combine to form molecules. It is the case, for instance of the
water molecules, in which two Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen atom. Well, how
come the combination between these atoms is always the same: the same
grouping and the same invariable proportion? In the case of molecular
combinations the phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the chemical substances
either mutually attract or repel themselves, carrying out specific motions for this
reason. It is the so-called Chemical Affinity. This phenomenon certainly results
from a specific interaction between the consciousnesses. From now on, it will
be called Psychic Interaction.
Mutual Affinity is a dimensionless psychic quantity with which we are
familiar and of which we have perfect understanding as to its meaning. The
degree of Mutual Affinity, A , in the case of two consciousnesses, respectively
described by ΨΨ1 e ΨΨ 2 , must be correlated to ΨΨ2 1 e ΨΨ2 2 5 . Only a simple
algebraic form fills the requirements of interchange of the indices, the product

ΨΨ2 1.ΨΨ2 2 = ΨΨ2 2 .ΨΨ2 1 = A1,2 = A2,1 = A (17)

In the above expression, A is due to the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always
positive. From equations (17) and (14) we get
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 = k 2 (18)
V1 V2

5
Quantum Mechanics tells us thatΨ does not have a physical interpretation nor a simple meaning and
also it cannot be experimentally observed. However such restriction does not apply to Ψ , which is
2

known as density of probability and represents the probability of finding the body, described by the wave
function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the moment t. A large value of Ψ 2 means a strong possibility to find
the body, while a small value of Ψ means a weak possibility to find the body.
2

170
7

The psychic interaction can be described starting from the psychic mass
because the psychic mass is the source of the psychic field. Basically, the
psychic mass is gravitational mass, since m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the
equations of the gravitational interaction are also applied to the Psychic
Interaction. That is, we can use Einstein’s General Relativity equations, given
by:
8πG
(
Rik = 4 Ti k − 12 δ ik T ) (19)
c
in order to describe the Psychic Interaction. In this case, the expression of the
energy-momentum tensor, Ti k , must have the following form [11]:
Ti k = ρ Ψ c 2 μ i μ k (20 )
The psychic mass density, ρ Ψ , is a imaginary quantity. Thus, in order to
homogenize the above equation it is necessary to put ρ Ψ because, as we
know, the module of an imaginary number is always real and positive.
Making on the transition to Classical Mechanics [12] one can verify that
Eqs. (19) are reduced to:
ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (21)
This is, therefore, the equation of the psychic field in nonrelativistic Mechanics.
With respect to its form, it is similar to the equation of the gravitational field, with
the difference that now, instead of the density of gravitational mass we have the
density of psychic mass. Then, we can write the general solution of Eq. (21), in
the following form:
ρ Ψ dV
Φ = −G ∫ (22)
r2
This equation expresses, with nonrelativistic approximation, the potential of the
psychic field of any distribution of psychic mass.
Particularly, for the potential of the field of only one particle with psychic
mass mΨ1 , we get:
G mΨ1
Φ=− (23)
r
Then the force produced by this field upon another particle with psychic mass
mΨ 2 is
r r ∂Φ mΨ1 mΨ 2
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 = −G (24)
∂r r2
By comparing equations (24) and (18) we obtain
r r VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (25)
k r
In the vectorial form the above equation is written as follows
r r VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −GA 12 22 μ̂ (26 )
k r

Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line connecting the mass centers (psychic
mass) of both particles and oriented from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 .
In general, we may distinguish and quantify two types of mutual affinity:
positive and negative (aversion). The occurrence of the first type is synonym of

171
8

psychic attraction, (as in the case of the atoms in the water molecule) while the
aversion is synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (26) shows that the forces
r r
FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are attractive, if A is positive (expressing positive mutual affinity
between the two psychic bodies), and repulsive if A is negative (expressing
negative mutual affinity between the two psychic bodies). Contrary to the
interaction of the matter, where the opposites attract themselves here, the
opposites repel themselves.
A method and device to obtain images of psychic bodies have been
previously proposed [13]. By means of this device, whose operation is based on
the gravitational interaction and the piezoelectric effect, it will be possible to
observe psychic bodies.
Expression (18) can be rewritten in the following form:
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (27)
V1 V2
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are imaginary quantities. However, the product
mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One can then conclude from the previous expression
that the degree of mutual affinity between two consciousnesses depends
basically on the densities of their psychic masses, and that:

1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then A > 0 (positive mutual affinity between them)
2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then A > 0 (positive mutual affinity between them)
3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then A < 0 (negative mutual affinity between them)
4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then A < 0 (negative mutual affinity between them)

In this relationship, such as occurs in the case of material particles (“virtual”


transition of the electrons previously mentioned), the consciousnesses interact
mutually, intertwining or not their wave functions. When this happens, there
occurs the so-called Phase Relationship according to quantum-mechanics
concept. Otherwise a Trivial Relationship takes place.
The psychic forces such as the gravitational forces, must be very weak
when we consider the interaction between two particles. However, in spite of
the subtleties, those forces stimulate the relationship of the consciousnesses
with themselves and with the Universe (Eq.26).
From all the preceding, we perceive that Psychic Interaction – unified with
matter interactions, constitutes a single Law which links things and beings
together and, in a network of continuous relations and exchanges, governs the
Universe both in its material and psychic aspects. We can also observe that in
the interactions the same principle reappears always identical. This unity of
principle is the most evident expression of monism in the Universe.

172
9

3. UNIFIED COSMOLOGY

In traditional Cosmology, the Universe arises from a great explosion


where everything that exists would be initially concentrated in a minuscule
particle with the size of a proton and with a gigantic mass equal to the mass of
the Universe. However, the origin this tiny particle is not explained, nor is the
reason for its critical volume.
This critical volume denotes knowledge of what would happen with the
Universe starting from that initial condition, a fact that points towards the
existence of a Creator.
It was shown that a wave function may collapse and, at this moment, all
the possibilities that it describes are suddenly expressed in reality. This means
that, through this process, particles can be suddenly materialized. This is a
materialization process which can explain the materialization of the Universe.
That is, the Primordial Universe would have arisen at the exact moment in
which the Primordial Wave Function collapsed (Initial Instant) realizing the
content of the psychic form generated at the consciousness of the Creator when
He thought to create the Universe.
The psychic form described by this primordial wave function must have
been generated in a consciousness with a psychic mass much greater than that
needed to materialize the Universe (material and psychic).
This giant consciousness, in its turn, would not only be the greatest of all
consciousnesses in the Universe but also the substratum of everything that
exists and, obviously, everything that exists would be entirely contained within
it, including all the spacetime.
Based on General Theory of Relativity and recent cosmological
observations, it is known today that the Universe occupies a space of positive
curvature. This space, as we known, is “closed in itself”, its volume is finite but,
clearly understood, the space has no frontiers, it is unlimited. Thus, if the
consciousness we refer to contains all the space, its volume is necessarily
infinite, consequently having an infinite psychic mass.
This means that It contains all the existing psychic mass and, therefore,
any other consciousness that may exist will contained in It. Hence, we may
conclude that It is the Supreme Consciousness and that there no other equal to
It: It is unique.
The manifestation of the knowledge or auto-accessible knowledge in a
consciousness should be related to its quantity of psychic mass. In the
Supreme Consciousness, whose psychic mass is infinite, the manifestation of
the knowledge is total, and as such, necessarily, It should be omniscient. In the
elementary psyche (m Ψ (min ) ) most of the knowledge should be in latent state.
Being omniscient, the Supreme Conscience knows evidently, how to formulate
well-defined mental images and with sufficiently psychic masses in order to
materialize their contents (Materialization Condition). Consequently, It can
materialize everything which It wants (Omnipotence).
Since the Supreme Consciousness occupies all the space, we can
conclude that It cannot be displaced by another consciousness, not even by
Itself. Therefore, the Supreme Consciousness is immovable.
As Augustine says (Gen. Ad lit viii, 20), "The Creator Spirit moves Himself
neither by time, nor by place."

173
10

Thomas Aquinas also had already considered Creator's immobility as


necessary:
“From this we infer that it is necessary that the God that moves everything is
immovable.” (Summa Theologica).
On the other hand, since the Supreme Consciousness contains all the
space-time, It should contain obviously, all the time. More explicit, for the
Supreme Consciousness, past, present and future are an eternal present, and
the time does not flow as it flows for us.
Within this framework, when we talk about the Creation of the Universe,
the use of the verb “to create” means that something that was not came into
being, thus presupposing the concept of time flow. For the Supreme
Consciousness, however, the instant of Creation is mixed up with all other
times, consequently there being no “before” or “after” the Creation and, thus,
the following questions like “What did the Supreme Consciousness do before
Creation?
We can also infer from the above that the existence of the Supreme
Consciousness has no defined limit (beginning and end), which confers upon It
the unique characteristic of uncreated and eternal.
Being eternal, Its wave function ΨSC shall never collapse. On the other
hand, for having an infinite psychic mass, the value of ΨSC will always be infinite
and, hence, in agreement with Eq. (11), the Supreme Consciousness is
simultaneously everywhere, that is, It is omnipresent.
All these characteristics of the Supreme Consciousness (infinite, unique,
uncreated, eternal, omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent) coincide with
those traditionally ascribed to God by most religions.
The option of the Supreme Consciousness to materialize the primordial
Universe into a critical volume denotes the knowledge of what was would
happen in the Universe starting from that initial condition. Therefore, It knew
how the Universe would behave under already existing laws. Consequently, the
laws were not created for the Universe and, hence, are not “Nature’s laws” or
“laws placed on Nature by God”, as written by Descartes. They already existed
as an intrinsic part of the Supreme Consciousness; Thomas Aquinas had a very
clear understanding about this. He talks about the Eternal Law “…which exists
in God’s mind and governs the whole Universe”.
The Supreme Consciousness had all freedom to choose the initial
conditions of the Universe, but opted for the concentration in a critical volume
so that the evolution of the Universe would proceed in the most convenient form
for the purpose It had in mind and in accordance with the laws inherent in Its
own nature. This reasoning then answers Einstein’s famous question: “What
level of choice would God have had when building the Universe?”
Apparently, Newton was the first one to notice the Divine option. In his
book Optiks, he gives us a perfect view of how he imagined the creation of the
Universe:
“ It seems possible to me that God, in the beginning, gave form to matter in
solid, compacted particles[…] in the best manner possible to contribute to the
purpose He had in mind…”
With what purpose did the Supreme Consciousness create the Universe?
This question seems to be difficult to answer. Nevertheless, if we admit the
Supreme Consciousness’s primordial desire to procreate, i.e., to generate

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individual consciousnesses from Itself so that the latter could evolve and
manifest Its same creating attributes, then we can infer that, in order for them to
evolve, such consciousness would need a Universe, and this might have been
the main reason for its creation. Therefore, the origin of the Universe would be
related to the generation of said consciousness and, consequently, the
materialization of the primordial Universe must have taken place at the same
epoch when the Supreme Consciousness decided to individualize the
postulated consciousness, hereinafter called Primordial Consciousness.
For having been directly individualized from the Supreme Consciousness,
the primordial consciousness certainly contained in themselves, although in a
latent state, all the possibilities of the Supreme Consciousness, including the
germ of independent will, which enables original starting points to be
established. However, in spite of the similarity to Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousness could not have the understanding of themselves. This
self-understanding only arises with the creative mental state that such
consciousnesses can only reach by evolution.
Thus, in the first evolutionary period, the primordial consciousness must
have remained in total unconscious state, this being then the beginning of an
evolutionary pilgrimage from unconsciousness to superconsciousness.
The evolution of the primordial consciousness in this unconsciousness
period takes place basically through psychic relationship among them
(superposition of psychic wave functions, having or not intertwining). Thus, the
speed at which they evolved was determined by what they obtained in these
relationships.
After the origin of the first planets, some of them came to develop
favorable conditions for the appearance of macromolecules. These
macromolecules, as we have shown, may have a special type of consciousness
formed by a Bose-Einstein condensate (Individual Material Consciousness). In
this case, since the molecular masses of the macromolecules are very large,
they will have individual material consciousness of large psychic mass and,
therefore, access to a considerable amount of information in its own
consciousness. Consequently, macromolecules with individual material
consciousness are potentially very capable and some certainly already can
carry out autonomous motions, thus being considered as “living” entities.
However, if we decompose one of these molecules so as to destroy its
individual consciousness, its parts will no longer have access to the information
which “instructed” said molecule and, hence, will not be able to carry out the
autonomous motions it previously did. Thus, the “life” of the molecule
disappears – as we can see, Delbrück’s Paradox is then solved 6 .
The appearance of “living” molecules in a planet marks the beginning of
the most important evolutionary stage for the psyche of matter, for it is from the
combination of these molecules that there appear living beings with individual
material consciousness with even larger psychic masses.
Biologists have shown that all living organisms existing on Earth come
from two types of molecules – aminoacids and nucleotides – which make up the
fundamental building blocks of living beings. That is, the nucleotides and
6
This paradox ascribed to Max Delbrück (Delbrück, Max., (1978) Mind from Matter? American Scholar,
47. pp.339-53.) remained unsolved and was posed as follows: How come the same matter studied by
Physics, when incorporated into a living organism, assumes an unexpected behavior, although not
contradicting physical laws?

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aminoacids are identical in all living beings, whether they are bacteria, mollusks
or men. There are twenty different species of aminoacids and five of
nucleotides.
In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey proved that aminoacids could be
produced from inert chemical products present in the atmosphere and oceans in
the first years of existence of the Earth. Later, in 1962, nucleotides were created
in laboratory under similar conditions. Thus, it was proved that the molecular
units making up the living beings could have formed during the Earth’s primitive
history.
Therefore, we can imagine what happened from the moment said
molecules appeared. The concentration of aminoacids and nucleotides in the
oceans gradually increased. After a long period of time, when the amount of
nucleotides was already large enough, they began to group themselves by
mutual psychic attraction, forming the molecules that in the future will become
DNA molecules.
When the molecular masses of these molecules became large enough,
the distribution of elementary psyches in their consciousnesses took the most
orderly possible form of phase condensate (Bose-Einstein condensate) and
such consciousnesses became the individual material consciousness.
Since the psychic mass of the consciousnesses of these molecules is
very large (as compared with the psychic mass of the atoms), the amount of
self-accessible knowledge became considerable in such consciousnesses and
thus, they became apt to instruct the joining of aminoacids in the formation of
the first proteins (origin of the Genetic Code). Consequently, the DNA’s
capability to serve as guide for the joining of aminoacids in the formation of
proteins is fundamentally a result of their psychism.
In the psychic of DNA molecules, the formation of proteins certainly had a
definite objective: the construction of cells.
During the cellular construction, the most important function played by the
consciousnesses of the DNA molecules may have been that of organizing the
distribution of the new molecules incorporated to the system so that the
consciousnesses of these molecules jointly formed with the consciousness of
the system a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this manner, more knowledge would
be available to the system and, after the cell is completed, the latter would also
have an individual material consciousness.
Afterwards, under the action of psychic interaction, the cells began to
group themselves according to different degrees of positive mutual affinity, in an
organized manner so that the distribution of their consciousnesses would also
form Bose-Einstein condensates. Hence, collective cell units began to appear
with individual consciousnesses of larger psychic masses and, therefore, with
access to more knowledge. With greater knowledge available, these groups of
cells began to perform specialized functions to obtain food, assimilation, etc.
That is when the first multi-celled beings appeared.
Upon forming the tissues, the cells gather structurally together in an
organized manner. Thus, the tissues and, hence, the organs and the organisms
themselves also possess individual material consciousnesses.
The existence of the material consciousness of the organisms is proved
in a well-known experiment by Karl Lashley, a pioneer in neurophysiology.
Lashley initially taught guinea pigs to run through a maze, an ability they
remember and keep in their memories in the same way as we acquire new

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skills. He then systematically removed small portions of the brain tissue of said
guinea pigs. He thought that, if the guinea pigs still remembered how to run
through the maze, the memory centers would still be intact.
Little by little he removed the brain mass; the guinea pigs, curiously
enough, kept remembering how to run through the maze. Finally, with more
than90% of their cortex removed, the guinea pigs still kept remembering how to
run through the maze. Well, as we have seen, the consciousness of an
organism is formed by the concretion of all its cellular consciousnesses.
Therefore, the removal of a portion of the organism cells does not make it
disappear. Their cells, or better saying, the consciousnesses of their cells
contribute to the formation of the consciousness of the organism just as the
others, and it is exactly due to this that, even when we remove almost all of the
guinea pigs’ cortex, they were still able to remember from the memories of their
individual material consciousnesses. In this manner, what Lashley’s experiment
proved was precisely the existence of individual material consciousnesses in
the guinea pigs.
Another proof of the existence of the individual material
consciousnesses in organisms is given by the regeneration phenomenon, so
frequent in animals of simple structure: sponges, isolated coelenterates, worms
of various groups, mollusks, echinoderms and tunicates. The arthropods
regenerate their pods. Lizards may regenerate only their tail after autoctomy.
Some starfish may regenerate so easily that a simple detached arm may, for
example, give origin to a wholly new animal.
The organization of the psychic parts in the composition of an organism’s
individual material consciousness is directly related to the organization of the
material parts of the organism, as we have already seen. Thus, due to this
interrelationship between body and consciousness, any disturbance of a
material (physiological) nature in the body of the being will affect its individual
material consciousness, and any psychic disturbance imposed upon its
consciousness affects the physiology of its body.
When a consciousness is strongly affected to the extent of unmaking the
Bose-Einstein’s condensate, which gives it the status of individual
consciousness, there also occurs the simultaneous disappearance of the
knowledge made accessible by said condensation. Therefore, when a cell’s
consciousness no longer constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, there is also
the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge that instructs and maintains
the cellular metabolism. Consequently, the cell no longer functions thus
initiating its decomposition (molecular disaggregation).
Similarly, when the consciousness of an animal (or plant) no longer
constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, the knowledge that instructs and
maintains its body functioning also disappears, and it dies. In this process, after
the unmaking of the being’s individual consciousness, there follows the
unmaking of the individual consciousnesses of the organs; next will be the
consciousnesses of their own cells which no longer exit. At the end there will
remain the isolated psyches of the molecules and atoms. Death, indeed,
destroys nothing, neither what makes up matter nor what makes up psyche.
As we have seen, all the information available in the consciousnesses of
the beings is also accessible by the consciousnesses of their organs up to their
molecules’. Thus, when an individual undergoes a certain experience, the
information concerning it not only is recorded somewhere in this consciousness

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but also pervades all the individual consciousnesses that make up its total
consciousness. Consequently, psychic disturbances imposed to a being reflect
up to the level of their individual molecular consciousnesses, perhaps even
structurally affecting said molecules, due to the interrelationship between body
and consciousness already mentioned here.
Therefore, one can expect that there may occur modifications in the
sequences of nucleotides of DNA molecules when the psychism of the
organism to which they are incorporated is sufficiently affected.
It is known that such modifications in the structure of DNA molecules may
also occur because of the chemical products in the blood stream ( as in the
case of the mustard gas used in chemical warface) or by the action of radiation
sufficiently energetic.
Modifications in the sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are
called mutations. Mutations as we know, determine hereditary variations which
make up the basis of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
There may occur “favorable” and unfavorable” mutation to the individuals;
the former enhances the individuals’ possibility of survival, whereas the latter
decrease such possibility.
The theory of evolution is established as a consequence of individuals’
efforts to survive in the environment where they live. This means that their
descendants may become different from their ancestors. This is the mechanism
that leads to the frequent appearance of new species. Darwin believed that the
mutation process was slow and gradual. Nevertheless, it is known today that
this is not the general rule, for there are evidences of the appearance of new
species in a relatively short period of time [14]. We also know that the
characteristics are transmitted from parents to offsprings by means of genes
and that the recombination of the parents’ genes, when genetic instructions are
transmitted by such genes.
However, it was shown that the genetic instructions are basically
associated with the psychism of DNA molecules. Consequently, the genes
transmit not only physiological but also psychic differences.
Thus, as a consequence of genetic transmission, besides the great
physiological difference between individuals of the same species, there is also a
great psychic dissimilarity.
Such psychic dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement
of the individual’s psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to
a variety of individuals (most probably among anthropoid primates) which
unconsciously established a positive mutual affinity with primordial
consciousnesses must have been attracted to the Earth. Thus, the relationship
established among them and the consciousnesses of said individuals is
enhanced.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there was a time when the
fetuses of said variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity
with the primordial consciousnesses attracted to the Earth that, during
pregnancy, the incorporation of primordial consciousnesses may have occurred
in said fetuses.
In spite of absolute psychic mass of the fetus’s material consciousness
being much smaller than that of the mother’s consciousness, the degree of
positive mutual affinity between the fetus’s consciousness and the primordial
consciousness that is going to be incorporated is much greater than that

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between the latter and the mother’s, which makes the psychic attraction
between the fetus’s consciousness and primordial consciousness much
stronger than the attraction between the latter and the mother’s. That is the
reason why primordial consciousness incorporates the fetus. Thus, when these
new individuals are born, they bring along, besides their individual material
consciousness, an individualized consciousness of the Supreme
Consciousness. This is how the first hominids were born.
Having been directly individualized from Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousnesses constitutes as perfect individualities and not as
phase condensates as the consciousnesses of matter. In this manner, they do
not dissociate upon the death of those that incorporated them. Afterwards, upon
the action of psychic attraction, they were again able to incorporate into other
fetuses to proceed with their evolution.
These consciousnesses (hereinafter called human consciousness)
constitutes individualities and, therefore, the larger their psychic mass the more
available knowledge they will have and, consequently, greater ability to evolve.
Just as the human race evolves biologically, human consciousnesses
have also been evolving. When they are incorporated, the difficulties of the
material world provide them with more and better opportunities to acquire
psychic mass (later on we will see how said consciousnesses may gain or lose
psychic mass). That is why they need to perform successive reincorporations.
Each reincorporation arises as a new opportunity for said consciousnesses to
increase their psychic mass and thus evolve.
The belief in the reincarnation is millenary and well known, although it has
not yet been scientifically recognized, due to its antecedent probability being
very small. In other words, there is small amount of data contributing to its
confirmation. This, however, does not mean that the phenomenon is not true,
but only that there is the need for a considerable amount of experiments to
establish a significant degree of antecedent probability.
The rational acceptance of reincarnation entails deep modifications in
the general philosophy of the human being. For instance, it frees him from
negative feelings, such as nationalistic or racial prejudices and other response
patterns based on the naive conception that we are simply what we appear to
be.
Darwin’s lucid perception upon affirming that not only the individual’s
corporeal qualities but also his psychic qualities tend to improve made implicit in
his “natural selection” one of the most important rules of evolution: the psychic
selection, which basically consists in the survival of the most apt
consciousnesses. Psychic aptitude means, in the case of human
consciousnesses, mental quality, i.e., quality of thinking.
Further on, we will see that the human consciousnesses may gain or lose
psychic mass from the Supreme consciousness, respectively due to the mode
of resonance (quality) of their thoughts. This means that the consciousnesses
that cultivate a greater amount of bad-quality thoughts will have a lesser chance
of psychic survival than the others. A human consciousness that permanently
cultivates bad-quality thoughts progressively loses psychic mass and may even
be extinguished.
With the progressive disappearance of psychically less apt
consciousnesses, it will be increasingly easy for the more apt consciousnesses
to increase their psychic masses during reincorporation periods. There will be a

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time when psychic selection will have produced consciousnesses of large


psychic mass and, therefore, highly evolved. It may happen that such time will
precede the critical time from which material life will no longer be possible in the
Universe.

4. INTERACTION OF HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESSES

The thought originated in a consciousness (static thought) presupposes


the individualization of a quantum of psychic mass ΔmΨ in the very
consciousness where the thought originated. Consequently, the wave function
ΨΨ associated with this psychic body must collapse after a time interval Δt ,
expressing in the space-time its psychic content when it contains sufficiently
psychic mass for that, or otherwise transforming itself in radiation (psychic
radiation). In both cases, there is also production of “virtual” photons (“virtual’
psychic radiation) to convey the psychic interaction.
According to the Uncertainty Principle, “virtual” quanta cannot be
observed experimentally. However, since they are interaction quanta, their
effects may be verified in the very particles or bodies subjected to the
interactions.
Obviously, only one specific type of interaction occurs between two
particles if each one absorbs the quanta of said interaction emitted by the other;
otherwise, the interaction will be null. Thus, the null interaction between psychic
bodies particularly means that there is no mutual absorption of the “virtual”
psychic photons (psychic interaction quanta) emitted by them. That is, the
emission spectrum of each one of them does not coincide with the absorption
spectrum of the other.
By analogy with material bodies, whose emission spectra are, as we
know, identical with the absorption ones, also the psychic bodies must absorb
within the spectrum they emit. Specifically, in the case of human
consciousness, their thoughts cause them to become emitters of psychic
radiation in certain frequency spectra and, consequently, receivers in the same
spectra. Thus, when a human consciousness, by its thoughts, is receptive
coming from a certain thought, said radiation will be absorbed by the
consciousness (resonance absorption). Under these circumstances, the
radiation absorbed must stimulate – through the Resonance Principle – said
consciousness to emit in the same spectrum, just as it happens with matter.
Nevertheless, in order for that emission to occur in a human
consciousness, it must be preceded by the individualization of thoughts identical
with that which originated the radiation absorbed because obviously only
identical thoughts will be able to reproduce, when they collapse, the spectrum of
“virtual” psychic radiations absorbed.
These induced thoughts – such as the thoughts of consciousnesses
themselves – must remain individualized for a period of time Δt (lifetime of the
thought) after which its wave function will collapse, thus producing the “virtual”
psychic radiation in the same spectrum of frequencies absorbed.
The Supreme Consciousness, just as the other consciousnesses, has Its
own spectrum of absorption determined by Its thoughts – which make up the
standard of a good-quality thought is hereby established. That is, they are
resonant thoughts in Supreme Consciousness. Thus, only thoughts of this kind,

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produced in human consciousnesses, may induce the individualization of similar


thoughts in Supreme Consciousness.
In this context, a system of judgment is established in which the good and
the evil are psychic values, with their origin in free thought. The good is related
to the good-quality thoughts, which are thoughts resonant in Supreme
Consciousness. The evil, in turn, is related to the bad-quality thoughts, non-
resonant in the Supreme Consciousness.
Consequently, the moral derived thereof results from the Law itself,
inherent in the Supreme Consciousness and, therefore, this psychic moral must
be the fundamental moral. Thus, fundamental ethics is neither biological nor
located in the aggressive action, as thought by Nietzsche. It is psychic and
located in the good-quality thoughts. It has a theological basis and in it the
creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God is of an essential nature,
opposed, for instance, to Spinoza’s “geometrical ethics”, which eliminated the
ideas of the Creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God the main
underpinning of Christian theology and philosophy. However, it is very close to
Aristotle’s ethics, to the extent that, from it, we understand that we are what we
repeatedly do (think) and that excellence is not an act, but a habit (Ethics, II, 4).
According to Aristotle: ‘” the goodness of a man is a work of the soul towards
excellence in a complete lifetime: … it is not a day or a short period that makes
a man fortunate and happy. “ (Ibid, I, 7).
The “virtual” psychic radiation coming from a thought may induce several
similar thoughts in the consciousness absorbing it, because each photon of
radiation absorbed carries in itself the electromagnetic expression of the
thought which produced it and, consequently, each one of them stimulates the
individualization of a similar thought. However, the amount of thoughts induced
is, of course, limited by the amount of psychic mass of the consciousness
proper.
In the specific case of the Supreme Consciousness, the “virtual” psychic
radiation coming from a good-quality thought must induce many similar
thoughts. On the other hand, since Supreme Consciousness involves human
consciousness the induced thoughts appear in the surroundings of the very
consciousness which induced them. These thoughts are then strongly attracted
by said consciousness and fuse therewith, for just as the thoughts generated in
a consciousness have a high degree of positive mutual affinity with it, they will
also have the thoughts induced by it.
The fusion of these thoughts in the consciousness obviously determines
an increase in its psychic mass. We then conclude that the cultivation of good-
quality thoughts is highly beneficial to the individual. On the contrary, the
cultivation of bad-quality thoughts makes consciousness lose psychic mass.
When bad-quality thoughts are generated in a consciousness, they do not
induce identical thoughts in Supreme Consciousness, because the absorption
spectrum of Supreme Consciousness excludes psychic radiations coming from
bad-quality thoughts. Thus, such radiation directs itself to other
consciousnesses; however, it will only induce identical thoughts in those that
are receptive in the same frequency spectrum. When this happens and right
after the wave functions corresponding to these induced thoughts collapse and
materialize said thoughts or changing them into radiation, the receptive
consciousness will lose psychic mass, similarly to what happens in the
consciousness which first produced the thought. Consequently, both the

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consciousness which gave rise to the bad-quality thought and those receptive to
the psychic radiations coming from this type of thoughts will lose psychic mass.
We must observe, however, that our thoughts are not limited only to
harming or benefiting ourselves, since they also can, as we have already seen,
induce similar thoughts in other consciousnesses, thus affecting them. In this
case, it is important to observe that the psychic radiation produced by the
induced thoughts may return to the consciousness which initially produced the
bad-quality thought, inducing other similar thoughts in it, which evidently cause
more loss of psychic mass in said consciousness.
The fact of our thoughts not being restricted to influencing ourselves is
highly relevant because it leads us to understand we have a great responsibility
towards the others as regards what we think.
Let us now approach the intensity of thoughts. If two thoughts have the
same psychic form and equal psychic masses, they have the same psychic
density and, consequently, the same intensity, from the psychic viewpoint.
However, if one of them has more psychic mass than the other, it will evidently
have a larger psychic density and, thus, will be more intense.
The same thought repeated with different intensities in a consciousness –
in a time period much shorter than the lifetime of thought – has its psychic mass
increased due to the fusion of the psychic masses corresponding to each
repetition. The fusion is caused by a strong psychic attraction between them,
because the inertial thought and the repeated ones have high degree of positive
mutual affinity.
It is then possible by this process that the thought may appear with
enough psychic mass to materialize when its wave function collapses.
If the process is jointly shared with other consciousnesses, the thoughts
in these consciousnesses evidently correspond to different dynamics states in
the same thought. Thus, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic
states that the same thought may assume, then its general dynamic state,
according to the superposition principle, may be described by a single wave
function ΨΨ , given by:
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn
Therefore, everything happens as if there were only a single thought
described by ΨΨ , with psychic mass determined by the set of psychic masses
of all the similar thoughts repeated in the various consciousnesses. In this
manner, it is possible that in this process the thought materializes even faster
than in the case of a single consciousness.
It was shown that the consciousnesses may increase their psychic
masses by cultivating good-quality thoughts and avoiding the bad-quality
thoughts ones. However, both the cultivation of good thoughts and the ability to
instantly perceive nature in our thoughts to quickly repel the bad-quality
thoughts result in a slow and difficult process.
The fact of intense enough mental images being capable of materializing
suggests that we must be careful with mental images of fear. Thus more than
anything else, it is imperative to avoid their repetition in our consciousnesses,
because at each repetition they acquire more psychic mass.
Great are the possibilities encompassed in the consciousnesses, just as
many are the effects of psychic interaction. At cellular level, the intervention of

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psychic interaction in the formation of the embryo’s organs is particularly


interesting.
Despite the recent advances in Embryology, embryologists cannot
understand how the cells of the internal cellular mass 7 migrate to defined
places in the embryo in order to form the organs of the future child.
We will show that this is a typical biological phenomenon which is
fundamentally derived from the psychic interaction between the cells’
consciousnesses.
Just as the consciousnesses of the children have a high degree of
positive mutual affinity with the consciousnesses of their parents, and among
themselves (principle of familiar formation), the embryo cells, by having
originated from cellular duplication, have a high degree of positive mutual
affinity. The embryo cells result, as we know, from the cellular duplication of a
single cell containing the paternal and maternal genes and, hence, have a high
degree of positive mutual affinity.
Thus, under the action of psychic interaction the cells of the internal
cellular mass start gathering into small groups, according to the different
degrees of mutual affinity.
When there is a positive mutual affinity between two consciousnesses
there occurs the intertwining between their wave functions, and a Phase
Relationship is established among them. Consequently, since the degree of
positive mutual affinity among the embryo cells is high, also the relationship
among them will be intense, and it is exactly this what enables the construction
of the organs of the future child. In other words, when a cell is attracted by
certain group in the embryo, it is through the cell-group relationship that
determines where the cell is to aggregate to the group. In this manner, each cell
finds its correct place in the embryo; that is why observers frequently say that,
”the cells appear to know where to go”, when experimentally observed.
The cells of the internal cellular mass are capable of originating any
organ, and are hence called totipotents; thus, the organs begin to appear. In the
endoderm, there appear the urinary organs, the respiratory system, and part of
the digestive system; in the mesoderm are formed the muscles, bones,
cartilages, blood, vessels, heart, kidneys; in the ectoderm there appear the skin,
the nervous system, etc.
Thus, it is the mutual affinity among the consciousnesses of the cells that
determines the formation of the body organs and keeps their own physical
integrity. For this reason, every body rejects cells from other bodies, unless the
latter have positive mutual affinity with their own cells. The higher the degree of
cellular positive mutual affinity, the faster the integration of the transplanted
cells and, therefore, the less problematic the transplant. In the case of cells from
identical twins, this integration takes place practically with no problems, since
said degree of mutual affinity is very high.

7
When a spermatozoon penetrates the ovum, an egg is formed. Roughly twelve to
fourteen hours later, the egg divides into two identical cells. This is the beginning of the
phase where the embryo is called morula. Six days later, in the blastula phase, the
external cells fix the embryo to the uterus. The cells inside the blastula remain equal to
each other and are known as internal cellular mass.

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In eight weeks of life, all organs are practically formed in the embryo.
From there on, it begins to be called fetus.
The embryo’s material individual consciousness is formed by the
consciousnesses of its cells united in a Bose-Einstein condensate. As more
cells become incorporated into the embryo, its material consciousness acquires
more psychic mass. This means that this type of consciousness will be greater
in the fetus than in the embryo and even greater in the child.
Thus, the psychic mass of the mother-fetus consciousness progressively
increases during pregnancy, consequently increasing the psychic attraction
between this consciousness and that new one about to incorporate. In normal
pregnancies, this psychic attraction also increases due to the habitual increase
in the degree of positive mutual affinity between said consciousnesses.
Since the embryo's consciousness has greater degree of positive mutual
affinity with the consciousness that is going to incorporate, then the embryo's
consciousness becomes the center of psychic attraction to where the human
consciousness destined to the fetus will go.
When the psychic attraction becomes intense enough, human
consciousness penetrates the mother-fetus consciousness, forming with it a
new Bose–Einstein condensate. From that instant on, the fetus begins to have
two consciousnesses: the individual material one and the human consciousness
attracted to it.
It easy to see that the psychic attraction upon this human consciousness
tends to continue, being progressively compressed until effectively incorporating
the fetus. When this takes place, it will be ready to be born.
It is probably due to this psychic compression process that the
incorporated consciousness suffers amnesia of its preceding history. Upon
death, after the psychic decompression that arises from the definitive
disincorporation of the consciousness, the preceding memory must return.
It was shown that particles of matter perform transitions to the imaginary
space-time when their gravitational masses reach the gravitational mass
ranging between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i [7]. Under these circumstances, the
total energy of the particle becomes imaginary and consequently it disappears
from our ordinary space-time. Since imaginary mass is equal to psychic mass
we can infer that the particle makes a transition to the psychic space-time.
The consciousnesses are in the psychic space-time. Therefore, if material
bodies can become psychic bodies and to interact with others psychic bodies in
this space-time, then they reach a new part of the Universe where the
consciousnesses live and from where they come in order to incorporate the
human fetus, and to where they should return, after the death of the material
bodies. Consequently, the transition to the psychic space-time is a door for us
to visit the spiritual Universe.

184
21

REFERENCES

[1] Capra, F. (1988) O Tao da Física, Ed. Cultrix, S.Paulo.

[2] Zohar, D. (1990) O Ser Quântico, Ed. Best Seller, S.Paulo.

[3] Winger, K. (1967) Symmetries And Reflections, Blooming, Ind., Indiana


University Press.

[4] Young, A.M. (1976) The Geometry of Meaning, Delacorte Press, N.Y;
Young, A.M. The Reflexive Universe: Evolution of Consciousness, Delacorte
Press, N.Y.

[5] Herbert, N. (1979) Mind Science: A Physics of Consciousness Primer,


Boulder Creek, Cal: C -Life Institute.

[6] Bohm, D. (1980) A New Theory of Relation of Mind and Matter, The Journal
of the American Society of Psychical Research, Vol. 80, Nº 2, p.129.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2007) Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory


of Quantum Gravity, preprint, physics/0212033.

[8] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory, Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.

[9] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum Reality, Scientific American,


241,128.

[10] Teller, P. Relational Holism and Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.

[11] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969) Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,


Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, pp.116 and 363.

[12] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969) Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,


Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, pp.363-364.

[13] De Aquino, F. (2007) “Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic


Field through Gas at Ultra-Low Pressure”, physics/0701091.

[14] Grant, P.R., and Grant, B.R. (1995). Predicting microevolutionary responses
to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49:241-251.

185
The Gravitational Spacecraft
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 1997-2010 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

There is an electromagnetic factor of correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass,
which in specific electromagnetic conditions, can be reduced, made negative and increased in
numerical value. This means that gravitational forces can be reduced, inverted and intensified
by means of electromagnetic fields. Such control of the gravitational interaction can have a lot
of practical applications. For example, a new concept of spacecraft and aerospace flight arises
from the possibility of the electromagnetic control of the gravitational mass. The novel
spacecraft called Gravitational Spacecraft possibly will change the paradigm of space flight
and transportation in general. Here, its operation principles and flight possibilities, it will be
described. Also it will be shown that other devices based on gravity control, such as the
Gravitational Motor and the Quantum Transceivers, can be used in the spacecraft,
respectively, for Energy Generation and Telecommunications.

Key words: Gravity, Gravity Control, Quantum Devices.

CONTENTS

1. Introduction 02
2. Gravitational Shielding 02

3. Gravitational Motor: Free Energy 05

4. The Gravitational Spacecraft 06

5. The Imaginary Space-time 13

6. Past and Future 18

7. Instantaneous Interstellar Communications 20

8. Origin of Gravity and Genesis of Gravitational Energy 23

Appendix A 26
Appendix B 34
Appendix C 39
References 42

186
2
1. Introduction

The discovery of the correlation In the beginning of this century,


between gravitational mass and inertial it has been clearly noticed that there
mass [1] has shown that the gravity was something unsatisfactory about
can be reduced, nullified and inverted. the whole notion of quantization and
Starting from this discovery several that the quantization process had many
ways were proposed in order to obtain ambiguities. Then, a new approach has
experimentally the local gravity been proposed starting from the
control [2]. Consequently, new generalization of the action function * .
concepts of spacecraft and aerospace The result has been the derivation of a
flight have arisen. This novel theoretical background, which finally
spacecraft, called Gravitational led to the so-sought quantization of the
Spacecraft, can be equipped with other gravity and of the space-time.
devices also based on gravity control, Published under the title:
such as the Gravitational Motor and “Mathematical Foundations of the
the Quantum Transceiver that can be Relativistic Theory of Quantum
used, respectively, for energy Gravity” † , this theory predicts a
generation and telecommunications. consistent unification of Gravity with
Based on the theoretical background Electromagnetism. It shows that the
which led to the gravity control, the strong equivalence principle is
operation principles of the reaffirmed and, consequently
Gravitational Spacecraft and of the Einstein’s equations are preserved. In
devices above mentioned, will be fact, Einstein’s equations can be
described in this work. deduced directly from the Relativistic
Theory of Quantum Gravity. This
2. Gravitational Shielding shows, therefore, that the General
Relativity is a particularization of this
The contemporary greatest new theory, just as the Newton’s
challenge of the Theoretical Physics theory is a particular case from the
was to prove that, Gravity is a General Relativity. Besides, it was
quantum phenomenon. Since the deduced from the new theory an
General Relativity describes gravity as important correlation between the
related to the curvature of the space- gravitational mass and the inertial
time then, the quantization of the mass, which shows that the
gravity implies the quantization of the gravitational mass of a particle can be
proper space-time. Until the end of the decreased and even made negative,
century XX, several attempts to independently of its inertial mass, i.e.,
quantify gravity were accomplished. while the gravitational mass is
However, all of them resulted fruitless
*
[3, 4]. The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
extends to the Quantum Mechanics and it has been the
basis for the development of the Strings Theory.

http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0212033

187
3
progressively reduced, the inertial kinetic momentum; c is the speed of
mass does not vary. This is highly light.
relevant because it means that the This equation shows that only
weight of a body can also be reduced for Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is
and even inverted in certain equal to the inertial mass. Instances in
circumstances, since Newton’s gravity which Δp is produced by
law defines the weight P of a body as electromagnetic radiation, Eq. (3) can
the product of its gravitational mass be rewritten as follows:
m g by the local gravity acceleration g , ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬
mg ⎢
i.e., = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎥
(4)
mi 0 ⎪ ρc ⎠
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
P = mg g (1)
Where nr is the refraction index of the
It arises from the mentioned law
particle; D is the power density of the
that the gravity acceleration (or simply
electromagnetic radiation absorbed by
the gravity) produced by a body with
the particle; and ρ its density of
gravitational mass M g is given by
inertial mass.
It was shown [1] that there is an
GM g
g= (2 ) additional effect of gravitational
r2 shielding produced by a substance
whose gravitational mass was reduced
The physical property of mass or made negative. This effect shows
has two distinct aspects: gravitational that just above the substance the
mass mg and inertial mass mi. The gravity acceleration g1 will be reduced
gravitational mass produces and
at the same proportion χ = m g mi 0 ,
responds to gravitational fields. It
supplies the mass factors in Newton's i.e., g1 = χ g , ( g is the gravity
famous inverse-square law of acceleration bellow the substance).
gravity (F = GM g m g r ) . The inertial
2 Equation (4) shows, for
example, that, in the case of a gas at
mass is the mass factor in Newton's
ultra-low pressure (very low density of
2nd Law of Motion (F = mi a ) . These
inertial mass), the gravitational mass
two masses are not equivalent but of the gas can be strongly reduced or
correlated by means of the following made negative by means of the
factor [1]: incidence of electromagnetic radiation
with power density relatively low.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪ Thus, it is possible to use this
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (3) effect in order to produce gravitational
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ shieldings and, thus, to control the
local gravity.
Where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass and The Gravity Control Cells
Δp is the variation in the particle’s (GCC) shown in the article “Gravity
Control by means of Electromagnetic

188
4
Field through Gas or Plasma at Ultra- detectors can only be dangerous if
Low Pressure” ‡ , are devices designed inhaled.
on the basis, of this effect, and usually The Relativistic Theory of
are chambers containing gas or plasma Quantum Gravity also shows the
at ultra-low pressure. Therefore, when existence of a generalized equation for
an oscillating electromagnetic field is the inertial forces which has the
applied upon the gas its gravitational following form
mass will be reduced and,
consequently, the gravity above the Fi = M g a (5)
mentioned GCC will also be reduced
at the same proportion. This expression means a new law for
It was also shown that it is the Inertia. Further on, it will be
possible to make a gravitational shown that it incorporates the Mach’s
shielding even with the chamber filled principle to Gravitation theory [5].
with Air at one atmosphere. In this Equation (3) tell us that the
case, the electric conductivity of the gravitational mass is only equal to the
air must be strongly increased in order inertial mass when Δp = 0 . Therefore,
to reduce the intensity of the we can easily conclude that only in
electromagnetic field or the power this particular situation the new
density of the applied radiation. expression of Fi reduces to Fi = mi a ,
This is easily obtained by which is the expression for Newton's
ionizing the air in the local where we 2nd Law of Motion. Consequently,
want to build the gravitational this Newton’s law is just a particular
shielding. There are several manners case from the new law expressed by
of ionizing the air. One of them is by the Eq. (5), which clearly shows how
means of ionizing radiation produced the local inertial forces are correlated
by a radioactive source of low to the gravitational interaction of the
intensity, for example, by using the local system with the distribution of
radioactive element Americium (Am- cosmic masses (via m g ) and thus,
241). The Americium is widely used
as air ionizer in smoke detectors. incorporates definitively the Mach’s
Inside the detectors, there is just a little principle to the Gravity theory.
amount of americium 241 (about of The Mach’s principle postulates
1/5000 grams) in the form of AmO2. that: “The local inertial forces would
Its cost is very low (about of US$ be produced by the gravitational
1500 per gram). The dominant interaction of the local system with the
radiation is composed of alpha distribution of cosmic masses”.
particles. Alpha particles cannot cross However, in spite of the several
a paper sheet and are also blocked by attempts carried out, this principle had
some centimeters of air. The not yet been incorporated to the
Americium used in the smoke Gravitation theory. Also Einstein had
carried out several attempts. The ad

http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0701091 hoc introduction of the cosmological

189
5
term in his gravitation equations has anything during the maneuvers of the
been one of these attempts. car.
With the advent of equation (5),
the origin of the inertia - that was 3. Gravitational Motor: Free Energy
considered the most obscure point of
the particles’ theory and field theory – It is known that the energy of
becomes now evident. the gravitational field of the Earth can
In addition, this equation also be converted into rotational kinetic
reveals that, if the gravitational mass energy and electric energy. In fact, this
of a body is very close to zero or if is exactly what takes place in
there is around the body a hydroelectric plants. However, the
gravitational shielding which reduces construction these hydroelectric plants
closely down to zero the gravity have a high cost of construction and
accelerations due to the rest of the can only be built, obviously, where
Universe, then the intensities of the there are rivers.
inertial forces that act on the body The gravity control by means of
become also very close to zero. any of the processes mentioned in the
This conclusion is highly article: “Gravity Control by means of
relevant because it shows that, under Electromagnetic Field through Gas or
these conditions, the spacecraft could Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure” allows
describe, with great velocities, unusual the inversion of the weight of any
trajectories (such as curves in right body, practically at any place.
angles, abrupt inversion of direction, Consequently, the conversion of the
etc.) without inertial impacts on the gravitational energy into rotational
occupants of the spacecraft. mechanical energy can also be carried
Obviously, out of the above- out at any place.
mentioned condition, the spacecraft In Fig. (1), we show a schematic
and the crew would be destroyed due diagram of a Gravitational Motor. The
to the strong presence of the inertia. first Gravity Control Cell (GCC1)
When we make a sharp curve changes the local gravity from g
with our car we are pushed towards a to g ′ = − ng , propelling the left side of
direction contrary to that of the motion the rotor in a direction contrary to the
of the car. This happens due to motion of the right side. The second
existence of the inertial forces. GCC changes the gravity back again to
However, if our car is involved by a g i.e., from g ′ = − ng to g , in such a
gravitational shielding, which reduces way that the gravitational change
strongly the gravitational interaction of occurs just on the region indicated in
the car (and everything that is inside Fig.1. Thus, a torque T given by
the car) with the rest of the Universe,
then in accordance with the Mach’s
principle, the local inertial forces [ ]
T = (− F ′ + F )r = − (mg 2)g ′ + (m g 2)g r =
would also be strongly reduced and,
= (n + 1) 12 mg gr
consequently, we would not feel

190
6
Is applied on the rotor of gravitational means that the gravitational motors
mass m g , making the rotor spin with can produce energy practically free.
angular velocity ω . It is easy to see that gravitational
The average power, P , of the motors of this kind can be designed for
motor is P = Tω . However, powers needs of just some watts up to
− g ′ + g = ω r .Thus, we have
2 millions of kilowatts.
P = 12 mi (n + 1)3 g 3 r (6)
Consider a cylindrical rotor of iron g’’=χair(2)g’ = g
(ρ = 7800Kg.m −3 ) with height h = 0.5m , GCC (2)
χar(2)= (χar(1))-1
radius r = R 3 = 0.0545m and inertial
mass mi = ρπR 2 h = 327.05kg . By adjusting
the GCC 1 in order to obtain
g’= -ng R
χ air (1) = mg (air ) mi (air ) = − n = −19 and, since
r
g = 9.81m.s −2 , then Eq. (6) gives Rotor
r
g

P ≅ 2.19 × 105 watts ≅ 219 KW ≅ 294HP g’=χair(1)g

GCC (1)
This shows that this small motor
can be used, for example, to substitute χar(1)= -n = mg(ar)/mi(ar)
the conventional motors used in the g
cars. It can also be coupled to an
electric generator in order to produce
electric energy. The conversion of the
Fig. 1 – Gravitational Motor - The first Gravity Control Cell
rotational mechanical energy into (GCC1) changes the local gravity from g to g ′ = −ng , propelling
electric energy is not a problem since the left side of the rotor in contrary direction to the motion of the
right side. The second GCC changes the gravity back again to g i.e.,
it is a problem technologically from g ′ = −ng to g , in such a way that the gravitational change
resolved several decades ago. Electric occurs just on the region shown in figure above.

generators are usually produced by the 4. The Gravitational Spacecraft


industries and they are commercially
available, so that it is enough to couple Consider a metallic sphere with
a gravitational motor to an electric radius rs in the terrestrial atmosphere.
generator for we obtaining electric If the external surface of the sphere is
energy. In this case, just a gravitational recovered with a radioactive substance
motor with the power above (for example, containing Americium
mentioned it would be enough to 241) then the air in the space close to
supply the need of electric energy of, the surface of the sphere will be
for example, at least 20 residences. strongly ionized by the radiation
Finally, it can substitute the emitted from the radioactive element
conventional motors of the same and, consequently, the electric
power, with the great advantage of not conductivity of the air close to sphere
needing of fuel for its operation. What will become strongly increased.

191
7
By applying to the sphere an shielding the gravity produced by the
electric potential of low frequency Vrms , sphere is g = −G M g r 2 , then, out of the
in order to produce an electric field shielding it becomes g′ = χairg .Thus,
E rms starting from the surface of the g′ = χair (− G M g r 2 ) = − G(χairM g ) r 2 = − Gmg r 2 ,
sphere, then very close to the surface, where
the intensity of the electric field will mg = χairM g
be E rms = Vrms rs and, in agreement with Therefore, for the Universe out of the
Eq. (4), the gravitational mass of the shielding the gravitational mass of the
Air in this region will be expressed by sphere is m g and not M g . In these
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ μ0 ⎛σair ⎞ Vrms
4
⎪ circumstances, the inertial forces
mg(air) = ⎨1−2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬mi0(air) (7)
⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ rs ρair ⎥⎪ acting on the sphere, in agreement
⎩⎪ ⎣ ⎦⎭
with the new law for inertia, expressed
Therefore we will have by Eq. (5), will be given by
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡
3 ⎤⎫ Fii = mg ai (9)
μ ⎛ σ ⎞ V4 ⎪
χair = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4rms2 −1⎥⎬
0 air
(8)
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ rs ρair ⎥⎪ Thus, these forces will be almost null
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
when m g becomes almost null by
The gravity accelerations acting on the
sphere, due to the rest of the Universe means of the action of the gravitational
(See Fig. 2), will be given by shielding. This means that, in these
circumstances, the sphere practically
g i′ = χ air g i i = 1,2,..., n loses its inertial properties. This effect
leads to a new concept of spacecraft
and aerospatial flight. The spherical
Note that by varying Vrms or the
form of the spacecraft is just one form
frequency f , we can easily to reduce that the Gravitational Spacecraft can
and control χ air . Consequently, we can have, since the gravitational shielding
also control the intensities of the can also be obtained with other
gravity accelerations g i′ in order to formats.
produce a controllable gravitational An important aspect to be
shielding around the sphere. observed is that it is possible to control
Thus, the gravitational forces the gravitational mass of the
acting on the sphere, due to the rest of spacecraft, M g (spacecraf ) , simply by
the Universe, will be given by controlling the gravitational mass of a
Fgi = M g g i′ = M g (χ air g i ) body inside the spacecraft. For
where M g is the gravitational mass of instance, consider a parallel plate
the sphere. capacitor inside the spacecraft. The
The gravitational shielding gravitational mass of the dielectric
around of the sphere reduces both the between the plates of the capacitor can
gravity accelerations acting on the be controlled by means of the ELF
sphere, due to the rest of the Universe, electromagnetic field through it. Under
and the gravity acceleration produced these circumstances, the total
by the gravitational mass M g of the gravitational mass of the spacecraft
will be given by
own sphere. That is, if inside the
192
8
Gravitational Shielding
(spacecraf ) = M g (spacecraf ) + m g =
M gtotal
= M i 0 + χ dielectricmi 0 (10)

where M i 0 is the rest inertial mass of


S
the spacecraft(without the dielectric)
and mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the Erms Mg
dielectric; χ dielectric = m g mi 0 , where m g g = - G Mg / r2
g1’ = χair g1
is the gravitational mass of the
dielectric. By decreasing the value of
χ dielectric , the gravitational mass of the χair
spacecraft decreases. It was shown, g1 = - G M’g / r2
that the value of χ can be negative. g’ = - χair g = - χair G Mg / r2 =
r
Thus, when χ dielectric≅ − Mi0 mi0 , the
= - Gmg / r2
gravitational mass of the spacecraft M’g

gets very close to zero. mg = χair Mg


When χdielectric< − Mi0 mi0 , the gravitational Fig.2- The gravitational shielding reduces the gravity
accelerations ( g1’) acting on the sphere (due to the rest of the
mass of the spacecraft becomes Universe) and also reduces the gravity acceleration that the sphere
negative. produces upon all the particles of the Universe (g’). For the
Universe, the gravitational mass of the sphere will be mg = χair Mg.
Therefore, for an observer out
of the spacecraft, the gravitational As we have shown [2], a
mass of the spacecraft is gravitational repulsion is established
M g (spacecraf ) = M i 0 + χ dielectricmi 0 , and not between the mass M g and any positive
M i 0 + mi 0 . gravitational mass below the
Another important aspect to be mentioned system. This means that the
observed is that we can control the particles in this region will stay
gravity inside the spacecraft, in order subjected to a gravity acceleration a b ,
to produce, for example, a gravity given by
r 3 r Mg
acceleration equal to the Earth’s ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ (11)
3

gravity (g = 9.81m.s −2 ) . This will be r0


very useful in the case of space flight, If the Air inside the GCCs is
and can be easily obtained by putting sufficiently ionized, in such way that
in the ceiling of the spacecraft the σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 , and if f = 1 Hz ,
system shown in Fig. 3. This system ρair ≅ 1 kg.m , Vrms ≅ 10 KV and d = 1 cm
−3

has three GCC with nuclei of ionized


then the Eq.8 shows that inside the
air (or air at low pressure). Above
GCCs we will have
these GCC there is a massive block
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
with mass M g . mg(air) ⎪ ⎢ μ0 ⎛ σair ⎞ Vrms
4

χair = = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬ ≅ −103
mi0(air) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ d ρair ⎥⎪
⎦⎭

193
9
FM
We can also use the system
Ceiling
shown in Fig. 3 as a thruster in order
Mg
to propel the spacecraft. Note that the
gravitational repulsion that occurs
GCC 1 χ air
between the block with mass M g and
GCC 2 χ air d
G CC3 χ air any particle after the GCCs does not
depend on of the place where the
system is working. Thus, this
Gravitational Thruster can propel the
r0 gravitational spacecraft in any
direction. Moreover, it can work in the
terrestrial atmosphere as well as in the
cosmic space. In this case, the energy
that produces the propulsion is
ab
obviously the gravitational energy,
μ Floor which is always present in any point of
r 3 r Mg the Universe.
ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
3

r0 The schematic diagram in Fig. 4


Fig.3 – If the Air inside the GCC is sufficiently shows in details the operation of the
ionized, in such way that σ air ≅ 103 S.m −1 and Gravitational Thruster. A gas of any
if f =1 Hz; d = 1cm; ρair ≅ 1 kg.m and Vrms ≅ 10 KV
−3 type injected into the chamber beyond
then Eq. 8 shows that inside the CCGs we will have the GCCs acquires an acceleration
χ air ≅ −103 . Therefore, for M g ≅ M i ≅ 100 kg and a gas , as shown in Fig.4, the intensity of
ro ≅ 1m the gravity acceleration inside the spacecraft which, as we have seen, is given by
a gas = (χ gas ) g M ≅ −(χ gas ) G
will be directed from the ceiling to the floor of the Mg
spacecraft and its intensity will be a b ≈ 10 m.s −2 .
3 3
(14)
r02
Therefore the equation (11) gives Thus, if inside of the GCCs, χ gas ≅ −109
Mg then the equation above gives
ab ≈ +109 G (12) Mg
r02 a gas ≅ +10 27 G (15)
r02
For M g ≅ M i ≅ 100 kg and r0 ≅ 1m (See
For M g ≅ M i ≅ 10kg , r0 ≅ 1m we have
Fig.3), the gravity inside the spacecraft
agas ≅ 6.6 ×1017 m.s−2 . With this enormous
will be directed from the ceiling to the
floor and its intensity will have the acceleration the particles of the gas
following value reach velocities close to the speed of
ab ≈ 10m.s −2 (13) the light in just a few nanoseconds.
Therefore, an interstellar travel in a Thus, if the emission rate of the gas is
gravitational spacecraft will be dmgas dt ≅ 10−3 kg / s ≅ 4000litres/ hour, then
particularly comfortable, since we can the trust produced by the gravitational
travel during all the time subjected to thruster will be
the gravity which we are accustomed
to here in the Earth.

194
10
dmgas dmgas where the spacecraft is placed. By
F = v gas ≅c ≅ 105 N (16)
dt dt adjusting the shielding for χ out = 0.01
and if M spacecraft = 104 Kg then for a thrust
F ≅ 10 5 N , the acceleration of the
Gas spacecraft will be
Mg
a spacecraft = 1000m.s −2 (18)
GCC GCC GCC
r0 mg μ With this acceleration, in just at 1(one)
FM 1 2 3 agas day, the velocity of the spacecraft will
Fm
be close to the speed of light.
Gas However it is easy to see that χ out can
still be much more reduced and,
consequently, the thrust much more
Fig. 4 – Gravitational Thruster – Schematic diagram
showing the operation of the Gravitational Thruster. Note increased so that it is possible to
that in the case of very strong χair , for increase up to 1 million times the
example χair ≅ −109 , the gravity accelerations upon the acceleration of the spacecraft.
boxes of the second and third GCCs become very strong. It is important to note that, the
Obviously, the walls of the mentioned boxes cannot to stand
the enormous pressures. However, it is possible to build a
inertial effects upon the spacecraft will
similar system [2] with 3 or more GCCs, without material be reduced by χout = M g Mi ≅ 0.01. Then,
boxes. Consider for example, a surface with several
radioactive sources (Am-241, for example). The alpha in spite of its effective acceleration to
particles emitted from the Am-241 cannot reach besides be a = 1000m.s −2 , the effects for the crew
10cm of air. Due to the trajectory of the alpha particles, three
or more successive layers of air, with different electrical of the spacecraft will be equivalents to
conductivities σ1 , σ 2 and σ 3 , will be established in the an acceleration of only
ionized region. It is easy to see that the gravitational
shielding effect produced by these three layers is similar to
Mg
the effect produced by the 3 GCCs above. a′ = a ≈ 10m.s −1
Mi
It is easy to see that the gravitational
thrusters are able to produce strong This is the magnitude of the
trusts (similarly to the produced by the acceleration on the passengers in a
powerful thrusters of the modern contemporary commercial jet.
aircrafts) just by consuming the Then, it is noticed that the
injected gas for its operation. gravitational spacecrafts can be
It is important to note that, if subjected to enormous accelerations
F is the thrust produced by the (or decelerations) without imposing
gravitational thruster then, in any harmful impacts whatsoever on
agreement with Eq. (5), the spacecraft the spacecrafts or its crew.
acquires an acceleration a spacecraft , We can also use the system
expressed by the following equation shown in Fig. 3, as a lifter, inclusively
aspacecraft =
F
=
F
(17) within the spacecraft, in order to lift
M g ( spacecraft) χ out M i ( spacecraft) peoples or things into the spacecraft as
Where χ out , given by Eq. (8), is the shown in Fig. 5. Just using two GCCs,
factor of gravitational shielding which the gravitational acceleration produced
depends on the external medium below the GCCs will be

195
11
r
ag = (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G M g r02 μˆ (19)
2 2
Thus, if the gravitational mass of
Note that, in this case, if χ air is the particle is reduced by means of the
r absorption of an amount of
negative, the acceleration a g will have
electromagnetic energy U , for
a direction contrary to the versor μ̂ , example, then we have
i.e., the body will be attracted in the
direction of the GCCs, as shown in χ=
Mg ⎧
(
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 ) 2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Fig.5. In practice, this will occur when This shows that the energy U
the air inside the GCCs is sufficiently continues acting on the particle turned
ionized, in such a way that imaginary. In practice this means that
σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 . Thus, if the internal electromagnetic fields act on
thickness of the GCCs is now d =1 mm imaginary particles. Therefore, the
and if f = 1 Hz ; ρ air ≅ 1 kg.m −3 and internal electromagnetic field of a
Vrms ≅ 10 KV , we will then have GCC remains acting upon the particles
χair ≅ −105 . Therefore, for Mg ≅ Mi ≅ 100kg inside the GCC even when their
gravitational masses are in the range
and, for example, r0 ≅ 10 m the
+ 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , turning them
gravitational acceleration acting on the
imaginaries. This is very important
body will be ab ≈ 0.6m.s −2 . It is obvious
because it means that the GCCs of a
that this value can be easily increased gravitational spacecraft remain
or decreased, simply by varying the working even when the spacecraft
voltage Vrms . Thus, by means of this becomes imaginary.
Gravitational Lifter, we can lift or Under these conditions, the
lower persons or materials with great gravity accelerations acting on the
versatility of operation. imaginary spacecraft, due to the rest of
It was shown [1] that, when the the Universe will be, as we have see,
gravitational mass of a particle is given by
reduced into the range, + 0.159 M i to g i′ = χ g i i = 1,2,..., n
− 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary, i.e., Where χ = M g (imaginary ) and
M i (imaginary )
its masses (gravitational and inertial) g i = − Gm gi (imaginary ) ri 2 . Thus, the
becomes imaginary. Consequently, the gravitational forces acting on the
particle disappears from our ordinary spacecraft will be given by
Universe, i.e., it becomes invisible for
us. This is therefore a manner of to Fgi = M g (imaginary ) g i′ =
obtain the transitory invisibility of
persons, animals, spacecraft, etc. ( )
= M g (imaginary ) − χGm gj (imaginary ) r j2 =
However, the factor ( )
= M g i − χGm gi i ri 2 = + χGM g m gi ri 2 . (20)
χ = M g (imaginary) M i (imaginary) remains real
because Note that these forces are real. By
calling that, the Mach’s principle says
M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg that the inertial effects upon a particle
χ= = = = real
M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi are consequence of the gravitational
interaction of the particle with the rest
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12
of the Universe. Then we can conclude It is easy to show that the
that the inertial forces acting on the gravitational forces between two thin
spacecraft in imaginary state are also layers of air (with masses m g1 and
real. Therefore, it can travel in the m g 2 ) around the spacecraft , are
imaginary space-time using the
expressed by
gravitational thrusters. r r m m
F12 = −F21 = −(χ air ) G i1 2 i 2 μˆ (21)
2

r
Mg
Note that these forces can be strongly
GCC 1 χ air
increased by increasing the value of
GCC 2 χ air χ air . In these circumstances, the air
around the spacecraft would be
rb strongly compressed upon the external
surface of the spacecraft creating an
atmosphere around it. This can be
particularly useful in order to
minimize the friction between the
spacecraft and the atmosphere of the
planet in the case of very high speed
ab movements of the spacecraft. With the
atmosphere around the spacecraft the
μ friction will occur between the
r 2 r Mg atmosphere of the spacecraft and the
ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
2

rb
atmosphere of the planet. In this way,
the friction will be minimum and the
Fig.5 – The Gravitational Lifter – If the air inside the
GCCs is sufficiently ionized, in such way that spacecraft could travel at very high
σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 and the internal thickness of the speeds without overheating.
GCCs is now d =1 mm then, if f =1 Hz;
However, in order for this to occur,
it is necessary to put the gravitational
ρ air ≅ 1 kg.m and Vrms ≅ 10 KV ,
−3
we have
shielding in another position as shown
χair ≅ −10 . Therefore, for M g ≅ M i ≅ 100kg and
5
in Fig.2. Thus, the values of χ airB
r0 ≅ 10 m the gravity acceleration acting on the
and χ airA will be independent (See
body will be ab ≈ 0.6m.s −2 .
Fig.6). Thus, while inside the
It was also shown [1] that gravitational shielding, the value of
imaginary particles can have infinity χ airB is put close to zero, in order to
velocity in the imaginary space-time. strongly reduce the gravitational mass
Therefore, this is also the upper limit of the spacecraft (inner part of the
of velocity for the gravitational shielding), the value of χ airA must be
spacecrafts traveling in the imaginary reduced to about − 10 8 in order to
space-time. On the other hand, the strongly increase the gravitational
travel in the imaginary space-time can attraction between the air molecules
be very safe, because there will not be around the spacecraft. Thus, by
any material body in the trajectory of
the spacecraft.
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13
substituting χ airA ≅ −10 intoEq.21,
8
we 5. The Imaginary Space-time
get
r r mm The speed of light in free space
F12 = −F21 = −1016 G i1 2 i 2 μˆ (22) is, as we know, about of 300.000 km/s.
r
If, mi1 ≅ mi 2 = ρ air V1 ≅ ρ air V2 ≅ 10−8 kg and The speeds of the fastest modern
airplanes of the present time do not
r = 10 −3 m then Eq. 22 gives
r r reach 2 km/s and the speed of rockets
F12 = −F21 ≅ −10−4 N (23) do not surpass 20 km/s. This shows
These forces are much more intense how much our aircraft and rockets are
than the inter-atomic forces (the forces slow when compared with the speed of
that unite the atoms and molecules) the light.
intensities of which are of the order of The star nearest to the Earth
1 − 1000 × 10 −8 N . Consequently, the air (excluding the Sun obviously) is the
around the spacecraft will be strongly Alpha of Centaur, which is about of 4
compressed upon the surface of the light-years distant from the Earth
spacecraft and thus will produce a (Approximately 37.8 trillions of
crust of air which will accompany the kilometers). Traveling at a speed about
spacecraft during its displacement and 100 times greater than the maximum
will protect it from the friction with speed of our faster spacecrafts, we
the atmosphere of the planet. would take about 600 years to reach
Gravitational Shielding Alpha of Centaur. Then imagine how
(GCC)
many years we would take to leave our
E rms own galaxy. In fact, it is not difficult
to see that our spacecrafts are very
Atmosphere slow, even for travels in our own solar
χ airB
of the
Spacecraft system.
Gravitational One of the fundamental
Spacecraft χ airA characteristics of the gravitational
spacecraft, as we already saw, is its
capability to acquire enormous
accelerations without submitting the
crew to any discomfort.
Impelled by gravitational
thrusters gravitational spacecrafts can
Fig. 6 – Artificial atmosphere around the gravitational acquire accelerations until 10 8 m.s −2 or
spacecraft - while inside the gravitational shielding more. This means that these
the value of χ airB is putted close to zero, in order to spacecrafts can reach speeds very
strongly reduces the gravitational mass of the close to the speed of light in just a few
spacecraft (inner part of the shielding), the value of
χ airA must be reduced for about − 108 in order to
seconds. These gigantic accelerations
strongly increase the gravitational attraction between can be unconceivable for a layman,
the air molecules around the spacecraft. however they are common in our
Universe. For example, when we
submit an electron to an electric field

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14
of just 1 Volt / m it acquires an impracticable. Besides, to travel at
acceleration a , given by such a speed would be very dangerous,
because a shock with other celestial
a= =
( )(
eE 1.6 × 10 −19 C 1 V / m )
≅ 1011 m.s − 2
bodies would be inevitable. However,
me 9.11 × 10 −31 as we showed [1] there is a possibility
of a spacecraft travel quickly far
As we see, this acceleration is about beyond our galaxy without the risk of
100 times greater than that acquired by being destroyed by a sudden shock
the gravitational spacecraft previously with some celestial body. The solution
mentioned. is the gravitational spacecraft travel
By using the gravitational through the Imaginary or Complex
shieldings it is possible to reduce the Space-time.
inertial effects upon the spacecraft. As It was shown [1] that it is
we have shown, they are reduced by possible to carry out a transition to the
the factor χ out = M g M i . Thus, if the Imaginary space-time or Imaginary
Universe. It is enough that the body
inertial mass of the spacecraft is
has its gravitational mass reduced to a
M i = 10.000kg and, by means of the
value in the range of + 0.159 M i
gravitational shielding effect the
to − 0.159M i . In these circumstances,
gravitational mass of the spacecraft is
reduced to M g ≈ 10 −8 M i then , in spite the masses of the body (gravitational
and inertial) become imaginaries and,
of the effective acceleration to be
so does the body. (Fig.7).
gigantic, for example, a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 , the
Consequently, the body disappears
effects for the crew of the spacecraft
from our ordinary space-time and
would be equivalents to an
appears in the imaginary space-time.
acceleration a′ of only
In other words, it becomes invisible
a′ =
Mg
Mi
( )( )
a = 10 −8 10 9 ≈ 10m.s − 2 for an observer at the real Universe.
Therefore, this is a way to get
This acceleration is similar to that temporary invisibility of human
which the passengers of a beings, animals, spacecrafts, etc.
contemporary commercial jet are Thus, a spacecraft can leave our
subjected. Universe and appear in the Imaginary
Therefore the crew of the Universe, where it can travel at any
gravitational spacecraft would be speed since in the Imaginary Universe
comfortable while the spacecraft there is no speed limit for the
would reach speeds close to the speed gravitational spacecraft, as it occurs in
of light in few seconds. However to our Universe, where the particles
travel at such velocities in the cannot surpass the light speed. In this
Universe may note be practical. Take way, as the gravitational spacecraft is
for example, Alpha of Centaur (4 propelled by the gravitational
light-years far from the Earth): a round thrusters, it can attain accelerations up
trip to it would last about eight years. to 10 9 m.s −2 , then after one day of trip
Trips beyond that star could take then with this acceleration, it can
several decades, and this obviously is
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15
of the spacecraft in such way that it
leaves the range of + 0.159 M i
to − 0.159M i . Thus the spacecraft can
transition reappear in our Universe near its
( −0.159 > mg > +0.159 ) target.
B
ΔtAB =1 second The return trip would be done in
similar way. That is to say, the
1 light-year
Vmax = ∞ Vmax = c spacecraft would transit in the
imaginary Universe back to the
ΔtAB =1 year
departure place where would reappear
dAB = 1 light-year in our Universe and it would make the
photon approach flight to the wanted point.
Thus, trips through our Universe that
would delay millions of years, at
transition speeds close to the speed of light,
( −0.159 < mg < +0.159 ) mg A could be done in just a few months in
Gravitational Spacecraft
the imaginary Universe.
Fig. 7 – Travel in the Imaginary Space-time. What will an observer see when
in the imaginary space-time? It will
reach velocities V ≈ 1014 m.s −1 (about 1 see light, bodies, planets, stars, etc.,
million times the speed of light). With everything formed by imaginary
this velocity, after 1 month of trip the photons, imaginary atoms, imaginary
spacecraft would have traveled protons, imaginary neutrons and
about 10 21 m . In order to have idea of imaginary electrons. That is to say,
this distance, it is enough to remind the observer will find an Universe
that the diameter of our Universe similar to ours, just formed by
(visible Universe) is of the order particles with imaginary masses. The
of 10 26 m . term imaginary adopted from the
Due to the extremely low Mathematics, as we already saw, gives
density of the imaginary bodies, the the false impression that these masses
collision between them cannot have do not exist. In order to avoid this
the same consequences of the collision misunderstanding we researched the
between the dense real bodies. true nature of that new mass type and
Thus for a gravitational matter.
spacecraft in imaginary state the The existence of imaginary mass
problem of the collision doesn't exist associated to the neutrino is well-
in high-speed. Consequently, the known. Although its imaginary mass is
gravitational spacecraft can transit not physically observable, its square
freely in the imaginary Universe and, is. This amount is found
in this way reach easily any point of experimentally to be negative.
our real Universe once they can make Recently, it was shown [1] that quanta
the transition back to our Universe by of imaginary mass exist associated to
only increasing the gravitational mass the photons, electrons, neutrons, and

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16
protons, and that these imaginary indicated by Ψ . The wave function
masses would have psychic properties associated to a material particle
(elementary capability of “choice”). describes the dynamic state of the
Thus, the true nature of this new kind particle: its value at a particular point
of mass and matter shall be psychic x, y, z, t is related to the probability of
and, therefore we should not use the finding the particle in that place and
term imaginary any longer. instant. Although Ψ does not have a
Consequently from the above exposed physical interpretation, its square Ψ 2
we can conclude that the gravitational (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a particular
spacecraft penetrates in the Psychic point x, y, z, t is proportional to the
Universe and not in an “imaginary” probability of experimentally finding
Universe. the particle in that place and instant.
In this Universe, the matter Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the
would be, obviously composed by probability P of finding the particle
psychic molecules and psychic atoms described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on
formed by psychic neutrons, psychic the whole space must be finite –
protons and psychic electrons. i.e., the inasmuch as the particle is someplace.
matter would have psychic mass and Therefore, if
consequently it would be subtle, much +∞

less dense than the matter of our real ∫ −∞


Ψ 2 dV = 0

Universe. The interpretation is that the particle


Thus, from a quantum viewpoint, does not exist. Conversely, if
+∞
the psychic particles are similar to the ∫−∞
Ψ 2 dV = ∞
material particles, so that we can use the particle will be everywhere
the Quantum Mechanics to describe simultaneously.
the psychic particles. In this case, by The wave function Ψ
analogy to the material particles, a corresponds, as we know, to the
particle with psychic mass mΨ will be displacement y of the undulatory
described by the following motion of a rope. However, Ψ as
expressions: opposed to y , is not a measurable
r r quantity and can, hence, being a
pψ = hkψ
complex quantity. For this reason, it is
Eψ = hωψ admitted that Ψ is described in the x -
r
direction by
r ( )
− 2π i h ( Et − px )
Where pψ = mΨV is the momentum Ψ = Be
carried by the wave and Eψ its energy; This equation is the mathematical
r description of the wave associated
kψ = 2π λψ is the propagation number
with a free material particle, with total
and λψ = h mΨ V the wavelength and energy E and momentum p , moving in
ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic frequency. the direction + x .
The variable quantity that As concerns the psychic
characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is particle, the variable quantity
called Wave Function, usually characterizing psyche waves will also
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17
be called wave function, denoted by dynamic state, represented by Ψ1 e
ΨΨ ( to distinguish it from the material Ψ2 in the formation of the general
particle wave function), and, by dynamic state described by Ψ .
analogy with equation of Ψ , In the case of psychic particles
expressed by: (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.),
( )
− 2π i h ( EΨ t − pΨ x )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e by analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer
If an experiment involves a to the different dynamic states the
large number of identical particles, all psychic particle takes, then its general
described by the same wave function dynamic state may be described by the
Ψ , the real density of mass ρ of wave function ΨΨ , given by:
these particles in x, y, z, t is ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn
proportional to the corresponding The state of superposition of wave
value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is known as density of functions is, therefore, common for
probability. If Ψ is complex then both psychic and material particles. In
Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus, ρ ∝ Ψ 2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). the case of material particles, it can be
Similarly, in the case of psychic verified, for instance, when an electron
particles, the density of psychic mass, changes from one orbit to another.
ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be expressed by Before effecting the transition to
ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is known that ΨΨ2 another energy level, the electron
is always real and positive while carries out “virtual transitions” [6]. A
ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an imaginary quantity. kind of relationship with other
electrons before performing the real
Thus, as the modulus of an imaginary
transition. During this relationship
number is always real and positive, we
period, its wave function remains
can transform the proportion ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 ,
“scattered” by a wide region of the
in equality in the following form: space [7] thus superposing the wave
ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ functions of the other electrons. In this
Where k is a proportionality constant relationship the electrons mutually
(real and positive) to be determined. influence each other, with the
In Quantum Mechanics we have possibility of intertwining their wave
studied the Superposition Principle, functions § . When this happens, there
which affirms that, if a particle (or occurs the so-called Phase
system of particles) is in a dynamic Relationship according to quantum-
state represented by a wave function mechanics concept.
Ψ1 and may also be in another In the electrons “virtual”
dynamic state described by Ψ2 then, transition mentioned before, the
the general dynamic state of the “listing” of all the possibilities of the
particle may be described by Ψ , electrons is described, as we know, by
where Ψ is a linear combination Schrödinger’s wave equation.
(superposition) of Ψ1 and Ψ2 , i.e., §
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and
Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c2 Ψ2 particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
The Complex constants c1 e c2 other; besides superposition, there is also the
possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
respectively express the percentage of functions.
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Otherwise, it is general for material human consciousnesses establish
particles. By analogy, in the case of among themselves and with the
psychic particles, we may say that the Ordinary Universe. Besides, we have
“listing” of all the possibilities of the shown that the Psychic Interaction
psyches involved in the relationship postulates a new model for the
will be described by Schrödinger’s evolution theory, in which the
equation – for psychic case, i.e., evolution is interpreted not only as a
p Ψ2 biological fact, but mainly as psychic
∇ 2 ΨΨ + ΨΨ = 0
h2 fact. Therefore, is not only the
Because the wave functions are mankind that evolves in the Earth’s
capable of intertwining themselves, planet, but all the ecosystem of the
the quantum systems may “penetrate” Earth.
each other, thus establishing an
internal relationship where all of them
are affected by the relationship, no 6. Past and Future
longer being isolated systems but
becoming an integrated part of a larger It was shown [1,9] that the
system. This type of internal collapse of the psychic wave function
relationship, which exists only in must suddenly also express in reality
quantum systems, was called (real space-time) all the possibilities
Relational Holism [8]. described by it. This is, therefore, a
We have used the Quantum point of decision in which there occurs
Mechanics in order to describe the the compelling need of realization of
foundations of the Psychic Universe the psychic form. We have seen that
which the Gravitational Spacecrafts the materialization of the psychic
will find, and that influences us daily. form, in the real space-time, occurs
These foundations recently discovered when it contains enough psychic mass
– particularly the Psychic Interaction, for the total materialization †† of the
show us that a rigorous description of psychic form (Materialization
the Universe cannot to exclude the Condition). When this happens, all the
psychic energy and the psychic psychic energy contained in the
particles. This verification makes psychic form is transformed in real
evident the need of to redefine the energy in the real space-time. Thus, in
Psychology with basis on the quantum the psychic space-time just the
foundations recently discovered. This holographic register of the psychic
has been made in the article: “Physical form, which gives origin to that fact,
Foundations of Quantum survives, since the psychic energy
**
Psychology” [9], recently published, deforms the metric of the psychic
where it is shown that the Psychic space-time ‡‡ , producing the
Interaction leads us to understand the ††
By this we mean not only materialization proper but
Psychic Universe and the also the movement of matter to realize its psychic
extraordinary relationship that the content (including radiation).
‡‡
As shown in General Theory of Relativity the
** energy modifies the metric of the space-time
http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000297 (deforming the space-time).

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19
holographic register. Thus, the past Since both registrations are in
survive in the psychic space-time just the psychic space-time, then the access
in the form of holographic register. to their information only occur by
That is to say, all that have occurred in means of the interaction with another
the past is holographically registered psychic body, for example, our
in the psychic space-time. Further consciousness or a psychic observer
ahead, it will be seen that this register (body totally formed by psychic mass).
can be accessed by an observer in the We have seen that, if the gravitational
psychic space-time as well as by an mass of a body is reduced to within the
observer in the real space-time. range + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , its
A psychic form is intensified by gravitational and inertial masses
means of a continuous addition of become imaginaries (psychics) and,
psychic mass. Thus, when it acquires therefore, the body becomes a psychic
sufficiently psychic mass, its body. Thus, a real observer can also
realization occurs in the real space- become in a psychic observer. In this
time. Thus the future is going being way, a gravitational spacecraft can
built in the present. By means of our transform all its inertial mass into
current thoughts we shape the psychic psychic mass, and thus carry out a
forms that will go (or will not) take transition to the psychic space-time
place in the future. Consequently, and become a psychic spacecraft. In
those psychic forms are continually these circumstances, an observer
being holographically registered in the inside the spacecraft also will have its
psychic space-time and, just as the mass transformed into psychic mass,
holographic registrations of the past and, therefore, the observer also will
these future registration can also be be transformed into a psychic
accessed by the psychic space-time as observer. What will this observer see
well as by the real space-time. when it penetrates the psychic
The access to the holographic Universe? According to the
registration of the past doesn't allow, Correspondence principle, all that
obviously, the modification of the exists in the real Universe must have
past. This is not possible because there the correspondent in the psychic
would be a clear violation of the Universe and vice-versa. This
principle of causality that says that the principle reminds us that we live in
causes should precede the effects. more than one world. At the present
However, the psychic forms that are time, we live in the real Universe, but
being shaped now in order to manifest we can also live in the psychic
themselves in the future, can be Universe. Therefore, the psychic
modified before they manifest observer will see the psychic bodies
themselves. Thus, the access to the and their correspondents in the real
registration of those psychic forms Universe. Thus, a pilot of a
becomes highly relevant for our gravitational spacecraft, in travel
present life, since we can avoid the through the psychic space-time, won't
manifestation of many unpleasant facts have difficulty to spot the spacecraft in
in the future. its trips through the Universe.
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The fact of the psychic forms If the gravitational mass of a
manifest themselves in the real space- particle is positive, then t is always
time exactly at its images and likeness, positive and given by
it indicates that real forms (forms in
the real space-time) are prior to all t = + t0 1−V 2 c2
reflective images of psychic forms of
the past. Thus, the real space-time is a This leads to the well-known
mirror of the psychic space-time. relativistic prediction that the particle
Consequently, any register in the goes to the future if V → c . However,
psychic space-time will have a if the gravitational mass of the particle
correspondent image in the real space- is negative, then t is also negative and,
time. This means that it is possible that therefore, given by
we find in the real space-time the
image of the holographic register
t = −t0 1−V 2 c2
existing in the psychic space-time,
corresponding to our past. Similarly,
every psychic form that is being In this case, the prevision is that the
shaped in the psychic space-time will particle goes to the past if V → c . In
have reflective image in the real space- this way, negative gravitational mass
time. Thus, the image of the is the necessary condition to the
holographic register of our future particle to go to the past.
(existing in the psychic space-time) Since the acceleration of a
can also be found in the real space- spacecraft with gravitational mass m g ,
time. is given by a = F m g , where F is the
Each image of the holographic thrust of its thrusters, then the more we
register of our future will be obviously reduce the value of m g the bigger the
correlated to a future epoch in the
acceleration of the spacecraft will be.
temporal coordinate of the space-time.
However, since the value of m g cannot
In the same way, each image of the
holographic registration of our past be reduced to the range + 0.159 M i to
will be correlated to a passed time in − 0.159M i because the spacecraft
the temporal coordinate of the referred would become a psychic body, and it
space-time. Thus, in order to access needs to remain in the real space-time
the mentioned registrations we should in order to access the past or the future
accomplish trips to the past or future in the real space-time, then, the ideal
in the real space-time. This is possible values for the spacecraft to operate
now, with the advent of the with safety would be ± 0.2mi . Let us
gravitational spacecrafts because they consider a gravitational spacecraft
allow us to reach speeds close to the whose inertial mass is mi = 10.000kg . If
speed of light. Thus, by varying the its gravitational mass was made
gravitational mass of the spacecraft for negative and equal to
negative or positive we can go
m g = −0.2mi = −2000 kg and, at this
respectively to the past or future [1].
instant the thrust produced by the

205
21
thrusters of the spacecraft was of the ionized air inside the GCC
F = 10 N then, the spacecraft would
5
and ρ (ar ) is its density; f is the
acquire acceleration a = F mg = 50m.s−2 frequency of the magnetic field.
and, after t = 30days = 2.5 × 10 6 s , the By varying B one can vary
speed of the spacecraft would be mg (air) and consequently to vary the
v = 1.2 × 108 m.s −1 = 0.4c . Therefore, right gravitational field generated by mg (air) ,
after that the spacecraft returned to the producing then Gravitational
Earth, its crew would find the Earth in Radiation. Then a GCC can work as a
the past (due to the negative Gravitational Antenna.
gravitational mass of the spacecraft) at Apparently, Newton’s theory of
a time t = − t 0 1−V 2 c 2 ; t 0 is the time gravity had no gravitational waves
measured by an observer at rest on the because, if a gravitational field
Earth. Thus, if t 0 = 2009 AD, the time changed in some way, that change
interval Δt = t − t 0 would be expressed would have taken place
by instantaneously everywhere in space,
and one can think that there is not a
⎛ ⎞
wave in this case. However, we have
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Δt = t −t0 = −t0⎜ −1⎟ = −t0⎜ −1⎟ ≅ already seen that the gravitational
⎜ 1−V c ⎟
2 2
⎝ 1−0.16 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ interaction can be repulsive, besides
≅ −0.091t0 ≅ −183years
Graviphotons
That is, the spacecraft would be in the v=∞
GCC
year 1826 AD. On the other hand, if Air

the gravitational mass of the spacecraft


would have become positive
m g = +0.2 m i = +2000 kg , instead of Coil
i Real gravitational waves
negative, then the spacecraft would be v=c

in the future at Δt = +183 years from f

2009. That is, it would be in the year


2192 AD.
(a) Antenna GCC

7. Instantaneous Interestelar
Communications
GCC GCC

Consider a cylindrical GCC Graviphoton


v=∞
(GCC antenna) as shown in Fig.8. The
gravitational mass of the air inside the
GCC is i i
⎧ ⎡ σ (air) B 4 ⎤⎫⎪

(24)
f f
mg (air ) ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥⎬mi (air )
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4πfμρ 2
(air ) c 2
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Where σ (ar ) is the electric conductivity Transmitter (b) Receiver

Fig. 8 – Transmitter and Receiver of Virtual Gravitational Radiation.

206
22
attractive. Thus, as with virtual gravitational radiation. In
electromagnetic interaction, the addition, the scattering of this
gravitational interaction must be radiation is null. Therefore the virtual
produced by the exchange of "virtual" gravitational radiation is very suitable
quanta of spin 1 and mass null, i.e., the as a means of transmitting information
gravitational "virtual" quanta at any distances, including
(graviphoton) must have spin 1 and astronomical distances.
not 2. Consequently, the fact that a As concerns detection of the
change in a gravitational field reaches virtual gravitational radiation from
instantaneously every point in space GCC antenna, there are many options.
occurs simply due to the speed of the Due to Resonance Principle a similar
graviphoton to be infinite. It is known GCC antenna (receiver) tuned at the
that there is no speed limit for same frequency can absorb energy
“virtual” photons. On the other hand, from an incident virtual gravitational
the electromagnetic quanta (“virtual” radiation (See Fig.8 (b)).
photons) can not communicate the Consequently, the gravitational mass
electromagnetic interaction to an of the air inside the GCC receiver will
infinite distance. vary such as the gravitational mass of
Thus, there are two types of the air inside the GCC transmitter.
gravitational radiation: the real and This will induce a magnetic field
virtual, which is constituted of similar to the magnetic field of the
graviphotons; the real gravitational GCC transmitter and therefore the
waves are ripples in the space-time current through the coil inside the
generated by gravitational field GCC receiver will have the same
changes. According to Einstein’s characteristics of the current through
theory of gravity the velocity of the coil inside the GCC transmitter.
propagation of these waves is equal to However, the volume and pressure of
the speed of light [10]. the air inside the two GCCs must be
Unlike the electromagnetic exactly the same; also the type and the
waves the real gravitational waves quantity of atoms in the air inside the
have low interaction with matter and two GCCs must be exactly the same.
consequently low scattering. Therefore Thus, the GCC antennas are simple
real gravitational waves are suitable as but they are not easy to build.
a means of transmitting information. Note that a GCC antenna
However, when the distance between radiates graviphotons and
transmitter and receiver is too gravitational waves simultaneously
large, for example of the order of (Fig. 8 (a)). Thus, it is not only a
magnitude of several light-years, the gravitational antenna: it is a Quantum
transmission of information by means Gravitational Antenna because it can
of gravitational waves becomes also emit and detect gravitational
impracticable due to the long time "virtual" quanta (graviphotons),
necessary to receive the information. which, in turn, can transmit
On the other hand, there is no delay information instantaneously from any
during the transmissions by means of
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23
distance in the Universe without Universe, by means of the above
scattering. mentioned systems of transmission
Due to the difficulty to build and reception of “virtual” gravitational
two similar GCC antennas and, waves.
considering that the electric current in
the receiver antenna can be detectable 8. Origin of Gravity and Genesis of
even if the gravitational mass of the the Gravitational Energy
nuclei of the antennas are not strongly
reduced, then we propose to replace It was shown [1] that the
the gas at the nuclei of the antennas by “virtual” quanta of the gravitational
a thin dielectric lamina. When the interaction must have spin 1 and not 2,
virtual gravitational radiation strikes and that they are “virtual” photons
upon the dielectric lamina, its (graviphotons) with zero mass outside
gravitational mass varies similarly to the coherent matter. Inside the
the gravitational mass of the dielectric coherent matter the graviphotons mass
lamina of the transmitter antenna, is non-zero. Therefore, the
inducing an electromagnetic field gravitational forces are also gauge
( E , B ) similar to the transmitter forces, because they are yielded by the
antenna. Thus, the electric current in exchange of "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
the receiver antenna will have the such as the electromagnetic forces and
same characteristics of the current in the weak and strong nuclear forces.
the transmitter antenna. In this way, it Thus, the gravitational forces
is then possible to build two similar are produced by the exchanging of
antennas whose nuclei have the same “virtual” photons (Fig.9).
volumes and the same types and Consequently, this is precisely the
quantities of atoms. origin of the gravity.
Note that the Quantum Newton’s theory of gravity does
Gravitational Antennas can also be not explain why objects attract one
used to transmit electric power. It is another; it simply models this
easy to see that the Transmitter and observation. Also Einstein’s theory
Receiver can work with strong does not explain the origin of gravity.
voltages and electric currents. This Einstein’s theory of gravity only
means that strong electric power can describes gravity with more precision
be transmitted among Quantum than Newton’s theory does.
Gravitational Antennas. This Besides, there is nothing in both
obviously solves the problem of theories explaining the origin of the
wireless electric power transmission. energy that produces the gravitational
Thus, we can conclude that the forces. Earth’s gravity attracts all
spacecrafts do not necessarily need to objects on the surface of our planet.
have a system for generation of This has been going on for over 4.5
electric energy inside them. Since the billions years, yet no known energy
electric energy to be used in the source is being converted to support
spacecraft can be instantaneously this tremendous ongoing energy
transmitted from any point of the expenditure. Also is the enormous
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24
continuous energy expended by The Uncertainty Principle
Earth’s gravitational field for tells us that, due to the occurrence of
maintaining the Moon in its orbit - exchange of graviphotons in a time
millennium after millennium. In spite interval Δt < h ΔE (where ΔE is the
of the ongoing energy expended by energy of the graviphoton), the energy
Earth’s gravitational field to hold variation ΔE cannot be detected in the
objects down on surface and the Moon system M g − m g . Since the total energy
in orbit, why the energy of the field W is the sum of the energy of the n
never diminishes in strength or drains graviphotons, i.e., W = ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ...+ ΔEn ,
its energy source? Is this energy
then the energy W cannot be detected
expenditure balanced by a conversion
as well. However, as we know it can
of energy from an unknown energy
be converted into another type of
source?
energy, for example, in rotational
kinetic energy, as in the hydroelectric
g
plants, or in the Gravitational Motor,
as shown in this work.
It is known that a quantum of
energy ΔE = hf , which varies during a
Exchanging of “virtual” photons
(graviphotons) time interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE
(wave period) cannot be
experimentally detected. This is an
imaginary photon or a “virtual”
photon. Thus, the graviphotons are
imaginary photons, i.e., the energies
ΔEi of the graviphotons are
imaginaries energies and therefore the
energy W = ΔE1 + ΔE 2 + ... + ΔE n is also
an imaginary energy. Consequently, it
belongs to the imaginary space-time.
Fig. 9 – Origin of Gravity: The gravitational forces are
produced by the exchanging of “virtual” photons It was shown [1] that, imaginary
(graviphotons). energy is equal to psychic energy.
Consequently, the imaginary space-
The energy W necessary to support time is, in fact, the psychic space-time,
the effort expended by the which contains the Supreme
gravitational forces F is well-known Consciousness. Since the Supreme
and given by Consciousness has infinite psychic
M gmg mass [1], then the psychic space-time
W = ∫ Fdr = − G
r

∞ r contains infinite psychic energy. This


According to the Principle of Energy is highly relevant, because it confers to
Conservation, the spending of this the Psychic Universe the characteristic
energy must be compensated by a of unlimited source of energy. Thus,
conversion of another type of energy. as the origin of the gravitational
energy it is correlated to the psychic
209
25
energy, then the spending of
gravitational energy can be supplied
indefinitely by the Psychic Universe.
This can be easily confirmed by
the fact that, in spite of the enormous
amount of energy expended by Earth’s
gravitational field to hold objects
down on the surface of the planet and
maintain the Moon in its orbit, the
energy of Earth’s gravitational field
never diminishes in strength or drains
its energy source.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Dr.


Getúlio Marques Martins (COPPE –
UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro-Brasil) for
revising the manuscript.

210
26

APPENDIX A: Gravity Control Cells (GCCs) made from


Semiconductor Compounds.

There are some semiconductors BACKGROUND FOR EXPERIMENTAL


compounds with electrical conductivity
between 104S/m to 1 S/m, which can The DuracapTM 86103 is sold
have their gravitational mass strongly under the form of small cubes. Its
decreased when subjected to ELF melting temperature varies from 177ºC
electromagnetic fields. to 188ºC. Thus, a 15cm square Duracap
For instance, the polyvinyl plate with 1 mm thickness can be shaped
chloride (PVC) compound, called by using a suitable mold, as the shown
DuracapTM 86103. in Fig.B1.
It has the following characteristics: Figure B2(a) shows the Duracap
μr =1; εr =3 plate between the Aluminum plates of a
σ = 3333 .3S / m
parallel plate capacitor. The plates have
ρ = 1400kg.m−3
the following dimensions: 19cm X 15cm
X 1mm. They are painted with an
dieletric strength = 98 KV / mm
insulating varnish spray of high
Then, according to the following dielectric strength (ISOFILM). They are
equation below (derived from Eq.A14) connected to the secondary of a
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪ transformer, which is connected to a
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms
⎜ ⎟
−1⎥⎬mi0 (B1)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎪ Function Generator. The distance
⎦⎭
between the Aluminum plates is d = 1mm .
the gravitational mass, m g , of the Thus, the electric field through the
DuracapTM 86103, when subjected to an Duracap is given by
electromagnetic field of frequency f , is Em V0
E rms = = (B3)
given by 2 εrd 2
⎧ ⎡ E4 ⎤⎫ where ε r is the relative permittivity of
⎪ ⎥⎪⎬mi0
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 3.3×10−23 rms − 1 (B2) the dielectric (Duracap), and V0 is the
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f 3 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
amplitude of the wave voltage applied
Note that, if the electromagnetic field
on the capacitor.
through the Duracap has extremely-low
In order to generate ELF wave
frequency, for example, if f = 2 Hz , and
voltage of f = 2 Hz , we can use the
widely-known Function Generator
Erms = 9.4 ×105 V / m (0.94kV / mm)
HP3325A (Op.002 High Voltage
Output) that can generate sinusoidal
Then, its gravitational mass will be voltages with extremely-low frequencies
reduced down to m g ≅ −1.1mi 0 , reducing and amplitude up to 20V (40Vpp into
in this way, the initial weight 500Ω load). The maximum output
(P0 = m g g = mi0 g ) of the Duracap down to current is 0.08 App ; output impedance
− 1.1P0 . <2Ω at ELF.
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27
The turns ratio of the transformer mass of a spacecraft, simply by
(Bosch red coil) is 200 : 1 . Thus, since the controlling the gravitational mass of a
maximum value of the amplitude of the body inside the spacecraft (Eq.(10)).
voltage produced by the Function This body can be, for example, the
Generator is V pmax = 20 V , then the dielectric between the plates of a
maximum secondary voltage will capacitor, whose gravitational mass can
be V smax = V0max = 4kV .Consequently, Eq. be easily controlled by means of an ELF
electromagnetic field produced between
(B3) gives
the plates of the capacitor. We will call
max
Erms = 2.8 × 106V / m
this type of capacitor of Capacitor of
Thus, for f = 2 Hz , Eq. (B2) gives Gravitational Mass Control (CGMC).
mg = −29.5mi0
Figure B 4(a) shows a CGMC
The variations on the placed in the center of the spacecraft.
gravitational mass of the Duracap plate Thus, the gravitational mass of the
can be measured by a pan balance with spacecraft can be controlled simply by
the following characteristics: range 0 − varying the gravitational mass of the
1.5kg ; readability 0.01g, using the set- dielectric of the capacitor by means of
up shown in Fig. B2(a). an ELF electromagnetic field produced
Figure B2(b) shows the set-up to between the plates of the capacitor. Note
measure the gravity acceleration that the Capacitor of Gravitational Mass
variations above the Duracap plate Control can have the spacecraft's own
(Gravitational Shielding effect). The form as shown in Fig. B 4(b). The
samples used in this case, can be of dielectric can be, for example, a
several types of material. Duracap plate, as shown in this
Since voltage waves with appendix. In this case, the gravitational
frequencies very below 1Hz have a very mass of the dielectric is expressed by
long period, we cannot consider, in Eq. (B2). Under these circumstances,
practice, their rms values. However, we the total gravitational mass of the
can add a sinusoidal voltage spacecraft will be given by Eq.(10):
Vosc = V0 sin ωt with a DC voltage V DC , by M g (spacecraf ) = M i 0 + χ dielectric mi 0
means of the circuit shown in Fig.B3. where M i 0 is the rest inertial mass of
Thus, we obtain V = VDC + V0 sinωt ; ω = 2πf . the spacecraft(without the dielectric) and
If V0 << V DC then V ≅ V DC . Thus, the mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
voltage V varies with the frequency f , dielectric; χ dielectric = m g mi 0 , where m g is
but its intensity is approximately equal the gravitational mass of the dielectric.
to V DC , i.e., V will be practically By decreasing the value of χ dielectric , the
constant. This is of fundamental gravitational mass of the spacecraft
importance for maintaining the value of decreases. It was shown, that the value
the gravitational mass of the body, m g , of χ can be negative. Thus, for example,
sufficiently stable during all the time, in when χ dielectric ≅ − M i0 mi0 , the gravitational
the case of f << Hz . mass of the spacecraft gets very close to
We have shown in this paper that zero. When χ dielectric < − M i0 mi0 , the
it is possible to control the gravitational
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28
gravitational mass of the spacecraft spacecraft can be reduced just down
becomes negative. to 0.159 g . In addition, since the Mach’s
Therefore, for an observer out of principle says that the local inertial
the spacecraft the gravitational mass of forces are produced by the gravitational
the spacecraft is M g(spacecraf) = Mi0 + χ dielectricmi0 , interaction of the local system with the
and not M i 0 + m i 0 . distribution of cosmic masses then the
Since the dielectric strength of the inertial effects upon the crew would be
Duracap is 98kV / mm , a Duracap plate reduced just by χ dielectric = 0.159 .
with 1mm thickness can withstand up to However, there is a way to
98kV . In this case, the value of χ dielectric strongly reduce the inertial effects upon
for f = 2 Hz , according to Eq. (B2), is the crew of the spacecraft without
making it imaginary. As shown in Fig.
χ dielectric = m g mi 0 ≅ − 10 4
B4 (c), we can build an inertial
Thus, for example, if the inertial mass of shielding, with n superimposed
the spacecraft is M i 0 ≅ 10021 .0014 kg and, CGMCs. In this case, according to the
the inertial mass of the dielectric of the Gravitational Shielding Principle, the
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control is gravity upon the crew will be given by
m i 0 ≅ 1.0021kg , then the gravitational g n = χ dielectric
n
g , where g is the gravity
mass of the spacecraft becomes acceleration out of the spacecraft (in a
M g (spacecraf ) = M i 0 + χ dielectric mi 0 ≅ 10 −3 kg given direction) and χdielectric= mg mi0 ; m g
This value is much smaller than and mi 0 are, respectively, the
+ 0.159 M i 0 . gravitational mass and the inertial mass
It was shown [1] that, when the of the dielectric. Under these conditions
gravitational mass of a particle is the inertial effects upon the crew will be
reduced to values between + 0.159M i reduced by χ dielectric
n
.
and − 0.159Mi , it becomes imaginary, i.e., Thus, for n = 10 (ten superimposed
the gravitational and the inertial masses CGMCs), and χ dielectric ≅ 0.2 , the inertial
of the particle become imaginary. effects upon the crew will be reduced
Consequently, the particle disappears −7
by χ 10
dielectric ≅ 1 × 10 . Therefore, if the
from our ordinary space-time. maximum thrust produced by the
This means that we cannot reduce thrusters of the spacecraft is F = 105 N ,
the gravitational mass of the spacecraft then the intensities of the inertial forces
below + 0.159M i , unless we want to upon the crew will not exceed 0.01N ,
make it imaginary. i.e. they will be practically negligible.
Obviously this limits the Under these circumstances, the
minimum value of χ dielectric , i.e. gravitational mass of the spacecraft, for
χ dielctric
min
= 0.159 . Consequently, if the an observer out of the spacecraft, will be
gravity acceleration out of the spacecraft just approximately equal to the
(in a given direction) is g , then, gravitational mass of the inertial
according to the Gravitational Shielding shielding, i.e. M g (spacecraft ) ≅ M g (inertial.shield ) .
Principle, the corresponding gravity If M g (inertial .shield ) ≅ 10 3 kg , and the
acceleration upon the crew of the thrusters of the spacecraft are able to
213
29
produces up to F = 3 × 10 N , the 5 KV/mm; maximum working
spacecraft will acquires an acceleration temperature of 1600°C.
given by Another material is the Alumina-
a spacecraft =
F
≅ 3 × 10 2 m.s − 2
CNT, recently discovered *** . It has
M g (spacecraft ) electrical conductivity of 3375 S/m at
With this acceleration it can reach 77°C in samples that were 15%
velocities close to Mach 10 in some nanotubes by volume [17]; ε r = 9.8 ;
seconds. ρ = 3980 kg .m −3 ; dielectric strength 10-
The velocity that the spacecraft 20KV/mm; maximum working
can reach in the imaginary spacetime is temperature of 1750°C.
much greater than this value, since
M g (spacecraft ) , as we have seen, can be
reduced down to ≅ 10 −3 kg or less.
Thus, if the thrusters of the
spacecraft are able to produces up
to F = 3 × 105 N , and M g (spacecraft ) ≅ 10 −3 kg ,
the spacecraft will acquires an
acceleration given by
F
a spacecraft = ≅ 3 × 10 8 m.s − 2
M g (spacecraft )
The novel Carbon Nanotubes
With this acceleration it can reach †††
Aerogels , called CNT Aerogels are
velocities close to the light speed in less
also suitable to produce Gravitational
than 1 second. After 1 month, the
Shieldings, mainly due to their very
velocity of the spacecraft would be
small densities. The electrical
about 1015 m / s (remember that in the conductivity of the CNT Aerogels is
imaginary spacetime the maximum
70.4S/m for a density of ρ = 7.5kg.m −3 [18];
velocity of propagation of the
ε r ≈ 10 . Recently (2010), it was announced
interactions is infinity [1]).
the discovered of Graphene Aerogel
OTHER SEMICONDUCTOR COMPOUNDS with σ =~ 1 × 10 2 S / m and ρ = 10kg .m −3 [19]
(Aerogels exhibit higher dielectric
A semiconductor compound, strength than expected for porous
which can have its gravitational mass materials).
strongly decreased when subjected to
***
ELF electromagnetic fields is the Recently, it was discovered that Carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) can be added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it
CoorsTek Pure SiCTM LR CVD Silicon into a good electrical conductor.
Carbide, 99.9995% §§ . This Low- †††
In 2007, Mateusz Brying et al. working with Prof.
resistivity (LR) pure Silicon Carbide has Arjun Yodh at the University of Pennsylvania produced
the first aerogels made entirely of carbon nanotubes
electrical conductivity of 5000S/m at (CNT Aerogels) [20] that, depending on the processing
room temperature; ε r = 10.8 ; conditions, can have their electrical conductivity ranging
as high as 100 S/m.
ρ = 3210kg.m −3 ; dielectric strength >10

§§
www.coorstek.com

214
30

Aluminum

2mm

150mm

3mm 150mm

200mm
5mm
150mm
3mm
200mm
150mm

Aluminum

Fig.B1 – Mold design

215
31

Aluminum
190mmX150mmX1mm
Duracap
150mmX150mmX1mm
Acrylic 1kg
150mmX40mmX1mm
Wood

Bosch 20 mm
ELF Wave Voltage red 20 mm Balance
Generator coil 20 mm
(a)

Sample

1kg

Bosch
ELF Wave Voltage red Balance
Generator coil

(b)

Fig.B2 – Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up

216
32

− V DC
+

ELF voltage V DC + Vosc


waves
V DC >> V0
Generator
200:1
V osc
f
~ V osc V osc = V 0 sin ωt

Bosch red coil


Coupling
Transformer

Fig. B3 – Equivalent Electric Circuit

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33
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control

Gravitational Thrusters

z
y x

col 1 col 2

(a)
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control dielectric
(CGMC)

(b)

n dielectrics
n 321

g n = χ dielectric
n
g g

Inertial Shielding
(c)
Fig.B4 – Gravitational Propulsion System and Inertial Shielding of the Gravitational Spacecraft
– (a) eight gravitational thrusters are placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft along the directions x, y and z. Two gravitational thrusters are inside the columns 1 and 2, in
order to rotate the spacecraft around the y-axis. The functioning of the Gravitational Thrusters is shown
in Fig.A14. The gravitational mass of the spacecraft is controlled by the Capacitor of Gravitational
Mass Control (CGMC). Note that the CGMC can have the spacecraft's own form, as shown in (b). In
order to strongly reduce the inertial effects upon the crew of the spacecraft, we can build an inertial
shielding, with several CGMCs, as shown above (c). In this case, the gravity upon the crew will be
given by g n = χ dielectric
n
g , where g is the gravity acceleration out of the spacecraft (in a given direction)
and χ dielectric = m g mi 0 ; m g and mi 0 are, respectively, the gravitational mass and the inertial mass of
the dielectric. Under these conditions the inertial effects upon the crew will be reduced by χ dielectric
n
.
Thus, for example, if n = 10 and χ dielectric ≅ 0.2 , the inertial effects will be reduced
by χ dielectric
10
≅ 1 × 10 −7 . If the maximum thrust produced by the thrusters is F = 10 5 N , then the intensities
of the inertial forces upon the crew will not exceed 0.01N .

218
34
APPENDIX B: Longer-Duration Microgravity Environment
Produced by Gravity Control Cells (GCCs).
The acceleration experienced by deep vertical mine shaft in Japan that
an object in a microgravity has been converted to a drop facility.
environment, by definition, is one- Drop towers are used for
millionth (10-6) of that experienced at experiments that only need a short
Earth’s surface (1g). Consequently, a duration of microgravity, or for an
microgravity environment is one initial validation for experiments that
where the acceleration induced by will be carried out in longer duration
gravity has little or no measurable of microgravity.
effect. The term zero-gravity is,
obviously inappropriate since the
quantization of gravity [1] shows that
the gravity can have only discrete
values different of zero [1, Appendix B].
Only three methods of creating a
microgravity environment are
currently known: to travel far enough
into deep space so as to reduce the
effect of gravity by attenuation, by
falling, and by orbiting a planet.
The first method is the simplest
in conception, but requires traveling an Aircraft can fly in parabolic arcs
enormous distance, rendering it most to achieve period of microgravity of
impractical with the conventional 20 to 25 seconds with g-level of
spacecrafts. The second method, approximately 0.02 g. The airplane
falling, is very common but climbs rapidly until its nose is about
approaches microgravity only when 45-degree angle to the horizon then the
the fall is in a vacuum, as air resistance engines are cut back. The airplane
will provide some resistance to free slows; the plane remains in free fall
fall acceleration. Also it is difficult to over the top of the parabola, then it
fall for long enough periods of time. nose-dives to complete the parabola,
There are also problems which involve creating microgravity conditions.
avoiding too sudden of a stop at the Aircraft parabolic flights give
end. The NASA Lewis Research the opportunity to perform medical
Center has several drop facilities. One experiments on human subjects in real
provides a 132 meter drop into a hole microgravity environment. They also
in the ground similar to a mine shaft. offer the possibility of direct
This drop creates a reduced gravity intervention by investigators on board
environment for 5.2 seconds. The the aircraft during and between
longest drop time currently available parabolas. In the mid-1980s, NASA
(about 10 seconds) is at a 490 meter KC-135, a modified Boeing 707,

219
35
provided access to microgravity and potential loss of data.
environment. A parabolic flight Unmanned capsules, platforms or
provided 15 to 20 seconds of 0.01 g or satellites, such as the European
less, followed by a 2-g pull out. On a retrievable carrier Eureka, DLR's
typical flight, up to 40 parabolic retrievable carrier SPAS, or the
trajectories can be performed. The Russian Photon capsules, the US
KC-135 can accommodate up to 21 Space Shuttle (in connection with the
passengers performing 12 different European Spacelab laboratory or the
experiments. In 1993, the Falcon-20 US Spacelab module), provide weeks
performed its first parabolic flight with or months of microgravity.
microgravity experiment on board. A space station, maintaining a
This jet can carry two experimenters low earth orbit for several decades,
and perform up to 3 experiments. Each greatly improves access to
flight can make up to 4 parabolic microgravity environment for up to
trajectories, with each parabola lasting several months.
75 seconds, with 15 to 20 seconds of Thus, microgravity environment
microgravity at 0.01g or less. can be obtained via different means,
providing different duration of
microgravity. While short-duration
microgravity environments can be
achieved on Earth with relative
easiness, longer-duration microgravity
environments are too expensive to be
obtained.
Here, we propose to use the Gravity
Control Cells (GCCs), shown in this
The third method of creating a work, in order to create longer-
microgravity environment is orbiting a duration microgravity environments.
planet. This is the environment As we have seen, just above a GCC
commonly experienced in the space the gravity can be strongly reduced
shuttle, International Space Station, (down to 1μg or less). In this way, the
Mir (no longer in orbit), etc. While this gravity above a GCC can remain at the
scenario is the most suitable for >>1m

scientific experimentation and >>1m

commercial exploitation, it is still


longer-duration
quite expensive to operate in, mostly microgravity
environment
due to launch costs. ~1 μ g
up to 3m
A space shuttle provides an ideal
laboratory environment to conduct
GCC
microgravity research. A large panoply
of experiments can be carried out in
microgravity conditions for up to 17
1g
days, and scientists can make
adjustment to avoid experiment failure
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36
promise to develop new materials
microgravity ranging during a very which can not be made on Earth due to
long time (several years). Thus, GCCs gravity. These new materials shall
can be used in order to create longer- have properties that are superior to
duration microgravity environments on those made on Earth and may be used
Earth. In addition, due to the cost of to:
the GCCs to be relatively low, also the -increase the speed of future
longer-duration microgravity computers,
environments will be produced with -improve fiber optics,
low costs. -make feasible Room Temperature
This possibility appears to be Superconductors,
absolutely new and unprecedented in -enable medical breakthroughs to cure
the literature since longer-duration several diseases (e.g., diabetes).
microgravity environments are usually In a microgravity environment
obtained via airplanes, sounding protein crystals can be grown larger
rockets, spacecraft and space station. and with a purity that is impossible to
It is easy to see that the GCCs obtain under gravity of 1g. By
can be built with width and length of analyzing the space-grown crystals it
until some meters. On the other hand, is possible to determine the structure
as the effect of gravity reduction above and function of the thousands of
the GCC can reach up to 3m, we can proteins used in the human body and
then conclude that the longer-duration in valuable plants and animals. The
microgravity environments produced determination of protein structure
above the GCCs can have sufficiently represents a huge opportunity for
large volumes to perform any pharmaceutical companies to develop
microgravity experiment on Earth. new drugs to fight diseases.
The longer-duration microgravity Crystal of HIV protease
environment produced by a GCC will inhibitor grown in microgravity are
be a special tool for microgravity significantly larger and of higher
research. It will allow to improve and quality than any specimens grown
to optimize physical, chemical and under gravity of 1g. This will help in
biological processes on Earth that are defining the structure of the protein
important in science, engineering and crucial in fighting the AIDS virus.
also medicine. The reduction of Protein Crystal Isocitrate Lysase
gravitational effects in a microgravity is an enzyme for fungicides. The
environment shows, for example, that isocitrate lysase crystals grown in
temperature differences in a fluid do microgravity environments are of
not produce convection, buoyancy or larger sizes and fewer structural
sedimentation. The changes in fluid defects than crystals grown under
behavior in microgravity lie at the gravity of 1g. They will lead to more
heart of the studies in materials powerful fungicides to treat serious
science, combustion and many aspects crop diseases such as rice blast, and
of space biology and life sciences. increase crop output.
Microgravity research holds the
221
37
Improved crystals of human purity fiber optics, optical switches
insulin will help improve treatment for for computing, telecommunications,
diabetes and potentially create a cure. medical surgery and cauterization,
Anchorage dependent cells temperature monitoring, infrared
attached to a polymer and grown in a imaging, fiber-optic lasers, and optical
bioreactor in microgravity will lead to power transmission. A ZBLAN fiber
the production of a protein that is optic cable manufactured in a
closer in structure and function to the microgravity environment has the
three-dimensional protein living in the potential to carry 100 times the
body. amount of data conveyed by
conventional silica-based fibers.
In microgravity environment
where complications of gravity-driven
convection flows are eliminated, we
can explore the fundamental processes
in fluids of several types more easily
and test fundamental theories of three-
dimensional laminar, oscillatory and
turbulent flow generated by various
other forces.
This should help reduce or By improving the basics for
eliminate transplant rejection and is predicting and controlling the behavior
therefore critical for organ transplant of fluids, we open up possibilities for
and for the replacement of damaged improving a whole range of industrial
bone and tissues. Cells grown on Earth processes:
are far from being three-dimensional
due to the effect of 1g gravity. -aCivil engineers can design safe
The ZBLAN is a new substance buildings in earthquake-prone areas
with the potential to revolutionize fiber thanks to a better understanding of the
optics communications. A member of fluid-like behavior of soils under
the heavy metal fluoride family of stress.
glasses, ZBLAN has promising
applications in fiber optics. It can be - Materials engineers can benefit from
used in a large array of industries, a deeper knowledge of the
including manufacture of ultra high determination of the structure and
properties of a solid metal during its
formation and can improve product
quality and yield, and, in some cases,
lead to the introduction of new
products.

- Architects and engineers can design


more stable and performing power

222
38
plants with the knowledge of the flow appears to have unique radiation
characteristics of vapor-liquid mixture. shielding capabilities, including an
ability to block alpha, beta, gamma
- Combustion scientists can improve rays). Terrafoam can be constructed to
fire safety and fuel efficiency with the be extremely lightweight. Altering the
knowledge of fluid flow in manufacturing process and the
microgravity. inclusion of other materials can vary
In microgravity environment, the properties of Terrafoam. Properties
medical researchers can observe the such as cell structure, tensile strength,
functional changes in cells when the bulk density and temperature
effect of gravity is practically resistance can be varied to suit specific
removed. It becomes possible to study applications. It self-welds to concrete,
fundamental life processes down to the aluminum and other metals. The useful
cellular level. variations on the base product are
Access to microgravity will potentially in the thousands. Perhaps
provide better opportunities for the most exciting potential
research, offer repeated testing applications for Terrafoam stem from
procedures, and enormously improve its extraordinary capability as an ultra-
the test facilities available for life lightweight thermal and radioactive
sciences investigations. This will shield.
provide valuable information for Also, the formation of
medical research and lead to nanoscale carbon structures by
improvements in the health and electrical arc discharge plasma
welfare of the six billion people, which synthesis has already been investigated
live under the influence of 1g gravity in microgravity experiments by
on the Earth's surface. NASA. Furthermore, complex
The utilization of microgravity plasmas are relevant for processes in
to develop new and innovative which a particle formation is to be
materials, pharmaceuticals and other prevented, if possible, as, for example,
products is waiting to be explored. within plasma etching processes for
Access to microgravity environments microchip production.
currently is limited. Better access, as
the produced by GCCs, will help
researchers accelerate the
experimentation into these new
products.
Terrafoam is a rigid, silicate
based inorganic foam. It is
nonflammable and does not five off People will benefit from
noxious fumes when in the presence of numerous microgravity experiments
fire. It does not conduct heat to any that can be conducted in Longer-
measurable degree and thus is an Duration Microgravity Environment
outstanding and possible unsurpassed Produced by Gravity Control Cells
thermal insulator. In addition, it (GCCs) on Earth.
223
39

APPENDIX C: Antenna with Gravitational Transducer for


Instantaneous Communications at any distance

It was previously shown in this is decreased down to the range of


article that Quantum Gravitational + 0.159miS to − 0.159miS . By analogy, it
Antennas (GCC antennas, Fig.8) can becomes imaginary and goes to the
emit and detect virtual gravitational imaginary Universe. It is easy to show
radiation. The velocity of this radiation that, in these circumstances, also a
is infinite, as we have seen. This means body inside the shielding S becomes
that these quantum antennas can imaginary and goes to the imaginary
transmit and receive communications Universe together with the gravitational
instantaneously to and from anywhere shielding S . In order to prove it,
in the Universe. Here, it is shown how consider, for example, Fig.D1 where
to transmit and receive we clearly see that the Gravitational
communications instantaneously from Shielding Effect is equivalent to a
any distance in the Universe by decrease of χ = m gS miS in the
utilizing virtual electromagnetic (EM) gravitational masses of the bodies A
radiation instead of virtual and B , since the initial gravitational
gravitational radiation. Starting from
masses: m gA ≅ miA and m gB ≅ miB become
the principle that the antennas of usual
transceivers (real antennas) radiate real respectively m gA = χmiA and m gB = χmiB ,
EM radiation, then we can expect that when the gravitational shielding is
imaginary antennas radiate imaginary activated. Thus, when χ becomes less
EM radiation or virtual EM radiation. than + 0.159 , both the gravitational
The velocity of this radiation is also masses of S and A become
infinite, in such a way that respectively:
it can transmit communications
instantaneously from any distance in m gS < +0.159 miS
the Universe. and
It was shown [1] that when the m gA < +0.159 miA
gravitational mass of a body is
decreased down to the range of This proves, therefore, that when a
+ 0.159mi to − 0.159mi ( mi is its inertial Gravitational Shielding S becomes
mass), the body becomes imaginary imaginary, any particle (including
and goes to an imaginary Universe photons §§§ ) inside S , also becomes
which contains our real Universe. imaginary and goes to the imaginary
Thus, we have the method to convert
real antennas to imaginary antennas. §§§
As shown in the article “Mathematical
Now, consider a Gravitational Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity”, real photons become imaginary photons or
Shielding S , whose gravitational mass virtual photons.

224
40
antenna becomes imaginary, and,
A mgB miB
g BA = −G 2
≅ −G together with S , it goes to the
r r2
imaginary Universe. In these
r
mgA miA
circumstances, the real photons
g AB = −G ≅ −G radiated from the antenna also become
B r 2
r2
imaginary photons or virtual photons.
Since the velocity of these photons is
(a) infinite, they can reach instantaneously
the receiving antenna, if it is also an
imaginary antenna in the imaginary
mgB χ miB Universe.
g BA = −G = −G
r 2
r2 Therefore, we can say that the
S Gravitational Shielding around the
χ = mgS miS , χ < 1 g AB = −G mgA = −G χ miA antenna works as a Gravitational
2 2
r r Transducer †††† converting real EM
energy into virtual EM energy.
(b) In practice, we can encapsulate
antennas of transceivers with
Aluminum cylinders, as shown in
S
mgS < +0.159 miS Fig.D2(a). By applying an appropriate
ELF electric current through the Al
Virtual photon cylinders, in order to put the
A mgA < +0.159miA gravitational masses of the cylinders
within the range of + 0.159miCyl
to − 0.159miCyl , we can transform real
(c)
antennas into imaginary antennas,
Fig.D1 – (a) (b) The Gravitational Shielding making possible instantaneously
Effect is equivalent to a decrease of χ = mgS miS communications at any distance,
in the gravitational masses of the bodies A including astronomical distances.
and B . (c) When a Gravitational Shielding S Figure D2 (b) shows usual
becomes imaginary, any particle (including transceivers operating with imaginary
photons) inside S , also becomes imaginary. antennas, i.e., real antennas turned into
imaginary antennas. It is important to
Universe together with the note that the communications between
****
Gravitational Shielding S . them occur through the imaginary
Now, consider a transceiver space-time. At the end of
antenna inside a Gravitational transmissions, when the Gravitational
Shielding S . When the gravitational Transducers are turned off, the
mass of S , m gS , is reduced down to the antennas reappear in the real space-
range of + 0.159miS to − 0.159miS , the time, i.e., they become real antennas
again.
****
Similarly, the bodies inside a Gravitational
Spacecraft become also imaginaries when the ††††
A Transducer is substance or device that converts
Gravitational Spacecraft becomes imaginary. input energy of one form into output energy of another.

225
41
Imagine now cell phones using to put the transceiver totally inside a
antennas with gravitational transducers. Gravitational Shielding. Then, consider
There will not be any more need of cell a transceiver X inside the gravitational
phone signal transmission stations shielding of a Gravitational Spacecraft.
because the reach of the virtual EM When the spacecraft becomes
radiation is infinite (without imaginary, so does the transceiver X .
scattering). The new cell phones will Imagine then, another real transceiver
transmit and receive communications Y with imaginary antenna. With their
directly to and from one another. In antennas in the imaginary space-time,
addition, since the virtual EM radiation both transceivers X and Y are able to
does not interact with matter, then there transmit and receive communications
will not be any biological effects, as it instantaneously between them, by
happens in the case of usual cell means of virtual EM radiation (See
phones. Fig. D3(a)). Figure D3(b) shows
another possibility: instantaneous
Aluminum cylinder Antenna communications between two
transceivers at virtual state.
Imaginary Space-time
~
ELF electric current
(a) Virtual photons
v→∞
Imaginary antennas +
Imaginary transducers
Virtual Transceiver X
Real Transceiver Y
Virtual photons
v→∞ (a)
Real Transceiver 1
Imaginary Space-time
Imaginary Space-time

Real Space-time
Real Transceiver 2 Virtual photons
(b) v→∞
Fig. D2 – (a) Antenna with Gravitational
Transducer. (b) Transceivers operating with
imaginary antennas (instantaneous Virtual Transceivers
communications at any distance, including
astronomical distances). (b)
Let us now consider the case Fig. D3 – (a) Instantaneous communications
where a transceiver is totally turned between the real Universe and the imaginary
into imaginary (Fig.D3). In order to Universe.(b) Instantaneous communications
convert real antennas into imaginary between two Virtual Transceivers in the
antennas, we have used the imaginary Universe.
gravitational shielding effect, as we
have already seen. Now, it is necessary
226
42
References

[1] De Aquino, F.(2010) Mathematical Foundations [16] Wadsley, J., et al. (2002). The Universe
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, in Hot Gas. NASA.
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap
11(1), June 2010, pp.173-232. Physics/0212033. 020820.html. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means [17] Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl Phys. Lett.
of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra- 83, 1228.
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and [18] Xianping Lu, Ove Nilsson, Jochen.
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178- Fricke, Richard W. Pekala,” Thermal and
247, Physics/0701091. electrical conductivity of monolithic
. [3] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in carbon aerogels”, Journal of Applied
Oxford Symposium, OUP. Physics, 73, 2, 581-584 (Jan 1993).
[4] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems [19] Worsley, M.A et al., (2010) Synthesis of
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in Graphene Aerogel with High Electrical
M, Francaviglia, G, Longhi, L, Lusanna, Conductivity , J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132
and E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings of the (40), pp 14067–14069.
14th International Conference on [20] Bryning, M., Milkie, D., Islam, M.,
General Relativity and Gravitation, Hough, L., Kikkawa, J. and Yodh, A.
167-209,(World Scientific, Singapore, 1997).
(2007), Carbon Nanotube Aerogels.
[5] Mach, E., (1893) The Science of Mechanics, AdvancedMaterials,19: 661–664.
London, p.229-38. doi: 10.1002/adma.200601748.
[6] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory,
Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.
[7] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum
Reality, Scientific American, 241,128.
[8] Teller, P. Relational Holism and
Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for
the Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.
[9] De Aquino, F. (2008) “Physical
Foundations of Quantum Psychology”,
http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000297
[10] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969)
Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,
Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus,
S.Paulo, pp.396-397.
[11] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)
Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
[12] Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl. Phys. Lett.
83, 1228.
[13] Davidson, K. & Smoot, G. (2008)
Wrinkles in Time. N. Y: Avon, 158-163.
[14] Silk, Joseph.(1977) Big Bang. N.Y,
Freeman,299.
[15] Jafelice, L.C. and Opher, R. (1992). The
origin of intergalactic magnetic fields
due to extragalactic jets. RAS.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-
bib query? Bib code = 1992 MNRAS.
257. 135J. Retrieved 2009-06-19.

227
1

Possibility of controlled nuclear fusion by means of


Gravity Control
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino
All Rights Reserved

The gravity control process where K = 1.758× 10−27 and j rms = j 2 .


described in the articles Mathematical
Thus, the gravitational force equation
Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of
can be expressed by
Quantum Gravity [1] and Gravity Control
by means of Electromagnetic Field
through Gas at Ultra-Low Pressure, [2] FG = Gmgm′g r2 = χ2Gmi0mi′0 r2 =
points to the possibility of obtaining ⎧ ⎡
2
⎤⎫⎪
⎪ μ j4
Controlled Nuclear Fusion by means of = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ K r 2rms3 −1⎥⎬ Gmi0mi′0 r2 (3)
increasing of the intensity of the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
gravitational interaction between the
nuclei. When the gravitational forces
In order to obtain FG > FE we must have
FG = Gmgm′g r2 become greater than the
electrical forces FE = qq ′ 4πε 0 r 2 ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ qq′ 4πε
⎪ ⎢ μr jrms
4
between the nuclei, then nuclear fusion ⎨1− 2 1+ K 2 3 −1⎥⎬ >
0
(4)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪ Gmi0mi′0
reactions can occur. ⎦⎭
The equation of correlation
between gravitational mass and inertial The carbon fusion is a set of
mass [1] nuclear fusion reactions that take place in
massive stars (at least 8M sun at birth). It
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫ requires high temperatures ( > 5×108 K ) and
⎪ ⎢
mg μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E4 ⎥⎪
χ = = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 −1 ⎬

(1) densities ( > 3 × 10 9 kg .m −3 ). The principal
mi ⎪ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
reactions are:

tells us that the gravitational mass can be 23


Na + p + 2.24 MeV
strongly increased. Thus, if
E = E m sin ωt , then the average value for 12
C + 12C → 20
Ne + α + 4.62 MeV
2 2
E is equal to 1
2 E , because E varies
m
24
Mg + γ +13.93 MeV
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
for E ). On the other hand, Erms = Em 2. In the case of Carbon nuclei (12C) of a
Consequently, we can replace E 4 for thin carbon wire (carbon fiber)
4
E rms . In addition, as j = σE (Ohm's ( σ ≅ 4×104 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2.2 ×103 S.m−1 ) Eq. (4)
vectorial Law), then Eq. (1) can be becomes
rewritten as follows
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ e2
⎪ ⎢ −39 jrms ⎥
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ ⎨ 1 − 2 1 + 9.08×10 −1 ⎬ >
mg ⎪ μ j4 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎪ 16πε0Gm2p
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ K r 2rms3 −1⎥⎬ (2) ⎦⎭
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

228
2

whence we conclude that the condition irms > 42.4 A


for the 12C + 12C fusion reactions occur
is In order to obtain an ELF current
3
with these characteristics
> 1.7 ×1018 f 4 (5)
jrms
( −6
)
f = 10 Hz; i rms = 42.4 A we can start
If the electric current through the carbon from the following background:
wire has Extremely-Low Frequency Consider an electric current I , which is
(ELF), for example, if f = 1μHz , then the the sum of a sinusoidal current
current density, j rms , must have the iosc = i0 sin ωt 1 and the DC current I DC ,
following value: i.e., I = I DC + i0 sin ωt ; ω = 2πf . If
i0 << I DC then I ≅ I DC . Thus, the current
jrms > 5.4 ×1013 A.m−2 (6) I varies with the frequency f , but the
variation of its intensity is quite small in
Since j rms = i rms S where S = πφ 2 4 is comparison with I DC , i.e., I will be
the area of the cross section of the wire, practically constant (Fig. 1). Thus, we
we can conclude that, for an ultra-thin obtain i rms ≅ I DC ( See Fig.2).
carbon wire with 10μm -diameter, it is
necessary that the current through the
wire, irms , have the following intensity i0
irms > 4.24 k A
Obviously, this current will explode the
carbon wire. However, this explosion IDC
becomes negligible in comparison with
the very strong gravitational implosion,
which occurs simultaneously due to the I = IDC + iosc
enormous increase in intensities of the
gravitational forces among the carbon
nuclei produced by means of the ELF
current through the carbon wire as
predicted by Eq. (3). Since, in this case,
the gravitational forces among the carbon
t
nuclei become greater than the repulsive
electric forces among them the result is Fig. 1 - The electric current I varies with
frequency f . But the variation of I is quite small
the production of 12C + 12C fusion
in comparison with I DC due to i o << I DC . In this
reactions.
way, we can consider I ≅ I DC .
Similar reactions can occur by
using a lithium wire. In addition, it is
important to note that j rms is directly
1
3 In order to generate the ELF electric current
proportional to f (Eq.5).
4 Thus, for
iosc with f = 10 −6 Hz , we can use the widely-
−8
example, if f = 10 Hz , the current known Function Generator HP3325A (Op.002
necessary to produce the fusion reactions High Voltage Output) that can generate sinusoidal
will be i rms = 130 A . However, it seems voltages with extremely-low frequencies down to
that in practice is better to reduce the f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to 20V
diameter of the wire. For a diameter of (40Vpp into 500Ω load). The maximum output
1μm (10 −6 m) , the intensity of the current current is 0.08 App ; output impedance <2Ω at
ELF .
must have the following value

229
3

i osc ε2
+ −
R
I DC

~ Ultra thin wire

f = 1μHz
i rms ≅ I DC

I = I DC + i osc

Fig. 2 – Electrical Circuit

REFERENCES

[1] DeAquino, F. (2002). Mathematical


Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of
Quantum Gravity. Physics/0212033.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2007) Gravity Control


by means of Electromagnetic Field
through Gas at Ultra-Low Pressure.
Physics/0701091.

230
High-power ELF radiation generated by modulated HF heating of the
ionosphere can cause Earthquakes, Cyclones and localized heating
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is currently the most important
facility used to generate extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic radiation in the ionosphere.
In order to produce this ELF radiation the HAARP transmitter radiates a strong beam of high-
frequency (HF) waves modulated at ELF. This HF heating modulates the electrons’ temperature in the
D region ionosphere and leads to modulated conductivity and a time-varying current which then
radiates at the modulation frequency. Recently, the HAARP HF transmitter operated with 3.6GW of
effective radiated power modulated at frequency of 2.5Hz. It is shown that high-power ELF radiation
generated by HF ionospheric heaters, such as the current HAARP heater, can cause Earthquakes,
Cyclones and strong localized heating.
.

Key words: Physics of the ionosphere, radiation processes, Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Storms.
PACS: 94.20.-y ; 94.05.Dd ; 91.30.Px ; 91.30.Nw; 92.60.Qx

1. Introduction radiation generated by modulated HF heating


of the lower ionosphere, such as that
Generating electromagnetic radiation produced by the current HAARP heater, can
at extremely-low frequencies is difficult cause Earthquakes, Cyclones and strong
because the long wavelengths require long localized heating.
antennas, extending for hundreds of
kilometers. Natural ionospheric currents 2. Gravitational Shielding
provide such an antenna if they can be
modulated at the desired frequency [1-6]. The The contemporary greatest challenge of
generation of ELF electromagnetic radiation the Theoretical Physics was to prove that,
by modulated heating of the ionosphere has Gravity is a quantum phenomenon. Since
been the subject matter of numerous papers General Relativity describes gravity as
[7-13]. related to the curvature of space-time then,
In 1974, it was shown that ionospheric the quantization of the gravity implies the
heater can generate ELF waves by heating quantization of the proper space-time. Until
the ionosphere with high-frequency (HF) the end of the century XX, several attempts
radiation in the megahertz range [7]. This to quantize gravity were made. However, all
heating modulates the electron’s temperature of them resulted fruitless [16, 17].
in the D region ionosphere, leading to In the beginning of this century, it was
modulated conductivity and a time-varying clearly noticed that there was something
current, which then radiates at the unsatisfactory about the whole notion of
modulation frequency. quantization and that the quantization
Several HF ionospheric heaters have process had many ambiguities. Then, a new
been built in the course of the latest decades approach has been proposed starting from the
in order to study the ELF waves produced by generalization of the action function * . The
the heating of the ionosphere with HF result has been the derivation of a theoretical
radiation. Currently, the HAARP heater is background, which finally led to the so-
the most powerful ionospheric heater, with sought quantization of the gravity and of the
3.6GW of effective power using HF heating
*
beam, modulated at ELF (2.5Hz) [14, 15]. The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
This paper shows that high-power ELF extends to Quantum Mechanics and has been the basis
for the development of the Strings Theory.

231
2
space-time. Published with the title equivalent but correlated by means of the
“Mathematical Foundations of the following factor [18]:
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity”[18],
this theory predicts a consistent unification of ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
Gravity with Electromagnetism. It shows = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (3)
that the strong equivalence principle is mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein’s ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
equations are preserved. In fact, Einstein’s
equations can be deduced directly from the Where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass and Δp is
mentioned theory. This shows, therefore, that the variation in the particle’s kinetic
the General Relativity is a particularization momentum; c is the speed of light.
of this new theory, just as Newton’s theory is This equation shows that only for
a particular case of the General Relativity. Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is equal to the
Besides, it was deduced from the new theory inertial mass. Instances in which Δp is
an important correlation between the
produced by electromagnetic radiation, Eq.
gravitational mass and the inertial mass,
(3) can be rewritten as follows [18]:
which shows that the gravitational mass of a
particle can be decreased and even made
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
negative, independently of its inertial mass, mg ⎪ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r 3 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
n D
i.e., while the gravitational mass is ⎢ ⎜ρ c ⎟ ⎥
(4)
mi 0 ⎪
progressively reduced, the inertial mass does
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
not vary. This is highly relevant because it
means that the weight of a body can also be
reduced and even inverted in certain Where nr is the refraction index of the
circumstances, since Newton’s gravity law particle; D is the power density of the
defines the weight P of a body as the electromagnetic radiation absorbed by the
product of its gravitational mass m g by the particle; and ρ , its density of inertial mass.
local gravity acceleration g , i.e., From electrodynamics we know that

dz ω
P = mg g (1) v= = =
c
(5)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
2 ⎝ ⎠
It arises from the mentioned law that the
gravity acceleration (or simply the gravity)
produced by a body with gravitational mass where kr is the real part of the
r
M g is given by propagation vector k (also called phase
r
constant ); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are
GM g
g= (2 ) the electromagnetic characteristics of the
r2 medium in which the incident radiation is
propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
The physical property of mass has two
distinct aspects: gravitational mass mg and μ = μ r μ 0 , where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ).
inertial mass mi. The gravitational mass From (5), we see that the index of
produces and responds to gravitational fields; refraction nr = c v , for σ >> ωε , is given
it supplies the mass factor in Newton's by
famous inverse-square law of μrσ
( )
gravity F = GM g m g r . The inertial mass
2 nr =
4πfε 0
(6)
is the mass factor in Newton's 2nd Law of
Motion (F = mi a ) . These two masses are not Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (4) yields

232
3
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Van Allen belts
⎪ ⎛ μσD ⎞
⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg ⎢
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜
⎜ 4πρ cf ⎟ ⎥ (7)
mi0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
It was shown that there is an additional Outer
effect - Gravitational Shielding effect - Inner
belt
produced by a substance whose gravitational belt
mass was reduced or made negative [18].
0 3600km 6600km
This effect shows that just beyond the
Earth
substance the gravity acceleration g 1 will be
reduced at the same proportion χ 1 = m g mi 0 ,
i.e., g1 = χ 1 g , ( g is the gravity acceleration Magnetic
axis
before the substance). Consequently, after a
second gravitational shielding, the gravity
will be given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where Fig.1 – Van Allen belts
χ 2 is the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the
second gravitational shielding. In a wave is absorbed by the ionospheric plasma,
generalized way, we can write that after the modulating the local conductivity σ . The
nth gravitational shielding the gravity, g n , current density j = σE 0 radiates ELF
will be given by electromagnetic waves that pass through the
Van Allen belts producing two Gravitational
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g Shieldings where the densities are minima,
i.e., where they are approximately equal to
density of the interplanetary medium near
The dependence of the shielding Earth. The quasi-vacuum of the
effect on the height, at which the samples are interplanetary space might be thought of as
placed above a superconducting disk with beginning at an altitude of about 1000km
radius rD = 0.1375 m , has been recently above the Earth’s surface [20]. Thus, we can
measured up to a height of about 3m [19]. assume that the densities ρi and ρo
This means that the gravitational shielding respectively, at the first gravitational
effect extends, beyond the disk, for shielding Si (at the inner Van Allen belt) and
approximately 20 times the disk radius. at So (at the outer Van Allen belt) are
ρo ≅ ρi ≅ 0.8 ×10−20 kg.m−3 (density of the
3. Gravitational Shieldings in the Van Allen
belts interplanetary medium near the Earth [21]).
The parallel conductivities, † σ 0i
The Van Allen belts are torus of and σ0o , respectively at Si and So, present
plasma around Earth, which are held in place values which lie between those for metallic
by Earth's magnetic field (See Fig.1). The conductors and those for semiconductors
existence of the belts was confirmed by the [20], i.e., σ 0i ≅ σ 0o ~ 1S / m . Thus, in these
Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 missions in early two Gravitational Shielding, according to Eq.
1958, under Dr James Van Allen at the (7), we have, respectively:
University of Iowa. The term Van Allen belts
refers specifically to the radiation belts ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
surrounding Earth; however, similar ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
χi = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 4.1×10 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬

(8)
4 Di
radiation belts have been discovered around ⎜ f ⎠⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪
other planets. ⎩ ⎭
Now consider the ionospheric heating
with HF beam, modulated at ELF (See Fig.
2). The amplitude-modulated HF heating †
Conductivity in presence of the Earth’s magnetic field

233
4

d ~ 100km

Outer Van Allen belt So

6,600 km

3,600 km
Inner Van Allen belt Si

ELF radiation

~10× d ~1,000km
mair g’sun
E g

Electrojet Electric Field, E0


100km
σ
D

60km
ρ air < 0.01kg.m −3
ELF – modulated 30km
HF heating radiation ρ air ~ 0.7kg .m −3

Fig. 2 – Ionospheric Gravitational Shieldings - The amplitude-modulated HF heating wave is absorbed by the
ionospheric plasma, modulating the local conductivity σ 0 . The current density j = σ 0 E 0 (E0 is the Electrojet
Electric Field), radiates ELF electromagnetic waves (d is the length of the ELF dipole). Two gravitational shieldings
(So and Si) are formed at the Van Allen belts. Then, the gravity due to the Sun, after the shielding Si, becomes g’sun
=χoχi gsun. The effect of the gravitational shielding reaches ~ 20 × rD = ~ 10 × d ≅ 1,000km .

234
5

Sun to Earth, 1 AU), g = 9.8m / s 2 and


and
g sun = − GM sun rse2 = 5.92 × 10 −3 m / s 2 , is the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
⎢ gravity due to the Sun at the Earth.
χo = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 4.1×10

4 Do
⎥ (9)
⎪ f ⎟⎠ The gravitational potential energy
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭ related to m air , with respect to the Sun’s
where center, considering the effects produced by
the gravitational shieldings So and Si, is
Di ≅ Do ≅
PELF
(10)
Sa
E p = mairrse (g − χo χi g sun ) (14)
PELF is the ELF radiation power, radiated
from the ELF ionospheric antenna; S a is the
Thus, the decrease in the gravitational
area of the antenna. potential energy is
Substitution of (10) into (8) and (9)
leads to
2
( )
ΔEp = Ep − Ep0 = 1− χo χi mairrsegsun (15)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ ⎞
χoχi = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 4.1×104 PELF ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ (11)
⎜ S f ⎟ ⎥ Substitution of (11) into (15) gives
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪ ⎧ ⎧ ⎡ 2⎫
⎩ ⎣ ⎭ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎥⎪ ⎪⎪
ΔEp = ⎨1− ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+⎜4.1×104 ELF⎟ −1⎥⎬ ⎬mairrsegsun (16)
⎜ Sa f ⎟⎠
4. Effect of the gravitational shieldings Si ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪ ⎪
and So on the Earth and its environment. ⎩⎪ ⎩ ⎣ ⎭ ⎭⎪
The HF power produced by the
Based on the Podkletnov experiment, HAARP transmitter is PHF = 3.6GW
previously mentioned, in which the effect of modulated at f = 2.5Hz . The ELF conversion
the Gravitational Shielding extends for
efficiency at HAARP is estimated to be
approximately 20 times the disk radius (rD ) ,
~ 10 −4 % for wave generated using sinusoidal
we can assume that the effect of the
amplitude modulation. This means that
gravitational shielding Si extends for
PELF ~ 4kW
approximately 10 times the dipole length
( d ). For a dipole length of about 100km, we Substitution of PELF ~ 4kW , f = 2.5Hz and
can conclude that the effect of the S a = (100,000 )2 = 1 × 1010 m 2 into (16) yields
gravitational shielding reaches about ΔEp ~ 10−4 mairrsegsun ~ 1019 joules (17)
1,000Km below Si (See Fig.2), affecting
therefore an air mass, m air , given by
‡ This decrease in the gravitational potential
energy of the air column, ΔE p , produces a
mair = ρ airVair =
( )
= ~ 0.7kg.m −3 (100,000m)2 (30,000m) =
decrease Δp in the local pressure p ( Bernoulli
principle). Then the pressure equilibrium
~ 1014 kg (12) between the Earth’s mantle and the Earth’s
The gravitational potential energy atmosphere, in the region corresponding to the air
related to m air , with respect to the Sun’s column, is broken. This is equivalent to an
increase of pressure Δp in the region of the
center, without the effects produced by the
mantle corresponding to the air column. This
gravitational shieldings So and Si is
phenomenon is similar to an Earthquake, which
E p0 = mair rse ( g − g sun ) (13) liberates an energy equal to ΔE p (see Fig.3).
where, rse = 1.49 × 1011 m (distance from the


The mass of the air column above 30km height is
negligible in comparison with the mass of the air
column below 30km height, whose average density is
~0.7kg./m3.
235
6
Note that, by reducing the diameter
Curst
of the HF beam radiation, it is possible to
Earth’s reduce dipole length (d) and consequently to
atmosphere
reduce the reach of the Gravitational
Air column
Shielding, since the effect of the gravitational
shielding reaches approximately18 times the
dipole length. By reducing d, we also reduce
p − Δp p Core
Sun the area S a , increasing consequently the
Mantle value of χ o χ i (See Eq. (18)). This can cause
Earth
an increase in the velocity V0 air (See Eq. (22)).
On the other hand, if the dipole length
(d) is increased, the reach of the
Gravitational Shielding will also be
Fig. 3 - The decrease in the gravitational potential energy
of the air column, Δ E p , produces a decrease Δ p in the
increased. For example, by increasing the
local pressure p (Principle of Bernoulli). Then the
value of d for d = 101km , the effect of the
pressure equilibrium between the Earth’s mantle and the Gravitational Shielding reaches
Earth’s atmosphere, in the region corresponding to the air approximately 1010 km , and can surpass the
column, is broken. This is equivalent to an increase of
surface of the Earth or the Oceans (See
pressure Δ p in the region of the mantle corresponding to
the air column. This phenomenon is similar to an
Fig.2). In this case, the decrease in the
Earthquake, which liberates an amount of energy equal to gravitational potential energy at the local, by
ΔE p . analogy to Eq.(15), is
ΔEp = (1− χo χi )m rsegsun (21)
The magnitude M s in the Richter
scales, corresponding to liberation of an where m is the mass of the soil, or the mass
of the ocean water, according to the case.
amount of energy, ΔEp ~ 1019 joules, is obtained The decrease, ΔE p , in the gravitational
by means of the well-known equation: potential energy increases the kinetic energy
1019 = 10 (5+1.44M s ) (18) of the local at the same ratio, in such way
which gives M s = 9.1 . That is, an Earthquake that the mass m acquires a kinetic
with magnitude of about 9.1 in the Richter energy E k = ΔE p . If this energy is not enough
scales. to pluck the mass m from the soil or the
The decrease in the gravitational ocean, and launch it into space, then E k is
potential energy in the air column whose converted into heat, raising the local
mass is m air gives to the air column an initial temperature by ΔT , the value of which can
kinetic energy E k = 12 mairV02air = ΔE p , where be obtained from the following expression:
ΔE p is given by (15). Ek
≅ kΔT (22)
In the previously mentioned HAARP N
conditions, Eq.(11) gives (1 − χ o χ i ) ~ 10 −4 . where N is the number of atoms in the
volume V of the substance considered;
Thus, from (15), we obtain
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K is the Boltzmann
ΔE p ~ 10 −4 mair rse g sun (19)
constant. Thus, we get
Thus, the initial air speed V0 air is ( )
Ek 1− χ o χ i m rse g sun
ΔT ≅ = =
−4
V0air ≅ 10 g sunrse ~ 10 m / s ~ 400km/ h
2
(20) Nk (nV )k
This velocity will strongly reduce the (1− χ χ ) ρ rse g sun
pressure in the air column (Bernoulli = o i
(23)
nk
principle) and it is sufficient to produce a where n is the number of atoms/m3 in the
powerful Cyclone around the air column substance considered.
(Coriolis Effect).

236
7
In the previously mentioned HAARP It was experimentally observed that
conditions, Eq. (11) gives (1 − χ o χ i ) ~ 10 −4 . ELF radiation escapes from the Earth–
Thus, from (23), we obtain ionosphere waveguide and reaches the Van
Allen belts [25-28]. In the ionospheric
6.4 × 10 27
ΔT ≅ ρ (24) spherical cavity, the ELF radiation power
n density, D , is related to the energy density
For most liquid and solid substances inside the cavity, W , by means of the well-
the value of n is about 10 28 atoms / m 3 , and known expression:
ρ ~ 10 3 kg / m 3 . Therefore, in this case, Eq. c
D= W (25)
(24) gives 4
ΔT ≅ 640K ≅ 400°C where c is the speed of light, and
This means that, the region in the soil or in W= 1 ε E2 . The electric field E , is given by
2 0
the ocean will have its temperature increased q
by approximately 400°C. E=
4πε 0 r⊕2
By increasing PELF or decreasing the
frequency, f , of the ELF radiation, it is where q = 500,000C [24] and r⊕ = 6.371×106 m .
possible to increase ΔT (See Eq.(16)). In this Therefore, we get
way, it is possible to produce strong E = 110.7V / m,
localized heating on Land or on the Oceans. W = 5.4 ×10−8 J / m3 ,
This process suggests that, by means
D ≅ 4.1 W / m 2 (26)
of two small Gravitational Shieldings built
with Gas or Plasma at ultra-low pressure, as The area, S , of the cross-section of the cavity
12
shown in the processes of gravity control is S = 2πr⊕ d = 2.4 × 10 m 2 . Thus, the ELF
[22], it is possible to produce the same radiation power is P = DS ≅ 9.8 × 1012 W . The
heating effects. Thus, for example, the water total power escaping from the Earth-
inside a container can be strongly heated ionosphere waveguide, Pesc , is only a fraction of
when the container is placed below the
this value and need to be determined.
mentioned Gravitational Shieldings.
When this ELF radiation crosses the
Let us now consider another source of
Van Allen belts the Gravitational Shieldings
ELF radiation, which can activate the
So and Si can be produced (See Fig.4).
Gravitational Shieldings So and Si.
So
It is known that the Schumann d⊕
resonances [23] are global electromagnetic
resonances (a set of spectrum peaks in the Si ELF
radiation
extremely low frequency ELF), excited by
lightning discharges in the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface Crust
and the inner edge of the ionosphere (60km Mantle
from the Earth’s surface). The Earth– Outer
ionosphere waveguide behaves like a core
resonator at ELF frequencies and amplifies Inner Reach of the Gravitational Shielding
the spectral signals from lightning at the
core ~ 10 × d ⊕ = 126 ,000 km
resonance frequencies. In the normal mode Earth
descriptions of Schumann resonances, the
fundamental mode (n = 1) is a standing wave
in the Earth–ionosphere cavity with a Fig.4 – ELF radiation escaping from the Earth–
ionosphere waveguide can produce the Gravitational
wavelength equal to the circumference of the Shieldings So and Si in the Van Allen belts.
Earth. This lowest-frequency (and highest-
intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance The ELF radiation power densities Di and
occurs at a frequency f1 = 7.83Hz [24].
Do , respectively in Si and So, are given by

237
8
Di =
Pesc
(27) speed Voc will be null. After a time
4πri2 interval, the progressive increasing of the
and power density of the ELF radiation makes
χ o χ i greater than 1. Equation (29) shows
Do =
Pesc
(28)
4πro2 that, at this moment, the velocity Voc
where ri and ro are respectively, the resurges, but now in the opposite direction.
distances from the Earth’s center up to the The Earth's magnetic field is generated
Gravitational Shieldings Si and So . by the outer core motion, i.e., the molten iron
Under these circumstances, the kinetic in the outer core is spinning with angular
energy related to the mass, m oc , of the speed, ϖ oc , and it's spinning inside the Sun’s
Earth’s outer core § , with respect to the Sun’s magnetic field, so a magnetic field is
center, considering the effects produced by generated in the molten core. This process is
the Gravitational Shieldings So and Si ** is called dynamo effect.
( )
Ek = 1 − χ o χ i moc rse g sun = 12 mocVoc2 (29)
Since Eq. (31) tells us that the
factor (1− χ o χ i ) is currently very close to zero,
Thus, we get
(
Voc = 1 − χ o χ i rse g sun ) (30)
we can conclude that the moment of the
reversion of the Earth’s magnetic field is
The average radius of the outer core very close.
is roc = 2.3 × 10 6 m . Then, assuming that the
average angular speed of the outer core, ϖ oc , 5. Device for moving very heavy loads.
has the same order of magnitude of the
Based on the phenomenon of reduction
average angular speed of the Earth’s
of local gravity related to the Gravitational
crust, ϖ ⊕ , i.e., ϖ oc ~ ϖ ⊕ = 7.29 × 10 −5 rad / s , Shieldings So and Si, it is possible to create a
then we get Voc = ϖ oc roc ~ 10 2 m / s . Thus, Eq. device for moving very heavy loads such as
(30) gives large monoliths, for example.
(1− χ o
)
χ i ~ 10−5 (31) Imagine a large monolith on the
Earth’s surface. At noon the gravity
This relationship shows that, if the acceleration upon the monolith is basically
power of the ELF radiation escaping from given by
the Earth-ionosphere waveguide is g R = g − g sun
progressively increasing (for example, by the
increasing of the dimensions of the holes in where gsun = −GMsun rse2 = 5.92×10−3 m/ s2 is the
the Earth-ionosphere waveguide †† ), then as gravity due to the Sun at the monolith and
soon as the value of χ o χ i equals 1, and the g = 9.8m/ s2 .
If we place upon the monolith a mantle
§
The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is composed of a with a set of n Gravitational Shieldings
number of different layers. An outer silicate solid inside, the value of g R becomes
crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that g R = g − χ n g sun
is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner
core. The outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel. This shows that, it is possible to reduce g R
**
down to values very close to zero, and thus to
Note that the reach of the Gravitational Shielding transport very heavy loads (See Fig.5). We
is ~ 10 × d ⊕ = 126,000km . will call the mentioned mantle of
††
The amount of ELF radiation that escapes from the Gravitational Shielding Mantle. Figure 5
Earth-ionosphere waveguide is directly proportional to
the number of holes in inner edge of the ionosphere shows one of these mantles with a set of 8
and the dimensions of these holes. Thus, if the amount Gravitational Shieldings. Since the mantle
of holes or its dimensions are increasing, then the thickness must be thin, the option is to use
power of the ELF radiation escaping from the Earth- Gravitational Shieldings produced by layers of
ionosphere waveguide will also be increased. high-dielectric strength semiconductor [22].
When the Gravitational Shieldings are active the

238
9

Mantle

χ 8 g Sun
g

χ 8 g Sun
g

(a) (b)
High-dielectric strength
semiconductor dielectric
metallic 10 μm 100μm
foils

~ 1 mm

Cross-section of the Mantle


V
Set of 8 Gravitational Shieldings inside the Mantle (c)
~
ELF
f

Fig. 5 – Device for transporting very heavy loads. It is possible to transport very heavy loads by
using a Gravitational Shielding Mantle - A Mantle with a set of 8 semiconductor layers or more (each
layer with 10μm thickness, sandwiched by two metallic foils with 10μm thickness). The total thickness of the
mantle (including the insulation layers) is ~1mm. The metallic foils are connected to the ends of an ELF
voltage source in order to generate ELF electromagnetic fields through the semiconductor layers. The
objective is to create 8 Gravitational Shieldings as shown in (c). When the Gravitational Shieldings are active
the gravity due to the Sun is multiplied by the factor χ 8 , in such way that the gravity resultant upon the
monoliths (a) and (b) becomes g R = g − χ 8 g Sun . Thus, for example, if χ = −2.525 results g R = 0.028m / s 2 .
Under these circumstances, the weight of the monolith becomes 2.9 × 10 −3 of the initial weight.

239
10

gravity due to the Sun is multiplied by the the total charge[24], then Q = ηAσ q = ηq n
factor χ 8 , in such way that the gravity resultant ( q n = Aσ q is the normal amount of charge in
upon the monolith becomes g R = g − χ 8 g Sun . the area A ).
Thus, for example, if χ = −2.525 the result is By substituting (33) into (32), we get
g R = 0.028m / s 2 . Under these circumstances,
3
the weight of the monolith becomes 2.9 × 10 −3 of ⎛ Qr ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2ε A⎟
3 3
the initial weight. 2α ⎛ Q ⎞ 2
V2 ⎝ 0 ⎠
jw = 2 j = 2α 2 = 2α = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (34)
r r2 r ⎝ 2ε 0 A⎠
6. Gates to the imaginary spacetime in the
Earth-ionosphere waveguide.
Since Ew = σ Q 2ε 0 and j w = σ w E w , we can
It is known that strong densities of write that
electric charges can occur in some regions of ⎡ 3

3
the upper boundary of the Earth-ionosphere ⎢ 2α ⎛ Q ⎞ 2 ⎥ Q
σ w Ew = jw Ew =
3 4 3
⎜ ⎟ =
waveguide, for example, as a result of the ⎢ r ⎜⎝ 2ε 0 A ⎟⎠ ⎥ 2ε 0 A
lightning discharges [29]. These anomalies ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
increase strongly the electric field E w in the 0.18α 3Q5.5 0.18α 3σ Q5.5 ( )5.5
0.18α 3 ησq
= = = =
mentioned regions, and possibly can produce r1.5ε 05.5 A5.5 r1.5ε 05.5 r1.5ε 05.5
a tunneling effect to the imaginary
spacetime. = 2.14×1016η 5.5 (35)
The electric field E w will produce an The electric field E w has an oscillating
electrons flux in a direction and an ions flux component, E w1 , with frequency, f , equal to
in an opposite direction. From the viewpoint the lowest Schumann resonance frequency
of electric current, the ions flux can be f1 = 7.83 Hz . Then, by using Eq. (7), that can
considered as an “electrons” flux at the same be rewritten in the following form [18]:
direction of the real electrons flux. Thus, the ⎧ ⎡
mg ⎪ μrσ3E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 2 3 −1⎥⎬ (36)
current density through the air, j w , will be χ=
the double of the current density expressed mi ⎪ ⎢ ρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
by the well-known equation of Langmuir-
Child we can write that
3 3 3 mg ⎧ ⎡
⎪ μ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
4
j = εrε0
2e V 2
= α
V2
= 2.33×10−6 V
2
(32) χw = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 rw 2 w 3 w1 −1⎥⎬ (37)
9 me r2 r2 r2
mi ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρw f1 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6 is By substitution of Eq. (35), μ rw = 1 ,
the called Child’s constant; r , in this case, is ρ w = 1 × 10 −2 kg / m 3 and f1 = 7.83Hz into the
the distance between the center of the charges expression above, we obtain
and the Gravitational Shieldings S w1 and S w 2
χw = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 7.84×10−10η5.5 −1⎤⎫⎬ (38)
( )
(see Fig.6) ( r = 12 1.4×10−15m = 7×10−16m); V is the ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
voltage drop given by The gravity below S w 2 will be
σQ decreased by the effect of the Gravitational
V = Ewr = r=
Qr
(33) Shieldings S w1 and S w 2 , according to the
2ε 0 2ε 0 A
where Q is the anomalous amount of charge following expression
in the region with area A , i.e.,
σ Q = Q A = ησ q , η is the ratio of
(g − χ w1 χ w2 g sun )
proportionality, and σ q = q 4πR2 ≅ 9.8×10−10C / m2 where χ w1 = χ w 2 = χ w . Thus, we get
is the normal charge density ; q = 500,000C is

240
11

Region with much greater


Ionosphere concentration of electric charges
σq σQ
r S w1
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + S w2
A
Ew
Upper boundary
of the
Earth-Ionosphere waveguide

60 km
Earth-Ionosphere waveguide
Reach of the Gravitational Shielding
~10 X d

g g − χ w 1 χ w 2 g sun g

d
ground

Fig. 6 - Gravitational Shieldings S w1 and S w2 produced by strong densities of electric charge in the
upper boundary of the Earth-Ionosphere.

241
12

⎧⎪ ⎧ ⎡ 1 + 7.84 × 10 −10η 5.5 − 1⎤ ⎫ g sun ⎫⎪g = χg


2 gravitational mass (Eq. (4)). Now, it will be
⎨ ⎨ − −
⎥⎦ ⎬⎭ g ⎬⎪
1 1 2
⎪⎩ ⎩ ⎢⎣ shown that it also affects the length of an
⎭ object. Length contraction or Lorentz
where contraction is the physical phenomenon of a
⎧⎪ g sun ⎫⎪
2
χ = ⎨1 − ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 7.84 ×10 −10 η 5.5 − 1⎤ ⎫⎬
decrease in length detected by an observer of
⎢ ⎥ ⎬ (39)
⎪⎩ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭ g ⎪⎭ objects that travel at any non-zero velocity
In a previous article [18], it was shown relative to that observer. If L0 is the length of
that, when the gravitational mass of a body is the object in its rest frame, then the length
reduced to a value in the range of + 0.159 mi L , observed by an observer in relative
to − 0.159 mi or the local gravity (g ) is motion with respect to the object, is given by
L0
reduced to a value in the range of + 0.159 g L= = L0 1 − V 2 c 2 (40)
γ (V )
to − 0.159 g , the body performs a transition
where V is the relative velocity between the
to the imaginary spacetime. This means that, observer and the moving object and c the
if the value of χ given by Eq.(39) is in the speed of light. The function γ (V ) is known as
range 0.159 < χ < −0.159 , then any body the Lorentz factor.
(aircrafts, ships, etc) that enters the region - It was shown that Eq. (3) can be
defined by the volume ( A × ~ 10d ) below the written in the following form [18]:
Gravitational Shielding S w 2 , will perform a ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ 1 ⎪
transition to the imaginary spacetime. ⎜
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎟ −1 ⎬ = ⎨1− 2 −1⎥⎬
⎢ ⎥
mi0 ⎪ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎦⎥⎭ ⎩ ⎣ 1−V c
2 2
Consequently, it will disappear from our
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎭
Real Universe and will appear in the
Imaginary Universe. However, the electric This expression shows that
2
field E w1 , which reduces the gravitational ⎛ Δp ⎞
= γ (V ) (41)
1
1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ =

mass of the body (or the gravitational ⎝ mi0c ⎠ 1 −V c
2 2
shieldings, which reduce the local gravity)
does not accompany the body; they stay at By substitution of Eq. (41) into Eq.(40) we
the Real Universe. Consequently, the body get
L0 L0
returns immediately from the Imaginary L= = (42)
Universe. Meanwhile, it is important to note γ (V ) 2
⎛ Δp ⎞
that, in the case of collapse of the 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟

wavefunction Ψ of the body, it will never ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠
more come back to the Real Universe. It was shown that, the term, Δp mi 0 c , in the
Equation (39) shows that, in order to equation above is equal to Wn r ρ c 2 , where
obtain χ in the range of 0.159< χ < −0.159 the W is the density of electromagnetic energy
value of η must be in the following range: absorbed by the body and nr the index of
127 . 1 < η < 135 . 4 refraction, given by
Since the normal charge density is ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 +1⎞⎟
c
σq ≅ 9.8×10−10C / m2 then it must be increased v 2 ⎝ ⎠
by about 130 times in order to transform the In the case of σ >> 2πfε , W = (σ 8πf )E 2 and
region ( A × ~ 10d ) , below the Gravitational
Shielding S w 2 , in a gate to the imaginary n r = c v = μσc 2 4πf [30]. Thus, in this case,
spacetime. Eq. (42) can be written as follows
It is known that in the Earth's L=
L0
(43)
atmosphere occur transitorily large densities ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞
1 +1.758×10−27⎜ r2 3 ⎟E4
of electromagnetic energy across extensive ⎜ρ f ⎟
areas. We have already seen how the density ⎝ ⎠
of electromagnetic energy affects the
242
13
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value where ϕ is the gravitational potential.
for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies Then, it follows that
2 2
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value ⎛ Δp⎞ ⎛ Δp ⎞ V 2 2ϕ
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = V 2 = 2ϕ and ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
⎝ mi 0
⎠ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ c2 c2
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
4 4
Consequently, the expression of T becomes
Consequently we can change E by E , rms

and the equation above can be rewritten as T0 2ϕ


follows T= = T0 1+
1 −V c
2 2 c2
L=
L0
(44)
⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
1 +1.758×10−27⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms which is the well-known expression obtained
⎜ ⎟
⎝ρ f ⎠ in the General Relativity.
Now, consider an airplane traveling in a Based on Eq. (41) we can also write
region of the atmosphere. Suddenly, along a the expression of T in the following form:
distance L0 of the trajectory of the airplane
2
arises an ELF electric field with intensity ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
E rms ~ 10 5 V .m −1 and frequency f ~ 1Hz . The
T = T0 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ = T0 1+1.758×10−27⎜ r ⎟Erms
⎟ ⎜ ρ2 f 3 ⎟
(45)
⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Aluminum density is ρ = 2.7 × 10 3 kg .m −3 and
its conductivity is σ = 3.82 × 10 7 S .m −1 . Now, consider a ship in the ocean. It is
According to Eq. (44), for the airplane the made of steel ( μr = 300; σ = 1.1×106 S.m−1 ;
distance L0 is shortened by 2.7 × 10 −5 . Under ρ = 7.8 × 103 kg.m −3 ). When subjected to a
these conditions, a distance L0 of about uniform ELF electromagnetic field, with
3000km will become just 0.08km. intensity E rms = 1.36 × 10 3 V .m −1 and
Time dilation is an observed frequency f = 1Hz , the ship will perform a
difference of elapsed time between two
transition in time to a time T given by
observers which are moving relative to each
other, or being differently situated from
nearby gravitational masses. This effect ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
T = T0 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms =
arises from the nature of space-time ⎜ρ f ⎟
⎝ ⎠
described by the theory of relativity. The
= T0 (1.0195574) (46)
expression for determining time dilation in
special relativity is:
If T0 = January ,1 1943, 0h 0 min 0 s then
T = T0γ (V ) =
T0
the ship performs a transition in time
1−V 2 c2
to T = January ,1 1981, 0h 0 min 0 s . Note
where T0 is the interval time measured at the
that the use of ELF ( f = 1Hz ) is fundamental.
object in its rest frame (known as the proper
It is important to note that the
time); T is the time interval observed by an electromagnetic field E rms , besides being
observer in relative motion with respect to
uniform, must remain with the ship during
the object.
the transition to the time T . If it is not
Based on Eq. (41), we can write the
uniform, each part of the ship will perform
expression of T in the following form:
transitions for different times in the future.
2
T0 ⎛ Δp ⎞ On the other hand, the field must remain with
T= = T0 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠
the ship, because, if it stays at the time T0 ,
1− V 2 2
c mi 0c
the transition is interrupted. In order to the
For V << c , we can write that Δp = mi0V and
electromagnetic field remains at the ship, it is
1
2
mi 0V 2 = mi 0 gr = mi 0ϕ ⇒ V 2 = 2ϕ necessary that all the parts, which are
involved with the generation of the field, stay

243
14
inside the ship. If persons are inside the ship Other safe way to make transitions
they will perform transitions for different in the time is by means of flights with
times in the future because their relativistic speeds, according to predicted by
conductivities and densities are different. the equation:
Since the conductivity and density of the ship
and of the persons are different, they will
T=
T0
(51)
± 1−V 2 c2
perform transitions to different times. This
means that the ship and the persons must With the advent of the Gravitational
have the same characteristics, in order to Spacecrafts [30], which could reach velocities
perform transitions to the same time. Thus, in close to the light speed, this possibility will
this way is unsuitable and highly dangerous become very promising.
to make transitions to the future with It was shown in a previous paper [18]
persons. However, there is a way to solve that by varying the gravitational mass of the
this problem. If we can control the spacecraft for negative or positive we can go
gravitational mass of a body, in such way respectively to the past or future.
that m g = χ mi 0 , and we put this body inside If the gravitational mass of a particle is
positive, then t is always positive and given
a ship with gravitational mass M g ≅ M i 0 , by
then the total gravitational mass of the ship t = +t0 1 −V 2 c2 (52)
will be given by ‡‡
M g (total ) = M g + m g = M i 0 + χ mi 0
This leads to the well-known relativistic
prediction that the particle goes to the future
or if V → c . However, if the gravitational
M g (total ) χ mi0
χ ship = = 1+ (47 ) mass of the particle is negative, then t is also
M i0 M i0 negative and, therefore, given by
Since t = −t0 1 − V 2 c2 (53)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ In this case, the prevision is that the particle
χship = = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ goes to the past if V → c . In this way,
⎢ ⎟ ⎥
Mi0 ⎪ ⎝ Mi0c ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ negative gravitational mass is the necessary
we can write that condition to the particle to go to the past.
2 Now, consider a parallel plate
⎛ Δp ⎞ 3 − χship
1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ =
⎟ (48) capacitor, which has a high-dielectric strength
⎝ Mi0c ⎠ 2 semiconductor between its plates, with the
Then it follows that following characteristics μr = 1; σ = 104 S.m−1 ;
⎛ Δp ⎞
2
⎛ 3 − χship⎞ ρ = 103 kg.m −3 . According to Eq.(45), when
T =T0 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ =T0⎜
⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ (49) the semiconductor is subjected to a uniform
⎝ Mi0c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ELF electromagnetic field, with intensity
Substitution of Eq. (47) into Eq. (49) gives
E rms = 10 5 V .m −1 (0.1KV / mm ) and frequency
⎛ χ mi0 ⎞
T =T0⎜⎜1− ⎟
⎟ (50) f = 1Hz , it should perform a transition in
⎝ 2Mi0 ⎠ time to a time T given by
Note that, if χ = −0.0391148 (M i 0 mi 0 ) , Eq.
⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
(50) gives T = T0 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms =
⎜ρ f ⎟
T = T0 (1.0195574) ⎝ ⎠
which is the same value given by Eq.(46). = T0 (1.08434) (54)
However, the transition is not performed,
because the electromagnetic field is external
‡‡
This idea was originally presented by the author in to the semiconductor, and obviously would
the paper: The Gravitational Spacecraft [30]. not accompany the semiconductor during the
transition. In other words, the field stays at

244
15
the time T0 , and the transition is not Hooke’s law tells us that P = ρ v , 2

performed. thus Eq. (55) can be rewritten as follows


⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
7. Detection of Earthquakes at the Very P
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬mi0 (56)
Early Stage ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ 4c ρ ⎦⎥⎪⎭
or
When an earthquake occurs, energy ⎧⎪
mg ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
radiates outwards in all directions. The χ=
P
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬ (57)
energy travels through and around the earth mi0 ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ 4c ρ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
as three types of seismic waves called Thus, the matter subjected to the
primary, secondary, and surface waves (P- pressure P works as a Gravitational
wave, S-wave and Surface-waves). All Shielding. Consequently, if the gravity below
various types of earthquakes follow this it is g ⊕ , then the gravity above it is χg ⊕ , in
pattern. At a given distance from the
epicenter, first the P-waves arrive, then the such way that a gravimeter on the Earth
S-waves, both of which have such small surface (See Fig.7) shall detect a gravity
energies that they are mostly not threatening. anomaly Δg given by
Finally, the surface waves arrive with all of
their damaging energies. It is predominantly Δg = g ⊕ − χg ⊕ = (1 − χ )g ⊕ (58)
the surface waves that we would notice as the
earthquake. This knowledge, that, preceding Substitution of Eq. (57) into this Eq. (58)
any destructive earthquake, there are telltales yields
P-waves, are used by the earthquake warning ⎡ ⎤
systems to reliably initiate an alarm before
P
Δg = 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥ g ⊕ (59)
the arrival of the destructive waves. ⎣⎢ 4c ρ ⎥⎦
Unfortunately, the warning time of these
earthquake warning systems is less than 60 Thus, when a gravity anomaly is detected,
seconds. we can evaluate, by means of Eq. (59), the
Earthquakes are caused by the magnitude of the ratio P ρ in the
movement of tectonic plates. There are three compressing region. On the other hand,
types of motion: plates moving away from several experimental observations of the time
each other (at divergent boundaries); moving interval between the appearing of gravity
towards each other (at convergent anomaly Δg and the breaking of the obstacle
boundaries) or sliding past one another (at (beginning of the Earthquake) will give us a
transform boundaries). When these statistical value for the mentioned time
movements are interrupted by an obstacle interval, which will warn us (earthquake
(rocks, for example), an Earthquake occurs warning system) when to initiate an alarm.
when the obstacle breaks (due to the sudden Obviously, the earthquake warning time, in
release of stored energy). this case becomes much greater than 60
The pressure P acting on the obstacle seconds.
and the corresponding reaction modifies the
gravitational mass of the matter along the
pressing surfaces, according to the following
expression [18]:
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0 (55)
⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

where ρ and v are respectively, the density
of matter and the speed of the pressure waves
in the mentioned region.

245
16

Δg = (1 − χ )g ⊕

χg

g⊕
(a)

Δg = (1− χ)g ⊕

χg ⊕

g⊕

(b)

Δg = (1 − χ )g ⊕

χg ⊕

g⊕

(c)

Fig. 7 – Three main types of movements: (a) Divergent (tectonic plates diverge). (b) Convergent
(plates converge). (c) Transform (plates slide past each other). Earthquakes occur when the obstacle
breaks (due to the sudden release of stored energy).

246
17
References
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Symposium, OUP.

247
The Universal Quantum Fluid
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
The quantization of gravity showed that the matter is also quantized, and that there is an elementary quantum of
matter, indivisible, whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg . This means that any body is formed by a whole number of these
particles (quantization). It is shown here that these elementary quanta of matter should fill all the space in the
Universe forming a Quantum Fluid continuous and stationary. In addition, it is also explained why the
Michelson-Morley experiment was not able to detect this Universal Quantum Fluid.

Key words: Quantum Fluids, Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology


PACS: 67.10.-j; 04.60.-m; 98.80.Qc

1. Introduction there is an elementary quantum of matter,


Until the end of the century XX, indivisible, whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg [3].
several attempts to quantize gravity were Considering that the inertial mass of
made. However, all of them resulted fruitless the Observable Universe is MU = c3 2H0G ≅1053 kg ,
[1, 2]. In the beginning of this century, it was
and that its volume is
clearly noticed that there was something
unsatisfactory about the whole notion of VU = 3 πRU = 3 π (c H 0 ) ≅ 10 m , where
4 3 4 3 79 3

quantization and that the quantization H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble constant,
process had many ambiguities. Then, a new
we can conclude that the number of these
approach has been proposed starting from the
particles in the Observable Universe is
generalization of the action function * . The MU
result has been the derivation of a theoretical nU = ≅ 10125 particles (1)
mi 0(min )
background, which finally led to the so-
sought quantization of gravity and of matter By dividing this number by VU , we get
[3]. The quantization of matter shows that nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 (2)
there is an elementary quantum of matter VU
whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg . This means that Obviously, the dimensions of the
there are no particles in the Universe with elementary quantum of matter depend on its
masses smaller than this, and that any body is state of compression. In free space, for
formed by a whole number of these particles. example, its volume is VU nU .
Here, it will be shown that these elementary
Consequently, its “radius” is RU 3 nU ≅10−15m.
quanta of matter should fill all the space in
the Universe, forming a quantum fluid If N particles with diameter φ fill all
continuous and stationary. In addition, it is space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if
also explained why the Michelson-Morley
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, with
experiment found no evidence of the existence
of the universal fluid [4]. A modified this diameter, necessary to fill all 1m 3 is
Michelson-Morley experiment is proposed in N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the number of
order to observe the displacement of the elementary quantum of matter in the
interference bands.
Universe is nU VU ≅ 1046 particles/ m3 we can
2. The Universal Quantum Fluid
The quantization of gravity showed conclude that these particles fill all space in
that the matter is also quantized, and that the Universe, forming a Quantum Fluid
continuous and stationary, the density of
*
The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
which is
nU m i 0 (min )
extends to Quantum Mechanics and has been the basis ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3 (3)
for the development of the Strings Theory. VU
Note that this density is smaller than the

248
2
density of the Intergalactic Medium be detected. That is to say that the
( )
ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . propagation of these photons through the
The density of the Universal Quantum Universal Quantum Fluid is equivalent to its
Fluid is clearly not uniform along the propagation in the free space. In practice, it
Universe, since it can be strongly works as if there was not the Universal
compressed in several regions (galaxies, Quantum Fluid. This conclusion is highly
stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the normal important, because it can easily explain why
state (free space), the mentioned fluid is in the historical Michelson-Morley
invisible. However, at supercompressed experiment there was no displacement of the
state, it can become visible by giving origin interference bands namely because the
to the known matter, since matter, as we have wavelength of the light used in the Michelson-
seen, is quantized and consequently, formed Morley experiment was λ = 5×10−7 m fact that led
by an integer number of elementary quantum Michelson to conclude that the hypothesis of
of matter with mass mi 0(min ) . Inside the a stationary ether was incorrect. Posteriorly,
proton, for example, there are several experiments [7-13] have been carried
out in order to check the Michelson-Morley
np = mp mi0(min) ≅10 elementary quanta of matter
45
experiment, but the results basically were the
at supercompressed state, with volume same obtained by Michelson.
V proton n p and “radius” Rp 3 np ≅10−30m . Thus, actually there was no
displacement of the interference bands in the
Therefore, the solidification of the
Michelson-Morley experiment because the
matter is just a transitory state of this
wavelength used in the experiment
Universal Quantum Fluid, which can turn
back into the primitive state when the was λ = 5 ×10−7 m , which is a value clearly
cohesion conditions disappear. much greater than 10 −14 m , and therefore,
Due to the cohesion state of the does not satisfy the condition
elementary quanta of matter in the Universal −14
λ ≤ 2πΔx ≈10 m derived from the Uncertainty
Quantum Fluid, any amount of linear Principle. The substitution of light used in
momentum transferred to any elementary the Michelson-Morley experiment by
quantum of matter propagates totally to the
radiation with λ ≤ 10−14m is clearly
neighboring and so on, in such way that,
impracticable. However, the Michelson-
during the propagation of the momentum, the
Morley experiment can be partially modified
elementary quanta of matter do not move, in
so as to yield the displacement of the
the same way as the intermediate spheres in
interference bands. The idea is based on the
Newton’s pendulum (the well-known device
generalized expression for the momentum
that demonstrates conservation of momentum
obtained recently[3], which is given by
and energy) [5, 6]. Thus, whether it is a
photon that transfers its momentum to the
p = M gV (4)
elementary quanta of matter, then the where Mg = mg 1−V 2 c2 is the relativistic
momentum variation due to the incident
photon is Δp = h λ , where λ is its gravitational mass of the particle and V its
wavelength. As we have seen, the diameter velocity; mg = χ mi0 the general expression
of the elementary quantum of matter is of the correlation between the gravitational
Δx ≈ 10 −15 m . According to the Uncertainty and inertial mass; χ is the correlation
Principle the variation Δp can only be factor[3].Thus, we can write
detected if ΔpΔx ≥ h . In order to satisfy this mg χ mi0
condition we must have λ ≤ 2πΔx ≈ 10 m . −14 = (5)
1−V 2 c 2 1 −V 2 c 2
This means that momentum variations, in the
elementary quanta of matter, caused by Therefore, we get
photons with wavelength λ > 10 −14 m cannot

249
3
M g = χ Mi (6 )
(1 − χ ) ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟ h and (1 − χ ) hf , are
The Relativistic Mechanics tells us that ⎝ c ⎠λ
transferred to the imaginary particle
p=
UV
2
(7 ) associated to the real particle † (material
c
where U is the total energy of the particle. particles or real photons) that penetrated the
This expression is valid for any velocity V of mentioned region.
the particle, including V = c . It was previously shown that, when the
By comparing Eq. (7) with Eq. (4) we gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to
obtain a range between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i ,
U = M gc2 (8) i.e., when χ < 0.159 , it becomes
It is a well-known experimental fact that imaginary[3], i.e., the gravitational and the
M i c 2 = hf (9) inertial masses of the particle becomes
imaginary. Consequently, the particle disappears
Therefore, by substituting Eq. (9) and Eq. (6) from our ordinary space-time. It goes to the
into Eq. (4), gives Imaginary Universe. On the other hand, when the
p=
V
χ
h
(10) gravitational mass of the particle becomes greater
c λ than + 0.159 M i , or less than − 0.159M i , i.e.,
Note that this expression is valid for any when χ > 0.159 , the particle return to our
velocity V of the particle. In the particular
Universe.
case of V = c , it reduces to Figure 1 (a) clarifies the phenomenon of
p= χ
h
(11) reduction of the momentum for χ > 0.159 , and
λ
Figure 1 (b) shows the effect in the case of
By comparing Eq. (10) with Eq. (7), we
χ < 0.159 . In this case, the particles become
obtain
U = χ hf (12) imaginary and, consequently, they go to the
imaginary space-time when they penetrate the
Note that only for χ = 1 Eq. (11) and Eq. electric field E . However, the electric field E
(12) are reduced to the well=known stays in the real space-time. Consequently, the
expressions of DeBroglie (q = h λ ) and particles return immediately to the real space-
Einstein (U = hf ) . time in order to return soon after to the imaginary
space-time, due to the action of the electric
Equations (10) and (12) show, for field E . Since the particles are moving at a
example, that any real particle (material direction, they appear and disappear while they
particles, real photons, etc) that penetrates a are crossing the region, up to collide with the
region (with density ρ , conductivity σ and plate (See Fig.1) with a momentum,
relative permeability μ r ), where there is an pm = χ ⎜
⎛ V ⎞ h , in the case of a material

electromagnetic field (E , B ) , will have its ⎝ c ⎠ λ
h
momentum p and its energy U reduced by particle, and p r = χ in the case of a photon.
λ
the factor χ , where χ is given by[3]: If this photon transfers its momentum
mg
⎧ ⎡ 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ Δp ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
⎤⎫ (
to elementary quanta of matter Δx ≈10−15 m , )
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1 ⎬ = then the momentum variation due to the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜⎝ mi0c ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ incident photon is Δp = χ h λ . According to
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ the Uncertainty Principle the variation Δp
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 3⎞
−27⎜ μrσ ⎟ 4 4 ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+1.758×10
⎜ ⎟
c Brms −1⎥⎬ (13) can only be detected if ΔpΔx ≥ h , i.e., if
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎪
2 3
⎦⎭ λ ≤ 2π χ Δx (14)
where B rms is the rms value of the magnetic We conclude, then, that the interaction
field B . between the light used in the Michelson-
The remaining amount of momentum

and energy, respectively given by As previously shown, there are imaginary particles
associated to each real particle[3].

250
4
(
Morley experiment λ = 5×10 m and the−7
) −3
plasma at 6 ×10 Torr and 318.15 K , and an
Universal Quantum Fluid just can be ELF magnetic field with frequency f = 1Hz
detected, and to produce of the displacement and intensity Brms ≥ 0.32T is applied through
of the interference bands, if this plasma (Fig. 2), then the displacement of
χ ≥ 8 × 10 7 (15) the interference bands should appear.
In order to satisfy this condition in the It is important to note that due to the
Michelson-Morley experiment, we must modify Gravitational Shielding effect [3], the gravity
the medium where the experiment is performed above the magnetic field is given by
(for example substituting the air by low-pressure
χ g ≥ 7.8 × 108 m.s −2 . This value, extends
Mercury plasma), and apply through it an
electromagnetic field with frequency f . Under above the vacuum chamber for
these conditions, according to Eq. (13), the value approximately 10 times its length. In order to
of χ will be given by eliminate this problem we can replace the
ELF magnetic field, B , shown in Fig. 2, by
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μr σ 3 ⎞ 4 4 ⎤⎫ two ELF magnetic fields, B1 and B2 , sharing
⎪ ⎟c Brms −1⎥⎪⎬ (16)
χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 3⎟ ⎥⎪ the same frequency, f = 1Hz . The field, B1 , is
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎦⎭
placed vertically through the region of the
If the low-pressure Mercury plasma is experimental set-up. The field, B2 , is also
at P = 6 ×10−3Torr= 0.8N.m−2 and T ≅ 318.15 K placed vertically, just above B1 (See Fig. 3).
[14], then the mass density, according to the Thus, the gravity above B2 is given by
well-known Equation of State, is
χ1 χ 2 g where χ1 = m g1 mi1 and
PM 0
ρ= ≅ 6.067 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (17) χ 2 = m g 2 mi 2 are respectively, the
ZRT
where M 0 = 0.2006kg.mol−1 is the molecular correlation factors in the Gravitational
mass of the Hg; Z ≅ 1 is the compressibility Shieldings 1 and 2, produced by the ELF
factor for the Hg plasma; magnetic fields B1 and B2 , respectively. In
R = 8.314 joule.mol . K
−1 0 −1
is the gases order to become χ 1 χ 2 g = g we must make
universal constant. χ 2 = 1 χ1 = 1 − 8 × 10 7 . According to Eq.
The electrical conductivity of the Hg (19), this value can be obtained if
plasma, under the mentioned conditions, has Brms(2) = 5.331481522× 10−5 T and Brms(1) = 0.32T .
already been calculated [15], and is given by
Note that the value of Brms (2 ) is less than the
σ ≅ 3.419 S .m −1 (18)
By substitution of the values of ρ and σ into value of the Earth’s magnetic field
Eq. (16) yields ( B ⊕ ≅ 6 × 10 −5 T ). However, this is not a
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫ problem because the steel of the vacuum
⎪ ⎢ 17 Brms ⎪
χ = ⎨1− 2 1+1.5471×10 −1⎥⎬ (19) chamber works as a magnetic shielding,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎪
3
f
⎦⎭ isolating the magnetic fields inside the
vacuum chamber.
By comparing with (15), we get
4
Brms
≥ 0.01037 (20)
f3
Thus, for f = 1Hz , the ELF magnetic field
must have the following intensity:

Brms ≥ 0.32T (21)

This means that, if in the Michelson-Morley


experiment the air is substituted by Hg

251
5

χ > 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞ h
pm = χ ⎜ ⎟ pm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
pi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎛V ⎞ h pi = 0 * associated to the
⎝c⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
pr = χ pr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
p i = [1 − χ ]
h pi = 0 real photon
λ
(a)
* There are a type of neutrino, called "ghost” neutrino, predicted by General Relativity, with zero mass
and zero momentum. In spite its momentum be zero, it is known that there are wave functions that
describe these neutrinos and that prove that really they exist.

χ < 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h pi = 0
pm = χ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
pi = 0
pi = [1− χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎛V ⎞ h associated to the
⎝c⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
pr = χ pr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
p i = [1 − χ ]
h pi = 0 real photon
λ
(b)
Fig. 1 –The correlation factor in the expression of the Momentum. (a) Shows the
momentum for χ > 0.159 . (b) Shows the effect when χ < 0.159 . Note that in both cases,
the material particles collide with the cowl with the momentum p m = χ (V c ) λh , and
h
the photons with p r = χ .
λ

252
6

Vacuum
Manometer Chamber

Hg
Plasma Hg Plasma ( 6 ×10−3Torr, 318.15K ) Movable
Mirror
Vacuum
Pump
B

ELF magnetic Field

f = 1Hz
Brms ≥ 0.32T
Coherent
Light source

Beam splitter Compensator Fixed


Mirror

Detector

Fig. 2 - The modified Michelson-Morley experiment. The air is substituted by Hg plasma at


6 ×10−3Torr and 318.15 K , and an ELF magnetic field with frequency f = 1Hz and intensity
Brms ≥ 0.32T is applied through this plasma, then the displacement of the interference bands should
appear.

253
7

Vacuum
Chamber

Steel χ1 χ 2 g = g

χ2
N2 L2
B2

χ1
Wire
B1 N1 L1
Region of the experimental set-up

Fig. 3 – Cross-section of the vacuum chamber showing the magnetic fields B1 and B2 .
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
B1 = μ 0 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟i1 ; B2 = μ 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟i 2
⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ L2 ⎠

254
8

References
[1] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in Oxford
Symposium, OUP.

[2] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems Facing


Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in M, Francaviglia, G,
Longhi, L, Lusanna, and E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings
of the 14th International Conference on General
Relativity and Gravitation, 167-209,(World
Scientific, Singapore, 1997).

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(1), pp.173-232.

[4] Michelson, A. A., (1881) Am. J. Sci, 122, 120.

[5] Hermann, F. and Schmälzle, P. (1981), Am. J.


Phys.,49,761.

[6] Lovett, D. R. et al (1988) Eur. J. Phys., 9, 323-328.

[7] Morley. E. W. and Miller, D.C. (1905), Proceedings of


the American Academy of Arts and Sciences XLI
(12):321–8.

[8] Tomaschek, R. (1924). "Über das Verhalten des Lichtes


außerirdischer Lichtquellen". Annalen der Physik 378
(1): 105–126. doi:10.1002/and p.19243780107.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153753/f115.

[9] Miller, Dayton C. (1925). "Ether-Drift Experiments at


Mount Wilson". Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences 11 (6): 306–314. doi:10.1073/pnas.11.6.306.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/6/306.full.pdf+html.

[10] Kennedy, Roy J. (1926). "A Refinement of the


Michelson-Morley Experiment". Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 12 (11): 621–629.

[11] Illingworth, K. K. (1927). "A Repetition of the


Michelson-Morley Experiment Using Kennedy's
Refinement". Physical Review 30 (5): 692–696.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.30.692.

[12] Joos, G. (1930). "Die Jenaer Wiederholung des


Michelsonversuchs". Annalen der Physik 399 (4): 385–
407. doi:10.1002/andp.19303990402.

[13] Miller, Dayton C. (1933). "The Ether-Drift Experiment


and the Determination of the Absolute Motion of the
Earth". Reviews of Modern Physics 5 (3): 203–242.

[14] GE Technical Publications (2007), 80044 – F20T12/


C50/ECO, GE Ecolux ®T12.

[15] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means


of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247,
Physics/0701091.

255
The Gravitational Mass of a Charged Supercapacitor
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer
capacitors, or ultracapacitors, are electrochemical capacitors that have an unusually high energy density when
compared to common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of times greater than a high capacity
electrolytic capacitor. It is shown here that when an EDLC is fully charged its gravitational mass is considerably
greater than when it is discharged.
Key words: Supercapacitors, Energy storage systems, Experimental tests of gravitational theories
PACS: 88.80.fh; 84.60.Ve , 04.80.Cc

1. Introduction activated carbon inside the capacitor. During


the charging process, ions from the
The electric double-layer capacitor electrolyte accumulate on the surface of each
effect was first noticed in 1957 by General carbon-coated plate.
Electric engineers experimenting with Here it is shown that when an EDLC is
devices using porous carbon electrode [1]. It fully charged its gravitational mass is
was believed that the energy was stored in considerably greater than when it is
the carbon pores and it exhibited discharged.
"exceptionally high capacitance", although
the mechanism was unknown at that time. 2. Theory
General Electric did not immediately
follow up on this work, and the modern Consider the cross-section of an
version of the devices were eventually EDLC as shown in Fig. 1. The double-layer
developed by researchers at Standard Oil of in the EDLCs is generally made of activated
Ohio in 1966, after they accidentally re- carbon immersed in an electrolyte whose
discovered the effect while working on conductivity is much less than carbon
experimental fuel cell designs [2]. Their cell conductivity [4]. The result is that the
design used two layers of activated carbon conductivity of the double-layer becomes
separated by a thin porous insulator, and this much less than the conductivity of the
basic mechanical design remains the basis of activated carbon and, in this way, the double-
most electric double-layer capacitors to this layer can withstand a low voltage, and no
day. significant current flows through the
An electric double-layer capacitor activated carbon layers of an ELDC [3]. This
(EDLC), is known as supercapacitor, or means that they are similar to dielectrics with
ultracapacitor. Their energy density is very low dielectric strength. Thus, due to the
typically hundreds of times greater than electrical charge stored in the activated
conventional electrolytic capacitors. They carbon layers, each layer can be considered
also have a much higher power density than as a non-conducting plane of charge, with
batteries or fuel cells. As of 2011 EDLCs had density of charge, σ = q S , where S is the
a maximum working voltage of 5 volts and area of the plates of the capacitor, and
capacities of up to 5,000 farads [3]. q = CV is the amount of electrical charge
Currently, the EDLCs are used for stored in the activated carbon layers; C is the
energy storage rather than as general-purpose capacity of the EDLC. Thus, according to the
circuit components. The EDLCs also have well-known expression of the electric field
two metal plates, but they are coated with produced by a non-conducting plane of
activated carbon immersed in an electrolyte, charge [5], we can conclude that the electric
and separated by an intervening insulator, field through the layers of activated carbon
forming in this manner, the double-layer of (See Fig.1) is given by

256
2
σ the supercapacitor is fully charged. Since
E(layer) = E − = E + = =
CV
(1)
2ε r (layer)ε 0 2ε r (layer)ε 0 S the mass of the double-layer is a significant
part of the total mass of the supercapacitor,
we can conclude that, when fully charged the
Consequently, the density of electromagnetic
supercapacitor will display considerably
energy in the carbon layers is
more mass than when it is discharged.
2 It is important to note that the
⎛ CV ⎞
Wlayer = 12 ε r (layer)ε 0 Elayer
2
=
1
⎜ ⎟ (2) gravitational mass of the double-layer can
8ε r (layer)ε 0 ⎝ S ⎠ also be reduced, decreasing the total mass of
the supercapacitor. This can occur, for
It was shown that the relativistic example, when 1.5Volts < V < 3.1Volts .
gravitational mass M g is correlated with the
Conclusion
relativistic inertial mass M i by means of the
following factor [6]: The theoretical results here obtained
for the gravitational mass of an EDLC are
M g = χ Mi (3) general for energy accumulator cells which
contain non-conducting planes of charges
where χ can be expressed by similar to the activated carbon + electrolyte
layers of the EDLCs.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛nW⎞ ⎥⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r 2 ⎟ −1⎥⎬ (4)
⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

where n r is the refraction index and ρ the


density of the material.
Substitution of Eq. (2) into Eq. (4),
yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ nr(layer)μ0 ⎛ CV ⎞2 ⎤ ⎥⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (5)
⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣8ε r(layer)ρlayer ⎝ S ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

In the case of activated carbon layer:


nr(layer) ≅ 1 ; ε r(layer) ≅ 12 and ρ layer ≅ 800kg.m −3 .
Thus, if the supercapacitor has C = 3,000F ;
S = 0.08 × 0.45 = 0.036m 2 and is subjected to
V = 4Volts then Eq. (5) gives

χ = −1.14 (6 )

Substitution of Eq.(6) into Eq. (3) yields

M g (layer) = −1.14 M i(layer) = 1.14M i(layer) (7)

This means an increase of 14% in the


gravitational mass of the double-layer when
257
3

Activated Carbon layer


Electrode + Insulator
Electrolyte

− + +
− −
+ +
− − +
− + + +

− − +
+
+ − − + −
E− E− + E
+
E+
− +
− + +

− +
− +
− + +
− −
+ + +

− − +

d

Fig. 1 – Cross-section of an Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (Supercapacitor) - Each activated


carbon + electrolyte layer works as a non-conducting plane of charge, with density of charge
σ − = q − S and σ + = q + S respectively. The electric fields through the layers, due to these
( )
densities of charges E − , E + , are shown in the figure above.

258
4

References
[1] Becker, H.I., (1957) Low voltage electrolytic capacitor,
US Patent 2800616 (A), 1957-07-23.

[2] Schindall, J. (2007) The Charge of the Ultra-Capacitors,


IEEE Spectrum, November 2007.

[3] Electric Double-Layer Capacitor http://en.wikipedia.org/


wiki / Electric_double-layer_capacitor

[4] Miller, J. and Simon, P. (2008) Fundamentals of


Electrochemical Capacitor Design and Operation, The
Electrochemical Society Interface, Spring 2008.

[5] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1966) Physics, vol.2, John


Wiley & Sons, NY. Portuguese version (1968) Física,
Vol. 2, Ao Livro Técnico SA, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil,
pp. 768-769.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11(1), pp. 173-232.

259
Beyond the Material Universe
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Science and Religion have always observed the events from their exclusive viewpoint. It was necessary
the arising of a bond that would make possible the unification of them. This bond was revealed in the last
decades by Quantum Physics, which has shown us that some physical laws extend beyond the material
world, pointing to the existence of the spiritual world. Thus, the spiritual world exists now no longer as
supernatural one, but as world as real as our material world. This discovery marked the beginning of the
understanding of the spiritual world nature and its relationship with the material world. Starting from this
knowledge, here widely detailed, it is now possible to understand the eternal puzzles: where have we
come from, because here we are, and where do we go.

Key words: Science, Religion, Spiritual World, Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Quantum
Consciousness.

1. Introduction

The Spiritual World has always been considered something supernatural. Only recently,
with the advent of Quantum Physics, the first evidences of its existence arose. However, it was
the theoretical background derived from Quantum Gravity [1] that has shown that our Real
Universe is contained in an Imaginary Universe. Here, the terms real and imaginary are
borrowed from mathematics (real and imaginary numbers). In addition, it has been possible to
show that the Imaginary Energy has the same characteristics of the Psychic Energy, that is, both
are equivalent. This means that the Imaginary Universe is in fact the Psychic Universe. This
discovery was the starting point for understanding the nature of the Spiritual World and beings
it contains. It also made possible the acquisition of a strong knowledge about the relationship of
the beings of the Spiritual World with us, and with our Material World. This knowledge, which
leads us beyond the Material Universe, is widely detailed in this work.

2. The Psychic Energy

It is known that the De Broglie waves are characterized by a variable quantity called the
wave function, denoted by the symbolψ. While the frequencies of the De Broglie waves are
determined by a simple form, the value of ψ is usually very complicated. The value of Ψ 2 (or
ΨΨ * ) calculated for a particular point x, y, z, t is proportional to the probability of finding the
particle experimentally in that place and time 1 .
Thus, each particle has a particular wave function, which describes the particle fully.
Roughly, it is similar to the "identity card" of the particle, containing all information about the
particle or the body.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the probability P of finding the particle described by Ψ , the
integral of Ψ 2 on the whole space must be finite – inasmuch as the particle is someplace.
Therefore, if
+∞
∫− ∞ Ψ
2
dV = 0 (01 )
The interpretation is that the particle does not exist. However, if

1
Interpretation by Max Born in 1926.

260
2

+∞
∫− ∞ Ψ
2
dV = ∞ (02 )
the particle will be everywhere simultaneously.
Despite the fact that the De Broglie waves are normally associated to material particles
and, in general associated to material bodies, it is known that they are also associated to exotic
particles that cannot even be detected, such as a type of neutrinos called "ghost” neutrinos,
predicted by General Relativity. These are called "ghost” neutrinos, because they have zero
mass and zero momentum, and cannot be detected. But even so, it is known that there are wave
functions that describe them, which means that they exist and can be present in any place. As a
rough analogy, it is like a person who, despite of existing and possessing an identity card, is
never seen by anyone. The existence of a wave function associated with the "ghost” neutrino is
very important, because, in this context, we can conclude that even a thought may have a wave
function associated with it.
It is a proven quantum fact that the wave function Ψ may "collapse" and, in that instant,
the possibilities that it describes, suddenly express themselves in reality. The moment of the
"collapse" of the wave function is then a decision point where the pressing need of realization
of the possibilities described by the wave function occurs.
For an observer in our universe something is real when it is in the form of matter or
radiation. Therefore, it can occur that the possibilities described by the wave function realize
themselves in the form of radiation, i.e., they did not materialize. This obviously must occur
when the energy that forms the content described by the wave function is not equal to the
amount of energy needed for its materialization.
Then consider any thought. A thought is a psychic body, with a well-defined psychic
energy, and, as such, with a wave function of its own as any other psychic body. When its wave
function collapses, two possibilities may occur: (a) the psychic energy contained in the thought
is not sufficient to materialize its content - in this case, the collapse of the wave function is
realized in the form of radiation: (b) the psychic energy is sufficient for its materialization - in
this case, the collapse of the wave function content will be fully materialized.
However, in both cases, there must always be production of "virtual" photons to
communicate the psychic interaction to other bodies of the universe, because, according to the
quantum theory, only through this type of quanta, can the interaction be communicated, since it
has infinite range just in the same way as the electromagnetic interaction has, which we know is
communicated by exchanging "virtual" photons. The term "virtual" derives from the principle of
uncertainty due to the impossibility to detect these photons. This is a limitation imposed by
Nature proper.
It can be easily seen that this materialization process, although theoretically possible,
requires enormous amounts of psychic energy, because, according to Einstein's famous equation
E = mc2, even a tiny object contains an enormous amount of energy. Moreover, one can
conclude that materializations of this type could only be produced by great consciousness with
large psychic energy. In addition, it is evident, in this context, that the larger the amount of
psychic energy of a consciousness the greater its chances of realization.
This is a materialization process that can explain the materialization of the Primordial
Universe. In addition, it becomes evident that the Psychic Energy is a type of mother-energy or
Universal Fluid, which can produce anything.
Since it is in the continuum 4-dimensional (space-time) that the realization of the wave
functions which describe the psychic bodies occurs, then we can assume that they are generated
in a continuum that, despite of containing all psychic forms, also interpenetrates the space-time
continuum. Let us call it, hereafter, Psychic Continuum. By definition this continuum should
also contain the Supreme Consciousness. Therefore, it should be infinite.

261
3

Then, from the above we can see that an accurate description of the universe cannot
exclude the psychic energy, psychic particles and psychic bodies. That is, the situation calls for
a cosmology that includes the psyche in the description of the Universe, thus complementing the
traditional cosmology that is only a matter of cosmology. This idea is not new; it has existed for
some time and seems to have arisen mainly in Princeton and Pasadena in the USA in the 70s [2]
as a result of the joint effort of eminent physicists, biologists, psychologists and theologians as
well. [3].
In traditional cosmology, the universe comes from a big bang where everything that
exists would be concentrated in a tiny particle with the size of a proton and an enormous mass
equal to the mass of the Universe at the instant before the Big Bang,. But its origin is not
explained, nor the why of its critical volume.
The critical volume, in our opinion denotes knowledge of what would happen from these
initial conditions, a fact which points to the existence of a Creator. In this case, the
materialization process described above would explain the materialization of the Primordial
Universe. That is, the Primordial Universe arose at the exact moment that the primordial wave
function collapsed (initial instant) realizating the contents of the psychic form generated in the
consciousness of the Creator when He thought of creating the universe.
The psychic form described by this primordial wave function must then have been
generated in a consciousness with psychic energy much larger than that needed to materialize
the Universe. This enormous consciousness in turn, not only would be the biggest of all
consciences, but also would be the substratum of everything that exists, and obviously
everything that exists would be wholly contained therein, including all space-time.
Based on the General Theory of Relativity and the recent cosmological observations, it is
known that the Universe occupies a space of positive curvature. This space, as we know, is
"closed in itself", its volume is finite, but rest well understood, the space has no boundaries, it is
unlimited. Thus, if the consciousness which we refer to contains all the space, its volume is
necessarily infinite, and therefore contains an infinite psychic energy.
This means that it contains all the psychic energy that exists and therefore, any other
consciousness will be contained in it. Thus, we can conclude that it is the Supreme
Consciousness, and there is no other like it: it is unique. In addition, since it contains all the
psychic energy, it can accomplish everything that it wants, and therefore is omnipotent.
Previously, we showed in the article "Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology" the
manifestation of knowledge, or auto-accessible knowledge in a consciousness, should be related
to its quantity of psychic energy. In the Supreme Consciousness, whose psychic energy is
infinite, the manifestation of the knowledge is total, thus, necessarily, it must be omniscient.
Being omniscient, we cannot doubt its justice or goodness. Thus, God is supremely just and
good. Moreover, as it also contains all the time, with past, present and future merging into it in
an eternal present, so that the time will not flow as it does for us, in the four-dimensional
continuum called space-time, as "we see" the future changing continuously into present and the
present into past. Similarly, an observer in five-dimensional continuum would not have access
to all time as the Supreme Consciousness, but his dimensional "vision" of the time would
certainly be wider than that of the observer positioned in the four-dimensional continuum [3]. In
this context, only the Supreme Consciousness would have a perfect "vision" of all dimensional
levels.
When we speak of creation of the universe, the use of the verb to create means that
anything that was not came to be; assuming therefore, the concept of time flow. For the
Supreme Consciousness however, the instant of the creation coincides with all the other times,
not existing neither before nor after the creation, and in this way, questions like "What did the
Supreme Consciousness do before creation?” are not justified.

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We can also infer from the above that the existence of the Supreme Consciousness has
no defined limit (beginning and end), which gives It the peculiar qualities of uncreated and
eternal.
Being eternal, its wave function ψ never collapses. Moreover, as it has infinite psychic
energy, the value of ψ will also be infinite. In this way, according to Quantum Mechanics, it
means that the Supreme Consciousness is simultaneously everywhere, or omnipresent.
All conclusions presented here about the Supreme Consciousness were mathematically
demonstrated in the article "Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity" [1], and represent nothing more than a formal finding of what was already accepted by
most religions.
It is then justified the intuitive feeling that people have about the existence of God, and
reveals that God is the Supreme Consciousness, the first cause of all things.
Although we can understand this and, thus, learn that God is psychic energy, we can say
nothing about the nature of psychic energy. Likewise, we do not know the nature of electric
charge, etc. This is a limitation imposed by the Creator Himself.
The option of the Supreme Consciousness in materializing the Primordial Universe into a
critical volume, as we have seen, means that It knew what would happen from that initial
condition. Therefore It also knew how the universe would behave under existing laws. Thus, the
laws were not created for the Universe, and therefore are not "laws of Nature" or "laws that have
been placed in Nature" as Descartes wrote. They already existed as an intrinsic part of the
Supreme Consciousness; Thomas Aquinas had a very clear understanding about this. He speaks
of the Eternal Law, "... those exist in the mind of God and rules the entire Universe."
The Supreme Consciousness had then complete freedom to choose the initial conditions
of the Universe. But opted for the concentration of the early Universe in the critical volume in
order that its development should be performed in the most convenient way for the purposes It
had in mind, according to laws inherent in its very nature. This responds to Einstein's famous
question: "What level of choice would God have had to build the universe?"
It seems that Newton was the first to realize the divine option. In his book Opticks, he
gives us a perfect view of how he imagined the creation of the Universe:

"It seems to me that God, at the beginning, first gave way to matter in solid particles, compacted
[...] in such way that best contribute to the purpose He had in mind ..."

For what purpose the Supreme Consciousness created the universe? This is a question that
seems difficult to answer. However, if we assume the natural desire of the Supreme
Consciousness of procreating, that is, of generating individual consciousness from itself so that
they could evolve and express themselves creating attributes to Her, then, we can infer that in
order to evolve, such consciousness would need a Universe, and this may have been the main
reason for its creation. Thus, the origin of the Universe would be related to the generation of
said consciousness and, consequently, the materialization of the Primordial Universe must have
occurred at the same time at which the Supreme Consciousness decided to individualize the
Primordial Consciousnesses.
As the Supreme Consciousness occupies all the space, it follows that it cannot be
displaced by another consciousness, and not for himself. Therefore, the Supreme Consciousness
is immovable.
As Augustine says (Gen. Ad lit vii, 20), "The Creator does not move either in time or
space."
The immobility of God had been deemed necessary also by Thomas Aquinas, "we can
infer be necessary that the God who puts into motion all the objects, it is immovable." (Summa
Theologica).

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Due to fact that they were individualized directly from the Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousnesses certainly contained in themselves - albeit in a latent state, all the
possibilities of the Supreme Consciousness, including the germ of independent will that allows
the establishment of original points of departure. However, although similar to the Supreme
Consciousness, the primordial consciousnesses could have no understanding of themselves.
This understanding comes only with the creative mental state that the consciousnesses can only
achieve by evolution.
Thus, in the first evolutionary period, the primordial consciousnesses must have
remained in complete unconsciousness. It was then, the beginning of a pilgrimage from
unconsciousness to the superconsciousness.

3. The Good and the Evil

Basically, in the Universe there are two types of radiation: the real radiation constituted
by of real photon, and the “virtual” radiation constituted by "virtual" photons. Previously, we
talked about the "virtual" quanta, which are responsible for the interaction among the psychic
particles. According to the Uncertainty Principle, “virtual” quanta cannot be observed
experimentally. However, since they are interaction quanta, their effects may be verified in the
very particles or bodies subjected to the interactions.
Obviously, only one specific type of interaction occurs between two particles if each one
absorbs the quanta of said interaction emitted by the other; otherwise, the interaction will be
null. Thus, the null interaction between psychic bodies particularly means that there is no
mutual absorption of the “virtual” psychic photons (psychic interaction quanta) emitted by
them. That is, the emission spectrum of each one of them does not coincide with the absorption
spectrum of the other.
It was shown that, in all interactions (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and
weak nuclear), the "virtual" quanta are "virtual" photons [1].
It is obvious, then, that an interaction between two particles only occurs if each of them
absorbs the "virtual" photons emitted by the other, otherwise the interaction will be zero. Thus,
the null interaction means specifically that the emission spectrum of each particle does not
coincide with the absorption spectrum of the other.
By analogy with material bodies, the emission spectra of which are, as we know, identical
to the absorption spectra, also the psychic bodies must absorb radiation within the spectrum they
emit. Specifically, in the case of human consciousness, their thoughts cause them to become
emitters of psychic radiation in certain frequency spectra and, consequently, receivers in the
same spectra. Thus, when a human consciousness, by its thoughts, is receptive to a radiation
coming from a certain thought, said radiation will be absorbed by the consciousness (resonance
absorption). Under these circumstances, the radiation absorbed must stimulate – through the
Resonance Principle – said consciousness to emit in the same spectrum, just as it happens with
matter.
Nevertheless, in order for that emission to occur in a human consciousness, it must be
preceded by the individualization of thoughts identical with that which originated the radiation
absorbed, because obviously only identical thoughts will be able to reproduce - when they
collapse - the spectrum of “virtual” psychic radiations absorbed.
These induced thoughts – such as the thoughts of consciousnesses themselves – must
remain individualized for a period of time Δt (lifetime of the thought) after which its wave
functions collapse, thus producing the “virtual” psychic radiation in the same spectrum of
frequencies absorbed.
The Supreme Consciousness, just as other consciousnesses, has Its own spectrum of
absorption determined by Its thoughts – which make up the standard of a good-quality thought.

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Thus, the concept of good-quality thoughts is immediately established. That is, they are
resonant thoughts in the Supreme Consciousness. Thus, only thoughts of this kind, produced in
human consciousnesses, may induce the individualization of similar thoughts in the Supreme
Consciousness.
In this context, a system of judgment is established in which the good and the evil are
psychic values, with their origin in free thought. The good is related to the good-quality
thoughts, which are thoughts resonant in the Supreme Consciousness. The evil, in turn, is
related to the bad-quality thoughts, non-resonant in the Supreme Consciousness.
Consequently, the moral derived thereof results from the Law itself, inherent in the
Supreme Consciousness and, therefore, this psychic moral must be the fundamental moral.
Thus, fundamental ethics is neither biological nor located in the aggressive action, as thought by
Nietzsche. It is psychic and located in the good-quality thoughts. It has a theological basis and,
in it, the creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God is of an essential nature, opposed, for
instance, to Spinoza’s “geometrical ethics”, which eliminated the ideas of Creation of the
Universe by a pre-existing God, the main underpinning of Christian theology and philosophy.
However, it is very close to Aristotle’s ethics, to the extent that, from it, we understand that we
are what we repeatedly do (think) and that excellence is not an act, but a habit (Ethics, II, 4).
According to Aristotle: ‘” the goodness of a man is a work of the soul towards excellence in a
complete lifetime: … it is not a day or a short period that makes a man fortunate and happy. “
(Ibid, I, 7).
The “virtual” psychic radiation coming from a thought may induce several similar
thoughts in the consciousness absorbing it, because each photon of radiation absorbed carries in
itself the electromagnetic expression of the thought which produced it and, consequently, each
one of them stimulates the individualization of a similar thought. However, the amount of
thoughts induced is, of course, limited by the amount of psychic mass of the consciousness
proper.
In the specific case of the Supreme Consciousness, the “virtual” psychic radiation coming
from a good-quality thought must induce many similar thoughts. On the other hand, since
Supreme Consciousness involves human consciousness, the induced thoughts appear in the
surroundings of the very consciousness which induced them. These thoughts are then strongly
attracted by said consciousness and fuse therewith, for, just as the thoughts generated in a
consciousness have a high degree of positive mutual affinity [4] with it, they will also have the
thoughts induced by it.
The fusion of these thoughts in the consciousness obviously determines an increase in its
psychic mass. We then conclude that the cultivation of good-quality thoughts is highly
beneficial to the individual. Reversally, the cultivation of bad-quality thoughts makes
consciousness lose psychic mass.
When bad-quality thoughts are generated in a consciousness, they do not induce identical
thoughts in Supreme Consciousness, because the absorption spectrum of Supreme
Consciousness excludes psychic radiations coming from bad-quality thoughts. Thus, such
radiation directs itself to other consciousnesses; however, it will only induce identical thoughts
in those that are receptive in the same frequency spectrum. When this happens and right after
the wave functions corresponding to these induced thoughts collapse and materialize said
thoughts or change them into radiation, the receptive consciousness will lose psychic mass,
similarly to what happens in the consciousness which first produced the thought. Consequently,
both the consciousness which gave rise to the bad-quality thought and those receptive to the
psychic radiations coming from this type of thoughts will lose psychic mass.
We must observe, however, that our thoughts are not limited only to harming or
benefiting ourselves, since they also can, as we have already seen, induce similar thoughts in
other consciousnesses, thus affecting them. In this case, it is important to observe that the

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psychic radiation produced by the induced thoughts may return to the consciousness which
initially produced the bad-quality thought, inducing other similar thoughts in it, which evidently
cause more loss of psychic mass in said consciousness.
The fact that our thoughts are not restricted to influencing ourselves is highly relevant,
because it leads us to understand we have a great responsibility towards other persons as regards
what we think.

4. The Psychic Universe

When we studied elementary Mathematics, we learned the called Imaginary Numbers.


Just as there are the real numbers and imaginary numbers, there are also the real space-time and
imaginary time. In the article "Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity", we showed that the former contains our Real Universe, and the latter contains the
Imaginary Universe. We also saw how a material body can make a transition to the Imaginary
Universe. Simply reducing its gravitational mass to the range + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i .
Under these circumstances, its gravitational and inertial masses become imaginaries, and
therefore, the body becomes imaginary. Consequently, the body disappears from our ordinary
space-time and resurges in the imaginary space-time like an imaginary body. In other words, it
becomes invisible for persons in the Real Universe.
What will an observer see when in the imaginary space-time? It will see light, bodies,
planets, stars, etc., everything formed by imaginary photons, imaginary atoms, imaginary
protons, imaginary neutrons and imaginary electrons. That is to say, the observer will find an
Universe similar to ours, just formed by particles with imaginary masses. The term imaginary
adopted from the Mathematics, as we already saw, gives the false impression that these masses
do not exist. In order to avoid this misunderstanding we researched the true nature of that new
mass type and matter.
The existence of imaginary mass associated to the neutrino is well-known. Although its
imaginary mass is not physically observable, its square is. This amount is found experimentally
to be negative. Recently, it was shown [1] that quanta of imaginary mass exist associated to the
photons, electrons, neutrons, and protons, and that these imaginary masses would have psychic
properties (elementary capability of “choice”). Thus, the true nature of this new kind of mass
and matter shall be psychic and, therefore we should not use the term imaginary any longer.
Consequently, from the previously described, we can conclude that the gravitational spacecraft
penetrates in the Psychic Universe and not in an “imaginary” Universe.
In this Universe, the matter would be, obviously composed by psychic molecules and
psychic atoms formed by psychic neutrons, psychic protons and psychic electrons. i.e., the
matter would have psychic mass and consequently it would be subtle, much less dense than the
matter of our real Universe.
From the quantum viewpoint, the psychic particles are similar to the material particles, so
that we can use the Quantum Mechanics to describe the psychic particles. In this case, by
analogy to the material particles, a particle with psychic mass mΨ will be described by the
following expressions:
r r
pψ = h kψ (02 )
Eψ = h ωψ (03 )
r r r
where pψ = m ΨV is the momentum carried by the wave and Eψ its energy; kψ = 2π λψ is
the propagation number and λψ = h m Ψ V the wavelength and ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic
frequency.
As we already have seen, the variable quantity that characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is
called Wave Function, usually indicated by Ψ .

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The wave function Ψ corresponds, as we know, to the displacement y of the undulatory


motion of a rope. However, Ψ as opposed to y , is not a measurable quantity and can, hence, be
a complex quantity. For this reason, it is admitted that Ψ is described in the x -direction by
− (2 π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Be (04 )
This equation is the mathematical description of the wave associated with a free material
particle, with total energy E and momentum p , moving in the direction + x .
As concerns the psychic particle, the variable quantity characterizing psyche waves will
also be called wave function, denoted by ΨΨ ( to differentiate it from the material particle wave
function), and, by analogy with equation Eq. (04), expressed by:
− (2π i h )( E Ψ t − p Ψ x )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e (05 )
If an experiment involves a large number of identical particles, all described by the same
wave function Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these particles in x, y, z, t is proportional to the
corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is known as density of probability. If Ψ is complex then
Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus, ρ ∝ Ψ 2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly, in the case of psychic particles, the density
of psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is known that
ΨΨ2 is always real and positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an imaginary quantity. Thus, as the
modulus of an imaginary number is always real and positive, we can transform the proportion
ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in equality in the following form:
Ψ Ψ2 = k ρ Ψ (06 )
Where k is a proportionality constant (real and positive) to be determined.
In Quantum Mechanics we have studied the Superposition Principle, which affirms that,
if a particle (or system of particles) is in a dynamic state represented by a wave function Ψ1 and
may also be in another dynamic state described by Ψ2 then, the general dynamic state of the
particle may be described by Ψ , where Ψ is a linear combination (superposition) of Ψ1 and
Ψ2 , i.e.,
Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ 2 (07 )
Complex constants c1 e c2 respectively indicate the percentage of dynamic state, represented
by Ψ1 e Ψ2 in the formation of the general dynamic state described by Ψ .
In the case of psychic particles (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.), by analogy, if ΨΨ1 ,
ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic states the psychic particle assume, then its general
dynamic state may be described by the wave function ΨΨ , given by:
Ψ Ψ = c1 Ψ Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ Ψ 2 + ... + c n Ψ Ψ n (08 )
The state of superposition of wave functions is, therefore, common for both psychic and
material particles. In the case of material particles, it can be verified, for instance, when an
electron changes from one orbit to another. Before effecting the transition to another energy
level, the electron carries out “virtual transitions” [5]. A kind of relationship with other
electrons before performing the real transition. During this relationship period, its wave function
remains “scattered” by a wide region of the space [6] thus superposing the wave functions of
the other electrons. In this relationship the electrons mutually influence each other, with the

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possibility of intertwining their wave functions 2 . When this happens, there occurs the so-called
Phase Relationship according to quantum-mechanics concept.
In the electrons “virtual” transition mentioned before, the “listing” of all the possibilities
of the electrons is described, as we know, by Schrödinger’s wave equation. Otherwise, it is
general for material particles. By analogy, in the case of psychic particles, we may say that the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the psyches involved in the relationship will be described by
Schrödinger’s equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
p2
∇ 2 Ψ Ψ + Ψ2 Ψ Ψ = 0 (09 )
h
Because the wave functions are capable of intertwining themselves, the quantum systems
may “penetrate” each other, thus establishing an internal relationship where all of them are
affected by the relationship, no longer being isolated systems but becoming an integrated part of
a larger system. This type of internal relationship, which exists only in quantum systems, was
called Relational Holism [7].
The idea of psyche associated with matter dates back to the pre-Socratic period and is
usually called panpsychism. Remnants of organized panpsychism may be found in the Uno of
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s Divine Flux. Scholars of Miletus’s school were called hylozoists,
that is, “those who believe that matter is alive”. More recently, we will find the panpsychistic
thought in Spinoza, Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin, among others. The latter one admitted
the existence of proto-conscious properties at level of elementary particles.
Generally, the people believe that there is some type of psyche associated to the animals,
and some biologists agree that even very simple animals like the ameba and the sea anemone are
endowed with psychism. This led several authors to consider the possibility of the psychic
phenomena to be described in a theory based on Physics [8-11].
The fact that an electron carries out “virtual” transitions to several energetic levels before
performing the real transition [5] clearly shows a “choice” made by the electron. Where there is
“choice” isn’t there also psyche, by definition?
An elementary psyche associated to the electron would be an entity very similar to the
elementary electric charge associated to the electron, whose existence was necessary to
postulate for the establishment of electromagnetic theory. However, the elementary psyche has
unique characteristics. Being a discrete quantity (quantum) of the Supreme Consciousness,
which is omniscient, it must also contain within it all knowledge. In the Supreme
Consciousness, whose psychic energy is infinite, the manifestation of this knowledge is total. In
the case of the elementary psyche, would be minimal by definition, remaining the rest of the
knowledge in a latent state.
But still this knowledge would be sufficient, for example, for electrons to define their
orbital position (energy level) around the nuclei when they were electromagnetically attracted
by the such nuclei.
How else could they have the knowledge of the exact orbit to stay? The electrosphere of
atoms is a complex and accurate structure, and in no way could have been created randomly. Its
construction undoubtedly involves knowledge.
Due to the fact that the formation of the electrosphere of the atoms is an organized
process, the psyches of the electrons is also grouped in an organized manner, specifically in
phase condensates, forming, what we can define as the Individual Consciousnesses of the
atoms. Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of imprecisely-structured phase
condensates. Lasers, superfluids, superconductors, and magnets are examples of better-
structured phase condensates.

2
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other. Besides superposition, there is also the possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
functions.

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If electrons, protons and neutrons have psychic mass, then we can infer that the psychic
mass of the atoms are Phase Condensates. In the case of the molecules the situation is similar.
More molecular mass means more atoms and consequently, more psychic mass. In this case the
phase condensate also becomes more structured because the great amount of elementary
psyches inside the condensate requires, by stability reasons, a better distribution of them. Thus,
in the case of molecules with very large molecular masses (macromolecules) it is possible that
their psychic masses already constitute the most organized shape of a Phase Condensate, called
Bose-Einstein Condensate 3 .
The fundamental characteristic of a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we know, that the
various parts making up the condensed system not only behave as a whole but also become a
whole, i.e., in the psychic case, the various consciousnesses of the system become a single
consciousness with psychic mass equal to the sum of the psychic masses of all the
consciousness of the condensate. This obviously, increases the available knowledge in the
system since it is proportional to the psychic mass of the consciousness. This unity confers an
individual character to this type of consciousness. For this reason, from now on they will be
called Individual Material Consciousness.
It derives from the above that most bodies do not possess individual material
consciousness. In an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of elementary psyches in the iron
molecules does not constitute Bose-Einstein condensate; therefore, the iron rod does not have an
individual consciousness. Its consciousness is consequently, much more simple and constitutes
just a phase condensate imprecisely structured made by the consciousness of the iron atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses in the atoms is revealed in the molecular formation,
where atoms with strong mutual affinity (their consciousnesses) combine to form molecules. It
is the case, for instance of the water molecules, in which two Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen
atom. Well, how come the combination between these atoms is always the same: the same
grouping and the same invariable proportion? In the case of molecular combinations the
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the chemical substances either mutually attract or repel
themselves, carrying out specific motions for this reason. It is the so-called Chemical Affinity.
This phenomenon certainly results from a specific interaction between the consciousnesses.
From now on, it will be called Psychic Interaction.
After the formation of the first planets, some of them came to develop favorable conditions for the
appearance of macromolecules. These macromolecules, as we have shown, may have a special type of
consciousness formed by a Bose-Einstein condensate (Individual Material Consciousness). In this case,
since the molecular masses of the macromolecules are very large, they will have individual material
consciousness of large psychic mass and, therefore, have access to a considerable amount of information
in its own consciousness. Consequently, macromolecules with individual material consciousness are
potentially very capable of, and some certainly already can carry out, autonomous motions, thus being
considered as “living” entities.
However, if we decompose one of these molecules so as to destroy its individual
consciousness, its parts will no longer have access to the information which “instructed” said
molecule and, hence, will not be able to carry out the autonomous motions it previously did.
Thus, the “life” of the molecule disappears – as we can see, Delbrück’s Paradox is then solved 4 .

3
Several authors have suggested the possibility of the Bose-Einstein condensate occur in the brain, and
that it might be the physical base of memory, although they have not been able to find a suitable
mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis. Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates in
living tissues abound (Popp, F.A Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New Scientist, May89, p.41;
Rattermeyer, M and Popp, F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
4
This paradox ascribed to Max Delbrück (Delbrück, Max., (1978) Mind from Matter? American Scholar,
47. pp.339-53.) remained unsolved and was posed as follows: How come the same matter studied by
Physics, when incorporated into a living organism, assumes an unexpected behavior, although not
contradicting physical laws?

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The appearance of “living” molecules in a planet marks the beginning of the most
important evolutionary stage for the psyche of matter, for it is from the combination of these
molecules that there appear living beings with individual material consciousness with even
larger psychic masses.
Biologists have shown that all living organisms existing on Earth come from two types of
molecules – aminoacids and nucleotides – which make up the fundamental building blocks of
living beings. That is, the nucleotides and aminoacids are identical in all living beings, whether
they are bacteria, mollusks or men. There are twenty different species of aminoacids and five of
nucleotides.
In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey proved that aminoacids could be produced from
inert chemical products present in the atmosphere and oceans in the first years of existence of
the Earth. Later, in 1962, nucleotides were created in laboratory under similar conditions. Thus,
it was proved that the molecular units making up the living beings could have formed during the
Earth’s primitive history.
Therefore, we can imagine what happened from the moment said molecules appeared.
The concentration of aminoacids and nucleotides in the oceans gradually increased. After a long
period of time, when the amount of nucleotides was already large enough, they began to group
themselves by mutual psychic attraction, forming the molecules that in the future will become
DNA molecules.
When the molecular masses of these molecules became large enough, the distribution of
elementary psyches in their consciousnesses took the most orderly possible form of phase
condensate (Bose-Einstein condensate) and such consciousnesses became the individual
material consciousness.
Since the psychic mass of the consciousnesses of these molecules is very large (as
compared with the psychic mass of the atoms), the amount of self-accessible knowledge in such
consciousnesses became considerable and, thus, they became apt to instruct the joining of
aminoacids in the formation of the first proteins (origin of the Genetic Code). Consequently, the
DNA’s capability to serve as guide for the joining of aminoacids in the formation of proteins is
fundamentally a result of their psychism.
In the psychic of DNA molecules, the formation of proteins certainly had a definite
objective: the construction of cells.
During the cellular construction, the most important function played by the
consciousnesses of the DNA molecules may have been that of organizing the distribution of the
new molecules incorporated to the system so that the consciousnesses of these molecules jointly
formed with the consciousness of the system a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this manner, more
knowledge would be available to the system and, after the cell is completed, the latter would
also have an individual material consciousness.
Afterwards, under the action of psychic interaction, the cells began to group themselves
according to different degrees of positive mutual affinity, in an organized manner so that the
distribution of their consciousnesses would also form Bose-Einstein condensates. Hence,
collective cell units began to appear with individual consciousnesses of larger psychic masses
and, therefore, with access to more knowledge. With greater knowledge available, these groups
of cells began to perform specialized functions to obtain food, assimilation, etc. That is when
the first multi-celled beings appeared.
Upon forming the tissues, the cells gather structurally together in an organized manner.
Thus, the tissues and, hence, the organs and the organisms themselves also possess individual
material consciousnesses.
The existence of the material consciousness of the organisms is proved in a well-known
experiment by Karl Lashley, a pioneer in neurophysiology.

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Lashley initially taught guinea pigs to run through a maze, an ability they remember and
keep in their memories in the same way as we acquire new skills. He then systematically
removed small portions of the brain tissue of said guinea pigs. He thought that, if the guinea
pigs still remembered how to run through the maze, the memory centers would still be intact.
Little by little he removed the brain mass; the guinea pigs, curiously enough, kept
remembering how to run through the maze. Finally, with more than90% of their cortex
removed, the guinea pigs still kept remembering how to run through the maze. Well, as we have
seen, the consciousness of an organism is formed by the concretion of all its cellular
consciousnesses. Therefore, the removal of a portion of the organism cells does not make it
disappear. Their cells, or better saying, the consciousnesses of their cells contribute to the
formation of the consciousness of the organism just as the others, and it is exactly due to this
fact that, even when we remove almost all of the guinea pigs’ cortex, they were still able to
remember from the memories of their individual material consciousnesses. In this manner, what
Lashley’s experiment proved was precisely the existence of individual material consciousnesses
in the guinea pigs.
Another proof of the existence of the individual material consciousnesses in organisms is
given by the regeneration phenomenon, so frequent in animals of simple structure: sponges,
isolated coelenterates, worms of various groups, mollusks, echinoderms and tunicates. The
arthropods regenerate their pods. Lizards may regenerate only their tail after autotomy. Some
starfish may regenerate so easily that a simple detached arm may, for example, give origin to a
wholly new animal.
The organization of the psychic parts in the composition of an organism’s individual
material consciousness is directly related to the organization of the material parts of the
organism, as we have already seen. Thus, due to this interrelationship between body and
consciousness, any disturbance of a material (physiological) nature in the body of the being will
affect its individual material consciousness, and any psychic disturbance imposed upon its
consciousness affects the physiology of its body.
When a consciousness is strongly affected to the extent of unmaking the Bose-
Einstein’s condensate, which gives it the status of individual consciousness, there also occurs
the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge made accessible by said condensation.
Therefore, when a cell’s consciousness no longer constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, there
is also the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge that instructs and maintains the
cellular metabolism. Consequently, the cell no longer functions thus initiating its decomposition
(molecular desegregation).
Similarly, when the consciousness of an animal (or vegetables) no longer constitutes a
Bose-Einstein condensate, the knowledge that instructs and maintains its body functioning also
disappears, and it dies. In this process, after the unmaking of the being’s individual
consciousness, there follows the unmaking of the individual consciousnesses of the organs; next
will be the consciousnesses of their own cells which no longer exist. At the end there will
remain the isolated psyches of the molecules and atoms. Death, indeed, destroys nothing,
neither what makes up matter nor what makes up psyche.
As we have seen, all the information available in the consciousnesses of the beings is
also accessible by the consciousnesses of their organs up to their molecules’. Thus, when an
individual undergoes a certain experience, the information concerning it not only is recorded
somewhere in this consciousness but also pervades all the individual consciousnesses that make
up its total consciousness. Consequently, psychic disturbances imposed to a being reflect up to
the level of their individual molecular consciousnesses, perhaps even structurally affecting said
molecules, due to the interrelationship between body and consciousness already mentioned here.

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Therefore, some modifications in the sequences of nucleotides of the DNA


molecules can occur when the psychism of the organism in which the molecules are
incorporated is sufficiently affected.
It is known that such modifications in the structure of DNA molecules may also occur as
consequence of chemical products in the blood stream (as in the case of the mustard gas used in
chemical warfare) or exposition to high-energy radiation.
Modifications in the sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are called mutations.
Mutations, as we know, determine hereditary variations, which are the basis of Darwin’s theory
of evolution.
It is known that mutations of two types, “favorable” or “unfavorable”, can occur. The
former type enhances the individuals’ possibility of survival, whereas the second reduces such
possibility.
The theory of evolution is established as a consequence of individuals’ efforts to survive
in the environment where they live. This means that their descendants may become different
from their ancestors. This is the mechanism that leads to frequent appearance of new species.
Darwin believed that the mutation process was slow and gradual. Nevertheless, it is known
today that this is not the general rule, for there are evidences of the appearance of new species in
a relatively short period of time [12]. We also know that individual’s characteristics are
transmitted from parents to offsprings by means of genes and that the recombination of the
parents’ genes, when genetic instructions are transmitted, by such genes.
However, it was shown that the genetic instructions are basically associated with the
psychism of DNA molecules. Consequently, the genes transmit not only physiological but also
psychic differences.
Thus, as a consequence of genetic transmission, besides the great physiological difference
between individuals of the same species, there is also a great psychic dissimilarity.
Such psychic dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement of the
individual’s psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to a variety of
individuals (most probably among anthropoid primates) which unconsciously established a
positive mutual affinity with primordial consciousnesses that must have been attracted to Earth.
Thus, the relationship established among them and the consciousnesses of said individuals is
enhanced.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there must have been a time when the
fetuses of said variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity with the
primordial consciousnesses attracted to Earth that, during pregnancy, the incorporation of
primordial consciousnesses may have occurred in said fetuses.
In spite of absolute psychic mass of the fetus’s material consciousness be much smaller
than that of the mother’s consciousness, the degree of positive mutual affinity between the
fetus’s consciousness and the primordial consciousness that is going to be incorporated is much
greater than that between the latter and the mother’s, which makes the psychic attraction
between the fetus’s consciousness and primordial consciousness much stronger than the
attraction between the latter and the mother’s. That is the reason why primordial consciousness
incorporates the fetus. Thus, when these new individuals are born, they bring with them their
individual material consciousness, an individualized consciousness of the Supreme
Consciousness. In this way were the first hominids born.
Having been directly individualized from Supreme Consciousness, the primordial
consciousnesses are perfect individualities and not phase condensates as the consciousnesses of
the matter. In this manner, they do not dissociate after the death of those that incorporated them.
Afterwards, upon the action of psychic attraction, they are again able to incorporate into other
fetuses to proceed on their evolution.

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These consciousnesses (hereinafter called human consciousness) constitutes


individualities and, therefore, the larger their psychic mass the more available knowledge they
will have and, consequently, greater ability to evolve.
Just as the human race evolves biologically, human consciousnesses have also been
evolving. When they are incorporated, the difficulties of the material world provide them with
more and better opportunities to acquire psychic mass (later on we will see how said
consciousnesses may gain or lose psychic mass). That is why they need to perform successive
reincorporations. Each reincorporation arises as a new opportunity for said consciousnesses to
increase their psychic mass and thus evolve.
The belief in the reincarnation is millenary and well known, although it has not yet been
scientifically recognized, due to its antecedent probability being very small. In other words,
there is small amount of data contributing to its confirmation. This, however, does not mean that
the phenomenon is not true, but only that there is the need for a considerable amount of
experiments to establish a significant degree of antecedent probability.
The rational acceptance of reincarnation entails deep modifications in the general
philosophy of the human being. For instance, it frees him from negative feelings, such as
nationalistic or racial prejudices and other response patterns based on the naive conception that
we are simply what we appear to be.
Darwin’s lucid perception upon affirming that not only the individual’s corporeal
qualities but also his psychic qualities tend to improve made implicit in his “natural selection”
one of the most important rules of evolution: the psychic selection, which basically consists in
the survival of the most apt consciousnesses. Psychic aptitude means, in the case of human
consciousnesses, mental quality, i.e., quality of thinking.
In this context, the human consciousnesses are equivalent to the called Spirits,
mentioned in the Kardecist literature [13], where the reincarnation was strongly considered.

5. The Spirits

Origin and Nature of the Spirits

As we have already seen, the origin of the spirits is related to the natural desire of the Supreme
Consciousness to procreate, that is, of generating individual consciousnesses in itself so that
they could evolve and express the same creative attributes pertinent to Her. In this way, the
nature of Spirits is the same of the Supreme Consciousness.

Form and Ubiquity of the Spirits

By definition the consciousnesses, the thought, etc., are psychic bodies, i.e., psychic
energy locally concentrated. In the material world, we can not distinguish the form of thoughts
probably because the density of concentrated psychic energy is so low that would be equivalent
to a fluid with a density much lower than the densities of gases. We know that we can only see a
body if the light emitted by it can be detected by our eyes. The solids and liquids generally
reflect light well and this makes them visible. The gases, on the contrary, are only visible in a
state of high density, as in the case of the clouds. In a state of low density, like the wind,
become invisible, because, practically, do not reflect the rays of light. In the case of thoughts,
whose density would be much lower than the density of the gases, we also cannot distinguish its
shape. The same is true in the case of Spirits. Thus, it becomes very difficult for us to see the
Spirits. However, as the concentration of energy in spirits is greater than the thoughts it is
possible that we can see traces of its forms in certain circumstances. This would then

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correspond to the vision of figures, flashes, etc. Thus, the perfect vision of the forms of the
spirits will probably only be possible for an observer in the Spiritual World.
As concerns the ubiquity of the Spirits, it is necessary to use the Quantum Physics in
order to understand it. We start from the Uncertainty Principle, under the form obtained in 1927
by Werner Heisenberg, i.e.,
Δ xΔ p ≥ h (10 )
This expression shows that the product of the uncertainty Δx in the position of a particle in a
certain instant by the uncertainty Δp in its momentum is equal or greater than the Planck’s
constant h. We cannot measure simultaneously both, position and momentum, with perfect
accuracy. If we reduce Δp , then Δx will be increased and vice-versa. Such uncertainties are not
in our appliances, but in Nature.
A mathematical approach more accurate than the one proposed by Heisenberg presents
to the uncertainty principle the following relationship:
ΔxΔp ≥
h
(11)

When we want to correlate the uncertainty ΔE in the energy with the uncertainty Δt in the time
interval it is customary to write the Uncertainty Principle in the following form:
ΔE Δt ≈ h (12 )
where h = h 2π .
According to this expression, an event in which an amount of energy ΔE is not
conserved is not prohibited, provided that the duration of the event does not exceed Δt . This
means that it can occur variations of energy in a system, that even in principle are impossible to
determine them. The emission of a meson by a nucleus that does not change its mass - clear
violation of the principle of conservation of energy - can occur if the nucleon reabsorb the
meson (or similar) in a time interval less than h ΔE = h mπc2 , ( mπ is the mass of the meson).
Therefore, it can also occur that a material particle moves temporarily to a certain position
without actually leaving your starting position. In this case, it is said that the particle made a
Virtual Transition to a certain position.
The designation virtual must not lead the reader to imagine that the transition was not
made. It is effectively carried out: it is real. But, according to the uncertainty principle, it is
impossible to be observed. This is a limitation imposed by Nature.
However, although we cannot observe the virtual transitions, their occurrence can often
be detected by the produced effects.
The psychic particles can also perform virtual transitions, since the uncertainty principle
also applies to them.
This means, therefore, that quanta of human consciousnesses (from the minds’ conscious,
subconscious and unconscious) can perform "temporary exits" but without leaving them
effectively.
These transitions correspond to virtual transitions of the own minds where the quanta are
originated, since these, when individualized, form Bose-Einstein condensates with the mind
where they are originated, and therefore, share all the knowledge and attributes relevant to it.
During pseudo-medical deaths, projections, etc., people report later that they "saw"
themselves out of the body, a clear indication of virtual transitions originating from the
conscious and subconscious. In dreams, besides such transitions, there are also indications of
transitions from the unconscious.
According to Feynman’s Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction [14], no energy
is spent in virtual transitions, which can occur around at any distance. Moreover, as is easily
concluded from the uncertainty principle, one single quantum can perform several virtual

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transitions simultaneously. It all depends on how quickly it makes the transitions. Therefore,
through this process, the quanta of human consciousnesses or it all may go to several places
simultaneously. We conclude, therefore, that a spirit can be in several places at a time. But of
course this is not a division of Spirit, but himself present simultaneously in several places.

Incarnation of Spirits

The great dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement of the individual’s
psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to a variety of individuals (most
probably among anthropoid primates) which unconsciously established a positive mutual
affinity with Primordial Spirits, previously mentioned.
As this affinity was developed with the psychic enhancement, it is expected that natural
selection has made it much higher in the offspring of this variety. Thus, due to the psychic
interaction, several Primordial Spirits must have been attracted to the Earth. With this, the
relationship established among them and the material consciousnesses of said individuals was
intensified.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there was a time when the fetuses of said
variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity with the primordial
consciousnesses attracted to the Earth that, during pregnancy, the incorporation of Primordial
Spirits may have occurred in said fetuses 5 .
This phenomenon should not have occurred only on Earth, may also have occurred in the
same way on other planets with evolutionary conditions similar to Earth's. The belief that this
phenomenon occurred only in the incarnation of Spirits on Earth would question the wisdom of
God, favoring only the Earth and excluding thousands of other worlds.
As we have already seen, these Spirits constitute perfect individualities and, therefore, as
greater their psychic energy greater auto-knowledge accessible and, consequently, they will
have greater opportunities to evolve.
Thus, also the Spirits evolve as the human race evolved biologically.

Return to Corporal Life

Just as the consciousnesses of the children have a high degree of positive mutual affinity
with the consciousnesses of their parents, and among themselves (principle of familiar
formation), the embryo cells, by having originated from cellular duplication, have a high degree
of positive mutual affinity. The embryo cells result, as we know, from the cellular duplication of
a single cell containing the paternal and maternal genes and, hence, have a high degree of
positive mutual affinity.
Thus, under the action of psychic interaction the cells of the internal cellular mass start
gathering into small groups, according to the different degrees of mutual affinity.
When there is a positive mutual affinity between two consciousnesses there occurs the
intertwining between their wave functions, and a Phase Relationship is established among them.
Consequently, since the degree of positive mutual affinity among the embryo cells is high, also
the relationship among them will be intense, and it is exactly this what enables the construction
of the organs of the future child. In other words, when a cell is attracted by certain group in the
embryo, it is through the cell-group relationship that determines where the cell is to aggregate to

5
When incarnated, the Spirit is commonly called of Soul. However, considering that while incarnated the
Spirit form a Bose-Einstein condensate with the material consciousness of the body, we can define the
Soul as the individual consciousness of being, i.e., a Bose-Einstein condensate containing the incarnated
Spirit and material consciousness of the body.

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the group. In this manner, each cell finds its correct place in the embryo; that is why observers
frequently say that, ”the cells appear to know where to go”, when experimentally observed.
The cells of the internal cellular mass are capable of originating any organ, and are hence
called totipotents; thus, the organs begin to appear. In the endoderm, there appear the urinary
organs, the respiratory system, and part of the digestive system; in the mesoderm are formed the
muscles, bones, cartilages, blood, vessels, heart, kidneys; in the ectoderm there appear the skin,
the nervous system, etc.
Thus, it is the mutual affinity among the consciousnesses of the cells that determines the
formation of the body organs and keeps their own physical integrity. For this reason, every body
rejects cells from other bodies, unless the latter have positive mutual affinity with their own
cells. The higher the degree of cellular positive mutual affinity, the faster the integration of the
transplanted cells and, therefore, the less problematic the transplant. In the case of cells from
identical twins, this integration takes place practically with no problems, since said degree of
mutual affinity is very high.
In eight weeks of life, all organs are practically formed in the embryo. From there on, it
begins to be called fetus.
The embryo’s material individual consciousness is formed by the consciousnesses of its
cells united in a Bose-Einstein condensate. As more cells become incorporated into the embryo,
its material consciousness acquires more psychic mass. This means that this type of
consciousness will be greater in the fetus than in the embryo and even greater in the child.
Thus, the psychic mass of the mother-fetus consciousness progressively increases during
pregnancy, consequently increasing the psychic attraction between this consciousness and that
new one about to incorporate. In normal pregnancies, this psychic attraction also increases due
to the habitual increase in the degree of positive mutual affinity between said consciousnesses.
Since the embryo's consciousness has greater degree of positive mutual affinity with the
consciousness that is going to incorporate, then the embryo's consciousness becomes the center
of psychic attraction to where the human consciousness (Spirit) destined to the fetus will go.
When the psychic attraction becomes intense enough, human consciousness penetrates the
mother consciousness, forming with it a new Bose–Einstein condensate. From that instant on,
the fetus begins to have two consciousnesses: the individual material one and the human
consciousness attracted to it.
However, this should only occur after eight weeks, when all organs are practically formed
in the embryo, and it is called fetus. This is a critical period in which the imperfections of matter
can cause fetal death. Thus, the Spirit waits to complete formation of the fetus. If the fetus can
not be structured conveniently, it will naturally be aborted and the Spirit will look for another
body to reincarnate.
We conclude, therefore, that the initial eight weeks are a period imposed by Nature
herself to finish the building of the fetus and test whether it will be able to be used by the Spirit
that want to incarnate. Thus, in this period of "construction" of the fetus, both the Spirit and the
mother, based on free will, also have the freedom to give up the process. In this case, breaks
easily the Bose-Einstein condensate, and the Spirit and both the mother can restart on other
basis, making sure they have fully exercised their rights and have not harmed or caused harm to
either party involved in the process.
However, if the fetus is able, the process to continue the psychic attraction between
material consciousness of the fetus and the Spirit that want to incarnate, accepted by the mother
and by said Spirit, will progressively increase. In this way, with the psychic attraction, this
human consciousness tends to continue, being progressively compressed until effectively
incorporating the fetus. When this takes place, it will be ready to be born.

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It is probably due to this psychic compression process that the incorporated consciousness
suffers amnesia of its preceding history. Upon death, after the psychic decompression that arises
from the definitive disincorporation of the consciousness, the preceding memory must return.

Evolutionary Degree and Fate of the Spirit

We have already seen that, when the gravitational mass, Mg, of a body is smaller than
−0.159Mi or larger than +0.159 Mi it is in the Material World. However, if its gravitational mass
is reduced to the range between −0.159Mi < Mg < +0.159 Mi, it performs a transition to the
Psychic World or Spiritual World. [1] When this occurs, its real gravitational mass, m g (real ) , is
totally converted into imaginary gravitational mass, m g (imaginaria ) , due to the Principle of
Conservation of Energy.
On the other hand, it was shown that the psychic mass, mΨ , is equal to the imaginary
gravitational mass[1] , i.e.,
m Ψ = m g (imaginaria ) (13)
Thus, when a body perform a transition to the Psychic World, its real gravitational mass
m g (real ) , is totally converted into psychic mass.
mΨ = m g (imaginaria) ≡ m g (real )
Since the mass is quantized, the body performs a transition to a quantum level
correspondent to its psychic mass (See Fig.1). Thus, the body goes to a region corresponding to
the gravitational mass that it acquired in the Material World.
According to the new concepts of spacecraft and aerospatial flight shown in the book
Física dos UFOs 6 , the called Gravitational Spacecrafts must use the Psychic Universe in order
to viabilize trips that would require much time in the Material Universe.
As the mentioned spacecrafts just perform transition to the Psychic Universe if and only if
its gravitational masses are reduced to the range −0.159Mi < Mg < +0.159 Mi, then, with
negative gravitational mass in the range −0.159Mi < Mg, they perform the transition, and their
gravitational masses would be transformed into negative gravitational mass. Thus, they will
enter the Psychic Universe by the zone energetically located in the range −∞ < MΨ < 0 (See Fig.
1). In the case of the gravitational mass of the spacecraft be reduced to the positive range, i.e.,
0< Mg < +0.159 Mi, the spacecraft will enter the Psychic Universe by zone of positive energy of
the psychic spectrum.
Only after the discovery of the correlation between the gravitational mass and the
inertial mass could the finding of negative gravitational mass be achieved, making it possible to
find ways to obtain it. It is clear, then, that the common material in the Material Universe is the
existence of bodies with positive gravitational mass. Similarly, in the Psychic Universe, the
common is to find psychic bodies with positive psychic mass. Thus, to find the World of Spirits,
a Gravitational Spacecraft must enter the Psychic Universe with positive psychic mass.
When a spirit disincarnates, he does not makes a transition to the Spiritual Universe
because, due to its own nature, the Spirit is already in the Spiritual Universe. Thus, the Spirit
just turn off the material body which they lived. As it leaves the Material World with a given
positive psychic mass 7 , mΨ − acquired during its evolution, and during its recent reincarnation
in the Material World − it should proceed to the region of the World of Spirits corresponding to
its psychic mass. Thus, as the evolutionary degree of each Spirit is defined by the amount of

6
See at www.frandeaquino.org
7
It is fact that the presence of negative psychic energy in the Spirits would cause a decrease in its total psychic
energy, which would imply involution (since the addition of positive psychic energy implies in evolution) and, as we
have seen, the Spirits do not involute.

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psychic mass contained in the Spirit 8 , then the Spirits proceed precisely to the regions that
correspond to their evolutionary degrees, and there, brought together by mutual affinity, they
continue the evolutionary process and wait for the time of new reincarnation. Driven by the
need for progress, this is therefore the destiny of Spirits.
Thus, in the World of Spirit there is a natural selection that brings together Spirits with
the same level of evolution, and that does not allow the less evolved access to more evolved
regions. The most evolved Spirits, however, can transit through the lower regions, making the
already mentioned "virtual" transitions. In this way, they may intervene with less evolved
regions.

+ ∞ + ∞

M g M Ψ
Transição

UNIVERSO UNIVERSO

0 0
MATERIAL ESPÍRITUAL

− ∞ − ∞
Fig. 1 – When the gravitational mass, Mg, of a body is in
the range −0.159Mi > Mg > +0.159 Mi it is in the Material
Universe. However, If Mg is reduced to the range −0.159Mi
< Mg < +0.159 Mi, then it makes a transition to the Psychic
Universe (or Spiritual) with its gravitational mass converted
to in psychic mass. Since the mass is quantized, the body
performs a transition to a quantum level correspondent to its
psychic mass. Thus, it follows to a region correspondent to
the gravitational mass, which it acquired in the Material
Universe.

Life in the World of Spirits

By doing the good, spirits acquire more psychic mass, and thus, more latent powers are
awaken, which facilitates their achievements, and makes them happier9 . But they should not
occupy themselves only with their personal improvement, since life in the Spirit World, such as
life in the Material World, is a continuous occupation. We can also conclude from the above

8
As already seen, the Spirits were individualized in the Supreme Consciousness, and therefore brought with them, in
a latent state, the same attributes pertinent to Her. With the progressive evolution of the Spirit, these attributes are
being awakened, so that the degree of evolution of a Spirit is directly related to the quantity of attributes it aroused.
On the other hand, the number of attributes in a Spirit is directly correlated to the amount of mass psychic of the
Spirit. Thus, more psychic mass the Spirit has greater the amount of attributes awakened and, therefore, more
evoluted is the Spirit.
9
The happiness of the good Spirits certainly consists in knowing more and more; not having hate,
jealousy, envy, or any of the passions that make the misery of men. They don't experience needs or
suffering, or the anxieties of material life, and this in itself is synonymous of great happiness.

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that even the spirits of the highest order, in having nothing more to improve, do not cease their
activities, once the eternal idleness would also be an eternal punishment.
We have seen that the realization of what we want requires an expenditure of psychic
energy proportional to the nature of desire. In other words, in order to have what we want
realized through the collapse of its wave function, it is necessary an expenditure of psychic
energy sufficient for its accomplishment. As the density of material bodies is much greater than
the density of psychic bodies, the realization of our desires in the Material Universe usually
requires much more the psychic energy than in the Psychic Universe. Thus, life in the World of
Spirit becomes much easier and more enjoyable than in the Material World. But the difficulties
of the Material World are what allow the Spirits to progress in their evolution, and that might
have been the main reason for the creation of the Material Universe.
The possibility of transition to the Psychic Universe increased the likelihood of close
encounters with beings from other planets in our ordinary Universe, and also with the people
who live in planets of the Psychic Universe, since Gravitational Spacecraft trips can also be
carried over in this Universe, as already shown. The characteristics associated to the subtle
psychic mass indicate that the life of these beings should not be finite as the lives of the humans.
This makes us think that maybe life in the Psychic Universe be the real life while our brief life
in this Universe has only specific goals such as, for example, a learning period.
The Psychic Universe, by its very nature, it is constituted of photons, atoms and
molecules psychics. This means that all types of photons, atoms and molecules that exist here
may have its corresponding counterparts in the Psychic Universe. Therefore, all we have here
can exist there with a similar form. However, considering the characteristics associated to the
subtle psychic mass, we can conclude that life here may be an imperfect copy of the life there.

Time in the World of Spirits

We have already seen that the Real Universe, where we live, is contained in the Psychic
Universe (Imaginary Universe), so the real space-time that corresponds to the Real Universe is
within the Imaginary space-time, which forms the Psychic Universe, where the Spirits live. By
definition, in the imaginary space-time both the space coordinates and the time coordinate are,
obviously, imaginary. This means that the time in the Universe of the Spirits (imaginary time) is
different from the real time of our Universe.
Only recently the concept of imaginary time was considered by physicists. Difficult to
understand, but deemed essential to connect the Statistical Mechanics to Quantum Mechanics,
the concept of imaginary time also became instrumental in Quantum Cosmology, where it was
introduced in order to eliminate singularities (points where the curvature of space-time becomes
infinite), which occur in the real time (See Hartle-Hawking state [15]). Twenty-two years ago,
Hawking popularized the concept of imaginary time in his book: A Brief History of Time [16].
The imaginary time is not imaginary in the sense that it does not exist. Nor is it a
mathematical artifice. No, it really exists, however, it has different characteristics of the time
which we are used to.
The existence of the imaginary time is mathematically sustained by a mechanism called
Wick Rotation 10 , which transform the metrics of the Minkowski space-time
( )
ds 2 = − dt 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (14)
into the metrics of the Euclidean space-time
ds 2 = dτ 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (15)
where τ = it ; i = − 1 is called imaginary unit, which defines the imaginary numbers in the
form z = a + bi , where a and b are real numbers, called respectively, the real part of “z” and
the imaginary part of “z”.

10
It is the called rotation because when we multiply an imaginary number by i the result, on the Cartesian plane, is
equivalent to a rotation of 900 of the vector that represents the number. Assim, − dt2 = − dt. dt = i2 dt. dt = i(i
dt). dt = dτ . 2

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21

From the definition of complex numbers follows that they can interpreted as points in the
Cartesian plane (where conventionally we mark on the x-axis the real part and on the y-axis the

imaginary part of a imaginary number “z”) or, as vectors OZ whose origin “O” is at the origin
of the Cartesian grid, and the point “Z” with the coordinates (a, b). (See Fig. 2).
Thus, imaginary numbers can be conceived as a new type of number perpendicular to the
real numbers. This leads to the possibility of expressing mathematically imaginary time in a
direction perpendicular to the common real time. In this model, the imaginary time is a function
of real time and vice versa (See Fig.3). Thus, the imaginary time appears as a new dimension
that makes a right angles to real time, and thereby, as Hawking showed [17], it has much more
possibilities than the real time, which always flows from past to future, and only may have a
beginning and an end.

Im

b Z

0 a Re
(a)

Im

b Z

Z’ a

-b 0 a Re
(b)

Fig. 2 – (a) The Imaginary Plane (or Argand-


Gauss Plane) is a way to visualize the space of
imaginary numbers. Can be understood as a
modified Cartesian plane, where the real part is
represented on the x-axis and the imaginary part
on the y-axis. The x-axis is called real axis while
the y-axis is called imaginary axis. (b) When we
multiply a imaginary number z = a+bi by i (iz
= ai - b = z’) the result on the Cartesian plane is
equivalent to a rotation of 90° of the vector OZ
that represents the number.

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22

t Im

5
4
3
2
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t Re
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Fig.3 – Mathematically, it is possible to express the


imaginary time in a direction perpendicular to the
common real time. In this model, the imaginary time is a
function of real time and vice versa.

Universo Imaginário
espaço-tempo plano

Universo Real
espaço-tempo curvo

Fig. 4 – The Model of the Imaginary Universe (or


Psychic Universe) containing the Real Universe. In the
Imaginary Universe the space-time is flat (Euclidean
metric), whereas in the Real Universe space-time is
curved due to the presence of matter. In this model, the
boundaries of the Real Universe confuse itself with the
Imaginary Universe that is unlimited.

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23

Imaginary time is measured in imaginary units (e.g., 2i seconds instead of 2 seconds).


This imaginary unit of time may seem strange to us, such as our unit of real time measurement
seems to the spirits, accustomed in their world measuring time in imaginary units. It all
depends, of course, on the Universe where we are.
Based on the very definition of imaginary time, it is easy to see that we can interpret it as a

vector OZ . Thus, being a vector, the imaginary time need not necessarily be always oriented in
the same direction as the real time. It can freely change direction and intensity. This means that
an observer in imaginary time can move in any direction for the future or past, such as we can
move in any direction in space. This unique feature creates for us − accustomed to the flow of
time always in the same direction − a horizon of events full of possibilities, hard to imagine
because of the limitations imposed upon our consciousnesses by the Material Universe.
The existence of imaginary time derives from the very existence of the imaginary space-
time contained in the Psychic Universe. As already shown, the speed of propagation of
interactions in the Psychic Universe is infinite, which means that the metrics of space-imaginary
time is Euclidean (or flat), while the metrics of the real universe is non-Euclidean (or curve).
Since the Psychic Universe contains the Real Universe, we can conclude that the limits of the
Real Universe mix itself up with the Psychic Universe that is unlimited (See Fig. 4).
The fact that the Psychic Universe have no limits implies that it has no singularities or
boundaries in the imaginary time direction. With this condition, there is no beginning or end of
the imaginary time.

Conclusion

Both the traditional physicists and most people recognize that there are phenomena where
matter does not act alone, i.e., which involves also what we call psychism (consciousness,
thought). These phenomena had hitherto been relegated to the professional affair of experts
other than the traditional physicists. However, in recent decades, Quantum Physics has shown
us that some physical laws are stretched beyond the Material World, revealing the existence of
the Spiritual World. Thus, the Spiritual World arises not as a supernatural world 11 , but as
something as real as our Material World. On the other hand, this knowledge paved the way for
Physics to study psychic phenomena using the same criteria adopted for the study of physical
phenomena. In other words, it was evident that psychic phenomena could also be described by
the laws of Physics. This unification is the basis for the Grand Unification of Science and
Religion. Thereafter, both could no longer follow on separately. It was clear that Science could
more accurately describe the truth postulated by Religion.
In this context, the Religion - absorbed by Science, must leave the scene just as the purely
philosophical Cosmology gave way, in the past century, to Quantum Cosmology, when
Quantum Physics discovered the laws that accurately describe the structures of the Universe.
The unification of Science and Religion is highly relevant because it will eliminate the
spread of religious beliefs that have caused so much harm to Humanity in recent millennia.
Now, the truth postulated by Religion will be transmitted by Science in schools and universities,
and the human beings will understand it and use it, such as they use and understand, for
example, the electric current, knowing that it can cause harm and also benefits for its users.
It would be too much presumptuous to believe that, due to the simple revelation of this
new knowledge, the human nature could change suddenly. It will certainly take several decades
for a complete assimilation of such truth.
It will then be taught to people from early stages of learning, the fundamental importance
of the quality of our thoughts, since it is from them that the psychic interaction is defined and,

11
In the eyes of the general public, all phenomena of unknown cause become readily supernatural,
wonderful and miraculous: the cause, once known, shows that the phenomenon, for more extraordinary it
may seems, is nothing but a consequence of one or more natural laws. It is in this way that the set of
supernatural facts is reduced with the Science progress.

282
24

consequently, the extraordinary relationship that is established among the human


consciousnesses, the Universe and God.
Mankind then will begin to develop its psychic possibilities starting from the regular
training at school.
There will come a time when, on Earth, the good will prevail over evil. The good spirits
incarnated on Earth will become more numerous and, by the law of Psychic Interaction and
Mutual Affinity, they will attract more and more the good spirits to Earth, warding off evil
Spirits. The great transformation of Humanity then will be made by the progressive incarnation
of better Spirits, which will give origin, on Earth, to a generation much more evolved than the
current one.

283
25

References

[1] DeAquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory


of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11(1), pp.173-232.
[2] Ruyer, R. (1976) La Gnose de Princeton, Fayard.
[3] Dunne, J. W (1934) An Experiment with Time, 3ª Ed. Faber, London
[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology, Bulletin of Pure and
Applied Science, Vol.29D, Number 2, Section D, pp.105-130.
[5] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory, Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.
[6] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum Reality, Scientific American,
241,128.
[7] Teller, P. Relational Holism and Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.
[8] Winger, K. (1967) Symmetries And Reflections, Blooming, Ind., Indiana
University Press.
[9] Young, A.M. (1976) The Geometry of Meaning, Delacorte Press, N.Y;
Young, A.M. The Reflexive Universe: Evolution of Consciousness, Delacorte
Press, N.Y.
[10] Herbert, N. (1979) Mind Science: A Physics of Consciousness Primer,
Boulder Creek, Cal: C -Life Institute.
[11] Bohm, D. (1980) A New Theory of Relation of Mind and Matter, The Journal
of the American Society of Psychical Research, Vol. 80, Nº 2, p.129.
[12] Grant, P.R., and Grant, B.R. (1995). Predicting microevolutionary responses
to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49:241-251.
[13] Kardec, A. (1954) Le Livre des Esprits, Èdition de L’U.S.K.B, Paris.
[14] Feynman, R. (1950) Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of
Electromagnetic Interaction, Phys. Rev. 80, 440.
[15] Hartle, J. and Hawking, S. (1983). "Wave function of the Universe". Physical Review D 28:
2960
[16] Hawking, S. (1988) A Brief History of Time, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-380016.8.
[17] Hawking, S. (2001) The Universe in a Nutshell, United States & Canada: Bantam Books.
pp. 58–61, 63, 82–85, 90–94, 99, 196. ISBN 055380202X.

284
On the Cosmological Variation of the Fine Structure Constant
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Recently, evidence indicating cosmological variations of the fine structure constant, α, has been
reported. This result led to the conclusion that possibly the physical constants and the laws of
physics vary throughout the universe. However, it will be shown here that variations in the value of
the elementary electric charge, e, can occur under specific conditions, consequently producing
variations in the value of α.
Key words: Fine Structure Constant, Elementary Electric Charge, Cosmology, Physics of Black-Holes.
PACS: 06.20. Jr, 98.80.-k, 98.80.Jk, 04.70.-s.

The well-known Fine Structure where mi0e(im) = − 2 mi0e(real) i , mi0e(real) =9.11×10−31kg


3
Constant determines the strength of the
electromagnetic field and is expressed by the and U e(im) = η e kTe i . In this expression
following equation (in SI units) [1]: η e ≅ 0.1 is the absorption factor for the

2
electron and Te ≅ 6.2 ×1031K is its internal
α=
e
=
1
(1) temperature (temperature of the Universe
4πε 0 hc 137.03599958(52) when the electron was created);
−23
k =1.38×10 J /º K is the Boltzmann constant.
However, recently, Webb, J.K et al., [2] Thus, according to Eq. (3), the value of
using data of the Very Large Telescope
χ e is given by χ e = −1.8 × 1021 . Then,
(VLT) and of the ESO Science archive,
noticed small variation in the value of α in according to Eq. (2), the electric charge of
several distant galaxies. This led to the the electron is
conclusion that α is not a constant [2- 4].
It will be shown here, that variations in q e = 4πε 0 G m ge (im ) i =
the value of the elementary electric charge, e,
(
= 4πε 0 G χ e m i 0 e (im )i = )
( )
can occur under specific conditions,
consequently producing variations in the = 4πε 0 G − χ e 2 m i 0 e (real )i 2 =

4πε G (χ )
3
value of α. This effect may be explained
starting from the expression recently = 0 e
2 m i 0 e (real ) = −1.6 × 10 −19 C
3
obtained for the electric charge [5], i.e.,
q = 4πε 0 G m g (im ) i (2 ) As we know, the absolute value of this
charge is called the elementary electric
where m g (im ) are the imaginary gravitational
charge, e .
mass of the elementary particle; Since the internal temperature of the
−12
ε 0 = 8.854×10 F / m is the permittivity of the particle can vary, we then conclude that χ is
free space and G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N .m 2 .kg −1 is not a constant, and consequently the value of
the universal constant of gravitation. e also cannot be a constant in the Universe.
For example, in the case of the Its value will depend on the local conditions
electron, it was shown [5] that that can vary the internal temperature of the
particle. The gravitational compression, for
⎧ example, can reduce the volume V of the
⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪ particles, diminishing their internal
mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) = temperature T to a temperature
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ T ′ according to the well-known equation:
= χ e mi 0e(im) (3) T ′ = (V ′ V )T [6]. This decreases the value of
U (im) , decreasing consequently the value of

285
2
χ . Equation (2) shows that e is proportional
to χ , i.e.,

e = 4πε 0 G m g (im ) i =

(
= 4πε 0 G χ m i 0 (im )i = )
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ 2 )
m i 0 (real )i 2 =

4πε G (χ )
3

= 0
2 m i 0 (real )
3

Therefore, when the volume of the particle


decreases, the value of e will be less
than 1.6 × 10 −19 C . Similarly, if the volume
V is increased, the temperature T will be
increased at the same ratio, increasing the
value of χ , and also the value of e . The
gravitational traction, for example, can
increase the volume V of the particles,
increasing their internal temperature T , and
consequently increasing their electric charges
(See Fig.1).
Conclusions – Our theoretical results
show that variations in the value of the
elementary electric charge, e, can occur
under specific conditions, consequently
producing variations of the fine structure
constant, α, as shown in Fig.1. This excludes
totally the erroneous hypothesis that the laws
of physics vary throughout the universe.

286
3

Extremely large
White-hole

The strong gravitational


compression in this region
decreases the volumes of
the particles, decreasing
the values of α .
Extremely large The strong traction upon
Black-hole the particles increases
their volumes, increasing
(QUASAR) the value of α .

Fig. 1 – A spatial dipole that can explain the dipole variation of α reported by Webb. J.K. et
al.

287
4

References
[1] P. J. Mohr, and B. N. Taylor, (2000) Rev. Mod. Phys.,
72, 351

[2] Webb, J.K. et al., (2011) Phys. Rev. Lett., 107, 191101.

[3] King, J.A. et al., “Spatial variation in the fine structure


constant- new results from VLT/UVES” to be published.

[4] Koch, F. E. et al., “Spatial variation in the fine structure


constant- a search for systematic effects” to be published.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(1), pp. 173-232.

[6] M.J. Moran and H.N. Shapiro (2000), Fundamentals of


Engineering Thermodynamics, Wiley, 4th Ed.

288
The velocity of neutrinos
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Recently, the OPERA neutrino experiment at the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory has
measured the velocity of neutrinos from the CERN CNGS beam over a baseline of about 730
km. The experiment shows that neutrinos can have superluminal velocities. This result could, in
principle, be taken as a clear violation of the Special Relativity. However, it will be show here
that neutrinos can actually travel at velocities faster than light speed, without violating Special
Relativity.

Key words: Neutrino mass, Neutrino interactions, Special relativity.


PACS: 14.60.Pq, 13.15.+g, 03.30.+p.

The mass of the electron neutrino (ν e ) The quantization of velocity shows


is usually measured using the beta decay. that there is a speed upper limit, c i > c , for
The continuous spectrum of beta decay imaginary particles in the real spacetime
electrons terminates at a maximal energy, (real Universe) * . This means that Einstein's
which depends on the neutrino mass and on speed limit (c ) not applies to imaginary
the emitting nucleus type. Because of the particles propagating in the real spacetime.
way that the neutrino mass affects the Theoretical predictions show that
electron energy spectrum, the measured 12 −1
ci ≈ 10 m .s [4]. Consequently, the
quantity is the square of the neutrino mass.
imaginary particles, such as the neutrinos,
All recent measurements show that the
can reaches velocities faster than light speed.
neutrino mass squared is negative [1].
Therefore, in the case of imaginary particles,
However, the square root of a negative
we must replace c in the Lorentz
number is an imaginary number. Thus, the
measurements suggest that the electron transformation by C (im ) = ci i in order to
neutrino has an imaginary mass. Assuming generalize the equations of Special relativity.
that the neutrino has no real mass, and Thus, the imaginary kinetic energy of
considering that the imaginary momentum imaginary particles, for example, is written
has a real value, i.e., L(im) = I (im)ω(im) ≡ S(real) in the following form:
and p(im) = M g(im)V(im) ≡ p(real) , we can infer that ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
the neutrino is an imaginary particle with a ⎜ ⎟
measurable property; the square of its ( )
K(im) = mi(im) − mi0(im) C(im) =
2 ⎜

1
2
−1⎟mi0(im)C(2im) =

imaginary mass. ⎜ 1− V(im) ⎟
The OPERA neutrino experiment [2] ⎜ C(2im) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
at the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory
⎛ ⎞
(LNGS) was designed to perform the first ⎜ ⎟
detection of neutrino oscillations. Recently, it ⎜ ⎟
=⎜ −1⎟mi0(im)C(2im)
1
was reported that the OPERA neutrino ⎜ 2 ⎟
experiment had discovered neutrinos with ⎜ 1− V ⎟
velocities greater than the light speed [3]. ⎜ c2 ⎟
⎝ i ⎠
The neutrinos in question appear to be
reaching the detector 60 nanoseconds faster
where mi 0(im ) is the imaginary mass of the
than light would take to cover the same
distance. That translates to a speed 0.002% particle at rest. The expression above shows
higher than c = 299,792,458 m.s -1 (the speed *
The speed upper limit for real particles in the imaginary
upper limit for real particles in the real spacetime is c , because the relativistic expression of the
spacetime). mass shows that the velocity of real particles cannot be
larger than c in any space-time.

289
2
that the imaginary particle has a real velocity
V . This means that imaginary particles
propagating in the real spacetime can be
detected. This is the case, for example, of the
neutrinos with V > c observed in the OPERA
neutrino experiment.
Note that the imaginary kinetic energy
of the particle is what gives to the neutrino
its real velocity (K (im ) → V ) . This solves
therefore, the problem of how the neutrino
propagates in the space.
In addition, we can conclude that in the
neutrino-electron reactions, mediated by the
Z particle, the neutrino does not enter as a
real mass but as a real angular momentum
(spin ½). The real mass of the neutrino is
null, but the real angular momentum and the
imaginary angular momentum of the neutrino
are not null. The real angular momentum of
the neutrino, S(real) , derives from its imaginary
angular momentum, according to the
following relation: L(im) = I(im)ω(im) ≡S(real) = s(s +1)h.

290
3

References
[1] Eidelman, S. et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Lett. B
592, 1 (2004) and (2005) partial update for edition 2006
(URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov).

[2] OPERA Collaboration, R. Acquafredda et al., JINST 4


(2009) P04018.

[3] Measurement of the neutrino velocity with the OPERA


detector in the CNGS beam (2011) [arXiv:1109.4897v1]

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

291
Proca Equations and the Photon Imaginary Mass
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
It has been recently proposed that the photon has imaginary mass and null real mass. Proca equations are
the unique simplest relativistic generalization of Maxwell equations. They are the theoretical expressions
of possible nonzero photon rest mass. The fact that the photon has imaginary mass introduces relevant
modifications in Proca equations which point to a deviation from the Coulomb’s inverse square law.

Key words: Quantum electrodynamics, Specific calculations, Photons


PACS: 12.20.-m, 12.20.Ds, 14.70.Bh.

For quite a long time it has been where μ γ = mγ c h , with the real variables
known that the effects of a nonzero photon μ γ and mγ . However, according to Eq. (1)
rest mass can be incorporated into
electromagnetism through the Proca mγ is an imaginary mass. Then, μ γ must be
equations [1-2]. It is also known that also an imaginary variable. Thus, μ γ2 is a
particles with imaginary mass can be
described by a real Proca field with a negative real number similarly to mγ2 .
negative mass square [3-5]. They could be Consequently, we can write that
generated in storage rings, jovian m γ2 c 2 4 ⎛ 2π ⎞
2
magnetosphere, and supernova remnants. μγ =
2
= ⎜ ⎟
4
= k r2 (6 )
The existence of imaginary mass associated h 2
3⎝ λ ⎠ 3
to the neutrino is already well-known. It has whence we recognize k r = 2π λ as the real
r
been reported by different groups of part of the propagation vector k ;
experimentalists that the mass square of the r
neutrino is negative [6]. Although the k = k = kr + iki = kr2 + ki2 (7)
imaginary mass is not a measurable amount, Substitution of Eq. (6) into Proca
its square is [7]. Recently, it was shown that equations, gives
an imaginary mass exist associated to the r ρ 4 2
∇⋅E = − kr φ (8 )
electron and the photon too [8]. The photon ε0 3
imaginary mass is given by r
(
m γ = 23 hf c 2 i ) (1) ∇⋅B = 0 (9 )
r
r ∂B
This means that the photon has null real ∇×E = − (10 )
mass and an imaginary mass, mγ , expressed ∂t
r
r r ∂E 4 2 r
by the previous equation. ∇ × B = μ 0 j + μ 0ε 0 − kr A (11)
Proca equations may be found in many ∂t 3
textbooks [9-11]. They provide a complete In four-dimensional space these
and self-consistent description of equations can be rewritten as
electromagnetic phenomena [12].r In the ⎛ 2 1 ∂2 4 2 ⎞ r
presence of sources ρ and j , these
⎜∇ −
⎜ − k r
⎟ Aμ = − μ 0 j μ
⎟ (12 )
⎝ c 2
∂ t 2
3 ⎠
equations may be written as (in SI units) r
where Aμ and j μ are the 4-vector of
r ρ
∇⋅E = − μ γ2φ (2 ) potential ( A, iφ c ) and the current density
ε0
r (rj, icρ ), respectively. In free space the above
∇⋅B = 0 (3 ) equation reduces to
r
r ∂B
∇×E = − (4 )
∂t ⎛ 2 1 ∂2 4 2 ⎞
r
r
r
⎜∇ −
⎜ − k r ⎟⎟ Aμ = 0 (13 )
r ∂E 2
∂ 2
∇ × B = μ 0 j + μ 0ε 0 − μ γ2 A (5 ) ⎝ c t 3 ⎠
∂t

292
2
−4
which is essentially the Klein-Gordon becomes relevant if r > 10 m . Then, if we
equation for the photon. take r = 0.1m , the result is
Therefore, the presence of a photon in
a static electric field modifies the wave
equation for all potentials (including the
2
(k r r ) = 4π ⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟ = 0.73
Coulomb potential) in the form 3 3⎝λ ⎠
and
⎛ 2 1 ∂2 ⎞ ρ
⎜∇ −

4
− k r2 ⎟⎟φ = − (14 ) ⎡ ⎤ −
2
(k r r )
⎝ c ∂t
2 2
3 ⎠ ε0 ⎢1 +
2
(k r r )⎥e
3
= 0.83
For a point charge, we obtain ⎣ 3 ⎦
1 q − 3 (k r r )
2
φ (r ) = e (15 ) Therefore, a deviation of 17% in respect to
4πε 0 r the value predicted by the Coulomb’s law.
and the electric field Then, why the above deviation is not
experimentally observed? Theoretically
⎡ ⎤ −
2
(k r r ) because of the presence of Schumann
E (r ) =
q

4πε 0 r 2 ⎣
1 +
2
3
(k )
r ⎥e
r

3
(16 ) (
radiation f 1 = 7 . 83 Hz , λ 1 = 3 . 8 × 10 7 m )
[14-15]. According to Eq. (18),
Note that only in the absence of the photon for λ1 = 3.8 × 10 m , the deviation only
7

(k r = 0) the expression of E (r ) reduces to becomes significant if


r > ~ 10 −4 λ1 = 3.8 Km
the well-known expression: E(r) = q 4πε0 r 2 .
Since the values of r in usual experiments
Thus, these results point to an exponential
are much smaller than 3.8Km the result is
deviation from Coulomb’s inverse square
that the deviation is negligible. In fact, this is
law, which, as we know, is expressed by the
easy to verify. For example, if r = 0.1m , we
following equation (in SI units):
r r r get
1 q1q2 r12
F12 = − F21 = (17)
4πε 0 rr12 3 ⎛ ⎞
2
(kr r ) = 4π ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟ = 4π ⎛⎜ ⎞
0.1
⎟ = 1.9 ×10
−8
As seen in Eq. (16), the term 3 3 ⎝ λ1 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 3.8 ×10 ⎠ 7

2
(k r r )
3 and
only becomes significant if ⎤ − 3 (k r r )
2

r > ~ 10 −4 λ (18) ⎢1 +
2
(k r ⎥
r ) e = 0.999999999
⎣ 3 ⎦
This means that the Coulomb’s law is a good Now, if we put the experiment inside an
approximation when r < ~10−4 λ . However, if aluminum box whose thickness of the walls
r > ~ 10−4 λ , the expression of the force are equal to 21cm * the experiment will be
shielded for the Schumann radiation. By
departs from the prediction of Maxwell’s putting inside the box a photons source of
equations. λ ≈ 1m , and making r = 0.1m , then it will be
The lowest-frequency photons of the possible to observe the deviation previously
primordial radiation of 2.7K is about computed of 17% in respect to the value
108 Hz [13]. Therefore, the wavelength of predicted by the Coulomb’s law.
these photons is λ ≈ 1m . Consider the
presence of these photons in a terrestrial *
The thickness δ necessary to shield the experiment
experiment designed to measure the force for Schumann radiation can be calculated by means of
between two electric charges separated by a the well-known expression [16]: δ = 5 z = 10 2πμσf
distance r . According to Eq. (18), the where μ and σ are, respectively, the permeability
deviation from the Coulomb’s law only and the electric conductivity of the material; f is the
frequency of the radiation to be shielded.

293
3

References
[1] Proca A 1936 J. Phys. Radium Ser. VII 7 347–53

[2] Proca A 1937 J. Phys. Radium Ser. VII 8 23–8

[3] Tomaschitz, R. (2001) Physica A 293, 247.

[4] Tomaschitz, R. (2004) Physica A 335, 577.

[5] Tomaschitz, R. (2005) Eur. Phys. J. D. 32, 241.

[6] S. Eidelman et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Lett. B


592, 1 (2004) and 2005 partial update for edition 2006
(URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov).

[7] Pecina-Cruz, J. N., (2006) arXiv: physics/0604003v2

[8] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[9] Greiner, W. (2000) Relativistic Quantum Mechanics,


Springer, Berlin, 3rd edition.

[10] Itzykson, C., and Zuber, J.B., (1980) Quantum Field


Theory, McGraw-Hill, N.Y.).

[11] Morse. P.M., Feshbach, H., (1953) Methods of


Theoretical Physics (McGraw-Hill, N.Y.).

[12] Byrne J C 1977 Astrophys. Space Sci. 46 115–32

[13] Audouze, J. (1980) An introduction to Nuclear


Astrophysics, D. Reidel Publishing Company-Holland,
p. 22.

[14] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle umgeben
ist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[15] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

[16] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p.270.

294
Gravity Control by means of Modified Electromagnetic Radiation
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
Here a new way for gravity control is proposed that uses electromagnetic radiation modified to have a smaller
wavelength. It is known that when the velocity of a radiation is reduced its wavelength is also reduced. There are
several ways to strongly reduce the velocity of an electromagnetic radiation. Here, it is shown that such a reduction
can be done simply by making the radiation cross a conductive foil.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Electromagnetic wave propagation.
PACS: 04.50.Kd , 04.80.-y, 41.20.Jb, 75.70.-i.

It was shown that the gravitational be strongly reduced simply by making the
mass mg and inertial mass mi are correlated radiation cross a conductive foil.
by means of the following factor [1]: From Electrodynamics we know that
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ when an electromagnetic wave with
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) frequency f and velocity c incides on a
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ material with relative permittivity ε r ,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the relative magnetic permeability μ r and
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
particle and Δp is the variation in the
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
of light. refraction of the material, given by [8]
When Δp is produced by the ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it v 2 ⎝ ⎠
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , the Eq. (3) reduces to
(1) becomes μrσ
nr = (4)
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ 4πε0 f
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation becomes
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ λ 4π
⎛λ ⎞ v c f
(5)
2
⎪ ⎪ λmod = = = =
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2) f nr nr μfσ
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial v=c v = c/nr
mass mi 0 .
It is easily seen that m g cannot be
strongly reduced simply by using nr
electromagnetic waves with wavelength λ λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
because λ0 is very smaller than 10 −10 m .
However, it is known that the wavelength of
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
a radiation can be strongly reduced simply by
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reducing its velocity. strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
There are several ways to reduce the
Now consider a 1GHz ( λ ≅ 0.3m )
velocity of an electromagnetic radiation. For
radiation incident on Aluminum foil with
example, by making light cross an ultra cold
atomic gas, it is possible to reduce its velocity σ = 3.82×107 S / m and thickness ξ = 10.5μm .
down to 17m/s [2-7]. Here, it is shown that the According to Eq. (5), the modified
velocity of an electromagnetic radiation can wavelength is

295
2
4π power of the radiation flux incident on the
λmod = = 1.6 × 10 −5 m (6) foil.
μfσ When an electromagnetic wave incides
Consequently, the wavelength of the 1GHz on the Aluminum foil, it strikes on N f front
atoms, where N f ≅ (nS f )φ atom . Thus, the
radiation inside the foil will be
λmod =1.6 ×10−5 m and not λ ≅ 0.3m .
wave incides effectively on an area
It is known that a radiation with
S = N f S a , where S a = 14 πφ atom
2
is the cross
frequency f, propagating through a material
with electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and section area of one Aluminum atom. After these
σ , has the amplitudes of its waves decreased collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
in e−1=0.37 (37%), when it passes through a other atoms of the foil (See Fig.2).
distance z, given by
1
z= (7)

ω 2 εμ⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) − 1⎟
1 2 ⎞
⎝ ⎠
The radiation is totally absorbed at a atom
Sa
distance δ≅5z [8]. foil
Wave
In the case of the 1GHz radiation
propagating through the Aluminum foil Eq. Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the foil.
(7), gives Thus, the total number of collisions in the
z=
1
= 2.57×10−6 = 2.57μm (8) volume Sξ is
πμσ f Ncollisions= N f + ncollisions= nSφatom + (nSξ − nSφatom) =
Since the thickness of the Aluminum foil is = nSξ (11)
ξ = 10.5μm then, we can conclude that, The power density, D , of the radiation on
practically all the incident 1GHz radiation is the foil can be expressed by
absorbed by the foil.
If the foil contains n atoms/m3, then D=
P
=
P
(12 )
S N f Sa
the number of atoms per area unit is nξ .
The same power density as a function of the
Thus, if the electromagnetic radiation with
power P0 radiated from the antenna, is given by
frequency f incides on an area S of the foil
P
it reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total D = 02 (13)
area of the foil, S f , then the total number of 4πr
where r is the distance between the antenna
atoms reached by the radiation is N = nS f ξ . and the foil. Comparing equations (12) and
The number of atoms per unit of volume, n , (13), we get
is given by ⎛ N f Sa ⎞
N0 ρ
P = ⎜⎜ ⎟P
2 ⎟ 0
(14)
n= (9) ⎝ 4πr ⎠
A We can express the total mean number
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
the following equation
Avogadro’s number ; ρ is the matter density
ntotal photons N collisions
of the foil (in kg/m3) and A is the atomic n1 = (15 )
mass. In the case of the Aluminum N
( )
ρ = 2700kg / m3 , A = 26.98kmole the result is
Since in each collision is transferred a
momentum h λ to the atom, then the total
n Al = 6.02 × 1028 atoms / m3 (10) momentum transferred to the foil will be
The total number of photons inciding on the Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
foil is ntotal photons = P hf 2 , where P is the with Eq. (1), we can write that

296
3
−5
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ λmod = 1.6 ×10 m . Thus, by substitution of
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ = λ by λmod into Eq. (22), we get the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ following expression
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ m g ( Al )
λ0 ⎤ (23)
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪ ≅ −1
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (16) mi 0( Al )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ r
⎦⎭ r
Since P = m g g then the result is
Since Eq. (11) gives N collisions = nSξ , we get r r r
⎛ P ⎞
P( Al ) = mg ( Al ) g ≅ −mi 0( Al ) g (24)
ntotal = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ )
photons N collisions (17 ) This means that, in the mentioned conditions,
⎝ hf ⎠ the weight force of the Aluminum foil is
Substitution of Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) yields inverted.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It was shown [1] that there is an
mg ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (18)
⎢ additional effect of Gravitational Shielding
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
produced by a substance whose gravitational
⎩ mass was reduced or made negative. This
Substitution of Eq. (14) into Eq. (18) gives effect shows that just above the substance the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravity acceleration g 1 will be reduced at the
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f Sa P0 ⎞⎛ nSξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (19) same ratio χ 1 = m g mi 0 , i.e., g1 = χ1 g , ( g
2 2⎟
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ 4π r f ⎠⎝ mi0c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦


⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ is the gravity acceleration bellow the
Substitution of N f ≅ (nS f )φatomand S = N f Sa substance). This means that above the
Aluminum foil the gravity acceleration will
into Eq. (19) it reduces to be modified according to the following
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ expression
⎡⎛ n3S 2f Sa2φatom
2
P0ξ ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (20)
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ ⎛ mg ( Al ) ⎞
mi0 ⎪
⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 4π r mi0cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎥⎪
g1 = χ1 g = ⎜ ⎟g
⎜ mi 0( Al ) ⎟
(25)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎝ ⎠
In the case of a 20cm square Aluminum foil, where the factor χ 1 = m g ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) will be
with thickness ξ = 10.5μm , we get given Eq. (21).
mi0 =1.1×10−3 kg, S f = 4×10−2 m2 , φatom≅10−10m2 In order to check the theory presented
here, we propose the experimental set-up
Sa ≅10−20m2 , n = n Al = 6.02 × 10 28 atoms / m 3 ,
shown in Fig. 3. The distance between the
Substitution of these values into Eq. (20), Aluminum foil and the antenna is r = 1m .
gives The maximum output power of the 1GHz
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ transmitter is 32W CW. A 10g body is
mg( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ P0 ⎞ 1⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜8.84×10 2 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (21)
11 placed above Aluminum foil , in order to
mi0( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ r f ⎠ λ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ check the Gravitational Shielding Effect. The
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ distance between the Aluminum foil and the
Thus, if the Aluminum foil is at a distance 10g body is approximately 10 cm. The
r = 1m from the antenna, and the power alternative device to measure the weight
radiated from the antenna is P0 = 32W , and variations of the foil and the body (including
the frequency of the radiation is f = 1GHz the negative values) uses two balances (200g
then Eq.(21) gives / 0.01g) as shown in Fig .3.
In order to check the effect of a second
⎧ ⎤⎫
mg( Al) ⎪ ⎡⎢
2
⎡2.8×10−5 ⎤ ⎪ Gravitational Shielding above the first
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (22)
mi0( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ one(Aluminum foil), we can remove the 10g
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ body, putting in its place a second Aluminum
In the case of the Aluminum foil and 1Ghz foil, with the same characteristics of the first
radiation, Eq. (6) shows that one. The 10g body can be then placed at a

297
4
distance of 10cm above of the second
Aluminum foil. Obviously, it must be
Sa = 1
2 [4π (φ atom
2
]
2) = 2 πφ1 2
atom
−20
≅ 1× 10 m ,2

connected to a third balance.


εr = 2.1 (Teflon 24KV/ mm, Short Time, 1.6
As shown in a previous paper [9] the mm [10]), ρ Al = 2700kg.m −3 , we get
gravity above the second Gravitational ⎧

⎡ S 2f ⎛ Vrms ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
Shielding, in the case of χ 2 = χ1 , is given by ⎢
χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.4 ×10 −29
⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (30)
g 2 = χ 2 g1 = χ12 g (26) ⎪⎩ ⎢ N 4
⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
If a third Aluminum foil is placed above the Note that, based on the equation above,
second one, then the gravity above this foil is it is possible to create a device for moving
g 3 = χ 3 g 2 = χ 3 χ 2 χ 1 g = χ 13 g , and so on. very heavy loads such as large monoliths, for
In practice, Multiple Gravitational example.
Shieldings can be constructed by inserting N Imagine a large monolith on the
several parallel Aluminum foils inside the Earth’s surface. If we place below the
dielectric of a parallel plate capacitor (See monolith some sets with Multiple
Fig. 4). In this case, the resultant capacity of Gravitational Shieldings (See Fig.4), the
the capacitor becomes Cr = C N = εrε0S f Nd, value of the gravity acceleration above each
set of Gravitational Shieldings becomes
where S f is the area of the Aluminum foils
gR = χη g (31)
and d the distance between them; ε r is the where η is the number of Gravitational
relative permeability of the dielectric. By Shieldings in each set.
applying a voltage Vrms on the plates of the Since we must have Vrms d < 24KV / mm
capacitor a current irms is produced through (dielectric strength of Teflon) [10] then, for
the Aluminum foils. It is expressed by d = 1.6mm → Vrms < 38.4KV . For Vrms = 37KV ,
irms = Vrms X C = 2πfCrVrms . d = 1.6mm, S f = 2.7m 2 , N = 2 and η = 3 Eq.
Since j rms = σE rms and jrms = irms S f we (30) gives χ = −0.36 and Eq. (31) shows
get E rms = irms S f σ , which is the oscillating that g R = χ 3 g ≅ −0.46m / s 2 . The sign (-)
electric field through the Aluminum foils. By shows that the gravity acceleration above the
substituting this expression into Eq. (20), and six sets of Gravitational Shieldings becomes
considering that λ = λmod = (4π μfσ ) 2 (Eq.6)
1
repulsive in respect to the Earth. Thus, by
controlling the value of χ it is possible to
and D = P0 4πr 2 = nr Erms
2
2μ r μ 0 c , where
make the total mass of the monolith slightly
nr = (μ r σ 4πε 0 f ) (Eq. 4), we obtain:
1
2
negative in order to the monolith can float
⎧⎪ ⎡ n 6Al S a4φatom
4 4
irms ⎤⎫⎪ and, in this way, it can be displaced and
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ (27) carried to anywhere with ease.
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 64π 2 ρ Al2 c 2 S 2f σ Al2 f 4 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ Considering the dielectric strength of
Since known dielectrics, we can write that
irms = Vrms X C = 2πfC r Vrms = 2πf (ε r ε 0 S f Nd )Vrms (Vrms d )max < 200KV / mm . Thus, for a single
Then capacitor ( N = 1) Eq. (30) gives
irms
= 2π (ε r ε 0 S f Nd)Vrms (28) { [
χ = 1 − 2 1 + (<< 2.2 × 104 S 2f ) − 1 ]} (31)
f
Substitution of this equation into Eq. (27) gives The Gravitational Shielding effect becomes
negligible for χ < 0.01 (variation smaller
⎧ ⎡ π 2nAl6 Sa4φatomε r4ε 04 S 2f Vrms ⎤ ⎫⎪

4 4

χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (29) than 1% in the gravitational mass). Thus,


⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4ρ Al2 c2σ Al2 N 4d 4 ⎥⎪ considering Eq. (31), we can conclude that
⎦⎭
the Gravitational Shielding effect becomes
Substitution of the known value of
significant only for S f >> 10−2 m 2 . Possibly
nAl = 6.02×1028 atoms/ m3 , φatom ≅ 1×10−10 m ,
this is why it was not yet detected.
298
5

1.0 m 2.0 m 1.0 m

10g
10 cm Nylon thread
Aluminum foil
Transmitter
1GHz Balances
Coaxial
32W CW 200g / 0.01g
50 Ω 1m
Antenna 100g 100g

1m
PVC tube

Fig. 3 – Experimental Set-up

299
6

Monolith

χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g


Sf

1 g
Dielectric
2 Six sets of Gravitational Shieldings
Each one with three (N = 3) Gravitational Shieldings
Aluminum foil
3
Capacitor Plates
(Aluminum)

(a)

Monolith

χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g

g g g g g g g

(b)

Fig. 4 – System with six sets of Gravitational Shieldings for moving very heavy loads.
For Vrms = 37KV , d = 1.6mm, S f = 2.7m 2 , N = 2 and η = 3 Eq. (30) gives χ = −0.36 and Eq. (31)
shows that g R = χ 3 g ≅ −0.46m / s 2 . The sign (-) shows that the gravity acceleration above the six
sets of Gravitational Shieldings becomes repulsive in respect to the Earth. Thus, by controlling the
value of χ it is possible to make the total mass of the monolith slightly negative in order to the
monolith can float and, in this way, it can be displaced and carried to anywhere with ease.

300
7

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[2] Hau, L.V., et al., (1999) Nature, 397, 594-598.

[3] Kash, M. M. et al., (1999) Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 5229.

[4] Budiker, D. et al., (1999) Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 1767.

[5] Liu, Ch. et al., (2001) Nature 409, 490.

[6] Dutton, Z., et al., (2001) Science 293, 663.

[7] Turukhin, A. V., et al., (2002) Phys. Rev. Lett. 88,


023602

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[9] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means


of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178-
247.

[10] Teflon® PTFE, Properties Handbook, Du Pont, (7/96)


220313D, USA.

301
Transmission of DNA Genetic Information into Water by means
of Electromagnetic Fields of Extremely-low Frequencies
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
Recently it was experimentally shown that the DNA genetic information can be transmitted into water when
the DNA and the water are subjected jointly to an electromagnetic field with 7Hz frequency. As announced,
the reported phenomenon could allow developing highly sensitive detection systems for chronic bacterial and
viral infections. Here, it is shown a possible explanation for the phenomenon based on the recent framework
of Quantum Gravity. It is shown that, if volume of water with a DNA molecule is placed near another
volume of pure water, and the gravitational masses of the two water volumes are simultaneously reduced to
values in the range + 0.159mi0 to − 0.159mi0, by means of electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequency
(ELF), then the DNA genetic information are transmitted to pure water, imprinting onto it the structure of the
DNA molecule. After several hours, as final result, a replication of the DNA can arise in the pure water.

Key words: DNA, Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Memory of Water.
PACS: 87.14.gk , 04.50.Kd , 04.80.-y, 41.20.Jb.

1. Introduction Here, based on the framework of a


recently proposed theory of Quantum Gravity
A recent experiment showed that the [3], is presented a consistent explanation
DNA genetic information can be transmitted showing how an exact copy of the structure of
into water when the DNA and the water are the DNA molecule is imprinted onto the pure
subjected jointly to an electromagnetic field water.
with 7Hz frequency. The main researcher
behind the new DNA experiment is a recent 2. Theory
Nobel prizewinner, Luc Montagnier. He and
his research partners have made a summary of The quantization of gravity showed
his findings [1]. Montagnier’s experiment that the gravitational mass mg and inertial
basically consists in two test tubes, one of mass mi are correlated by means of the
which contained a tiny piece of bacterial following factor [3]:
DNA, the other pure water. The tubes were ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
then placed close to one another inside a ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
horizontally oriented solenoid. Both tubes mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
were jointly subjected to a weak ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
electromagnetic field with 7Hz frequency. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Eighteen hours later, after DNA amplification particle and Δp is the variation in the
using a polymerase chain reaction, as if by particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed of
magic, the DNA was detectable in the test tube light.
containing pure water, showing that, under When Δp is produced by the absorption
certain conditions, DNA can project copies of of a photon with wavelength λ , it is expressed
itself in another place.
by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. (1) becomes
As mentioned in a recently published
article in the New Scientist [2], ‘physicists in ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ h m c ⎞ ⎪
Montagnier's team suggest that DNA emits = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
low-frequency electromagnetic waves which ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
imprint the structure of the molecule onto the
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
water. This structure, they claim, is preserved ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
and amplified through quantum coherence = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
effects, and because it mimics the shape of the ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
original DNA, the enzymes in the PCR where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
process mistake it for DNA itself, and
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
somehow use it as a template to make DNA
mass mi 0 .
match that which "sent" the signal’.

302
2
It is easily seen that m g cannot be If a water lamina with thickness equal
to ξ contains n molecules/m3, then the number of
strongly reduced simply by using
electromagnetic waves with wavelength λ molecules per unit area is nξ . Thus, if the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
because λ0 is much smaller than 10 −10 m .
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
However, it is known that the wavelength of a reaches nS ξ molecules. If it incides on the total
radiation can be strongly reduced simply by
strongly reducing its velocity. area of the lamina, S f , then the total number of
From Electrodynamics we know that molecules reached by the radiation is N = nS f ξ .
when an electromagnetic wave with frequency The number of molecules per unit volume, n , is
f and velocity c incides on a material with given by
relative permittivity ε r , relative magnetic N0 ρ
permeability μ r and electrical conductivity
n= (7)
A
σ , its velocity is reduced to v = c nr where where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 molecules / kmole is the
26
nr is the index of refraction of the material, Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density of the
given by [3] lamina(kg/m3)and A is the Molar Mass. In the case
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
c 2
(3) (
of pure Water ρ = 103 kg / m3 , A = 18.01kg.kmole−1 )
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ the result is
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , the Eq. (3) reduces to nwater = 3.34 × 10 28 molecules/ m 3 (8)
μrσ
nr = (4) The total number of photons inciding on
4πε0 f the water is ntotal photons = P hf 2 , where P is the
Thus, the wavelength of the incident radiation power of the radiation flux incident on the water.
becomes When an electromagnetic wave incides
λ 4π on the water, it strikes on N f front molecules,
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) where N f ≅ (nS f )φ m . Thus, the wave incides
f nr nr μfσ
effectively on an area S = N f S m , where
v=c v = c/nr S m = 14 πφ m2 ≅ 7 × 10 −21 m 2 is the cross
section area of one molecule of the water
molecule. After these collisions, it carries out
nr ncollisions with the other atoms of the foil (See
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f Fig.2).

Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The


wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.

Now consider a 7 Hz ( λ ≅ 4.3 × 10 7 m )


radiation incident on pure water molecule
−4
( σ = 2 ×10 S / m ). According to Eq. (5), the Sm
modified wavelength is water


Wave
λmod = = 8.4 ×104 m (6) Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the water.
μfσ Thus, the total number of collisions in the
Consequently, the wavelength of the 7 Hz volume Sξ is
radiation inside the water will be
λmod = 8.4 ×104 m and not λ ≅ 4.3 × 10 7 m .

303
3
( )
Ncollisions= N f + ncollisions= nS f δ + nSξ − nS f δ = ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2 φm2 Dξ ⎞ 1 ⎤
(9) ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg
= nSξ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0 ⎪ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0 cf 2 ⎟ λ⎥
The power density, D , of the radiation on the ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
water can be expressed by ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

D=
P
=
P
(10 ) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ n3 Sm2 φm2 S D ⎞ 1 ⎤
S N f Sm ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜
f ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪ (16)
⎟ λ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ ρ cf 2
⎥⎪
We can express the total mean number ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means of ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
the following equation
ntotal photons N collisions In the case of the water, we can take the
n1 = (11) following values: n = 3.34 × 10 molecules/ m ;
28 3
N
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is S f ≅ 1.9×10−5 m2 ( S f is the area of the
transferred to the molecule, then the total horizontal cross-section of the test tube);
momentum transferred to the water will be Sm ≅ 7×10−21m2 ; φm ≅ 1× 10−10 m ; ξ (height of
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance water inside the test tube). Substitution of
with Eq. (1), we can write that these values into Eq. (16), gives
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2 ⎫ ⎧ ⎡
⎡⎛ ⎞ 1⎤
2 ⎤⎫
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ =
⎢ mg(water) ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜1.1×10 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (17)
9 D
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ ⎢ f ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ mi0(water) ⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎢⎣
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ In the case of a 7Hz radiation, Eq.
λ0 ⎤ (6)
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (12) shows that λmod = 8.4 ×104 m .
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ Thus, by
⎦⎭ substitution of λ by λmod into Eqs. (17) , we
Since Eq. (9) gives N collisions = nSξ , we get get the following expression
ntotal
⎛ P ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ )
photons N collisions
⎝ hf ⎠
(13) mg (water)
mi0(water)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 + 7.1×104 D2 − 1 ]} (18)
Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) yields Now, considering that the water is inside a
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ solenoid, which produces a weak ELF
mg ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (14)
⎢ electromagnetic field with E m and Bm , then
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ we can write that [4]

Em2 2
vwater Bm2 cBm2
Substitution of P given by Eq. (10) into Eq. D= = = (19)
(14) gives 2μ0 vwater 2μ0 vwater 2μ0 n(water)
Equation (4) shows that for f = 7 Hz ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ n r (water ) = 506.7 .Substitution of this value
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f Sm D ⎞⎛ nSξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (15)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2 into Eq.(19) gives
⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ D = 2.3 × 1011 Bm2
Substitution of this value into Eq. (19) gives
Substitution of N f ≅ (nS f )φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (15) the result is mg(water)
mi0(water)
{ [ ]}
≅ 1− 2 1+ 3.7×1027 Bm4 −1 (20)

304
4

r Water with DNA water


S F F
Imaginary Universe
Sf Real Universe

Test tube Test tube


r
ξ
with water with water
B and DNA
r 1 2
E
(a)
Test tube
Fusion of the two waters.
The DNA prints a tenuous
Coil copy of itself in the water
r r r of the second tube.
Fig. 3 – The vector of Pointing S = E × B at
the test tube. The electromagnetic radiation Imaginary Universe
propagates in the direction of the vector of Real Universe
Pointing
In Montagnier’s experiment, the set-up
was placed in a container shielded by 1 mm
thick layer of mumetal in order to avoid
interference from the earth's natural magnetic (b)
field, whose intensity is B⊕ ≅ 6 × 10−5 T . This
is because the intensity of magnetic field in
Montagnier’s experiment was much smaller
than B⊕ . Note that, if the intensity of the
magnetic field is in the range
Imaginary Universe
−7 −7
1.2 × 10 T < Bm < 1.4 × 10 T , then, according Real Universe

to Eq. (20), the gravitational masses of the


water with DNA and the water inside the other
test tube are reduced to values in the range
+ 0.159mi 0 to − 0.159mi 0 . It was shown in a
First impression of
DNA into water. It is a
previous paper [3] that, when this occurs the (c) tenuous copy that
cannot yet be detected.
gravitational masses becomes imaginaries and
the bodies leave our Real Universe, i.e., they Imaginary Universe
Real Universe
perform transitions to the Imaginary Universe,
which contains our Real Universe. The terms
real and imaginary are borrowed from DNA
After several hours
mathematics (real and imaginary numbers). It the copy of the
was also shown that in the Imaginary (d) DNA is sufficiently
intensified in order
Universe the imaginary bodies are subjected to be detected
to the Imaginary Interaction that is similar to
the Gravitational Interaction. If the masses of
the bodies have the same sign, then the Fig. 4 – (a) Transition to the Imaginary Universe and
interaction among them will be attractive. attraction. (b) Fusion of the two waters. (c) Return to
Real Universe. (d) After several comings and goings to
The masses of the water with DNA and the Imaginary Universe a real copy of the DNA can be
the pure water are decreased at the same ratio, detected in the tube with pure water.

305
5
in such way that they remain with the same
sign. Thus, when they arrive the Imaginary
Universe the attractive imaginary interaction
approaches each other. Due to the small
distance between them * , they are subjected to
a significative attraction. Consequently, they
entered one another (fusion). This imprints in
the pure water an exactly copy of the DNA
molecule. However, the water with DNA and
the pure water return immediately to the real
universe because the ELF electromagnetic
field does not accompany them during the
transition. When they get back to the real
universe, the effect previously produced by
the ELF electromagnetic field sends again the
water with DNA and pure water to Imaginary
Universe, and again a new imprint of the
DNA is produced at the same place of the first
one, strengthening the copy of DNA onto the
water.
Thus, during the time interval in what
the ELF electromagnetic field remains on, the
process continue. After some hours (16 to 18
hours in the case of Montagnier’s experiment)
the copy of the DNA can become sufficiently
strong to be detected. Thus, when the ELF
electromagnetic field is turned off, the water
can contain a real DNA molecule, which is an
exactly equal to that one that exists in the
other tube.
The physicists in Montagnier's team
suggest that the imprints of the DNA are
preserved through quantum coherence effects
[1]. This conclusion is based on the
framework of a recently proposed theory of
liquid water based on Quantum Field Theory
(QFT) [5-10]. Jacques Benveniste [11] has
been the first to propose (1988) that water has
memory. The fact that the water contains
electric dipoles, which can give to it a
significant memory capacity, has been also
considered by Brian Josephson [12] and, more
recently by J. Dunning-Davies [13].

*
Due to the small distance between the two test tubes. The
tubes were then placed near to one another inside a
horizontally oriented solenoid.

306
6

References
[1] L. Montagnier, J. Aissa, E. Del Giudice, C. Lavalee,
A. Tedeschi, and G. Vitiello, “DNA Waves and
Water,” (2010) http://arxiv.org/pdf/1012.5166

[2] Coghlan, A. (2011) Scorn over claim of teleported DNA,


New Scientist, 12 January.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[4] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)


Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[5] Preparata G 1995 QED Coherence in matter (Singapore:


World Scientific)

[6] Arani R, Bono I, Del Giudice E, Preparata G 1995 Int. J.


Mod. Phys. B 9 1813–1841

[7] Del Giudice E, Preparata G and Vitiello G 1988 Phys.


Rev. Lett. 61 1085–1088

[8] Del Giudice E and Vitiello G 2006 Phys. Rev. A 74


022105

[9] Del Giudice E and Tedeschi A 2009 Electr. Biol. Med.


26 48–54

[10] Del Giudice E, Spinetti P R and Tedeschi A 2010


Water 2 566–586 (online Journal).

[11] Benveniste, Jacques (2005) Ma vérité sur la 'mémoire


de l'eau', Albin Michel. ISBN 2-226-15877-4.

[12] Brian Josephson (1997) Molecule Memories, New


Scientist letters, 1 November.

[13] J. Dunning-Davies (2011) Structure and Memory in


Water, General Science and Philosophy,
vixra.org/abs/1101.0081

307
A Possible Explanation for Anomalous Heat Production in
Ni-H Systems
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
Anomalous heat production has been detected in Ni-H Systems. Several evidences point to the occurrence of
nuclear fusion reactions. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is shown here based on the recent
discovery that electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequencies (ELF) can increase the intensities of
gravitational forces. Under certain circumstances, the intensities of gravitational forces can even overcome
the intensity of the electrostatic repulsion forces, and, in this way, produce nuclear fusion reactions, without
need high temperatures for these reactions occur.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Nuclear Fusion, Fusion Reactors.


PACS: 04.50.Kd , 89.30.Jj , 28.52.-s.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

Since the experiment of Fleischmann, The quantization of gravity shown that


Hawkins and Pons [1] the anomalous the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass
production of heat has been searched for in mi are correlated by means of the following
various systems. Recently, a large anomalous factor [4]:
production of heat has been reported by ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
Focardi et al., [2] in a nickel rod filled with ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
hydrogen. This phenomenon was posteriorly mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
confirmed by Cerron-Zeballos et al., [3]. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The called “cold fusion” was a process where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
of nuclear fusion that was first conceived of particle and Δp is the variation in the
by Fleischmann, Hawkins and Pons during particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
their experiment that involved heavy water of light.
electrolysis through hydrogen on a palladium When Δp is produced by the
electrode surface [1]. They made claims
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
originally that there was heat and energy
being created from the reaction taking place is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
at room temperature. This is why it is (1) becomes
referred to as cold fusion, because it occurred m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

in an environment that was previously ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
considered too cool for nuclear fusion to mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
occur.
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
Here it is shown that nuclear fusion ⎪ ⎪
can be produced at room temperature by = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
increasing the gravitational forces in order ⎣ ⎦⎭
to overcome the electrostatic repulsion where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
forces between the nuclei. This process
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
became feasible after the Quantization of
Gravity [4], with the discovery that the mass mi 0 .
gravitational mass mg can be made negative From Electrodynamics we know that
and strongly intensified by means of when an electromagnetic wave with
electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequency f and velocity c incides on a
frequencies. material with relative permittivity ε r ,
This effect can provide a consistent and relative magnetic permeability μ r and
coherent explanation for anomalous heat
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
production detected in Ni-H Systems.

308
2
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance
refraction of the material, given by [5] occurs at a frequency f1 = 7.83Hz [7].
ε μ Now consider a 7.83Hz
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ( λ ≅ 3.8×10 m) radiation passing through a
7

Nickel powder cylinder ( σ =1.6 ×107 S / m;


If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to μr = 2.17 [8,9]) as shown in Fig.2.
According to Eq. (5), the modified
wavelength is
μrσ
nr = (4) 4π
4πε0 f λ mod = = 0.19m (6)
μfσ
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig . 1) becomes Consequently, the wavelength of the 7.83Hz
radiation inside the Nickel powder will be
λ 4π
λmod = 0.19m and not λ ≅ 3.8 ×107 m .
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) If a Nickel powder * lamina with
f nr nr μfσ
thickness equal to ξ contains n
3
molecules/m , then the number of molecules
per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
v=c v = c/nr
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
nr number of molecules reached by the
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
molecules per unit of volume, n , is given by
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be N0 ρ
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. n= (7)
A

It is known that the Schumann where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is


resonances [6] are global electromagnetic the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
resonances (a set of spectrum peaks in the
extremely low frequency ELF), excited by density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
molar mass. In the case of Nickel powder
( )
lightning discharges in the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface ρ = 8800kg / m3 , A = 58.71kg.kmole−1 the result is
and the inner edge of the ionosphere (60km
from the Earth’s surface). The Earth– n( Ni) = 9.02 ×1028 molecules/ m3 (8)
ionosphere waveguide behaves like a
resonator at ELF frequencies and amplifies
The total number of photons inciding
the spectral signals from lightning at the
resonance frequencies. In the normal mode on the Nickel powder is ntotal photons = P hf 2 ,
descriptions of Schumann resonances, the where P is the power of the radiation flux
fundamental mode (n = 1) is a standing wave incident on the Nickel powder.
in the Earth–ionosphere cavity with a
*
wavelength equal to the circumference of the Ultra fine nickel powder (e.g. Inco type 210) with
Earth. This lowest-frequency (and highest- particle size of 0.5-1.0μm.

309
3

7.83 Hz current Thus, the total number of collisions in the


Solenoid
volume Sξ is
α

Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=n( Ni)Sφ( Ni) +(n( Ni)Sξ −n( Ni)Sφ( Ni) ) =


=n( Ni)Sξ (9)
S=EmXBm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
ξ Nickel powder can be expressed by
D=
P
=
P
(10 )
S N f S ( Ni )
Metal tube Nickel powder
We can express the total mean number
of collisions in each Ni molecule, n1 , by
means of the following equation
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (11)
N
Mumetal Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
Fig.2 – Experimental set-up. The transferred to the molecule, then the total
electromagnetic radiation propagates in the direction of
r r r momentum transferred to the Nickel will be
the vector of Pointing S = E × B . The set-up is Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
placed in a container shielded by 1 mm thick layer of
mumetal in order to avoid interference from external with Eq. (1), we can write that
electromagnetic fields. In practice, the solenoid is not
mg(w) ⎧⎪ ⎡ λ
2 ⎤⎫
⎡ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
necessary, since the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field 0
naturally exists inside the spherical resonant cavity
mi0(w) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
formed by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
When an electromagnetic wave incides = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (12)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
on a solid lamina of Nickel, it strikes on N f ⎦⎭
front molecules, where N f ≅ (n( Ni) S f )φ( Ni) . Since Eq. (9) gives N collisions = n( Ni )Sξ , we
Thus, the electromagnetic wave incides get
effectively on an area S = N f S( Ni) , where ⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons Ncollisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(n( Ni )Sξ ) (13)
S ( Ni ) = 14 πφ(2Ni ) ≅ 1.2 × 10 −20 m 2 is the cross ⎝ hf ⎠
section area of one Ni atom. After these Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) yields
collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(n( Ni)Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (14)
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
other atoms of the Nickel powder (See Fig.3).
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥

⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭
Substitution of P given by Eq. (10) into Eq.
(14) gives
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ Nf S( Ni) D⎞⎛ n( Ni)Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (15)
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ f 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ mi0( Ni)c ⎟⎠ λ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
molecule ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
S(Ni)
Nickel powder Substitution of Nf ≅ (n( Ni)S f )φ( Ni) and S = N f S( Ni)
Wave
into Eq. (15) results
Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the Nickel powder.

310
4
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ electromagnetic field) and λ = λmod = 0.19m
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n(3Ni)S2f S(2Ni)φ(2Ni)ξD⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (16) into Eq.(17), gives
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ λ⎥ ⎥
{ [ ]}

⎢⎣⎝
2
⎢⎣
m i0( Ni)cf ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪ mg( Ni)
⎩ ⎦⎭ = 1− 2 1+ 3.9×1021 x 4 D2 −1 (18)
( )
where mi 0( Ni ) = ρ( Ni )Vcyl = ρ( Ni ) πα 4 ξ .2
mi0( Ni)
Now, considering that the Nickel
Thus, Eq. (16) reduces to powder is inside a solenoid, which produces
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ a weak ELF electromagnetic field with
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n(3Ni)S2f S(2Ni)φ(2Ni) D⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
( )
E m and Bm , then we can write that [10]
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ ρ( Ni) πα2 4 cf 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪ E m2 v2 B2 cBm2
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ D= = Ni m = (19)
−3 2 μ 0 v Ni 2 μ 0 v Ni 2 μ 0 nr ( Ni )
For φ = 5cm we get Sα =πα 4 =1.9×10 m .2 2

Note that S f is not equal to Sα because the Equation (4) shows that, for f = 7.83 Hz ,
area is not continuous, but expressed by nr ( Ni ) = 2 × 10 8 .Substitution of this value into
S f = nS p , where S p is the area of the cross- Eq.(19) gives
section of one Ni particle, and n is the D = 5.9 × 10 5 Bm2 (21)
number of particles in the front area, which Substitution of this value into Eq. (18) gives
is expressed by n = x (n pφ p S α ) , x << 1 ,
where n pφ p S α is the number of particles
χ=
mg( Ni)
mi0( Ni)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 +1.3×1033 x4 Bm4 −1 (22)]}
inside area Sα ; n p is the number of Ni The value of Bm is limited by the
particles/m , given by n p = N p S α ξ where
3
ionization energy of the atoms, which is, as
N p = Sα ξ V p + Vv ; V p is the mean volume of we known, the energy required to remove
electrons from atoms. Since the minimum
one Ni particle and VV is the void volume, energy required for the electron to leave the
corresponding to that particle. This volume atom is: Umin = − e2 4πε0φmax = 7.7×10−19 joules
can be calculated considering one sphere
then, for the ionization does not occur, the
with φ p - diameter inside a cube whose edge
energy of the wave (hf ) must be smaller than
is φ p . The result is VV ≅ 0.48φ p3 . The mean U min . Thus, it follows that
size of the particles is φ p = 0.75μm . Thus, hf 2 Sa < U min f Sa ⇒ D < U min f Sa ≅ f
V p ≅ 2.2 × 10 −19 m 3 and S p ≅ 4 .4 × 10 −13 m 2 . According to Eq. (19), D max = cB max
2
2μ 0 .
Consequently, V p + VV ≅ 4.2 × 10−19 m2 . Then, Then, the result is
we get n p = 2.4 × 1018 particles/ m3 . Now, we Bmax < 9 × 10 −8 f
In the case of f = 7.83 Hz , we conclude that
can calculate the value of S f :
Bmax < 2 × 10−7 T (23)
( ) (
S f = x n pφ p S α S p ≅ x 1.5 × 10 −3 m 2) −7
Assuming that Bmax ≅ 2 × 10 T then Eq. (22)
yields
Substitution of this value jointly with
n( Ni) = 9.02×1028molec/ m3 ; φ( Ni) =1.24×10−10m;
χ=
mg ( Ni)
mi0( Ni)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 + 2.1×106 x 4 − 1 (24) ]}
Sα =πα2 4 =1.9×10−3 m2 ; S( Ni) ≅ 1.2 ×10−20 m2 ; Since x << 1 , we can conclude that there is
no significant variation in the gravitational
ρ ( Ni ) = 8800 kg .m − 3 ; f = 7 . 83 Hz (Note mass of the Nickel powder.
that, this is lowest-frequency mode of the However, if the air inside the Nickel
Schumann resonance. Therefore, in practice, powder is evacuated by means of a vacuum
is not necessary to provide the 7.83 Hz pump, and after Hydrogen (or Deuterium,

311
5
Tritium, Helium, etc) is injected into the D= cBm2 2 μ 0 nr ( H ) , where n r ( H ) ≅ 1 . Thus,
Nickel powder (See Fig.4) then, the area S f
we get D = 1.2 × 1014 Bm2 . Substitution of this
to be considered, in order to calculate the
expression into Eq. (26) yields
{ [ ]}
gravitational mass of the Hydrogen, is the
mg (H )
surface area of the Nickel powder, which χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 2.1 × 10 76 Bm4 − 1 (27)
can be obtained by multiplying the specific mi 0( H )
surface area of the Nickel powder † It is known that, at any time in the
( ~ 4 × 10 3 m 2 / Kg ) by the total mass of the spherical resonant cavity formed by the
(
Nickel powder ( m i 0 ( Ni ) = ρ ( Ni ) πα 2 4 ξ ). ) Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
ionosphere (60km from the Earth’s surface)
Thus, we get S f ≅ 4 × 10 3 ρ ( Ni ) S α ξ . there is a drop voltage of 200KV. This,
The characteristics of the Nickel prevail produces an electric field with intensity
on those of the Hydrogen, in the Ni-H E m ≅ 3V / m , which gives Bm ≅ 1×10−8 T .
systems, because the Nickel amount is much Substitution of this value into Eq. (27), yields
larger than the Hydrogen amount. Thus, we
must take the values of ρ , μ r , and σ equal χ ≅ −2 ×1022 (28)
Thus, the gravitational forces between two
to ρ ( Ni ) , μ r ( Ni ) and σ ( Ni ) respectively, in
protons (hydrogen nuclei) becomes
order to calculate m g ( H ) , in Ni-H systems. In F = − Gmgp
2
r 2 = − χ 2Gmip2 r 2 ≅ −7×10−20 r 2
addition, since n = N0ρ A and Comparing with the electrostatic repulsion
λmod = 4π μfσ we can conclude that also forces between the nuclei, which is given by
n ≡ n( Ni ) and λ mod = λ mod ( Ni ) = 0 .19 m . Fe = e2 4πε0 r 2 = 2.3 ×10−28 r 2
Therefore, in order to obtain the expression We conclude that the intensities of the
m g ( H ) mi 0( H ) we can take Eq. (17) only gravitational forces overcome the intensities
of the electrostatic repulsion forces between
substituting S f for the expression above the nuclei. This is sufficient to produce their
( )
obtained S f ≅ 4 × 10 3 ρ ( Ni ) S α ξ . Thus we fusion.
get α
mg(H)
=
mi0(H)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛⎜ n( Ni) ρ( Ni) Sαξ S( Ni)φ( Ni) D⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ S=EmXBm
3 2 2 2

⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (25)


⎢ ⎟ λ
⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ 18 .7 f H2

⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ξ
For ξ = 0.1m (length of the Ni-H cylinder in
Focardi experiment) Eq.(25) gives
{ [ ]} Metal tube Nickel powder
m g (H )
χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 1.5 × 10 48 D 2 − 1 (26)
+
Hydrogen
mi 0( H )
Based on Eq. (19), we can write that

† Fig.4 – Cold Fusion Reactor on Earth. Note


Ultra fine nickel powder (e.g. Inco type 210) with
that here the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field is what
particle size of 0.5-1.0μm has specific surface areas naturally exists inside the spherical resonant cavity
range from 1.5 to 6m2/g [11]. Hydrogen production formed by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
with nickel powder cathode points to a value of ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
4.31m2 /g in the case of new cathodes, and 3.84 m2 /g
in the case of used cathodes [12].

312
6
The enormous value of χ (Eq. 28) nH = N0 ρ H AH 2 = 3.01×10 ρ H atoms/ m
26 3

strongly increases the gravitational masses of the Then, the number of H atoms inside the
Hydrogen nuclei ( m gp = χmi 0 p ) and their Nickel powder is given by
respective electrons ( m ge = χmi 0 e ). Thus, the
gravitational force between a nucleus (proton) nH VH = nH S f δ H ≅ 8.3 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
and the corresponding electron is given by
F pe = − χ 2 Gmi 0 p mi 0e r 2 and the gravitational where δ H = Δ Ni − φ Ni ≅ 1nm ; φ Ni is the
force between two Hydrogen nuclei is diameter of Ni atom; Δ Ni is the average
F pp = − χ Gmi 0 p mi 0 p r .
2 2
Therefore, two molecular separation in the Ni. Then, we get
well-known types of fusions can occur, i.e., n H V H = n H S f δ H ≅ 6.4 × 1018 atoms . Thus,
p + e− → n +ν e (29) the total energy realized in the p-p fusions is

p + p → d + ν e + e + + 0.42MeV (30) E=
nH VH
(0.42MeV) =
Due to the strong gravitational attraction, the 2
6.4 × 1018
following fusions occur instantaneously:
= (0.42MeV) = 1.3 ×1024 eV ≅
d +ν e → n + p +ν e 2
and ≅ 2.1× 105 J ≅ 0.05 Kwh
n + e+ → p +ν e
These reactions are widely known because This energy correspond to a power of
they have been studied extensively due to 0.05Kwh h = 50W , which is the same value
their importance in astrophysics and neutrino detected in the Focardi’s experiments.
physics [13–16]. Thus, the term p +ν e + e+ in This explains the anomalous heat
Eq. (30) reduces instantaneously to production in Ni-H Systems detected in the
Focardi’s experiments.
p + p +ν e +ν e .
Since the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic
In these fusion reactions, neutrons (Eq. field (Schumann resonances) does not
(29)), neutrinos and antineutrinos, and disappear when the device is switched off,
energy (0.42MeV at each fusion of two the energy conversion can remain running
Hydrogen nuclei) are produced. Note that for long period after it is switched off
there is no gamma ray emission during the because, when the device is switched off, the
process. The evidence of neutron emission value of the electrical conductivity of the Ni-
during energy production in Ni-H systems H system, which was approximately equal to
has been reported by Battaglia, A. et al., [17]. σ Ni , slowly decreases, tending to σ H , which
In order to calculate the number of
Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside the Nickel is much smaller than 1. When the electrical
powder we will calculate the density of the conductivity becomes smaller than ωε the
Hydrogen. According to Focardi’s value of nr becomes approximately equal to
experiments, the pressure of the Hydrogen is 1. Consequently, λmod becomes equal to
P = 0.051atm = 5.166×103 N / m2 at temperature c f = 3.8 × 10 7 m and, according to Eq.(17),
T = 400K . Thus, according to the well-kwon the result is χ ≅ 1 .
Equation of State ρ = PM 0 ZRT , we get
This explain why in the Focardi’s
ρH =
(5.166 × 10 N / m )(2 × 10 kg.mol ) =
3 2 −3 −1
experiment the device remained running for
(~ 1)(8.314 joule.mol .K )(400 K )
−1 −1 twenty four days after being switched off.
It is evident that the discovery of this
= 3.1 × 10 −3 kg / m 3 energy conversion device is highly relevant.
Thus, the number of Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside However, this system is not an efficient
the Nickel powder is energy source if compared to the
Gravitational Motor [18], which can provide
313
7
219KW/m3 while the Ni-H system only very place of the target (For example,
20Kw/m3 (by increasing α from 5cm up to inside a house or apartment at the target
100cm). Furthermore, the Gravitational city.). This means that, in the most of cases
Motor converts gravitational energy into missiles are not necessary to launch them. In
rotational mechanical energy directly from addition, they cannot be easily detected
the gravitational field, while the Ni-H system during their building because the necessary
needs to produce vapor in order to convert materials are trivial, and there is no
the energy into rotational mechanical energy. radioactive material.

3. Transforming a Ni-H system into a


Hydrogen Bomb.

It is easy to see that a Ni-H System can


be transformed into a Hydrogen bomb,
simply increasing the volume of the Ni-H
cylinder and substituting the Hydrogen by a
liquid deuterium LD (12.5 MeV of energy is
produced at each fusion of two deuterium
nuclei ‡ ). For example, if α = 0.27m, ξ = 2
m, and, if a liquid deuterium
−3
( ρ H = 67.8 kg.m [19]) is injected into the Ni
powder, then the total energy realized in the
fusions becomes

nH VH
E= (12.5MeV) =
2
8.4 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
= (12.5MeV) ≅ (2)
2
≅ 5.2 ×1031 ρ H α 2ξ eV ≅ 8.2 × 1013 J ≅ 20 kilotons

The Hiroshima’s atomic bomb had 20


kilotons.
It is important to note that this bomb
type is much easier to build than the
conventional nuclear bombs. Basically, these
bombs are made of Nickel powder (99%),
liquid deuterium-tritium mixture and
Mumetal. These materials can be easily
obtained. Due to the simplicity of its
construction these bombs can be built at the


The d + d fusion reaction has two branches that occur with
nearly equal probability: (T + p + 4.03MeV and 3He + n +
3.27MeV ). Then, a deuteron d is produced by the fusion of
the proton p (produced in the first branch) with the neutron
(produced in the second branch). Next, occurs the fusion of
this deuteron with the tritium T produced in the first branch,
i.e., (d + T → 23 He + n + 17.6 MeV). Thus, we count the d +
d fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV.

314
8
References
[1] Fleischmann M., Hawkins, M. and Pons S., (1989) J.
Electroanal. Chem., 261, 301.

[2] Focardi, S., Habel, R. and Piantelli, F., (1994) Nuovo


Cimento A, 107, 163.

[3] Cerron-Zeballos et al., (1996) Nuovo Cimento A, 109, 1645.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[5] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[6] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle
umgebenist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[7] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

[8] Lin Li and Chung D.,(1991) Composites, 22, 3, p.212.

[9] Göktürk, H., et al., (1993) J. App. Polymer Science, 50,


p.1900.

[10] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[11] Neikov, O.D, et al., (2009) Handbook of Non-Ferrous


Metal Powders: Technologies and Applications, Elsevier
Ltd., p.374.

[12]Selembo, P. A, et al., (2010) Hydrogen production with


nickel powder cathode catalysts in microbial electrolysis cells,
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 35, p. 431, p.433.

[13] Park T. S. et al., (1998) Astrophys. J. 507 443.

[14] Kong X and Ravndal, F. (1999) Nucl. Phys. A 656


421; Kong X and Ravndal, F. (1999) Phys. Lett. B 470, 1;
Kong X and Ravndal (2001) F. Phys. Rev. C 64 , 044002.

[15] Butler. M. and Chen, J. W., (2001) Phys. Lett. B 520 , 87.

[16] Park T. S. et al., (2003) Phys. Rev. C 67 055206


(nucl-th/0208055); Park T. S. et al., nucl-th/0106025
and nucl-th/0107012.

[17] Battaglia, A. et al., (1999) NuovoCimento A, 112, 921.

[18] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp. 178-247, Physics /0701091.

[19] Rossini, F.D. (1968) IPTS-1968, Butterworths, London.

315
Engineering the Ni-H Bomb
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
The anomalous heat production detected in Ni-H systems was recently explained based on the fact that
electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequencies (ELF) can increase the intensities of gravitational forces
and overcome the intensity of the electrostatic repulsion forces, producing nuclear fusion reactions. This
effect can provide a consistent and coherent explanation for anomalous heat production detected in Ni-H
Systems, and shows that a Ni-H System can be easily transformed into a Hydrogen bomb. Here, a Ni-H bomb
of 20 kilotons is engineered.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Nuclear Fusion, Fusion Reactors.


PACS: 04.50.Kd , 89.30.Jj , 28.52.-s.

1. Introduction

Recently, a large anomalous production where ρ H is the Hydrogen density;


of heat in a nickel rod filled with hydrogen N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules/ kmole is the
has been reported by Focardi et al., [1]. This
phenomenon was posteriorly confirmed by Avogadro’s number and A is the molar mass.
Then, the number of atoms inside the Nickel
Cerron-Zeballos et al., [2].
powder is given by
Nuclear fusion can be produced by
increasing the gravitational forces in order
to overcome the electrostatic repulsion nH VH = nH S f δ H ≅ 8.3 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
forces between the nuclei. This process
became feasible after the Quantization of where S f ≅ 4×103 ρ( Ni) Sα ξ ; ρ( Ni) = 8800kg.m−3 ;
Gravity [3], with the discovery that the
gravitational mass mg can be made negative Sα = πα2 4 and δ H = Δ Ni − φ Ni ≅ 1nm ; φ Ni is
and strongly intensified by means of the diameter of Ni atom; Δ Ni is the average
electromagnetic fields of extremely-low molecular separation in the Ni.
frequencies. This effect can provide a
consistent and coherent explanation for
anomalous heat production detected in Ni-H α

Systems, and shows that a Ni-H System can


be easily transformed into a Hydrogen bomb
[4]. Here, a Ni-H bomb of 20 kilotons is Nickel powder
engineered. +
Hydrogen

2. Theory
ξ
Consider the Ni-H system showed in
Fig. 1. In a previous paper [4] it was showed
that, if the air inside the Nickel powder is Metal tube
evacuated by means of a vacuum pump
(down to P = 0.051atm = 5.166×103 N / m2 at
temperature T = 400K ) and after Hydrogen
is injected into the Nickel powder, then, the Fig.1 – Ni-H system. Note that, on Earth, the system
number of Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside the Nickel is subjected to a 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field. This
powder is field is what naturally exists inside the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface and the
inner edge of the ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
nH = N0 ρH AH 2 = 1.94×1029 ρH atoms/ m3

316
2
Thus, the total energy realized in the protons conventional nuclear bombs. Basically,
fusions is * these bombs are made of Nickel powder
nHVH 8.3×1024 ρHα 2ξ (99%), liquid deuterium and Mumetal. These
E= = (0.42MeV) ≅ (1) materials can be easily obtained. Due to the
2 2
simplicity of its construction, these bombs
≅ 1.7×1030 ρHα 2ξ eV ≅ 2.7×1011ρHα 2ξ Joules can be built at the very location of the target
It is easy to see that a Ni-H System can (For example, inside a house or apartment at
be transformed into a Hydrogen bomb, the target city.). This means that, in most of
simply increasing the volume of the Ni-H cases missiles are not necessary to deliver
cylinder and substituting the Hydrogen by a them, except for launching the Ni-H bomb at
liquid deuterium LD (12.5 MeV of energy is the height of explosion (<1Km ‡ ) when
produced at each fusion of two deuterium necessary.
nuclei † ). For example, if α = 0.27m, ξ = 2 Thus, the Ni-H bomb so far seems to be
m (See Fig.2), and, if a liquid deuterium the simplest atomic bomb ever to be built. It
( ρ H = 67.8 kg.m−3 [5]) is injected into the Ni can be made by every nation, in such a way
powder, then the total energy realized in the that, peace in the World will be reached in
fusions becomes the future due to the equilibrium of forces
among nations.
Figure 3 shows the Ni-H bomb. It is
8.4 × 1024 ρ H α 2ξ
E= (12.5MeV) ≅ (2) enveloped by a Mumetal box in order to
2 avoid the action of the 7.83Hz
≅ 5.2 × 1031 ρ H α 2ξ eV ≅ 8.3 × 1013 J ≅ 20 kilotons electromagnetic field that naturally exists
inside the spherical resonant cavity formed
The Hiroshima’s atomic bomb had 20 by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of
kilotons. the ionosphere. (Schumann resonance [6, 7]).
When the mumetal shielding is exploded the
α =0.27 m 7.83Hz electromagnetic field acts on the core
of the Ni-H bomb and it explodes.

Nickel powder Antenna


+
ξ= 2 m LD

Mumetal boxes

Metal tube

LD
Control
Fig.2 – The core of the Ni-H bomb of 20
Detonator
kilotons. Mumetal
Shielding
It is important to note that this bomb
Explosives
type is much easier to build than the in order to
explode the Nickel
powder
*
0.42MeV are realized at each fusion of two Hydrogen Mumetal
nuclei. shielding

The d + d fusion reaction has two branches that occur with
nearly equal probability: (T + p + 4.03MeV and 3He + n +
3.27MeV ). Then, a deuteron d is produced by the fusion of
the proton p (produced in the first branch) with the neutron
(produced in the second branch). Next, occurs the fusion of
this deuteron with the tritium T produced in the first branch, Fig.3 – The Ni-H bomb of 20 kilotons.
i.e., (d + T → 23 He + n + 17.6 MeV). Thus, we count the d +
d fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV.

Hiroshima 600m above. Nagasaki 500m above.

317
3

References

[1] Focardi, S., Habel, R. and Piantelli, F., (1994) Nuovo


Cimento A, 107, 163.

[2] Cerron-Zeballos et al., (1996) Nuovo Cimento A, 109, 1645.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2012), A Possible Explanation for


Anomalous Heat Production in Ni-H Systems,
http://vixra.org/pdf/1202.0039v3.pdf

[5] Rossini, F.D. (1968) IPTS-1968, Butterworths, London.

[6] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle
umgebenist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[7] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

318
Gravitational Shockwave Weapons
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Detonation velocities, greater than that generated by high explosives (~104m/s), can be achieved by using the
gravitational technology recently discovered. This possibility leads to the conception of powerful shockwave
weapons. Here, we show the design of a portable gravitational shockwave weapon, which can produce
detonation velocities greater than 105m/s, and detonation pressures greater than 1010N/m2 .

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Detonation waves, Shockwaves, Nozzle flow.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 47.40.Rs, 47.40.-x, 47.60.Kz.

1. Introduction

The most important single property of TNT has a detonation velocity of 6,900m/s;
an explosive is the detonation velocity. It is Military explosives used to destroy strong
the speed at which the detonation wave concrete and steel structures have a
travels through the explosive. Typical detonation velocity of 7,000 to 8,000 m/s [3].
detonation velocities in solid explosives often
range beyond 3,000 m/s to 10,300 m/s [1]. 2. Theory
At the front of the detonation zone, an
energy pulse or “shockwave” is generated The contemporary greatest challenge
and transmitted to the adjacent region. of the Theoretical Physics was to prove that,
The shockwave travels outward as a Gravity is a quantum phenomenon. The
compression wave, moving at or near quantization of gravity showed that the
detonation velocity. When the intensity of the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi
shockwave exceeds the compression strength are correlated by means of the following
of the materials they are destroyed. If the factor [4]:
mass of the body is too large the wave energy
is simply absorbed by the body [2]. ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
The pressure produced in the explosion χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
zone is called Detonation Pressure. It mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
expresses the intensity of the generated ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
shockwave. A high detonation pressure is
necessary when blasting hard, dense bodies. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Detonation pressures of high explosives are in particle and Δp is the variation in the
6 2 7 2
the range from 10 N/m to over 10 N/m [3]. particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
Here, we show the design of a portable of light.
shockwave weapon, which uses the When Δp is produced by the
Gravitational Shielding Effect (BR Patent
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008) in
order to produce detonations velocities is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
greater than 100,000m/s, and detonation (1) becomes
pressures greater than 1010N/m2. It is
important to remember that an aluminum- ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ h m c ⎞ ⎪
nitrate truck bomb has a relatively low = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
detonation velocity of 3,500 m/s (sound mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
speed is 343.2m/s) * . High explosives such as
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
*
When a shockwave is created by high explosives it ⎣ ⎦⎭
will always travel at high supersonic velocity from its
point of origin.

319
2
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie μrσ
nr = (5)
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial 4πε0 f
mass mi 0 .
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
It was shown that there is an radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
λ 4π
gravitational mass was reduced or made λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
negative [5]. The effect extends beyond f nr nr μfσ
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect v=c v = c/nr
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where nr
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
acceleration before the gravitational
shielding). Consequently, after a second Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
contains n molecules/m3, then the number of
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
molecules per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
number of molecules reached by the
This possibility shows that, by means radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can make particles acquire enormous molecules per unit of volume, n , is given by
N0 ρ
accelerations. In practice, this can lead to the
conception of powerful particles accelerators,
n= (7)
A
kinetic weapons or weapons of shockwaves.
From Electrodynamics we know that where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is
when an electromagnetic wave with the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
frequency f and velocity c incides on a density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , molar mass.
relative magnetic permeability μ r and When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes on N f front
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of ( )
molecules, where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the
refraction of the material, given by [6] “diameter” of the molecule. Thus, the
electromagnetic wave incides effectively on an
ε μ area S = Nf Sm , where S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ section area of one molecule. After these
collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to other molecules (See Fig.2).

320
3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎢ (
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ n Sξ

)
⎥⎪
⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (13)
λ ⎥⎦
molecule
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

Sm
Wave
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. (13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
volume Sξ is = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎢⎝ f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ i0(l ) ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
m c

(
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= n Sφm + n Sξ −nmSφm = ) ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

= nmSξ (8) ( )
Substitution of N f ≅ n S f φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (14) results
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2 φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ ⎢⎜⎝ mi0(l ) cf 2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
S N f Sm ⎣
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
We can express the total mean number
where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means
Now, considering that the lamina is
of the following equation
inside a ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
ntotal N collisions
n1 =
photons
(10 )
N n r (l ) E 2
D= (16 )
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is 2μ 0 c
transferred to the molecule, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
with Eq. (1), we can write that ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n n3S2 S2φ2ξE2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎥⎪
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢ ⎜ r(l ) f m m ⎟ 1⎥ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ λ⎥ ⎥⎪
2 2
mg(l ) ⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎡ λ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 2μ0mi0(l )c f ⎠ ⎦
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ = ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Now assuming that the lamina is a
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫ cylindrical air lamina (diameter = α ;
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) ξ)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ thickness = where
⎦⎭ n = N 0 ρ (l ) A = 2 .6 × 10 molecules / m 3 ;
25

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = n Sξ , we get φm =1.55×10−10m; Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20 m2 ,


then, Eq. (17) reduces to
⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 (
⎟ n Sξ
⎟ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠

321
4
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎛ n ( )S2ξ ⎞ E2 ⎤ ⎥⎪⎪
mg(l) ⎪ ⎢ 5⎜ f ⎟ ⎥ 4π
(20)
r l
=⎨ −
1 2⎢ 1+ × ⎜
6.6 10 ⎟ −1⎥⎬ (18) λ = λmod =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢ ⎜ mi0(l) f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎪ μ0 fσ
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎦⎪

An atomized water spray is created by where f is the frequency of the ELF
forcing the water through an orifice. The electromagnetic field.
energy required to overcome the pressure Substitution of Eq. (20) into Eq. (19)
drop is supplied by the spraying pressure at yields
each detonation. Spraying pressure depends
on feed characteristics and desired particle ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
size. If atomizing water is injected into the air mg(l) ⎪ ⎢ nr2(l)σE4 ⎤⎥⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ~10−7 −1⎥⎬ (21)
lamina, then the area S f to be considered is mi0(l) ⎪ ⎢ Sα2 f 3
⎢ ⎥⎪
the surface area of the atomizing water, ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
which can be obtained by multiplying the where n r2(l ) = μ r σ 4πε 0 f
specific surface area(SSA) of the atomizing
water (which is given by Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
SSA = A ρwV = 3 ρwrd ) by the total mass of the for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
atomizing water ( mi 0(w) = ρwV N ). sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
water droplets d
Assuming that the atomizing water is for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
composed of monodisperse particles with Consequently we can change E 4 by E rms4

( )
,
10 μm radius rd = 1 × 10 −5 m , and that the and the equation above can be rewritten as
atomizing water has N p ≈ 108 droplets/ m3 [8] follows
then we obtain SSA = 3 ρ w rd = 300m 2 kg and
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
−5 mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ − nr(l )σErms ⎪
mi 0(w) = ρ wVwater droplets N d ≈ 10 kg . Thus, we χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ~10 7 −1⎥⎬ (22)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ 2 3 ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
Sα f
get ⎩ ⎢⎣

S f = (SSA)mi 0(w) ≈ 10 −3 m 2 (18) Now consider the weapon showed in Fig. 3


(α = 12.7mm) . When an ELF
electromagnetic field with frequency
Substitution of S f ≈ 10 −3 m 2 and
f = 10 Hz is activated, an electric field E rms
mi 0(l ) = ρ air S α ξ = 1.2 S α ξ into Eq. (18)
passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas.
gives Then, according to Eq. (22) the value of χ
(for σ >> 0.005S / m ) at each lamina is
⎧ ⎡ n r2(l ) E 4 ⎤⎫
m g (l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎧ ⎫
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ~ − 1⎥ ⎬ (19) χ >> ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1+ ~ 10 −3 E rms
4 − 1⎤
⎥⎬ (23)
mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ Sα2 f 4 λ2 ⎥⎪ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The injection of atomized water increases the For example, if E rms ≅ 125.93V / m we
electrical conductivity of the mean, making it
get
greater than the conductivity of water
(σ >> 0.005S / m) . Under these conditions,
the value of λ , given by Eq. (6), becomes
χ >> −103 (24)
Therefore, according to Eq. (3) the
gravitational acceleration produced by the
gravitational mass M g = 4.23kg , just after

322
5
the 7 cylindrical air lamina (r7 = 150mm ) ,
th

will be given by

GM g
g 7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7 >> +1013 m / s 2 (25)
r72

This is the acceleration acquired by the air


molecules that are just after the 7th
cylindrical air lamina. Obviously, this
produces enormous pressure in the air after
the 7th cylindrical air lamina, in a similar way
that pressure produced by a detonation. The
detonation velocity after the 7th cylindrical
air lamina is

vd = 2g7 (Δr) >>105 m / s (26)

Consequently, the detonation pressure is

p = 2 ρ air v d2 >> 1010 N / m 2 (27)


These values show how powerful can be the
gravitational shockwaves weapons. The
maxima resistance of the most resistant steels
is of the order of 1011N/m2 (Graphene
~1012N/m2). Since the gravitational
shockwave weapons can be designed to
produce detonation pressures of these
magnitudes, we can conclude that it can
destroy anything.

323
6

Tungsten Carbide
ρWC = 15,800 kg.m-3
Mg = 4.23 kg
40 mm radius
Nozzle
Ruby-orifice
(0.38 mm diameter) Spherical
Filter detonation
Capacitor plates

HV Transformer E
g7
1 2 A 7 12 D 2 1 α
Mg

ELF Battery
Oscillator ξ

r7 = 150 mm

Water

Fig. 3 – Portable Weapon of Gravitational Shockwaves. Note that there are two sets of
Gravitational Shieldings (GS): the set A (accelerator) with 7 GS and the set D (decelerator) with 12
GS. The objective of the set D, with 12 GCC, is to reduce strongly the value of the external gravity
along the axis of the tube (in the opposite direction of the acceleration g 7 ). In this case, the value
of the external gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d12 g ext , where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the
opening of the tube (α ) of the weapon is positioned on the Earth surface then g ext = 9.81m / s 2 is
reduced to χ d12 g ext and, after in the set A, it is increased by χ 7 . Without the set D, the back of the
weapon can explode.

324
7

References
[1] Cooper, P. W.(1996) Explosives Engineering, New
York: Wiley-VCH.

[2] Lee, J.H.(1984)"Dynamic parameters of gaseous


detonations" ,Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 16

[3] Fickett, W. and Davis, W.C. (1979)"Detonation",


University of California Press, Berkeley.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[6] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[7] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[8] Yashiro, H., et al., (2010) Measurement of Number


Density of Water Droplets in Aerosol by Laser-Induced
Breakdown, Applied Physics Express 3, 036601.

325
A System to convert Gravitational Energy
directly into Electrical Energy
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We show that it is possible to produce strong gravitational accelerations on the free electrons of a
conductor in order to obtain electrical current. This allows the conversion of gravitational energy directly
into electrical energy. Here, we propose a system that can produce several tens of kilowatts of electrical
energy converted from the gravitational energy.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Electric fields effects on material flows, Electron tubes, Electrical instruments.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 83.60.Np , 84.47.+w, 07.50.-e.

1. Introduction

In a previous paper [1], we have Here, it is shown that the electrical flow can
proposed a system to convert gravitational also be achieved by means of gravitational
energy into rotational kinetic energy forces (F = me g ) . The Gravitational
(Gravitational Motor), which can be Shielding Effect (BR Patent Number:
converted into electrical energy by means of PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008 [4]), shows that
a conventional electrical generator. Now, we a battery of Gravitational Shieldings can
propose a novel system to convert strongly intensify the gravitational
gravitational energy directly into electrical acceleration in any direction and, in this way,
energy. it is possible to produce strong gravitational
It is known that, in some materials, accelerations on the free electrons of a
called conductors, the free electrons are so conductor in order to obtain electrical
loosely held by the atom and so close to the current.
neighboring atoms that they tend to drift
randomly from one atom to its neighboring 2. Theory
atoms. This means that the electrons move in
all directions by the same amount. However, From the quantization of gravity it
if some outside force acts upon the free follows that the gravitational mass mg and
electrons their movement becomes not the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
random, and they move from atom to atom at of the following factor [1]:
the same direction of the applied force. This
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
flow of electrons (their electric charge) mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
through the conductor produces the electrical mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
current, which is defined as a flow of electric ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
charge through a medium [2]. This charge is where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
typically carried by moving electrons in a particle and Δp is the variation in the
conductor, but it can also be carried by ions
in an electrolyte, or by both ions and particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
electrons in a plasma [3]. of light.
Thus, the electrical current arises in a When Δp is produced by the
conductor when an outside force acts upon absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
the free electrons. This force is called, in a is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
generic way, of electromotive force (EMF). (1) becomes
Usually, it is of electrical nature (F = eE ) .

326
2
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
2 c
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪ 2
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ v 2 ⎝ ⎠
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ μrσ
⎛ λ0 ⎞ (5)
2
⎪ ⎪ nr =
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2) 4πε0 f
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
where λ0 = h mi 0 c is the De Broglie radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial λ 4π
mass mi 0 . λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
It has been shown that there is an
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
v=c v = c/nr
gravitational mass was reduced or made
negative [5]. The effect extends beyond
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a nr
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
acceleration before the gravitational contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
shielding). Consequently, after a second atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way, area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by of atoms reached by the radiation is
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) volume, n , is given by

N0 ρ
This possibility shows that, by means n= (7)
A
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can make particles acquire enormous where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
accelerations. In practice, this can lead to the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
conception of powerful particles accelerators,
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
kinetic weapons or weapons of shockwaves.
mass(kg/kmole).
From Electrodynamics we know that
When an electromagnetic wave incides
when an electromagnetic wave with
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
material with relative permittivity ε r , ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
relative magnetic permeability μ r and the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
refraction of the material, given by [6]
327
3
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions ⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ⎝ hf ⎠

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


volume Sξ is mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= nlSφm +(nlSξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
= nlSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
S N f Sm mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N D= (16 )
2μ 0 c
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
with Eq. (1), we can write that = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
λ0 ⎤
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ In the case in which the area S f is just the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
λ0 ⎤
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎦⎭

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get

328
4
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ N 0 ρ air
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
2
⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23)
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18) AN
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ ρ
0 (l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎢ The parallel metallic plates (p), shown
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
According to Eq. (6) we have voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed
v c
λ = λ mod = = (19 ) on the extremes of the tube, are subjected to
f nr (l ) f V ( D )rms = 134.72 V at f = 60 Hz , while the
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives central set of plates (A) is subjected to
V( A )rms = 273.98 V at f = 60 Hz . Since
⎧ ⎡ 4φ 4 E4 ⎤⎫ d = 14mm , then the intensity of the electric
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ nr4(l )nl6Sα2 Sm m ⎥⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2ρ 2 c6 f 2
− 1⎥⎬ (20) field, which passes through the 36 cylindrical
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ 4 μ 0 (l ) ⎥⎪ air laminas (each one with 5mm thickness)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
of the two sets (D), is
E( D)rms = V( D)rms d = 9.623×103V / m
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
and the intensity of the electric field, which
for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because E varies
passes through the 19 cylindrical air laminas
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value of the central set (A), is given by
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 1.957 × 10 4 V / m
Consequently we can change E 4 by E rms4
, Note that the metallic rings (5mm
and the equation above can be rewritten as thickness) are positioned in such way to
follows block the electric field out of the cylindrical
m g (l ) air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
χ= = of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
mi0(l )
(GCC) [5]. Thus, the system shown in Fig. 3
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ 4 E4
m rms ⎥⎪
has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (21) and one with 19 GCC. The two sets with 18
2 2 6
4μ 0 ρ (l )c f 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
the tube (D). They work as gravitational
Now consider the system shown in decelerator while the other set with 19 GCC
Fig.3. It was designed to convert (A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical intensifying the gravity acceleration
Energy. Thus, we can say that it is a produced by the mass M gs of the Lead
Gravitational EMF Source.
Inside the system there is a dielectric sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics: after the 19 th GCC becomes g19 = χ19GMgs r02 ,
α = 8mm (diameter), Sα =πα2 4 = 5.03×10−5 m2 . where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21) and
Inside the tube there is a Lead sphere r0 = 9mm is the distance between the center
( ρ s = 11340 Kg / m 3 ) with 4mm radius and of the Lead sphere and the surface of the first
mass M gs = 3.04 × 10 −3 kg . The tube is filled GCC of the set (A).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
with air at ambient temperature and 1atm. GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
Thus, inside the tube, the air density is the external gravity along the axis of the
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) tube. In this case, the value of the external
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is
where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base
given by
BS of the system is positioned on the Earth

329
5

d = 14 mm
α=8mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D Parallel plate
ED(rms) capacitor (p)
17
Lead sphere Electric field of
(8 mm diameter) 18 E capacitor

Air 134.72V
Mg 60Hz
r0=9mm
1 Aluminum
Air 273.98V
Air 2 60Hz 100 mm
Iron rod
EA(rms) r+
(8 mm diameter,
100 mm height) A Inductor
Fe +Fp+Fn = 0
1 turn (inner radius: r =5mm)
ΣF=0 18

19
is = 58.6A, # 1 AWG Cable
T 500AWG
xB = 100 mm B 2.2kV 220V 60Hz
128.9 kW
2.5m T 60Hz
Np =100 turns
1 Ns =10 turns
Air Nucleus
i=4A
2
# 14 AWG μ r = 60
(iron cast)
D 5Ω
80W
Air 17
Relay
18 20V
1μHz
BS Initialization
source ~

Converter
60Hz / 1μHz

Transformer

Fig. 3 – A Gravitational EMF Source (Developed from a process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5)

330
6
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2
is reduced (Fe ) ,protons (Fp ) and neutrons (Fp ) of
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased the Iron rod, are respectively expressed by
the following relations
by χ 19 . Since the system is designed for
⎛ M gs ⎞
χ = −6.4138 , then the gravity acceleration Fe = mge ae = χ Be me ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (28)
on the sphere becomes ⎝ r0 ⎠
χ χd gext = 2.1×10 m/ s , this value is much
19 18 −20 2

⎛ M gs ⎞
smaller than gsphere = GMgs rs2 =1.27×10−8 m/ s 2 . Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp m p ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (29)
⎝ r0 ⎠
The values of χ and χ d , according to
Eq. (21) are given by
⎛ M gs ⎞
Fn = mgn an = χ Bn mn ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (30)
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎝ r0 ⎠
⎪ ⎢ nr4(air) nair
6 S 2 S 4φ 4 E4
α m m ( A)rms ⎥⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ = The factors χ B are due to the electrons,
⎪ ⎢ 4μ02 ρ air
2 c6 f 2
⎥⎪ protons and neutrons are inside the magnetic
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ field B.
⎧ ⎫ In order to make null the resultant of
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 +1.44×10−16 E(4A)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (24) these forces in the Iron (and also in the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
sphere) we must have Fe = F p + Fn , i.e.,
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ m e χ Be = m p χ Bp + m n χ Bn (31)
⎪ ⎢ nr4(air) nair
6 S 2 S 4φ 4 E4
α m m ( D)rms ⎥⎪
χ d = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ = It is important to note that the set with
⎪ ⎢ 4μ02 ρ air
2 c6 f 2
⎥⎪ 19 GCC (A) cannot be turned on before the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ magnetic field B is on. Because the
⎧ ⎫
gravitational accelerations on the Iron rod
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 +1.44×10−16 E(4D)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (25) and Lead sphere will be enormous
⎣ ⎦⎭

( )
χ 19 GM gs r02 ≅ 5.4 × 10 6 m / s 2 , and will
where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) * ; explode the device.
The force Fe is the electromotive force
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m , (EMF), which produces the electrical current.
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2 and f = 60 Hz . Here, this force has gravitational nature. The
corresponding force of electrical nature
Since E ( A )rms = 1 . 957 × 10 4 V / m and
is Fe = eE . Thus, we can write that
E ( D )rms = 9 .623V × 10 3 / m , we get m ge a e = eE (32 )
χ = −6.4138 (26) The electrons inside the Iron rod (See Fig. 3)
are subjected to the gravity acceleration
and produced by the sphere, and increased by the
19 GCC in the region (A). The result is
χ d ≅ 10−2 (27) a e = χ 19 g s = χ 19 G 2
M gs
(33 )
Note that there is a uniform magnetic r0
field, B , through the Iron rod. Then, the Comparing Eq. (32) with Eq.(33), we obtain
gravitational forces due to the gravitational ⎛ m ge ⎞ 19 M gs
mass of the sphere (M gs ) acting on electrons E = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ χ G 2 (34)
⎝ e ⎠ r0
* The electron mobility, μ e , considering
The electrical conductivity of air, inside the
dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical conductivity various scattering mechanisms can be
of Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose average obtained by solving the Boltzmann equation
value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [8].

331
7
in the relaxation time approximation. The gives λ = λmod = (4π μironσ iron f ) . Substitution
result is [9] of these expressions into Eq. (40) yields
eτ ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
μe = (35) 45.56π 2r4B4
m ge χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2e 2rms −1⎥⎬ (41)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 me c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
where τ is the average relaxation time over
Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron
the electron energies and m ge is the we can write that
gravitational mass of electron, which is the ⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2rp4 Brms4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
effective mass of electron. χBp = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (42)
Since τ can be expressed by ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mpc f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
τ = m geσ ne 2 [10], then Eq. (35) can be
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
written as follows ⎪
σ χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (43)
μe = (36) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪
ne ⎭
Thus, the drift velocity will be expressed by The radius of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m
σ ⎛ m ge ⎞ 19 M gs
v d = μ e E = ⎜⎜ ⎟χ G 2 (37) (See Appendix A) and the radius of protons
ne ⎝ e ⎟⎠ r0 inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m ,
and the electrical current density expressed rn ≅ r p , then we obtain from Eqs. (41) (42)
by
and (43) the following expressions:
⎛ m ge ⎞ 19 M gs
j e = ρ qe v d = σ iron ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ χ G 2 (38 ) ⎧ ⎡
⎪ B4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎝ e ⎠ r0 χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 8.49×104 rms − 1⎥⎬ (44)
where ρ qe = ne , and m ge = χ Be me . ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f 2

⎦⎪⎭
Therefore, Eq. (38) reduces to ⎧ ⎡ B4 ⎤⎫⎪

⎛m ⎞ M gs χ Bn ≅ χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10−9 rms − 1⎥⎬ (45)
je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟χ Be χ 19G 2 (39) ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f 2
⎥⎦⎪

⎝ e ⎠ r0
In order to calculate the expressions of Then, from Eq. (31) it follows that
χ Be , χ Bp and χ Bn we start from Eq. (17), for m e χ Be ≅ 2m p χ Bp (46 )
the particular case of single electron in the region Substitution of Eqs. (44) and (45) into Eq.
subjected to the magnetic field B (Iron rod). In (46) gives
this case, we must substitute nr (l ) by ⎧ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪

4
4 Brms
⎨ − ⎢ + × − ⎥⎬
n riron = (μ r (iron )σ iron 4πε 0 f )2 ;
1 1 2 1 8 .49 10 1
nl by ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f 2
⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭ = 3666.3 (47)
1 Ve = 1 43 πre3 ( re is the electrons radius), S f ⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎪ −9 Brms
by (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is the specific surface ⎨ 1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 2 .35 × 10 − 1 ⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪
area for electrons in this case: ⎭
SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρ e Ve = 2πre2 ρ eVe ), For f = 1μHz , we get

{1 − 2[ 1 + 8.49 × 10 B ]} = 3666.3
S m by S e = π re2 , ξ by φ m = 2re and mi 0(l )
6 4
−1
(48)
{1 − 2[ 1 + 2.35 × 10 B − 1]}
rms
by me . The result is
−7 4
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 re4 nriron 2
E4 ⎤⎫⎪ rms

χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (40) whence we obtain


⎢⎣ μ 02 me2 c 4 f 4 λ2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎪⎩ B rms = 2 .5 m T (49 )
Electrodynamics tells us that Consequently, Eq. (44) and (45) yields
E rms = vBrms = (c n r (iron ) )Brms , and Eq. (19) χ Be = −3666.3 (50)
and
332
8
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp ≅ 0.999 (51)
⎛m ⎞ M gs
In order to the forces Fe and F p have je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟ χ Be χ 19G 2
contrary direction (such as occurs in the ⎝ e ⎠ r0
case, in which the nature of the electromotive
force is electrical) we must have χ Be < 0 Since σ iron = 1.03 × 10 7 S / m , χ = −6.4138 ,
and χ Bn ≅ χ Bp > 0 (See equations (28) (29) χ Be = −3666 .3 , M gs = 3.04 × 10 −3 kg and
and (30)), i.e., r0 = 9mm , we obtain
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ je = 1.164×106 A / m2
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 8 .49×10 4 Brms
− 1 ⎥⎬ < 0 (52)
Given that Sα = πα 2 4 = 5.03 × 10−5 m 2 we get
2
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
and
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ isource = je Sα ≅ 58.6 A
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35 ×10−9 Brms
2
−1⎥⎬ > 0 (53)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ The resistance of the Iron rod is
This means that we must have ⎛ xB ⎞
Rsource = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.93 × 10 −4 Ω
0.06 f < B rms < 151 .86 f (54 ) ⎝ σ iron Sα ⎠
In the case of f = 1μHz = 10 Hz the result is
−6
Thus, the dissipated power by the Iron rod is
6.5×10−5 T < Brms < 0.151T (55) Pd = Rsource isource
2
≅ 0.66W (56)
Note the cylindrical format (1turn, Note that this Gravitational EMF
r = 5mm ) of the inductor (Figs. 3 and 6). By source is a Current Source. As we known, a
using only 1 turn it is possible to eliminate Current Source is a device that keeps
the capacitive effect between the turns. This invariable the electric current between its
is highly relevant in this case because the terminals. So, if the source is connected to an
extremely-low frequency f = 1μHz would external load, and the resistance of the load
strongly increase the capacitive reactance varies, then the own source will increase or
( X C ) associated to the inductor. When a decrease its output voltage in order to
maintain invariable the value of the current in
current i passes through this inductor, the the circuit.
value of B inside the Iron rod is given by
B = μ r μ0i xB where x B = 100mm is Rsource
inductor’s length and μ r = 4000 (very pure
Iron). However, the effective permeability is
defined as μr(eff) = μr 1+(μr −1) Nm, where N m is
Vsource ~ isource V R
the average demagnetizing factor [11]. Since Load
the iron rod has 5mm diameter and 100mm
height, then we obtain the factor
γ = 100mm / 5mm = 20 which gives N m = 0.02 Fig. 4 – Current Source
(See table V[12]). Therefore, we obtain
Based on Kirchhoff’s laws we can
μr (eff ) = 49.4 . Thus, for Brms = 2.5mT (See Eq.
express the electric voltage between the
(49)) ,i.e., B = μ r (eff ) μ 0 i x B = 2.5mT , the value terminals of the Current Source, Vs , by means
of i must be i = 4 A . Then, the resistor in of the following relation (See Fig.4):
Fig.3. must have 20V 4 A = 5Ω . The V source = R source i source + V
dissipated power is 80W. where V is the voltage applied on the
Let us now calculate the current charge.
density through the Iron rod (Fig. 3). The transformer T connected to
According to Eq. (39) we have Gravitational EMF Source (See Fig. 3) is
333
9
designed † to make the voltage Since σ iron = 1.03×10 S / m
7
and
V = 2.2kV @60Hz. Since Rsource isource <<V , then χ Be = −3666.3 , then the value of je is
we can write that V source ≅ V . Thus, in the ⎛m ⎞ M gs
primary circuit, the voltage is je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟ χ Be χ 19G 2 =
⎝ e ⎠ r0
V p = V source ≅ V = 2.2kV and the current is
= 5.29 × 105 A / m 2
i p = isource = 58.6 A ; the winding turns ratio
and
is N p N s = 10 ; thus, in the secondary circuit isource = je Sα ≅ 1.66 A
the output voltage is Vs = 220V @ 60 Hz and
the current is is = 586A . Consequently, the The resistance of the iron rod is given by
source output power is ⎛ xB ⎞
Rsource = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.1× 10 −4 Ω
P = V s i s = 128 .9 kW
⎝ σ iron Sα ⎠
Note that, in order to initializing the Thus, the dissipated power by the Iron rod is
Gravitational EMF Source, is used an Pd = Rsourceisource
2
≅ 0.9mW
external source, which is removed after the
initialization of the Gravitational EMF In the case of the miniaturized source, the
Source. iron rod has 2mm diameter and 10mm
Now it will be shown that this height, then we obtain the factor
Gravitational EMF source can be γ = 10mm / 2mm = 5 which gives
miniaturized. N m = 0.06 (See table V[12]). Therefore, we
We start making x B = 10mm and obtain μ r (eff ) = 16.6 .
ξ = 0.5mm ; α = 2mm, d A = 8mm , d D = 16mm Since Vs = V A( rms) = V D( rms) = 93.5mV
and r0 = 1.5mm (See Fig. 5). The sphere with and the resistance of the resistor R1 is
2mm diameter is now of Tungsten carbide 21.6mΩ / 31mW (See Fig.5), then the current
(W+Cobalt) with 15,630kg / m3 density. from the first source is i = 1.2A. Thus, we get
Then M gs = 6.54×10−5 kg and Sα = 3.14×10 m .
−6 2
B = μr (eff ) μ0i xB = 2.5mT .
Thus, for f = 1μHz Eq.(21) gives Since the current through the second
⎧ ⎫ source is isource = 1.66 A , and, if the voltage
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + 2.03×10 −3 E(4A)rms − 1⎤⎥ ⎬ (57)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ required by the charge, is V = 3.7V (usual
For V A(rms) = 93.5mV and d A = 8mm we lithium batteries’ voltage), then the source
voltage is given by
get E( A)rms = 11.688V / m , and Eq. (57) yields
Vsource = Rsource i source + V ≅ 3.7V
χ = −6.236 Consequently, the miniaturized source can
For VD(rms) = 93.5mV and d D = 16mm we get provide the power:
P = V source i sorce = (3 . 7V )1 . 66 A ≅ 6 . 1W
E( D )rms = 5.844V / m and χ d ≅ −0.01 .
This is the magnitude of the power of lithium

batteries used in mobiles. Note that the
The impedances are respectively, miniaturized source of Gravitational EMF
( )
Z p ≅ 2πfL p = 2πf μ r μ 0 N p2 A p l p = 14.36Ω does not need to be recharged and it
Z s ≅ 2πfLs = 2πf (μ μ )
r 0 N s As l s = 6.154 × 10 Ω
2 −4 occupies a volume (8mm x 70mm x 80mm.
Z p (total ) = Z p + Z reflected = Z p + (N p N s )Z s = 37.56Ω
See Fig.6) similar to the volume of the
mobile batteries. In addition, note that the
where μr = 60 (iron cast), N p = 100, Ns = 10, dimensions of this miniaturized source can
l p = l s = 0.18m , φ p = 107.6mm , φs = 136.8mm , be further reduced (possibly down to a few
millimeters or less).
A p = 0 .0091 m 2 , A s = 0 .0147 m 2 .

334
10

Metallic ring dA = 8 mm dA = 8 mm
(0.5 mm thickness) dD = 16 mm dD = 16 mm 3.7V DC
α=2mm α=2mm 6.1W

Air Air
ξ = 0.5 mm 1 1
Air 2 Air 2 Air
Air
Dielectric tube 1 atm 300K
εr ≅ 1 D D
ED(rms) 17 17
Full
93.5mV E
1μHz
18 18 wave
Tungsten carbide sphere rectifier
(2 mm diameter)
Mg Mg
Lead sphere
(2 mm diameter) r0=1.5mm
1 1
Air Air
EA(rms) 2 2

A A V=3.7V
93.5mV
Iron rod 1μHz 18 18
(2 mm diameter, is=1.66A
10 mm height) 19 19
Printed circuit board Vs=93.5mV Vs=V=3.7V
xB = 10 mm B i=1.2 A B
2.5m T 2.5m T
Cylindrical Inductor R1
1 turn (inner radius: r = 2mm) 80mm
1 1
93.5mV Air Air
1μHz 2 2
R1 21.6mΩ / 31mW
D D
93.5mV
Air 17 17
~ 1μHz
18 18

Initialization 70 mm
source

Fig. 5 – A Miniaturized Source of Gravitational EMF

335
11
Iron rod 18mm
(8 mm diameter,
100mm height)
134,72V/60Hz 18mm
3 8 3
1
Aluminum 273.98V/60Hz 12
Inductor
1 turn (inner radius: 1
B R=5mm) 2.2kV/60Hz Cross-section

220V 60Hz
128.9 kW
μ r μ0i
B= = 2.5mT
2r 5Ω
i = 4 A; r = 5mm 80W
20V
μ r ≅ 49.4 1μHz
Initialization
source

Transformers and
Converter (60Hz/1μHz)
(inside)

High-power Source
12mm
2
1
Cross-section 6

μ r μ0i 93.5mV 1
B= = 2.5mT 1μHz
2r 93.5mV
i = 1.2 A; r = 2mm 1μHz
μ r ≅ 16.6 3.7V DC
6.1W
80mm
Full wave
Initialization rectifier
source
R1
••

70mm 8mm thickness

Low-power Source

Fig. 6 – Schematic Diagram in 3D of the Gravitational EMF Sources

336
12

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton

It is known that the frequency of


oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is 1 Gmge χe
f= ( A6)
2π Re3
f =
1 K
( A1) The value of χ e varies with the density of
2π m
energy [1]. When the electron and the
positron are distant from each other and the
where m is the inertial mass attached to the
local density of energy is small, the value of
spring and K is the spring constant (in
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
exerted by the spring is linear and given by the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
F = − Kx ( A2) particle become very strong due to the
proximity of their electrical charges e and,
where x is the displacement from the consequently, the value of χ e strongly
equilibrium position. increases. In order to calculate the value of
Now, consider the gravitational force: χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
For example, above the surface of the Earth, start from the expression of correlation
the force follows the familiar Newtonian between electric charge q and gravitational
function, i.e., F = − GM g ⊕ m g r 2 , where mass, obtained in a previous work [1]:
M g ⊕ the mass of Earth is, m g is the
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3) gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
R⊕3
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
K
=
K GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
( )
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4)
4πε G ( )
3

into (A1) gives = 0


2
3
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)

1 GMg⊕ χ
f= ( A5) where we obtain
2π R⊕3
χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or by the strong density of energy produced by
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes under previously mentioned conditions.
337
13
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6) Thus, the result is
yields
1 2
1 Gχ e2 mi0e ⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
f= ( A10) Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
2π Re3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Note that these radii, given by
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
free electrons and free protons (when the
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
penetrate themselves mutually).
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [14, 15]. The strong
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
h
(A17) is due to the interaction with the
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [13].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
4πε G( )
3

= 0
2
3
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)

where we obtain

χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)

338
14

Appendix B: An Experimental Setup for Testing a GCC with Air Nucleus

Digital Force Gauge


(± 2 N ; 0.01N )
888888

g′ = χ g
Dielectric tube Acrylic
(Acrylic) plates

5 mm

GCC Metallic rings

10 mm
χ
5 mm g
φ = 8 mm
Rectangular d = 14 mm
plate
~

Dielectric tube

Metallic ring
d = 14 mm
Metallic plate 20 mm

8 mm

339
15

DETAILS OF PARTS

5 mm

30 mm

Metal
5 mm

5 mm Metal

8 mm

Acrylic
20 mm

10 mm

5 mm Metal

12 mm

340
16
DETAIS OF THE BOX
26 mm

Acrylic
3 plates 20mm x 26 mm x 2mm
2 plates 20mm x 20mm x 2mm
2 plates 20mm x 20mm x 1mm (inner plates) 20 mm
4 plates 20mm x 5mm x 2mm
Aluminum
2 plates 20mm x 10mm

2 mm

26 mm
20 mm

5 mm
5 mm 20mm
2 mm

20 mm
10 mm

1 mm 20 mm
1 mm

5 mm

2 mm 20 mm

26 mm

341
17

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[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


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[7] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


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[8] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


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[12] Chen, D. et al., (1991) Demagnetizing Factors for


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Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

342
Superconducting State generated by Cooper Pairs bound by
Intensified Gravitational Interaction
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We show that by intensifying the gravitational interaction between electron pairs it is possible to produce
pair binding energies on the order of 10−1eV, enough to keep electron’s pairs (Cooper Pairs) at ambient
temperatures. By means of this method, metals can be transformed into superconductors at ambient
temperature.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Theories and models of superconducting state, superconducting materials,
Nonconventional mechanisms.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 74.20.-z, 74.70.-b, 74.20.Mn.

1. Introduction
+ + + +

A pair of weakly bound electrons in a


superconductor is called Cooper pair; it was
+ +
first described in 1956 by Leon Cooper [1]. + +
As showed by Cooper, an attraction between -
electrons in a metal can cause a paired state + +
of electrons to have a lower energy than the + +
Fermi energy, which implies that the pair is
bound. In conventional superconductors, this
attraction is due to the electron–phonon + + + +
interaction. The Cooper pair state is (a)
responsible for superconductivity, as
described in the BCS theory developed by + + + +
John Bardeen, John Schrieffer and Leon
Cooper for which they shared the 1972 Nobel
Prize [2]. + +
In spite of Cooper pairing to be a + +
- -
quantum effect the reason for the pairing can + +
be seen from a simplified classical + +
explanation [3]. In order to understand how
an attraction between two electrons can
occur, it is necessary to consider the + + + +
interaction with the positive ions lattice of
(b)
the metal. Usually an electron in a metal
behaves as a free particle. Its negative charge + + + +
causes attraction between the positive ions
that make up the rigid lattice of the metal.
This attraction distorts the ion lattice, moving + + + +
the ions slightly toward the electron,
increasing the positive charge density of the - -
lattice in the local (See gray glow in Fig.1 + + + +
(a)). Then, another electron is attracted to the
positive charge density (gray glow) created
by the first electron distorting the lattice + + + +
around itself. This attraction can overcome
the electrons' repulsion due to their negative (c)
Fig. 1 – Cooper Pair Formation
charge and create a binding between the two

343
2
electrons (See Fig.1 (b)). The electrons can ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
then travel through the lattice as a single = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
entity, known as a Cooper Pair (See Fig.1 mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
(c)). While conventional conduction is
resisted by thermal vibrations within the ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪
lattice, Cooper Pairs carry the supercurrent = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
relatively unresisted by thermal vibrations. ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
The energy of the pairing interaction is
quite weak, of the order of 10−3eV, and
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the DeBroglie
thermal energy can easily break the pairs. So
only at low temperatures, are a significant wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
number of the electrons in a metal in Cooper mass mi 0 .
pairs. In general, the momentum variation
Here is showed that, by intensifying the Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
gravitational interaction * [4] between applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
electrons pairs, it is possible to produce pair that there is no restriction concerning the
binding energies on the order of 10−1eV, nature of the force, i.e., it can be mechanical,
enough to keep them paired at ambient electromagnetic, etc. For example, we can
temperatures. Thus, by this way, metals at look on the momentum variation Δp as due
ambient temperature can have a significant to absorption or emission of electromagnetic
number of the electrons in Cooper pairs, energy by the particle.
transforming such metals in superconductors
This means that, by means of
at ambient temperature.
electromagnetic fields, the gravitational mass
can be decreased down to become negative
2. Theory and increased (independently of the inertial
mass mi ). In this way, the gravitational
The quantization of gravity showed
that the gravitational mass mg and the forces can be intensified. Consequently, we
inertial mass mi are correlated by means of can use, for example, oscillating magnetic
the following factor [4]: fields in order to intensify the gravitational
interaction between electrons pairs, in order
to produce pair binding energies enough to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪ keep them paired at ambient temperatures.
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) We will show that the magnetic field used in
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ this case must have extremely-low frequency
(ELF).
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the From Electrodynamics we know that
when an electromagnetic wave with
particle and Δp is the variation in the
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
material with relative permittivity ε r ,
of light.
When Δp is produced by the relative magnetic permeability μ r and
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
(1) becomes refraction of the material, given by [5]

* εμ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling c 2
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity v 2 ⎝ ⎠
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
2008.

344
3
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
μrσ Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
nr = (4)
4πε0 f After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
with the other atoms (See Fig.3).
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 2) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5)
f nr nr μfσ
atom
Sm
Wave
Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the lamina.
v=c v = c/nr

Thus, the total number of collisions in the


nr volume Sξ is
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= nlSφm +(nlSξ −nmSφm) =

Fig. 2 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The = nmSξ (7)


wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
D=
P
=
P
(8 )
S N f Sm
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the We can express the total mean number
electromagnetic radiation with frequency of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the following equation
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number n total N collisions
of atoms reached by the radiation is
n1 =
photons
(9 )
N
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
volume, n , is given by Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total
N0 ρ momentum transferred to the lamina will be
n= (6) Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
A
with Eq. (1), we can write that

where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the ⎧ ⎡


λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
mass(kg/kmole).
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
When an electromagnetic wave incides ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms, = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (10)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of ⎦⎭

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4
Since Eq. (7) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get Thus, for λ = λ mod , the equation above can
⎛ P ⎞ be rewritten as follows
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (11)
⎝ hf ⎠
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξErms
2
⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ −1 (17)
Substitution of Eq. (11) into Eq. (10) yields mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ m c2 2
f ⎟ λ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎢ 0 i0(l ) ⎠ mod⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ ⎞ λ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (12)
⎢ P
⎜ ⎟ 0
Electrodynamics tells us that
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
⎣⎢ ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎥⎦⎭ E rms = vBrms = (c n r (l ) )Brms . Substitution of

this expression into Eq. (17) gives
Substitution of P given by Eq. (8) into Eq.
(12) gives ⎧ ⎡ n6S 4 S 4φ 4ξ 2 B4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg(l ) ⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ l2 f2 m m4 2 rms2 −1⎥⎬ (18)
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ0 mi0(l ) f λmodnr(l ) ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ ⎦⎭
⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ −1 (13)
⎜ m c ⎟ λ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬
l

mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎢ ⎝ f ⎠ Since λmod = λ nr (l ) then Eq. (18) can be


⎪ ⎢ ⎣ ⎝ i 0( l ) ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
rewritten in the following form

Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm mg (l ) ⎧


⎪ ⎡ n6S 4 S 4φ 4ξ 2 B4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + l f2 m2 m 2 rms − 1⎥⎬ (19)
into Eq. (13) results mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4μ m ( ) c f 2
⎥⎦⎪
⎣ 0 i 0 l

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3 S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤ In order to calculate the expressions of
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (14)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ χ Be for the particular case of a free electron
mi0(l ) ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ inside a conductor, subjected to an external
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) . magnetic field Brms with frequency f , we
must consider the interaction with the
Now, considering that the lamina is positive ions that make up the rigid lattice of
inside an ELF electromagnetic field with the metal.
E and B , then we can write that [6] The negative charge of the free
electron causes attraction between the
n r (l ) E 2
D= (15) positive ions lattice of the metal. This
2μ 0 c attraction distorts the ion lattice, moving the
Substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (14) gives ions slightly toward the electron, increasing
the positive charge density of the lattice in
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the local (See gray glow in Fig.1 (a)). Then,
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛⎜ nr(l )nl Sf SmφmξE ⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
3 2 2 2 2
mg(l ) another electron is attracted to the positive
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ −1 (16)
mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ m c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬ charge density (gray glow) created by the
⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ 0 i 0( l ) ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ first electron distorting the lattice around
itself, which produces a strong attraction
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value upon the electron deforming its surface as
showed in Fig. 4. Under these circumstances,
for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because E varies the volume of the electron does not vary, but
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value its external surface is strongly increased,
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. becomes equivalent to the external area of a
sphere with radius rxe >> re ( re is the radius
Consequently we can replace E 4 for E rms
4
.
of the free electron out of the ions “gage”

346
5
showed in Fig. 1 (a)). Based on such S m by S e = π r , ξ by φm = 2rxe and mi 0(l )
2
xe
conclusions, we substitute in Eq.(19) nl by
by me . The result is

⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1⎥⎬ (20)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ c2μ02me2re18 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
+ +
Ve = 43 πre3 In order to calculate the value of rxe we
start considering a hydrogen atom, where the
re electron spins around the proton with a
rxe
velocity v e = 3 × 10 6 m.s −1 . The electrical
electron force acting on the proton is Fe = e 2 4πε 0 r12 ,
which is equal to the centrifuge force
Ae ≡ 4π rx2 Fc = m pω e2 r0 where ω e is the angular velocity
of the electron and r0 is the distance between
+ + the inertial center of the proton and the center
of the moving proton (See Fig. 5, where we
conclude that 2(r0 + rp ) = rxp + r p ; rxp is the
radius of the sphere whose external area is
Fig. 4 – Schematic diagram of Electrons’ equivalent to the increased area of the
proton). Thus, we get r0 = 12 (rxp − rp ) .
structure inside the ion lattice. The positive ions
lattice around the electron produces a strong
attraction upon the electron deforming its surface. Substitution of this value into expression of
The volume of the electron does not vary, but its Fc = Fe gives
external surface is increased and becomes
equivalent to the area of a sphere with radius e2
rxp = + rp = 3.2 × 10 −14 m
rxe >> re . 4πε 0 m p ve
2

Therefore, we can write that rxp = k xp rp ,


where
ve
- rxp
Fe k xp = = 25.6
K
rp
rxp ve
Fe The electron is similarly deformed by the
relative movement of the proton in respect to
r0 the electron. In this case, by analogy, we can
rp write that
e2
rxe = + re = 6.4 × 10 −11 m
4πε 0 m e v e
2

and rxe = k xe re , where rxe is the radius of the


Fig. 5 – The deformation of the proton. sphere whose external area is equivalent to
the increased area of the electron. The radius
1 Ve =1 43 πre3 , S f by (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is the of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m (See
specific surface area for electrons in this Appendix A). However, for electrons in the
case: SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρe Ve = 2πrxe2 ρeVe ), atomic eletrosphere the value of re can be
calculated starting from Quantum Mechanics.
347
6
The wave packet that describes the electron In the case of the neutron, k xn = 1 due to its
satisfies an uncertainty principle electric charge be null. The radius of protons
(ΔpΔx ≥ 2 h ) , where Δp = hΔk and Δk is
1
inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m
the approximate extension of the wave
[7,8], rn ≅ r p , then we obtain from Eqs. (22)
packet. Thus, we can write that (ΔkΔx ≥ 12 ) .
and (23) following expressions:
For the ``square'' packet the full width in k is
Δk = 2π λ0 ( λ0 = h me c is the average ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
22 Brms
χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.2×10 −1⎥⎬ (24)
⎢ ⎥
2
wavelength). The width in x is a little harder ⎪⎩ ⎣ f ⎦⎪⎭
to define, but, lets use the first node in the
probability found at (2π λ0 )x 2 = π or ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−9 Brms
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10 2 −1⎥⎬ (24a)
x = λ0 . So, the width of the wave packet is ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥⎪⎭
twice this or Δx = 2λ0 . Obviously, 2re
cannot be greater than Δx , i.e., re must be Since m ge = χ Be me , m gp = χ Bp m p and
smaller and close to λ0 = h mec = 2.43×10−12 m . m gn = χ Bn m n , it easy to see, by means of
Then, assuming that re ≅ 2.4 × 10 −12 m , we Eqs. (21), (24) and (24a), that m ge is much
get greater than m gp and m gp . This means that, in
r the calculation of the gravitational force
k xe = xe = 26 .6
re Fg (between the positive ions + electron and
the external electron), we can disregard the
Note that k xe ≅ k xp . In the case of electrons effects of the gravitational masses of the
inside the ion lattice (See Fig. 4), we can note ions. Thus, the expression of Fg reduces to
that, in spite of the electron speed ve be null, the the expression of the gravitational forces
deformations are similar, in such way that, in this between the two electrons, i.e.,
case, we can take the values above.
Substitution of these values into Eq. 2
mge me2
(20) gives Fg = −G = − χ Be
2
G (25)
r2 r2
⎧⎪ ⎡ k xe22 re4 Brms
4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ For the creation of the Cooper Pairs Fg
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3.8 × 1057 − 1⎥⎬ =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ must overcome the electrons' repulsion due
to their negative charge (e2 4πε0r 2 ) . Thus, we
⎧⎪ ⎡ B4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 1042 rms − 1 ⎥⎬ (21) must have χ Be
2
Gme2 > e 2 4πε0 or
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
(e me )
Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron χ Be > = −2×1021 (26)
4πε0G
we can write that
For the Cooper Pairs not be destructed by the
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2kxp22rp4Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪

χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (22) thermal vibrations due to the temperature T ,
we must have χ Be Gme2 r > kT whence we
μ
2
⎢ ⎥⎦⎪
2 2 2 2
⎪⎩ ⎣ c m f
0 p

conclude that T < χ Be
2
Gm e2 r . Consequently,
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ the transition temperature, Tc , can be
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (23) expressed by the following expression
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

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7
χ Gm
2 2
magnetic field is used only during a time
Tc = Be e
(27 ) interval sufficient to transform the Aluminum

into a superconductor. This means that the
process is a some sort of “magnetization”
where ξ is the size of the Cooper pair, which
that transforms a conductor into a
is given by the coherence length of the “permanent” superconductor. After the
Cooper-pair wavefunction. It is known that “magnetization” the magnetic field can be
the coherence length is typically 1000 Å turned off, similarly to the case of
(though it can be as small as 30Å in the “magnetization” that transforms an iron rod
copper oxides). The coherence length of the into a “permanent” magnet.
Cooper-pair in Aluminum superconductor is
quite large ( ξ ≅ 1 micron [9]). Substitution
of this value into Eq. (27) gives

Tc = 4 × 10 −42 χ Be
2
(28)

For Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) we obtain

χ Be = −1 × 10 22 (29 )
By comparing (29) with (26), we can
conclude that this value of χ e is sufficient
for the creation of the Cooper Pairs, and also
in order that they do not be destructed by the
thermal vibrations due to the temperature up
to Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) .
In order to calculate the intensity of the
magnetic field Bm with frequency f ,
necessary to produce the value given by
Eq.(29), it is necessary the substitution of Eq.
(29) into Eq. (21). Thus, we get

⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
42 Brms
⎤⎫⎪
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 10 2
− 1⎥⎬ ≅ −1× 1022 (30)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

For f = 2 Hz the value of Brms is

Brms > 3T

Therefore, if a magnetic field with frequency


f = 2 Hz and intensity Brms > 3T † is applied
upon an Aluminum wire it becomes
superconductor at ambient temperature
( Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) ). Note that the


Modern magnetic resonance imaging systems work
with magnetic fields up to 8T [10, 11].
349
8

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton

It is known that the frequency of


oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is 1 Gmgeχe
f= ( A6)
2π Re3
f =
1 K
( A1) The value of χ e varies with the density of
2π m
energy [4]. When the electron and the
positron are distant from each other and the
where m is the inertial mass attached to the
local density of energy is small, the value of
spring and K is the spring constant (in
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
exerted by the spring is linear and given by the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
F = − Kx ( A2) particle become very strong due to the
proximity of their electrical charges e and,
where x is the displacement from the consequently, the value of χ e strongly
equilibrium position. increases. In order to calculate the value of
Now, consider the gravitational force: χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
For example, above the surface of the Earth, start from the expression of correlation
the force follows the familiar Newtonian between electric charge q and gravitational
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where mass, obtained in a previous work [4]:
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3) gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
R⊕3
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
K
=
K GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
( )
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4)
4πε G (
3

into (A1) gives = 0


2
3
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)

1 GMg⊕ χ
f= ( A5) where we obtain
2π R⊕3
χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or by the strong density of energy produced by
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes under previously mentioned conditions.
350
9
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6) Thus, the result is
yields
1 2
1 Gχ e2 mi0e ⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
f= ( A10) Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
2π Re3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Note that these radii, given by
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
free electrons and free protons (when the
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
penetrate themselves mutually).
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [7, 8]. The strong
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
h
(A17) is due to the interaction with the
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [12].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
4πε G( )
3

= 0
2
3
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)

where we obtain

χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)

351
10
References

[1] Cooper, Leon N. (1956). "Bound electron pairs in a


degenerate Fermi gas". Physical Review 104 (4): 1189–
1190.

[2] Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N., Schrieffer, J. R. (April 1957).


"Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity". Physical
Review 106 (1): 162–164. Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N.;
Schrieffer, J. R. (December 1957). "Theory of
Superconductivity". Physical Review 108 (5): 1175–
1204.

[3] Nave, Carl R. (2006). "Cooper Pairs". Hyperphysics.


Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ..
Retrieved 2008-07-24; Kadin, Alan M. (2005). "Spatial
Structure of the Cooper Pair". Journal of
Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism 20 (4): 285.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[5] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[6] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[7] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd


ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff.. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.

[8] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics.


Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

[9] Fujiki, H. et al. Nonlinear resistivity in the mixed state of


superconducting aluminum films. Physica C 297, 309
(1998).

[10] Smith, Hans-Jørgen. "Magnetic resonance imaging".


Medcyclopaedia Textbook of Radiology. GE
Healthcare. Retrieved 2007-03-26.

[11]Orenstein, Beth W. (2006-02-16). "Ultra High-Field


MRI — The Pull of Big Magnets". Radiology Today 7
(3): pp. 10. Archived from the original on March 15,
2008. Retrieved 2008-07-10

[12] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.

352
Gravitational Separator of Isotopes
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this work we show a gravitational separator of isotopes which can be much more effective than those used
in the conventional processes of isotopes separation. It is based on intensification of the gravitational
acceleration, and can generate accelerations tens of times more intense than those generated in the most
powerful centrifuges used for Uranium enrichment.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Isotope separation and enrichment, Nonconventional mechanisms.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 28.60.+ s, 74.20.Mn.

1. Introduction

A conventional gas centrifuge is series. A cascade of identical stages produces


basically a cylinder that spins around its successively higher concentrations of 235U.
central axis with ultra-high angular speed This process is called Uranium enrichment.
while a gas is injected inside it. Under these Uranium occurs naturally as two
conditions, the heavier molecules of the gas isotopes: 99.3% is Uranium-238 and 0.7% is
move towards the cylinder wall and the Uranium-235. Their atoms are identical
lighter ones remain close to the center. In except for the number of neutrons in the
addition, if one creates a thermal gradient in nucleus: Uranium-238 has three more and
a perpendicular direction by keeping the top this makes it less able to fission. Uranium
of the rotating column cool and the bottom enrichment is used to increase the percentage
hot, the resulting convection current carries of the fissile U-235. Nuclear reactors
the lighter molecules to the top while the typically require uranium fuel enriched to
heavier ones settle at the bottom, from which about 3% to 5% U-235. Nuclear bombs
they can be continuously withdrawn. typically use ‘Highly Enriched Uranium’,
An important use of gas centrifuges is enriched to 90% U-235 [2].
for the separation of uranium-235 from In order to extract the 235U from the
235
uranium-238. As a first step, the uranium UF6 it is necessary to add Calcium. The
metal is turned into a gas (uranium Calcium reacts with the gas producing a salt
hexafluoride, UF6). Next, the UF6 is injected and pure 235U.
inside a gas centrifuge, which spins at about The conventional gas centrifuges used
100.000 rpm in order to produce a strong in the Uranium enrichment are very
centrifugal force upon the UF6 molecules. expensive, and they consume much energy
Thus, the UF6 is separated by the difference during the process. Here, it is proposed a new
in molecular weight between 235UF6 and type of separator of isotopes based on the
238
UF6 [1]. The heavier molecules of the gas intensification the gravitational acceleration
238 *
( UF6) move towards the cylinder wall and [3]. It can generate accelerations tens times
the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to the more intense than those generated in the most
center. The convection current carries the powerful centrifuges used for Uranium
lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top while enrichment.
the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the bottom.
However, the gas at the top is not composed
totally by 235UF6 it contains also 238UF6, in *
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
such way that we can say that the gas at the the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity
top is only a gas rich in 235U. In practice, Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
several of such centrifuges are connected in 2008.

353
2
2. Theory
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
From the quantization of gravity
it follows that the gravitational mass mg and
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means This possibility shows that, by means
of the following factor [3]: of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ can make particles acquire enormous
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) accelerations.
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ From Electrodynamics we know that
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ when an electromagnetic wave with
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the frequency f and velocity c incides on a
particle and Δp is the variation in the material with relative permittivity ε r ,
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed relative magnetic permeability μ r and
of light. electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
When Δp is produced by the reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it refraction of the material, given by [5]
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
(1) becomes
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ μrσ
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ nr = (5)
4πε0 f
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2) Thus, the wavelength of the incident
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
⎣ ⎦⎭
λ 4π
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
mass mi 0 .
It has been shown that there is an v=c v = c/nr
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
gravitational mass was reduced or made nr
negative [4]. The effect extends beyond
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
shows that in this region the gravity wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.

proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ


χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
acceleration before the gravitational
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
shielding). Consequently, after a second
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be f incides on an area S of the lamina it
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way, of atoms reached by the radiation is
we can write that after the nth gravitational N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by volume, n , is given by
354
3
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
N0 ρ
n= (7) transferred to the atom, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
A
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
with Eq. (1), we can write that
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ0 ⎤
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
mass(kg/kmole). = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
When an electromagnetic wave incides mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms, ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of ⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫

= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11)
the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where ⎦⎭

Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom. Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions ⎛ P ⎞
with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

atom mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives
Thus, the total number of collisions in the
volume Sξ is ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
=nmSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
S N f Sm 2
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [6]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N
D= (16 )
2μ 0 c

355
4
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives system has been replaced by the one shown
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ in Fig.3 and Fig.4 (detailed).
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ Inside the Gravitational Separator of
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬ Isotopes there is a dielectric tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ the following characteristics: α = 60mm ,
In the case in which the area S f is just the Sα = πα 2 4 = 2 .83 × 10 − 3 m 2 . Inside the
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) , tube there is an Aluminum sphere with 30mm
we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that radius and mass M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube
mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression is filled with air at ambient temperature and
1atm. Thus, inside the tube, the air density is
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 )
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2μ0ρ(l )c f ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪


⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
unit of volume, nair , according to Eq.(7), is
According to Eq. (6) we have
given by
v c
λ = λ mod = = (19 )
f nr (l ) f N 0 ρ air
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23)
AN
The parallel metallic plates (p), shown in
⎧ ⎡ 4φ 4 E4 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ nr4(l )nl6Sα2 Sm m ⎥⎪
Fig.3 are subjected to different drop voltages.
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 2 6 2
−1⎥⎬ (20) The two sets of plates (D), placed on the
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ 4μ0 ρ(l )c f ⎥⎪ extremes of the tube, are subjected to
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ V( D )rms = 16.22V at f = 1Hz , while the central

Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value set of plates (A) is subjected to
V( A)rms = 191.98V at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm ,
for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because E varies
then the intensity of the electric field, which
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. (each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
4 4 sets (D), is
Consequently we can replace E for E , rms

and the equation above can be rewritten as E( D)rms = V( D)rms d = 165.53V / m


follows

m g (l ) and the intensity of the electric field, which


χ= = passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas
mi0(l ) of the central set (A), is given by
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m4φ 4 E4
m rms ⎥⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (21) E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 1.959 × 10 3V / m
⎪ ⎢ 4μ 02 ρ (2l )c 6 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Note that the metallic rings (5mm
Now consider the system shown in thickness) are positioned in such way to
Fig.3. It was originally designed to convert block the electric field out of the cylindrical
Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
Energy [7]. Here, it works as Separator of of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
Isotopes. These systems are basically similar, (GCC) [4]. Thus, the system shown in Fig. 3
except in the core. The core of the original has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
and one with 7 GCC. The two sets with 18
356
5
GCC each are positioned at the extremes of ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ 4 E4
m ( D)rms ⎥⎪
the tube (D). They work as gravitational χ d = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ =
decelerator while the other set with 7 GCC μ 2 ρ 2 c6 f 2
⎪ ⎢ 4 0 (l ) ⎥⎪
(A) works as a gravitational accelerator, ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ − ⎤ ⎫
intensifying the gravity acceleration 9 4
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1 +1.645×10 E( D)rms −1⎥⎬ (25)
produced by the mass M gs of the Aluminum ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
after the 7th GCC becomes g7 = χ 7GMgs r02 , where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) † ;
where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21) and nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
r0 = 35mm is the distance between the Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2 and f = 1Hz. Since
center of the Aluminum sphere and the E( A)rms = 1.959×103V /m and E( D)rms = 165.53V / m
surface of the first GCC of the set (A).
, we get
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
the external gravity along the axis of the χ = −308.5 (26)
tube. In this case, the value of the external
gravity, gext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext , and

where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)


BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced It is important to note that the set with
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased 7 GCC (A) cannot be turned on before the
magnetic field B is on. Because the
by χ . Since the system is designed for
7
gravitational accelerations on the dielectric
χ = −308 .5 (See Eq. (26)), then the gravity chamber and Al sphere will be enormous
acceleration on the sphere becomes ( )
χ 7 GM gs r02 ≅ 4.4 × 10 9 m / s 2 , and will
χ7χd18gext = 2.6×10−18m/ s2 . This value is much explode the device.
−8 The isotopes inside the Dielectric
smaller than gsphere= GMgs rs2 = 2.26×10 m / s .
2
Chamber are subjected to the gravity
Note that there is a uniform magnetic acceleration produced by the sphere, and
field, B , through the core of the increased by the 7 GCC in the region (A). Its
Gravitational Separator of Isotopes (a value is
cylindrical Dielectric Chamber with 60mm
external diameter; 50mm internal diameter M gs
and 100mm height). ai = χ 7 g s = χ 7 G 2
≅ 6.0 × 109 m / s 2 (28)
The values of χ and χ d , according to Eq. rs

(21) are given by


Comparing this value with the produced in
the most powerful centrifuges (at 100,000
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ 4 E4
m ( A)rms ⎥⎪ rpm), which is of the order of 107m/s2, we
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ = conclude that the accelerations in the
μ 2 ρ 2 c6 f 2
⎪ ⎢ 4 0 (l ) ⎥⎪ Gravitational Separator of Isotopes is about
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ − ⎤ ⎫ 600 times greater than the values of the
9 4
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1 +1.645×10 E( A)rms −1⎥⎬ (24) centrifuges.
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

The electrical conductivity of air, inside the
dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical conductivity
of Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose average
value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [8].

357
6
In the case of Uranium enrichment, the the electrons radius), S f by (SSAe )ρ eVe
gas UF6 is injected inside this core where it is
( SSAe is the specific surface area for
strongly accelerated. Thus, the UF6 is
separated by the difference in molecular electrons in this case:
weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 (See SSAe = 2 Ae me = 2 Ae ρ e Ve = 2πre ρ eVe ),
1 1 2

Fig.4). The heavier molecules of the gas S m by S e = π re2 , ξ by φ m = 2re and mi 0(l )
(238UF6) move towards the cylinder bottom
and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to by me . The result is
the center. The convection current, produced
⎧⎪ 45.56π 2 re4 nr2 E 4 ⎤⎫⎪
by a thermal gradient of about 300°C ⎡
between the bottom and the top of the χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (33)
cylinder, carries the lighter molecules ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ μ 2 2 4 4 2
m
0 e c f λ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(235UF6) to the top while the heavier ones Electrodynamics tells us that
(238UF6) settle at the bottom, from which they E rms = vBrms = (c nr )Brms , and Eq. (19) gives
λ = λmod = (4π μrσ f ). Substitution of
can be continuously withdrawn. The gas
withdrawn at the top of the cylinder is a gas these
rich in 235U. expressions into Eq. (33) yields
The gravitational forces due to the
gravitational mass of the sphere (M gs ) acting ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
45.56π 2 re4 Brms
4

on electrons (Fe ) , protons (Fp ) and neutrons χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (34)


⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02 me2c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(Fp ) of the dielectric of the Dielectric
Chamber, are respectively expressed by the Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron
following relations we can write that
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rp4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪

⎛ M gs ⎞
Fe = mge ae = χ Be me ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (29) χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (35)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ μ ⎥
⎦⎪⎭
m c f
⎝ r0 ⎠ 0 p

⎛ M gs ⎞ ⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms ⎤⎫⎪


(30)
4
Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp mp ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (36)
⎝ r0 ⎠
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

⎛ M gs ⎞
Fn = mgn an = χ Bnmn ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (31) The radius of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m
⎝ r0 ⎠
(See Appendix A) and the radius of protons
In order to make null the resultant of these inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m ,
forces in the Dielectric Chamber (and also in rn ≅ r p [9, 10], then we obtain from Eqs. (34)
the sphere) we must have Fe = F p + Fn , i.e., (35) and (36) the following expressions:

m e χ Be = m p χ Bp + m n χ Bn (32 ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 8.49×104 −1⎥⎬ (37)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
In order to calculate the expressions of
χ Be , χ Bp and χ Bn we start from Eq. (17),
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
−1⎥⎬ (38)
for the particular case of single electron in
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10−9
the region subjected to the magnetic field B. ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎪⎩
In this case, we must substitute nr (l ) by
nr = (μrσ 4πε0 f )2 ; nl by 1 Ve = 1 43 πre3 ( re is
1

Then, from Eq. (32) it follows that

358
7
m e χ Be ≅ 2 m p χ Bp (39 ) In the case of f = 0.1Hz the result is

Substitution of Eqs. (37) and (38) into Eq. 0.01T < Brms < 48.02T (48)
(39) gives

⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
4 Brms
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 8.49 × 10 − 1⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f2 ⎦⎥⎪⎭
= 3666.3 (40)
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎫

−9 Brms
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.35 × 10 − 1⎥⎬
⎢⎣
2
⎪⎩ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

For f = 0.1Hz , we get

{1 − 2[ 1 + 8.49 × 10 B
6 4
−1 ]} = 3666.3 (41)
{1 − 2[ 1 + 2.35 × 10 B − 1]}
rms
−7 4
rms

whence we obtain

Brms = 0.793 T (42)


Consequently, Eq. (37) and (38) yields

χ Be = −3666.3 (43)
and
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp ≅ 0.999 (44)

In order for the forces Fe and F p have


contrary direction (such as it occurs in the
case, in which the nature of the electromotive
force is electrical) we must have χ Be < 0
and χ Bn ≅ χ Bp > 0 (See equations (29) (30)
and (31)), i.e.,
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
4 Brms
⎨1− 2⎢ 1+8.49×10 2 −1⎥⎬ < 0 (45)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
and
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎨ ⎢ 1− 2 1+ 2.35×10−9 Brms
2
−1⎥⎬ > 0 (46)
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥⎪⎭

This means that we must have

0.06 f < B rms < 151 .86 f (47 )

359
8

d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D
Parallel plate
17 capacitor (p)
ED(rms) E
Electric field of
18 capacitor

Air
Aluminum sphere
Mg (60 mm diameter)
r0=35mm EA(rms)
Coil
(f = 0.1Hz) 1
Air
Air 2
Core of the
Gravitational
A Separator of Isotopes
(Dielectric Chamber)
6

7
235
UF6
UF6
235
UF6
238
UF6
1
Air
2
Fe
Fe
D
Air 17
18

BS

Fig. 3 – Schematic Diagram of a Gravitational Separator of Isotopes (Based on a process of gravity


control patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5). In the case of Uranium enrichment, the gas UF6 is injected inside the
core of the Gravitational Separator of Isotopes where it is strongly accelerated. Thus, the UF6 is separated by the
difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6. The heavier molecules of the gas (238UF6) move towards the
cylinder bottom and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to the center. The convection current, produced by a thermal
gradient of about 300°C between the bottom and the top of the cylinder, carries the lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top
while the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the bottom, from which they can be continuously withdrawn. The gas
withdrawn at the top of the cylinder is a gas rich in 235U.

360
9

Fe 235 UF6
UF6
235 235
UF6 UF6
Dielectric
Chamber
235
UF6

238
UF6

238
UF6
238 Fe
UF6 330°C

235
UF6

D
Coil Coil

Fig. 4 – Details of the core of the Gravitational Separator of Isotopes. In the case of Uranium enrichment,
the heavier molecules of the gas (238UF6) move towards the cylinder bottom and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close
to the center. The convection current, produced by a thermal gradient of about 300°C between the bottom and the top of
the Dielectric Chamber, carries the lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top while the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the
bottom, from which they can be continuously withdrawn. The gas withdrawn at the top of the chamber is a gas rich in
235
U.

361
10

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton


Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or
It is known that the frequency of positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes
oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is

( A1) 1 Gmge χe
1 K
f =
2π m f= ( A6)
2π Re3
where m is the inertial mass attached to the The value of χ e varies with the density of
spring and K is the spring constant (in energy [3]. When the electron and the
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force positron are distant from each other and the
exerted by the spring is linear and given by local density of energy is small, the value of
χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
F = − Kx ( A2) the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
where x is the displacement from the particle become very strong due to the
equilibrium position. proximity of their electrical charges e and,
Now, consider the gravitational force: consequently, the value of χ e strongly
For example, above the surface of the Earth, increases. In order to calculate the value of
the force follows the familiar Newtonian
χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where
start from the expression of correlation
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the between electric charge q and gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the mass, obtained in a previous work [3]:
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3)
R⊕3 where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
K
=
K
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4)
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠ qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
into (A1) gives
(
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =)
4πε G (
3

f=
1 GMg⊕ χ
( A5) = 0
2
3
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)
2π R⊕3
where we obtain
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)

362
11
This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
by the strong density of energy produced by χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
under previously mentioned conditions. Thus, the result is
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6)
yields 1 2
⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
1 Gχ e2 mi0e Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
f= ( A10) ⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2π Re3
Note that these radii, given by
Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that
free electrons and free protons (when the
particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) penetrate themselves mutually).
Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in protons is well-known. For example, protons,
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [9, 10]. The strong
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
(A17) is due to the interaction with the
h
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [11].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
4πε G( )
3

= 0
2
3
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)

where we obtain
363
12

References

[1] Emsley, John (2001). "Uranium". Nature's Building


Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. p. 478.

[2] "Uranium Enrichment". Argonne National Laboratory.


Retrieved 2007-02-11.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[5] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[6] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2012) A System to convert Gravitational


Energy directly into Electrical Energy,
http://viXra.org/abs/1205.0119

[8] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.
[9] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd
ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff.. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.

[10] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics.


Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

[11] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.

364
Gravitational Atomic Synthesis at Room Temperature
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It is described a process for creating new atoms starting from pre-existing atoms. We show that all the elements of
the periodic table can be synthesized, at room temperature, by a gravitational process based on the intensification of
the gravitational interaction by means of electromagnetic fields.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Atom manipulation, Atomic forces.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 37.90.+j, 34.20.-b.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

Rutherford [1] was the first to observe The quantization of gravity showed
the transmutation of the atoms, and also the that the gravitational mass mg and the
first to perform transmutation of the atoms. inertial mass mi are correlated by means of
That gave him a double justification for the following factor [5]:
being labeled an alchemist.
It is currently believed that the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
synthesis of precious metals, a symbolic goal χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
long sought by alchemists, is only possible mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
with methods involving either nuclear ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
reactors or particle accelerators. However, it
will be shown here that all the elements of where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
the periodic table can be synthesized, at room particle and Δp is the variation in the
temperature, by a gravitational process based particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
on the intensification of the gravitational of light.
interaction by means of electromagnetic When Δp is produced by the
fields. The process is very simple, but it
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
requires extremely-low frequency (ELF)
magnetic field with very strong intensity is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
(Brms > 2,500T).
B
(1) becomes
The strongest continuous magnetic m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

field yet produced in a laboratory had 45 T ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
(Florida State University's National High mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Magnetic Field Laboratory in Tallahassee,
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
USA) [2]. The strongest (pulsed) magnetic ⎪ ⎪
field yet obtained non-destructively in a = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
laboratory had about 100T. (National High ⎣ ⎦⎭
Magnetic Field Laboratory, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, USA) [3]. The strongest where λ0 = h mi0 c is the DeBroglie
pulsed magnetic field yet obtained in a
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
laboratory, destroying the used equipment,
but not the laboratory itself (Institute for mass mi 0 .
Solid State Physics, Tokyo) reached 730 T . In general, the momentum variation
The strongest (pulsed) magnetic field ever Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
obtained (with explosives) in a laboratory applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
(VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998) reached that there is no restriction concerning the
2,800T [4]. nature of the force, i.e., it can be mechanical,
electromagnetic, etc. For example, we can

365
2
look on the momentum variation Δp as due If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
to absorption or emission of electromagnetic contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
energy by the particle. atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
This means that, by means of electromagnetic radiation with frequency
electromagnetic fields, the gravitational mass f incides on an area S of the lamina it
can be decreased down to become negative reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
and increased (independently of the inertial
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
mass mi ). In this way, the gravitational
forces can be intensified. Consequently, we of atoms reached by the radiation is
can use, for example, oscillating magnetic N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
fields in order to intensify the gravitational volume, n , is given by
interaction between electrons and protons. N0 ρ
From Electrodynamics we know that n= (6)
A
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
relative magnetic permeability μ r and of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is mass(kg/kmole).
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
refraction of the material, given by [6]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2

v 2 ⎝ ⎠ incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where


Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to with the other atoms (See Fig.3).

μrσ
nr = (4)
4πε0 f

Thus, the wavelength of the incident


radiation (See Fig. 2) becomes atom
Sm
Wave
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the lamina.
f nr nr μfσ
Thus, the total number of collisions in the
volume Sξ is
v=c v = c/nr
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= nlSφm +(nlSξ −nmSφm) =
nr = nmSξ (7)
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
(8 )
Fig. 2 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The P P
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be D= =
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. S N f Sm

366
3
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
n total N collisions n r (l ) E 2
n1 =
photons
(9 ) D= (15)
N 2μ 0 c
Substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (14) gives
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
momentum transferred to the lamina will be mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (16)
⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 2μ0mi0(l )c f ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎥⎪
2 2
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
with Eq. (1), we can write that ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

⎧ ⎡ Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value


λ ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ = for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪ for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ 2.
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (10)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ Consequently we can replace E for E . 4 4
⎦⎭ rms

Thus, for λ = λmod , the equation above can


Since Eq. (7) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get be rewritten as follows
⎛ P ⎞
ntotal N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (11) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
photons
⎝ hf ⎠ mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξErms
2
⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜
⎢ ⎜

⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎢⎝ 2 μ m
0 i0(l )c2 2
f λ
⎠ mod⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
Substitution of Eq. (11) into Eq. (10) yields ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ Electrodynamics tells us that


E rms = vBrms = (c n r (l ) )Brms . Substitution of
2
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (12)

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ this expression into Eq. (17) gives
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭

⎧ ⎡ nl6S 4f Sm4φm4ξ 2 Brms


4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg(l ) ⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 4 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (18)
Substitution of P given by Eq. (8) into Eq.
χ=
(12) gives mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ0 mi0(l ) f λmodnr(l ) ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (13) Since λmod = λ nr (l ) then Eq. (18) can be
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ l

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎢⎝
⎣ f ⎠⎝ i0(l ) ⎟⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎥⎪
⎜ m c rewritten in the following form
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ nl6S 4f Sm4φm4ξ 2 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg (l ) ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − ⎥⎬ (19)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and
1
S = N f Sm mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ02mi20(l )c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪

into Eq. (13) results
In order to calculate the expressions of
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ 2 χ Be for the particular case of a electron of
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3 S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (14)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ the electrophere of a atom, subjected to an
mi0(l ) ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ external magnetic field Brms with frequency
⎩ ⎣

367
4
f , we must substitute in Eq. (19) nl Therefore, we can write that rxp = k xp rp ,
for 1 Ve =1 πr
4 3
3 e
, S f for (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is where
rxp
the specific surface area for electrons in this k xp = = 25.6
case: SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρe Ve = 2πrxe2 ρeVe ), rp
The electron is similarly deformed by the
S m by S e = π rxe2 , ξ by φm = 2rxe and mi 0(l )
relative movement of the proton in respect to
by me . The result is it. In this case, by analogy, we can write that
e2
rxe = + re = 6.4 × 10 −11 m
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ 4πε 0 m e v e
2

χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1⎥⎬ (20)


⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ c2μ02me2re18 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ and rxe = k xe re , where rxe is the radius of the
sphere whose external area is equivalent to
In order to calculate the value of rxe we the increased area of the electron. The radius
of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m (See
start considering a hydrogen atom, where the
electron spins around the proton with a Appendix A). However, for electrons in the
velocity v e = 3 × 10 6 m.s −1 . The electrical atomic eletrosphere of atoms the value of re
force acting on the proton is Fe = e 2 4πε 0 r12 , must be calculated starting from Quantum
Mechanics. The wave packet that describes
which is equal to the centrifuge force the electron satisfies an uncertainty principle
Fc = m pω e2 r0 where ω e is the angular velocity (ΔpΔx ≥ 12 h ) , where Δp = hΔk and Δk is
of the electron and r0 is the distance between the approximate extension of the wave
the inertial center of the proton and the center packet. Thus, we can write that (ΔkΔx ≥ 12 ) .
of the moving proton (See Fig. 5, where we For the ``square'' packet the full width in k is
conclude that 2(r0 + rp ) = rxp + r p , where Δk = 2π λ0 ( λ0 = h me c is the average
rxp is the radius of the sphere whose external wavelength). The width in x is a little harder
area is equivalent to the increased area of the to define, but, lets use the first node in the
proton). Thus, we get r0 = 12 (rxp − rp ) . probability found at (2π λ0 )x 2 = π or
x = λ0 . So, the width of the wave packet is
ve twice this or Δx = 2λ0 . Obviously, 2re
-
Fe cannot be greater than Δx , i.e., re must be
K
smaller and close to λ0 = h mec = 2.43×10−12 m .
rxp ve Then, assuming that re ≅ 2.4 × 10 −12 m , we
Fe get
r0
rxe
rp k xe = = 26 .6
re

Note that k xe ≅ k xp .
Fig. 5 – The deformation of the proton. Substitution of these values into Eq.
(20) gives

Substitution of this value into expression of


Fc = Fe gives
e2
rxp = + rp = 3.2 × 10 −14 m
4πε 0 m p ve
2

368
5
⎧⎪ ⎡ k xe22 re4 Brms
4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ attracted to the nucleus and leaves the atom.
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3.8 × 1057 − 1⎥⎬ = The final result is that the atom loses a
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ proton and an electron and is transformed in
a new atom. But the transmutation is not
⎧⎪ ⎡ 42 Brms
4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 10 − 1 ⎥⎬ (21) completed until the magnetic field is turned
off. When this occurs the Cooper pairs are
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
broken, and the new atom leaves the
Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron transitory state, and passes to the normal
we can write that state.
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2kxp22rp4Brms4 ⎤⎫⎪ In order to satisfy the condition

χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1 ⎥⎬ (22) expressed by Eq. (26), we must have
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ c μ
2 2 2 2
m f ⎥
0 p
⎦⎪⎭
FN r12
χ Bp χ Be > ≈ 3 × 10 48 (27)
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ Gm p me
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (23)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
By substitution of Eq. (21) and (22) into Eq.
In the case of the neutron, k xn = 1 due to its (27), we obtain
2
electric charge be null. The radius of protons Brms
> 6 × 10 7
inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m f
[8,9], rn ≅ r p , then we obtain from Eqs. (22) Thus, for f = 0.1Hz we conclude that the
and (23) the following expressions: required value of Brms is
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
22 Brms
χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.2×10 −1⎥⎬ (24) Brms > 2,500T
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ This means that, if we subject, for
−9 Brms
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10 2 −1⎥⎬ (25) example, an amount of 198Hg (80 electrons,
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥⎪⎭ 80 protons, 118 neutrons) to a magnetic field
When a strong magnetic field Brms is applied with Brms>2,500 T and frequency 0.1Hz the
B

198
Hg loses 1 proton and 1 electron and
on the atom, the enormous value of χ Be (See
consequently will be transmuted to 197Au (79
Eq. 21) makes the gravitational force electrons, 79 protons, 118 neutrons) when the
between the electrons greater than the magnetic field is turned off. Besides the
electric force due to its charges, and transformation of mercury into gold, we can
consequently, the electrons are joined in pairs make several transmutations. For example, if
(Cooper pairs)[10]. However, due to the the 197Au is after subjected to the same
vales of χ Be and χ Bp , the gravitational magnetic field it will be transmuted to 196Pt
attraction between the electrons of the K (78 electrons, 78 protons, 118 neutrons).
shell and the protons of the nucleus becomes Similarly, if 110Cd (48 electrons, 48 protons,
greater than the nuclear force, i.e., 62 neutrons) is subjected to the mentioned
m gp mge m p me field it will be transmuted to 109Ag (47
G 2
= χ Bp χ Be G 2 > FN (26) electrons, 47 protons, 62 neutrons). Also 235U
r1 r1 can be easily obtained by this process, i.e., if
Then, the proton more weakly bound to the we subject an amount of 236Np (93 electrons,
nucleus is ejected towards the nearest 93 protons, 143 neutrons) to the magnetic
electron. When they collide, there occurs the field with >2,500 T and frequency 0.1Hz,
formation of one neutron and one neutrino, the 236Np loses 1 proton and 1 electron and
according the well-known reaction consequently will be transmuted to 235U (92
p + e → n + ν e . Since the neutron is beyond electrons, 92 protons, 143 neutrons).
the reach of the nuclear force, it is not

369
6

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton

It is known that the frequency of


oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is 1 Gmgeχe
f= ( A6)
2π Re3
f =
1 K
( A1) The value of χ e varies with the density of
2π m
energy [5]. When the electron and the
positron are distant from each other and the
where m is the inertial mass attached to the
local density of energy is small, the value of
spring and K is the spring constant (in
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
exerted by the spring is linear and given by the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
F = − Kx ( A2) particle become very strong due to the
proximity of their electrical charges e and,
where x is the displacement from the consequently, the value of χ e strongly
equilibrium position. increases. In order to calculate the value of
Now, consider the gravitational force: χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
For example, above the surface of the Earth, start from the expression of correlation
the force follows the familiar Newtonian between electric charge q and gravitational
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where mass, obtained in a previous work [5]:
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3) gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
R⊕3
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
K
=
K GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
( )
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4)
4πε G (
3

into (A1) gives = 0


2
3
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)

1 GMg⊕ χ
f= ( A5) where we obtain
2π R⊕3
χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or by the strong density of energy produced by
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes under previously mentioned conditions.

370
7
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6) Thus, the result is
yields
1 2
1 Gχ e2 mi0e ⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞3
f= ( A10) Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72 × 10−17 m ( A17)
⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
2π Re3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Note that these radii, given by
Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) free electrons and free protons (when the
particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in penetrate themselves mutually).
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [8,9]. The strong
h
increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we (A17) is due to the interaction with the
conclude that electron of the atom.

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [11].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
4πε G( )
3

= 0
2
3
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)

where we obtain

χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)

371
8

References
[1] Rutherford, E. (1933) The Artificial Transmutation of
the Elements; Rutherford, E. (1937)The Newer Alchemy.

[2] "World's Most Powerful Magnet Tested Ushers in New


Era for Steady High Field Research". National High
Magnetic Field Laboratory.
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/
pressreleases/1999december17.html

[3] http://gizmodo.com/5896092/the-worlds-most-
powerful-non+destructive-magnet-screams-like-a-
banshee.

[4] Bykov, A.I et al., Pulsed Power Conference, 1999.


Digest of Technical Papers. 12th IEEE International, 2,
pp. 746 – 749.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[6] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[7] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[8] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd


ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff.. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.

[9] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics.


Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

[10] De Aquino, F. (2012) Superconducting State generated


by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified Gravitational
Interaction, http://vixra.org/abs/1207.0008.

[11] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.

372
Ultrafast Conversion of Graphite to Diamond in
Gravitational Pressure Apparatus
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Currently the artificial production of diamond is very expensive because it consumes large amounts of energy in order
to produce a single diamond. Here, we propose a new type of press based on the intensification of the gravitational
acceleration. This Gravitational Press can generate pressures several times more intense than the 80GPa required for
ultrafast transformation of graphite into diamond. In addition, due to the enormous pressure that the Gravitational
Press can produce, the "synthesis capsule" may be very large (up to about 1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to
produce diamonds with up to 100 carats (20g) or more. On the other hand, besides the ultrafast conversion, the energy
required for the Gravitational Presses is very low, in such a way that the production cost of the diamonds becomes
very low, what means that they could be produced on a large scale.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, High-pressure apparatus, Graphite, Diamond.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 07.35.+k, 81.05.uf , 81.05.ug

1. Introduction

After the discovery that diamond was the Cubic press and the split-sphere (BARS)
pure carbon, many attempts were made to press. Typical pressures and temperatures
convert various carbon forms into diamond. achievable are of the order of 10 GPa and
Converting graphite into diamond has been a 2500°C [5].
long held dream of alchemists. The artificial Diamonds may be formed in the
production of diamond was first achieved by Earth’s mantle mainly by direct transition,
H.T Hall in 1955. He used a press capable of graphite to diamond or by systems involving
producing pressures above 10 GPa and carbon dissolved in molten metals. The
temperatures above 2,000 °C [1]. classic high-pressure, high-temperature
Today, there are several methods to synthesis of diamond utilizes molten
produce synthetic diamond. The more widely transition metals as solvent/catalysts.
utilized method uses high pressure and high Converting diamond from graphite in the
temperature (HPHT) of the order of 10 GPa absence of a catalyst requires pressures that
and 2500°C during many hours in order to are significantly higher than those at
produce a single diamond. The fact that this equilibrium coexistence [6-12]. At lower
process requires high pressure and high temperatures, the formation of the metastable
temperatures during a long time means that it hexagonal polymorph of diamond is favored
consumes large amounts of energy, and this instead of the more stable cubic diamond [7,
is the reason why the production cost of 10-12]. These phenomena cannot be
artificial diamond is so expensive. The explained by the concerted mechanism
second method, using chemical vapor suggested in previous theoretical studies [13-
deposition (CVD), creates a carbon plasma 17]. However, recently Michele Parrinello,
over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms Professor of Computational Science at ETH
deposit to form diamond. Other methods Zurich, and his team have developed a
include explosive formation and sonication method by which they have successfully
of graphite solutions [2,3,4]. simulated this phase transition accurately and
In the HPHT method, there are three adequately using computer models [18].
main press designs used to supply the Instead of happening concerted, all at once,
pressure and temperature necessary to the conversion evidently takes place in a step
produce synthetic diamond: the Belt press, by step process involving the formation of a

373
2
diamond seed in the graphite, which is then where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
transformed completely at high pressure. In particle and Δp is the variation in the
quantitative agreement with the ab initio
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
calculations of Tateyama at al. [19], the
of light.
stability of diamond relative to graphite
When Δp is produced by the
increases with pressure whereas the barrier
separating two phases decreases. Parrinello’s absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
work shows that at a pressure of 80 GPa and is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
temperature between 0 and 1,000K graphite (1) becomes
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
reaches a lattice instability point and 2
⎢ ⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
undergoes an ultrafast transformation to = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
diamond as was previously observed in ab mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
initio simulations by Scandolo et al [20].
Here, we propose a new type of press ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪
based on the intensification of the gravitational = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
acceleration * . This press can generate pressures ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
several times more intense † than the 80GPa ⎣ ⎦⎭
required for the ultrafast transformation of where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
graphite to diamond. In addition, due to the wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
enormous pressure that the Gravitational Press mass mi 0 .
can produce (>>80GPa), the ceramic cube
("synthesis capsule") can be very large (up to It has been shown that there is an
about 1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
produce diamonds up to 100 carats (20g) or effect - produced by a substance whose
more. On the other hand, besides the ultrafast gravitational mass was reduced or made
conversion, the energy required for the negative [22]. The effect extends beyond
Gravitational Presses is very low, in such a way substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
that the production cost of the diamonds becomes certain distance from it (along the central
very low, what means that they could be axis of gravitational shielding). This effect
produced on a large scale.
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
2. Theory
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where
From the quantization of gravity it χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
follows that the gravitational mass mg and acceleration before the gravitational
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means shielding). Consequently, after a second
of the following factor gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
[21]: given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by
*
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
2008.
This possibility shows that, by means

The limit is basically determined by the compression of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
resistance of the material of the piston and anvils of the can make particles acquire enormous
Gravitational Press since it can produce pressures far beyond accelerations. In practice, this is the basis to
1000 GPa.
the conception of the Gravitational Press.

374
3
From Electrodynamics we know that where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 atoms / kmole is the
26
when an electromagnetic wave with
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
material with relative permittivity ε r , mass(kg/kmole).
relative magnetic permeability μ r and When an electromagnetic wave incides
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
refraction of the material, given by [23] the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4) incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
μrσ
nr = (5) with the other atoms (See Fig.2).
4πε0 f
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
atom
Sm
Wave
v=c v = c/nr Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.

Thus, the total number of collisions in the


nr volume Sξ is
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The =nmSξ (8)
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency D=
P
=
P
(9 )
S N f Sm
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
We can express the total mean number
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
of atoms reached by the radiation is the following equation
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
volume, n , is given by ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 )
N
N0 ρ
n= (7)
A Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be

375
4
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
with Eq. (1), we can write that = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ m
0 i0(l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪

⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
λ0 ⎤
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ In the case in which the area S f is just the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎦⎭

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18)
⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12) mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2μ0ρ(l )c f ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪


⎝ hf ⎠ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields According to Eq. (6) we have
v c
λ = λ mod = = (19 )
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ f nr (l ) f
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥ Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎧ ⎡ 4φ 4 E4 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ nr4(l )nl6Sα2 Sm m ⎥⎪
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq. = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 2 6 2
−1⎥⎬ (20)
(13) gives mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ 4μ0 ρ(l )c f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ for E 2 is equal to 1 E m2 because E varies
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
2

sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value


Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
4 4
into Eq. (14) results Consequently we can change E by E , rms

and the equation above can be rewritten as


⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ follows
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
m g (l )
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪ χ= =
⎩ ⎭ mi0(l )
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) . ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m4φ 4 E4
m rms ⎥⎪
Now, considering that the lamina is = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (21)
inside an ELF electromagnetic field with ⎪ ⎢ 4μ 02 ρ (2l )c 6 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
E and B , then we can write that [24]
Now consider the system
n r (l ) E 2
D= (16 ) (Gravitational Press) shown in Fig.3.
2μ 0 c Inside the system there is a dielectric
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics:
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives α = 60mm , Sα = πα 2 4 = 2 .83 × 10 − 3 m 2 .
Inside the tube there is an Aluminum sphere
376
5
with 30mm radius and mass produced by the mass M gs of the
M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube is filled with air Aluminum sphere. According to Eq. (3), this
at ambient temperature and 1atm. Thus, gravity, after the 7th GCC becomes
inside the tube, the air density is
g 7 = χ 7GM gs r02 , where χ = mg (l ) mi (l )
given by Eq. (21) and r0 = 35mm is the
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 )
distance between the center of the Aluminum
sphere and the surface of the first GCC of the
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per set (A).
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is The objective of the sets (D), with 18
given by GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
the external gravity along the axis of the
N 0 ρ air tube. In this case, the value of the external
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23) gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
AN
where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base
The parallel metallic plates (p), shown BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
on the extremes of the tube, are subjected to to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased
V( D )rms = 14.896V at f = 1Hz , while the
by χ 7 . Since the system is designed for
central set of plates (A) is subjected to χ = −308 .5 , then the gravity acceleration on
V( A)rms = 183.55V at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm , −18
the sphere becomes χ χd gext = 2.6 ×10 m / s ,
7 18 2
then the intensity of the electric field, which
this value is much smaller than
passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two g sphere = GM gs rs2 = 2.26 × 10−8 m / s 2 .
sets (D), is This values of χ and χ d , according to
Eq. (21) are given by
E( D)rms = V( D)rms d = 1.582×102 V / m
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(air) nair
6 S 2 S 4φ 4 E4
α m m ( A)rms ⎥⎪
and the intensity of the electric field, which χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
μ 2 ρ 2 c6 f 2
passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas ⎪ ⎢ 4 0 air ⎥⎪
of the central set (A), is given by ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

⎧ ⎫
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 +1.97×10−9 E(4A)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (24)
E ( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 1.873 × 10 3 V / m ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(air) nair
6 S 2 S 4φ 4 E4
α m m ( D)rms ⎥⎪
Note that the metallic rings (5mm χ d = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ =
thickness) are positioned in such way to ⎪ ⎢ 4μ02 ρ air
2 c6 f 2
⎥⎪
block the electric field out of the cylindrical ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
⎧ ⎫
of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cell = ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 +1.97×10−9 E(4D)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (25)
(GCC) [22]. Thus, the system shown in Fig. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
3 has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each
and one with 7 GCC. The two sets with 18
GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
the tube (D). They work as gravitational
decelerator while the other set with 7 GCC
(A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
intensifying the gravity acceleration

377
6
where n r (air ) ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ‡
;
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 and f =1Hz.
Since E( A)rms = 1.873 × 10 3 V / m and
E( D)rms = 1.582×102 V / m , Eq. (24) and (25) ,
given the following values

χ = −308.5 (26)
and

χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
Then, the gravitational acceleration
upon the piston of the Gravitational Press
shown in Fig. 3 is equal to the value of the
gravitational acceleration after the 7th
gravitational shielding, i.e.,

GM gs
g 7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7 2
≅ 4.4 × 109 m / s 2 (28)
r0

If the mass of the piston is m piston = 15kg


with 20cm diameter then the pressure upon
the cubic-anvil apparatus (Fig. 4) is

F m piston g 7
p= = = 2 × 1012 N / m 2 = 2000GPa
S π (0.1) 2

It is important to note that the pressure can be


easily increased by increasing the value of χ .
However, the pressure limit is basically
determined by the compression resistance of
the material of the piston and anvils of the
Gravitational Press since it can produce
pressures far beyond 2000 GPa.


The electrical conductivity of air, inside the
dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical conductivity
of Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose average
value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [25].

378
7

d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D
Parallel plate
17 capacitor (p)
ED(rms) E
Electric field of
18
capacitor
Aluminum sphere
Air
Mg (60 mm diameter)
r0=35mm
1
Air
Air 2

A
6

GM gs
g7 g7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7
r02
1
Air
2

D
Air 17
18

Piston
of
Gravitational Press
(Tungsten Carbide)

To Cubic-Anvil Apparatus (Fig.4)

Fig. 3 – Gravitational Press (Developed from a process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5)

379
8

Gravitational Press Piston


(Tungsten Carbide)

Anvils
(Tungsten Carbide or
VK10 hard alloy)

Fig.4 - Diagram of Cubic-Anvil Apparatus for the Gravitational


Press. – In the center of the apparatus, is placed a ceramic cube
("synthesis capsule") of pyrophyllite ceramics, which contains
graphite and is pressed by the anvils made from cemented carbide
(e.g., tungsten carbide or VK10 hard alloy). Note that, due to the
enormous pressure that the Gravitational Press can produce
(>>80GPa), the "synthesis capsule" can be very large (up to about
1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to produce diamonds with up to
100 carats (20g) or more.

380
9

References
[1] Hall, H. T. (1960). "Ultra-high pressure apparatus". Rev.
Sci. Instr. 31 (2): 125.
[2] Werner, M; Locher, R (1998). "Growth and application
of undoped and doped diamond films". Rep. Prog. Phys.
61 (12): 1665.
[3] Osawa, E (2007). "Recent progress and perspectives in
single-digit nanodiamond". Diamond and Related
Materials 16 (12): 2018.
[4] Galimov, É. M.; Kudin, A. M.; Skorobogatskii, V. N.;
Plotnichenko, V. G.; Bondarev, O. L.; Zarubin, B. G.;
Strazdovskii, V. V.; Aronin, A. S. et al. (2004).
"Experimental Corroboration of the Synthesis of Diamond
in the Cavitation Process". Doklady Physics 49 (3): 150.
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carbonate melts as the medium for the formation of
diamonds in the Earth's mantle: an experimental study".
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[6] F. P. Bundy(1963) J. Chem. Phys. 38, 631.
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H. K. Mao, and A. F. Goncharov (1996) Carbon, 34, 141.
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H. Sumiya(2003) Nature 421, 806.
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(2004) Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 43, 87.
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(2006) High Pressure Res. 26, 63.
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104, 307.
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(1996) Phys. Rev. B 54, 14994.
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and E. Tosatti (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 4015.
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Phys. J. B 39, 41.
[18] Khaliullin, RZ, Eshet, H, Kühne, TD, Jörg Behler, J &
Parrinello, M. (2011) Nucleation mechanism for the
direct graphite-to-diamond phase transition, Nature
Materials, 10, 693–697.
[19] Y. Tateyama, T. Ogitsu, K. Kusakabe, and S.
Tsuneyuki (1996) Phys. Rev. B 54, 14994.
[20] S. Scandolo, M. Bernasconi, G. L. Chiarotti, P. Focher
and E. Tosatti (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 4015.
[21] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
[22] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.
[23] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-
Hill, p. 270.
[24] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey
& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.
[25] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,
Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.

381
Artificial Gravitational Lenses
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We show that it is possible to produce gravitational lenses at laboratory scale by means of a toroidal
device which strongly intensifies the radial gravitational acceleration at its nucleus, and can make the
acceleration repulsive besides attractive. This means that a light flux through the toroid can become
convergent or divergent from its central axis. These lenses are similar to optical lenses and can be very
useful for telescopes, microscopes, and for the concentration of solar light in order to convert solar
energy into thermal energy.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Gravitational lenses, Solar instruments.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 98.62.Sb, 95.55.Ev.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

It is known that Gravitational fields From the quantization of gravity it


can bend light. This effect was confirmed in follows that the gravitational mass mg and
1919 during a solar eclipse, when Arthur the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
Eddington observed the light from stars of the following factor [5]:
passing close to the sun was slightly bent, so
that stars appeared slightly out of position ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
[1]. Einstein realized that a massive χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
astronomical object can bend light making mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
what is called a gravitational lens. The ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
gravitational lensing is one of the predictions
of Einstein's general theory of relativity. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Although this phenomenon was first particle and Δp is the variation in the
mentioned in 1924 by Orest Chwolson [2], particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
the effect is more commonly associated with of light.
Einstein, who published a more famous When Δp is produced by the
article on the subject in 1936 [3, 4].
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
Here we show that it is possible to
produce gravitational lenses at laboratory is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
scale, by means of a toroidal device which (1) becomes
strongly intensifies the radial gravitational m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

acceleration at its nucleus, and can make the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
acceleration repulsive besides attractive * [5]. mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This means that a light flux through the
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛λ ⎞
2
toroid can becomes convergent or divergent ⎪ ⎪
from its central axis. These lenses are similar = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
to optical lenses and can be very useful for ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
telescopes, microscopes, and for the where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
concentration of solar light in order to
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
convert solar energy into thermal energy.
mass mi 0 .
It has been shown that there is an
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
* effect - produced by a substance whose
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity gravitational mass was reduced or made
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, negative [6]. The effect extends beyond
2008.

382
2
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
certain distance from it (along the central v=c v = c/nr
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same nr
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
acceleration before the gravitational Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
shielding). Consequently, after a second wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
we can write that after the nth gravitational If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
This possibility shows that, by means reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
can strongly intensify the gravitational
acceleration. of atoms reached by the radiation is
From Electrodynamics we know that N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
when an electromagnetic wave with volume, n , is given by
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
material with relative permittivity ε r , N0 ρ
n= (7)
relative magnetic permeability μ r and A
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
refraction of the material, given by [7] Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2 mass(kg/kmole).
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
μrσ incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
nr = (5)
4πε0 f
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
one atom. After these collisions, it carries out
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
ncollisions with the other atoms (See Fig.2).
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ

383
3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom ⎩ ⎣⎢
Sm
Wave Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. (13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
volume Sξ is = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =
=nmSξ (8) Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (14) results
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
⎥⎦⎪
S N f Sm ⎩ ⎭
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .
We can express the total mean number
Now, considering that the lamina is
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
the following equation E and B , then we can write that [8]

ntotal photons N collisions


n1 = (10 ) D=
n r (l ) E 2
(16 )
N
2μ 0 c
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
transferred to the atom, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
with Eq. (1), we can write that mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡
λ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ = In the case in which the area S f is just the
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫ we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (18)
⎛ P ⎞ mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0ρ(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12) ⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
ntotal photons N collisions ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎝ hf ⎠

384
4
According to Eq. (6) we have
v c S α = 2πα (ri + re ) 2 = πα (ri + re )
λ = λ mod = = (19 )
f nr (l ) f
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives where ri is the inner radius and re the outer
radius of the rectangular toroid. For
⎧ ⎡ 4φ4 E4 ⎤⎫ ri = 400mm , re = 650mm and α = 60mm ,
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ nr4(l )nl6Sα2 Sm m ⎥⎪
⎥⎬ (20)
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1 we get
mi0(l ) ⎪ μ 2ρ 2 c6 f 2
⎢ 4 0 (l ) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ S α = πα (ri + re ) = 0 .198 m 2 (24 )
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because E varies The parallel metallic plates (p), shown
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. on the extremes of the toroid, are subjected to
Consequently we can change E by E , 4 4
rms
V( D )rms = 3.065V at f = 2.5Hz, while the central
and the equation above can be rewritten as set of plates (A) is subjected to
follows V( A)rms = 51.623V at f = 2.5Hz.Since d = 98mm ,

m g (l )
then the intensity of the electric field, which
χ= = passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
mi0(l ) (each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ sets (D), is
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ 4 E4
m rms ⎥⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (21) E( D)rms = V( D)rms d = 31.28V / m
2 2 6
4μ 0 ρ (l )c f 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ and the intensity of the electric field, which
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
passes through the 9 cylindrical air laminas
of the two sets (A), is given by
Now consider the Artificial E ( A )rms = V ( A )rms d = 526 .77V / m
Gravitational Lenses shown in Fig.3.
Basically they are rectangular toroids. Note that the metallic rings (5mm thickness)
Inside them there are two dielectric rings are positioned in such way to block the
with ε r ≅ 1 and an Aluminum ring with mass electric field out of the cylindrical air
laminas (also 5mm thickness). The objective
density ρ = 2700kg .m −3 (See Fig.3). The is to turn each one of these laminas into a
rectangular toroid is filled with air at ambient Gravity Control Cell (GCC) [6]. Thus, the
temperature and 1atm. Thus, inside the tube, system shown in Fig. 3 has 4 sets of GCC.
the air density is Two with 18 GCC each and two with 9 GCC
each. The two sets with 18 GCC each are
ρ air ≅ 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) positioned at the extremes of the tube (D).
They work as gravitational decelerator while
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per the other two set with 9 GCC (A) each works
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is as a gravitational accelerator, intensifying
the gravity acceleration produced by the
given by
Aluminum ring. According to Eq. (3), this
gravity after the 9 th GCC becomes g 9 = χ 9 g 0 ,
N 0 ρ air
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23) where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21), and
AN
g 0 can be calculated starting from the
Here, the area Sα refers to the area of the ring expression of the gravitational mass of the
inside the air toroid, with average radius half-toroid of Aluminum, M g ( 1 toroid ) , which is
2

r = re + ri 2 and height α , i.e., given by


385
5
⎛r −r ⎞
πri g 0 ≅ −Gπρα⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri −
dM g (1 toroid) = ρα(re − ri )∫ dz
Mg
∫0 2 0 ⎝ r0 ⎠
whence ⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
M g ( 1 toroid) = πρα(re − ri )ri (25) ⎪ (re − ri )ri ⎪
2
− Gπρα⎨ 2⎬
=
⎪⎡ ⎛ re − ri ⎞ ⎛ re − ri ⎞⎤ ⎪
On the other hand, we have that ⎪ ⎢2re − ⎜ 2 + r0 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ⎪
⎩⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎭
g G Mg Gαρ (re − ri ) πri ⎡ (r − r )r ⎤
∫ dg = − 2 ∫0
dM g = − ∫0 dz − Gπρα⎢ e i 2i ⎥
⎣⎢ (ri + r0 ) ⎦⎥
0 r r2

whence we get
In the case of ri >> r0 , the equation above
Gπαρ (re − ri )ri reduces to
g=− (26) ⎛r −r ⎞
r2 g 0 ≅ −Gπρα ⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri (27)
⎝ r0 ⎠
which gives the value of g produced by the where ri is the inner radius of the toroid; r0
half-toroid at a point inside the nucleus of the
is the distance between the center of the
toroid, distant r from the center of the cross-
cross-section of the Aluminum ring and the
section of the rectangular toroid. Thus, the
surface of the first GCC of the set (A); α is
value of g 0′ (r = r0 ) , due to the first half- the thickness of the Aluminum ring. Here,
toroid is r0 = 35mm and α = 60mm (See Fig. 3 (a)).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
⎛r −r ⎞
g 0′ ≅ −Gπρα ⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
⎝ r0 ⎠ the external gravity along the rectangular
toroid of air in D region. In this case, the
The value of g 0′′ , due to the opposite half- value of the external gravity, gext , is reduced
toroid is by the factor χ d18 gext , where χ d = 10−2 . For
example, if gext = 9.81m / s 2 then this value is
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪ reduced to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is
⎪ (re − ri )ri ⎪ increased by χ 9 . Since the system is
g 0′′ ≅ −Gπρα⎨ 2⎬
⎪⎡ ⎛ re − ri ⎞ ⎛ re − ri ⎞⎤ ⎪ designed for χ = −627 .1 , then the gravity
⎪ ⎢ 2re − ⎜ + r0 ⎟−⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎪
⎩⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎭ acceleration on the Aluminum ring
becomes χ 9 χ d18 g ext = 1 .47 × 10 −10 m / s 2 ,
Consequently, the resultant is this value is smaller than
g 0 ≅ −Gπρα [(re − ri )ri r0 ] = 9.9 × 10 m.s .
2 −8 −2

The values of χ and χ d , according to


Eq. (21) are given by

386
6
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ 4GM g
⎪ ⎢ nr4(air) nair
6 S 2 S 4φ 4 E4
α m m ( A)rms ⎥⎪ δ =− (33)
χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ = c2d
μ 2 ρ 2 c6 f 2
⎪ ⎢ 4 0 air ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where d is the distance of closest approach.
⎧ ⎫ Here, we can obtain the expression of
= ⎨1− 2⎡⎢ 1+1.289×10−6 E(4A)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (24) δ as follows: by comparing Eq. (26) with Eq.
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
(25) we obtain GM g = gr 2 . Substitution of
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ this expression into Eq. (33) leads to the
⎪ ⎢ nr4(air) nair
6 S 2 S 4φ 4 E4
α m m ( D)rms ⎥⎪
χ d = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ = following equation
μ 2 ρ 2 c6 f 2
⎪ ⎢ 4 0 air ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ 4 gr 2
δ = (34 )
⎧ ⎫ c2d
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 +1.289×10−6 E(4D)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (25)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
For r = r0 we have g = g 0 and equation above
where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) † ; can be rewritten as follows
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m , 4 g 0 r02
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10 m−20 2
and f = 2.5Hz.
δ = (35 )
c2d
Since E( A)rms = 526.77V / m , E( D)rms = 31.28V /m ,
However, considering the symmetry of the
we get
gravitational lenses shown in Fig.3, it is easy
χ = −627.1 (30) to see that Eq. (35) must be rewritten as
follows
and 4 g 0 r02 4 g 0 r02
δ= 2 − 2 (36 )
c d′ c d ′′
χ d ≅ 10 −2
(31)
where d ′ and d ′′ are respectively, the
Then the gravitational acceleration distances of closest approach of the light ray
after the 9th gravitational shielding is with respect to the two sides of the
Aluminum ring (See Fig 3 (b)).
⎡ (r − r )r ⎤ When the gravitational lenses are
g 9 = χ 9 g 0 = − χ 9 Gπρα ⎢ e 2 i i ⎥ (32) activated the value of g 0 is amplified to
⎣ r0 ⎦
χ 9 g 0 , then Eq. (36) becomes
It is known that gravitational fields can
bend light, and that due to this effect, a light 4 χ 9 g 0 r02 4χ 9 g 0 r02
ray that passes very close to a body with δ= − (37)
c2d ′ c 2 d ′′
gravitational mass M g is deviated of an
angle δ (deflection angle) given by [3] Note that, for d ′ = d ′′ (light ray at the center
of the Gravitational lens) Eq. (37) gives
δ = 0 ( null deflection). On the other hand, if

The electrical conductivity of air, inside the d ′ < d ′′ we have δ > 0 (the light ray is
dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical conductivity gravitationally attracted to the inner edge of
of Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose average
rectangular toroid). Under these conditions,
value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [9]. when a light flux crosses the gravitational
lens (nucleus of the rectangular toroid), it
becomes divergent in respect to the central
axis of the toroid (See Fig. 3(c)). If
387
7
d ′ > d ′′ then Eq. (37) shows that δ < 0 (the
light ray is gravitationally repelled from the
inner edge of rectangular toroid). In this case,
when a light flux crosses the gravitational
lens, it becomes convergent in respect to the
central axis of the toroid (See Fig. 3(b)).
Substitution of the known values into
Eq. (37) yields

⎛1 1⎞
δ ≅ 0.1⎜ − ⎟ (38)
⎝ d ′ d ′′ ⎠

Note that the values of δ can be easily


controlled simply by controlling of the value
of χ . Also note that the curvatures of the
light rays are proportional to the distances
d ′ and d ′′ , similarly to the curvature of the
light rays in the optical lenses. Then it is easy
to see that these gravitational lenses can be
very useful in building of telescopes,
microscopes, and in concentrating solar light
in order to convert solar energy into thermal
energy.

I would like to thank Physicist André


Luis Martins (RJ, Brazil) who came up with
the original idea to build Artificial
Gravitational Lens using sets of Gravitational
Shieldings, as shown in my previous papers.

388
8

Metallic ring Air Dielectric rings


(5 mm thickness) 1 atm 300K εr ≅ 1 EA(rms) Rectangular Toroid
D A
d = 98 mm
1 2 Air17 18 Mg 1 2 Air 6 9 Gravitational Lens
α=60mm
88

Aluminum ring Parallel plate capacitor (p)


ED(rms) ξ = 5 mm (Metallic ring)
r0=35mm
ri
re
(a)

Light

d′ d ′′

D Mg A g’ Gravitational Lens g’ A Mg D

D and A Sets
of
Gravitational Shieldings Rectangular Toroid

(b)

Rectangular Toroid
Light

D Mg A g’ Gravitational Lens g’ A Mg D

(c)

Fig. 3 – Artificial Gravitational Lens. (a) Cross-section of the Artificial Gravitational Lens. (b)
Cross-section of a Convergent Gravitational Lens. The light rays are gravitationally repelled from
the inner edge of toroid (c) Cross-section of a Divergent Gravitational Lens. The light rays are
gravitationally attracted to the inner edge of toroid.

389
9

References
[1] Dyson, F.W., Eddington, A.S., and Davidson, C.R.
(1920). A Determination of the Deflection of Light
by the Sun's Gravitational Field, from Observations
Made at the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. A 220 (571-581): 291–333.

[2] Chwolson, O (1924). Über eine mögliche Form


fiktiver Doppelsterne. Astronomische Nachrichten
221 (20): 329.

[3] Einstein, A. (1936). Lens-like Action of a Star


by the Deviation of Light in the Gravitational
Field. Science 84 (2188): 506–7.

[4] Renn, J., Tilman S., and Stachel, J., (1997). The
Origin of Gravitational Lensing: A Postscript to
Einstein's 1936 Science paper. Science 275
(5297): 184–6.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[7] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[8] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey


& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[9] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.

390
Gravitational Blueshift and Redshift
generated at Laboratory Scale
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this paper we show that it is possible to produce gravitational blueshift and redshift at laboratory scale
by means of a device that can strongly intensify the local gravitational potential. Thus, by using this
device, it is possible to generate electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, from ELF radiation (f <
10Hz) up to high energy gamma-rays. In this case, several uses, such as medical imaging, radiotherapy
and radioisotope production for PET (positron emission tomography) scanning, could be realized. The
device is smaller and less costly than conventional sources of gamma rays.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Relativity and Gravitation, Gravitational Redshift and Blueshift.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 95.30.Sf, 98.62.Py.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

It is known that electromagnetic From the quantization of gravity it


radiation is blueshifted when propagating follows that the gravitational mass mg and
from a region of weaker gravitational field to the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
a region of stronger gravitational field. In this of the following factor [5]:
case the radiation is blueshifted because it
gains energy during propagation. In the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
contrary case, the radiation is redshifted. This χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
effect was predicted by Einstein’s Relativity mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
Theory [1, 2] and was widely confirmed by ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
several experiments [3, 4]. It was first
confirmed in 1959 in the Pound and Rebka where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
experiment [3]. particle and Δp is the variation in the
Here we show that it is possible to particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
produce gravitational blueshift and redshift at of light.
laboratory scale by means of a device that When Δp is produced by the
can strongly intensify the local gravitational
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
potential * [5]. Thus, by using this device, it is
possible to generate electromagnetic is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
radiation of any frequency, from ELF (1) becomes
radiation (f < 10Hz) up to high energy m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h m c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

gamma-rays. In this case, several uses, such = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
as in medical imaging, radiotherapy and mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
radioisotope production for PET (positron
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
emission tomography) scanning and others, ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
could be devised. The device is smaller and = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
less costly than conventional sources of ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
gamma rays. where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
* mass mi 0 .
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity It has been shown that there is an
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
2008.

391
2
effect - produced by a substance whose If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
gravitational mass was reduced or made μrσ
negative [6]. The effect extends beyond nr = (5)
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a 4πε0 f
certain distance from it (along the central Thus, the wavelength of the incident
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same λ 4π
i.e., g1 = χ 1 g λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
proportion, where f nr nr μfσ
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
acceleration before the gravitational
shielding). Consequently, after a second
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be v=c v = c/nr
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
nr
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
This possibility shows that, by means
contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can strongly intensify the gravitational atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
acceleration. electromagnetic radiation with frequency
In order to measure the extension of f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the shielding effect, samples were placed reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
above a superconducting disk with radius area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
rD = 0.1375 m , which was producing a
of atoms reached by the radiation is
gravitational shielding. The effect has been N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
detected up to a distance of about 3m from
the disk (along the central axis of disk) [7]. volume, n , is given by
This means that the gravitational shielding
N0 ρ
effect extends, beyond the disk by n= (7)
approximately 20 times the disk radius. A
From Electrodynamics we know that
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
relative magnetic permeability μ r and
mass(kg/kmole).
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is When an electromagnetic wave incides
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
refraction of the material, given by [8]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
ε μ the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of

392
3
one atom. After these collisions, it carries out ⎛ P ⎞
ncollisions with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


volume Sξ is mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
=nmSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
mi0(l ) ⎪
S N f Sm ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [9]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N D= (16 )
2μ 0 c
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
with Eq. (1), we can write that = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
λ0 ⎤
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ In the case in which the area S f is just the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎦⎭

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get

393
4
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ The parallel metallic plates (p),
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ shown in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ ρ
0 (l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed

⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ on the extremes of the tube, are subjected to
According to Eq. (6) we have V( D )rms = 16.22V at f = 1Hz , while the central
v c set of plates (A) is subjected to
λ = λ mod = = (19 ) V( A)rms = 191.98V at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm ,
f nr (l ) f
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives then the intensity of the electric field, which
passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
⎧ ⎡
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
4φ4 E4 ⎤⎫
nr4(l )nl6Sα2 Sm
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ m ⎥⎪ sets (D), is
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2ρ 2 c6 f 2
−1⎥⎬ (20)
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ 4 μ 0 (l ) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ E( D)rms = V( D)rms d = 165.53V / m
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
and the intensity of the electric field, which
for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because E varies
passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value of the central set (A), is given by
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
4 4 E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 1.959 × 10 3 V / m
Consequently we can change E by E , rms

and the equation above can be rewritten as


follows Note that the metallic rings (5mm
m g (l ) thickness) are positioned in such way to
χ= = block the electric field out of the cylindrical
mi 0(l )
air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ4 E4
m rms ⎥⎪
of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (21) (GCC) [10]. Thus, the system shown in Fig.
2 2 6
4μ 0 ρ (l )c f 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ 3 has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
and one with 19 GCC. The two sets with 18
Now consider the Gravitational Shift GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
Device shown in Fig.3. the tube (D). They work as gravitational
Inside the device there is a dielectric decelerator while the other set with 19 GCC
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics: (A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
α = 60mm , Sα = πα 2 4 = 2.83 × 10 −3 m 2 . intensifying the gravity acceleration and the
Inside the tube there is an Aluminum sphere gravitational potential produced by the mass
with 30mm radius and mass M gs of the Aluminum sphere. According to
M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube is filled with air Eq. (3) the gravity, after the 19 th GCC
at ambient temperature and 1atm. Thus, becomes g19 = χ 19 GM gs r12 , and the
inside the tube, the air density is gravitational potential ϕ = χ 19 GM gs r1
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) is given by Eq. (21)
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is and r1 = 35mm is the distance between the
center of the Aluminum sphere and the
given by
surface of the first GCC of the set (A).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
N 0 ρ air
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23) GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
AN the external gravity along the axis of the
tube. In this case, the value of the external
gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,

394
5
where χ d = 10 . For example, if the base
−2 Then the gravitational acceleration
BS of the system is positioned on the Earth after the 19th gravitational shielding of the
set A (See Fig.3) ‡ is
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased g19 = χ 19 g1 = χ 19GM gs r12 (28)
by χ . Since the system is designed for
19

χ = −308 .5 , then the gravity acceleration on and the gravitational potential is


the sphere
becomes χ χ d g ext = 2.4 ×10 m / s ,
19 18 −12 2
this ϕ = χ 19ϕ1 = χ 19 GM gs r1 (29)
value is much smaller than
−8 Thus, if photons with frequency f 0 are
gsphere = GMgs rs = 2.26×10 m / s2 .
2

emitted from a point 0 near the Earth’s


The values of χ and χ d , according to
surface, where the gravitational potential is
Eq. (21) are given by ϕ 0 ≅ − GM ⊕ r⊕ (See photons source in
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ 4 E4
m ( A)rms ⎥⎪ Fig.3), and these photons pass through the
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ = region in front of the 19th gravitational
μ 2 ρ 2 c6 f 2
⎪ ⎢ 4 0 (l ) ⎥⎪ shielding, where the gravitational potential is
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎫ increased to the value expressed by Eq. (29)
= ⎨1− 2⎡⎢ 1 +1.645×10−9 E(4A)rms −1⎤⎥⎬ (24) then the frequency of the photons in this
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
region, according to Einstein’s relativity
theory, becomes f = f 0 + Δf , where Δf is
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4(l ) nl6 Sα2 S m
4φ 4 E4
m ( D)rms ⎥⎪ given by
χ d = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ =
⎪ ⎢ 4μ02 ρ(2l )c 6 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ϕ −ϕ0 − χ19GMgs r1 + GM⊕ r⊕
⎧ ⎡ − 9 4
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1 +1.645×10 E( D)rms −1⎥⎬ ⎤ ⎫
(25)
Δf = f0 = (30)
⎣ ⎦⎭
c2 c2

where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) † ; If χ < 0, then χ 19 < 0 and
−10
nair = 5.16 ×10 atoms/ m , φm = 1.55×10 m ,
25 3
Δf > 0 (blueshift). Note that, if the number
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 and f = 1Hz. n of Gravitational Shieldings in the set A is
odd ( n = 1,3,5,7,... ) then the result is
Since E ( A )rms = 1 . 959 × 10 3 V / m and
Δf > 0 (blueshift). But, if n is even
E ( D )rms = 165 .53V / m , we get
( n = 2,4,6,8,... ) and χn Mgs r1 > M⊕ r⊕ then
the result is Δf < 0 (redshift). Note that to
χ = −308.5 (26)
reduce f 0 = 1014 Hz down to f ≅ 1011 Hz it is
and necessary that Δf = −0.999×1014 Hz . This
precision is not easy to be obtained in
χ d ≅ 10−2 (27) practice. On the other hand, if for example,


The gravitational shielding effect extends beyond the
† gravitational shielding by approximately 20 times its
The electrical conductivity of air, inside the
dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical conductivity radius (along the central axis of the gravitational
of Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose average shielding). [7] Here, this means that, in absence of the
value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [11]. set D (bottom of the device), the gravitational
shielding effect extends, beyond the 19thgravitational
shielding, by approximately 20 (α/2) ≈ 600mm.

395
6
f 0 = 10 Hz
14
and Δf = −10 Hz
10
then
f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 10 Hz i.e., the redshift is
14

negligible. However, the device can be


useful to generate ELF radiation by redshift.
For example, if f 0 = 1GHz , n = 18 and
χ = 95.15278521 , then we obtain ELF
radiation with frequency f ≅ 1Hz . Radiation
of any frequency can be generated by
gravitational blueshift. For example, if
f 0 = 1014 Hz and Δf = +1018 Hz then
f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 1018 Hz . What means that a
light beam with frequency 10 14 Hz was
converted into a gamma-ray beam with
frequency 1018 Hz . Similarly, if f 0 = 1MHz
and Δf = +9MHz, then f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 10MHz ,
and so on.
Now, consider the device shown in
Fig. 3, where χ = −308 .5 , M gs = 0.30536 kg ,
r1 = 35mm . According to Eq. (30), it can
produce a Δf given by

− χ 19 GM gs r1
Δf ≅ ≅ 3.6 × 10 22 Hz (31)
c2

Thus, we get

f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 3.6 ×1022 Hz (32)


What means that the device is able to convert
any type of electromagnetic radiation
(frequency f 0 ) into a gamma-ray beam with
frequency 3.6 × 10 22 Hz . Thus, by controlling
the value of χ and f 0 , it is possible to
generate radiation of any frequency.

396
7
d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D Parallel plate capacitor (p)

17 Electric field of capacitor

ED(rms) E
Aluminum sphere
18
(60 mm diameter)
rs
Mg g s ,ϕ s
r1=35mm
1 g1 , ϕ1
Air
Air 2

A EA(rms)
18
χ 19 < 0 ϕ 0 = − GM ⊕ r⊕
19
ϕ = χ 19ϕ1 ϕ0 Photons Source
Photons Beam
(frequency f ) f f0 (frequency f0 )

Region with potential ϕ


1
Air
2
ϕ −ϕ0 −χ19GMgs r1 +GM⊕ r⊕
D Δf = f0 =
c2 c2
Air 17
18

Fig. 3 – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shift Device (Blueshift and Redshift) – The device
can generate electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, since ELF radiation (f < 10Hz) up to high energy gamma-rays.

397
8

References
[1] Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John
Archibald (1973-09-15 1973). Gravitation. San
Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

[2] Bonometto, Silvio; Gorini, Vittorio; Moschella, Ugo


(2002). Modern Cosmology. CRC Press.

[3] R.V. Pound and G.A. Rebka, Jr. (1959) Gravitational


Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance, Phys. Rev. Lett. 3 439–
441.

[4] Vessot, R. F. C., et al., (1980) Test of Relativistic


Gravitation with a Space-Borne Hydrogen Maser.
Physical Review Letters 45 (26): 2081–2084.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.
[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[7] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical


Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[9] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey


& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.
[10] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[11] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.

398
Quantum Reversal of Soul Energy
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In the last decades, the existence of the Soul has been seriously considered by Quantum Physics. It has
been frequently described as a body of unknown energy coupled to human body by means of a mutual
interaction. The Quantum Physics shows that energy is quantized, i.e., it has discrete values that are
defined as energy levels. Thus, along the life of a person, the energy of its soul is characterized by
several quantum levels of energy. Here, we show by means of application of specific electromagnetic
radiations on the human body, that it is possible to revert the energy of the soul to previous energy levels.
This process can have several therapeutic applications.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Microwave fields effects, Therapeutic applications, Quantum information.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 87.50.S-,87.50.st, 03.67.-a.

1. Introduction

Since long the Soul has remained an the quantum number n , (n = 1,2,3,...) [4].
element of strongly consideration by Thus, along the life of a person, the energy of
Religion. Some authors claim that Religion is its Soul is characterized by several quantum
the science of the Soul [1]. Others claim that levels of energy. Here, we show that, by
Soul and Religion are related to evolution. means of application of specific
Sir Julian Huxley, a leading evolutionary electromagnetic radiations on the human
biologist, the first Director-General of body (its Soul), it is possible to revert the
UNESCO and signatory to the Humanist energy of the Soul to previous energy levels.
Manifesto II, wrote: “Human Soul and This process can have several therapeutic
Religion are just the product of evolution” applications.
[2]. This show how important the Soul is for
the Religion. Philosophy also realizes the 2. Theory
importance of the Soul. Plato, drawing on the
words of his teacher Socrates, considered the From the quantization of gravity it
Soul the essence of a person, being that follows that the imaginary gravitational mass
which decides how we behave. As bodies mg (im) and the imaginary inertial mass mi0 (im)
die, the Soul is continually reborn in are correlated by means of the following
subsequent bodies. factor [5]:
Nowadays, Quantum Physics and other
branches of Science are seriously considering
⎧ ⎡
⎛ Δp(im) ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
the existence of the Soul. mg (im)
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜

(1)
It has been frequently described as a mi0(im) ⎢ mi0(im)c ⎟⎠ ⎥
body of unknown energy coupled to human ⎪ ⎢
⎩ ⎣
⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
body by means of a mutual interaction. This
type of energy from the viewpoint of Physics where mi 0(im ) = − 2
mi 0i is the imaginary
3
has been considered as Imaginary Energy.
The term imaginary are borrowed from inertial mass at rest of the particle and
Mathematics (real and imaginary numbers) [3]. Δp(im ) = U (im )nr c = (Ui )nr c is the variation
Quantum Physics shows that energy is in the particle’s imaginary kinetic
quantized, i.e., that it has discrete values that momentum; c is the speed of light. Thus, Eq.
are defined as discrete energy levels that (1) can be rewritten as follows
correspond to all positive integer values of
399
2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ If an imaginary lamina with thickness
mg (im) ⎪ 3 ⎛ Unr ⎞ ⎪ to ξ
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎬
2⎟
(2) equal contains n imaginary
mi0(im) ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎥⎪ 3
molecules/m , then the number of molecules
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
per unit area is nξ . Thus, if the
When Δp is produced by the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , f incides on an area S of the lamina it
i.e., U = hf , Eq. (2) becomes
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (im ) ⎪ 3 ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪ total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (3)
mi 0(im ) ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎝ λmod ⎠ ⎥⎪ number of molecules reached by the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie molecules per unit volume, n , is given by
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
mass (real) mi 0 and λ mod = λ nr . N0 ρ
From Electrodynamics we know that n= (7)
A
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 moleculess / kmole is
material with relative permittivity ε r , the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
relative magnetic permeability μ r and density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
molar mass(kg/kmole).
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
When an electromagnetic wave incides
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of on the lamina, it strikes N f front molecules,
refraction of the material, given by [6]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the molecule. Thus, the electromagnetic
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
wave incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to one molecule. After these collisions, it
μrσ carries out ncollisions with the other molecules
nr = (5)
4πε0 f (See Fig.2).
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
Imaginary molecule
Sm
Wave
v=c v = c/nr
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the imaginary lamina.

nr Thus, the total number of collisions in the


λ = c/f volume Sξ is
λmod = v/f = c/nr f

Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =


Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be =nmSξ (8)
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.

400
3
The power density, D , of the radiation on the considering that mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following
lamina can be expressed by expression
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
S N f Sm mg(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 3 ⎡⎛⎜ nl3Sα Sm2φm2 D⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (16)
We can express the total mean number mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎣⎢⎜⎝ ρ(l )cf 2 ⎟⎠ λmod⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
of the following equation If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
ntotal photons N collisions σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of
n1 = (10 ) λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e.,
N
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is 4π
λ = λmod = (17)
transferred to the molecule, then the total μfσ
momentum transferred to the lamina will be Substitution of Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) gives
Δp=(n1N) h λ, i.e., Unr c = (n1N) nr h λ = (n1N) h λmod ⎧⎪ ⎡
m 3n6S2S4φ4μσ D2 ⎤⎫⎪
Therefore, in accordance with Eq. (2), we χ = g(l )im = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ l α m 2m2 3 −1⎥⎬ (18)
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢⎣ 16πρ c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
can write that ⎩

mg(l )im ⎪ ⎡
2 ⎤⎫ The Soul has been frequently described
⎡ λ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1N)
⎢ 3 0
⎥ −1⎥⎬ = as a body of unknown energy coupled to
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4⎣ λmod ⎦ ⎥⎪ human body by means of a mutual
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
interaction. This type of energy from the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ viewpoint of Physics, has been considered as
⎪ ⎢ 3⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1 ⎬ (11) Imaginary Energy. The term imaginary is
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4⎣ λmod⎦ ⎥⎪ borrowed from Mathematics (real and
⎦⎭
imaginary numbers) [3]. As imaginary
Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get
energy, the Soul can be now defined as an
⎛ P ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12) imaginary body, made of imaginary particles
ntotal photons N collisions each one them described by imaginaries
⎝ hf ⎠
wavefunctionsψ im , by similarity to the real
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields
⎧ bodies, which are made of real particles
mg(l )im ⎪ ⎡⎢
2 ⎤⎫
3 ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ (13)
described in Quantum Mechanics by its real
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λmod⎦ ⎥⎪ wavefunctionψ . The extension of the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ imaginary wavefunction to the relativistic
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq. form can be then made in a consistent way
(13) gives with the Lorentz transformations equations of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the special theory of relativity [7, 8],
mg(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 3 ⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ nl Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14) similarly to the real wavefunction [4]. In
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎣⎢⎜⎝ f 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ mi0(l )c ⎟⎠ λmod⎦⎥ ⎥⎪ addition, the Soul’s energy can be now
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ expressed by the well-known Einstein’s
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm energy expression (E = mc 2 ) extended to the
into Eq. (14) results imaginary form, i.e., E g ( S )im = m g ( S )im c 2 .
Therefore, we can say that the Soul has an
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 3 ⎡⎛ nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξD⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ imaginary energy E g ( S )im = m g ( S )im c 2 where
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (15)
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf 2 ⎟⎠ λmod⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ m g ( S )im is the imaginary gravitational mass of
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ Soul, which according to Eq. (18), is
where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) . correlated to imaginary inertial mass of Soul
The case in which the area S f is just at rest, mi 0 ( S )im , by means of the following
the area of the cross-section of the expression: χ S = m g ( S )im mi 0 (S )im . This
lamina (Sα ) , we obtain from Eq. (15),
401
4
means that the value of E g ( S )im can be The gravitational mass of the
decreased and also made negative by means Soul, m g ( S )im , is given by the sum of the
of absorption of energy of radiation incident spirit’s gravitational mass with the
upon the Soul (See Eq.18). perispirit’s gravitational mass, i.e.,
As widely mentioned in the literature mg( S )im = mg(s)im + mg( pe)im
of Spiritualistic Philosophy, the Soul has 2 As the perispirit is the unique part of
parts: Perispirit and Spirit (See Fig.1). The the Soul with sufficient density to absorb
Spirit is inside the human body (HB); the measurable amounts of electromagnetic
Perispirit is an involucre of the spirit, its energy, we can neglect the contribution of
boundaries coincide with the boundaries of the energy absorbed by the spirit in the
the human body. The perispirit density
(ρpe = mi0( pe)im V( pe)im = real) is equal to the
calculation of the total energy absorbed by
the Soul making m g ( s )im = 0 . Under these
density of the mean where the Soul is [9]. conditions, we can write that the
This occurs by the imaginary mass decrease gravitational mass of the Soul, mg ( S )im , is
or by the imaginary mass increase, resultant,
respectively, from the emission or absorption given by
of imaginary energy from the Universe. mg(S)im = mg(s)im + mg( pe)im = mg( pe)im (19)
123
Thus, in the human body the perispirit density is 0

ρ pe = ρ HB ≅ 1000 kg .m −3 By analogy, the expression of the inertial


Therefore, according to Eq. (7), we can write mass of the Soul, mi 0 ( s )im can be written as
that the density of molecules in the perispirit follows
is given by mi0(S)im = mi0(s)im + mi0( pe)im ≅ mi0( pe)im (20)
123
n pe = (N 0 ρ pe A) ≅ 3.3 × 10 28 molecules.m −3
0
Based on Eq. (19) we can write that
ρ S V( S )im = ρ peV( pe )im , where V( pe)im = S(α )imΔx pe ;
where A = AH 2O = 18kg/kmole . Out of the Δx pe is the thickness of perispirit. Since
Earth’s atmosphere (outer space) the density ρ S ≅ ρ s and V(S )im ≅ V( s)im , we can write that
of the perispirit is equal to the density of the
ρSV(S )im ≅ ρsV( s)im = ρpeV( pe)im . In addition, we have
spirit (ρ s = mi 0( s )im V(s )im = real) . In the outer
space, the Earth's atmospheric pressure drops V(S)im S(α)im ≅V(s)im S(α)im =VHB SHB ≅0.4m3 1.1m2 ≅0.4m.
to about 3.2 × 10−7 atm [10]. Thus using the Thus, we can conclude that
well-known Equation of State ⎛ ρ ⎞⎛ V( s )im ⎞
(ρ = PM 0 ZT ) , we can write the following Δx pe = ⎜ s ⎟⎜
⎜ ρ ⎟⎜ S
⎟ ≅ 2 ×10−10 m

(21)
⎝ pe ⎠⎝ (α )im ⎠
correlation expression:
ρ air (1atm ) 1atm
=
ρ air (outer space ) 3.2 × 10 −7 atm Perispirit ~2x10-10m

This means that the density of spirit is given by


ρ s = ρ pe (outer space ) = ρ air (outer space ) = Spirit

= 3.8 × 10 −7 kg.m −3 Human body


Thus, inside the human body the perispirit
density is ρ pe = ρ HB ≅ 1000 kg .m −3 and the
spirit density is ρ s = 3.8 × 10 −7 kg .m −3 . Since
the Perispirit is just an involucre of the spirit, Fig. 3 – Perispirit and Spirit. The Spirit is inside the
we can assume that ρ S ≅ ρ s . human body; the Perispirit is an involucre of the spirit, its
boundaries coincide with the boundaries of the human body.

402
5
The power density of radiation, D pe , stationary and homogenous plasma [13].
absorbed by the perispirit can be expressed The largest gap for hydrogen is indeed
by D pe = (Δx pe δ pe )D where δ pe is length between the ground state and the first excited
energy state and corresponds to 4 eV. This is
scale for total absorption of the radiation not always the case for other elements. The
with frequency ω = 2πf . As we know, if the largest energy gap for oxygen does not
electrical conductivity of the mean, σ , is include the ground state and is 10 eV. In
such that σ >> ωε , where ε is the order to calculate the value of ne for the
permittivity of the mean, then δ is given by perispirit at the human body, we must take
[11]: these values: ΔE = 10eV , T ≅ 300K . The
δ = 2.5 × 10 3 fσ (22 ) result is
Therefore, we can write that
N e ≥ 3 × 10 22 electrons .m −3 (26 )
D pe = (Δx pe δ pe )D ≅ 8 × 10 −14 fσ pe D (23)
where D is the total power density of the As we have already shown
incident radiation on the perispirit. −3
n pe ≅ 3.3 × 10 molecules.m . Thus, we can
28
By dividing Eq. (19) by Eq. (20) we
obtain assume that
m m
χS = g(S)im = g( pe)im = χpe N pe ≈ 1028 ions.m−3
mi0(S)im mi0( pe)im
It is known that the electrical
Thus, based on Eq. (18), we can write that
conductivity is proportional to both the
mg( pe)im
χ S = χ pe = = concentration and the mobility of the ions
mi0( pe)im and the free electrons, and is expressed by
σ = n e μ e + ni μ i
⎧ ⎡ 3n6pe Sα2 Sm4φm4 μ0σ pe Dpe
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (24) where ne and ni express respectively the
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πρpec f
2 2 3
⎥⎪
⎦⎭ ( )
concentrations C m 3 of electrons and
Further on, we will show that the electrical atom-ions; μ e and μ i are respectively the
conductivity of perispirit is enormous (10 mobilities of the electrons and the ions.
trillion times greater than that of the metals), In order to calculate the electrical
what shows that it contains a plasma. For the conductivity of the perispirit, we first need to
population of excited states for the elements calculate the concentrations ne and ni . We
in the plasma to be predominately caused by start by calculating the value of ni , which is
collisions with electrons and not by
radioactive processes, it requires a minimal given by
electron density to ensure these collisions.
This minimal electron density is known as ni = ne = N pee ≈ 109 C / m3
the McWhirter criterion and is defined as [12]:
This corresponds to the concentration level in
N e ≥ 1.6 × 10 T (ΔE ) (25)
1
18 2 3 the case of conducting materials. For these
materials, at temperature of 300K, the
where ΔE (in eV) is the largest gap between mobilities μ e and μ i are of the order of
2 adjacent energy levels; T (in K) is the 10 −1 m 2V −1 s −1 [14]. Very high mobility has
plasma temperature, and N e is in been found in several low-dimensional
electrons/m3. systems, such as two-dimensional electron
This condition is deduced for hydrogen gases (2DEG) ( 300 m 2V −1 s −1 ), [15] carbon
and hydrogen-like atoms in an optically thin, nanotubes ( 10m 2V −1 s −1 ) [16] and more

403
6
− 1 −1
⎧ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
recently, graphene ( 20 m V s )[17]. It is ~ 10 39 D 2

known that the mobility μ d is related to the χS ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (31 )
⎢ ⎥⎦ ⎪
2
⎪⎩ f
drift velocity v d by means of the following ⎣ ⎭
equation:
In this expression, the minimum value of D
vd = μ d E is limited by the uncertainty principle, i.e.,
by the amount of energy ΔE that can be
detectable by our instruments. According to
where E is the electric field. Thus, based on
the uncertainty principle, ΔEΔt ≥ h . Thus,
this equation, we can relate the mobility of
ΔE≥h Δt → ΔEmin =h Δtmax. Since we can write that
free electrons of the Soul, μ e , with the
typical mobility of conductors, D = ΔE Sα Δt ≥ h Sα Δt 2 → Dmin = h S α Δt max
2
,
μ cond ≈ 10 m V s , by means of the
−1 2 −1 −1
we obtain Dmin = ΔE min
2
hS α . Here,
following expression: ΔEmin = kT , because if < kT , then the action
of the incident radiation will be hidden by the
v d ( pe ) action of the thermal radiation (kT ) .
μe = μ cond (27 )
v d (cond ) Consequently, we can write that
Dmin = k T hS α . Therefore, for T = 300K
2 2

where the typical drift velocity in conductors and Sα ≅ 1.1m2 , we get


is vd (cond) ≈ 10−4 m / s [18], and the drift
velocity in perispirit is v d ( pe ) ≈ c (since there Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2
are no collisions among the imaginary .
electrons). Thus, we get Based on Eq.(31), we can write that the
μ e ≈ 1012 m 2V −1 s −1 Soul imaginary energy E g ( S )im = m g ( S )im c 2 can
Consequently, we can write that the electrical be expressed by
conductivity of perispirit is given by
Eg ( S )im = mg ( S )imc 2 = χ S mi 0( S )imc 2 ≅
σ pe = ne μ e + ni μ i ≈ 10 21 S .m −1 (28) ⎧
⎪ ⎡ 1039 D 2 ⎤⎫⎪

≅ ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥⎬mi0(S )imc 2 (32)
By substitution of this value into Eq. (22), we ⎪⎩ ⎢ f 2
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
get
This energy varies along the time, having a
δ pe ≅ 10 −7 f (29) minimum value at the beginning of life and a
maximum value, m gmax 2
( S )im c , in a specific
By substitution of σ HB ≈ 0.1S / m instant of the life of the person. After this
(conductivity of human body) into Eq. (22), maximum value, the energy decreases
we obtain progressively down to the instant of the death
of the person. This means that the average
δ HB ≅ 10 4 f (30) variation of this energy along the time can be
expressed by the well-known bell curve
(probability curve [19]), in the following form
Substitution of the values of n pe , σ pe ,
ρ pe , D pe , φm = 1.55×10−10m,(average “diameter” m g ( S )im c 2 = m gmax 2 −4π 2
b 2t 2
(33 )
( S )im c e
−20 2
of the molecules), Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10 m
and Sα ≅ 1.1m2 into Eq. (24), gives

404
7
where b is a time-constant to be defined. this occurs, the energy of the Soul
( S ) = χmi 0 ( S )im
Since mg ( S )im = χmi0(S )im and m gmax max
( mga( S )imc 2 = χ S mia0( S )imc 2 ) becomes positive
Eq. (33) can be rewritten as follows and returns to the corresponding value
( miR0( S )imc2 = χS mia0(S )imc2 ). Thus, we can write
m i 0 ( S ) = m imax −4π
(34 )
2
b 2t 2
0 ( S )e that miR0(S ) = χS mia0(S ) . Substitution of this
expression into Eq. (37) gives
mg ( S ) ( )
mia0 ( S ) = χ S mia0 ( S )e −4π b t a2 − t R2
(38 )
2 2

or
χS = e4π b (t −t ) (39)
2 2 2 2
mgmax
(S )
a R

R
m g (S ) Note that the time-constant b −2 must be a very
big number, because the values of e a R are
(t 2
−t 2 )
9
mga( S ) enormous in the case of 0<< ta < 3.1 x 10 s
(100years). Thus, if the value of b −2 is not
0
m g (S ) very big then the values of χ S lose their
meaning. A very big number related to the
time is, certainly, the age of the Universe.
tR ta t Thus, we will define the time-constant b −2 as
follows
Fig.4 - The variation of the gravitational mass of
the Soul (Soul energy mg(S)c2) along the life of a
person, and Quantum Reversal from the current b −2 = 4.26 × 1017 s = current age of Universe
energy level to a previous energy level.
For example, if a person is exactly 62 years
Making t = t a (current time in the life of the old ( t a = 1.928 × 10 9 s ), and wants to revert
person), and after t = t R (reversal time * , see its Soul energy to the energy that it had at 5
Fig.4) into Eq. (34), we obtain the following years ago (57 years old, t R = 1.774 × 10 9 s ),
expressions then the value of χ S , according Eq.(39),
must be given by
−4π
(35) χ S = e4π b (t −t ) ≅ e51.32 ≅ 1.9 ×1022 (40)
2 2 2
mia0( S ) = mimax
0 ( S )e
b ta 2 2 2
a
2
R

and
Equation (31) shows that, in order to
miR0( S ) = mimax −4π
(36)
2 2 2
b tR
0 ( S )e obtain χ S = −1.9 × 10 22 , is necessary to apply
on the Soul (body) an electromagnetic
By dividing Eq.(35) by Eq. (36), we get radiation with frequency f and power density
D, given by
mia0 ( S ) = miR0 ( S )e −4π b (ta −t R ) (37 ) D ≅ 300 f (41 )
2 2 2 2

Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)


levels have been established by ANSI Z136.1
Positive values of the Soul energy express
[20] for various laser wavelengths and
the progress of the energy levels and
exposure durations. The MPE is the level of
obviously, a given positive value cannot to
laser radiation to which a person may be
cause reversion. Thus, in order to occur the
exposed without hazardous effect or adverse
reversion it is necessary that χ S < 0 , When
biological changes in the eye or skin. This
limit is ~1000 W/m2. Here, considering this
*
This is not a return in time. It is only return to energy limit, we can conclude that, according to Eq.
level that the Soul had at a specific time of its life.
405
8
(41), the maximum value for the frequency is that a person break a leg when it is 50 years
about 3.3Hz. old. If he is subjected to an electromagnetic
Now, we can verify the effect of the radiation flux with D ≈ 300W / m 2 at 1Hz ,
ELF radiation upon the gravitational mass of then its Soul carries out a quantum reversal
the human body. By substitution of to the energy level that he had 5 years ago.
n HB = n pe , ρ HB = ρ pe , σ HB ~ 0.1S / m , At this energy level the leg was not broken in
the human body. Consequently, we can
φm = 1.55×10−10m, Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2
expect that the broken part disappears, and
and Sα ≅ 1.1m2 into Eq. (18) we obtain the leg returns to the form that it had in this
⎧⎪ ⎡ ~ 10 23 σ HB DHB
2 ⎤ ⎫⎪ energy level. By means of this process it
χ HB = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (42) seems possible the immediate cure of any
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f3 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ wound, any kind of disease, and also the
The expression of DHB can be obtained from resuscitation of persons who have died some
seconds ago (before the spirit leaves the
the following relation human body).
D HB δ pe
= (43) It is known that the brain is able to
D pe δ HB generate electromagnetic waves with
frequencies smaller than 100HZ. The
where D pe ≅ 8 × 10 −14 fσ pe D (Eq. 23).
brainwaves of lowest frequencies are the
Thus, Eq. (43) can be rewritten as follows Delta waves. Delta waves are defined as
D HB ≅ 10 − 14 f D (44 ) having a frequency between 0.5 and 2 hertz.
Substitution of this equation into Eq. (42), gives They are the highest amplitude brainwaves.
⎧ In adults they are radiated from their
⎪ ⎡ ~ 10 − 6 D 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪

χ HB = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (45 ) forehead [21]. Also, it is known that the total
⎢ ⎥⎦ ⎪
2
⎪⎩ f electromagnetic power (all the frequencies)
⎣ ⎭ generated by the brain can reach up to 25Wor
Substitution of Eq. (41) into (45) yields more [22]. This means that at a distance of
χ HB > 0 . 9 . This corresponds to a weight 1m from the brain a maximum power density
decrease of less than 10%, which shows that, is about 2W/m2. Substitution of this value
here, in the case of D ≅ 300 f , the effect of and f = 1Hz into Eq. (31) gives
the ELF radiation upon the gravitational χ S = − 1 .265 × 10 20 (46 )
mass of the human body is negligible. Comparing with Eq. (40), yields
χS = e4π b (t −t ) ≅ e46.286 ≅ 1.265×1020 (47)
Quantum Physics shows that the 2 2 2 2
a R
energy is quantized, i.e., it has discrete values
that are defined as discrete energy levels that whence we obtain
correspond to all positive integer values of
the quantum number n , (n = 1,2,3,...) . Thus, t R = ta2 − 4.994×1017 (48)
along the life of a person, the energy of its For t a = 1.928 × 10 9 s = 62 years , we obtain
(49)
Soul is characterized by several quantum
levels of energy. Then, we can say that, when t R ≅ 1.794×109 s ≅ 58years
occurs a reversal of soul energy, it carries out This means a return of approximately 4 years
a quantum reversal to a previous level of in the Soul energy level. Note that, while it is
energy. necessary 2W/m2 at 1Hz to return 4 years, it
Any action once performed leaves an is necessary 300W/m2 at 1Hz to return 5
impression on the Soul (its energy). Thus, years.
each energy level of a Soul expresses, at the However, only a small part of the 25W is
corresponding moment, the human being in due to the delta waves. This means that the
its totality. This means, for example, that our return is yet smaller. It obvious that the
current human shape results from the current power densities of the delta waves radiated
energy level (spectrum) of our Soul. Imagine from the brains vary of persons for persons.
Possibly, for most the persons the power
406
9
densities of delta waves radiated from its energy level. For
brains are negligible (smaller than the t a = 9.330× 10 s = 30years, Eq. (50) gives
8

critical value Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 ). Since tRmax = 5.282×108 s ≅ 17years. Therefore, a return
we can relate the radiation density, D , with of approximately 13 years, in the soul energy
the intensity of the electric field, E , by level. Note that, the maximum return possible,
means of the following expression ~ 13.8 years , occurs for t a ≅ 29 years .
D = n r E 2 2 μ 0 c [23], then, considering that
the value of electric field in the forehead of a
person (when emitting delta waves) is
E = V r , where V is the local electric
potential (for ordinary persons V ≈ 150 μV
Delta waves
[24]), and r is the radius of the sphere with
the same volume of the brain (r ≈ 0.1m ) ,
then we can write that
E2 V2
D= = ≈ 10 −9 W / m 2 << Dmin
2 μ 0 c 2 μ 0 cr 2

This shows why the ordinary persons cannot


to produce immediate cures. Equation above
Fig. 5 – The immediate Cure or Resuscitation.
shows that to produce D > Dmin is necessary Delta waves are defined as having a frequency
that V > 1mV (approximately 10 times between 0.5 and 2 hertz. They are the highest
greater than that of ordinary persons). amplitude brainwaves. In adults they are radiated
from their forehead.
Note that, if t a = 1.866 × 108 s = 6 years,
and we want to return 1 year, then for 1Hz The building of ELF transmitters is
the necessary value of χ S , according to Eq. very difficult because the length of the
antenna is enormous. In the case of 1Hz the
(39) is χ S = e 0.986 → χ S = −2.68 . Thus, antenna length must be of the order of
according to Eq. (31) the value of D is 100.000km. However, by using the process
8.4 × 10 −20 W / m 2 . However, as we have of gravitational redshift at laboratory scale,
already seen, the value of D is limited to shown in a previous paper [25] it is possible
Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 . This means that the for example, to reduce frequencies
return of 1 year, in the case what f ≅ 1GHz down to ~1Hz. In order to
t a = 1.866 × 108 s = 6 years, is impossible. Also, produce a power density D ≅ 10 −6 W / m 2 at
~1Hz, by the mentioned redshift process, it is
note that for D ≥ Dmin the values of t R
necessary an initial flux with D ≅ 10 3 W / m 2
become imaginaries. What means that it is
at ~1GHz, what corresponds to the minimum
impossible to return the soul energy of a
frequency band of MASERS. These devices
child with 6 years old. In general, it is
were invented before the laser, but have
impossible to return the soul energy of any
languished in obscurity because they required
person with t a < ln χ S 4π 2 b 2 . high magnetic fields and difficult cooling
Since Dmax ≅ 103 W / m2 and fmin ≅ 0.1Hz, schemes. Hydrogen masers oscillate at a
frequency at around 1.42GHZ and have a
we obtain from Eqs. (31) and (39) the typical power of ~ 10-13W [26]. They are
following expression:
very complex and expensive devices.
t Rmax = t a2 − 5 . 914 × 10 17 (50 ) Recently, it was discovered a room-
For t a = 1.928×10 s = 62 years,
9
we get temperature solid-state maser, which
oscillates at frequency of 1.45GHZ.
t = 1.768×10 s ≅ 56.8 years. This means a
max
R
9
Basically, it is a simple crystal called p-
maximum return of ~ 5.2 years in the soul terphenyl. This new device is very simple to

407
10
build and operate, and removes totally the the energy of the Soul to a previous
masers’ complexity. When configured as an energy level, sufficient to carry out the
oscillator, this solid-state maser’s measured immediate cure of any wound, any kind of
output power density of around 1mW/mm2 ≅ disease, or the resuscitation of persons. The
1000W/m2 (approximately 100 million times history shows the existence of several
greater than that of an atomic hydrogen persons who have realized immediate cures,
maser) [27]. and someone that has carried out even
resuscitations. Among them, the most known
106 masers each one with 10-3 W/mm2at 1.45GHz
is Jesus of Nazareth.
10m x 10m
10 W/m2 at 1.45GHz
As we have already shown, the ordinary
persons usually are not able to produce fluxes
Deflection System of delta waves with power densities
sufficient to carry out immediate cures
( D > Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 ). Also, we have
Redshift System 1000 W/m2 at 1.45GHz shown that, in order to carry out these cures
is necessary power densities about 100 times
10-6 W/m2 at 1.45Hz more intense then those produced by the
ordinary (
persons D ≈ 10 −9 W / m 2 . ) In
addition, it is very rare to remain conscious
during the emission of delta waves. Thus, the
persons who, at conscious state, are able to
radiate fluxes of delta waves with power
Fig. 6 – Schematic diagram of a system, using solid- densities 100 times more high than those
state masers, to produce an ELF radiation flux with 10-6 produced by the ordinary persons - which
W/m2 at 1.45Hz.
just radiate delta waves at sleep state - are
Considering that each one of these really extraordinary persons.
masers radiates 1mW/mm2, then it is What is necessary for the brain of a
necessary a set of 106 masers placed inside person acquire this capacity? A special diet?
an area of 10mx10m (See Fig.6), and after Specific physical exercises? Or the persons
concentrated into an area of 1m2 (by means only acquire this capacity by means of the
of the process of deflection of evolution? That is, all persons have this
electromagnetic waves at laboratory scale capacity on a latent stage, but it is only
[28]), in order to obtain a flux of 103W/m2 at awakened at a specific evolution level.
1.45 GHz, which is posteriorly redshifted to a Recently, it was proved that the state
flux of 10-6W/m2 at 1.45Hz of mature cells, with a specific disease, can
(Dmin ≅ 1.5×10 W / m ). Substitution of these
−7 2
be reverted to a previous state (pluripotent
values into Eq. (31) gives χ S ≅ −4 × 1013 . By stem cell state), where the cells become
healthy † [29,30]. This is in agreement with
substitution of this value into Eq. (39), we get
the process of quantum reversal of the soul
t R = t a2 − 3 × 1017 (51) energy, proposed in this work, which shows
This equation shows that the system will only that it is possible to revert the current state of
be useful to produce short returns in the soul a human body to a healthy previous state.
energy of persons with t a > 18 years . This matter is unprecedented in the
literature. It is necessary more than one paper
Similar systems with higher power densities
to deepen it. We will return to this matter in a
can provide higher returns, for persons with
future work.
t a >> 18 years .
Probably all human brains are able to
generate delta waves. But, only few brains †
This work, initiated by Gurdon (1962) and concluded by
can generate fluxes of this kind of radiation Yamanaka (2006), has been awarded with the 2012 Nobel
with the necessary power density to return Prize in Medicine.

408
11

References

[1] Falk, G. D., (2004) The Science of the Soul, Blue [17] Bolotin, K., Sikes, K., Jiang, Z., Klima, M.,Fudenberg,
Dolphin Publishing, Inc. , USA. G., Hone, J., Kim, P., Stormer, H., (2008). "Ultrahigh
electron mobility in suspended graphene". Solid State
[2] Huxley, J. (1969) Essays of a Humanist, Penguin Books, Communications 146: 351.
UK, pp. 82–83.
[18] Knutson, E. O. and Whitby, K. T. (1975). "Aerosol
[3] De Aquino, F., (2012) Beyond the Material Universe, classification by electric mobility: Apparatus, theory,
Journal for Interdisciplinary Research on Religion and and applications". J. Aerosol Sci. 6 (6): 443–451.
Science, No. 10, pp.83-128.

[4] Schiff, L. I., (1981) Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, [19] Casella, G., Berger, R. L. (2001) Statistical inference
third edition, pp.39-41. (2nd ed.). Duxbury; Patel, J. K.; Read, C. B., (1996)
Handbook of the normal distribution(2nded.) CRC Press.
[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of [20] Laser Institute of America - Secretariat and Publisher
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific of the ANSI Z136 Series of Laser Safety Standards.
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232. http://www.lia.org/publications/ansi/Z136-1

[6] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw- [21] H. Aurlien, I.O. Gjerde, J. H. Aarseth, B. Karlsen, H.
Hill, p. 270. Skeidsvoll, N. E. Gilhus (March 2004). "EEG
background activity described by a large computerized
[7] Schwartz, H. M. (1968) Introduction to Special database" Clinical Neurophysiology 115 (3): 665–673.
Relativity, chaps. 3, 4, 8, McGraw-Hill, NY.
[22] Kandel, E. R., and Schwartz, J, H., (1985)
[8] Bergmann, P. G. (1946) Introduction to the Theory of Principles of Neural Science, 2nd edition,
Relativity, pt I, Prentice-Hall, N.J. Elsevier.

[9] Kardec, A., (1954) Le Livre des Espirits, Éditions de [23] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey
L’U.S.K.B., q.187. & Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[10] Squire, Tom (2000), "U.S. Standard Atmosphere, [24] Pilon M; Zadra A; Joncas S et al. Hypersynchronous
1976", Thermal Protection Systems Expert and delta waves and somnambulism: brain topography and
effect of sleep deprivation. SLEEP 2006;29(1): 77-84.
Material Properties Database (NASA), retrieved
2011-10-23.
[25] De Aquino, F., (2012) Gravitational Blueshift and
Redshift generated at Laboratory Scale,
[11] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0239
McGraw-Hill, p. 270.
[26] Klepper, D., Goldenberg, H.M., Ramsey, N.F., (1962)
[12] G. Cristoforetti, A. De Giacomo, M. Dell'Aglio, Properties of the hydrogen maser, Appl. Opt., 1,55-60.
S. Legnaioli, E. Tognoni, V.Palleschi and N.
Omenetto (2010) Local Thermodynamic [27] Oxborrow, M. et al., (16 August 2012) Room- temperature
Equilibrium in Laser-Induced Breakdown solid-state maser, Nature 488,353–356.
Spectroscopy: Beyond the McWhirter criterion,
Spectrochimica Acta Part B: 65, 86-95.
[28] De Aquino, F., (2012) Artificial Gravitational Lenses,
http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0221
[13] N. Omenetto, EMSLIBS TALK, Rome 2009
[29] Takahashi K., Yamanaka, S. (2006).Induction of
[14] E. O. Knutson and K. T. Whitby (1975). "Aerosol pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult
classification by electric mobility: Apparatus, theory, fibroblast cultures by defined factors.Cell126:663-676.
and applications". J. Aerosol Sci. 6 (6): 443–451.
[30] Gurdon JB (1962). Developmental Capacity of Nuclei
[15] Harris, J. J.; Foxon, C. T.; Barnham, K. W. J.; Taken from Intestinal Epithelium Cells of Feeding
Lacklison, D. E.; Hewett, J.; White, C. (1987). "Two- Tadpoles. J Embryol Exp Morph 10: 622-640.
dimensional electron gas structures with mobilities
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(2004). "Extraordinary Mobility in Semiconducting
Carbon Nanotubes". Nano Letters 4: 35.

409
Gravitational Ejection of Earth’s Clouds
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
It is shown that, under certain circumstances, the sunlight incident on Earth, or on a planet in similar conditions, can
become negative the gravitational mass of water droplet clouds. Then, by means of gravitational repulsion, the
clouds are ejected from the atmosphere of the planet, stopping the hydrologic cycle. Thus, the water evaporated from
the planet will be progressively ejected to outerspace together with the air contained in the clouds. If the
phenomenon to persist during a long time, then the water of rivers, lakes and oceans will disappear totally from the
planet, and also its atmosphere will become rarefied.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Water in the atmosphere, Cloud physics, Water cycles, Solar variability impact.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 92.60.Jq, 92.60.Nv, 92.70.Ly, 92.70.Qr.
.

1. Introduction

A cloud, in Earth’s atmosphere, is particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed


made up of liquid water droplets, if it is very of light.
cold, they turn into ice crystals [1]. The When Δp is produced by the
droplets are so small and light that they can absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
float in the air. is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
Here we show that, under certain
(1) becomes
circumstances, the sunlight incident on the
planet can become negative the gravitational m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

mass of water droplet clouds. According to = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
Newton’s gravitation law, the force between ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
the Earth and a particle with negative
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛λ ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪
gravitational mass is repulsive. Then, by
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2)
means of gravitational repulsion, the clouds
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
are ejected from the atmosphere of the ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
planet, stopping the hydrologic cycle. Thus, where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
the water evaporated from the planet is wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
progressively ejected to outerspace together mass mi 0 .
with the air contained in the clouds.
From Electrodynamics we know that
Consequently, if the phenomenon to persist
when an electromagnetic wave with
during a long time, then the water of rivers,
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
lakes and oceans will disappear totally from
the planet, and also its atmosphere will material with relative permittivity ε r ,
become rarefied. relative magnetic permeability μ r and
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
2. Theory reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
refraction of the material, given by [3]
The quantization of gravity shown that
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass c 2
mi are correlated by means of the following v 2 ⎝ ⎠
factor [2]: If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ μrσ
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ (4)
⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) nr =
4πε0 f
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the radiation (See Fig . 1) becomes
particle and Δp is the variation in the

410
2
λ 4π “diameter” of the water molecule. Thus, the
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) electromagnetic wave incides effectively on an
f nr nr μfσ area S = N f S m , where S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross
section area of one water molecule. After these
collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
other molecules (See Fig.3).
v=c v = c/nr

nr
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
molecule

Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The Water droplet


Wave
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the water droplet.

If a water droplet with thickness equal Thus, the total number of collisions in the
to ξ contains n molecules/m3, then the volume Sξ is
number of molecules per area unit is nξ . Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=ndSφm +(ndSξ −ndSφm) =
Thus, if the electromagnetic radiation with
frequency f incides on an area S of the
=nd Sξ (9)
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
water droplet it reaches nSξ molecules. If it
water droplet can be expressed by
incides on the total area of the water
droplet, S f , then the total number of D=
P
=
P
(10 )
S N f Sm
molecules reached by the radiation is
We can express the total mean number
N = nS f ξ . The number of molecules per
of collisions in each water droplet, n1 , by
unit of volume, nd , is given by means of the following equation
N0 ρ ntotal photons N collisions
nd = (7) n1 = (11)
A N
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the molecule, then the total
the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
momentum transferred to the water droplet
density of the water droplet (in kg/m3) and A will be Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in
is the molar mass. In the case of water
(
droplet ρ = 1000kg / m 3 , A = 18kg.kmole −1 ) accordance with Eq. (1), we can write that
mg (d ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎡ λ⎤
2 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎢(n1N ) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
the result is
mi 0(d ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
nd = 3.3 × 1028 molecules/ m3 (8) ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

⎪ ⎡ ⎡ λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫⎪
The total number of photons inciding = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (12)

⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
on the water droplet is ntotal photons = P hf 2 , ⎣ ⎦⎭
where P is the power of the radiation flux Since Eq. (9) gives N collisions = nd Sξ , we get
incident on the water droplet.
When an electromagnetic wave incides ⎛ P ⎞
on a water droplet, it strikes on N f front ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nd Sξ ) (13)
⎝ hf ⎠
water molecules, where Nf ≅ (nd S f )φm , φm is the

411
3
Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) yields Sd = 4πr = 5.0 ×10 m
d
2
(20) −13 2

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ The “diameter” of a water molecule is


mg (d ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ λ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nd Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (14)
P
φm ≅ 2 ×10−10 m .
0
⎢ ⎥ Thus, we get
mi0(d ) ⎪ ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ⎦
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭ Sm = 14 πφm2 ≅ 3 ×10−20 m .
Substitution of P given by Eq. (10) into Eq. An important electrical characteristic
(14) gives of clouds is that the electrical conductivity of
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ N f SmD ⎞⎛ nd Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪ the air inside them is less than in the free
2
mg(d ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ −1 (15)
⎜ m c ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
atmosphere, due to the capture of ions by the
mi0(d ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎝ f 2
⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ i0( d ) ⎠ ⎦
⎥⎦⎪⎭
water droplets. Considering that the number
⎩ ⎢⎣ of molecules per cubic meter of air is
Substitution of Nf ≅ (nd S f )φm and S = N f Sm nair ≅ N 0 ρ air AN 2 ≅ 2.5 × 10 25 molecules.m −3 ,
into Eq. (15) results then the total charge of the ions captured by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the water droplets should be of the order of
mg (d ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎛ n3 2 2 2
S S φ ξ D ⎞ ⎤ ⎪
⎢ −1⎥⎬ (16)
⎜ ⎟ 1
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢ ⎥ n air e ≅ 10 6 C.m −3 . This means that, the ions
d f m m
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(d )cf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
mi0(d ) ⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ concentration in a cloud of water droplets is
where mi 0 (d ) = ρ dVd = ρ d S d ξ . Thus, Eq. (16) of the order of the ions concentration in
metallic conductors ( 10 6 − 10 7 C.m −3 ).
reduces to Thus, we can assume that the electrical
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (d ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎛ φ
3 2 2 2
⎞ ⎤ conductivity of the clouds should be of the
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (17)
⎢ n S S D 1
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ d f m m
order of the conductivity of the
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ρd Sd cf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ metals (~ 10 7 S .m −1 ) . By substitution of the
2
mi0(di) ⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭
Making λ = λmod , where λ mod is given by Eq. obtained values into Eq. (18), we get
(5), we get
⎧⎪ ⎡ D2 ⎤⎫⎪
χd = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 4 ×1038 −1⎥⎬ (19)
⎧ ⎡ nd6S4f Sm4φm4 (μdσd )D2 ⎤⎫⎪ ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f 3 ⎦⎥⎪

mg(d ) ⎪
χd = ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (18)
mi0(d ) ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ 4 πρ 2 2 2 3
S c f ⎥⎦⎪
d d
⎭ Since m g (d ) = χ d mi (d ) , we can conclude,
according to Eq. (19), that the gravitational
The area S f is the total surface area of the mass of the droplet becomes negative when
water droplets, which can be obtained by 4 × 10 38 D 2 f 3 > 1.25 , i.e., when
multiplying the specific surface area (SSA) 3
of the water droplet (which is given by D > 5 × 10 − 20 f 2
(20 )
SSA= Ad ρdVd = 3 ρd rd = 300m2 / kg ) by the
total mass of the water droplets ( mi0(Td) = ρdVd Nd ); In the case of Earth, the actual average valor
of D due to the sunlight, is
N d ≅ 1×108 droplets / m3 [4]. Assuming that
D0 = 495W .m −2 [5] * .
the water droplet cloud is composed of
monodisperse particles with 0.2 μm radius
( )
rd = 2 × 10 −7 m , we get *
The solar constant is equal to approximately
1,368 W/m2 at a distance of one astronomical unit
S f = (SSA)ρ dVd = 4πrd2 N d (18) (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth) [6].
Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by the
Earth's atmosphere so that the power that arrives at the
The area S d is the surface area of one water surface is closer to 1,000 W/m2 in clear conditions
droplet, which is given by when the Sun is near the zenith [7]. However, the
average value is D 0 = 495 W . m − 2 [5].

412
Fig.1 – Total Solar Irradiance. Image credit: Claus Fröhlich. The description of the procedures used to
construct the composite from the original data shown in Figure 1 (upper panel) can be found in Fröhlich
and Lean [8]; Fröhlich [9].

Based on Stefan-Boltzmann law, we can ( T0 is the current value of T ) the gravitational


write that D0 = σT04 and D = σT 4 ; masses of the water droplets become
σ = 5.67×10−8W.m−2 K −4 is the Stefan- negative.
Boltzmann constant .Thus, it follows that It is known that, the solar “constant”
4 can fluctuate by ~0.1% over days and weeks
D ⎛T ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ (21) as sunspots grow and dissipate. The solar
D0 ⎜⎝ T0 ⎟⎠ “constant” also drifts by 0.2% to 0.6% over
Substitution of Eq. (21) into Eq. (20) yields many centuries. Note that the Gravitational
3 Ejection of Earth’s Clouds starts when the
T
> 3 × 10 − 6 f 8 (22 ) Sun’s temperature is increased by 5% in
T0 average † ‡ . Under these circumstances,
The Wien's displacement law is given by according to Newton’s gravitation law, the
λ max T = b where λ max is the peak force between the Earth and the water
wavelength, T is the absolute temperature, droplets (negative gravitational mass)
and b is the Wien's displacement constant, becomes repulsive. Then, by means of
equal to 2.8977685(51) ×10−3 m·K. Based on gravitational repulsion, the clouds will be
this equation, we can write that ejected from the atmosphere of the planet,
λmax λmax(0) = T0 T or as function of frequency: stopping the hydrologic cycle. Thus, the
water evaporated from the planet will be
f max (0 ) T0
= (23)
f max T †
According to the Wien's displacement law, an
Making f = f max in Eq. (22) and comparing increasing of 5% in the Sun temperature produces a
decreasing of 5% in the peak wavelength ( λ max ). This
with Eq. (23), we get
3 means that the peak of the solar spectrum is shifted to
T −9 5
> 1.5 × 10 f max(0 ) (24) blue light. In this way, the sunlight becomes colder.

T0 After some millions of years, the stars’ internal
structures begin to have essential changes, such as
Since f max (0 ) = 5.5 × 10 Hz (current value
14
variations (increases or decreases) in size, temperature
for sunlight) then Eq. (24) shows that, when and luminosity. When this occurs, the star leaves the
T > 1.05T0 (25) main sequence, and begins a displacement through the
HR diagram. Significant increases in temperature can
then occur during this period.

413
5
progressively ejected to outerspace together outerspace together with the air contained
with the air contained in the clouds. in the clouds. If the phenomenon to persist
Note that the effect will be negligible for some decades the effects will be
if the phenomenon to persist for only some catastrophic for mankind.
days. However, if the phenomenon to persist
for some years, then most of animals will be
dead. If it persists for some centuries, then
the water of rivers, lakes and oceans will
disappear totally from the planet, and its
atmosphere will become rarefied.
This phenomenon can have occurred
in Mars a long time ago, and explains the
cause of the rivers, lakes and oceans dry
found in Mars [10, 11]. Note that this
phenomenon can also occur at any moment
on Earth. In this case, there is no salvation to
mankind, except if it will be transferred to
another planet with an ecosystem similar to
the current Earth’s ecosystem. Only
Gravitational Spacecrafts [12] are able to
carry out this transport.

Warning:

The IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel


on Climate Change announced on
September, 26 2013 a new report showing
that the global mean surface temperatures
can increase up to 4.8°C by 2100. If t 0 is the
current global mean surface temperature,
then an increasing of Δt o on t 0 , will produce
an increasing of 5% on the current global
mean surface temperature if
(t 0 + Δt 0 ) t 0 = 1.05 , whence we obtain
Δt 0 = 0.05t 0 . The global mean surface
temperature of Earth was defined as 15°C in
1994 by Hartmann [13]. Thus, we get
Δt 0 = 0.75°C . This means that, when the
increasing on the current global mean surface
temperature reaches ~ 0.75°C , in respect to
the value of t 0 in 1994, the Gravitational
Ejection of Earth’s Clouds starts. According
to the IPCC report the total increase between
the average of the 2003–2012 period is 0.78
[0.72 to 0.85] °C. Thus, we can conclude that
the phenomenon might already have started.
Consequently, clouds are already being
ejected from Earth’s atmosphere. This means
that water is being progressively ejected to

414
6

References
[1] Ahrens, C. D. (1985) Meteorology Today. St. Paul,
MN: West Publishing,.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[3] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[4] Lin Li and Chung D.,(1991) Composites, 22, 3, p.212.

[5] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J.


Willey & Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP,
Apêndice B.

[6] Fröhlich, C., Solar Irradiance Variability Since


1978: Revision of the {PMOD} Composite During
Solar Cycle 21, Space Science Rev., in press.

[7] El-Sharkawi, Mohamed A. (2005). Electric energy


CRC Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-0-8493-3078-0.
[8] Fröhlich, C., and J. Lean (1998) The Sun’s total
irradiance: Cycles and trends in the past two
decades and associated climate change uncertainties,
Geophys. Res. Let., 25, 4377-4380.

[9] Fröhlich, C., (2000) Observations of irradiance


variability, Space Science Reviews, 94, 15-24,

[10] Di Achille, G., Hynek, B.M., (2010) Ancient Ocean


on Mars supported by global distribution of deltas and
valleys. Nature Geoscience 3, 459 – 463.

[11] Read, P. L., Lewis, S. R. (2004) (Paperback). The


Martian Climate Revisited: Atmosphere and
Environment of a Desert Planet. Chichester, UK:
Praxis. ISBN 978-3-540-40743-0. Retrieved
December 19, 2010.

[12] De Aquino, F. (1998) The Gravitational Spacecraft,


Electric Spacecraft Journal, 27, pp. 6-13.
http://arXiv.org/abs/physics/9904018

[13] Hartmann, H. (1994) Global Physical


Climatology, Academic Press, San Diego.

415
New Gravitational Effects from Rotating Masses
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Two gravitational effects related to rotating masses are described. The first is the decreasing of the gravitational mass
when the rotational kinetic energy is increased. In the case of ferromagnetic materials, the effect is strongly increased
and the gravitational mass can even become negative. The second is the gravitational shielding effect produced by the
decreasing of the gravitational mass of the rotating mass.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Gravitational Effects of Rotating Masses, Experimental studies of gravity, New topics in
Superconductivity.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 04.90.+e, 04.80.-y, 74.90.+n.
.
1. Introduction

In 1918, H. Thirring [1] showed that a That equation shows that only for
rotating mass shell has a weak dragging Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is equal to the
effect on the inertial frames within it. In inertial mass.
today’s literature these results are known as In general, the momentum variation Δp
Lense-Thirring effects. is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
Recently, the Lense-Thirring effect has applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
received new interest because it becomes that there is no restriction concerning the
now possible to directly measure this tiny nature of the force F , i.e., it can be
effect [2]. In the years 1959-1960 it was mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.
discovered by G. E. Pugh [3] and Leonard For example, we can look on the
Schiff [4,5] that the mentioned dragging momentum variation Δp as due to
phenomenon leads to another effect - called
absorption or emission of electromagnetic
the Schiff effect - which might be suited for
energy by the particle.
experimental confirmation: The rotation axis
In this case Δp can be obtained as
of a gyroscope, inside a satellite orbiting the
Earth, in a height of 650 km, suffers a follows: It is known that the radiation
precession of 42 milliarcseconds per year, pressure, dP , upon an area dA = dxdy of a
due to the Earth’s rotation [6]. volume d V = dxdydz of a particle (the
Here, we show new gravitational incident radiation normal to the surface dA )
effects related to rotating gravitational is equal to the energy dU absorbed (or
masses, including superconducting masses. emitted) per unit volume (dU dV ) .i.e.,

2. Theory dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(2)
dV dxdydz dAdz
From the quantization of gravity it Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed of
follows that the gravitational mass mg and radiation) into the equation above gives
dU (dU dAdt) dD
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
dP = = = (3)
of the following factor [7]: dV v v
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Since dPdA = dF we can write:
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) dU
(4)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ dFdt=
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ v
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the However we know that dF = dp dt , then
particle and Δp is the variation in the dp =
dU
(5)
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed v
of light. From this equation it follows that

416
2

U ⎛c⎞ U
(6)
v=c v = c/nr
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr
v ⎝c⎠ c
where nr is the index of refraction.
nr
Substitution of Eq.(6) into Eq. (1)
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
yields
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0
2 r⎟
(7) Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
⎪ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎦⎪⎭
m c wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be

i 0
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
In the case of absorption of a single
photon with wavelength λ and frequency f , If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
Eq. (7) becomes contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
mg ⎪
⎢ ⎛ hf ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ =
2 r ⎟ electromagnetic radiation with frequency
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ f incides on an area S of the lamina it
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪ area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ nr ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (8)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ of atoms reached by the radiation is
⎣ ⎦⎭ N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
volume, n , is given by
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial N0 ρ
mass mi 0 . n= (12)
A
From Electrodynamics we know that
when an electromagnetic wave with where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
frequency f and velocity c incides on a Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
material with relative permittivity ε r , of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
relative magnetic permeability μ r and mass(kg/kmole).
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is When an electromagnetic wave incides
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
refraction of the material, given by [8] ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (9)
c 2

v 2 ⎝ ⎠ incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where


If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (9) reduces to S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
μrσ
nr = (10) After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
4πε0 f with the other atoms (See Fig.2).
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (11)
f nr nr μfσ atom
Sm
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.

417
3
Thus, the total number of collisions in the In the case in which the area S f is just the
volume Sξ is area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =
=nl Sξ (13) we obtain from Eq. (20), considering that
mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛⎜ nl Sα Smφm D⎞⎟ nr ⎤ ⎥⎪
3 2 2
mg(l )
P P
(14 ) = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (21)
D= = mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎢⎜⎝ ρl cf 2 ⎟⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
S N f Sm ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
We can express the total mean number If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then Eq. (9)
the following equation reduces to
n total photons N collisions
n1 = (15 ) μrσ
N nr = (22)
4πε0 f
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
Substitution of Eq. (22) into Eq. (21) gives
transferred to the atom, then the total
mg (l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ nl6 Sα2 Sm4φm4 μσD2 ⎤⎫⎪
− 1⎥⎬ (23)
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎢ 4πρl2c2 f 3
mi 0(l ) ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎥⎪⎭
with Eq. (8), we can write that This is therefore the expression of
mg(l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎡ λ ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
correlation between gravitational mass and
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N) 0 nr ⎥ −1⎥⎬ = inertial mass in the particular case of incident
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation on ordinary matter (non-coherent
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2 matter) at rest.
⎪ ⎢ ⎡
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions nr ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (16) If the body is also rotating, with an
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ angular speed ω around its central axis, then
⎦⎭
it acquires an additional energy equal to its
Since Eq. (13) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get
⎛ P ⎞
( )
rotational energy E k = 1 2 Iω 2 . Since this is
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (17 ) an increase in the internal energy of the body,
⎝ hf ⎠ and this energy is basically electromagnetic,
Substitution of Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) yields we can assume that E k , such as U ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ corresponds to an amount of electromagnetic
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) nr ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (18)
⎢ energy absorbed by the body. Thus, we can
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ consider E k as an increase ΔU = E k in the
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
electromagnetic energy U absorbed by the
Substitution of P given by Eq. (14) into Eq. body. Consequently, in this case, we must
replace U in Eq. (7) for (U + ΔU ) , i.e.,
(18) gives
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ n ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎛U + ΔU ⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ l ⎟ r ⎥ −1 ⎬ (19)
2
⎪ ⎢
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎠⎜⎝ mi0(l )c ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎥⎪ mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ nr ⎟⎟ −1 ⎬mi0 (24)
⎢ ⎪ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ i0
m c 2
⎠ ⎦⎪⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎩ ⎭
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm Note that the variable U can refer to both the
into Eq. (19) results electromagnetic energy of a radiation as the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ electromagnetic energy of the
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3 S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ n ⎤
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (20)
r electromagnetic field due to an electric
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥ ⎥ current through the rotating gravitational
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ mass.
where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) . Thus, Eq. (24) can be rewritten as

418
4
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ mass was reduced or made negative [9]. The
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ (Um + Ek ) sin2πf ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
2

mg = ⎨1−2 1+⎜ nr ⎟ −1 ⎬mi0 (25) effect extends beyond substance (gravitational


⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
mi0c2 shielding) , up to a certain distance from it
⎩ ⎭ (along the central axis of gravitational shielding).
Note that E k is not an amplitude of a wave such This effect shows that in this region the gravity
as U m , (U = U m sin 2πft) . Therefore, E k and
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where χ 1 = m g mi 0
sin 2πf are independent parameters.
and g is the gravity acceleration before the
Consequently, there is no sense to talk about
average value for E k sin 2πf , such as in the case gravitational shielding. Here, according to
Eq.(28), we have − 0.96 ≤ χ1 ≤ 1. Thus, the
of U m sin 2πft , where the average value for U 2
gravity acceleration above the Mumetal disk will
is equal to 1
2 U m2 because U varies sinusoidaly vary in the range −0.96g ≤ g1 ≤ g since the gravity
( U m is the maximum value for U ). before (below) the gravitational shielding is g .
Then, if U m << E k , the Eq. (25) reduces to Let us now consider the case in which the
rotating mass is a superconducting material.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ Iω2 nr sin2πf ⎞ The most famous characteristic of

mg ≅ ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬mi0 (26) superconductivity is zero resistance. However,
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ 2mi0c ⎠ ⎦⎭
the superconductors are not the same as a perfect

conductor. The observed surface resistance , Rs ,
For σ >> ωε , Eq.(9) shows that and
of most superconductors to alternating currents
n r = μσc 2
4πf . In this case, Eq. (26) gives shows that the resistivity can be extremely small
at the internal region close to the surface of the
⎧⎪ ⎡ μσω4 I 2 sin2 2πf ⎤⎫⎪
mg ≅ ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0 (27) superconductor. The thickness of this region is
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πfmi20 c 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ known as London penetration depth, λ L [10].
According to BCS theory
( )
Note that the effect of the electromagnetic
field applied upon the mass is highly relevant, Rs = (1 λ L ) σ σ + σ s
2 2
where σ is the
because in the absence of this radiation the index normal-state conductivity and σ s is the
of refraction, present in Eq. (26), becomes equal
to 1. Under these circumstances, the possibility of conductivity of the mentioned region, which is
reducing the gravitational mass is null. On the given by [11]:
other hand, the equation above shows that, in σs =
1
(29)
practice, the decreasing of the gravitational mass 2πμ λ2L f
can become relevant in the particular case of
It is important to note that Eq. (16) refers
ferromagnetic materials subjected to
to the case of ordinary matter (non-coherent
electromagnetic fields with extremely low
matter). In the case of superconductors the
frequencies (ELF).
radiation is absorbed by the Cooper-pairs fluid
Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of a
(coherent part of the superconductors) and there
Mumetal disk ( μ r = 105,000 at 100 gauss ; is no scattering of the incident radiation.
σ = 2.1 × 10 6 S .m −1 ) with radius R = 0.10m Consequently, N collisions = 1 (the total number of
(I = 1 m R2
2 i0 ) rotating with an angular velocity collisions). Therefore, in the case of
ω = 2.09×104 rad/ s(~ 200,000 rpm). Thus, if an superconductors Eq. (16) reduces to
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
ELF radiation or an electrical current with mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
extremely low frequency e.g., f = 0.1Hz is = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photons nr ⎥ −1⎥⎬
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
applied on the Mumetal disk, then according to ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Eq.(27), the gravitational mass of the disk will ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ hf ⎤ ⎥⎪
oscillate between m g = mi 0 and = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photons 2 nr ⎥ −1 ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ mi0c ⎦ ⎥⎪
mg ≅ −0.96mi 0 (28) ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎤ ⎤⎪
2
⎪ ⎡ U
It has been shown that there is an
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢ 2 nr ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (30)
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding effect -
⎪ ⎣⎢ ⎣ m c ⎦ ⎥
⎩ ⎦⎪⎭
i 0
produced by a substance whose gravitational

419
5
which is exactly the equation (7). Thus, we ionosphere waveguide and reaches the Van
conclude that Eq. (7) is general for all types Allen belts [14-17]. In the ionospheric
of matter (coherent and non-coherent). spherical cavity, the ELF radiation power
Since U = U m sin 2πft , the average density, D , is related to the energy density
value for U 2 is equal to 1 2 U m2 because U inside the cavity, W , by means of the well-
known expression:
varies sinusoidaly ( U m is the maximum
value for U ). On the other hand, D = W
c
(33)
4
U rms = U m 2 . Consequently we can where c is the speed of light, and
change U 2 by U rms 2
in the Eq. (7). W = 12 ε 0 E 2 . The electric field E , is given by
Alternatively, we may put this
E=
q
(34 )
equation as a function of the radiation power 4πε 0 r⊕2
density, D rms, since U rms = VDrms v (See Eq.
where q = 500,000C [16] and r⊕ = 6.371×106 m .
(3)). Thus, we obtain Therefore, we get
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ E = 110.7V / m,
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎛ Drmsnr2 ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬ (31) W = 5.4×10−8 J / m3 ,
mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Drms ≅ 4.1 W / m2 (35)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where ρ = mi0 V . In the case of YBCO λ L ≅ 140nm [18,19].
. For σ >> ωε , Eq.(9) shows that and Then, substitution of this value into Eq.(29)
gives
n r = μσc 2 4πf . In this case, equation above 8.12 × 1012
becomes μσ s =
1
= (36)
2πλ2L f f
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎛ μσ Drms ⎞ ⎤⎥⎪ The variable σ in Eq. (32) is σ s , and the
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1 ⎬ (32)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πρ cf ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪ density of the YBCO is ρ = 6300kg.m −3
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
[20,21]. Thus, we can rewrite Eq. (32) as
Now consider a superconducting disk follows
(YBCO) on the Earth’s atmosphere. It is
mg(l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
2
known that the Schumann resonances [12] ⎛ 0.34Drms ⎞ ⎪
are global electromagnetic resonances (a set

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (37)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ f
2
⎠ ⎥⎪
of spectrum peaks in the extremely low ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
frequency ELF), excited by lightning Since the superconducting disk is inside the
discharges in the spherical resonant cavity Earth’s atmosphere then it is subjected to
formed by the Earth’s surface and the inner Schumann resonances. Thus, the values of f
edge of the ionosphere (60km from the and Drms are given respectively by
Earth’s surface). The Earth–ionosphere
waveguide behaves like a resonator at ELF f = f1 = 7.83Hz and Dm = 4.1 W / m2 (Eq. (35)).
frequencies and amplifies the spectral signals Therefore the value of χ given by Eq. (37)
from lightning at the resonance frequencies. is
In the normal mode descriptions of m g (l )
Schumann resonances, the fundamental mode χ= = 0.9995 (38)
(n = 1) is a standing wave in the Earth– mi 0(l )
ionosphere cavity with a wavelength equal to Since the weight of the disk is χ mi0 g then
the circumference of the Earth. This lowest- mi 0 g − χ mi 0 g = 5 × 10 −4 mi 0 g is the decrease
frequency (and highest-intensity) mode of the
Schumann resonance occurs at a frequency in the weight of the disk. Therefore the disk
f1 = 7.83 Hz [13].
0.05% of its weight (without any rotation).
Due to the Gravitational Shielding effect,
It was experimentally observed that these variations are the same for a sample
ELF radiation escapes from the Earth– above the disk .
420
6
When the disk acquires an angular the sample lost more a portion due to the
velocity ω , then the additional value χ a , increase of the weight of the air column
due to the rotation, can be obtained making above the sample. Due to the gravitational
U m = 0 in Eq.(25), i.e., shielding effect, the gravity acting on the air
column above the sample (height~12Router
⎧⎪ ⎡ μσω4 I 2 sin2 2πf ⎤⎫⎪ [24]) is reduced in the same proportion that is
χ a ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (39)
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ 16πfmi20 c 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
reduced the gravitational mass of the disk
(gravitational shielding). Thus, there is also
In the Podkletnov experiment, the YBCO an increase in the weight of the sample of
disk is a rectangular toroid with radius 5.8% on the weight of the air column above
Router = 275mm, Rinner = 80mm, 10 mm-thickness, the sample. Considering that 5.8% on the
with an angular velocity ω = 523.6rad / s weight of the air column is equivalent to x%
(5,000 rpm) [22,23]. Considering these on the initial value of 0.05% that the sample
values and the value of μσ s given by Eq. lost, i.e.,
(36), then Eq. (39) shows that χ a , in this 5.8% m g (air ) g ′ = x %of 0.05% m g ( sample ) g ′
case, is given by Then, we get
χ a ≅ −1 5.8% ⎛⎜ m g (air ) ⎞⎟
x% = =
Note that this value corresponds to the region 0.05 % ⎜⎝ m g ( sample ) ⎟⎠
of the disk with thickness λ L . Thus, we can 5.8% ⎛⎜ ρ (air )V air ⎞⎟
= ≅ 2%
write that 0.05 % ⎜⎝ ρ ( sample )V sample ⎟⎠
mg (disk) = χmi0(disk) + χ a mi0(λ ) =
L
Since ρair = 1.2kg.m−3 , ρ sample = 1400kg.m −3 and
⎛ mi0(λL ) ⎞ Vair Vsample = ~ 12Router 150mm≅ 80Router ≅ 22 .
= χmi 0(disk) + χ a ⎜
⎜m
⎟mi0(disk)

(40)
⎝ i0(disk) ⎠ Under these circumstances, the balance
measures an increase correspondent to 5.8%
where
on the initial value of 0.05% more 2%on the
mi 0(λL ) = ρ YBCOV(λL ) and mi 0 (disk ) = ρYBCOV(disk )
initial value of 0.05%, i.e., a total increase of
Thus, we get about 7.8% on the initial value of 0.05%.
m i 0 (λ L ) V (λ L ) 2λ L
= = ≅ 200 λ L (41) Consequently, the weight of the
sample becomes unstable with fluctuations
m i 0 (disk ) V(disk ) 10 mm
from −5.8% to +7.8% of the initial value of
Substitution of Eq. (41) into Eq. (40) gives
0.05%. This means that the total variation of
mg(disk) = χmi0(disk) + 200λL χa mi0(disk) =
the weight of the sample oscillates in the
= χmi0(disk) − 2.9×10−5 mi0(disk) (42) range
0.047% to 0.053%
In this case the disk loses more 2.9 × 10 −3 %
of its weight.
of its weight due to its rotation. This In the Podkletnov’s experiment the
corresponds to a decrease of about 5.8% on findings were −2.5% to +5.5% of the initial
the initial value of 0.05% that the disk loses value of 0.05% [22,23]. This means that the
without any rotation. Due to the total variation of the weight of the sample
Gravitational Shielding effect, a sample oscillates in the range
above the disk will have its weight decreased
0.048% to 0.052%
of the same percentage ( 5.8% on the initial
value of 0.05% that the sample loses). of its weight.
Thus, when sin ωt = 0 Eq. (39) shows Note that, according to Eq. (39) and
that χ a = 1 , i.e., the decreases of Eq. (42), for ω = 2.09 × 10 4 rad / s (200,000
rpm) the sample weight decrease can reach
gravitational mass vanish, this corresponds about 17%. This very smaller than the 96%
to an increase in the weight of the sample of in the case of the Mumetal disk (Eq. (28)).
about 5.8% on the initial value of 0.05% that

421
7

Digital Force Gauge


(± 20 N ; 0.01N )
888888

g1 = χ1 g Mumetal disk
Magnet disk
(100 gauss)

1.57 mm

50 mm

R =100 mm
f = 0.1 Hz
ELF current
200,000 RPM generator
MOTOR

Balance

Fig.3 – Schematic diagram of an experimental set-up to measure the decrease of the gravitational
mass of the Mumetal disk and the gravitational shielding effect produced by the rotating
disk.

422
8

References
[1] Thirring, H (1918) Uber die Wirkung rotierender ferner [16] Cohen, M. B., (2009), ELF/VLF Phased array generation
Massen in der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie. Phys. via frequency-matched steering of a continuous HF
ZS. 19, 33. ionospheric heating beam, PHD thesis, p.13.
[2] Ciufolini, I., and Pavlis,E.C. (2004). A confirmation of the [17] Golkowski, M. et al., (2008), Magnetospheric
general relativistic prediction of the Lense-Thirring effect.
amplification and emission triggering by ELF/VLF
Nature, 431, 958-960.
waves injected by the 3.6 MW HAARP ionospheric
heater, J. Geophys. Res., 113 (A10201),
[3] Pugh, G.E. (1959). Proposal for a satellite test of the
doi:10.1029/2008JA013, 157.
Coriolis prediction of general relativity. WSEG Research
Memorandum No.11. Washington, DC: The Pentagon.
[18] Jiang, H., et al., (1993) Measurements of anisotropic
characteristic lengths in YBCO films at microwave
[4] Schiff, L.I. (1960). Possible new experimental test of
frequencies, Journal of Applied Physics, 73(10)5865.
general relativity theory. Physical Review Letters, 4,
215-217.
[19] Kieft, R.F., et al., (2010) Direct measurement of the
London penetration depth in YBCO using low energy
[5] Schiff,L.I. (1960). Motion of a gyroscope according to
muSR, Physical Review B, 81(18):180502.
Einstein’s theory of gravitation. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 46,
[20] Knizhnik, A (2003) "Interrelation of preparation
871-882.
conditions, morphology, chemical reactivity and
homogeneity of ceramic YBCO". Physica C:
[6] Ciufolini,I, and Wheeler, J. A. (1995). Gravitation and
Superconductivity 400: 25.
Inertia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
[21] Grekhov, I (1999)"Growth mode study of ultrathin
[7] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
HTSC YBCO films on YBaCuNbO buffer". Physica C:
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Superconductivity 324: 39.
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw- [22] Rabounski, D. and Borissova, L. (2007) A Theory of
Hill, p. 270. the Podkletnov Effect Based on General Relativity,
Progress in Physics, 3, p.57.
[9] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low [23] Podkletnov, E., and Nieminen, R., (1992) Physica C
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 203, 441. Podkletnov, E., (1997) cond-mat/ 9701074.
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.
[24] Modanese, G., (1996) On the Theoretical interpretation
[10] F. London and H. London (1935) Proc. Roy. Soc. of E. Podkletnov’s experiment, gr-qc/9612022.
(London) A149 71.

[11] Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N., Schrieffer, J.


R.(1957)Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity,
Physical Review 106 (1): 162–164.

[12] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle umgeben
ist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[13] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

[14] Carpenter, D. L., and T. R. Miller (1976), Ducted


magnetospheric propagation of signals from the Siple,
Antarctica, VLF transmitter, J. Geophys. Res., 81(16),
2692– 2700.

[15] Helliwell, R. A., D. L. Carpenter, and T. R. Miller


(1980), Power threshold for growth of coherent VLF
signals in the magnetosphere, J. Geophys. Res.,
85(A7), 3360– 3366.

423
Gravitational Holographic Teleportation
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A process of teleportation is here studied. It involves holography and reduction of the gravitational mass of the
bodies to be transported. We show that if a holographic three-dimensional image of a body is created and sent to
another site and the gravitational mass of the body is reduced to a specific range, then the body will disappear and
posteriorly will reappear exactly where its holographic three-dimensional image was sent.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Holography.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 04.80.-y, 42.40.-i.
.
1. Introduction

During long time evidences have been particle and Δp is the variation in the
shown that spacetime is holographic. A particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
holographic principle has been conjectured of light.
to apply not just to black holes, but to any This equation shows that only for
spacetime [1, 2, 3, 4]. Covariant holographic Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is equal to the
entropy bounds generalize to other inertial mass.
spacetimes [5, 6]. Fully holographic theories In general, the momentum variation
have now been demonstrated, in which a Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is
system of quantum fields and dynamical the applied force during a time interval Δt .
gravity in N dimensions is dual to a system Note that there is no restriction concerning
of quantum fields in N − 1 classical the nature of the force F , i.e., it can be
dimensions [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.
Recently, scientists from University of Equation (1) tells us that the
Arizona led by Nasser Peyghambarian have gravitational mass can be negative. This fact
invented a system that creates holographic, is highly relevant because shows that the
three-dimensional images that may be well-known action integral for a free-
viewed at another site [12]. Peyghambarian b
says the machine could potentially transport particle: S = −m c∫ ds , m > 0 , must be
a
a person's image over vast distances. generalized for the following form (where
Here, we show that if a holographic m g can be positive or negative):
three-dimensional image of a body is created
(2 )
b
and sent to another site and the gravitational S = − m g c ∫ ds
a
mass of the body is reduced to a specific
or
range, then the body will disappear and
(3)
t2
posteriorly will reappear exactly where its S = − ∫ m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1
holographic three-dimensional image was
where the Lagrange's function is
sent.
L = −m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (4)
2. Theory t2
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt ,
1

From the quantization of gravity it preceded by the plus sign, cannot have a
follows that the gravitational mass mg and minimum. Thus, the integrand of Eq.(3) must
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means be always positive. Therefore, if m g > 0 ,
of the following factor [13]: then necessarily t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
2
⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪ t < 0 . The possibility of t < 0 is based on
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c ⎥ the well-known equation t = ± t0 1−V 2 c2
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
of Einstein's Theory.
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the

424
2
Thus if the gravitational mass of a mg χ mi 0
particle is positive, then t is also positive Mg = = = χM i (8)
1−V 2 c2 1−V 2 c2
and, therefore, given by t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 .
It is known that the uncertainty
This leads to the well-known relativistic principle can also be written as a function of
prediction that the particle goes to the future, ΔE (uncertainty in the energy) and Δt
if V → c . However, if the gravitational mass (uncertainty in the time), i.e.,
of the particle is negative, then t is negative ΔE.Δt ≥ h (9)
and given by t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, This expression shows that a variation of
the prediction is that the particle goes to the energy ΔE , during a time interval Δt , can
past, if V → c . Consequently, m g < 0 is the only be detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE . Consequently,
necessary condition for the particle to go to a variation of energy ΔE , during a time
the past. interval Δt < h ΔE , cannot be
The Lorentz's transforms follow the experimentally detected. This is a limitation
same rule for m g > 0 and m g < 0 , i.e., the imposed by Nature and not by our
equipments.
sign before 1 − V 2 c 2 will be (+ ) when Thus, a quantum of energy
m g > 0 and (− ) if m g < 0 . ΔE = hf that varies during a time interval
The momentum, as we know, is the Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE (wave period) cannot
r r
vector p = ∂L ∂V .Thus, from Eq.(4) we obtain be experimentally detected. This is an
r imaginary photon or a “virtual” photon.
r mgV r
p = = M gV (5) Now, consider a particle with energy
± 1−V 2 c2 2
M g c . The DeBroglie’s gravitational and
The (+ ) sign in the equation above will be inertial wavelengths are respectively
used when m g > 0 and the (− ) sign if λ g = h M g c and λi = h M i c . In Quantum
m g < 0 . Consequently, we can express the Mechanics, particles of matter and quanta of
r radiation are described by means of wave
momentum p in the following form
r packet (DeBroglie’s waves) with average
r mgV r wavelength λi . Therefore, we can say that
p = = M gV (6)
1−V 2 c2 during a time interval Δt = λi c , a quantum
whence we get a new relativistic expression of energy ΔE = Mgc2 varies. According to the
for the gravitational mass, i.e.,
uncertainty principle, the particle will be
mg
Mg = (7 ) detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE , i.e., if λi c ≥ h M g c 2
1−V 2 c2 or λi ≥ λ g 2π . This condition is usually
Note that m g is not the gravitational mass at
satisfied when M g = M i . In this case,
rest, which is obtained making Δp = 0 in Eq.
λ g = λi and obviously, λi > λi 2π .
(1), i.e., m g 0 = mi 0 . In this case, the equation
However, when M g decreases λ g increases
above reduces to the well-known Einstein’s
equation: and λ g 2π can become bigger than λi ,
mi0 making the particle non-detectable or
Mi =
1−V 2 c2 imaginary.
Since the condition to make the
Substitution of Eq. (1) into Eq. (7) leads particle imaginary is
to the following equation λg
λi <

and

425
3
λg h h λ formation, where atoms with strong mutual
= = = i affinity combine to form molecules. It is the
2π M g c χM i c 2πχ
case, for example of the water molecules, in
Then we get which two Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen
1
χ<= 0.159 atom. It is the so-called Chemical Affinity.
2π The degree of Mutual Affinity, A , in
However, χ can be positive or negative the case of imaginary particles , respectively
( χ < +0.159 or χ > −0.159 ). This means described by the wave functions Ψ1 and
that when Ψ2 , might be correlated to Ψ12 and Ψ22 . Only
a simple algebraic form fills the requirements
− 0.159 < χ < +0.159 (10) of interchange of the indices, the product
Ψ12 .Ψ 22 = Ψ 22 .Ψ12 =
the particle becomes imaginary. = A1, 2 = A 2 ,1 = A (12 )
Consequently, it leaves our Real Universe,
i.e., it performs a transition to the Imaginary In the above expression, A is due to the
Universe, which contains our Real Universe. product Ψ12 .Ψ22 will be always positive.
The terms real and imaginary are borrowed
from mathematics (real and imaginary From equations (11) and (12) we get
numbers). A = Ψ12 .Ψ22 = k 2 ρ1g (imaginary) ρ 2 g (imaginary =
All these conclusions were originally m1g (imaginary) m2 g (imaginary)
deduced in a previous article [13]. = k2 (13)
V1 V2
Quantum Mechanics tells us that if an
experiment involves a large number of Since imaginary gravitational masses
identical particles, all described by the same are equivalent to real gravitational masses
wave function Ψ , real density of mass ρ then the equations of the Real Gravitational
Interaction are also applied to the Imaginary
of these particles in x, y, z, t is proportional
Gravitational Interaction. However, due to
to the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is imaginary gravitational mass, m g (imaginary ) , to
known as density of probability. If Ψ is
be an imaginary quantity, it is necessary to
imaginary then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus,
ρ ∝ Ψ = Ψ.Ψ ). Similarly, in the case of
2 * put m g ( imaginary ) into the mentioned equations

imaginary particles, the density of imaginary in order to homogenize them, because as we


gravitational mass, ρ g ( imaginary ) , in x, y, z, know, the module of an imaginary number is
always real and positive.
will be expressed by ρg(imaginary) ∝ Ψ2 = Ψ Ψ* . Thus, based on gravity theory, we can
Since Ψ 2 is always real and positive and write the equation of the imaginary
gravitational field in nonrelativistic
ρ g (imaginary ) = m g ( imaginary ) V is an imaginary Mechanics.
quantity then, in order to transform the ΔΦ = 4π G ρ g ( imaginary ) (14 )
proportionality above into an equation, we
It is similar to the equation of the real
can write
gravitational field, with the difference that
Ψ 2 = k ρ g (imaginary ) (11) now instead of the density of real
Since the modulus of an imaginary number is gravitational mass we have the density of
always real and positive; k is a imaginary gravitational mass. Then, we can
proportionality constant (real and positive) to write the general solution of Eq. (14), in the
be determined. following form:
The Mutual Affinity is a dimensionless ρ g (imaginary dV
quantity with which we are familiarized and Φ = −G ∫ (15)
r2
of which we have perfect understanding as to
This equation expresses, with nonrelativistic
its meaning. It is revealed in the molecular
approximation, the potential of the imaginary

426
4
gravitational field of any distribution of range − 0.159mi 0 < m g < +0.159mi 0 . When
imaginary gravitational mass. this occur the gravitational masses becomes
Particularly, for the potential of the imaginaries and the bodies perform transitions
field of only one particle with imaginary to the Imaginary Universe (leaving the Real
gravitational mass m g ( imaginary ) , we get: Universe) (See Eq. (10)). However, the physical
phenomenon that caused the reduction of the
G m g ( imaginary
Φ =−
)
(16 ) gravitational masses of the bodies stays at the
Real Universe. Consequently, the bodies return
r
Then the force produced by this field upon immediately to the Real Universe for the same
another particle with imaginary gravitational positions they were before the transition to the
Imaginary Universe. This is due to the
mass m ′g ( imaginary ) is
Imaginary Gravitational Interaction between the
r r ∂Φ imaginary gravitational masses of the bodies and
Fg (imaginary) = − Fg′(imaginary) = − m′g (imaginary =
∂r the imaginary gravitational masses of the forms
mg (imaginary m′g (imaginary shaped by the bodies in the imaginary
= −G (17) spacetime 1 before the transition to the Imaginary
r2 Universe. These imaginary forms initially
By comparing equations (17) and (13) we shaped by the bodies are preserved in the
obtain imaginary spacetime by quantum coherence
r r
F12 = − F21 = − G A 12 22
VV
(18 ) effects [14, 15, 16, 17].
Since spacetime is holographic then an
k r
In the vectorial form the above equation is imaginary form shaped in imaginary spacetime
by the holographic three-dimensional image of a
written as follows
r r body has much more similarity with the body
F12 = − F21 = − GA 12 22 μˆ
VV
(19 ) than the imaginary form shaped in the imaginary
k r spacetime by the real body.
Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line Mutual affinity is directly related to
connecting the mass centers (imaginary similarity. This means that the degree of
masses) of both particles and oriented from 1 mutual affinity, A , between the imaginary
to 2. bodies (which were sent to the Imaginary
In general, we may distinguish and Universe) and the imaginary forms shaped by
quantify two types of mutual affinity: their holographic images is far greater than
positive and negative. The occurrence of the the degree of mutual affinity between the
first type is synonym of attraction, (as in the imaginary bodies and the imaginary forms
case of the atoms in the water molecule) shaped in the imaginary spacetime by the real
while the aversion is synonym of repulsion. bodies before the transition to the Imaginary
r Universe. Thus, according to Eq. (19), the
In fact, Eq. (19) shows that the forces F12 and
r bodies are strongly attracted to the
F21 are attractive, if A is positive holographic three-dimensional image placed
(expressing positive mutual affinity between in the far site. Consequently, the bodies do
the two imaginary particles), and repulsive if not return for the positions they were before
A is negative (expressing negative mutual the transition, they reappear as real bodies
affinity between the two imaginary exactly where their holographic three-
particles). dimensional images were sent. Thus, is
Now, after this theoretical background, carried out the teleportation of the bodies to
we can explain the Gravitational the far site. Since the process combines
Holographic Teleportation. holography and gravitation, we have called
Initially, is created a holographic this process of Gravitational Holographic
three-dimensional image of the bodies and Teleportation.
sent to another site. The technology for this
1
is already known [12]. Next, the The real spacetime is contained in the imaginary
gravitational masses of the bodies are spacetime. Such as the set of real numbers is
reduced to a contained in the set of imaginary numbers.

427
5

References
[1] G. ’t Hooft (1993) Dimensional Reduction in Quantum
Gravity, arXiv: gr-qc/9310026.

[2] Susskind, L. (1995) J. Math. Phys. 36, 6377.

[3] G.’t Hooft (2000) The Holographic Principle,


arXiv: hep-th/0003004.

[4] Bigatti, D., and Susskind, L. (2000) TASI lectures on the


Holographic Principle. arXiv: hep-th/0002044.

[5] Bousso, R. (2002) Rev. Mod. Phys. 74, 825.

[6] Padmanabhan, T. (2007) arXiv: 0706.1654 [gr-qc].

[7] Maldacena, J.M., (1998) Adv. Theor. Math. Phys. 2, 231


[(1999) Int. J. Theor. Phys. 38, 1113]

[8] Witten, E., (1998) Adv. Theor. Math. Phys. 2, 505.

[9] Aharony, O. et al., (2000) Phys. Rept. 323, 183.

[10] Alishahiha, M. Et al., (2005) JHEP 0506, 028.

[11] Horowitz G. T. and Polchinski, J., (2006) arXiv :gr-


qc/0602037.

[12] Peyghambarian, N. et al., (4 November 2010) Nature,


468, 1-128, p. 80.

[13] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[14] Preparata, G. (1995) QED Coherence in matter


(Singapore: World Scientific)

[15] Arani R, Bono I, Del Giudice E, Preparata G (1995)


Int. J. Mod. Phys. B9 1813–1841.

[16] Del Giudice E, Preparata G and Vitiello G (1988)


Phys. Rev. Lett.61, 1085–1088.

[17] Del Giudice E and Vitiello G (2006) Phys. Rev. A,74,


022105

428
Scattering of Sunlight in Lunar Exosphere
Caused by Gravitational Microclusters of Lunar Dust
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this article it is showed how sub-micron dust is able to reach the lunar exosphere and
produce the “horizon glow” and “streamers” observed at lunar horizon by astronauts in
orbit and surface landers, during the Apollo era of exploration.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Lunar Exosphere, Dusty Plasma, Sunlight Scattering.

1. Introduction

While orbiting the Moon, the crews of Now a new mission of NASA, called:
Apollo 8, 10, 12, and 17 have observed “The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust
“horizon glow” and “streamers” at the lunar Environment Explorer (LADEE)”, was sent
horizon, during sunrise and sunset. This was to study the Moon's thin exosphere and the
observed from the dark side of the Moon lunar dust environment [4]. One of the
[1,2] (e.g., Fig. 1). NASA's Surveyor motivations for this mission is to determine
spacecraft also photographed "horizon the cause of the diffuse emission seen at
glows," much like what the astronauts saw lunar horizon by astronauts in orbit and
[3]. These observations were quite surface landers.
unexpected, since it was thought that the Here, we explain how sub-micron dust
Moon had a negligible atmosphere. is able to reach the lunar exosphere and cause
the diffuse emission at the lunar horizon.

2. Theory

It is known that the lunar dust results


of mechanical disintegration of basaltic and
anorthositic rock, caused by continuous
meteoric impact and bombardment by
interstellar charged atomic particles over
billions of years [5]. Dust grains are
continuously lifted above the lunar surface
by these impacts and dust clouds are formed.
They are dusty plasma clouds * because
atoms from the dust grains are ionized by the
UV radiation and X-rays from the solar radiation
that incides continuously on the lunar surface
[6].
The gravitational interaction between
these dusty plasma clouds and the Moon only
can be described in the framework of
Quantum Gravity.
Fig.1 – At sunrise and sunset many Apollo crews
saw glows and light rays. This Apollo 17 sketch *
A dusty plasma is a plasma containing millimeter
depicts the mysterious twilight rays.
(10−3) to nanometer (10−9) sized particles suspended in
it. Dust particles are charged and the plasma and
particles behave as a plasma [7,8].

429
2
The quantization of gravity shows that N0 ρ gr
the gravitational mass mg and the inertial n =
A
mass mi are correlated by means of the
following factor [9]: where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the Avogadro’s number; ρ gr is the matter
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) density of the dust grain (in kg.m-3) and A is
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ the molar mass of the molecules
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the (in kg.kmol-1). Then, Eq. (2), in the case of a
dust cloud, can be rewritten in the following
particle and Δp is the variation in the
form
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
of light. mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 256⎜ ⎟
4 2 4
(4 4 2 2
)
N0 ⎞ ρgrSα Ngr Smφmnr D ⎤⎫⎪
6

−1⎥⎬ (3)
In general, the momentum variation Δp mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ A⎠ c4 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
where,
applied force during a time interval Δt . Note 4
that there is no restriction concerning the ⎛ m gr ⎞ 2 4 M i40 (total ) S α2
ρ S α N = ⎜⎜
4 2 4 ⎟ S α N gr = =
nature of the force F , i.e., it can be gr gr
V ⎟ V 4
⎝ gr ⎠ gr
mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.
For example, we can look on the =
(
M i40 (total ) πrgr2
2
)
=
81M i40 (total )
momentum variation Δp as due to (
3 π rgr
4 3 4
) 256 π 2 rgr8
absorption or emission of electromagnetic and, M i 0(total ) = ρ grVgr N gr = ρ cloudVcloud . Thus,
energy. In this case, it was shown previously
we can write that
that the expression of χ , in the particular
81(ρ cloud Vcloud )
4
case of incident radiation on a heterogeneous ρ gr S gr N gr =
4 2 4

matter(powder, dust, clouds, etc), can be 256π 2 rgr8


expressed by the following expression [10]: Substitution of this expression into Eq. (3)
⎧ ⎡
⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2φm2 D ⎞ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫ gives
⎟nr ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (2)
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ N0 ⎞6⎛81(ρcloudVcloud)4 ⎞ Sm4φm4nr2D2 ⎤⎫⎪
⎢⎣⎝ ρ Sα c f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦

= ⎨1−2⎢ 1+⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎬ (4)
2
mi0 ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ A ⎠ ⎜⎝ π2rgr8 ⎟ c4 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎠ ⎦⎭
where f and D are respectively the
The analysis of the lunar rocks
frequency and the power density of the
collected by Apollo and Luna missions
incident radiation; n is the number of
shows the following average composition
molecules per unit of volume; S f is the total (principal components) of the lunar soil [11]:
surface area of the dust grains, which can be SiO2 (44.6%), Al2O3 (16.5%), FeO (13.5%),
obtained by multiplying the specific surface CaO (11.9%). Considering the following
area (SSA) of the grain (which is given by data: SiO2 ( n r = 1.45 , A = 60.07kg.kmol −1
SSA = S gr ρ grVgr = 3 ρ gr rgr ) by the total mass of
and φ m = 5.6 × 10 −10 m ), Al2O3 ( n r = 1.7 ,
the grains ( M i 0(total ) = ρ grV gr N gr ); S α = πrgr2 is A = 101.96kg.kmol −1 and φ m = 7.8 × 10 −10 m ),
the area of the cross-section of the grain; φ m FeO ( n r = 2.23 , A = 71.84kg.kmol −1 and
is the average “diameter” of the molecules of φ m = 5.3 × 10 −10 m ), CaO ( n r = 1.83 ,
the grain, Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area,
A = 56.08kg.kmol −1 and φ m = 5.9 × 10 −10 m ) † ,
and nr is the index of refraction of the
we can calculate the value of the factor
heterogeneous body.
In the case of dust grain, n is given by †
The values of φ m were calculated starting from the
the following expression
unit cell volume, i.e., 92.92 Å3, 253.54 Å3, 80.41 Å3,
110.38Å3, respectively [12].

430
3
S φ n
4 4 2 6
A (Eq. (4)), for these components means of the following expression:
[ ] ( )
m m r

2 mμ v μ = eV = e e 4πε 0 l μ ≅ 2 × 10
− 22
of the lunar soil. The result is: 1.62 × 10−122 ,
1 2
= 32 kT
4 .96 × 10 −122 , 0 . 673 × 10 − 122 , 7 . 29 × 10 −122 , whence, we get T ≅ 10 K . Thus, Eq. (8)
respectively. Then, considering the respective gives
percentages, we can calculate the average value
for the factor Sm4φm4 nr2 A6 , i.e., χ=
mg (cloud)
{ [
mi 0(cloud)
= 1− 2 1+ ~ 10−10Vcloud
4
−1 (9) ]}
Note that, for Vcloud > 334.37m 3 the factor χ
[S φ
4 4
m m ]
nr2 A 6 = 0.446(1.62 × 10 −122 ) +
becomes negative. Under these conditions,
0.165(4.96 × 10 −122 ) + 0.135(0.673 × 10 −122 ) + the gravitational interaction between the
Moon and the cloud becomes repulsive, i.e.,
+ 0.119(7.29 × 10 −122 ) = 2.5 × 10 −122 M g (moon) mg (cloud )
F = −G =
Substitution of this value into Eq. (4) r2
M i 0(moon) mi 0(cloud )
gives
≅ −χ G (10)
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ 6 (ρcloudVcloud) D
4 2 ⎤⎫⎪ r2
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.2 ×10 − 1⎥⎬ (5) In this way, sub-micron dusty plasma can reach
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ rgr8 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ the lunar exosphere.
Note that the value of m g mi 0 becomes
highly relevant in the case of sub-micron
particles (rgr ~ 0.01μm ).
Gravitational
By applying Eq. (5) for the particular repulsion
case of lunar clouds of dusty plasma
Cloud of sub-micron dusty plasma
composed by sub-micro dust, we get
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
Meteorites
2
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.2×1070 (ρcloudVcloud) 2 −1⎥⎬ (6)
4 D
Sub-micron dusty plasma
mi0 ⎪ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

The factor D f can be expressed by the lunar surface
lunar dust
Planck’s radiation law i.e.,
D 2hf 3
= 2 hf / kT
f c (e − 1) Fig.2 - How sub-micron dusty plasma can reach the
lunar exosphere.
where k = 1.38×10−23 j / K is the Boltzmann’s
constant; f is given by the Wien’s law In the case of large clouds of sub-micron
(λ = 2.886×10−3 T), i.e., f T = c 2.886×10−3 ; dusty plasma V cloud > 10 9 m 3 , Eq. (9) shows
T is the dusty plasma temperature. Thus, the that
Equation above can be rewritten as follows: χ 2 > 10 26
D2
= 1.27 × 10−38 T 6 (7) Thus, the gravitational attraction between
two sub-micron particles inside the cloud
f2
Substitution of Eq. (7) into Eq. (6) yields will be given by
mg ⎧ ⎡ mg2μ mi20μ (ρμVμ )2
= ⎨1− 2 1+1.52×1032 (ρcloudVcloud) T 6 −1⎤⎫⎬ (8) Fg = −G 2 = −χ G 2 > 10 G ≅
4 2 26

mi0 ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎥⎦⎭ r r r 2

(3300) (5.2×10−25 m3 ) 10−26


2 2
Near the Moon’s surface, the density ≅ 10 G
26
≅ 2 (11)
of the lunar atmosphere is about r2 r
10 −12 kg.m −3 [13]. Thus, we can assume that Note that this force is much greater than the
this is the density of dusty plasma clouds electric force
near the Moon’s surface. The temperature of
sub-micron dusty plasma can be evaluated by
431
4
−28
{ [ ]}
2
mg
1 e 10
Fe = − ≅ 2 χ= = 1− 2 1+ ~ 10−66Vexosphere
4
−1 (12)
4πε0 r 2 r mi0
This means that, inside the clouds, thousands Considering that the Moon’s radius is
of sub-micron particles will be strongly 1738km and that, evidences observed during
attracted among them (See Fig.3), forming the Apollo missions, indicate the existence of
thousands of large particles with radius in the solar light scattering from a significant
range 10 − 1000μm or more. population of lunar particles, which exist in
a little thick region (~1km) starting from
100km above the lunar surface [15], we can
write that

Vexosphere = 43 π (router
3
− rinner
3
)≅
[
4 6 3
]
≅ 3 π (1.838 × 10 ) − (1.837 × 10 6 ) ≅
3

≅ 4 × 1016 m 3

Substitution of this value into Eq. (12) yields


Sub-micron dust
χ ≈ −1 (13)
Fg >> Fe Alternatively, we may put Eq.(2) as a
function of the radiation power density , D
[9], i.e.,
⎧ ⎫
mg ⎪ ⎡ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
Fig.3 –Strong gravitational attraction between sub- 2

micron dust, producing microclusters of dust that χ= ⎢


= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ −1 ⎬ (14)
will cause strong scattering of the sunlight in the mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρ c ⎠ ⎦⎪⎥
lunar exosphere ⎩ ⎣ ⎭
From Electrodynamics we know that when
Thus, when a cloud of this type arrives to an electromagnetic wave with frequency
lunar exosphere it increases the number of f and velocity c incides on a material with
these particles (gravitational microclusters of relative permittivity ε r , relative magnetic
lunar dust) inside the lunar exosphere. Under
these circumstances, it density becomes permeability μ r and electrical conductivity
equal to the density of the lunar exosphere σ , its velocity is reduced to v = c nr where
(~ 10 −18 kg.m −3 ) [14]. The amount of nr is the index of refraction of the material,
Rayleigh scattering that occurs for a beam of given by [16]
light depends upon the size of the particles εμ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (15)
c 2
and the wavelength of the light. Specifically, ⎝ ⎠
v 2
the intensity of the scattered light varies as
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (15) reduces to
the sixth power of the particle size, and varies
μr σ
inversely with the fourth power of the
nr = (16)
wavelength. 4πε0 f
Thus, the lunar exosphere is
Due to the lunar exosphere be a plasma its
fundamentally a very large cloud of sub-
electrical conductivity, σ , must be high.
millimeter dust plasma. Consequently, in
order to calculate the factor χ for the lunar Thus, we can consider that its nr can be
exosphere, we can use the Eq. (5), assuming expressed by Eq. (16). Substitution of Eq.
(16) into Eq. (14) gives
that most of the particles has rgr ≅ 100μm and
that ρcloud ≈ 10−18 kg.m−3 . The result is

432
5
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ μrσ ⎞⎟ D ⎪
2
mg
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+⎜ 3⎟
−1⎥⎬ (17)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πε0 ρc ⎠ f 2
⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

By substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (17) we


obtain the following expression of χ for the
lunar exosphere:
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ −38 6 ⎛ μr σ
χ = ⎨1− 2 1+1.27×10 T ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
3⎟
−1 ⎬ =
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4πε0 ρc ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭

= ⎧⎨1− 2⎡ 1+1.4×10−33T 6 (μrσ ) −1⎤⎫⎬ (18)


2

⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎥⎦⎭

By comparing Eq. (18) with Eq. (13) we can


conclude that in the lunar exosphere:

T 3 μ r σ ≈ 10 16 K 3 .S / m (19 )
Since the temperature T of the dusty plasma
near the Moon’s surface, giving by
[1
]
2 m μ v μ = 2 kT
2 3
, is T ≅ 10 K . Then,
considering that in the exosphere the
particles are dust clusters with larger masses
mμ (radii ~1,000 times larger), and also with
larger velocities v μ (due to the low density
of the exosphere), we can conclude that
T > 1,000 K . The temperature of dust in a
plasma is typically 1-1,000K [17, 18].
However, it can reach up to 1,000,000K [19].
In a previous paper, we have shown
that the explanation of the Allais effect
requires χ = −1.1 for the lunar exosphere [9,
Appendix A]. This is in agreement with the
value here obtained (Eq.13). However, in the
mentioned paper, we consider erroneously
that the effect was produced by the incidence
of sunlight on the exosphere. Here, we can
see the exact description of the phenomenon
starting from the same equation (Eq. (14))
used in the above-cited paper.

433
6
References
[1] Rennilson, J.J. and Criswell, D.R. (1974) The [19] Avinash, K et al., (2011) Anomalous dust
Moon, 10, 121-142. temperature in dusty plasma experiments,
Physics Letters A, Volume 375, Issues 30–31,
[2] McCoy, J.E. and Criswell, D.R. (1974) Proc. pp. 2854–2857.
Lunar Sci. Conf. 5th, 2991-3005.

[3] http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/
2005/07dec_moonstorms/

[4] http://science1.nasa.gov/missions/ladee/

[5] Heiken, Vanniman, and French (1991). Lunar


Sourcebook. Cambridge University Press. pp. 756
pages.

[6] Manka, R.H. (1973) Photon and Particle


Interactions with Surfaces in Space, ed. R.J.L.
Grard, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 347-361.

[7] Mendis, D. A. (1979) Dust in cosmic plasma


Environments, Astrophysics and Space Science 65
(1): 5–12.

[8] Hill,, J. R.; Mendis, D. A. (1979) Charged dust in


the outer planetary magnetospheres. I - Physical
and dynamical processes. Moon and the Planets
21 (1): 3–16.

[9] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[10] De Aquino, F. (2011) Gravitational Ejection of


Earth’s Clouds, http://viXra.org/abs/1212.0050.

[11] NASA SP-428.

[12] http://www.webmineral.com/cgi-bin/search/search.pl

[13] Öpik, E,J (1957) The Density of the Lunar


Atmosphere, Irish Astr. J.,Vol4(6), p.186.

[14] Stern, S.A. (1999) Rev. Geophys. 37, 453.

[15] McCoy, J. E., (1974 ) Evidence for a high


altitude distribution of lunar dust, Proc. Fifth
Lunar Conference, Suppl.5, Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 3, pp. 2991-3005.

[16] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo,


McGraw-Hill, p. 270.

[17] Mendis, D. A. (September 1979). "Dust in cosmic


plasma environments". Astrophysics and Space
Science 65 (1): 5–12.

[18] Hill,, J. R.; Mendis, D. A. (August 1979).


"Charged dust in the outer planetary
magnetospheres. I - Physical and dynamical
processes". Moon and the Planets 21 (1): 3–16.

434
Correlation between the Earth’s Magnetic Field and
the Gravitational Mass of the Outer Core
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The theory accepted today for the origin of the Earth’s magnetic field is based on convection
currents created in the Earth’s outer core due to the rotational motion of the planet Earth around
its own axis. In this work, we show that the origin of the Earth’s magnetic field is related to the
gravitational mass of the outer core.
Key words: Quantum Gravity, Gravitational Mass, Gravitational Mass of Earth’s Outer Core, Earth’s Magnetic Field.

1. Introduction
The quantization of gravity shows that
The Earth’s interior is divided into 5
the gravitational mass mg and the inertial
layers: the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle,
mass mi are correlated by means of the
outer core, and inner core [1]. Seismic
following factor [6]:
measurements show that the inner core is a
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
solid sphere with a radius of 1,221.5 km, and mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
that the outer core is a liquid spherical crust χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
(plasma) around the inner core, with an ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
external radius of 3,840.0 km, and density of where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
12,581.5 kg.m-3 [2]. Thus, the inertial mass
particle and Δp is the variation in the
of the outer core is 2.88 × 10 24 kg . The outer
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
core is composed mainly of liquid iron (85
of light.
%) and nickel (5 %) with the rest made up of
In general, the momentum variation Δp
a number of other elements [3].
The temperature of the inner core can is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
be estimated by considering both the applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
theoretical and the experimentally that there is no restriction concerning the
demonstrated constraints on the melting nature of the force F , i.e., it can be
temperature of impure iron at the pressure mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.
which iron is under at the boundary of the For example, we can look on the
inner core (about 330 GPa). These momentum variation Δp as due to
considerations suggest that its temperature is absorption or emission of electromagnetic
about 5,700 K [4]. The pressure in the Earth's energy. In this case, it was shown previously
inner core is slightly higher than it is at the that the expression of χ , in the particular
boundary between the outer and inner cores: case of incident radiation on a heterogeneous
it ranges from about 330 to 360GPa [5]. matter(powder, dust, clouds, heterogeneous
Currently, the theory accepted for the plasmas * , etc), can be expressed by the
origin of the Earth’s geomagnetic field is following expression [7]:
based on convection currents created in the
mg ⎧
⎪ ⎡ n6 Sm4φm4 μσ P2 ⎤⎫⎪
Earth’s outer core due to the rotational χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ (2)
motion of the planet Earth around its own mi0 ⎪ ⎢ 4πρ2c2 f 3 ⎥⎪
axis. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Here we show that the origin of the where f and P are respectively the
Earth’s magnetic field is related to the frequency and the power of the incident
gravitational mass of the outer core. radiation; n is the number of atoms per unit
of volume; μ , σ and ρ are respectively, the
2. Theory
*
Heterogeneous plasma is a mixture of different ions,
The origin of the Earth’s geomagnetic while Homogeneous plasma is composed of a single
field can be described in the framework of ion specie.
Quantum Gravity.

435
2
magnetic permeability, the electrical D 2hf 3
= 2 hf / kT
conductivity and the density of the mean.
In the case of the free electrons of the
f c e ( −1 )
outer core plasma, the variable φ m refers to where k = 1.38×10−23 j / K is the Boltzmann’s
the average “diameter” of these particles; constant; f is given by the Wien’s law
S m = 14 πφ m2 is the geometric cross-section of ( )
λ = 2.886×10−3 T , i.e., f T = c 2.886×10−3 ;
the particle. When the particles are atoms its T is the black body temperature. Thus, the
“diameters” are well-known. In the case of Equation above can be rewritten as follows:
D2
electrons, their “diameters” can be calculated
starting from the Compton sized electron,
= 1.232×10−49 T 5 (5)
f3
which predicts that the electron’s radius is
Since D = P S , then Eq. (3) can be rewritten
Re = 3.862 × 10 −13 m , and the standardized
as follows
result recently obtained of
P2
−13
Re = 5.156 × 10 m [8]. Based on these 3
= 1.232 × 10−49 T 5 S 2 = 2.606 × 10−4 (6)
f
values, the average value is
−13
Re = 4.509 × 10 m . Consequently, we can where S = 4πrinnercore
2
= 1.875 × 1013 m 2 is the
assume that the electron’s “diameter” is surface area of the inner core, and
T = 5,700 K its temperature.
φ m = 9.018 × 10 −13 m (3)
Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (4)
On the other hand, by considering that the yields
outer core plasma is composed mainly of
m
liquid iron, the values of n , μ , σ , ρ and are χ = g (outercore) = 6.295 × 10 −4 (7)
given by mi 0(outercore)
Therefore, while the inertial mass of the
• n = N0 ρouter A = 1.078×1025 ρouter ; outer core is mi 0(outercore) = 2.888 × 1024 kg , its
( N 0 = 6.022× 10 atoms/ kmole is the
26
gravitational mass is
Avogadro’s number; A is the iron molar
mass A = 55.845kg / kmole ). mg (outercore) = χ mi 0(outercore) = 1.818 × 1021 kg (8)
• μ outer = μ 0 (Above the Curie
Temperature, the material is The quantization of gravity leads to the
paramagnetic. Since the Curie following expression for the electric charge,
temperature for Iron is 768 °C and it's q, [6]:
melting point as 1538 °C (1811K), then
for liquid Iron, μ r = 1 ).
q = ± 4πε 0 G mg (imaginary) i (9)
• σ outer ≅ 1 × 10 6 S / m [9] where
m g (imaginary ) = χ imaginary mi 0 (imaginary ) =
• ρ outer = 12,581.5kg .m −3 [10]
⎛ 2 ⎞
Substitution of these values into Eq. (2) gives = χ imaginary ⎜⎜ mi 0(real ) i ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
m g (outercore )
χ= = However,
mi 0(outercore ) m g (imaginary ) m g (real ) i
χ imaginary = = = χ real
mi 0 (imaginary ) mi 0 (real ) i
⎧⎪ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 4.793 × 10 3 3 − 1⎥ ⎬ (4 )
P
Therefore we can write that
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭ ⎛ 2 ⎞
The inner core with the temperature of m g (imaginary ) = χ real ⎜⎜ mi 0(real ) i ⎟⎟ (10)
⎝ 3 ⎠
5,700K works as a black body. The density
D of the black body radiation can be Substitution of this expression into Eq. (9)
expressed by the Planck’s radiation law i.e., gives

436
3
q = ± 163 πε0G χ mi 0 (11) alloy. The Ni percentage in the inner core is
very low (6%) [12].
In the Earth’s outer core, we have For short coils there is an effective
q− = − 16
πε 0 G χ mi 0(outercore) (12) relative permeability defined as
( )
3
μr(eff) = μr 1+ μr −1 Nm where N is the
(13)
m
q+ = + 16
πε 0 G χ mi 0(outercore)
3 demagnetizing factor. For very long coils we
Thus, q + + q − = 0 , and can take μ r (eff ) ≅ μ r [14]. In the case of the
Earth’s core, due to its very large
qtotal = q + + q − = 2 16
3
πε 0 G χ mi 0(outercore) = dimensions, it can be considered as a very
long coil. Thus, we can assume μ r (eff ) ≅ μ r .
= 3.617 × 1011 C (14) Thus, the Eq. (15) can be rewritten as follows
μ kμ q ω 33.118μ r k
The rotational motion of this electric Bcore ≅ r 0 total = =
rinnercore rinnercore
charge produces the Earth’s magnetic field
(See Fig.1), whose intensity at the Earth’s = 2.711× 10 −5 μ r k (16)
center can be expressed by In order to calculate the intensity of the
μ r (innercore) μ 0 I μ r (innercore) μ 0 qtotal ω
B= = (15) Earth’s magnetic field at outer core and at
2R 2R the Earth’s surface, we can use the well-
where ω = 7.29 × 10 −5 rad / s is the Earth’s known relation:
angular velocity around its axis. Figure1,
shows the length 2 R , which can be μ r μ 0 IR 2 ⎛μ μ I⎞ R3
B= =⎜ r 0 ⎟ =
expressed by 2 R = rinnercore k . (
2 R2 + x2 ) 3
2
⎝ 2R ⎠ R 2 + x 2 ( )
3
2

The temperature of the inner core can


be estimated by considering both the ⎛ μ kμ I ⎞ R3
= ⎜⎜ r 0 ⎟⎟ =
theoretical and the
demonstrated constraints on the melting
experimentally
(
⎝ rinnercore ⎠ R 2 + x 2 )
3
2

temperature of impure iron at the pressure R3


which iron is under at the boundary of the = Bcore (17)
inner core (~330 GPa). These considerations (R 2
+ x2 )
3
2

suggest that its temperature is about 5,700 K


[4]. The pressure in the Earth's inner core is which reduces to Eq. (15) for x = 0 .
slightly higher than it is at the boundary It is rather difficult to determine the
between the outer and inner cores: it ranges boundary between the outer and the inner
from about 330 to 360 GPa [5]. Iron can be core since this boundary is not as sharp as the
solid at such high temperatures only because separating line between the core and the
its melting temperature increases mantle. Seismologists presume that instead
dramatically (and also the Curie temperature) of a boundary there is a transition layer
at pressures of that magnitude (see the whose thickness is about 100 km. [15]. This
Clausius–Clapeyron relation) [11]. This is the so-called Lehman zone, which
means that the inner core have ferromagnetic separates the outer and the inner core at a
properties. The inner core is believed to depth of about 5000 to 5100 km [16]. Thus,
consist of a nickel-iron alloy known as NiFe in order to calculate the intensity of the
[12]. Typical relative magnetic permeability Earth’s magnetic field at the outer core we
of nickel-iron alloys are: 50,000 (78.5% Ni- will take the average value of 5050 km, i.e.,
Fe), 17,000 (49% Ni-Fe), 7,000 (45% Ni-Fe) we will assume that outer core begins at
[13]. Note that the value of the relative x = (6,378km − 5,050km) = 1,328km ≅ 1.1rinnercore
magnetic permeability (μ r ) decreases with Then, at this region, Eq. (17) gives
the reduction of the Ni percentage in the

437
4
⎛ ⎞
3 the intensity of magnetic field varies in the
⎜ rinnercore ⎟ range of 2.6 × 10 −5 T - 6.5 × 10 −5 T [18].
⎜ ⎟ Since 2 R = rinnercore k and k = π 2
Boutercore = Bcore⎜ 2k ⎟ =
⎜ ⎛r ⎞
2
⎟ (Eq.19) then we obtain
( )
⎜ ⎜ innercore⎟ + 1.1 rinnercore ⎟
⎜ ⎝ 2k ⎠
2
⎟ R ≅ 0.318rinnercore ≅ 380km (24)
⎝ ⎠ This is the radius of the innermost inner core
3
⎛ ⎞ 2.711×10 μr k
−5
= Bcore⎜⎜
1 ⎟ = (18) of the Earth (See Fig. 1). Based on an
⎝ 1 + 4.84k ⎠
2 ⎟
( 1 + 4.84k 2
)3
extensive seismic data set, Ishii, M. and
Dziewonski, A.M. [19] have proposed in
In order to calculate the value of k we 2002 the existence of an innermost inner
can consider the Earth’s magnetic field as core, with a radius of ~300 km, which
produced by a solenoid with N = 1 (See exhibits a distinct transverse isotropy relative
Fig.1), and apply the expression of B for the to the bulk inner core.
solenoid, i.e.,
μ IR 2
B=μ i=μ
N 1
i=μ
k
i=μ
2k B=
2(R 2 + x 2 ) 2
i= 3

l π r π R 2π R
toroid x
μ i ⎛ 2k ⎞ μ i
= ⎜ ⎟= (19)
2R ⎝ π ⎠ 2R
whence we see that 2k π = 1 . Thus, the R R
I
value of k is O O’
π
k= (20)
2
The average magnetic field strength in the
Earth's outer core was measured to be
2.5 × 10 −3 T [17]. Thus, Eq. (18) yields
2.711×10−5 μr k
Boutercore = = 2.5×10−3 (21) RR
( 1+ 4.84k 2
3
) O O’
I

whence we obtain the value of μ r , i.e.,


μ r ≅ 2734 (22)
At the Earth’s surface x = rearth = 5.221 rinnercore . The centers of the circumferences were shifted from the
Then, Eq. (17) gives origin of complex plane (Joukowski Transform [20])
R3
B = Bcore
⎛ ⎞
3
2 R = rinnercore k (R 2
+ x2 )
3
2

⎜ rinnercore ⎟
⎜ ⎟ x
Bsurface = Bcore ⎜ 2k ⎟ = x
⎜ ⎛r 2


(
⎜⎜ ⎜ innercore ⎟ + 5.221 rinnercore
2
) ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2k ⎠ ⎠ R R Inner
rinnercore core I
Bcore 0.1164
≅ = =
( 1 + 109.04k ) ( 1 + 109.04k )
2
3
2
3

Innermost inner core


Outer Bcore =
μ I
core 2R
≅ 2.6 × 10−5 T (23) R ≅ 380 km
Fig. 1 – Similarity between the magnetic field
The magnetized rocks in the crust and produced by a toroid and the Earth’s magnetic field.
in the upper mantle of the Earth increase this
value, in such way that on the Earth’s surface
438
5
References
[1] Jordan, T.H. (1979) Structural Geology of the [15] Gutenberg, B., Richter, C. F. (1938) Monthly
Earth's Interior, Proceedings of the National Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. Geo-phys. Suppl. (4),
Academy of Sciences 76 (9): 4192–4200. 594-615.

[2] Dziewonski, A. D. and Anderson, D. L., (1981) [16] Völgyesi L, Moser M (1982) The Inner Structure
Preliminary reference Earth model (PREM), of the Earth. Periódica Polytechnica Chem. Eng.,
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 25, Vol. 26, Nr. 3-4, pp. 155-204.
297-356.
[17] Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). Tidal dissipation and
[3] Monnereau, et al., (2010) Lopsided Growth of the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic
Earth's Inner Core, Science 328 (5981): 1014–1017. field. Nature 468 (7326): 952–4.

[4] D. Alfè. D., et al., (2002) Composition and [18] Zitzewitz, P. and Robert, N., (1995) Physics.
temperature of the Earth's core constrained by New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
combining ab initio calculations and seismic data,
Earth and Planetary Science Letters (Elsevier) 195 [19] Ishii, M. and Dziewonski, A.M (2002) The
(1–2): 91–98. innermost inner core of the earth: Evidence for a
[5] David. R. Lide, ed. (2006-2007). CRC Handbook change in anisotropic behavior at the radius of
of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). pp. j14–13. about 300 km, PNAS, vol. 99, no. 22, 14026-
14030.
[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific [20] Batchelor, G. K. (2000 ) An introduction to Fluid
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232. Dynamics, Cambridge Mathematical Library,
Cambridge, UK.
[7] De Aquino, F. (2013) New Gravitational Effects
from Rotating Masses,http://vixra.org/abs/1307.0108.
[8] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.
Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.

[9] Koker, G. te al., (2012),Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci109,


4070 ; Steinle-Neumann, G., et al., (2013)
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity of Liquid
Iron and Iron Alloys at Core Conditions,
Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 15,
EGU2013-3473-1.

[10] Dziewonski, A. D. and Anderson, D. L., (1981)


Preliminary reference Earth model (PREM),
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 25,
297-356.

[11] Aitta, A. (2006). Iron melting curve with a


tricritical point. Journal of Statistical
Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, (12):
12015–12030.

[12] Stixrude, L., et al., (1997). Composition and


temperature of Earth's inner core. Journal of
Geophysical Research (American Geophysical
Union) 102 (B11): 24729–24740.

[13] http://www.espimetals.com/index.php/technical-
data/166-nickel-iron-alloy-magnetic-properties

[14] Marshall, S. V. and Skitec, G.G. (1980) Electromagnetic


Concepts and Applications, Prentice-Hall, NJ, Second
Edition, p.287

439
Electromagnetic Method for blocking the action of Neutrons,
α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays upon Atomic Nuclei.
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show an electromagnetic method for blocking the action of external neutrons, α-
particles, β-particles and γ-rays upon atomic nuclei. This method can be very useful for
stopping nuclear fissions, as the chain reactions that occur inside a nuclear fission reactor,
and also those nuclear fissions that continue occurring, and generating heat (decay heat) ,
even after the shut down of the reactor.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Gravitational Mass, Nuclear Physics, Nuclear Chain Reactions, Decay heat.

1. Introduction
*
Nuclear fission is the splitting of an impossible quickly stop this phenomenon [2].
atomic nucleus into smaller parts (lighter Here we show an electromagnetic
nuclei). The fission process often produces method for blocking the action of external
free neutrons and gamma rays, and releases a neutrons, α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays
very large amount of energy. upon atomic nuclei. It was developed starting
Nuclear fission chain reactions from a process patented in July, 31 2008 (BR
produce energy in the nuclear fission reactors Patent Number: PI0805046-5) [3]. This non
of the nuclear power plants, and drive the invasive method can be very useful for
explosion of nuclear weapons. stopping nuclear fissions, as the chain
The chain reactions occur due to the reactions that occur inside a nuclear fission
interactions between neutrons and fissionable reactor, and also those nuclear fissions that
isotopes (usually — uranium-235 and continue occurring even after the shut down
plutonium-239.). When an atom undergoes of the reactor. These nuclear reactions
nuclear fission, a few neutrons are ejected produce a significant decay heat, which
from the reaction. These neutrons will then requires the permanent cooling of the reactor,
interact with the surrounding medium, and if and have been the cause of some nuclear
more fissionable fuel is present, some may be disasters, as the occurred in the Nuclear
absorbed and cause more fissions. This Power Plant of Fukushima [4].
makes possible a self-sustaining nuclear
chain reaction that releases energy at a 2. Theory
controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or at a
very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear The contemporary greatest challenge
weapon. of the Theoretical Physics was to prove that,
The thermal energy generated by a Gravity is a quantum phenomenon. The
nuclear fission reactor come from the chain quantization of gravity shows that the
reactions produced inside the reactor. An gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi
important fact is that the nuclear reactor are correlated by means of the following
continues generating heat even after the factor
stopping of the nuclear chain reactions [5]:
(decay heat [1]). The heat is released as a ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
result of radioactive decay produced as an
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
effect of radiation on materials: the energy of mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
the alpha, beta or gamma radiation is ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
converted into the thermal movement of
atoms. This heat requires the cooling of the *
After one year offline, used fuel still emits about 10
reactor during long time. It is believed that is kilowatts of decay heat energy per ton. After 10 years,
it emits 1 kW of heat per ton.

440
2
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the Eg = χMi c 2
(7)
particle and Δp is the variation in the
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
r
r r v h
of light.
In general, the momentum variation Δp
q = χM i v = χ (8)
c λ
is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
applied force during a time interval Δt . Note For v = c , the momentum and the energy of the
that there is no restriction concerning the particle become infinite. This means that a
particle with non-null mass cannot travel with the
nature of the force F , i.e., it can be
light speed. However, in Relativistic Mechanics
mechanical, electromagnetic, etc. there are particles with null mass that travel with
For example, we can look on the the light speed. For these particles, Eq. (8) gives
momentum variation Δp as due to
absorption or emission of electromagnetic
q=χ
h
(9)
energy. In this case, by substitution of λ
Δp = ΔE v = ΔE v (c c )(v v ) = ΔEnr c into
Eq. (1), we get Note that only for χ = 1 the Eq. (9) is reduced to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the well=known expressions of DeBroglie
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪ (q = h λ ) .
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
E
n ⎟
2 r⎟
− 1⎥⎬ (2)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ Since the factor χ can be strongly
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
reduced under certain circumstances (See
By dividing ΔE and mi 0 in Eq. (2) by the
Eq.(1)), then according to the Eqs. (7) and
volume V of the particle, and remembering (9), the energy and momentum of a particle
that, ΔE V = W , we obtain can also be strongly reduced. Based on this
possibility, we have developed an
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ electromagnetic method for blocking the
mg ⎪ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪ action of external neutrons, α-particles, β-
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬
2 r ⎟
(3)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎪ particles and γ-rays upon atomic nuclei. In
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ order to describe this method we start
considering an atom subjected to a static
(
where ρ is the matter density kg m 3 . ) magnetic field Be , and an oscillating
Another important equations obtained magnetic with frequency f Bosc (Fig.1). If this
in the quantization theory of gravity is the
new expression for the momentum q and frequency is equal to the electrons’
precession frequency f pr (e ) , they absorb
energy of a particle with gravitational mass
M g and velocity v , which is given by [6] energy from the magnetic field Be
(Electronic Magnetic Resonance). The
r r
q = M gv (4) frequency f pr (e ) , is given by [6, 7]
Eg = M g c 2
(5) ge
e
Sz
γe s
μ 2me
where Mg = mg 1− v2 c2 ; m g is given by f pr(e) = Be = s Be =
e
Be =
2π 2πLe 2π(nsh)
Eq.(1), i.e., mg = χ mi . Thus, we can write ge
eh
ms
⎛ ge ⎞
Be = ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟Be = 2.798×1010Be (10)
χ mi 2me
= χM i (6) S =
Mg = 2π(nsh) ⎝ 4π me ⎠
1− v2 c2
ubstitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (5) and Eq. (4)
where g e = 2.002322 is the electron g-factor.
gives

441
3
mg
χ= =
mi 0
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ N e γ e hB e n r ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ (14)


⎝ ρ s Vs c ⎟⎠
2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎭
Substitution of γ e = g e e 2mi 0 e (See Eq.
(10)) into Eq. (13) gives
Be ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ N e g e ehBe nr ⎞

χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ (15)
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2mi 0e ρ s Vs c ⎠
Bosc
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎥ ⎭
Fig.1 – In this method, an oscillating magnetic field In order to calculate ρ s we start considering the
Bosc , with small intensity, is applied perpendicularly hydrogen gas. If we remove the hydrogen nuclei
to a static magnetic field Be. what remains is an electron gas with density
Thus, under theses conditions, the energy equal to ρ s . Thus, we can calculate this density
absorbed by one electron, is given by [8] by multiplying the density of the Hydrogen gas
ΔE e = γ e hBe (11) ( )
by the factor mi 0 e mi 0 p + mi 0 e . However, in
The electrons are often described as the case of heavy atoms this factor must be,
moving around the nucleus as the planets (
obviously, Zmi0e Zmi0 p + Zmi0n + Zmi0e ≅ mi0e 2mi0 p . )
move around the sun. This picture, however, Thus, in this case, we can write that
is misleading. The quantum theory has ⎛ mi 0 e ⎞
shown that due to the size of the electrons, ρ s = ρ H ⎜⎜ (
⎟ ≅ 8.99 × 10 − 2 2.73 × 10 − 4

)
they cannot be pictured in an atom as ⎝ 2 mi 0 p ⎠
localized in space, but rather should be
viewed as smeared out over the entire orbit = 2.45 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (16)
so that they form a cloud of charge. Thus, the The values of the Vs , can be easily
region around the nucleus represents a cloud calculated starting from the thickness, l , and the
of charges, in which the electrons are most inner radii, r , of the shells. The thicknesses l ,
likely to be found. However, this cloud is are given by
sub-divided into shells. Each shell can
contain only a fixed number of electrons: The l K = K (2 Re ) = 4 Re
closest shell to the nucleus is called the l L = L(2 Re ) = 16 Re
"K shell" (also called "1 shell"). Heavy atoms l M = M (2 Re ) = 36 Re
as Uranium, has 7 shells (K, L, M, N, O, P, l N = N (2 Re ) = 64 Re
Q). The K shell can hold up to two electrons. l O = O(2 Re ) = 42 Re
l P = P(2 Re ) = 18 Re
l Q = Q(2 Re ) = 4 Re
The numbers of electrons that can occupy
each shell are: L = 8, M =18, N =32, O = 21,
P = 9, Q = 2 [9, 10].
According to Eq. (11), the energy where Re is the electron’s radius. It can be
absorbed by each one of the shells are calculated starting from the Compton sized
respectively, given by electron, which gives Re = 3.862×10−13 m , and
Δ E e = N eγ e hBe (12 ) from the standardized result recently
where N e is the number of electrons in the shell. obtained of Re = 5.156×10−13 m [11]. Based on
Dividing the Eqs. (12) by the these values, the average value is
correspondent volume of the shell, we get Re = 4.509 × 10 −13 m .
N γ hB
W = e e e (13) The inner radii of the shells, are given
Vs by
Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (3) gives
442
4
−11
rK = r1 = 5.3×10 m The mobility of the orbital electrons
rL = (r1 + l K ) = 5.48×10−11 m confers an electrical conductivity σ for each
rM = (r1 + l K + l L ) = 6.20×10−11 m shell, i.e.,
rN = (r1 + l K + l L + l M ) = 7.82×10−11 m σ s = ρeμe (18 )
rO = (r1 + l K + l L + l M + l N ) = 1.07×10−10 m where ρ e expresses the concentrations of
rP = (r1 + l K + l L + l M + l N + lO ) = 1.26×10−10 m
rQ = (r1 + l K + l L + l M + l N + lO + l P ) = 1.34×10−10 m ( )
electrons C m 3 and μ e is the mobility of
the electrons. The expression of ρ e is
Note that (r + lQ ) − rK = 0.81 × 10 −10
m.
(19)
Q

However, in the case of the


Uranium, ρ e = eN e Vs
router − rinner =1.56×10 − 0.53×10 ≅ 1.03×10−10 m.
−10 −10

Thus, there is a difference of


On the other hand, since by definition
−10 −10 −10
1.03×10 − 0.81×10 = 0.22×10 m .This value μ e = v d E and v d = ve = e 4πε 0 rs me [12]
must be added in the values of rL,...,rQ , in order and E = Ze 4πε 0 rs2 , we obtain
to obtain the corrected values of rL ,..., rQ . The 1 4πε 0 rs3
result is μe = (20)
Z me
rK = 5.30×10−11 m
Substitution of Eqs. (19) and (20) into Eq.
rL = 7.68×10−11 m
(18),gives
rM = 8.40×10−11 m
rN = 1.00×10−10 m eN e 4πε 0 rs3
σs = (21 )
rO = 1.29×10−10 m ZV s me
rP = 1.48×10−10 m The values of rs , in the case of the Uranium,
rQ = 1.56×10−10 m
are given by
Finally, we obtain rK = (r1 + l K 2) = 5.39×10−11 m
rL = (rL + l L 2) = 8.04×10−11 m
rM = (rM + l M 2) = 9.21×10−11 m
V K = 4πrK2 (l K ) = 6 .36 × 10 −32
V L = 4πrL2 (l L ) = 5 .35 × 10 − 31
rN = (rN + l N 2) = 1.14×10−10 m
V M = 4πrM2 (l M ) = 1 .44 × 10 − 30 rO = (rO + lO 2) = 1.38×10−10 m
V N = 4πrN2 (l N ) = 3 .63 × 10 − 30 rP = (rP + l P 2) = 1.52×10−10 m
VO = 4πrO2 (l O ) = 3 .96 × 10 − 30 rQ = (rQ + lQ 2) = 1.56×10−10 m
V P = 4πrP2 (l P ) = 2 .23 × 10 − 30 Therefore, according to Eq. (21), the values
VQ = 4πrQ2 (l Q ) = 5 .51 × 10 − 31 (17 ) of the σ s are the followings
Q σ K = 6.044 × 10 20 rK3 = 2.39 × 105 S / m
P
σ L = 2.874 × 10 20 rL3 = 2.07 × 105 S / m
O
σ M = 2.402 × 1020 rM3 = 2.12 × 105 S / m
N
M σ N = 1.694 × 10 20 rN3 = 2.06 × 105 S / m
L σ O = 1.019 × 10 20 rO3 = 1.65 × 105 S / m
K
σ P = 7.757 × 1019 rP3 = 1.45 × 105 S / m
σ Q = 6.976 × 1019 rQ3 = 1.36 × 105 S / m (22)
From Electrodynamics we know that the
index of refraction, nr , of a material with
relative permittivity ε r , relative magnetic
permeability μ r and electrical conductivity
Nucleus
σ is given by [13]
Fig.2 – The 7 Atomic Gravitational Shieldings

443
5
εμ χK ≅1.60×10 −4

nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (23)
c 2

v 2 ⎝ ⎠ χL ≅ 0.97
χM ≅ 0.98
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (23) reduces to χN ≅ 0.99
μ rσ χO ≅ 0.99
nr = (24) χP ≅ 0.99
4πε 0 f χQ ≅ 0.99 (35)
Substitution of f = f Bosc given by, Eq. (10) In a previous paper [14] it was shown that,
into Eq. (24) yields if the weight of a particle in a side of a lamina is
σs P = m g g then the weight of the same particle, in
nr = 0.566 (25) the other side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g ,
Be
Substitution of the σ s given by Eq. (22) into where χ = m g mi 0 ( mg and mi 0 are
Eq. (25) yields respectively, the gravitational mass and the
inertial mass of the lamina). Only when χ = 1 ,
2
n rK B e2 = 7 .65 × 10 4 B e
n rL2 B e2 = 6 .62 × 10 4 B e the weight is equal in both sides of the lamina.
The lamina works as a Gravitational Shielding.
2
n rM B e2 = 6 .78 × 10 4 B e
This is the Gravitational Shielding effect. Since
B e2 = 6 .59 × 10 4 B e
( )
2
P ′ = χ P = χ m g g = m g (χ g ) ,
n rN
we can
n rO B e2 = 5 .28 × 10 4 B e
2
2
n rP B e2 = 4 .64 × 10 4 B e consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg .
2
n rQ B e2 = 4 .35 × 10 4 B e (26 ) If we take two parallel gravitational
Substitution of the values of the ρ s given by shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then
Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives the gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g ,
m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g .
⎪ −70 ⎛ N e ⎞ ⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.414×10 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ nrs Be − 1⎥⎬ (27)
⎢ 2 2

⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ Vs ⎠ ⎥⎪ mg
⎣ ⎦⎭
χ
Now, by considering the values of N e , Vs (Eq. m ′g = χm g
2 2
17) and n B
rs e (Eq. 26), we can calculate the (a)
values of χ for each shell, i.e.,
mg
{ [
χ K = 1 − 2 1 + 0.107Be − 1 ]} (28)
χ
{ [
χL = 1− 2 ]
1 + 2.09 × 10 −3 Be − 1 } (29)
χM = {1 − 2[ ]
1 + 1.49 × 10−3 Be − 1 } (30) m ′g = χm g
χN = {1 − 2[ ]
1 + 7.24 × 10 −4 Be − 1 } (31)
χO = {1 − 2[ ]
1 + 2.10 × 10 − 4 Be − 1 } (32)
χP = {1 − 2[ ]
1 + 1.07 × 10 − 4 Be − 1 } (33)
= {1 − 2[ ]
1 + 0.81 × 10 − 4 Be − 1 } (34 )
(b)
χQ Fig. 3 – Plane and Spherical Gravitational
Shieldings. When the radius of the gravitational
In the particular case of Be = 11.68T , the shielding (b) is very small, any particle inside the
spherical crust will have its gravitational mass given
Eqs. (28) … (34), yields by m′g = χ mg , where m g is its gravitational mass out
of the crust.

444
6
Consequently, according to Eq. (9), when a
γ − ray crosses the atomic shells of
g ′ = χg Uranium, subjected to the above mentioned
χ conditions, the momentum of the γ − ray ,
after it leaves the K atomic shell † is given by
g h χhf
q=χ = (38 )
λ c
(a)
where χ = χ K χ L χ M χ N χ O χ P χ Q ≅ 1.4 × 10 −4 .
g Under these conditions, the effect of this
χ γ − ray upon the nucleus becomes
equivalent to the effect produced by and
g ′ = χg photon with energy χhf . Thus, if
χhf << 1MeV ‡ [15], the photon will not
have sufficient energy to excite the nucleus.
The energy of a photon with f = 1023 Hz,
after crossing the K atomic shell, becomes just
9.3 × 10 −15 joules << 1MeV = 1.6 × 10 −13 joules .
(b) Under these circumstances, we can say that
Fig. 4 – The gravity acceleration in both sides of the
gravitational shielding. γ − rays with f ≤ 10 23 Hz , after crossing the
K atomic shell, do not are able to excite the
Uranium’s nucleus.
In the case of multiples gravitational The effect also extends to particles of
shieldings, with χ 1, χ 2, ..., χ n , we can write matter as neutrons, α-particles, β-particles, etc.
For example, consider a faster neutron
that, after the nth gravitational shielding the through a Uranium atom. After crossing the
gravitational mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , K atomic shell its momentum, according to
will be given by Eq. (8), becomes q = χM i v and, according to
Eq. (5) its total relativistic energy is
mgn = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n mg , g n = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (36) Eg = M g c 2 . Thus, the gravitational kinetic
energy is
Kg = (Mg − mg )c2 = (χMi − χmi )c2 = χ Ki
This means that, n superposed gravitational
shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with
χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n . Since the atomic shells K, L, †
Due to the atom’s radius be very small, any particle
M, N, O, P and Q , work as gravitational inside the intermediate region between the shells and
shieldings, then they are equivalent to a the nucleus will have its gravitational mass given by
single gravitational shielding with m′g = χm g , where m g is its gravitational mass out of
χ = χKχLχMχNχOχPχQ . Thus, in the case of the crust (See Fig.3)). Similarly, if the energy of a
Uranium, which is simultaneously subjected to a photon, out of the atom is hf then, inside the
magnetic field with intensity Be = 11.68T , and intermediate region, its energy becomes χhf .

an oscillating magnetic field with frequency A heavy nucleus undergoes fission when acquires
f Bosc = f pr (e ) = 2.798 × 10 10 Be = 326 .8GHz energy >5MeV. Some nucleus as the 92 U 235 undergo
fission when absorbs just a neutron. Others as the
, the values given by Eq. (35), yield the
following value for χ : 92 U 238 needs to absorbs faster neutrons with kinetic
χ = χ K χ L χ M χ N χO χ P χQ ≅ 1.4 ×10−4 (37) energy >1MeV. However, in all cases if the total
energy of the incident particle is <<1MeV, the fission
does not occurs.

445
7
According to this equation, the
gravitational kinetic energy of a neutron,
inside the intermediate region between the
shells and the nucleus of Uranium, is given
by Kg ≅ 1.4×10−4 Ki . For K i << 7.14GeV we
obtain K g << 1MeV . This means that,
neutrons with kinetic energy K i << 7.14GeV
(and also particles such as α-particles, β-
particles, protons, etc.) are not able to
produce the fission of an atomic nucleus of
Uranium, subjected to the previously
mentioned conditions.
It is also necessary consider the case of
some nuclei, as the nuclei of 92 U 235 , which
undergo fission by the simple absorption of a
neutron neighboring the nucleus. Also, we
must consider the case of electrons capture
by the nuclei, ( p + e − → n + ν ). In these Fig.5 - A 0.9GHz, 21.1 T NMR spectrometer at
cases, if the Uranium atom is subjected to the HWB-NMR, Birmingham, UK.
previously mentioned conditions, both
neutrons and the electrons will have their
total energy, according to Eq. (5), given by
E gn = χ mi 0 n c 2 ≅ 2.1 × 10 −14 joules
and
E ge = χ mi 0e c 2 ≅ 1.1 × 10 −17 joules
These energies are very smaller than
1MeV and therefore, the neutron cannot
excitate the nuclei of 92 U 235 to produce
fission, and the electron does not have
sufficient energy to interact with a nuclear
proton to produce a neutron and a neutrino.
The method here described requires
Be = 11.68T , and an oscillating magnetic field
with frequency f Bosc = 326 .8GHz .
The spectrometers used in the Nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most
commonly known as NMR spectroscopy,
works with up to 1GHz, 23.5 T (AVANCE
1000 MHz NMR spectrometer, launched by
Bruker BioSpin). Figure 5 shows a 0.9GHz,
21.1T NMR spectrometer.
By comparing the values required by
the method here described with these values,
we can conclude that the necessary
technology is coming soon.

446
8
References
[1] Ragheb, M. (2011). Decay Heat Generation in Fission
Reactors. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Retrieved 26 January 2013.

[2] DOE fundamentals handbook – Decay heat,


Nuclear physics and reactor theory, Vol. 2, module
4, p. 61.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[4] Lipscy, P, et al., (2013) The Fukushima Disaster and


Japan’s Nuclear Plant Vulnerability in Comparative
Perspective. Environmental Science and Technology 47
(May), 6082-6088.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[6] Levitt, M. H. (2001) Spin Dynamics, Wiley.

[7] Hand, L. N. and Finch, J. D. (1998). Analytical


mechanics. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press, p.192.

[8] Gil, V.M.S. and Geraldes, C.F.G.C. (1987) Ressonância


Magnética Nuclear: Fundamentos, Métodos e
Aplicações, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa.

[9] Beiser, A. (1967) Concepts of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill,


Portuguese version (1969) Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo, p. 213-
219.

[10] Jolly, W. L. (1991). Modern Inorganic Chemistry (2nd


ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

[11] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.

[12] Beiser, A. (1967)Concepts of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill,


Portuguese version (1969) Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo, p.132.

[13] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[14] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[15] Beiser, A. (1967)Concepts of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill,


Portuguese version (1969) Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo, p.404.

447
Relativistic Kinetic Projectiles
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this work, it is shown a method to build a type of kinetic projectile, which can reach
relativistic velocities (≲300,000 km/h), with specific kinetic energy of ~10 Megatons/kg. This
type of projectile can be very useful in a defense system that launches kinetic projectiles from
Earth orbit to asteroids, meteoroids or comets in collision route with Earth.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Gravitational Mass, Kinetic Projectiles, Earth’s Defense System.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

A projectile which does not contain an The new expression for the total energy of
explosive charge or any other kind of charge a particle with gravitational mass M g and
(bacteriological, chemical, nuclear, etc.) is called velocity v , obtained in the Quantization Theory
of kinetic projectile. When a kinetic projectile
of Gravity [3], is given by
collides with the target its kinetic energy is
mg c 2 χ mi0 c 2
converted into shock waves and heat [1].
Obviously, these projectiles must have an
Eg = M g c =2
= (1)
V2 V2
extremely high velocity in order to provide 1− 2 1− 2
enough kinetic energy. c c
Typical Kinetic Projectiles where χ = m g mi 0 is the correlation factor
Specific between gravitational and inertial masses of the
Speed
Projectile kinetic energy particle. In some previous papers [4] it was
(Km/h)
(J/kg) shown that the gravitational mass of a particle
25×1400 mm (APFSDS, can be reduced by several ways (mechanical,
6,120 1,400,000
tank penetrator) electromagnetic, etc.). In the case of an
2 kg tungsten Slug electromagnetic field Erms , with frequency f ,
10,800 4,500,000
(Experimental Railgun)
applied upon a particle with electrical
ICBM reentry vehicle
Up to
Up to 8,000,000 conductivity σ and mass density ρ , the
14,000
expression for χ is given by
Up to Up to
Projectile of a light gas gun
25,000 24,000,000 ⎧ ⎡ nr2 n6 Sα2 Sm4φm4σ Erms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg ⎪
Satellite in low earth orbit ~29,000 ~32,000,000 χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (2)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ 2 c 4 f 3 ⎥⎪
Exoatmospheric Kill
~36,000 ~50,000,000 ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Vehicle
where nr is the index of refraction of the
Projectile (e.g., space
debris) and target both in ~58,000 ~130,000,000 particle; Sα is the cross-section area of the
low earth orbit particle (in the direction of the electromagnetic
field); φ m is the “diameter” of the atoms of the
Here, we show a method to build a type
of kinetic projectile, which can reach relativistic particle; S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
velocities (≲300,000 km/h), with specific kinetic one atom; n is the number of atoms per unit of
16
energy of ~ 10 J / kg ( ~ 10 Megatons/ kg ). It volume, given by
N0 ρ
was developed starting from a process patented n= (3)
in July, 31 2008 (BR Patent Number: PI0805046- A
5) [2].
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 atoms / kmole is the
26

448
2
Avogadro’s number; ρ (in kg/m3) and A is the If we take two parallel gravitational
molar mass(kg/kmole). shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then
Starting from Eq. (1), we can obtain the the gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g ,
expression of the gravitational kinetic energy of
the particle, i.e., m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will
⎛ ⎞ be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g .
⎜ ⎟
⎜ χ mi 0 ⎟
K g = (M g − mg )c = ⎜
2
− χ mi0 ⎟c 2 =
2
⎜ 1− V ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
c mg
⎛ ⎞ χ
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
= χ⎜
2
− 1⎟mi0 c 2 = χ Ki (4) m ′g = χm g
⎜ 1− V ⎟ (a)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
c
where K i is the inertial kinetic energy of the mg
particle.
Thus, if a particle has initial velocity v0 , χ
and we make χ ≠ 1 , its velocity becomes equal
to v , given by the following expression m ′g = χm g
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2
− 1⎟mi 0 c 2 = χ ⎜
1
2
− 1⎟mi 0 c 2 (5)
⎜ 1− v ⎟ ⎜ 1 − v0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
c c
In the case of v0 << c , we obtain
(b)
Fig. 1 – Plane and Spherical Gravitational
⎛ ⎞ Shieldings. When the radius of the gravitational
⎜ ⎟ shielding (b) is very small, any particle inside the
⎜ 1 ⎟ v02
⎜ − 1⎟ = χ (6) spherical crust will have its gravitational mass given
2 2c 2 by m′g = χ mg , where m g is its gravitational mass out
⎜ 1− v ⎟
⎜ ⎟ of the crust.
⎝ c2 ⎠
whence we get

v ≅ c 1−
1
(7)
(1 + χv2
0 c2 )
2 In the case of multiples gravitational
shieldings, with χ 1, χ 2 , ..., χ n , we can write that,
In a previous paper [5] it was shown that, after the nth gravitational shielding the
if the weight of a particle in a side of a lamina is
gravitational mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will
P = m g g then the weight of the same particle, in
be given by
the other side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g ,
where χ = m g mi 0 ( mg and mi 0 are mgn = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n mg , g n = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (8)
respectively, the gravitational mass and the
inertial mass of the lamina). Only when χ = 1 , This means that, n superposed gravitational
the weight is equal in both sides of the lamina. shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
The lamina works as a Gravitational Shielding. equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with
This is the Gravitational Shielding effect. Since χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n .
( )
P ′ = χ P = χ m g g = m g (χ g ) , we can
Now, consider a spherical kinetic projectile
consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg . with n spherical gravitational shielding around it

449
3
(Fig.2). If the initial velocity of the system is v0 K g = χ1 χ 2 ...χ n Ki
then, when the n gravitational shieldings are
actived, the velocity of the system, according to
Eq. (7), is given by

v ≅ c 1−
1
(9)
(1 + χ χ ...χ v
1 2
2
n 0 c2 )
2 v
χ1 χ2....χn

Note that by increasing the value of χ1χ2...χn the


velocity v tends to c . Based on this fact, we can
design the projectile to travel at relativistic
speeds. For example, if χ1 = χ2 = ... = χn = −100;
n = 6 and v0 = 200m / s = 720km / h , then Eq.
Fig. 2 – Relativistic Kinetic Projectile
(9) gives

v ≅ c 1−
1
≅ 0.7c (10) 2. Conclusion
(1 + 10 12
v c 2
0
2 2
)
The kinetic projectile here described can
Obviously, the kinetic projectile cannot support be very useful in a defense system that launches
(
the enormous acceleration a ≈ 1010 m.s−2 for a ) kinetic projectiles from Earth orbit to asteroids,
meteoroids or comets in collision route with
long time. However, if the time between the Earth. Depending on the orbits and positions in
activation of the gravitational shieldings and the the orbits, the system would have an action wide
impact (time interval of flight with relativistic range.
speed) is very less than 1 second, the projectile The system also would be used to defend
will not be auto-destructed before to reach the the Earth in the case of an alien attack (In the last
target. decades the radio transmissions strongly
Now, starting from equations (5) and increased in the Earth, and can have call attention
(10), we can calculate the gravitational kinetic of aliens some light years far from Earth).
energy of the Relativistic Kinetic Projectile, i.e., A relativistic kinetic projectile would be
very hard to defend against. It has a very high
⎛ ⎞ closing velocity and a small radar cross-section.
⎜ ⎟ Launch is difficult to detect. Any infra-red launch
⎜ 1 ⎟
Kg = ⎜
2
− 1⎟mi 0 c 2 ≅ 0.4mi 0 c 2 (11) signature occurs in orbit, at no fixed position.
⎜ 1− v ⎟ The infra-red launch signature also has a small
⎜ ⎟ magnitude compared to a ballistic missile launch.
⎝ ⎠
2
c
Note that this kinetic projectile can also be
launched from the Earth’s ground to the target in
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the the outerspace. The heating due to friction with
projectile. For example, if mi 0 = 1kg , then the atmosphere is irrelevant because the time
interval of the atmospheric flight, with relativistic
K g = 3.6 × 1016 joules . This energy is speed, is very less than 1 second, and also
equivalent to 8.6 megatons . because the projectile has a small cross-section.
Thus, during the atmospheric flight, the
The increase of energy K g − K i comes
temperature increasing does not cause damage on
from the Universe’s gravitational energy [6], the non-tungsten components of the projectile.
which connects, by means of the gravitational
interaction, all the particles of the Universe.

450
4
References
[1] Zeldovich, Ya. B and Raizer, Yu. P. (1966) Physics of
the Shock waves and High Temperature Hydrodynamic
Phenomena. Academic Press.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091;
De Aquino, F. (2012) A System to convert Gravitational
Energy directly into Electrical Energy,
http://viXra.org/abs/1205.0119; De Aquino, F.
(2012) Gravitational Blueshift and Redshift
generated at Laboratory Scale,
http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0239

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) The Gravitational Spacecraft,


Electric Spacecraft Journal (USA), Volume 27.
December 1998 (First Version), pp.6-13. New
version (2010) , p.23 (Origin of Gravity and Genesis
of Gravitational Energy), http://arXiv.org/abs/physics/9904018

451
Repulsive Gravitational Force Field
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2013 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A method is proposed in this paper to generate a repulsive gravitational force field, which can strongly repel material
particles, while creating a gravitational shielding that can nullify the momentum of incident particles (including
photons). By nullifying the momentum of the particles and photons, including in the infrared range, this force field
can work as a perfect thermal insulation. This means that, a spacecraft with this force field around it, cannot be
affected by any external temperature and, in this way, it can even penetrate (and to exit) the Sun without be damaged
or to cause the death of the crew. The repulsive force field can also work as a friction reducer with the atmosphere
(between an aeronave and the atmosphere), which allows traveling with very high velocities through the atmosphere
without overheating the aeronave. The generation of this force field is based on the reversion and intensification of
gravity by electromagnetic means.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Gravitation, Gravity Control, Repulsive Force Field.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

The Higgs field equations are [1]: In a previous paper [5] it was shown that, if
the weight of a particle in a side of a lamina is
r
∇ μ ∇ μϕ a + 1
2 (m 2
0 )
− f 2ϕ b ϕ b ϕ a = 0 (1) r r
P = m g g ( g perpendicular to the lamina)
then the weight of the same particle, in the other
r r
Assuming that mass m 0 is the gravitational mass side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , where
m g , then we can say that in Higgs field the term χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and mi 0 are respectively, the
m < 0 arises from a product of positive and
2
g
gravitational mass and the inertial mass of the
lamina). Only when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in
( )(
negative gravitational masses mg − mg = −mg ,
2
) both sides of the lamina. The lamina works as a
however it is not an imaginary particle. Thus, Gravitational Shielding. This is the Gravitational
when the Higgs field is decomposed, the positive
gravitational mass is called particle, and
( )
Shielding effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) ,
spontaneous gives origin to the mass; the we can consider that m ′g = χm g or that
negative gravitational mass is called “dark g ′ = χg .
matter”. The corresponding Goldstone boson is
( ) ( )
+ m g + − m g = 0 , which is a symmetry,
If we take two parallel gravitational
shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then
while the Higgs mechanism is spontaneously the gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g ,
broken symmetry. Thus, the existence of the
Higgs bosons [2] implies in the existence of m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will
positive gravitational mass and negative be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g .
gravitational mass.
On the other hand, the existence of In the case of multiples gravitational shieldings,
negative gravitational mass implies in the with χ 1, χ 2, ..., χ n , we can write that, after the nth
existence of repulsive gravitational force. Both in gravitational shielding the gravitational
the Newton theory of gravitation and in the mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will be given by
General Theory of Relativity the gravitational
force is exclusively attractive one. However, the
quantization of gravity shows that the mgn = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n mg , g n = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (2)
gravitational forces can also be repulsive [3].
Based on this discovery, here we describe a This means that, n superposed gravitational
method to generate a repulsive gravitational
shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
force field that can strongly repel material
particles and photons of any frequency. It was equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with
developed starting from a process patented in χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n .
July, 31 2008 (BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5)
[4].

452
2
mg
χ χg
r r
g′
m′g = χm g GS χ
(a) r r
g χg ′
mg Fig. 3 – Gravitational Shielding (GS). If the gravity
r r
at a side of the GS is g ( g perpendicular to the
χ lamina) then the gravity at the other side of the GS is
r r r
χg . Thus, in the case of g and g ′ (see figure
m′g = χ mg above) the resultant gravity at each side is
r r r r
g + χg ′ and g ′ + χg , respectively.

The extension of the shielding effect, i.e.,


the distance at which the gravitational shielding
effect reach, beyond the gravitational shielding,
depends basically of the magnitude of the
shielding's surface. Experiments show that, when
(b) the shielding's surface is large (a disk with radius
Fig. 1 – Plane and Spherical Gravitational a ) the action of the gravitational shielding
Shieldings. When the radius of the gravitational
shielding (b) is very small, any particle inside the extends up to a distance d ≅ 20a [6]. When the
spherical crust will have its gravitational mass given shielding's surface is very small the extension of
the shielding effect becomes experimentally
by m′g = χ mg , where m g is its gravitational mass out
undetectable .
of the crust.

g ′ = χg
χ d ≅ 20a

(a)
d
g
GS χ GS χ
χ
g ′ = χg a a
(A) (B)

Fig. 4 - When the shielding's surface is large the


action of the gravitational shielding extends up to a
distance d ≅ 20a (A).When the shielding's surface
is very small the extension of the shielding effect
becomes experimentally undetectable (B).
(b)
Fig. 2 – The gravity acceleration in both sides of the The quantization of gravity shows that the
gravitational shielding. gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi are
correlated by means of the following factor [3]:

453
3
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (3)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Repulsive Gravitational Force Field

where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the particle Gravitational Shieldings

and Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic χ1,χ2 ,...,χn


momentum; c is the speed of light.
In general, the momentum variation Δp is
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
applied force during a time interval Δt . Note that rs Δx
there is no restriction concerning the nature of
the force F , i.e., it can be mechanical,
electromagnetic, etc. r
For example, we can look on the mi0s
momentum variation Δp as due to absorption or
emission of electromagnetic energy. In this case,
substitution of Δp = ΔE v = ΔE v(c c)(v v) = ΔEnr c g' = χ1,χ2 ...χn g =
into Eq. (1), gives = − χ1,χ2 ...χn Gmi0s /r2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
E
n ⎟
2 r⎟
− 1⎥⎬ (4)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Fig. 5 – Repulsive Gravitational Field Force produced by
the Spherical Gravitational Shieldings (1, 2,…, n).
By dividing ΔE and mi 0 in Eq. (4) by the
volume V of the particle, and remembering
that, ΔE V = W , we obtain If we make (χ 1 χ 2 ...χ n ) negative ( n odd) the
gravity g ′ becomes repulsive, producing a
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
W
n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 r⎟
(5) pressure p upon the matter around the sphere.
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎪ This pressure can be expressed by means of the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ following equation
where ρ is the matter density (kg m ).
3
F mi 0(matter) g ′ ρ i (matter) SΔxg ′
p= = = =
Based on this possibility, we have developed S S S
a method to generate a repulsive gravitational
force field that can strongly repel material = ρ i (matter) Δxg ′ (7)
particles. Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (7), gives
In order to describe this method we start
considering figure 5, which shows a set of n
spherical gravitational shieldings, with
(
p = −(χ1 χ 2 ...χ n )ρ i (matter ) Δx Gmi 0 s r 2 ) (8)
χ1, χ 2, ..., χ n , respectively. When these
If the matter around the sphere is only the
gravitational shielding are deactivated, the
atmospheric air ( pa = 1.013×105 N.m−2 ), then,
gravity generated is g = −Gmgs r ≅ −Gmi0s r ,
2 2

in order to expel all the atmospheric air from


where mi 0 s is the total inertial mass of the n the inside the belt with Δx - thickness (See
spherical gravitational shieldings. When the Fig. 5), we must have p > p a . This requires
system is actived, the gravitational mass becomes
mgs = (χ1 χ 2 ...χ n )mi 0s , and the gravity is given that
pa r 2
by (χ 1 χ 2 ...χ n ) > (9 )
g′ = (χ1χ2...χn )g = −(χ1χ2...χn ) Gmi0s r2 (6) ρ i (matter ) ΔxGm i 0 s
Satisfied this condition, all the matter is
expelled from this region, except the

454
4
Continuous Universal Fluid (CUF), which particle with non-null mass cannot travel with
density is ρ CUF ≅ 10 −27 kg .m −3 [7]. the light speed. However, in Relativistic
Mechanics there are particles with null mass that
The density of the Universal Quantum travel with the light speed. For these particles,
Fluid is clearly not uniform along the Eq. (14) gives
Universe. At supercompressed state, it gives
origin to the known matter (quarks, electrons, q=χ
h
(15)
λ
protons, neutrons, etc). Thus, the Note that only for χ = 1 the Eq. (15) is reduced
gravitational mass arises with the
to the well=known expressions of DeBroglie
supercompression state. At the normal state (q = h λ ) .
(free space, far from matter), the local inertial
mass of Universal Quantum Fluid does not Since the factor χ can be strongly
generate gravitational mass, i.e., χ = 0 . reduced under certain circumstances (See
However, if some bodies are placed in the Eq.(1)), then according to the Eqs. (13) and
neighborhoods, then this value will become (14), the gravitational energy and the
greater than zero, due to proximity effect, and momentum of a particle can also be strongly
the gravitational mass will have a non-null reduced. In the case of the region with Δx -
value. This is the case of the region with Δx - thickness, where χ is extremely close to zero,
thickness, i.e., in spite of all the matter be the gravitational energy and the momentum
expelled from the region, remaining in place of the material particles and photons become
just the Universal Quantum Fluid, the practically null.
proximity of neighboring matter makes non- By nullifying the gravitational energy and
null the gravitational mass of this region, but the momentum of the particles and photons,
extremely close to zero, in such way that, the including in the infrared range, this force field
can work as a perfect thermal insulation. This
value of χ = mg mi0 is also extremely close to
means that, a spacecraft with this force field
zero ( mi 0 is the inertial mass of the Universal around it, cannot be affected by any external
Quantum Fluid in the mentioned region). temperature and, in this way, it can even
penetrate (and to exit) the Sun without be
Another important equations obtained
damaged or to cause the death of the crew. The
in the quantization theory of gravity is the repulsive force field can also work as a friction
new expression for the momentum q and reducer with the atmosphere (between an
gravitational energy of a particle with aeronave and the atmosphere), which allows
gravitational mass M g and velocity v , which traveling with very high velocities through the
atmosphere without overheating the aeronave.
is given by [3]
r r Considering Eq. (8), for p = p a at r = 6m ,
q = M gv (10 )
we can write that
Eg = M g c2 (11) 36 pa
(χ1 χ 2 ...χ n ) = − (16)
where Mg = mg 1− v c ; m g is given by
2 2
Δxρ i (matter)GMi 0s
Eq.(1), i.e., mg = χ mi . Thus, we can write The gravitational shieldings (1,2,.., n ) can be
made very thin, in such way that the total inertial
χ mi
Mg = = χM i (12) mass of them, for example in the case of
1− v2 c2 rs ≅ 4.9m , can be assumed as M i 0 s ≅ 5000kg .
Thus, for Δx = 1m and ρ i ( matter ) = 1.2 kg .m ,
−3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) and Eq.
(10) gives Eq. (16) gives
Eg = χ M i c 2 (13) (χ 1 χ 2 ... χ n ) = −9.1 × 10 12 m (17 )
r By making χ1 = χ 2 = ... = χ n , then, for n = 7 ,
r r v h
q = χM i v = χ (14 ) we obtain the following value
c λ
For v = c , the momentum and the energy of the χ1 = χ 2 = ... = χ 7 = −71.00 (22)
particle become infinite. This means that a

455
5
It is relatively easy to build the set of
spherical gravitational shieldings with these
values. First we must choose a convenient
material, with density ρ and refraction index
nr , in such way that, by applying an
electromagnetic field E sufficient intense
(W = ε 0 E 2 ), we can obtain, according to Eq.
(5), the values given by Eq. (22).
Since in the region with Δx - thickness,
the value of χ is extremely close to zero, we
can conclude that the gravitational mass of the
spacecraft, which is given by
m gs = χ (χ 1 χ 2 ...χ n )mi 0 s , becomes very small.
This makes possible to the spacecraft acquire
strong accelerations, even when subjected to
small thrusts (a = F m gs ) [3]. On the other
hand, with a small gravitational mass, the
weight of the spacecraft will be also small.
Note that the Gravitational Repulsive
Force Field aggregates new possibilities to the
Gravitational Spacecraft, previously
proposed [8], while showing that the
performance of this spacecraft goes much beyond
the conventional spacecrafts.

456
6
References
[1] Higgs, P. W. (1966) Phys. Rev. 145, 1156.

[2] CERN (2012) Observation of a new boson at a mass


of 125 GeV with the CMS experiment at the LHC,
Phys. Lett. B 716 (2012) 30.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[6] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical


Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2011) The Universal Quantum Fluid,


http://vixra.org/abs/1202.0041

[8] De Aquino, F. (1998) The Gravitational Spacecraft,


Electric Spacecraft Journal (USA) Volume 27,
December 1998 (First Version), pp. 6-13.
http://arXiv.org/abs/physics/9904018

457
Bose-Einstein Condensate and Gravitational Shielding
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this work we show that when possible transform some types of substance into a Bose-Einstein condensate at
room temperature, which exists long enough to be used in practice then will be possible to use these substances
in order to create efficient Gravitational Shieldings.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Gravitation, Gravitational Shielding, Bose-Einstein Condensate.

The quantization of gravity shows that the Thus, substitution of Eq. (2) into Eq. (1),
gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi are gives
correlated by means of the following factor [1]: ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎪
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ Δ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 r⎟
(4)
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎢ ⎥ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
mi 0 ⎪
⎣ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c
⎦⎪⎭
⎩ By dividing ΔE and mi 0 in Eq. (4) by the
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the particle volume V of the particle, and remembering
and Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic that, ΔE V = W , we obtain
momentum; c is the speed of light.
In general, the momentum variation Δp is
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ W ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎪
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 r⎟
(5)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎪
applied force during a time interval Δt . Note that ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
there is no restriction concerning the nature of where ρ is the matter density (kg m ).
3

the force F , i.e., it can be mechanical, Equation (2) tells us that


electromagnetic, etc. F = d(Δp) dt = (1 v) d(ΔE) dt. Since W ≡ pressure
then we can write that W=F A=(1v) d(ΔE) dt A=Dv,
For example, we can look on the
momentum variation Δp as due to absorption or
emission of electromagnetic energy. In this case, where D is the power density of the absorbed (or
we can write that emitted) radiation. Substitution of W = D v into
Eq. (5) yields
Δp = nhk r = nhω /(ω / k r ) = ΔE /(dz / dt ) = ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ D 2⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬ =
= ΔE / v = ΔE v (c c ) = ΔEnr c (2) mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c
3 r ⎟
⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
where kr is the real part of the propagation ⎪ ⎛ D ⎞ ⎪
r r ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
− 1⎥⎬ (6)
vector k ; k =| k |= kr + iki ; ΔE is the ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
electromagnetic energy absorbed or emitted by
In a previous paper [2] it was shown that, if
the particle; nr is the index of refraction of the the weight of a particle in a side of a lamina is
medium and v is the phase velocity of the r r r
P = m g g ( g perpendicular to the lamina)
electromagnetic waves, given by:
dz ω then the weight of the same particle, in the other
v= = =
c
(3) r r
P ′ = χm g g , where
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ side of the lamina is
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2

2 ⎝ ⎠ χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and mi 0 are respectively, the


ε , μ and σ, are the electromagnetic gravitational mass and the inertial mass of the
characteristics of the particle ( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r lamina). Only when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in
is the relative
electric permittivity and both sides of the lamina. The lamina works as a
ε 0 = 8.854 × 10 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where μ r is
−12 Gravitational Shielding. This is the Gravitational
the relative magnetic permeability and
( )
Shielding effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) ,

μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ). we can consider that m ′g = χm g or that


g ′ = χg .

458
2
meters per second [3]. In this case, the
mg enormous index of refraction (nr = c v ) of the
χ BEC is equal to 17.6 million. Even higher
refractive indices are expected (light speed as low
as micrometer/sec).
m′g = χm g
According to Eq. (6), this strong decreasing
(a) of v , shows that the values of χ in a BEC can
mg be strongly reduced with small values of D . This
can be very useful to create Gravitational
χ Shieldings.
The Hau’s experiment requires
temperatures near absolute zero. However, at the
m′g = χ mg beginning of 2013, Ayan Das and colleagues [4]
have used nanowires to produce an excitation
known as a polariton 1 . These polaritons formed a
Bose-Einstein condensate at room temperature,
potentially opening up a new way for studying
systems that otherwise require expensive cooling
(b) and trapping. Instead of atoms, condensation was
Fig. 1 – Plane and Spherical Gravitational achieved using quasiparticles.
Shieldings. When the radius of the gravitational At the end of 2013 researchers at IBM’s
shielding (b) is very small, any particle inside the Binning and Rohrer Nano Center have been able
spherical crust will have its gravitational mass given to achieve the BEC at room temperature by
by m′g = χ mg , where m g is its gravitational mass out placing a thin polymer film 2 —only 35
of the crust. nanometers thick—between two mirrors and then
shining a laser into the configuration [5]. The
photons of the laser interact with excitions 3 [6]
leading to the onset of a new quasi-particle that
g ′ = χg exhibits properties of light and matter -
χ Polaritons. Because polaritonic quasiparticles
have extraordinarily light masses and they are
g bosons, they can condense together in a single
quantum state. This makes for extremely unusual
(a) emitters, as well as new solid-state devices
exhibiting Bose-Einstein condensation at room
g temperature. Unfortunately, this BEC state of
χ matter only lasts for a few picoseconds.
When possible transform some types of
substance into a Bose-Einstein condensate at
g ′ = χg room temperature, which exists long enough to
be used in practice then will be possible to use
these substances in order to create efficient
Gravitational Shieldings, according to (6).
1
Polaritons are quasiparticles resulting from strong
coupling of electromagnetic waves with an electric or
(b) magnetic dipole-carrying excitation.
Fig. 2 – The gravity acceleration in both sides of the 2
The luminescent plastic film is similar to that used in
gravitational shielding. many smart phones for their light-emitting displays.
3
An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an
electron hole which are attracted to each other by the
electrostatic Coulomb force. It is an electrically
In 1999, Danish physicist Lene Hau et al., neutral quasiparticle that exists in insulators,
by passing a light beam through a Bose-Einstein semiconductors and in some liquids. The exciton is
condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms at nK, regarded as an elementary excitation of condensed
matter that can transport energy without transporting
succeeded in slowing a beam of light to about 17 net electric charge [6].

459
3
References

[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[3] Hau, L.V, et al., (1999) Light Speed Reduction to


17 Meters per Second in an Ultracold Atomic Gas,
Nature 397, 594-598.

[4] Ayan Das, et al., (2013) Polariton Bose–Einstein


condensate at room temperature in an Al(Ga)N
nanowire–dielectric microcavity with a spatial potential
trap, PNAS 2013; published ahead of print February 4,
2013, doi:10.1073/pnas.1210842110

[5] J. D. Plumhof et al., (2013) Room-temperature Bose–


Einstein condensation of cavity exciton–polaritons in a
polymer, Nature Materials, Letters, 1476-4660. Published
online 08 December 2013.

[6] Liang, W.Y (1970) Excitons, Physics Education 5 (4): 226.

460
The Gravitational Mass of the Millisecond Pulsars
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this work it is theoretically shown that a millisecond pulsar spinning with angular velocity close to
1000 rotations per second (or more) has its gravitational mass reduced below its inertial mass, i.e., under
these circumstances, the gravitational and the inertial masses of the millisecond pulsar are not
equivalents. This can easily be experimentally checked, and it would seem to be an ideal test to the
equivalence principle of general relativity.

Key words: Gravity, Gravitation, Equivalence Principle, Pulsars, Millisecond Pulsars.

1. Introduction famous inverse-square law of gravity


(F=GMg mg /r2). The inertial mass is the mass
Millisecond pulsars are neutron stars factor in Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
with radius in the range of 9.5 − 14km [1] (F=mia).
and rotational period in the range of Einstein's Equivalence Principle
milliseconds. Thus, they rotate hundreds of asserts that a experiment performed in a
times per second. They are the product of an uniformly accelerating reference frame with
extended period of mass and angular acceleration a are undistinguishable from the
momentum transfer to a neutron star from an same experiment performed in a non-
evolving companion star [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. accelerating reference frame in a
Millisecond pulsars are the fastest spinning gravitational field where the acceleration of
stars in the Universe. The fastest known gravity is g = − a. One way of stating this
millisecond pulsar rotates 716 times per fundamental principle of general relativity
second [9]. Current theories of neutron star theory is to say that gravitational mass is
structure and evolution predict that pulsars equivalent to inertial mass.
would break apart if they reach about of However, the quantization of gravity
~1500 rotations per second [10, 11] and that shows that that the gravitational mass mg and
at 1000 rotations per second they would lose inertial mass mi are correlated by means of
energy by gravitational radiation faster than the following factor [13]:
the accretion process would speed them up
[12]. However, in 2007 it was discovered a ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
neutron star XTE J1739-285 rotating at
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
1122 times per second. mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
We show in this paper that a ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
millisecond pulsar spinning with angular
velocity close to 1000 rotations per second where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
(or more) has its gravitational mass particle and Δp is the variation in the
significantly reduced below its inertial mass, particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
showing therefore, that the gravitational mass of light.
is not equivalent to the inertial mass as Equation (1) shows that only for
claims the equivalence principle of general
Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is equal to the
relativity .
inertial mass.
2. Theory In general, the momentum variation Δp is
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
The physical property of mass has two applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
distinct aspects, gravitational mass mg and that there is no restriction concerning the
inertial mass mi. The gravitational mass nature of the force F , i.e., it can be
produces and responds to gravitational fields. mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.
It supplies the mass factors in Newton's
461
2
For example, we can look on the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
momentum variation Δp ⎪ ⎛ Iω 2 n r ⎞ ⎪
as due to ⎢
m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
2 ⎟
(5)
absorption or emission of electromagnetic ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 2 mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
energy. In this case, we can write that
where I is the moment of inertia of the pulsar in
respect to its rotation axis; nr is the index of
Δp = nhk r = nhω /(ω / k r ) = ΔE /(dz / dt ) =
refraction of the pulsar (nr ≅ 1) ; mi 0 is the rest
= ΔE / v = ΔE v (c c ) = ΔEnr c (2) inertial mass of the pulsar and c is the speed of
light.
where kr is the real part of the propagation Since a pulsar is a rigid sphere then we can
r r assume I = 52 mi 0 R 2 , where R is the pulsar
vector k ; k =| k |= kr + iki ; ΔE is the
radius. In this case, Eq. (5) can be rewritten as
electromagnetic energy absorbed or emitted follows
by the particle; nr is the index of refraction
of the medium and v is the phase velocity of ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Rω ⎞
4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
the electromagnetic waves, given by: ⎢
m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (6)
dz ω ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 5c ⎠ ⎥⎪
v= = =
c
(3) ⎣ ⎦⎭
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2

2 ⎝ ⎠
ε , μ and σ, are the electromagnetic In the case of millisecond pulsars, we can take
characteristics of the particle ( ε = ε r ε 0 R ≅ 10km (There are various models
predicting radii on the order of 10 km[14]).
where ε r is the relative electric permittivity Therefore, if the pulsar is spinning with angular
and ε 0 = 8.854 × 10 −12 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where velocity close to 1000 rotations per second
μ r is the relative magnetic permeability and (ω ≅ 6,300rad / s ) then Eq. (6) shows a
decreasing of about 0.01% in the gravitational
μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ). mass of the millisecond pulsar, in respect to the
Thus, substitution of Eq. (2) into Eq. inertial mass of the pulsar.
(1), gives However, the shortest possible period
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ T of a pulsar can be estimated starting from
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
E
n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 r⎟
(4) the assumption that the speed v at the
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥ pulsar's surface cannot exceed the speed of
⎦⎪⎭
m c
⎩ ⎣ light
If the particle is also rotating, with an 2πR 2πR
angular speed ω around its central axis, then v=c= ⇒ T = (7 )
T c
it acquires an additional energy equal to its For a pulsar of period T = 0.001s the radius
( )
rotational energy E k = 1 2 Iω 2 . Since this is is R = cT 2π = 47km .
an increase in the internal energy of the Equation (6) shows that millisecond
particle, and this energy is basically pulsars with radius of about 30km, spinning
electromagnetic, we can assume that E k , such with angular velocity close to 1000 rotations
as ΔE , corresponds to an amount of per second, have their gravitational masses
electromagnetic energy absorbed (or emitted) decreased of about 1% in respect to the
by the particle. Thus, we can consider E k as inertial mass of the pulsar.
an increase ΔU = E k in the electromagnetic This should provide an interesting new
energy ΔE absorbed (or emitted) by the test for equivalence principle of general
particle. Consequently, in this case, we must relativity. As show the article “Rare
replace ΔE in Eq. (4) for (ΔE + ΔU ) . In the Celestial Trio to Put Einstein's Theory to the
Test”, published in Science [15], recent
case of a millisecond pulsar, we can
astrophysical discoveries about millisecond
assume ΔE << ΔU . Thus, Eq. (4) reduces to
pulsars are also pointing to this possibility.

462
3
References
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[2] Bisnovatyi-Kogan, G. S. & Komberg, B. V. (1974), Sov.


Astron., 18, 217.

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[4] Alpar, M. A., Cheng, A. F., Ruderman, M. A., &


Shaham, J. (1982), Nature, 300, 728.

[5] Bhattacharya, D. & van den Heuvel, E. P. J. (1991)


Formation and evolution of binary and millisecond
radio pulsars. Phys. Rep. 203, 1–124.

[6] Phinney, E. S. & Kulkarni, S. R. 1994, Ann. Rev. Astr.


Ap., 32, 591.

[7] Tauris, T. M., van den Heuvel, E. P. J., & Savonije, G. J.


(2000), ApJ, 530, L93.

[8] Aharonian, F., et al. (2005), A&A, 430, 865.

[9] Hessels, J. W. T. et al., (2006) A Radio Pulsar Spinning


at 716Hz, http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601337v1

[10] Cook, G. B.; Shapiro, S. L.; Teukolsky, S. A. (1994).


Recycling Pulsars to Millisecond Periods in General
Relativity. Astrophysical Journal Letters 423: 117-120.

[11] Haensel, P.; Lasota, J. P.; Zdunik, J. L. (1999). On the


minimum period of uniformly rotating neutron stars.
Astronomy and Astrophysics 344: 151–153.

[12] Chakrabarty, D.; Morgan, E. H.; Muno, M. P.;


Galloway, D. K.; Wijnands, R.; van der Klis, M.;
Markwardt, C. B. (2003). Nuclear-powered
millisecond pulsars and the maximum spin frequency
of neutron stars. Nature 424 (6944): 42–44.

[13] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[14] Lattimer, J. M. and Prakash, M. (2001), ApJ 550, 426.

[15] Cho, A., (2014) Rare Celestial Trio to Put Einstein's


Theory to the Test, Science 10 January 2014: Vol. 343
no. 6167 pp. 126-127.

463
The Bipolar Linear Momentum transported by the Electromagnetic
Waves: Origin of the Gravitational Interaction
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2014-2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Besides energy, the electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum. Then, if this momentum is
absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on the surface. This is the so-called Radiation Pressure. Here
we show that this pressure has a negative component (opposite to the direction of propagation of the
radiation) due to the existence of the negative linear momentum transported by the electromagnetic
waves. This fact leads to an important theoretical discovery: the velocity of the electromagnetic waves in
free space is not a constant. In addition, a generalized equation of the Newton’s law of Gravitation, is
deduced starting from the concept of negative radiation pressure applied on the Gravitational Interaction.
Key words: Gravity, Gravitation, Electromagnetic Waves, Radiation Pressure.

1. Introduction
Electromagnetic waves transport E n = (n + 12 )hf n = 0,1,2,... (3)
energy as well as linear momentum. Then, if where f is the classical frequency of
this momentum is absorbed by a surface,
oscillation, and h is the Planck’s constant
pressure is exerted on the surface. Maxwell
[2]. When n = 0 , Eq. (3) shows that
showed that, if the incident energy U is
totally absorbed by the surface during a E 0 = 12 hf . This value is called energy of the
time t , then the total momentum q transferred zero point. Thus, the energy of the harmonic
to the surface is q = U v [1]. Then, the oscillator, at equilibrium with the
surrounding medium, does not tend to zero
pressure, p (defined as force F per unit area
when temperature approaches to absolute
A ), exerted on the surface, is given by
zero, but stays equal to E0 .
F 1 dq 1 d ⎛ U ⎞ 1 (dU dt )
p= = = ⎜ ⎟= (1) In the particular case of massless
A A dt A dt ⎝ v ⎠ v A oscillators (photons, for example), E0 does
whence we recognize the term (dU dt ) A as not correspond to the lowest value of the
the radiation power density, D , (in watts/m2) energy, which the oscillator can have,
arriving at the surface 1 . Thus, if v = c the because, when temperature approaches to
radiation pressure exerted on the surface is absolute zero the oscillator frequency
p=
D
(2) becomes dependent of the temperature T , as
c show the well-known expression of the
Here we show that this pressure has a thermal De Broglie wavelength (Λ ) for
negative component (opposite to the massless particles [3, 4], which is given by
direction of propagation of the photons) due ch
(4)
1
to the existence of the negative linear Λ= 1
⇒ 1
2 hf = π 3 kT
momentum transported by the photons. This 2π kT
3

fact leads to an important theoretical Then, the lowest value of the energy 12 hf , in
discovery: the velocity of the electromagnetic the case of the photon, for example, will be a
waves in free space is not a constant. In fraction of the value 12 hf correspondent to a
addition, a generalized equation of the Newton’s
law of Gravitation is deduced starting from the critical temperature Tc very close to absolute
concept of negative radiation pressure applied on zero. The mentioned fraction must be only
the Gravitational Interaction. related to the frequency f , and a frequency
.2. Theory
limit, f g , whose value must be extremely
The energy of a harmonic oscillator is large. Just a simple algebraic form, the
quantized in multiples of hf , and given by quotient f f g , can express satisfactorily the
mentioned fraction. Thus, according to Eq.
(4), we can write that
1
This value is also called of Poynting vector.

464
2
⎛ f ⎞ 1 well-known. However, Eq. (7) point to a
1
2 hf ⎜ ⎟ = π 3 kT
⎜f ⎟
(5) new type of photons when f = 2 f g . In this
⎝ g⎠ case q = 0 , i.e., this type of photon does not
Above Tc , the photon absorbs energy from exert pressure when it incides on a surface.
the surrounding medium 2 [5], and its energy What means that it does not interact with
becomes equal to hf . Therefore, the energy matter. Obviously, this corresponds to a
absorbed by the photon is special type of photon, which we will call of
⎛ f ⎞ neutral photon. Finally, if f > 2 f g the
U = hf − 12 hf ⎜ ⎟
⎜f ⎟
(6) resultant momentum transported by the
⎝ ⎠g
photon is negative. If this momentum is
absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on
the surface, in the opposite direction of
propagation of the photon. This special type

( )
of photon will be denominated of attractive
1 f
2 hf fg hf photon.
The quantization of gravity shows that
photon the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass
T =Tc photon mi are correlated by means of the following
T >Tc factor [6]:
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
2
Fig. 1 – Above Tc , the photon absorbs energy from ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
the surrounding medium, and its energy becomes χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (8)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
equal to hf . ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The absorbed energy is that thrust the photon where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
r
and gives to it its velocity v . Consequently, particle and Δp is the variation in the
the momentum q transported by the photon particle’s kinetic momentum.
r
with velocity v will be expressed by Another important equation obtained
⎛ f ⎞ in the quantization theory of gravity is the
hf − 12 hf ⎜ ⎟ new expression for the momentum q of a
⎜ f ⎟ ⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf
r U
q= r = ⎝ g ⎠ = ⎜1 − ⎟ = particle with gravitational mass M g and
r ⎜ 2 f ⎟ vr
v v ⎝ g ⎠ velocity v , which is given by
r r
q = M gv (9 )
⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf ⎛ c ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟ =
⎜ 2 f ⎟ vr ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2 f ⎟ c ⎜⎝ vr ⎟⎠ where Mg = mg 1−v2 c2 ; m g is given by
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
Eq.(8), i.e., mg = χ mi .
⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf r
= ⎜1 − ⎟ n
⎜ 2 f ⎟ c r
(7 ) By comparing Eq. (9) with (7) we obtain
⎝ g ⎠ ⎛ ⎞
Equation above shows the existence of v=c
hf ⎜1 − f
⎜ 2f


(10)
M gc2 ⎝ g ⎠
a bipolar linear momentum transported by
the electromagnetic waves. For f < 2 f g the Mass–energy equivalence principle states that
anything having mass has an equivalent amount
resultant momentum transported by the of energy and vice versa. In the particular case of
photon is positive, i.e., If this momentum is photons, the energy of the photons, E = hf , has a
absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on
corresponding equivalent mass, M g , given by its
the surface, in the same direction of
propagation of the photon. These photons are energy E divided by the speed of light squared c²,
i.e.,
2
In order to provide the equilibrium the harmonic M g ≡ E c2 (11)
oscillator absorbs energy from the surrounding or
medium.
465
3
M g c ≡ hf
2
(12) where N A and N B are respectively, the
Considering this expression, Eq. (10) can be number of attractive photons emitted from A
rewritten as follows and B , during the time interval Δt = 1 f .
⎛ ⎞ Equations (14) and (15) can be rewritten as
v = c ⎜1 −
⎜ 2f
f ⎟

(13) follows
⎝ g ⎠ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎤
PA ≅ ⎢ N A hf ⎜1 − ⎟⎥ f = E g ( A ) f =
Equation (13) shows that the speed of the ⎜ ⎟⎥
electromagnetic waves in free space is not a ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 fg ⎠⎦
constant. Thus, also the speed of light is not a
⎛ ⎞
constant. ⎜ 1 ⎟
Theories proposing a varying speed of light ≅⎜ ⎟ M g ( A )c 2 f (16)
have recently been widely proposed under the ⎜ V ⎟
2
⎜ 1 − A2 ⎟
claim that they offer a solution to cosmological ⎝ c ⎠
puzzles [7 , 8].
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎟⎤
It is known that the interactions are PB ≅ ⎢ N B hf ⎜1 − f = E g (B ) f =
communicated by means of the changing of ⎢⎣ ⎜ 2 f ⎟⎥⎥
⎝ g ⎠⎦
“virtual” quanta. The maximum velocity of these
quanta is a constant called maximum velocity of ⎛ ⎞
propagation of the interactions. Currently, it is ⎜ 1 ⎟
assumed that this velocity is equal to the velocity ≅⎜ ⎟ M g ( B )c 2 f (17 )
⎜ ⎟
of the electromagnetic waves in free space (c ) .
V2
⎜ 1 − B2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
This is the reason of the constant c to appear in
the relativistic factor (Eq. (10)). However, Eq. where E g ( A ) and E g ( B ) are respectively the total
(13) shows that the velocity of the energies of the particles A and B , given
electromagnetic waves in free space is not a
respectively by: Eg( A) = Mg( A)c = mAc 1−VA2 c2
2 2
constant. In addition, Eq. (13) shows that for
f > 2 f g the velocity of the photon is imaginary. and E g ( B ) = M g ( B ) c = mB c
2 2
1 − VB2 c 2 [6];
This means that the attractive photons are virtual V A is the velocity of the particle A in respect to
photons.
Now we will apply the concept of negative the particle B and VB is the velocity of the
radiation pressure, here developed, to the particle B in respect to the particle A .
Gravitational Interaction. Obviously, V A = VB .
According to Eq. (7), the resultant Thus, if r is the distance between the
momentum transported by the photons with mentioned particles, then the power densities of
frequency f > 2 f g is negative. If this momentum the attractive radiation in A and B are
is absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on respectively, given by
the surface, in the opposite direction of ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
PA ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( A)c f ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( A)
2

⎟ξ0 2 (18)
propagation of the photon.
Now consider two particles A and B with DA = 2 =⎜ ⎟ =⎜
4πr ⎜ 1− V2 ⎟ 4πr2 ⎜ V2 ⎟
1− 2 r
gravitational masses m A and m B , respectively. ⎝ c2 ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
If both particles emit attractive radiation ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
( f > 2 f g ), then the powers PA and PB emitted PB ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( B) c f ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( B)
2

DB = 2 =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ξ0 2 (19)
from A and B , according to Eq. (6), are 4πr ⎜ 1− V2 ⎟ 4πr2 ⎜ 1− V2 ⎟ r
respectively given by ⎝ c2 ⎠ ⎝ c2 ⎠

⎛ f ⎞⎟ where V = V A = VB ; ξ 0 is expressed by
PA = N A hf ⎜1 −
⎜ 2f ⎟
f (14)
⎝ g ⎠ c2 f
ξ0 = (20 )
⎛ f ⎞⎟ 4π
PB = N B hf ⎜1−
⎜ 2f ⎟
f (15) Let us now show that the gravitational
⎝ g ⎠ attraction between two particles A and B is
generated by the interchange of attractive

466
4
photons (virtual photons with f > 2 f g ) , M g ( B ) ) is related to the product of M g ( A ) by
emitted reciprocally by the two particles. the flux density (power density) on A, due to the
It is known that the electric force on an (
mass M g ( B ) , D B = PB 4πr 2 . See Eq.(19 ) , )
electric charge A, due to another electric charge r r
B is related to the product of the charge of A i.e., FBA ∝ D B M g ( A ) . By analogy, the particle A
(q A ) by the flux density on A, due to the charge exerts an opposite force on the particle B, which
r r
(
of B, D B = q B 2
)
4πr , i.e., FBA ∝ D B q A . By is related to the product of the mass M g ( A ) by the
analogy, the charge A exerts an opposite electric flux density (power density) on B, due to the
force on the charge B, which is related to the mass M g ( A) of the particle A,
product of the charge of B (q B ) by the flux r r
density on B, due to the charge of A,
(rD
A = PA
r
4π r 2
. See Eq .(18) ),i.e., F AB = − F AB ,
r r
(r r
)
DA = qA 4πr 2 , i.e., FAB = − FAB ,
FAB ∝ D A M g ( B ) . Thus, we can write that
r r
∝ DAqB . r r DA Mg( A) DB Mb( B)
FAB These proportionalities are
FAB = −FBA = μˆ = − μˆ (23)
usually written by means of the following k0 k0
equations: Substitution of Eqs. (18) and (19) into Eq. (23)
r r
r r DA qB DB q A q A qB we get
FAB = −FBA = =− = μˆ (21) ⎛ ⎞
ε0 ε0 4πε0 r 2 r r ⎜ 1 ⎟⎛ ξ0 ⎞ Mg( A) Mg( B)
where ε 0 is the so-called permissivity constant FAB = −FBA = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2 ⎜k ⎟ 2
μˆ (24)
⎜ 1− ⎟⎝ 0 ⎠
( )
V r
for free space ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F/ m . ⎝ c2 ⎠

Similarly, the magnetic force that a For V = 0 Eq. (24) reduces to


magnetic pole B exerts on another magnetic pole r r ⎛ξ ⎞ m m
A is related to the product of the pole intensity FAB = −FBA = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ A 2 B μˆ =
p A of the pole A by the flux density on A, due ⎝ k0 ⎠ r
to the pole intensity pB of the pole B, m A mB
(D = p B 4πr , 2
)
i.e.,
r r
FBA ∝ D B p A .
By
=G μˆ (25)
B r2
analogy, the pole A exerts an opposite magnetic where G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N .m 2 .kg −2 is the
force on the pole B, which is related to the
Universal constant of Gravitation.
product of the pole intensity p B of the pole B Equation (25) tells us that
by the flux density on B, due to the pole intensity ξ 0 k0 = G (26)
r r r r
(
p A of the pole A, D A = p A 4πr 2 , i.e., ) By substituting ξ 0 given by Eq. (20) into this
FAB = − FAB , FAB ∝ D A q B . Usually these expression, we obtain
proportionalities are expressed by means of the ξ0 c2 f
following equations: k0 = = (27)
r r G 4πG
r r DA pB DB pA pA pB
FAB = −FBA = =− = μˆ (22) From the above exposed, we can then
μ0 μ0 4πμ0 r 2 conclude that the gravitational interaction is
caused by the interchange of virtual photons with
where μ 0 is the so-called permeability constant
frequencies f > 2 f g (attractive photons). In this
(
for free space μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m . ) way, the called graviton must have spin 1 and
In the case of the forces produced by the not 2. Consequently, the gravitational forces are
action of attractive photons emitted reciprocally also gauge forces because they are yielded by the
from the particles A and B, their expressions can exchange of virtual quanta of spin 1, such as the
be deduced by using the same argument electromagnetic forces and the weak and strong
previously shown in order to obtain the nuclear forces.
expressions of the electric forces and magnetic Now consider the emission of N attractive
forces. That is, the force exerted on the particle
photons with frequency f > 2 f g (gravitons)
A (whose gravitational mass is M g ( A ) ), by
another particle B (whose gravitational mass is

467
5
from a particle with mass mi 0 . According to Eq. this case, the equation (29) will be rewritten as
follows:
(8) , and considering that q = U v , we get
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mgn ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Nn hf f ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1 ⎬ =
2
⎛ U ⎞ ⎪ 1−
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (28) mn0 ⎪ ⎜ mn0c 2
2 f g ⎟ ⎥⎪
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 cv⎠ ⎥⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎩ ⎣ ⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫
Substitution of Eq. (6) and (13) into Eq. (28)
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ N hf f ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
gives = ⎨1− 2 1+
⎢ ⎜ m c2
1−

−1 ⎬

(32)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 2 f
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Nhf ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣
g ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
mg ⎪ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬ (29)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜
f
1−
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ mi 0 c 2
2 fg ⎟ ⎥ Also, in this case, the obtained expression is
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ exactly the same expression for the proton and
the electron (the term N mi 0 is a constant). In
In case of protons, for example, the number of
attractive photons emitted from a proton, N p , short, the result is the same for any particle with
non-null mass.
can be expressed by means of the following
( )
By solving equation below
relation: N p = N m p 0 mi 0 , where N is the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ N hf ⎞ ⎪
−1⎥⎬ =
number of attractive photons emitted from the ⎜ f ⎟
⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 1−

particle with mass mi 0 ; m p 0 is the rest inertial

2
2 f g ⎟⎠
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎥⎦⎪⎭
mass of the proton. In this case, the equation (29)
will be rewritten as follows: ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎛ f ⎟ ⎥⎪⎪

⎧ ⎡ ⎫ ⎪ N h
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪ −1⎥ = χ (33)
2⎜
⎛ N p hf
2

⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ f 1−
mgp ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ 1−
f ⎟ −1 ⎬ = ⎢ mi 0 c 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2 f ⎟ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎝1 ⎝ g ⎠ ⎪
mp0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ mp0c2 2 f ⎟ ⎥ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 424 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ g ⎠
⎥⎦⎪⎭ cons tan t ⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ we get:
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ N hf ⎛
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜
f ⎟ −1 ⎬ (30) f ⎞⎟ mi20 c 4 ⎛ χ 2 − 6χ + 5 ⎞
⎢ ⎜ mi0c2
1−
2 f ⎟ ⎥ ⎜
f 1− 2
=
⎜ 2 f ⎟ N 2 h2 ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ (34)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ g ⎠
⎥⎦⎪⎭ ⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎩ ⎣
In the case of, electrons, for example, the Note that, for N = N max , the value of f in Eq.
number of attractive photons emitted from an (34) becomes equal to f min . But, the minimum
electron N e , can be expressed by means of the frequency of the gravific photons is very close to
following relation: N e = N (me 0 mi 0 ) , where 2 f g , then we can write that f = f min ≅ 2 f g .
me 0 is the rest inertial mass of the electron. In Under these circumstances, Eq. (33) shows that
this case, the equation (29) will be rewritten as we have that χ = χ min ≅ 1 . Consequently, both
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2 terms of the Eq. (34) become approximately
mge ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Ne hf f equal to zero. On the other hand, for
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ 1− ⎟ −1 ⎬ =
N = N min = 1 (one gravific photon) the value of
me0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ me0c

2
2fg ⎟ ⎥
⎠ ⎦⎥⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎭ fin Eq. (34) becomes equal to f max (the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ N hf ⎞ ⎥⎪ maximum frequency of the gravific photons) and
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ (31)
f ⎟ −1 ⎬
1− Eq. (33) shows that, in this case, χ = χ max , i.e.,
⎢ ⎜ mi0c 2
2fg ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎭
This is exactly the same expression for the proton ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛
2
⎞ 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎟ f max⎜1− max ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ = χ max (35)
(Eq. (30). N h f
⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜
mi0 c 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2f ⎟ ⎥
In the case of, neutrinos, for example, the
number of attractive photons, N n , emitted from ⎪ ⎢ ⎝14 2 4 3 ⎝ g ⎠ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ constant
⎥⎦⎪

a neutrino can be expressed by means of the
following relation: N n = N (m n 0 mi 0 ) , where
By solving this equation, we obtain:
m n 0 is the rest inertial mass of the neutrino. In

468
6
⎛ f max ⎞ m c 2 4
⎛χ 2
− 6χ max + 5 ⎞ f min ≅ 2 f g ≤ f ≤ f max >> 10 mi 0
64
(42)
2 ⎜
f max 1− ⎟= i0
⎜ max
⎟ (36)
⎜ 2f ⎟ h 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ This expression shows then that the
The energy density D at a distance r frequency spectrum of the gravific photons must
from the mentioned particle can be expressed by:
hf (1 − f 2 f g )( f
be above the spectrum of the gamma rays
U Δt ) (neutrino mass: mi 0 ≅ 10 −37 kg [9]). Thus,
D= = (37 )
S 4π r 2
considering that the highest energy of gamma ray
Substitution of Eq.(36) into Eq. (37) yields
detected is approximately 3 × 10 13 eV [10] 3 , in
⎛ m c 4 ⎞⎛ χ 2 − 6χ max + 5 ⎞ mi 0 terms of frequency f γ max ≈ 10 Hz , then we
(38)
28
D = ⎜ i 0 ⎟⎜⎜ max ⎟ 2
⎟ r
⎜ 4π h ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠ can assume that the characteristic value, 2 f g , in
By comparing Eq. (38) with equations (18) and the Eq.(34), in spite to be greater than f γ max , it
(19), we can conclude that
should be very close it, because the spectrum of
⎛ mi0c 4 ⎞⎛ χmax
2
− 6χmax + 5 ⎞

⎜ 4π h ⎟⎜
⎟⎜ ⎟ = ξ0
⎟ (39) the attractive photons should make limit with the
gamma rays spectrum (See Fig.2). Thus, we can
⎝ ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠
write that
By comparing this equation with Eq.(20), we
obtain
2 f g ≳ f γ max ≈ 1028 Hz (43)
⎛ χ 2 − 6 χ max + 5 ⎞ mi 0 c 2
f max = ⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟ (40) It is very unlikely that there are gamma
⎝ 4 ⎠ h rays in the Nature with frequency much greater
than the aforementioned value, but if they exist,
Now, taking Eq. (8), where the term Δp mi0 c is they would only show that the value of 2 f g
putted in the following form: would be situated above the value indicated by
Δp mi0c = (v c)(1− v2 c )
1
2 −2 Eq (43).
[6], we get

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ v c ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
χ = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1
⎜ 1−v2 c2 ⎟ ⎥⎬⎪
(41) 1031
1030 Gravific photons
mi0 ⎪
⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎩ ⎢⎣ 2fg 1029
⎭ 1028
1027
1026
In practice, how close c the velocity v can 1025
approach? At the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) 1024 Gamma rays
1023
the protons each have energy of 6.5 TeV, giving 1022
total collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy 1021
1020
the protons move with velocity 1019 X rays
v = 0.999999990c . Possibly this value will can 1018
1017
be increased up to v = 0.999999999999c , in
the next experiments at the LHC. In this case, Eq.
(41) gives χ ≅ −10 7 . Since χ max is obviously,
Fig. 2 – The Gravific Photons Spectrum (above
very greater than this value, then we can
2 f g ≈ 10 Hz ).
28

conclude that the term χ max2


(
− 6 χ max + 5 4 in )
Eq. (40) is very greater than 1014 ; showing,
therefore, that the maximum frequency f of the
gravific photons (See Eq. (40)) is very greater
( )
than 1014 mi 0 c 2 h ≅ 10 64 mi 0 . Thus, we can 3
The largest air shower detected is from a particle of
define the frequency spectrum of the gravific
around 4 × 10 eV but this is thought to be from a
20
photons by means of the following expression:
cosmic ray particle rather than photon.

469
7

References
[1] Henry, G. E., (1957) Radiation Pressure, Scientific
American, p.99.

[2] Beiser, A. (1963) Concepts of Modern Physics,


Portuguese version, Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo (1969), p.
165-166.

[3] Kittel, C., and Kroemer, H., (1980) Thermal Physics (2


ed), W.H. Freeman, p.73.

[4] Yan, Z., (2000) Eur. J. Phys., 21, 625-631.

[5] Beiser, A. (1963) Concepts of Modern Physics,


Portuguese version, Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo (1969), p.
166.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[7] Albrecht, A. and Magueijo, J. (1999) j. Phys. Rev. D 59


043516, [astro-ph/9811018].

[8] Barrow, J.D. and Magueijo, J. (1998) J. Phys. Lett. B


443 , 104, [astro-ph/9811072].

[9] Mertens, S. (2016). Direct Neutrino Mass Experiments.


Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 718: 022013.
ArXiv: 1605.01579.

[10] http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/gamray.html

470
On the Existence of Black Holes
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The non existence of black holes has been predicted by the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity as a
consequence of the existence of negative gravitational mass evidenced in the expression of correlation
between gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi, obtained after the quantization of gravity [7]. Here,
we review this theoretical discovery, which point to a revolution in fundamental physics.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Event horizon, Black Hole Information Paradox, Black Hole.

1. Introduction

After the development of the Einstein’s In the past 40 years it has been
General Relativity Theory in 1915, Karl suggested that the "lost" information ends up
Schwarzschild found a solution to the in parallel universes where no black holes
Einstein field equations, which describes the exist, or that Hawking radiation is not
gravitational field of a spherical mass [1]. entirely thermal but has some quantum
This solution had a peculiarity; the gravity effects as well. The own Hawking in 2005
becomes infinity in a surface around the published a paper that suggested quantum
spherical mass, defined by the called perturbations of the event horizon of a black
Schwarzschild radius. This surface, called an hole would allow information to escape.
event horizon, marks the point of no return, However, these theories have shown
and defines the edge of a “hole”, which is inconsistency.
called "black" because it absorbs all the light In 2012, it was proposed by Ahmed
that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just Almheiri, Donald Marolf, Joseph Polchinski,
like a perfect black body in thermodynamics and James Sully [5] the existence of a black
[2, 3]. hole firewall at the event horizon.
In the early 1970s, Stephen Hawking An interesting debate has erupted in
shows what can happen at the event horizon the physics community recently, mainly after
in terms of quantum mechanics. Pairs of the publication of Hawking’s paper [6],
particle-antiparticle can be created near the because there are several indications that
event horizon, with some sucked into the beloved theories believed to be true cannot
central singularity, while their partners be true all at once.
escape into space. Thus, black holes leak In his paper, Hawking concludes:
radiation into space, slowly sucking energy “There would be no event horizons and no
from their gravitational core, and that, given firewalls.”… “The absence of event horizons
enough time, black holes evaporate means that there are no black holes - in the
completely into radiation. There is, however, sense of regimes from which light can't
a bigger problem: the Hawking radiation escape to infinity.”
does not carry information. The possibility of do not exist Black
The black hole information paradox Holes it has been previously predicted by the
was first observed by Hawking [4], when he Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, as a
looked at the nature of radiation emitted by consequence of the existence of negative
black holes. He concluded that the emitted gravitational mass evidenced in the
radiation does not transport the information expression of correlation between
of the matter that made the hole. Numerous gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi ,
efforts have been made to resolve the which can be put in the following form [7]:
paradox.

471
2
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ W ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ between the neutrons, during the very
mg ⎪ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 r ⎟
(1) strong compression at which they are
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎪ subjected.
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ The neutron star's density varies from
below 1×109 kg/m3 in the crust - increasing
where W is the density of energy on the with depth – up to 8×1017 kg/m3 in the core
particle (J / kg ) and ρ is the matter density of [9]. From these values we can conclude that
( )
the particle kg m 3 ; nr is its index of the neutrons of the core are much closer to
each other than the neutrons of the crust † .
refraction; mi 0 is its inertial mass at rest.
This means that the value of Wn in the
Equation (1) shows that only for
W = 0 the gravitational mass is equivalent to crust is much smaller than the value in the
the inertial mass. Also, it shows that the core. Therefore, the gravitational mass of the
gravitational mass of a particle can be core becomes negative before the
reduced or made negative when the particle gravitational mass of the crust. This makes
is subjected to high-densities of the gravitational contraction culminates with
electromagnetic energy. an explosion, due to the repulsive
On the other hand, the gravitational forces between the core and the
Schwzarzschilds’ equation, is given by crust. Therefore, the contraction has a limit
and, consequently, the singularity ( g → ∞ )
Gmg never occur. This means that Black Hole
g= (2) does not exist.
r 2 1 − 2 Gmg rc2 However, we would like to draw the
attention to the possible existence of celestial
The Einstein’s equivalence principle predicts bodies similar to “black holes”. These bodies
would have ultra-strong electromagnetic
that m g = m i . Therefore, the current
fields. Then, according to Eq. (1) their
interpretation of Eq. (2) is that, if gravitational masses would be strongly
r = 2Gm g c 2 (Schwzarzschilds’ radius), negative. Thus, when another body
then g → ∞ . Based on this singularity arose approaches them, the gravitational mass of
the concept of event horizon and Black Hole. the body also becomes negative due to the
However, we see here that, according to Eq. action of the ultra-strong magnetic field. The
(1), the gravitational mass mg can be result is an enormous gravitational attraction
negative. This can occur, for example, in a stage between them, similar to that would be
of gravitational contraction of a neutron star ,
* produced by a “black hole”.
when the gravitational masses of the neutrons, in
the core of the star, are progressively turned
negative, as a consequence of the increase of the
density of magnetic energy inside the neutrons,
Wn = 12 μ0Hn2 , reciprocally produced by the spin
magnetic fields of the own neutrons,
r r r
( ) ( )
Hn = ⎡Mn 2π rn2 + r 2 2 ⎤ = γ n ⎡eSn 4πmn rn2 + r 2 2 ⎤
3 3

⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
[8], due to the decrease of the distance

*
There is a critical mass for the stable configuration †
The density 1×109 kg/m3 in the crust shows that the
of neutron stars. This limit has not been fully defined
as yet, but it is known that it is located between 1.8M~ radius of a neutron in the crust has the normal value
and 2.4M~. Thus, if the mass of the star exceeds (1.4×10-15m). However, the density 8×1017 kg/m3
2.4M~ , the contraction can continue. shows that the radius of a neutron in the core should
be approximately the half of the normal value.

472
3

References
[1] Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das
Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der
Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der
Königlich Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften 7: 189–196, and Schwarzschild,
K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines
Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der
Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der
Königlich Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften 18: 424–434.

[2] Schutz, Bernard F. (2003). Gravity from the


ground up. Cambridge University Press. p. 110.

[3] Davies, P. C. W. (1978). "Thermodynamics of


Black Holes". Reports on Progress in Physics 41
(8): 1313–1355.

[4] Hawking, S. W. (1976) Breakdown of Predictability


in Gravitational Collapse, Phys. Rev. D 14, 2460.

[5] Almheiri, A., Marolf, D., Polchinski, J. and Sully,


J. (2013) Black Holes: Complementarity or
Firewalls? JHEP 02 (2013) 062.

[6] Hawking, S., (2014) Information Preservation and


Weather Forecasting for Black, arXiv:1401.5761v1
[hep-th].

[7] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[8] Alonso, M., and Finn, E. D., (1967) Fundamental


University Physics, Addison-Wesley. Portuguese version
(1972) Ed. Blucher, S. Paulo, Brazil, pp. 79-90.

[9] Miller, M. C. (2013), Astrophysical Constraints on


Dense Matter in Neutron Stars, arXiv:1312.0029.

473
A New Form of Matter-Antimatter Transformation
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A new form of matter-antimatter transformation is described in this work. The transformation


of matter into cold neutral antimatter (low-energy antimatter atoms) is achieved simply by
means of the application of an ultra strong magnetic field upon the matter.
Key words: Antimatter, Cold neutral antimatter, Low-energy antimatter atoms, Imaginary mass.

1. Introduction 2. Theory
Antimatter in the form of individual In a previous paper, we have shown
anti-particles is usually produced by particle that photons have non-null imaginary
accelerators and in some types of radioactive masses, given by
decay. However, Antimatter in the form of
anti-atoms is one of the most difficult
substances to produce. m i ( photon ) =
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
(
⎜ 2 ⎟i; imaginary inertial mass )
3 ⎝c ⎠
In 1995, CERN said that they had
created 9 antihydrogen atoms. The
experiment was performed using the Low m g ( photon) =
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
(
⎜ 2 ⎟i; imaginary gravitational mass )
Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR). The 3 ⎝c ⎠
Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings
by producing 100 antihydrogen atoms at their where f is the frequency of the photons and
laboratories. The antihydrogen atoms c the speed of light.
produced were extremely energetic (“hot”) In the derivation of these expressions,
and were not well suited to experimental it was assumed that the momentum, p ,
study. In 2002 the ATHENA project carried out by a photon is expressed by the
announced that they had created the world's well-known equation p = h λ = hf c . However,
first “cold” antihydrogen [1]. The ATRAP recently we have discovered that this
project produced similar results some time equation is an approximated expression,
later [2]. valid only in the case of f >> f 0 ( f 0 is a limit
In 2010, the ALPHA collaboration
frequency, whose value is approximately
announced that they had so trapped 38
equal to 10Hz). The complete expression for
antihydrogen atoms for about 1/6 s. [3, 4].
the momentum carried out by the photon is
This was the first time that neutral antimatter
given by [8]
had been trapped. On 2011, ALPHA said that
they had trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms
f ⎞ hf ⎡ ⎛ f 0 ⎞ ⎤ hf
2
during approximately 1,000 seconds. This ⎛ hf V photon
p = ⎜⎜1 − 0 ⎟⎟ = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ =
was longer than neutral antimatter had ever ⎝ 2 f ⎠ c ⎢⎣ 2hf 0 V photon ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ c
been trapped before [5, 6]. ALPHA has used
these trapped atoms to initiate research into ⎡ W ⎛ f 0 ⎞ ⎤ hf
2

the spectral properties of the antihydrogen = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ (1)


[7]. ⎢⎣ 2W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ c
In all these cases, it was required more
energy for the generation of the antimatter where V photon is the volume of the photon;
than that it would be possible to obtain with W is the density of the electromagnetic
the annihilation of the antimatter produced, energy inside the photon and W0 is the
in the annihilation antimatter/matter process.
Here we describe a new form of matter density of electromagnetic energy
transformation into cold neutral antimatter correspondent to the energy hf 0 in the
(low-energy antimatter atoms). volume V photon .

474
2
Starting from this new expression Substitution of the well-known
for p , the calculations shows (See ref. [8]) expression: W = 12 ε 0 E 2 + 12 μ 0 H 2 = B 2 μ 0 into
that the imaginary inertial mass and the Eq. (5) gives
imaginary gravitational mass of the photon
are respectively expressed by
2 ⎡ B2 ⎛ f0 ⎞ ⎤
2

mi0e imaginary = − ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥m i (7)


3 ⎢⎣ 2μ0W0 ⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ i 0e real
2 ⎡ f 0 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ hf ⎞
2

m i ( photon ) = ⎢1 −
W
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟i (2)
3 ⎢⎣ 2W0 ⎝ f ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎝ c 2 ⎠
⎦ where B (in Tesla) is the intensity of the
4 ⎡ f 0 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ hf ⎞
2
⎛ magnetic field inside the electron.
m g ( photon ) = ⎢1 −
W
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟i (3)
3 ⎢⎣ 2W0 ⎝ f ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎝ c 2 ⎠ Previously, it was shown that the
⎦ electric charge, q , can be expressed by the
following equation
On the other hand, since
mi ( photon ) = mi ( photon ) + mi ( photon ) imaginary and
q = 4πε 0 G m g imaginary i =
real

mi ( photon) =0, we can conclude that


real
= 4πε 0 G χ mi 0 i (8)
mi ( photon ) = mi ( photon ) imaginary . Thus, Eq. (2) can
imaginary

be rewritten as follows where χ is the correlation factor between


gravitational mass and inertial mass [9].
2 ⎡ W ⎛ f 0 ⎞ ⎤⎛ hf ⎞
2
In the particular case of the electron,
mi ( photon ) imaginary = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥⎜ 2 ⎟i (4) we have
3 ⎢⎣ 2W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎝ c ⎠

In the particular case of photons with q e = 4πε 0 G χ e m i 0 e imaginary i (9 )


frequency f e produced by the annihilation of
a par electron/positron, where we have where χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 [9].
hfe = mi0e real c2 and mi 0e imaginary = −mi ( photon) imaginary Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (9)
yields
(See ref. [9]), we can write that
⎛ 2 ⎞
2 ⎡ ⎛ f 0 ⎞ ⎤⎛ hf e ⎞ qe = 4πε 0 G χ e ⎜⎜ − i ⎟⎟i =
2
W mi 0e real
mi 0e imaginary = − ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥⎜ 2 ⎟ i = ⎝ 3 ⎠
3 ⎢⎣ 2W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎝ c ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞
= 4πε 0 G χ e ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟mi 0e real = −1.6 × 10−19 C (10)
2 ⎡ ⎛ f0 ⎞
2
⎤ ⎝ 3⎠
⎥ mi 0e real i (5)
W
=− ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3 ⎢⎣ 2W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦
Substitution of Eq. (7) into Eq. (8)
gives
where W is now the density of external
electromagnetic energy inside the electron;
⎛ 2 ⎞⎡ ⎛ f0 ⎞ ⎤
2
B2
W0 is the density of energy correspondent to qe = 4πε 0 G χ e ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥mi 0e real (11)
the energy hf 0 in the volume of the electron. ⎝ 3 ⎠⎢⎣ 2μ 0W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦
Note that Eq. (5) can be generalized for
protons, neutrons, etc. ⎡ ⎛ f0 ⎞ ⎤
2
B2
For W = 0 , Eq. (5) reduces to Note that for ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = −1 the
⎢⎣ 2 μ 0W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦

mi 0e imaginary = −
2
mi 0e real i (6) electron charge becomes
3

475
3
⎛ 2 ⎞ Note that for f = 0.5Hz the value of
qe = − 4πε 0 G χ e ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟mi 0e real =
⎝ 3⎠ B reduces to ~ 112 Tesla .
In 1999, the National High Magnetic
= +1.6 ×10 −19 C (13) Field Laboratory (USA) announced that they
A possible interpretation for this fact is had created a 45 tesla magnet [13]. This is
that, under these circumstances, the electron the strongest continuous magnetic field yet
becomes a positron. produced in a laboratory. Posteriorly, in
It is easy to show that, also for 2010, they had created a 36 tesla resistive
⎡ ⎛ f0 ⎞ ⎤ magnet [14]. This is the strongest continuous
2
B2
⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = −1 the proton becomes magnetic field produced by non-
⎢⎣ 2 μ 0W0 ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ superconductive resistive magnet. In 2012
an anti-proton, and the neutron becomes an Researchers of the National High Magnetic
anti-neutron. Field Laboratory and the Los Alamos
Assuming that the electron is a sphere National Laboratory, USA reach world-
with radius re and surface charge − e , and record 100.75 Tesla magnetic field (pulsed)
that at an atomic orbit its total energy [15].
E ≅ me 0 c 2 ( m e 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
electron) is equal to the potential electrostatic
energy of the surface charge,
E pot = e 8πε 0 r [10], then these conditions
2

determine the radius r ≡ re :


−15
re = e 2.4πε 0 me 0 c ≅ 1.4 × 10
2 2 *
m , which is
equal to the radii of the protons and neutrons.
Consequently, we can assume that electrons,
protons and neutrons in the atom have the
same value for W0 , i.e.,
−3
W0 = hf 0 3 π re ≅ 10 joules.m . This means
4 3 12

that, it is necessary by applying a magnetic


field with intensity:

B = (2 f f 0 ) μ 0W0 ≅ 2,242( f f 0 ) Tesla (14 )

through the neutral matter in order to


transform it into neutral antimatter. It is
important to note that, for
B > (2 f f 0 ) μ 0W0 the transformation does
not occur. Therefore, B = (2 f f 0 ) μ 0W0 is a
critical value in order to transform the matter
into antimatter.
*
The radius of the electron depends on the
circumstances (energy, interaction, etc) in which it is
measured. This is because its structure is easily
deformable. For example, the radius of a free electron
is of the order of 10 −13 m [11], when accelerated to
1GeV total energy it has a radius of
0.9 × 10 −16 m [12].

476
4
References
[1] Amoretti, M. et al. (2002). Production and
detection of cold antihydrogen atoms. Nature 419
(6906): 456–9.

[2] Gabrielse, G. et al. (2002). Background-free


observation of cold antihydrogen with field
ionization analysis of its states. Physical Review
Letters 89 (21): 213401.

[3] Andresen, G. B. et al.; Ashkezari, M. D.; Baquero-


Ruiz, M.; Bertsche, W.; Bowe, P. D.; Butler, E.;
Cesar, C.L.; Chapman, S. et al. (2010). Trapped
antihydrogen. Nature 468 (7324): 673–676.

[4] Antimatter atoms produced and trapped at CERN.


CERN. 17 November 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2011.

[5] ALPHA Collaboration (2011). Confinement of


antihydrogen for 1000 seconds. Nature Physics 7
(7): 558–564. arXiv: 1104.4982.

[6] ALPHA Collaboration (2011). Confinement of


antihydrogen for 1,000 seconds. Nature Physics 7 (7).

[7] Amole, C, et al., (2012). Resonant quantum


transitions in trapped antihydrogen atoms. Nature
483 (7390): 439–443.

[8] De Aquino, F., (2014) The Bipolar Linear Momentum


transported by the Electromagnetic Waves,
http://vixra.org/abs/1402.0022

[9] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[10] Alonso, M., and Finn, E., (1967) Foundations of


University Physics. Portuguese version (1977),
Vol. II, Ed. Blucher, SP, p.149.

[11] Mac Gregor, M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron,


Boston, Klurer Academic; Bergman, D. L., (2004)
Foundations of Science, (7) 12.

[12] Caesar, C., (2009) Model for Understanding the


Substructure of the Electron, Nature Physics 13 (7 ).

[13] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (1999)


World's Most Powerful Magnet Tested Ushers in New
Era for Steady High Field Research.
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/pressreleases/1999de
cember17.html

[14] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (2010) Mag


Lab Reclaims World Record for Highest Field Resistive
Magnet,
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/pressreleases/
2010/2010january-36t.html

[15] http://gizmodo.com/5896092/the-worlds-mostpowerful-
non-destructive-magnet-screams-like-a-banshee

477
How Masers can remove the Geostationary Satellites
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

This paper provides a realistic approach to remove end of life geostationary satellites and
GEO orbital debris into geostationary orbit (GEO), using ground-based masers. This method
can also be used to put spatial probes and spacecrafts in orbit of the Moon, and also in orbit of
the planets of the solar system, launching these artifacts from an Earth orbit.

Key words: Removal of Geostationary Satellites, Space debris, Masers, Gravity, Gravitational Shielding.

1. Introduction
The geostationary orbit (GEO) contains Mobility μ is defined for any species
a multiplicity of communication satellites, in the gas phase, encountered mostly in
but also military satellites and several new plasma physics, as: μ = q mν m where q is
ones are being launched each year. At the the charge of the species, ν m is the
end of their operational lives they must be
momentum transfer collision frequency, and
removed in order to reduce the possibility of
m is the mass.
collisions. Debris from collisions in GEO do
Mobility is related to the species'
not decay from orbit due to atmospheric
diffusion coefficient D E † through an exact
friction, and therefore present a permanent
collision hazard for spacecrafts. The NASA, (thermodynamically required) equation
AFRL, DARPA, and the aerospace known as the Einstein relation [4, 5]:
community have significant interest in
removal inactive GEO satellite and GEO μ=
q
DE (1)
debris. Unfortunately, the capability to kT
remove these debris is limited. Options are
costly or not feasible [1, 2].
This paper provides a realistic where k is Boltzmann's constant; T is the
approach to solving the GEO orbital debris absolute temperature.
removal problem, using ground-based In the case of two gases with
masers. molecules of the same diameter d and mass
m (self-diffusion), the diffusion coefficient is
2. Theory given by [6, 7]

The outer Van Allen radiation belt is a 2 k3 T 3 2


layer of energetic charged particles (plasma) DE = 13 λvT = (2)
3 π 3 m Pd2
existing around the Earth. The large outer
radiation belt is almost toroidal in shape, where P is the pressure, λ is the mean free
extending from an altitude of about 6,600- path, and vT is the mean thermal speed.
60,000 km above the surface. The trapped
By substitution of Eq. (2) into Eq. (1),
particle population of the outer belt is varied,
we get
containing electrons and various ions. Most
of the ions are in the form of energetic †
We use the notation D E for the diffusion constant in
protons (H+) * . The high-energy of these ions
order to differentiate from the power density D , used
confer to them an extremely high mobility. in Eq. (1).
*
It is generally agreed that the main constituent of the
atmosphere at great heights above the Earth (>1,500km)
is hydrogen (H+) [3].

478
2
It was shown that there is an
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
μ=
2q kT
(3) effect - produced by a substance whose
3Pd 2 π 3m
gravitational mass was reduced or made
negative [10]. This effect can be expressed in
It is known that at 36,000 km above
the following form: if the gravity upon a
the Earth’s surface (GEO) the temperature is
particle in a side of the mentioned substance
about 1000ºK, the density is about
is g then the gravity upon the same particle,
10 −18 kg .m −3 [8, 9] and the pressure is about
in the opposite side of the substance is
10 −11 N / m 2 . Substitution of these values

g ′ = χg , where χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and mi 0
into Eq. (22) gives μ ≈ 1013 m 2 .V −1 .s −1 . are respectively, the gravitational mass and
The conductivity can be expressed by the inertial mass of the substance). Only
σ = ρeμe + ρi μi , where ρ e and ρ i express when χ = 1 , the gravity is equal in both sides
respectively the concentrations C m 3 of ( ) of the substance.
electrons and ions; μ e and μ i are respectively Thus, when the radiation passes
through the mentioned region of the outer
the mobilities of the electrons and the ions. Van Allen belt, it is transformed into a
In the case of the region considered at the
Gravitational Shielding (See Fig.1)
exosphere, we get ρe ≅ ρi = (N0ρ A)e ≈10−10C / m3 where χ is given by
( N 0 = 6 .02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
Avogadro’s number; ρ ≈ 10 −18 kg.m −3 is the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μ σD ⎞
⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg
density; A ≅ 1 is the molar mass of the χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 0 (6)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ 4πρ cf ⎟ ⎥
hydrogen, and e is the elementary electric
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
charge) and μe ≅ μi = μ ≈ 1013m2.V −1.s−1 (Given
by Eq. (3)). Thus, we can assume that the By substitution of the values of
conductivity σ of this region is given by μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 F / m , σ ≈ 1000 S / m and
ρ ≈ 10 −18 kg.m −3 into the equation above, we
σ ≅ 2ρi μi ≈ 103 S / m (4) get
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Therefore, when an electromagnetic ⎪ ⎛ D⎞ ⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+1011⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (7)
radiation with frequency f passes through ⎪ ⎢ ⎝f⎠ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
the mentioned region of the outer Van Allen
belt, the gravitational mass, m g , of this region Then, for a radiation flux with f = 1.4GHz
decreases, according the following and D ≅ 10 4 W / m 2 , the result is
expression [10]:
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
χ ≅ −2 (8)
⎪ ⎛ μ σD ⎞
m g = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mi 0 (5)
⎢ ⎜ 4πρ cf ⎟ ⎥ Thus, if a ground-based maser emits a
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ radiation flux, with the characteristics above,
where μ 0 , σ and ρ are respectively the and this flux reaches a satellite in the outer
magnetic permittivity of free space, the Van Allen belt, then the region below the
electrical conductivity and the density of the satellite (See Fig.1) becomes a gravitational
region; D is the electromagnetic energy shielding with χ ≅ −2 . Consequently, the
density in the region produced by the gravity acceleration upon the satellite (due to
radiation with frequency f . the Earth) becomes repulsive and given by
g ′ ≅ −2 g . Obviously this acceleration will

For T ≈ 1000 K and ρ ≈ 10 −18 kg .m −3 the Equation remove the satellite from its orbit, and it will
of State tells us that the pressure is ≈ 10 −11 N / m 2 . be launched in the interplanetary space.

479
3
Similarly, it will be also possible to put
spatial probes and spacecrafts in orbit of the
Moon, and also in orbit of the planets of the solar
system, launching these artifacts from an Earth Spacecraft
orbit. It is easy to see that, in this case, the
radiation flux with f = 1.4GHz and
D ≅ 10 4 W / m 2 can be optionally emitted from Plasma cloud Gravitational
the own spatial probe or spacecraft. In addition, a Shielding
plasma cloud can also be emitted, in order to
interact with the radiation flux, producing an
“artificial” gravitational shielding similar to that
produced in the outer Van Allen belt (See Fig.2).
Masers with the characteristics above
( f = 1.4GHz and D ≅ 10 4 W / m 2 ) already can
be produced with today’s technology [11].
Thus, this is a feasible method that can be
used to solve the GEO orbital debris removal
problem, having moreover several others
applications.
Fig.2 - A plasma cloud can also be emitted, in order to
interact with the radiation flux emitted from the
spacecraft, producing an “artificial” gravitational
shielding similar to that produced in the outer Van
χg Allen belt.

Up to 54,400 km Satellite
Outer Van Allen belt
χ Gravitational
Shielding

6,600 km

MASER

Earth

Fig. 1 - A realistic approach to remove end of life


geostationary satellites and GEO orbital debris into
geostationary orbit (GEO), using ground-based
MASERS.

480
4
References
[1] Committee on Space Debris, “Orbital Debris – A
Technical Assessment”, National Academy Press,
Washington D.C., 1995.

[2] Kaplan, M.H., Boone B., Brown, R., Criss T.B,


“Engineering Issues for All Major Modes of In Situ
Space Debris Capture,” AIAA 2010-8863, Aug. 30-Sept
2, 2010.

[3] Angerami, J. J. and Thomas, J. O., (1964)


The Distribution of Electrons and Ions in
the Earth’s atmosphere, Journal of
Geophysical Research, 69, 21, p.4537.

[4] A. Einstein (1905). Über die von der


molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme
geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden
Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen. Ann.
Phys. 17 (8): 549–560.

[5] S. Bromberg, K.A. Dill (2002), Molecular


Driving Forces: Statistical Thermodynamics
in Chemistry and Biology, Garland Science.

[6] De Groot, S.R. and Mazur, P. (1962). Non-


equilibrium Thermodynamics. North-Holland,
Amsterdam.

[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion

[8] Martin, M., and Turychev, S.G., (2004), Measuring the


Interplanetary Medium with a Solar Sail, Int. J. Mod.
Phys.D13, 899-906. astro-ph/0308108v2.

[9] Van Allen, J. A., (1961), The Earth and Near Space,
Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, Vol. 17, Nº5, p.218.

[10] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[11] Oxborrow, M., et al., (2012). Room-temperature solid-


state maser. Nature; 488 (7411): 353 DOI:
10.1038/nature11339.

481
Divergence in the Stefan-Boltzmann law at
High Energy Density Conditions
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It was recently detected an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-ray spectrum of galaxy clusters.
Since this line is not catalogued as being the emission of a known chemical element, several hypotheses
have been proposed, for example that it is of a known chemical element but with an emissivity of 10 or
20 times the expected theoretical value. Here we show that there is a divergence in the Stefan-Boltzmann
equation at high energy density conditions. This divergence is related to the correlation between
gravitational mass and inertial mass, and it can explain the increment in the observed emissivity.

Key words: Stefan-Boltzmann law, Thermal radiation, Emissivity, gravitational mass and inertial mass.

1. Introduction
The recent detection of an unidentified ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ D nr2 ⎞ ⎥⎪
emission line in the stacked X-ray spectrum χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎬
⎜ ⎟
(3)
of galaxy clusters [1] originated several ⎝ ρc ⎠
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
explanations for the phenomenon. It was ⎩ ⎭
proposed, for example that the unidentified
emission line, spite to be non-catalogued, it where W is the density of electromagnetic
is of a known chemical element but with energy on the particle (J / kg ) ; D is the
intensity (emissivity) of 10 to 20 times the radiation power density; ρ is the matter
expected value.
Here we show that there is a
(
density of the particle kg m 3 ; nr is the )
divergence in the Stefan-Boltzmann index of refraction, and c is the speed of
equation at high energy density conditions. light.
This divergence is related to the correlation Equations (2) and (3) show that only
between gravitational mass and inertial for W = 0 or D = 0 the gravitational mass is
mass, and it can explain the increment in the equivalent to the inertial mass (χ = 1) . Also,
observed emissivity. these equations show that the gravitational
mass of a particle can be significtively
2. Theory reduced or made strongly negative when the
particle is subjected to high-densities of
The quantization of gravity shows that electromagnetic energy.
the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass Another important equations obtained
mi are not equivalents, but correlated by in the quantization theory of gravity is the
means of a factor χ , which, under certain new expression for the kinetic energy of a
circumstances can be negative. The particle with gravitational mass mg and
correlation equation is [2] velocity V, which is given by [2]
m g = χ mi 0 (1)
E kinetic = 12 m g V 2 = χ 12 mi 0V 2 (4)
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
particle.
The expression of χ can be put in the Only for χ = 1 the equation above reduces to
following forms [2]: the well-known expression Ekinetic = 12 mi 0V 2 .
The thermal energy for a single
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ particle calculated starting from this equation
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ nr ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (2) is k B T = 12 m i 0 V 2 [3], where the line over the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c
2
⎠ ⎥
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ velocity term indicates that the average value

482
2
is calculated over the entire ensemble; ⎛ − nhf ⎞
P (nhf ) ∑

nhf exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
∑ nhf

k B = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K is the Boltzmann n =0
⎝ k BT ⎠
n =0
E = =
∑ P(nhf )
constant. ∞
⎛ − nhf ⎞


Now, this expression can be rewritten n =0 exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
( )
n =0
⎝ k BT ⎠
as follows χ k B T = χ 12 mi 0 V 2 = 12 m g V 2 . We
have put χ because k B T is always positive, whose result is
hf
and χ can be positive and negative. Thus, E = ⎛ hf ⎞
⎜ ⎟
we can write that ⎜k T ⎟
e ⎝ B ⎠
−1

E thermal = 1
2
mg V 2 = χ ( m V )= χ k T
1
2 i0
2
B (5)
or

E hf k B T
Only for χ = 1 the expression of E thermal
=
⎛ hf ⎞
(9 )
k BT ⎜ ⎟
⎜k T ⎟
reduces to k B T . e ⎝ B ⎠
−1
In the derivation of the Rayleigh-Jeans
law, the assumption that E thermal = k B T , and Note that only for hf << k B T , this expression
that each radiation mode can have any energy reduces to E = k BT (the classical
E led to a wrong expression for the assumption that breaks down at high
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black frequencies). Equation (9) is therefore the
body in thermal equilibrium at a definite quantum correction factor, which transforms
temperature, i.e., Since the continuous the Rayleigh-Jeans equation (2kTf 2 c 2 ) into
Boltzmann probability distribution shows the Planck’s equation, i.e.,
that
⎡ ⎤
⎛ −E ⎞ ⎛ −E ⎞ 2kTf 2 ⎢ hf k B T ⎥ 2hf 3
P(E ) ∝ exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = P(E ) ∝ exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (6) I ( f ,T ) = (10)
1
2 ⎢ ⎛ hf ⎞ ⎥= 2 hf
⎝ thermal ⎠
E ⎝ B ⎠
k T c ⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ k BT ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥ c
⎣e − 1⎦ e k BT
−1

One can conclude that the average energy per


mode is However, in the derivation of the Planck’s
∞ law the wrong assumption that E thermal = k B T
E =
∫ EP (E )dE = k
0
(7 ) was maintained. Now, Eq. (5) tells us that we
BT

must replace k B T for χ k B T . Then the
∫ P (E )dE
0
Planck’s equation must be rewritten as
This result was later corrected for Planck,
2hf 3
I ( f ,T ) = (11)
1
which postulated that the mode energies are 2 hf
not continuously distributed, but rather they c χ k BT
e −1
are quantized and given by
I ( f , T ) is the amount of energy per unit
E = nhf , n = 1,2,3,... , where n is the number
surface area per unit time per unit solid angle
of photons in that mode. Thus
emitted at a frequency f by a black body at
temperature T.
⎛ − nhf ⎞
P(E ) = P(nhf ) ∝ exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (8) Starting from Eq. (11) we can write the
⎝ k BT ⎠ expression of the power density D
(watts/m2) for emitted radiation

= I ( f , T )df dΩ (12)
P
∫ ∫
and the average energy per mode can be D=
calculated assuming over only the discrete A 0
energies permitted instead integrating over To derive the Stefan–Boltzmann law, we
all energies, i.e., must integrate Ω over the half-sphere and
integrate f from 0 to ∞. Furthermore,

483
3
because black bodies are Lambertian (i.e. recently observed emissivity [1]. In this case,
they obey Lambert's cosine law), the we would have χ 4 = 10 to 20 → χ ≅ −2 .
intensity observed along the sphere will be
If we put χ ≅ −2 and W = B 2 μ 0 into
the actual intensity times the cosine of the
zenith angle ϕ , and in spherical coordinates, Eq. (2) the result is
dΩ = sin ϕ dϕ dθ . Thus,
21 μ0ρ c2
B= = 5.1×105 ρ nr (15)
∞ 2π π 2nr
= I ( f , T )df dθ
P
D= ∫ ∫ ∫ cosϕ sinϕdϕ =
2

A 0 0 0
For example, in the case of a intergalactic
∞ 2π h ∞ 3 plasma with ρ << 1kg.m −3 and n r ≅ 1 , Eq.
= π I ( f , T )df = (13)
f
∫0 c2 ∫
0 hf
−1
df (15) gives
χ kBT
e
Then, by making B << 5.3×105Tesla (16)

hf Magnetic fields with these intensities are


u=
χ k BT relatively common in the Universe, and even
much more intense as for example, the
h magnetic field of neutron stars ( 10 6 to
du = df
χ k BT 10 8 Tesla) and of the magnetars ( 10 8 to
10 11 Tesla) [5, 6, 7].
Then Eq. (13) gives In the case of Thermal radiation,
considering Eq. (14), we can put Eq. (3) in
the following form
2π h ⎛ k BT ⎞ ∞ u 3
4
D=χ ⎜ ⎟ ∫
4
du
c2 ⎝ h ⎠ 1 0 eu − 1 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
4243 ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ χ 4σ BT 4 nr2 ⎞
χ = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ (17)
π 4 15 ⎢ ρc 3 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣
The integral above can be done in several
ways. The result is, π 4 15 [4]. Thus, we get For χ ≅ −2 , we get

⎛ 2π 5 k B4 ⎞ 4 ρ
D = χ 4 ⎜⎜ ⎟T = χ 4σ B T 4 (14) T = 9.08 × 10 7 4 (18)
2 3 ⎟ n r2
⎝ 15c h ⎠

where σ B = 5.67 × 10 −8 watts / m 2 ° K 4 is the For ρ << 1kg.m −3 and n r ≅ 1 Eq. (18) gives
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant.
Note that, for χ = 1 (gravitational mass T <<9.08×107 K (19)
equal to inertial mass), Eq. (14) reduces to
the well-known Stefan-Boltzmann’s equation. Temperatures T ≈ 10 6 K are relatively
However, at high energy density conditions common in the Universe (close to a star, for
the factor χ 4 can become much greater than example).
1 (See Eqs. (2) and (3)). This divergence, Thus, we can conclude that there are
which is related to the correlation between several ways to produce χ ≅ −2 in an
gravitational mass and inertial mass, can intergalactic plasma (or interstellar plasma)
explain the increment of 10 to 20 times in the in the Universe.

484
4
Equation (14) describes the power
density radiated from a blackbody. For
objects other than blackbodies, the
expression is

D ∗ = χ 4 eσ B T 4 (20)

where e is the emissivity of the object.


Emissivity is therefore the ratio of energy
radiated by a particular material to energy
radiated by a blackbody at the same
temperature, i.e., e = D ∗ D . According to
Kirchhoff law of thermal radiation, at
thermal equilibrium (that is, at a constant
temperature) the emissivity of a material
equals its absorptivity.
Note that, according to Eq. (14), the
emissivity of a blackbody is not one, but
equal to χ 4 , only in the case of χ = 1 is that
the emissivity of the blackbody becomes
equal to 1. Similarly, the emissivity of
objects other than blackbodies, is given by
χ 4 e , and only in the case of χ = 1 is that the
emissivity of the object becomes equal to e
(usual emissivity). Thus, at high energy
density conditions ( χ > 1) the emissivities of
the objects can surpass their usual values.
This fact, observed in the recent detection of
an unidentified emission line in the stacked
X-ray spectrum of galaxy clusters [1], has
also been observed in an experiment which
reveals that, under certain circumstances, the
emissivity of metamaterials can surpass its
usual emissivity [8].

485
5
References
[1] Bulbul E. et al. (2014) Detection of an Unidentified
Emission Line in the Stacked X-Ray Spectrum of Galaxy
Clusters ApJ 789, 13.
[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[3] Schoeder, D. V. (1999) An introduction to Thermal


Physics, Addison-Wesley, p.15.

[4] Spiegel, M. R. (1973) Mathematical Handbook of


Formulas and Tables, McGraw-Hill, p.98.

[5] Mereghetti, S. (2008). The strongest cosmic


magnets: soft gamma-ray repeaters and anomalous
X-ray pulsars. Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
15 (4): 225–287, arXiv 0804.0250.

[6] Olausen, S. A. and Kaspi, V. M. (2014) McGill


SGR/AXP Online Catalog, The Astrophysical
Journal Supplement, Volume 212, Issue 1, article
id. 6, p. 22.

[7] Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (2003).


Magnetars, Scientific American, p. 35.

[8] Liu, X., et al (2011) Taming the Blackbody with


Metamaterials, Phys. Rev. Lett. 107, 045901.

486
Gravitational Tunneling Machine
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A new tunneling machine is described in this article. It works based on the gravity-control technology,
and can reach high velocities through rocky means; possibly few tens of meters per hour, moreover it can
move itself in any directions below the ground. This machine can be highly useful for urban tunneling,
drainage, exploration, water supply, water diversion and accessing the mines of diamonds, coal, oil, and
several others types of minerals existent in the Earth’s crust.

Key words: Gravity-control technology, tunneling technology, Subterranean Space Forming, Mining Equipment.

1. Introduction
The drilling of tunnels through rocky Creation of a tunneling machine that
means is a very hard work to be performed can rapidly move itself in any directions
without the use of appropriate drilling below the ground is highly relevant for urban
machines. Several researchers in many tunneling, drainage, exploration, water
countries had been making attempts to supply, water diversion and accessing the
developing tunneling machines [1, 2, 3]. mines of diamonds, coal, oil, and several
In the decade of 70 of the last century others types of minerals existent in the
a group of scientists created the Earth’s crust.
geowinchester technology for underground In this article we show how gravity-
workings. At the same time the first control technology (BR Patent Number:
experimental prototype of the drilling PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008 [9]) can be used
machine called geohod (ELANG-3) was for the development this machine, here called
created. of Gravitational Tunneling Machine (GTM).
Pneumatic punchers were developed
and are widely used in several countries. 2. Theory
These machines include their underground
movement control, telecommanding as well The quantization of gravity shows that
underground location and position control [4, the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass
5, 6]. mi are not equivalents, but correlated by
In the early 2000s, a team of Russian means of a factor χ , which, under certain
scientists led by Professor Vladimir circumstances can be negative. The
Aksionov started building a new generation correlation equation is [10]
of geohods with improved geowinchester m g = χ mi 0 (1)
technology.
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Tunnel boring isn’t an easy job. The
world's largest tunnel boring machine (called particle.
Bertha) consumes 18,600 kWh and moves at The expression of χ can be put in the
a speed of about 10 m per day [7]. following forms [10]:
Currently a new model of geohod is
being developed [8]. It will have a diameter ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪
of 3.2 meters and a length of 4.5 meters χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬
2 r⎟
(2)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥
(without additional modules). It will be able ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
to reach a speed of 6 m/h. This device has no
similar in the world.

487
2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ mg
⎛ D nr2 ⎞
χ=
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ (3) χ
mi 0 ⎪ ⎜ ρc 3 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪ m ′g = χ m g
⎩ ⎭
(a)
where W is the density of electromagnetic
energy on the particle (J / kg ) ; D is the mg
radiation power density; ρ is the matter
χ
(
density of the particle kg m 3 ; nr is the )
index of refraction, and c is the speed of m ′g = χ m g
light.
Equations (2) and (3) show that only
for W = 0 or D = 0 the gravitational mass is
equivalent to the inertial mass (χ = 1) . Also,
these equations show that the gravitational (b)
Fig. 1 – Plane and Spherical Gravitational
mass of a particle can be significtively Shieldings. When the radius of the gravitational
reduced or made strongly negative when the shielding (b) is very small, any particle inside the
spherical crust will have its gravitational mass given
particle is subjected to high-densities of by m′g = χ mg , where m g is its gravitational mass out
electromagnetic energy. of the crust.
Also, it was shown that, if the weight of a
r r r
particle in a side of a lamina is P = m g g ( g g ′ = χg
perpendicular to the lamina) then the weight of χ
the same particle, in the other side of the lamina g
r r
is P ′ = χm g g , where χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and
(a)
mi 0 are respectively, the gravitational mass and
g
the inertial mass of the lamina). Only
when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in both sides of
χ
the lamina. The lamina works as a Gravitational g ′ = χg
Shielding. This is the Gravitational Shielding
( )
effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) , we can
consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg .
If we take two parallel gravitational
shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then (b)
Fig. 2 – The gravity acceleration in both sides of the
the gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g , gravitational shielding.

m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will r r


χg g′
be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g .
GS χ
In the case of multiples gravitational shieldings,
r r
with χ 1, χ 2, ..., χ n , we can write that, after the nth g χg ′
gravitational shielding the gravitational Fig. 3 – Gravitational Shielding (GS). If the gravity at a
r r
mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will be given by side of the GS is g (g perpendicular to the lamina) then
r
the gravity at the other side of the GS is χg . Thus, in the
r r
and g ′ (see figure above) the resultant gravity
mgn = χ1χ 2 χ3...χ n mg , g n = χ1χ 2 χ3...χ n g (4)
case of g
r r r r
at each side is g + χ g ′ and g ′ + χ g , respectively.

This means that, n superposed gravitational The extension of the shielding effect, i.e., the
shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are distance at which the gravitational shielding
equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with effect reach, beyond the gravitational shielding,
χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n . depends basically of the magnitude of the
shielding's surface. Experiments show that, when
488
3
the shielding's surface is large (a disk with radius If we make (χ 1 χ 2 ...χ n ) negative ( n
a ) the action of the gravitational shielding
odd) the gravity g ′ becomes repulsive,
extends up to a distance d ≅ 20a [11]. When the
shielding's surface is very small the extension of producing a pressure p upon the matter
the shielding effect becomes experimentally around the sphere. This pressure can be
undetectable . expressed by means of the following
equation
F mi 0(matter ) g ′ ρ i (matter ) SΔxg ′
p= = = =
S S S
d ≅ 20a = ρ i (matter )Δxg ′ (6 )
Substitution of Eq. (5) into Eq. (6), gives
(
p = −(χ1χ 2 ...χ n )ρ i(matter)Δx Gmi0s r 2 (7) )
d If the matter around the sphere is only the
χ χ
atmospheric air ( pa = 1.013×105 N.m−2 ), then,
GS GS

in order to expel all the atmospheric air from


the inside the belt with Δx - thickness (See
a a
(A) (B) Fig. 5), we must have p > p a . This requires
Fig. 4 - When the shielding's surface is large the
action of the gravitational shielding extends up to a that
distance d ≅ 20 a (A).When the shielding's surface
pa r 2
is very small the extension of the shielding effect
(χ1 χ 2 ...χ n ) > (8)
becomes experimentally undetectable (B).
ρ i (matter )ΔxGm i 0 s
Now consider figure 5, which shows a Satisfied this condition, all the matter is
set of n spherical gravitational shieldings, expelled from this region, except the
with χ1, χ 2, ..., χ n , respectively. When these Continuous Universal Fluid (CUF), which
gravitational shielding are deactivated, the density is ρ CUF ≅ 10 −27 kg .m −3 [12].
gravity generated is The density of the Universal Quantum
g = −Gmgs r ≅ −Gmi0s r , where mi 0 s is the
2 2
Fluid is clearly not uniform along the Universe.
total inertial mass of the n spherical At supercompressed state, it gives origin to the
known matter (quarks, electrons, protons,
gravitational shieldings. When the system is
neutrons, etc). Thus, the gravitational mass arises
actived, the gravitational mass becomes with the supercompression state. At the normal
mgs = (χ1χ2...χn )mi0s , and the gravity is given by state (free space, far from matter), the local
g′ = (χ1χ2...χn )g = −(χ1χ2...χn )Gmi0s r 2 (5) inertial mass of Universal Quantum Fluid does
not generate gravitational mass, i.e., χ = 0 .
Repulsive Gravitational Force Field
However, if some bodies are placed in the
Gravitational Shieldings neighborhoods, then this value will become
χ1,χ2 ,...,χn greater than zero, due to proximity effect, and the
gravitational mass will have a non-null value.
This is the case of the region with Δx - thickness,
i.e., in spite of all the matter be expelled from the
rs Δx region, remaining in place just the Universal
Quantum Fluid, the proximity of neighboring
r
matter makes non-null the gravitational mass of
this region, but extremely close to zero, in such
mi0s
way that, the value of χ = mg mi0 is also extremely
close to zero ( mi 0 is the inertial mass of the
g' = χ1,χ2 ...χn g =
= − χ1,χ2 ...χn Gmi0s /r 2 Universal Quantum Fluid in the mentioned
Fig. 5 – Repulsive Gravitational Field Force produced region).
by the Spherical Gravitational Shieldings (1,2,…,n), Since in the region with Δx - thickness, the
( n odd ).
value of χ is extremely close to zero, we can
489
4
conclude that the gravitational mass of the χ0(χ1.....χn )ge . Thus, the value of the gravity
sphere, which is given by mgs = χ(χ1χ2...χn )mi0s ,
acceleration (χ1.....χn )ge before the air cell is
becomes very close to zero.
practically nullified (See Fig. 6).
Now consider Fig. 6, where we show a
Note that the axis of the tunneling machine
Gravitational Tunneling Machine, which works
can be easily displaced. This makes possible the
based on the principles above described.
machine move itself in any directions below the
Encrusted inside the tungsten tip of the tunneling
ground.
machine there is a set of n plane gravitational
Obviously, this machine can include
shieldings, with χ1, χ 2, ..., χ n , respectively. Just systems to control its underground movement, as
before the gravitational shielding χ1 there is a well underground location and position, etc. Also
cube of tungsten, which produces a gravity additional modules can be included for others
specific uses.
acceleration g i on its surface (See Fig.6). When
In order to drill the rock, the pressure,
the set of gravitational shielding is actived the p = F S , exerted by the tunneling machine on
gravity g i is increased to (χ1.....χn )gi . Thus, if n the rock must be proportional to compressive
is odd, the rock in front of the tunneling machine strength of the rock, σ r , i.e.,
will be attracted to it with a gravitational force p = kσ r (9)
given by Fe = Mge(χ1.....χn )gi , where M ge is where k is the factor of proportionality. For
the gravitational mass of the rock. Similarly, the k ≤ 1 the force F does not carry out work. The
tunneling machine will be attracted to the rock work just occurs for k > 1 . In this case we can
with a gravitational force Fi = Mgi(χ1.....χn )ge , write that
dW = (k − 1)Fdr for k >1 (10 )
where g e is the gravity produced by M ge on the
Then the potential energy U (r ) is given by
surface of the rock (See Fig.6). Thus, by
increasing the values of (χ1.....χn ) the pressure r r
upon the rock can surpass its compressive U (r ) = ∫∞ dW =∫∞ (k − 1)Fdr =
strength, and the tunneling machine progresses.
The compressive strength of the tungsten is about r M gi M ge
100GPa while the maximum compressive = ∫∞ (k − 1)(χ1χ 2 ...χ n )G r2
dr =
strength of the rocks is about 1GPa .
Consequently, the strong compression does not r
⎡ 1⎤
affect the tungsten tip of the tunneling machine. = (k − 1)(χ1χ 2 ...χ n )GM gi M ge ⎢− ⎥ =
In order to support this enormous compression, it ⎣ r ⎦∞
is necessary to use, between the tungsten plates = −(k − 1)(χ1χ 2 ...χ n )GM gi M ge (11)
of the gravity control cells, Silicon Carbide (SiC)
(or similar), whose compressive strength is about
10GPa (See Fig.6). On the other hand, the kinetic energy of the
Note that before the tungsten cube there is tunneling machine is
a cell with air. When the set of gravitational E k = F .r = M gi (χ1 χ 2 ...χ n )g e r =
shielding is actived the gravity acceleration upon ⎛ v2 ⎞
the air molecules becomes equal to (χ1.....χn )ge , = M gi (χ1χ 2 ...χ n )⎜ ⎟ (12)
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
then if condition (8) is satisfied, all the matter
will be expelled from this cell, except the By comparing equations (11) and (12), we
Continuous Universal Fluid (CUF), which obtain
density is ρ CUF ≅ 10 −27 kg .m −3 . As we have GM ge
v = 2(k − 1) (13)
already seen, the consequence is that the r
gravitational mass of the air in this region For p = 10GPa (maximum pressure
becomes extremely close to zero, and supported by the tungsten) and
consequently, the value of χ in this region ( χ0 )
σ r = 0.2GPa (compressive strength of
is also extremely close to zero. This works as a
strong attenuator of gravity, reducing the
granite), we get k = p σ r = 50 . Considering
enormous gravity (χ1.....χn )ge down to
just a granite block in front of the tunneling

490
5
*
machine, whose center of mass is at a kinetic friction and very greater than the
distance r ≅ 10 m of the center of mass of the values for the coefficient of rolling resistance,
tunneling tip, then we can assume which typical values are about 0.001 [13].
Assuming that, for the tunneling machine, the
M ge ≈ 100 tons . Thus, for k = 50 Eq. (13), value of μ is of the order of 0.01, then Eq. (17)
gives shows that the temperature at the tip of the
v ≈ 10 m / h (14 ) tunneling machine is of the order of 1,000K
This is therefore the order of magnitude of (~800°C). This temperature is sufficient to melt
the velocity of the tunneling through the the rock , and then the molten rock is pushed
granite. Note that this velocity is greater than from the tip is immediately turned into a glass-
the velocity of the new model of geohod like material, which coats the inner diameter of
the tunnel, creating an initial tunnel liner.
mentioned at the introduction of this work.
Since k is expressed by
Through soft soil σ r ≅ 50kPa the velocity of
p (χ1 χ 2 ...χ n )M gi g e
the tunneling increases to ≈ 1km / h . k= = =
The pressure exerted upon the rock heats σr Sσ r
the tip of the tunneling machine. In order to
GM ge M gi
calculate the temperature due to this pressure we = (χ1 χ 2 ...χ n ) (15)
start considering that the thermal energy ET Sσ r r 2
produced by the frictional force, Fμ , is given by we can conclude that, for k = 50 ,
⎛ v2 ⎞ M gi = M ge ≈ 100 tons , S = (3.2)2 = 10.2m 2 ,
ET = Fμ d = μmad = μm⎜ ⎟ = μEk (15)
⎜ 2 ⎟ r ≅ 10 m and σ r = 0.2GPa , we must have
⎝ ⎠
where μ coefficient of friction. Sσ r r 2 k
(χ1χ 2 ...χ n ) = ≈ 1012 (16)
By dividing both members of this equation GM ge M gi
by the volume, V, we get
Thus, if χ1 = χ 2 = ... = χ n and n = 8 , we get
⎛ ⎞
WT = μWk = μ ⎜ ρ t v ⎟ , where ρ t is the density
1 2
⎝2 ⎠
of the tip of the tunneling machine (tungsten), 8
χ1 = χ 2 = ... = χ 8 = χ = 1012 ≈ −31.6 (17)
and v is its velocity. Since DT = WT (c 4) and
DT = σ B T 4 ( σ B = 5.67×10−8W / m2K4 is the This is, therefore, the necessary value of χ , at
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant.), we obtain each gravity control cell, in order to produce

μc ρ t v 2 (χ1χ 2 ...χ n ) ≈ 1012 .


T =4 (16 ) It is important to note that the energy
8σ B necessary to move this tunneling machine is just
For v ≈ 10m / h ≈ 3×10−3 m / s , ρ t = 19,250kg / m 3 ,
the energy used to produce the gravitational
shieldings. This is a very small amount of energy,
we obtain and can be supplied by a common battery only.
Thus, this is the world’s most economical
(17)
1
T ≅ 3,271.7 μ 4 tunneling machine, and has no analogues in the
world, and represents a completely new type of
tunneling machine.
The value of μ for any two materials depends on
system variables like temperature, velocity,
pressure, as well as on geometric properties of
the interface between the materials. In the
particular case of the tunneling machine shown in
Fig.6, due to the elliptic surface, the value of μ
should be very less than that associated with
*
Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient
values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are
rarer.

491
6

χ0(χ1.....χn )ge ≅ 0 ; χ0 ≅ 0

(χ1.....χn )ge

Fi = Mgi(χ1.....χn )ge Fe = Mge(χ1.....χn )gi

0.40

1.00 Gravitational Shieldings

χ0 χ1 χ2 χn Fi Fe
0.40 gi ge
Air M gi M ge

1.00
(n odd )

Rock (σ max ≈ 1GPa)


~50 ton
0.40

3.50 2.50

Tungsten (σ ≈ 100GPa)
Silicon Carbide (SiC) (σ ≈ 10GPa)

Fig. 6 - Gravitational Tunneling Machine

492
7

References
[1] Zhuravleva, V. N. (1964) Dream-Called Discoveries,
Knizh. Izd. , Tambov.

[2] Kyun, G. et al., (1983) Underground No-Go Pipeline


Laying, Stroyizdat, Moscow.

[3] Malyshev, V. I. et al., (1958) Downhole rock boring


machine, Byull. Izobret, No. 10.

[4] A. D. Kostylev (1996) Design of remote-controlled


pneumatic drilling machines, Journal of Mining Science,
No. 6.

[5] Kostylev, A. D. et al., (2001) Controlled pneumatic


puncher, Journal of Mining Science, No. 3.

[6] Syrskii, V. P. et al., E (2001) Device determining depth


and space orientation of controlled pneumatic puncher
in soil, Journal of Mining Science, No. 3.

[7] http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/Viaduct/About/Tunneling

[8] http://emmb.ru/yurga/video/Stalnoy_krot_My_sverlim_zemlyu/

[9] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[10] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[11] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical


Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.

[12] De Aquino, F. (2011) The Universal Quantum Fluid,


http://vixra.org/abs/1202.0041

[13] Butt, Hans-Jürgen, B., et al., (2006) Physics and


Chemistry of Interfaces, Wiley.

493
How the Thrust of Shawyer’s Thruster can be
Strongly Increased
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here, we review the derivation of the equation of thrust of Shawyer’s thruster, by obtaining a new
expression, which includes the indexes of refraction of the two parallel plates in the tapered waveguide.
This new expression shows that, by strongly increasing the index of refraction of the plate with the largest
area, the value of the thrust can be strongly increased.

Key words: Satellite Propulsion, Quantum Thrusters, Shawyer’s Thruster, Radiation Pressure, Microwave Energy.
1. Introduction
R2, respectively; P0 is the radiation power
Recently a NASA research team has
successfully reproduced an experiment [1] and c is the speed of light in free-space.
originally carried out by the scientist Roger Here, we review the derivation of Eq.
Shawyer [2], which point to a new form of (1), obtaining a new expression for T , which
electromagnetic propulsion, using includes the indexes of refraction n r1 and
microwave. The Shawyer device is a n r 2 of the plates R1 and R2, respectively.
thruster that works with radiation pressure. This new expression shows that, by
It provides directly conversion from increasing the index of refraction of R1, the
microwave energy to thrust. In the Shawyer value of T can be strongly increased.
thruster the microwave radiation is fed from
a magnetron, via a tuned feed to a closed R1
tapered waveguide, whose overall electrical Fg1
length gives resonance at the operating
frequency of the magnetron. The incidence
of the microwave radiation upon the
opposite plates R1 and R2, in the tapered
waveguide, produce force Fg1 and Fg 2 , Fg2
respectively (See Fig.1). The area of R1 is R2
much greater than the area of R2, therefore
the power incident on R1 is much greater
Magnetron
than the power incident on R2.
Consequently, the force Fg1 exerted by the
microwave radiation upon the plate R1 is
much greater than the force Fg 2 exerted Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram of Shawyer’s thruster.
upon the plate R2. In the derivation of the
expressions of Fg1 and Fg 2 , Shawyer 2. Theory
assumes total reflection of the radiation
Consider a beam of photons incident
incident upon both plates. Thus, the
upon a flat plate, perpendicular to the beam.
expression of the thrust T obtained by him is
The beam exerts a pressure, dp , upon an area
2 P0 ⎛ v g1 v g 2 ⎞
T = Fg1 − Fg 2 = ⎜ − ⎟ (1) dA = dxdy of a volume d V = dxdydz of
c ⎜ c
⎝ c ⎟⎠
the plate, which is equal to the energy dU
where v g1 and v g 2 are the group velocities absorbed by the plate per unit volume
of the incident radiation on the plates R1 and (dU dV ) .i.e.,

494
2
dp =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(2 ) σ , its velocity is reduced to v = c nr
dV dxdydz dAdz where nr is the index of refraction of the
Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed of material, which is given by [3]
radiation through the plate; v = c n r , where ε μ ⎛ ⎞
nr = = r r ⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 + 1⎟ (10)
c
n r is the index of refraction of the plate) into
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
the equation above gives
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (10) reduces to
dpdA =
(dU dt )
(3) μrσ
v nr = (11)
Since dpdA = dF we can write: 4πε0 f
Thus, if the plate R1 is made of Copper
dF =
dU dt dP
= (4)
v v ( μ r = 1 , σ = 5.8×107 S / m [4]), then for
By integrating, we get the expression of the f = 2.54GHz , Eq. (11) gives
force F acting on the total surface A of the
plate, i.e.,
P P⎛c⎞ P⎛c⎞ P nr1 ≅ 1.4 ×104 (12)
F = = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = nr (5)
v v ⎝c⎠ c ⎝v⎠ c
where P is the power absorbed by the plate. By substitution of this value into Eq. (9), we
Thus, the forces Fg1 and Fg 2 , acting on the get
plates R1 and R2 of the Shawyer device are T ≅ 4.6 ×10−5 P1 (13)
expressed by
In the Shawyer experiment the total
P P
F g1 = 1 n r1 and F g 2 = 2 n r 2 (6 ) power produced by the magnetron is
c c
where P1 and P2 are respectively the powers P0 = 850W . Part of this power is absorbed by
absorbed by the plates R1 and R2; n r1 and the waveguide, and by the plate R2 (plate
n r 2 are respectively the indexes of refraction
with lower area). Assuming that the
remaining power is about 40%-50% of P0 ,
of the plates R1 and R2. Therefore, the
expression of the thrust T = Fg1 − Fg 2 , is then the power radiation absorbed by the
plate R1 is P1 ≅ 400W . By substitution of this
given by
value into Eq. (13), we obtain a theoretical
P P
T = 1 n r1 − 2 n r 2 (7 ) thrust out put of T ≅ 18mN , which is in close
c c agreement with the thrust measured in the
If n r1 = n r 2 , then the equation above can be Shawyer experiment.
rewritten as follows Now, if the plate R1 is made of a
Pn ⎛ P2 ⎞
T = 1 r1 ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ (8 ) magnetic material with ultrahigh magnetic
permeability, for example Metglas ® 2714A
c ⎝ P1 ⎠
If A1 >> A2 (particular case of Shawyer’s Magnetic Alloy, which has μr = 1,000,000 [5],
thruster) the power P1 incident on A1 is then Eq. (11) tells us that nr1 ≅ 1.4 ×107 . If
much greater than the power P2 incident on n r1 >> n r 2 and P1 >> P2 then Eq. (7) gives
A2 . Then, P2 P1 << 1 . In this case, Eq. (8)
T ≅ r1 1 ≅ 4.6 × 10 − 2 P1 ≅ 18 N
n P
reduces to (13)
n P c
T ≅ r1 1 (9)
c
From Electrodynamics we know that when This result shows an increasing of about
an electromagnetic wave with frequency 1,000 times in the thrust of Shawyer’s
f and velocity c incides on a flat plate with thruster.
It is known that Pulse-modulated Radar
relative permittivity ε r , relative magnetic Systems can radiate high power of microwaves
permeability μ r and electrical conductivity during short time intervals (pulses), each pulse
being followed by a relatively long resting period
495
3
during which the transmitter is switched off. U U
q= = nr (15 )
Usually the pulses are of 1μs and the pulse v c
repetition time of 1,250 μs. These systems can
radiate about 106 watts (or more) at each pulse. which is directly proportional to the refractive
However, the average power of the radar, due to index of the medium ( nr ). However, U is
the time interval of 1,250 μs, is only some different of E ; U is the absorbed energy, which
hundreds of watts. Pulse-modulated Radar transformed into kinetic energy. Thus, the
Systems operating in the range of GHz are correlation between E and U is given by
currently in use. This means that it is possible to
provide the Shawyer’s Thruster with a E = E0+U , where E0 = m0 c 2 is the rest inertial
microwave source similar to those existing in energy of the particle, and
these systems in order to produce radiation pulses E = m0c2 1− v2 c2 = E0 1− v2 c2 . Then, we can
with power of about 1 megawatt and frequency
of 2.54 GHz. Thus, by using this microwave write that
source and Metglas ® 2714A, the thrust, U = E ⎛⎜ 1 − 1 − v 2 c 2 ⎞⎟ (16 )
according to Eq. (13), would be of the order of ⎝ ⎠
10,000 N. If the microwave source radiates pulses
with 10 megawatts power then the thrust can For v << c we have 1−v2 c2 ≅1−v2 2c2 . Thus,
reach up to 100kN. Eq. (16) can be rewritten in the following form
In order to understand the Shawyer’s
Thruster it is necessary to accept the existence of
(
U = E v 2 2c 2 ) (17 )
whence we obtain
the Quantum Vacuum, predicted by the Quantum
Electrodynamics (QED). The free space is not
2U Ev
empty, but filled with virtual particles. This is = 2 (18 )
called the Quantum Vacuum. When a radiation v c
propagates through it the radiation exerts on the
Quantum Vacuum a force (due to the momentum Note that the term E v c 2 is exactly the
carried out by radiation), in the opposite direction
expression of the momentum q (See Eq. (14)).
to the direction of propagation of the radiation.
Based on this fact, we show in Fig. (2), how Thus, we can write that
Shawyer’s Thruster works, and why its thrust can
2U
be strongly increased by strongly increasing the q= ( total reflection ) (19 )
index of refraction of the plate with the largest v
area.
Now, we will consider an apparent and therefore,
discrepancy between the expression of the
momentum derived by Minkowski [6] and the U
q= ( total absorption ) (20 )
expression derived by Abraham [7]. While v
Minkowski’s momentum is directly proportional
to the refractive index of the medium, Abraham’s This equation, as we have already seen, leads to
momentum possesses inverse proportionality. Eq. (15). Thus, the correlation between E and U
From Electrodynamics we know that the (Eq. 16), clarifies the expression of the
expression of the momentum, q , is given by [8] momentum, i.e., the momentum as a function of
the absorbed energy, which is transformed into
Ev E E⎛ 1 ⎞ kinetic energy, U, is directly proportional to the
q= = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (14 ) refractive index of the medium, n r , while the
c2 c ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
c c ⎝ nr ⎠
⎝ ⎠
v momentum as a function of the total energy of the
particle, E, is inversely proportional to the
where E is the total energy of the particle. refractive index of the medium, n r .
Note that the expression of the momentum
given by Eq. (14) is inversely proportional to the
refractive index of the medium ( nr ). However,
starting from Eq. (5), we obtain, the following
expression for the momentum:

496
4

A1
A2

F0 c
P0

Quantum nr =1
Vacuum

(a)

A1

A2
R = F0 + Fn
T
P0

nr = 1 nr>1

(b)

Fig.2 – Quantum Thruster. Figure 2(a) shows that, when a radiation with power P0, emitted from the System
S, propagates through it, from A2 to A1, with velocity c, the radiation exerts on the Quantum Vacuum a force F0
= P0 / c (due to the momentum carried out by radiation), in the opposite direction to the direction of propagation
of the radiation. Figure 2(b) shows that, if inside the system S there is a region with index of refraction great
than 1, then, when the radiation passes through this region it velocity is reduced to v = c/nr , where nr is the
index of refraction of the region. Consequently, the radiation exerts on the Quantum Vacuum a force Fn = P0 /
v, which is greater than F0. Thus, in this case, the total force exerted on the Quantum Vacuum in the direction
from A1 to A2 is R = F0 + Fn. On the other hand, according to the action reaction principle, the system S is
propelled with a force T (equal and opposite to R). Thus, if nr >> 1 then Fn>> F0. Consequently, T = R ≅ Fn.

497
5

References
[1] Brady, D., et al., (2014) Anomalous Thrust Production
from an RF Test Device Measured on a Low-Thrust
Torsion Pendulum, NASA Johnson Space Center,
Houston, TX, United States, ID 20140006052, JSC-CN-
30345. http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20140006052

[2] Shawyer, R., (2006 ) A Theory of Microwave Propulsion


for Spacecraft, Theory paper V 9.3 , Satellite Propulsion
Research Ltd .

[3] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[4] Hayt, W. H. (1974) Engineering Electromagnetics,


McGraw-Hill, Portuguese version (1978)
Eletromagnetismo, p. 521.

[5]http://www.metglas.com/products/magnetic_materials/2714a.asp

[6] Minkowski H. (1910) Math Ann ;68:472.

[7] Abraham M. (1910) Rend Pal ;30:33.

[8] Landau, L. And Lifchitz, L. ( 1969)Theorie du


Champ, Ed. MIR, Moscow, Portuguese version
(1974), Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, p.38.

498
Quantum Gravitational Shielding
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We propose here a new type of Gravitational Shielding. This is a quantum device because
results from the behaviour of the matter and energy on the subatomic length scale. From
the technical point of view this Gravitational Shielding can be produced in laminas with
positive electric charge, subjected to a magnetic field sufficiently intense. It is easy to
build, and can be used to develop several devices for gravity control.

Key words: Gravitation, Gravitational Mass, Inertial Mass, Gravitational Shielding, Quantum Device.
1. Introduction

Some years ago [1] I wrote a paper the gravitational mass and the inertial mass
where a correlation between gravitational of the lamina). Only when χ = 1 , the weight
mass and inertial mass was obtained. In the is equal in both sides of the lamina. The
paper I pointed out that the relationship lamina works as a Gravitational Shielding.
between gravitational mass, m g , and rest This is the Gravitational Shielding effect.
inertial mass, mi 0 , is given by Since P′ = χP = (χmg )g = mg (χg ) , we can
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg .
⎛ Δp ⎞
⎪ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
mg
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ In the last years I have proposed
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥

⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎭ several types of Gravitational Shieldings.
Here, I describe the Quantum Gravitational
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Shielding. This quantum device is easy to
⎪ ⎛ Un ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ = build and can be used in order to test the
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ correlation between gravitational mass and
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ inertial mass previously obtained.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Wnr ⎞ ⎥⎪
2. Theory
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1)
⎜ ρc 2 ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪ Consider a conducting spherical shell
⎩ ⎭
with outer radius r . From the subatomic
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic
viewpoint the region with thickness of
momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy
φ e (diameter of an electron) in the border of
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the
the spherical shell (See Fig.1 (a)) contains an
index of refraction of the particle; W is the amount, N e , of electrons. Since the number
density of energy on the particle (J / kg ) ; ρ is
of atoms per m 3 , n a , in the spherical shell is
( )
the matter density kg m 3 and c is the
given by
speed of light. N0 ρ s
Also it was shown that, if the weight of na = ( 2)
r r As
a particle in a side of a lamina is P = m g g
r where N 0 = 6.02214129 × 10 26 atoms / kmole , is
( g perpendicular to the lamina) then the
the Avogadro’s number; ρ s is the matter
weight of the same particle, in the other side
r r density of the spherical shell (in kg/m3) and
of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , where
As is the molar mass ( kg.kmole −1 ). Then, at
χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and mi 0 are respectively, a volume φS of the spherical shell, there are
N a atoms per m 3 , where

499
2

+ φe

ρs
As +

(a)

E = q / 4πε0 r2 = V / r
Nh = q / e
V +

x =φa /2 +
+ φe
+

(b)

Fig.1 – Subatomic view of the border of the conducting spherical shell.

500
3
N a = naφS (3) If the spherical shell is made of Lithium
Similarly, if there are n e electrons per m 3 in the ( Z = 3 , ρ s = 534 kg .m −3 , As = 6.941kg / kmole ,
same volume φS , then we can write that φa = 3.04 × 10 −10 m and outer radius r = 0.10m )
N e = neφS (4) and covered with a thin layer ( 20 μm ) of Barium
By dividing both sides of Eq. (3) by N e , given titanate * (BaTiO3), whose relative permittivity at
20°C is ε r = 1250 , then Eq. (9) gives
( )
by Eq. (4), we get
⎛N ⎞ ρ = 3.4310685×1038φe − 2.2725033×1021V 2me0 (10)
ne = na ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ (5)
⎝ Na ⎠ Assuming that the electron is a sphere
Then, the amount of electrons, in the border of with radius re and surface charge − e , and that at
the spherical shell, at the region with thickness of an atomic orbit its total energy E ≅ me 0 c 2 is
φ e is equal to the potential electrostatic energy of the
N0ρs ⎛ Ne ⎞ surface charge, E pot = e2 8πε0 r [2], then these
N e (φ e ) = n eφ e S = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟φ e S (6 )
As ⎝ Na ⎠ conditions determine the radius r ≡ re :
Assuming that in the border of the re = e 2 2 . 4 πε 0 m e 0 c 2 ≅ 1 . 4 × 10 − 15 m † ,
spherical shell, at the region with thickness of
which is equal to the radii of the protons and
x ≅ φ a 2 (See Fig.1 (b)), each atom contributes
neutrons. Thus, we can conclude that in the atom,
with approximately Z 2 electrons ( Z is the electrons, protons and neutrons have the same
atomic number). Thus, the total number of radius. Thus, substitution of

electrons, in this region, is Ne ( x) = (Z 2)Nee (φe ) .
15
φe = 2re = 2.8 ×10 m into Eq. (10) gives
Thus, we can write that
Z N ρ ⎛N
N e ( x) = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ N e (φe ) = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 0 s ⎜⎜ e
Z ⎞
⎟ φe S (7)
(
ρ = 9.6069918×1023 − 2.2725033×1021V 2me0 (11) )
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ As ⎝ N a ⎟
⎠x
where (N e N a )x ≅ Z 2 . For V = 422.7493 volts , Eq. (11) gives
Now, if a potential V is applied on the
spherical shell an amount of electrons, N h , is ( )
ρ = 6.8 ×1014 2me0 = 1.2 ×10−15 kg.m−3 (12)
removed from the mentioned region. Since Note that the voltage V = 422.7493 volts is
N h = q e and E = q 4πε r ε 0 r 2 , then we obtain only a theoretical value resulting from

Nh =
( )
4π r 2 ε r ε 0 E
=
Sε r ε 0 E
(8 )
inaccurate values of the constants present in
the Eq. (11), and that leads to the critical
e e
Thus, we can express the matter density, ρ , in
value 6.8 × 1014 shown in Eq. (12), which is
fundamental to obtain a low density, ρ .
the border of the spherical shell, at the region
with thickness of x ≅ φ a 2 , by means of the However, if for example, V = 422.7 volts ,
following equation then the critical value increases
20
to 1.1 × 10 (more than 100,000 times the
⎛⎜ N ( x) − N ⎞⎟m ⎛ ⎞
e h ⎠ e0 ⎜⎝ Ne ( x) − Nh ⎟⎠2me0
ρ= ⎝ = = initial value) and, therefore the system shown in
Sx Sφa

⎡ Z 2 N ρ ⎛ φ ⎞ ε ε E⎤
= ⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 0 s ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ − r 0 ⎥2me0
⎣⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ As ⎝ φa ⎠ eφa ⎦⎥
*
Dielectric Strength: 6kV mm , density: 6,020kg/m3.

or The radius of the electron depends on the
circumstances (energy, interaction, etc) in which it is
⎡ Z 2 N ρ ⎛φ ⎞ ε ε V ⎤
ρ = ⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 0 s ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ − r 0 ⎥2me0 (9) measured. This is because its structure is easily
⎣⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ As ⎝ φa ⎠ reφa ⎦⎥
deformable. For example, the radius of a free electron
is of the order of 10 −13 m [3], when accelerated to
since E = V r . 1GeV total energy it has a radius of 0.9 × 10 −16 m [4].

501
4

60 cm
30 cm

30 cm
Pair of Helmholtz Coils
(Bmax = 20mT)

Lithium Spherical Shell


(with outer diameter 20 cm
and inner diameter 19 cm)

χ 2g B
+ Barium titanate
χ2g
+ + (20μm thickness)
+ χg +
Quantum Gravitational Shielding
+ χg +
+

Mechanical dynamometer -3P

-2P

-P
Vmax = 425 volts
0

Vv P
V i

Fig.2 – Quantum Gravitational Shielding produced in the border of a Lithium Spherical Shell with positive
electric charge, subjected to a magnetic field B.

502
5

Fig.2 will require a magnetic field 402 times ⎡ Z 2 N ρ ⎛ φ ⎞ εr(c)ε0 AV ⎤


more intense. In practice, the value of V , ρ = ⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 0 s ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ − ⎥2me0 (17)
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ As ⎝ φa ⎠ eφaSd ⎥⎦
which should lead to the critical
Therefore, if the container is made of Lithium
value 6.8 × 1014 or a close value, must be
found by using a very accurate voltage ( Z = 3 , ρ s = 534 kg .m −3 , As = 6.941kg / kmole ,
source in order to apply accurate voltages φa = 3.04 × 10 −10 m ) and, if the dielectric of the
around the value V = 422.7493 volts at ambient capacitor is Barium titanate (BaTiO3), whose
temperature of 20°C. relative permittivity at 20°C is ε r = 1250 , and
Substitution of the value of ρ (density the area of the capacitor is A = S , and d = 1mm ,
then Eq. (17) gives
( )
in the border of the Lithium Spherical Shell,
at the region with thickness of x ≅ φ a 2 ), given ρ = 9.6069918×1023 − 2.2725033×1023V 2me0 (18)
by Eq. (12), into Eq. (1) yields For V = 4.227493 volts , Eq. (18) gives
⎧⎪ ⎡
( 2 ⎤⎫
)
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 9.3 ×10−3W −1⎥ ⎬

(13) ( )
ρ = 6.8 ×1014 2me0 = 1.2 ×10−15 kg.m−3 (19)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭ Substitution of this value into Eq. (1) gives
Substitution of
( )
W = 1 ε 0E2 + 1 μ0H 2 = 1 ε 0c2E2 + 1 B2 μ0 = B2 μ0
⎧⎪ ⎡
( 2 ⎤⎫
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 9.3 ×10−3W −1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩
) ⎪

2 2 2 2 ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
into Eq. (13) gives This is exactly the Eq. (13), which leads to
⎧ ⎫
⎧ ⎫
χ = ⎨1 − 2 ⎡⎢ 1 + 5 .4 × 10 7 B 4 − 1⎤⎥ ⎬ (14 ) χ = ⎨1 − 2 ⎡⎢ 1 + 5 .4 × 10 7 B 4 − 1⎤⎥ ⎬
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Therefore, if a magnetic field B = 0.020T Therefore, if a magnetic field B = 0.020T passes
passes through the spherical shell (See Fig. through the Lithium container, it produces a
(2)) it produces a Gravitational Shielding (in Quantum Gravitational Shielding (in the border
of the container, at the region with thickness of
the border of the Lithium Spherical Shell, at
x ≅φa 2) with a value of χ , given by
the region with thickness of x ≅ φ a 2 ) with a
χ ≅ −3
value of χ , given by
χ ≅ −3 (15)
Also, it is possible to build a Flat Lithium Container
Gravitational Shielding, as shown in Fig. 3.
Consider a cylindrical or hexagonal container, S
and a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Fig.
3(a). When the capacitor is inserted into the
container the positive charges of the plate of the
A
capacitor are transferred to the external surface of +q
the container (Gauss law), as shown in Fig. 3(b). d εr(c)
Thus, in the border of the container, at the region −q
with thickness of x ≅ φ a 2 the density, ρ , will q = CV = ε r (c )ε 0 ( A d )V
be given by Eq. (9), i.e., (a)
V
⎡ Z 2 N ρ ⎛ φ ⎞ ε ε E⎤ σ
ρ = ⎢⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ 0 s ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ − r 0 ⎥2me0
q
E= =
⎣⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ As ⎝ φa ⎠ eφa ⎦⎥ ε rε 0 ε rε 0S
where
E = σ ε r ε 0 = q ε r ε 0 S = CV ε r ε 0 S = +q

= ε r (c ) A V ε r Sd (16 ) −q

Thus, we obtain V
(b)
Fig. 3 – Flat Gravitational Shielding or
Flat Gravity Control Cell (GCC).

503
6

888888
External load cell

Sample Testing
200 g

Digital force gauge with external sensor


(± 20N; 0.01N )
http://www.andilog.com/graphical-force-gauge-centor-easy-with-external-sensor.html?category_id=13&tab=spec

Lithium: 1mm thick


Max. 5cm
Barium titanate (BaTiO3); 1mm thick
Coil: 18mm x 18mm; 10 x 10 = 100 turns, #14 AWG

18 mm
DC 1-10ref: fixed voltage reference, providing an 1.000000V and an
10.000000 V output.
Air V http://www.stahl-electronics.com/voltage-supplies.html
Dielectric base

Min. 70cm

Fig. 4 – Flat Gravity Control Cell - Experimental Set-up. (BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008).

504
7

References

[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[2] Alonso, M., and Finn, E., (1967) Foundations of


University Physics. Portuguese version (1977),
Vol. II, Ed. Blucher, SP, p.149.

[3] Mac Gregor, M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron,


Boston, Klurer Academic; Bergman, D. L., (2004)
Foundations of Science, (7) 12.

[4] Caesar, C., (2009) Model for Understanding the


Substructure of the Electron, Nature Physics 13 (7).

505
A Solution for Reducing the Pollution of the Atmospheric Air
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show how polluted smoke can be compacted and transformed into a glass similar to
amorphous silica glass, by means of gravitational compression produced in a compression
chamber, where gravity is strongly increased by using gravity control technology based on the
discovery of correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass [1]. Possibly this process
can be a way of storing of CO2, a major contributor to global warming.

Key words: Gravitational Compression, Amorphous carbonia, Storing of CO2, Global Warming.
1. Introduction
Recently, it was shown that under extreme compression produced in a compression
pressure (40-48 GPa), carbon dioxide gas (CO2) chamber, where gravity is strongly increased by
forms crystalline solids (a-CO2) * and can become using gravity control technology (BR Patent
a glass similar to amorphous silica glass [2, 3]. Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008 [5]) based
But there is a problem. When the a-CO2 is on the discovery of correlation between
depressurized; it quickly reverts to CO2. Thus, at gravitational mass and inertial mass [1]. After
present a-CO2 cannot exist outside of a pressure solidified, the CO2 and the others pollutants
chamber. However, experts predict that possibly contained inside polluted smoke can then be
by adding silica, the a-CO2 can remain solid easily stored in the Earth's interior.
under Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).
The discovery of the a-CO2 could lead to a 2. Theory
way of storing of CO2, a major contributor to
global warming. In a previous paper, I showed that
The increase in global emissions of carbon gravitational mass, m g , and rest inertial
dioxide (CO2) from fossil-fuel combustion and mass, mi 0 , are correlated by means of the
other smaller industrial sources – the main cause
of human-induced global warming – increased by following expression [1]:
1.4% over 2011, reaching a total of 34.5 billion
tonnes in 2012 [4]. ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
Every time we burn fossil fuels, carbon χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
dioxide is released into the atmosphere. In the mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
natural carbon cycle (the natural circulation of ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil,
plants, and animals), carbon dioxide is re- where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the particle
absorbed by plants and trees. However, we are and Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic
burning fossil fuels so quickly that plants and
momentum; c is the speed of light.
trees have no chance of re-absorb the excess of
In general, the momentum variation Δp is
carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. The
effect of this extra carbon dioxide in the expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
atmosphere is that the overall temperature of the applied force during a time interval Δt . Note that
planet is increasing (global warming). there is no restriction concerning the nature of
Here we show how CO2, and others the force F , i.e., it can be mechanical,
pollutants contained in polluted smoke, can be electromagnetic, etc.
compacted and transformed into a glass similar to For example, we can look on the
amorphous silica glass, by means of gravitational momentum variation Δp as due to absorption or
emission of electromagnetic energy. In this case,
it was shown previously that the expression of χ
can be expressed by means of the following
* expression [6]:
Amorphous carbonia. Also called a-carbonia, is an
exotic amorphous solid form of carbon dioxide that is
analogous to amorphous silica glass.

506
2
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ N0ρ
⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞
2
n= (4 )
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
mg ⎢
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ A
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 atoms / kmole is the
26

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Avogadro’s number and A is the molar


⎪ ⎛ Un ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ = mass(kg/kmole).
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ value for E 2 is equal to 1 E m2 because E varies
2

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value for E ).


⎪ ⎛ Wnr ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ (2 ) On the other hand, Erms = Em 2 . Consequently we
⎜ ρc 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭ can change E 4 by E rms4
, and the equation above
where U is the electromagnetic energy absorbed can be rewritten as follows
or emitted by the particle; nr is the index of ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ nr4n6Sα2Sm
4φ4E4
m rms ⎥⎪
refraction of the particle; W is the density of χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (5)
energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is the matter mi0 ⎪ ⎢ 4μ 2ρ2c6 f 2

⎢ 0 ⎥
( )
density kg m 3 and c is the speed of light.
⎩ ⎣
Electrodynamics tells us
⎦⎭
that
In the particular case of heterogeneous
⎛ c ⎞
mixture of matter † , (powder, dust, clouds, smoke, E rms = vBrms = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Brms . Thus, by
heterogeneous plasmas ‡ , etc), subjected to ⎝ nr ⎠
incident radiation or stationary electromagnetic substitution of this expression into Eq. (5), we get
fields, the expression of χ can be expressed by ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
means of the following expression, which is m g ⎪⎪ ⎢ n 6 Sα2 S m
4 φ 4 B4
m rms ⎥ ⎪⎪
derived from the above equation [6]: χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (6)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ 4μ 02 ρ 2 c 2 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n n3S S2φ2 E2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎥⎪
mg ⎪ ⎢⎜ r α m m ⎟ 1 ⎥ ⎥⎪⎬ =
For polluted smoke, at first approximation,
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ −1
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ 2 2
⎢⎜⎝ 2μ0ρ c f ⎟⎠ r ⎥
(c n f ) ⎥⎪
⎥ we can assume ρ ≅ 2kg / m 3 § ;
⎪ ⎣ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎦⎭ n ≅ 2 × 10 25 atoms / m 3 and φm ≅1.5×10−10m.
By substitution of these values into Eq. (6), we
⎧ ⎡ 4φ4 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ nr4n6Sα2Sm mE ⎥⎪
obtain
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (3) m g ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
2 2 6
4μ0 ρ c f 2 S 2 B4 ⎪
⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪ χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1 × 10 27 α rms − 1⎥ ⎬ (7)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ mi0 ⎪ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎦ ⎪⎭
f
⎩ ⎣
where Sα is the maximum area of cross-section Now, consider the system shown in Fig.1. The
of the body; φ m is the average diameter of the spherical compression chamber with 2m

molecules of the body; S m = πφm 2 4


; E is the
( )
diameter Sα = 3.14m2 is filled with polluted
smoke. Thus, if an oscillating magnetic field with
instantaneous electric field applied on the body; frequency f = 1Hz is applied on the smoke, then
μ 0 is the magnetic permeability of the free
the value of χ , given by Eq.(7), is
space; f is the oscillating frequency of the
mg ⎧ ⎫
electric field and n is the number of atoms per χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + 1 × 10 28 Brms
4
− 1⎤⎥ ⎬ (8)
unit of volume in the body, which is given by m i0 ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭


From the macroscopic viewpoint, a heterogeneous mixture
is a mixture that can be separated easily (sand, powder, dust, §
smoke, etc.). The opposite of a heterogeneous mixture is a The chemical composition of the polluted smoke depends
homogeneous mixture (ferrite, concrete, rock, etc). on the burning material and the conditions of combustion,
but always contains CO2, CO and SO2, whose densities (@
-3
‡ NTP (20°C 1atm)) are respectively: (1.842kg.m , 1.165
Heterogeneous plasma is a mixture of different ions, while
Homogeneous plasma is composed of a single ion specie. kg.m-3and 2.279kg.m-3 [7]).

507
3
the internal pressure p is related to the internal
Compression Chamber energy density u by means of the following
equation:
p=
u
(13)
3
B Thus, we can write that

Helmholtz
1Hz
p≈
kT
(14)
Polluted smoke 2V p
Coils
By comparing this equation with Eq. (10), we can
χGS g conclude that for
1
⎛ ⎞2
χ > − r ⎜ 2 27 kT
⎜ π G ρ sp
2 φ7


(15 )
Solidified smoke
⎝ sp ⎠
χGS
g the gravitational compression surpasses the
Gravitational Shielding internal pressure due to the thermal energy of the
smoke particles, and consequently it starts the
contraction of the smoke upon itself. With the
Fig. 1 – Hyper Compressor - A System for contraction, the distances among the particles are
transforming polluted smoke into a glass similar to reduced, further increasing the gravitational
amorphous silica glass. (Developed starting from a attraction among them, and again reducing the
process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5 [5]). distances among the particles, and so on. This
phenomenon is known as gravitational collapse.
According to Eq. (14), the minimum value
The gravitational forces between these of χ in order to starts the gravitational collapse
smoke particles (gravitational mass m gs ), are
is obtained for r = φ sp and φ sp = φ sp (max )
given by
(maximum size of smoke particles,
m gsp m ′gsp mi 0 sp mi′0 sp
F =G =χ G2
≅ φsp(max) ≅ 2.5μm [8]). The result is
r2 r2
(ρ spVsp )(ρ sp′ Vsp′ )
= χ 2G = χ > −5.1 × 10 5 (16 )
r2
⎛ π Gρ spφ sp ⎞ χ 2
2 2 6
= ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ r2
(9) In order to obtain χ > −5.1 × 10 5 ,
36
⎝ ⎠ according to Eq.(8), the magnetic field to be
Therefore, each smoke particle is subjected to a applied on the smoke must have intensity, given
pressure p , given by by
2 6 ⎞ 2 ⎛
⎛ π 2Gρsp 2 4 ⎞ 2
φsp ⎟ χ ⎜ πGρsp φsp ⎟ χ Brms > 5 × 10 −5 T (17)
p =⎜ = (10)
⎜ 36S ⎟ r2 ⎜ 9 ⎟ r2
⎝ sp ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ During the contraction, after all the smoke
The thermal energy of the an ideal gas particles are already together, forming a single
sample consisting of N particles is given by body, the compression progresses, reaching a
U thermal = 32 NkT (11) point where all the molecules are very close
together. At this point, the pressure should
For an ideal gas, the internal energy U consists surpass 40- 48GPa ** . Then, it is necessary
only of its thermal energy, i.e., U = U thermal . nullify the magnetic field in the compression
Thus, the thermal energy contained in the gas chamber, because the contraction can go far
volume, Vgas ≈ NV p , ( V p is the volume of the beyond, causing dangerous effects.
Note that by injecting pure carbon powder
gas particles), i.e., Its internal energy density is into the compression chamber, instead of smoke,
u=
U

3kT
(12 )
V gas 2V p **
The necessary pressure to transform carbon dioxide
It follows from Classical Electrodynamics that gas (CO2) into glass (a-CO2).

508
4
one can start the nuclear fusion of the carbon nr ≅ 10 5
(20)
atoms, when the pressure is sufficiently
which is greater than the maximum possible value
increased, based on the well-known Carbon
of n r for the smoke.
Fusion.
The carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion By substitution of nr ≅ 105 and
reactions that take place in massive stars. The
principal reactions are:
2 2 2 2
(
W = 1 ε 0E2 + 1 μ0H 2 = 1 ε 0c2E2 + 1 B2 μ0 = B2 μ0)
23
Na + p + 2.24 MeV
into Eq. (2), we get
12
C+ C→
12 20
Ne + α + 4.62 MeV
⎧ ⎫
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + 10−20 B 4 − 1⎤⎥ ⎬ (21)
24
Mg + γ +13.93 MeV ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

In the case of the smoke, when the pressure Note that even considering nr ≅ 105 , the factor
surpasses 40- 48GPa it should be transformed
into a glass similar to a-CO2 or similar to (10 −20 ) in Eq. (21) still is very small. Therefore,
amorphous silica glass. Under this condition, it for B << 10 5 T , the value of χ reduces to
ceases to be a heterogeneous mixture of matter, approximately 1. Consequently, the solidified
and therefore, the Eq. (3) no longer can be smoke falls to the bottom of the compression
applied; χ must be expressed by Eq. (2), which is chamber, where it can be easily removed for
the general expression. However, it is necessary storage.
the following considerations. The function of the horizontal
Electrodynamics tells us that when an ††
Gravitational Shielding shown in Fig. 1 is to
electromagnetic wave with frequency f and reduce the local gravity acceleration upon the
velocity c incides on a material with relative smoke. Note that, for χ > −5.1 × 10 5 the
permittivity ε r , relative magnetic permeability gravitational mass of the smoke becomes greater
μ r and electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is than − 5,100 tonnes , producing on the top of the
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of compression chamber a pressure greater than
refraction of the material, given by [9] 10 6 kg .cm −2 . Thus, if the gravitational shielding
ε μ produces χ GS ≅ 10 −3 , then the local gravity
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 + 1⎞⎟ (18)
c
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ acting on the smoke will be reduced to
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (18) reduces to χ GS g ≅ 10 −2 m.s −2 , reducing the pressure upon
μrσ the top of the chamber down to ≈ 10 3 kg .cm −2 .
nr = (19)
4πε0 f In the case of the smoke be subjected to a
Many smoke components have high static magnetic field we obviously cannot apply
electrical conductivities. Others, such as Carbon, Eq. (3), we must apply Eq. (2), which is valid for
CO2, etc., have conductivities less than 1 S/m. oscillating and static fields. In this case, n r in
The electrical conductivities of the Carbon and Eq. (2), is given by the own index of refraction of
CO2 plume are respectively, 0.061 S/m and the smoke, nr = 1.5, [11] (because Eq. (18) are
0.0166 S/m [10]. This shows that the electrical not valid for static fields.
conductivity of smoke , σ , is less than 1S / m ,
which is much greater than ωε = 2πfε , in the
case of f = 1Hz and ε = ε 0 . As we have already
seen, in the case of σ >> ωε , the expression of
n r is given by Eq. (19). Thus, if we assume
σ ≅ 1S / m , then Eq. (19) will give the following
value of n r : ††
In the last years, I have proposed several types of
Gravitational Shieldings. One should choose the most
appropriate for this case. See for example, the Quantum
Gravitational Shielding [12].

509
5

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[2] McMillan, Paul F. (2006) Solid-state chemistry: A glass


of carbon dioxide, Nature 441 (7095): 823.

[3] Santoro, M., et al., (2006) Amorphous silica-like carbon


dioxide, Nature (letter) 441 (7095): 857.

[4] Trends in global CO2 emissions: 2013 Report © PBL


Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The
Hague, 2013. ISBN: 978-94-91506-51-2

[5] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2011) Ultrafast Conversion of Graphite


to Diamond in Gravitational Pressure Apparatus,
http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0007, p. 4.

[7] http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gas-density-d_158.html

[8] http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/particle-sizes-d_934.html

[9] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[10] Kang, S., et al (2012) mCSEM inversion for CO 2


sequestration monitoring at a deep brine aquifer in a
shallow sea. SEG Technical Program Expanded
Abstracts 2012: pp. 1-5. doi: 10.1190/segam2012-0974.1

[11] Mulholland, G. W. et al., (1985) Refractive Index and


Evaporation Rate of Individual Smoke Droplet,
Langmuir, Vol. 1, No. 3, p. 367.

[12] De Aquino, F. (2014) Quantum Gravitational Shielding,


http://viXra.org/abs/1409.0232

510
How a Strong Solar Coronal Mass Ejection can Eject Dust
from the Moon’s Surface to the Earth’s Atmosphere
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A solar coronal mass ejection (CME) is a massive ejection of plasma from the Sun to the space.
In this article it is shown how a strong solar coronal mass ejection can eject dust from the
Moon’s Surface to the space. If this ejection occurs when the Moon is in specific regions of its
trajectory around the Earth, then this lunar dust can be gravitationally attracted to the Earth,
forming a dust shell at the Earth’s atmosphere, which can block the sunlight for some days.

Key words: Gravity, Coronal Mass Ejection, Electromagnetic Waves, Radiation Pressure.

1. Introduction momentum is absorbed by a surface, pressure


is exerted on the surface, in the same
Electromagnetic waves transport direction of propagation of the photon. These
energy as well as linear momentum. Then, if photons are well-known. However, Eq. (2)
this momentum is absorbed by a surface, point to a new type of photons when
pressure is exerted on the surface. Maxwell f = f 0 2 . In this case q = 0 , i.e., this type of
showed that, if the incident energy U is photon does not exert pressure when it
totally absorbed by the surface during a incides on a surface. What means that it does
time t , then the total momentum q transferred not interact with matter. Obviously, this
to the surface is q = U v , where v is the corresponds to a special type of photon,
velocity of the photons [1]. Then, the which we will call of neutral photon. Finally,
pressure, p (defined as force F per unit area if f < f0 2 the resultant momentum
A ), exerted on the surface, is given by transported by the photon is negative. If this
momentum is absorbed by a surface, pressure
F 1 dq 1 d ⎛ U ⎞ 1 (dU dt ) is exerted on the surface, in the opposite
p= = = ⎜ ⎟= (1) direction of propagation of the photon. This
A A dt A dt ⎝ v ⎠ v A
special type of photon has been denominated
of attractive photon.
In a previous paper [2], we have shown
that this pressure has a negative component
2. Theory
(opposite to the direction of propagation of
the photons) due to the existence of the
It is known that the lunar dust results
negative linear momentum transported by the
of mechanical disintegration of basaltic and
photons, shown in the new expression for
anorthositic rock, caused by continuous
momentum q transported by the photon, i.e.,
meteoric impact and bombardment by
interstellar charged atomic particles over
r ⎛ ⎞ hf r
q = ⎜⎜ 1 −
1 f0
⎟⎟ nr (2 ) billions of years [3].
⎝ 2 f ⎠ c Dust can be ejected from the Moon’s
surface to the space when attractive photons
where f is the frequency of the photon and strike on it. In order to surpass the Moon’s
f 0 is a limit-frequency, which should be of gravity the power dU dt absorbed by a dust
the order of 10Hz or less; n r is the index of particle with inertial mass mi 0 must be,
refraction of the mean. according to Eq. (1), given by
Equation above shows that for dU
> g mooncmi0 (3)
f > f 0 2 the resultant momentum transported dt
by the photon is positive, i.e., If this

511
2
−2
where g moon = 1.622 m.s . Thus, the total intensity, I total , of the
Assuming that the dust grains are radiation at the frequency f is
submicron particles (size of the order I total = nI (10)
of 10−7 m ), then we can write that where n is the number of particles with
( )
mi0 = ρpVp ≅ ρp 43π rp3 ≅ 4×10−18kg. Substitution of m ≅ m proton , which can obtained by the

this value into Eq. (3) shows that, in order to following expression
M CME
surpass the Moon’s gravity, the power n≈ (11)
absorbed by the particle must satisfy the m proton
following condition: M CME is the mass of the solar CME.
dU
> 10−9 watts (4) Substitution of Eqs. (11) and (9) into
dt Eq. (10), gives
Since the power absorbed by the particle is ⎛M ⎞ B 2V 2
I total ≈ 5.2 ×10−38 ⎜ CME ⎟ (12)
( )
only a fraction of the power transported by
⎜ m proton ⎟ 1 −V 2 c 2
the radiation, then it follows that the ⎝ ⎠
radiation must have a power density D , The solar surface magnetic field is
greater than dU A p dt ( A p is the area of the around 1Gauss = 10 −4 T , about twice as strong
cross section of the dust particle). Thus, we as the average field on the surface of Earth
have (around 0.5Gauss ). Thus, when the plasma is
ejected from the Sun, the frequency f of the
D>
dU
≈ 105 watts/ m2 (5)
Ap dt emitted radiation, according to Eq. (8), is
Besides this, the photons must f ≅ 1.5 × 10 3 . These photons are not
have f << 10 Hz in order to be attractive attractive, because as we have already seen,
photons. attractive photons must have
When occurs a solar Coronal Mass frequency << 10 Hz . However, after some
Ejection, the plasma ejected from the Sun time of propagation the ejected plasma
interacts with the Sun’s magnetic field and reaches a region where the intensity of the
cyclotron radiation is emitted from the Sun’s magnetic field is about 10 −7 T * . At this
particles of the plasma. Most of this radiation place
has frequency f expressed by the following the frequency f of the emitted radiation,
equation [4, 5] according to Eq. (8), is f ≅ 1.5Hz (See Fig.1).
f ≅
qB
(6) If the solar CME occurred at the direction of
2πm Earth, then a flux of these attractive photons
and, the intensity, I , radiated from each will strike on the Earth and also on the
particle, given by Moon. But, in the case of Earth, it will be
μ 0 q 4 B 2V 2 absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere (mainly
I= (7 )
(
6πmi20 c 1 − V 2 c 2 ) at the regions with high electrical
conductivity; Van Allen belts, Ionosphere.).
where q is the charge of the particle; V is its
This, obviously does not occurs at the Moon
velocity and mi 0 is its inertial mass at rest; atmosphere, and the flux arrives at the
B is the intensity of the magnetic field. Moon’s surface with a power density Ds ,
Assuming that, q = e and m ≅ m proton , which according to Eq. (12), is given by
then Eqs. (6) and (7), give the following
values *
The intensity of the solar magnetic field reduces with the
f ≅ 1.5 × 10 B 7
(8) inverse-cube of the distance to the Sun’s center (r-3). Thus,
and the intensity I (See Eq. (7)) reduces with r-6. This means
that after the region where B≅ 10-7 T, the intensity of the
B 2V 2
I = 5.2 × 10 −38 (9) attractive radiation becomes much smaller than in the
(1 − V 2
c2 ) mentioned region.

512
3
−1
3,000km.s [6, 7]. In the case of a solar
2
Ds ~ 10−25
MCMEV
(13) CME with V ≅ 10,000km.s −1 , Eq. (14) gives
(1−V c )
2 2

MCME > 1016kg (15)


If D s = D > 10 5 watts / m 2 (See Eq. (5)), then
the incidence of these attractive photons A solar CME with the values of V and
upon the Moon will eject dust from the M MCE above mentioned can be considered a
Moon’s surface to the space, i.e., according very large solar CME.
to Eq. (13), this will occur if There is no record if this type of solar
CME occurred in the past. However, if to
MCMEV 2
> 1030 (14) occur in the future, and if the ELF radiation
(1−V c )2 2 ( f ≅ 1.5Hz ) emitted from the CME to hit the
Moon when it is traveling in specific regions
of its trajectory (See regions AB and CD in
Fig.2), then the dust ejected from the Moon's
surface to the space will be gravitationally
attracted to the Earth, forming a dust shell at
Moon Earth the Earth’s atmosphere, which can block the
sunlight for some days.

Sun

Earth’s
atmosphere
Earth Moon

7
f <<1.5Hz B <<10- T;
I hundreds of times smaller g⊕ ⃒a⃒ ≳⃒gmoon⃒
f ≅ 1.5Hz B≅ 10-7 T a+g⊙
CME g ⊕ >a+g⊙
A
f ≅ 1.5×10 Hz
3 -4
B≅ 10 T Dust cloud
B ejected from the
C D Moon

Sun
Fig. 2 – If the ELF radiation emitted from the CME
Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram showing a Solar to hit the Moon when it is traveling in the regions AB
and CD, then the dust ejected from the Moon's
Coronal Mass Ejection at the direction of the Earth.
surface to the space will be gravitationally attracted
The intensity of the solar magnetic field reduces with
to the Earth, forming a dust shell at the Earth’s
the inverse-cube of the distance to the Sun’s center
atmosphere, which can block the sunlight for some
(r-3). Thus, the intensity I (Eq. (7)) reduces with r-6.
days.
A large solar CME can expel more
than 1013 kg of matter with speed over

513
4
References
[1] Henry, G. E., (1957) Radiation Pressure, Scientific
American, p.99.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2014) The Bipolar Linear Momentum


transported by the Electromagnetic Waves,
http://vixra.org/abs/1402.0022;
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01077208

[3] Heiken, Vanniman, and French (1991). Lunar


Sourcebook. Cambridge University Press. pp. 756
pages.

[4] Halliday, D., Resnick, R. (1966) Physics, John Wiley


& Sons, Inc, NY. Portuguese version, (1968) Ao Livro
Técnico, S.A, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Vol. II, p. 928.

[5] Landau, L., Lifchitz, E., (1974) Théorie du Champ, Ed.


MIR. Portuguese version, HEMUS, p. 260.

[6] Yashiro, S., Gopalswamy, N., Michalek, G., et al. 2004,


Journal of Geophysical Research (Space Physics), 109,
7105

[7] Chen, P. F. 2011, Living Reviews in Solar Physics, 8, 1.

514
A New Approach on the Photoelectric Effect
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

When photons hit a material surface they exert a pressure on it. It was shown that this pressure has
a negative component (opposite to the direction of propagation of the photons) due to the
existence of the negative linear momentum transported by the photons. Here we show that, in the
photoelectric effect, the electrons are ejected by the action of this negative component of the
momentum transported by the light photons. It is still shown that, also the gravitational interaction
results from the action of this negative component of the momentum transported by specific
photons.

Key words: Photoelectric effect, Photoelectrons, Radiation Pressure, Gravitational Interaction.


1. Introduction

Besides energy the photons transport corresponds to a special type of photon,


linear momentum. Thus, when they hit a which we will call of neutral photon. Finally,
surface, they exert a pressure on it. Maxwell if f < f0 2 the resultant momentum
showed that, if the energy U of the photons transported by the photon is negative. If this
is totally absorbed by the surface during a momentum is absorbed by a surface, pressure
time t , then the total momentum q transferred is exerted on the surface, in the opposite
to the surface is q = U v , where v is the direction of propagation of the photon. This
velocity of the photons [1]. Then, a special type of photon has been denominated
pressure, p (defined as force F per unit area of attractive photon.
A ), is exerted on the surface. Here we show that, in the photoelectric
In a previous paper [2], we have shown effect, the electrons are ejected by the action
that this pressure has a negative component of the negative component of the momentum
(opposite to the direction of propagation of transported by the light photons. It is still
the photons) due to the existence of the shown that, also the gravitational interaction
negative linear momentum transported by the results from the action of the negative
photons, shown in the new expression for component of the momentum transported by
momentum q transported by the photon, i.e., specific photons.
r U hf − 12 hf 0 ⎛ 1 f 0 ⎞ hf r
q= r = r = ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟ nr (1) 2. Theory
v v ⎝ 2 f ⎟⎠ c
where f is the frequency of the photon and The photoelectric effect was first
f 0 is a limit-frequency, which should be of observed in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz [3,4]
the order of 10Hz or less; n r = c v is the during experiments with a spark-gap
index of refraction of the mean. generator — the earliest form of radio
Equation above shows that for receiver. He discovered that electrodes
illuminated with ultraviolet light create
f > f 0 2 the resultant momentum transported
electric sparks more easily.
by the photon is positive, i.e., if this Attempts to explain the effect by
momentum is absorbed by a surface, pressure Classical Electrodynamics failed. In 1905
is exerted on the surface, in the same Einstein proposed that the experimental data
direction of propagation of the photon. These from the photoelectric effect were the result
photons are well-known. However, Eq. (1) of the fact of light energy to be carried in
point to a new type of photons when discrete quantized packets.
f = f 0 2 . In this case q = 0 , i.e., this type of When a photon strikes on an electron
photon does not exert pressure when it the momentum carried by the photon is
incides on a surface. What means that it does transferred to the electron. According to Eq.
not interact with the matter. Obviously, this (1), the momentum transferred to the electron
is given by
515
r r r
2
Fr − Fa ≅ − Fa . Then, the condition for an
r ⎛ 1 f 0 ⎞ hf ⎛ c ⎞ hf hf 0 r r
q = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = r − r = qr − qa (2 ) electron be ejected from a metallic surface is
⎝ 2 f ⎠ c ⎝v⎠ v 2v
r r r
r r
Fr − Fa re ≅ − Fa re = ϕ (6 )
r r
where q r = Fr Δt r and q a = Fa Δt a . Thus, the
electron requires a time interval Δt r for where re is the orbital radius of the electron and
absorbing a quantum of energy hf and a time ϕ is the work function, which gives the minimum
interval Δt a for absorbing a quantum of energy energy required to remove a delocalized electron
hf 0 . from the surface of the metal.
Assuming that the time interval Substitution of the expression of
r
required by the photon for absorbing a Fa into Eq. (6) yields
quantum of energy hf is proportional to the
power of the photon (hf ) ,
2
i.e., Δt r ∝ hf 2 Δt a =
re hf 0
2vϕ
(7 )
and Δt a ∝ hf 02 . Then, we get
Substitution of the expression of Δt a , given
Δt r 2
f
= 2 (3) by Eq. (3), into Eq. (7), gives
Δt a f0
hf 2 re
r r Δt r = (8)
Since the expressions of Fr and Fa are 2vf 0ϕ
r r r
given, respectively, by Fr = q r Δt r = hf v Δt r
r r r For example, in the case of a light
and Fa = qa Δt a = hf0 2vΔt a , then , we obtain
( )
beam f = 4.39 × 1014 Hz; v ≅ c , incident on a
lamina of Sodium metal ( re = 9.3 ×10−11m and
Fa 1 ⎛ Δt r ⎞ f0
= ⎜ ⎟⎟ (4) ϕ = 2.75 eV = 4.4 ×10−19 J 1 [5]), considering
Fr 2 ⎜⎝ Δt a ⎠ f
f 0 ≈ 10Hz [2], then Eqs. (7) and (8) give
Substitution of Eq. (3) into Eq. (4) gives
Δt a ≈ 10 −33 s (9)
Fa 1 f
= (5) Δt r ≈ 10 −6 s (10)
Fr 2 f 0

r Thus, we can conclude that the electron is


r
This equation shows that the force Fa ejected by the action of the force Fa much
is directly proportional to the frequency f of before the total absorption of the quantum
the photon, and thus explains why low hf . Therefore, the cause of the ejection of
frequency light does not produce the electron is not the absorption of the
photoelectrons. If the light incident on the quantum hf (as Einstein thought [6]), but the
r r
electron has low frequency, then the force Fa action of the force Fa (See Fig.1). Similarly,
may not be strong enough to eject the when an electron is pumped from an orbit to
electron (whatever the intensity of the light another - by the action of a light photon, it is
beam).Thus, in order to produce the r
ejected from its initial orbit by the force Fa .
photoelectric effect the light incident must
have high frequency (upper spectrum of 1
light). The work function of very pure Na is 2.75 eV. The work
function of not purified sodium is less than 2.75 eV because
In the case of the photoelectric effect of adsorbed sulfur and other substances derived from
we have f >> f 0 , then Fa >> Fr . Thus, the atmospheric gases. The most common values cited on the
literature are 2.28 eV and 1.82 eV.
resultant acting on the electron is

516
3
Then, in its trajectory, the electron is where N is the total number of absorbed
“captured” in the upper energetic level E f . photons by the surface; P is the total power.
Therefore, the electron will be pumped from Thus, the expression of the pressure, p ,
the initial orbit to a final orbit 2 if exerted by the radiation on a surface with
hf − 12 hf 0 = E i − E f , where E i is the initial area A is given by
energy in the initial orbit, E f is the total
Ftotal ⎛ f ⎞ P ⎛ f ⎞D
energy in the final orbit. p= = ⎜⎜1 − 0 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜1 − 0 ⎟⎟ (12)
A ⎝ 2f ⎠ Av ⎝ 2 f ⎠v

where D is the power density of the


radiation. Note that, only for f >> f 0 the
equation above reduces to p ≅ D v (the well-
Fa known expression for radiation pressure).
The law of inverse square of the
photon
distance, which is implicit in the Newton’s
law, shows that gravitation is propagated
electron spherically. This reveals the principle of
(a) diffusion of the gravitational energy, i.e., it is
transmitted by waves (or photons). The
photons Quantum Field Theory shows that the
gravitational interaction results from the
interchange of a type of “virtual” quantum.
Then, based on the above exposed, we can
conclude that this typical “virtual” quantum
Electrons ejected
from the surface − − − is a typical “virtual” photon. Thus, we can
Sodium metal say that the gravitational interaction, between
two particles with gravitational masses m g1
(b)
and m g 2 , respectively, results from the action
Fig. 1 - The Photoelectric Effect
of an amount of energy related to
E g1 = m g1c , ejected from the particle 1 under
2

the form of N1 “virtual” photons with a


typical frequency f g , and an amount of
Finally, we will derive the new
expression for the pressure exerted by a energy related to E g 2 = m g 2 c 2 , ejected from
radiation on a surface. From Eq. (2), we have the particle 2 under the form of N 2 “virtual”
r r r
q = q r − q a . Thus, we can write that photons with frequency f g .
r r r Assuming that the amounts of energies
q qr qa hf hf 0 ⎛ f ⎞ hf
= − ⇒F= − = ⎜⎜1 − 0 ⎟⎟ ejected from the particles 1 and 2 are,
Δt Δt Δt vΔ t 2 vΔ t ⎝ 2 f ⎠ vΔ t respectively, k 0 E g1 and k 0 E g 2 , where k 0 is
a constant, and considering that, according to
Therefore, Eq. (1), the energy of the photons is
expressed by hf − 12 hf 0 , then we can write
⎛ f ⎞ Nhf ⎛ f ⎞P
Ftotal = ⎜⎜1 − 0 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜1 − 0 ⎟⎟ (11) that
⎝ 2 f ⎠ vΔ t ⎝ 2f ⎠ v
(
k 0 E g1 = N1 hf g − 12 f 0 ) (13)
and
2
Independently of the absorbing time Δt r , which is
of the order of 10−6 s .

517
4
(
k0 Eg 2 = N 2 hf g − 1 f
2 0
) (14) If the forms and the gravitational
masses of the two particles remain constants,
Since then E g1 A1 and E g2 A2 are constants, i.e.,

⎛ A1 ⎞ ⎛ E g1 ⎞ ⎛E ⎞ E g1
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ k 0 E g1 = A1 k 0 ⎜

⎟ = k s1 ⎜ g1 ⎟
⎟ ⎜ A ⎟
= k1 (17 )
⎝ A1 ⎠ ⎝ A1 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ A1
and and
⎛ A2 ⎞ ⎛ Eg2 ⎞ ⎛E ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟k 0 E g 2 = A2 k 0 ⎜ ⎟ = k s2 ⎜ g 2 ⎟ E g2
⎜ A ⎟ ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ = k2 (18)
A2

Then, Eqs. (13) and (14) can be rewritten as


follows where k1 and k 2 are constants.
From Eq. (17) and (18), we obtain
⎛ E g1 ⎞
k s1 ⎜
⎜ A ⎟
(
⎟ = N1 hf g − 1 f 0
2
) (15) E g1 E g 2 = k1 k 2 A1 A2 (19)
⎝ 1 ⎠
and
By substitution of E g 2 given by Eq. (14) into
⎛ Eg2
k s2 ⎜
⎜ A

(
⎟ = N 2 hf g − 1 f 0
⎟ 2
) (16) Eq. (19), gives
⎝ 2 ⎠

E g1 =
k0k1k2 A1 A2
=
K
(20 )
where A1 and A2 are the incidence areas of (
N 2 hf g − 2 hf 0
1 ) (
hf g − 12 hf 0 )
the mentioned “virtual” photons, respectively
on the particles 1 and 2 (See Fig.2);
Since N1 and N 2 are pure numbers, then
k s1 = k 0 A1 and k s 2 = k 0 A2 .
k 0 k1 k 2 A1 A2 N 2 is a constant, which here will
be denoted by K .
On the other hand, we can write that

k0 E g2
S2
(
A1 = n1 hf g − 12 hf 0 ) (21)

where n1 is the number of photons incident


on particle 1 and S 2 = 4πr22 , where r2 is the
A1 A2
distance from the center of the particle 2 to
the center of the particle 1.
Substitution of (hf g − 12 hf 0 ) given by
mg2
mg1 Eq. (20) into Eq. (21), gives

⎛ k ⎞ Eg1Eg 2 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ Eg1Eg 2
n1 = ⎜ s1 ⎟ = 2
⎜ α ⎟ S2
(22)
⎝ K ⎠ S2 ⎝ 1 ⎠
Fig.2 - A1 and A2 are the incidence areas of the
“virtual” photons, respectively on the particles 1 and The constant K k s1 has the dimension of
2.
( force)2 . Thus, k s1 K was changed in Eq.
(22) by the constant 1 α12 , where

518
5
K K k k k A A k k A ⎛ ⎞ n1 hf g
α 12 = = = 0 1 2 1 2 = 1 2 2 f
F1 = ⎜1 − 0 ⎟ (28)
k s1 k 0 A1 N 2 k 0 A1 N2 ⎜ 2 fg ⎟ c Δ t1
⎝ ⎠
and
or
⎛ f ⎞ n 2 hf g
F2 = ⎜1 − 0
⎜ 2 fg

⎟ cΔt 2
(29)
k k A ⎛ Eg 2 ⎞ k1 A2 k1Eg 2 ⎝ ⎠
α12 = 1 2 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ = (23)
N2 ⎝ A2 ⎠ N2 N2
whence we obtain
Substitution of N 2 gives by Eq. (16)
into Eq. (23), yields ⎛ f
2
( )
⎞ n1 n 2 hf g 2
F1 F2 = ⎜1 − 0
⎜ 2 fg

⎟ c 2 Δt Δt
(30 )
⎝ ⎠
( )
1 2
⎛ hf g − 1 hf 0 ⎞ k1 hf g − 1 hf 0
α 12 = Eg2 ⎜ 2 ⎟= 2
(24 )
⎜ k E ⎟ k0 Substitution of n1n 2 given by Eq. (26) into
⎝ 0 g2 ⎠
Eq. (30), yields
Note in the equation above that the frequency
f g of the “virtual” photon (quantum of the ⎛ f
F1F2 = ⎜1 − 0
2
( )
⎞ hf g 2 c 6mg21mg2 2
⎟ (31)
gravitational interaction) is in fact constant,
because α 1 , k 0 , f 0 and k1 are constants. This
⎜ 2 fg

⎟ Δt1Δt2
⎠ (α1α 2 )2 4πr 2 ( )
2

confirms our initial hypotheses that the


For Δt1 = Δt 2 = Δt g , we have F1 = F2 = F .
quantum of the gravitational interaction, is a
photon with a typical frequency. Thus, Eq. (31) reduces to
By analogy to Eq. (22), we can write
that ⎛

F = 1−
f0 ⎞⎟ c hfg
3
( )
mg1mg 2
(32)
⎜ 2 f g ⎟ 4π Δt (α α ) r 2
⎝ ⎠ g 1 2
⎛k ⎞ E g1 E g 2 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ E g1 E g 2
n 2 = ⎜⎜ s 2 ⎟⎟ =
⎜α 2

⎟ S1
(25)
⎝ K ⎠ S1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ In order to communicate ultra-small
gravitational forces the energy hf g − 12 hf 0 of
Multiplying n1 (Eq. 22) by n 2 (Eq. the “virtual” photon (quantum of the
25), we obtain gravitational interaction) must be also ultra-
small. This means that, f g must be less than
E g21 E g22 c 8 m g21m g2 2
1
(26)
1 f0 and ultra close to 1 f0 , i.e.,
n1n 2 =
(α1α 2 ) 2 S1 S 2
=
(α1α 2 ) 2
( )( )
4πr12 4πr22
2
hf g − 12 hf 0 = −ε → 1 − f 0 2 f g = − ε hf g
2
, where
ε is a constant. Thus, Eq. (32) can be
where S1 = 4πr12 ; r1 is the distance from the rewritten as follows
center of the particle 1 to the center of the
particle 2. Since r1 = r2 = r , then Eq. (26) can ⎛ ⎞ mg1mg 2
ε c3
be rewritten in the following form F = −⎜ ⎟ (33)
⎜ 4π Δt α α ⎟ r 2
⎝ g 1 2⎠

c 8 m g21 m g2 2
n1 n 2 = (27 )
(4πr )
The term in parentheses must generate,
(α 1α 2 ) 2 2 2
obviously, the universal gravitational
constant, G = 6.67 ×10 −11 N .(m kg )2 , i.e.,
According to Eq. (11), we can write that
⎛ ε c3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟=G (34)
⎜ 4π Δt α α ⎟
⎝ g 1 2⎠

519
6
For Δt1 = Δt 2 = Δt g and n1 = n 2 = 1 (just Substitution of this value into Eq. (36), and
one “virtual” photon incident on each considering that m g min << m g ( proton) and
particle) Eq. (30) gives F1 = F2 = Fmin , where rmax >> 2c H 0 (diameter of the observable
Fmin is the minimal gravitational force in the Universe) where H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the
Universe, i.e., Hubble constant, then we can conclude that,
ε must be ultra-small.
⎛ ⎞ hf g ε
f
Fmin = ⎜1 − 0
⎜ 2 fg

⎟ cΔt g
=− (35)
⎝ ⎠ cΔt g

On the other hand, according to the


Newton’s law, we can write that

mg2 min ε
Fmin = −G =− (36)
2
rmax cΔt g

where m g min is the gravitational mass of the


material particle with minimal mass in the
Universe, and rmax is the maximal distance
(diameter of the Universe) between two
particles of this type.

mg min

rmax

Universe
mg min

Fig. 3 –Two particles with the minimal mass, m g min ,


in the opposite positions (diametrically opposed) in
the border of the Universe.

Based on Eq. (3), we can write that

Δta f2
= 02 (37)
Δt g fg

Since Δta ≈ 10−33 s (Eq. (9)), and as fg≲ f0/2,


then Eq. (37) gives

Δt g ≈ 10−33 s (38)

520
7

References
[1] Henry, G. E., (1957) Radiation Pressure, Scientific
American, p. 99.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2014) The Bipolar Linear Momentum


transported by the Electromagnetic Waves,
http://vixra.org/abs/1402.0022;
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01077208

[3] Sears, F. W.; Zemansky, M. W.; Young, H. D. (1983).


University Physics (6th ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 843–
844.
[4] Hertz, H. (1887). Ueber den Einfluss des ultravioletten
Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung. Annalen der
Physik 267 (8): S. 983–1000.

[5] Whitefield, R. J. and Brady, J. J. (1971) New Value for


Work Function of Sodium and the Observation of
Surface-Plasmon Effects. Phys. Rev. Lett. 26, 380
(1971). Erratum: Phys. Rev. Lett. 26, 1005 (1971).

[6] Einstein, A., (1905). Über einen die Erzeugung und


Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen
Gesichtspunkt. Annalen der Physik 17 (6): 132–148.

521
The Origin of the Most Part of Water on the Earth, and the Reason why there
is More Water on the Earth than on the other Terrestrial Planets
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2014 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The origin of water on the Earth, and the reason why there is more liquid water on the Earth than on the other terrestrial
planets of the Solar System is not completely understood. Here we show that these facts are related to a water vapor
cloud formed by the vaporization of part of an ice belt that was formed in the beginning of the Solar System.

Key words: Gravitational Interaction, Solar Nebula, Origin of Water, Water in the Atmospheres.

1. Introduction
The origin of water on the Earth, and the (kg )
m 3 ; nr is the index of refraction, and c is
reason why there is more liquid water on the Earth the speed of light.
than on the other terrestrial planets of the Solar Equations (2) and (3) show that only for
System, is not completely understood. There exist W = 0 or D = 0 the gravitational mass is
numerous hypotheses as to how water may have equivalent to the inertial mass (χ = 1) . Also, these
accumulated on the earth's surface over the past equations show that the gravitational mass of a
4.6 billion years in sufficient quantity to form particle can be significtively reduced or made
oceans [1 - 5]. strongly negative when the particle is subjected to
Here, we show that the origin of water on high-densities of electromagnetic energy.
the Earth, and the reason why there is more liquid In the case of Thermal radiation, we can
water on the Earth than on the other terrestrial relate the energy density to temperature, T,
planets of the Solar System are related to a water through the relation,
vapor cloud formed by the vaporization of part of D = σ BT 4 (4)
an ice belt that was formed in the beginning of the
Solar System. where σ B = 5.67×10−8 watts/ m2 °K 4 is the
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant. Thus, for n r ≅ 1 , we
2. Theory can rewrite (3) in the following form
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
The quantization of gravity shows that ⎪ ⎢ ⎛σ T4 ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ B 3 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0 =
the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi are ⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
not equivalents, but correlated by means of a ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
factor χ , which, under certain circumstances can ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
be negative. The correlation equation is [6] ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 2.1×10−33T 4 ⎞ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜



− 1⎥⎬mi0 (5)
m g = χ mi 0 (1) ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the particle. The Solar system was formed about 4.6
The expression of χ can be put in the billion years ago by the gravitational contraction
following forms [6]: of the called solar nebula. The gravitational
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ collapse was much more efficient along the spin
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎥⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ nr ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎜ ρ c2 ⎟
(2 ) axis, so the rotating ball collapsed into a thin disk
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪ with a diameter of about 200AU, with most of the
⎩ ⎭
mass concentrated at its center. As the cloud has
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪⎪ ⎛ D n r2 ⎞ contracted, its gravitational potential energy was
χ =
mg
= ⎨1 −

2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎪ (3 )
⎜ ρc3 ⎟ ⎥⎬ transformed into kinetic energy. Collisions
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎪⎩ ⎝ ⎠
⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭ between particles have transformed this energy
where W is the density of electromagnetic energy into heat. The solar nebula became hottest at its
on the particle ( J / kg ) ; D is the radiation power
center (called protosun). When the temperature of
the protosun reached about 10 million K the
density; ρ is the matter density of the particle nuclear reactions have begun. Then the protosun
became a star called Sun. Along the time, the

522
2

temperature of disk around the Sun dropped and atomic mass of two protons (A1 p ≅ 1) then the
the heaviest molecules began to form tiny solid or density due to the water (ice) ρ H 2O corresponds
(AH 2O = 18) .
liquid droplets, a process called condensation. By
means of this process have emerged: Metals (that to the atomic mass of the water
Therefore, ρ H 2O = (AH 2O A1 p )ρ i . The arithmetic
condense at ~ 1,600 K), Rocks (condense at 500- ‡
1,300 K), Ices (that condense at T~150 K), etc. In
mean between ρ ism and ρ H 2O will express with
the periphery of the solar disk the temperature
was low enough that hydrogen-rich molecules some precision the local average density, ρ , i.e.,
condensed into lighter ices, including water ice.
Thus, in this region was formed an ice belt, ρ = =
(
ρ ism + ρ H 2O ρ ism + AH 2O A1 p ρ ism
=
)
2 2
extended for millions of kilometers, starting from
inner border. ⎛ AH O + A p ⎞
=1⎜ 2 1 ⎟ρ ≅10 protons .cm − 3
The first solid particles were microscopic in 2⎜ A1 p ⎟ ism
⎝ ⎠
size, orbiting the Sun in nearly circular orbits right
Assuming that, this was the initial density
next to each other. Then, they began to collide
of the ice belt ,i.e.,
among themselves, making larger particles which,
in turn, attracted more solid particles. This process ρ i = 10 protons .cm −3 ≅ 1.6 × 10 −20 kg .m −3
is called accretion. The objects formed by and that, the initial temperature of the ice belt was
accretion are called planetesimals. Ti = 3K , then we can say that the average density
The collisions among them have increased of the water vapor cloud, ρ , had the following
the temperature at the region of the planetesimals * value
ρ = ρi (Ti 1,336.7K ) ≅ 3.6 ×10−23 kg.m−3
up to a average value of ~1950°C (~2,300 K) [7]
(above the fusion temperature of rocks). Then,
Earth, the planets and also an inner part of the ice
belt at the periphery of the solar system would Substitution of the value of ρ into Eq. (5),
have experienced this temperature. gives
When the temperature at the region of the
planetesimals reached the average value close to
2,300K, an inner part of the ice belt was vaporized
⎧⎪
⎪⎩

⎢⎣
( 2
) ⎤⎫⎪
mg (cloud) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 5.8 × 10−11T 4 − 1⎥⎬mi0(cloud)
⎥⎦⎪⎭
(7)
up to a distance ΔR , where the temperature
decreased down to a value equal to the ebullition
temperature of the water (373.35K). This This equation shows that for T > 373K the
generated a big ring of water vapor at the gravitational mass of the cloud becomes negative.
periphery of the solar system (See Fig. 1), with This means that the gravitational mass of the
average density equal to the initial density of the water vapor cloud was initially negative because it
ice belt, ρ i , multiplied by the factor was subjected to an average temperature greater
than 373K. Then, it was repelled by the positive
(Ti 1,336.7K ) ,i.e., ρ = ρi (Ti 1,336.7K ) † , where Ti is gravitational mass of the rest of the ice belt,
the initial temperature of the ice belt and which the temperature did not get make negative.
1,336 .7 K = (2,300 K + 373 .35 K ) 2 is the average Similarly, the cloud was also repelled by the Sun.
temperature at the inner part of the ice belt ( ΔR ), However, since the cloud was near from the
after the heating. positive gravitational mass of ice belt, it was more
Data from infrared and radioastronomy intensely repelled than by the Sun. Thus, the cloud
state that the average temperature of interstellar has been propelled in the direction to the Sun. The
space is very close to 3K, and the average density extent to which approached the Sun, the density of
is 1 protons .cm − 3 [8]. If water molecules (ice) are the cloud was increasing because its volume was
added to a region of the interstellar space, then the decreasing. Soon the local temperature was no
average density of this region increases and can be longer sufficient to become negative the
calculated based on the following: If the initial gravitational mass of the cloud. From this point,
density ρism = 1protons.cm−3 corresponds to the the gravitational mass of the cloud became
positive and consequently, the gravitational

*
Up to the ice belt.

Since the energy density is conserved, we have W = W i

Since ρ1p = A1p (1amu) V and ρ H2O = AH2O (1amu) V ,
→ E V = E i Vi → kT V = kTi Vi → ρ = ρ i (Ti T ) . (
we get, ρ H 2O = ρ1 p AH 2O A1 p . )

523
3

T=2,300 T ’=373.35K

Ice belt
water vapor cloud
SUN (ring)
T = 1,336 K
Planetesimals

Rb ≅ 100AU
R’

(a)

Ice belt

water vapor cloud


(ring)

SUN Planetesimals

(b)
Fig.1 – Origin of the Water Vapor Cloud. Collisions among large planetesimals released a lot of heat, Earth, the
planets and also part of the periphery of the disk around the Sun would have experienced temperatures close to 2,300 K
(the fusion temperature of rocks). This means that, all the water ice existent in the inner region of the ice belt can have
vaporized, forming a big ring of water vapor at the periphery of the solar system.

524
4

Solar wind
228 millions km

Cross section of the


149 millions km water vapor ring

108 millions km

Mercury Earth Jupiter

Sun Venus Mars

12 millions km
58 millions km

r = 190 millions km

376 millions km

778 millions km

Fig.2 – Schematic diagram of the cross-section of water vapor ring (cloud) inside the Solar System. At a
distance r = 376 millions km , between the center of the cloud and the center of the Sun, the pressure of the solar
wind became sufficiently strong to stop the cloud. Thus, the cloud crossed Pluto, Neptune, Uranus, Jupiter, Mars,
Earth, Venus, Mercury and stopped (its inner surface) between Mercury and the Sun, involving Mars, Earth, Venus
and Mercury. The dotted circles show the progressive decreasing of the cross-section of the cloud along the time, due
to the absorption of the water vapor by the gravitational fields of the planets, and also the displacement of the cloud,
produced by the decreasing of the radius of the cloud (according to Eq.(19)). Based on the position of these planets
inside the water vapor cloud, it is easy to conclude that, Earth and Mars have attracted more water vapor then the other
planets.

525
5

forces between the cloud and the Sun became of the sun up to the inner border of the ice belt
attractive. Thus, the cloud continued its motion to 1AU ≅ 1.49 ×1011m , and R ′ = Rb + ΔR . Thus,
the Sun.
⎡⎛ T ⎞2 ⎤
In its route to the Sun the water vapor cloud ΔR = R′ − Rb = ⎢⎜ ⎟ −1⎥Rb (13)
crossed the region of the planets. Then, a part of ⎢⎣⎝ T′ ⎠ ⎥⎦
the cloud was attracted by the gravitational fields
For T = 2,300 K and T ′ = 373.35 K , we get
of the planets § .
At a distance r , between the center of the
cloud and the center of the Sun, the pressure of ΔR = 36.95Rb = 3,695AU (14)
the solar wind became sufficiently strong to stop
the cloud, i.e., the force exerted by the solar wind This is approximately the “diameter” of the water
upon the cloud ( p wind S cloud ) becomes equal to vapor cloud (rcloud(i ) = ΔR 2 ≅ 1,847AU) .The diameter
the gravitational force between the Sun and the of the solar system is about 100,000AU (outer
( )
cloud GM sun mcloud r 2 . Since we can write border of the Oort-cloud).
2
⎛r ⎞
p wind = p wind (sun ) ⎜⎜ sun ⎟⎟
⎝ r ⎠
then 3,695AU
2
⎛r ⎞
pwind (sun)⎜ sun ⎟ Scloud =
GM sunmcloud
(8) Remaining of
the ice belt
⎝ r ⎠ r2

Since Scloud =
2π rcloud
2
( )
2π r = 2π 2rcloud r and Sun Water Vapor Cloud
100AU
rcloud(i )
rcloud
= (9)
r (
100AU + rcloud(i ) )
then Eq. (8) gives
~100,000AU (outer border of solar system)

r=
(
GM sun mcloud 100 AU + rcloud (i ) ) (10)
2
pwind (sun ) rsun (2π ) r
2
cloud (i )
Fig. 3 – Cross-section of the initial water vapor
cloud.

where rcloud (i ) is the initial “radius” of the cloud;


rsun = 6.96 × 10 8 m is the equatorial radius of the The inertial mass of the water vapor
cloud, m cloud , can be now calculated by means of
Sun; m cloud is the mass of the cloud;
the following equation:
M sun = 1 . 97 × 10 30
kg is sun’s mass; p wind (sun )
is the pressure of solar wind at the border of sun, mcloud = ρV
ice disk
= 2πρH
ice disk
(
ΔR Rb + rcloud (i ) ) (15)
which is given by
pwind(sun) =
4Dsun
= 0.844N.m−2 (11) where ρ ≅ 3.6 ×10−23kg.m−3 ; H can be estimated
c ice disk
where D sun = 6.329 × 10 7 W .m −2 [9] is the sun’s by means of the expression of the thickness of the
disk: H = 0.033R(R 1AU ) 4 [10]. The result for
1
surface emission and c is the light speed.
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann’s law R = 100 AU + rcloud (i ) is
(Eq. (4)), we can write that
2 H ≅ 6.3 × 1013 m (16 )
⎛T ⎞
(12)
ice disk
R ′ = Rb ⎜ ⎟ Thus, Eq. (15) gives
⎝T′⎠
where Rb = 100 AU is the distance from the center
mcloud = 2.2 ×1021kg.m−3 (17)
§ this is about 1.5 times the mass of the Earth’s
( )
A planet moving on its trajectory around the Sun, and
inside the water vapor cloud (ring), has been progressively oceans moceans = 1.384×1021kg.m−3 .
capturing water vapor from the water vapor cloud.

526
6

By substitution of the values of m cloud and conclude that, Earth and Mars have attracted
rcloud (i ) = ΔR 2 ≅ 1,847 AU into Eq. (10), we obtain more water vapor then the other planets.
The water vapor absorbed by Mercury and
Venus it was progressively ejected from it
r = 1.94 ×1011 m = 194 ×10 6 km atmosphere, due to the high temperature of these
planets. Consequently, only the atmospheres of
This is the distance from the center of the cloud to Earth and Mars ** must have retained the most part
the center of the Sun. of the water vapor of the cloud.
By means of Eq. (9), we can obtain the The above considerations can explain why
value of rcloud . The result is the Earth has more water than the others planets
of the Solar System. Also can explain why around
⎛ ⎞ 4 billion years ago, the percentage of water vapor
r
rcloud = rcloud(i )⎜ ⎟= in the Earth’s atmosphere reaches about 70% of
⎜ 100AU + rcloud(i ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠ atmosphere [11].
The percentage of water vapor in the
⎛ ⎞
= (1847AU )⎜
r
⎟= Earth’s atmosphere decreased as it started
⎝ 100 AU + 1847AU ⎠ condensing in liquid form. Then, a continuous
⎛ 1847AU ⎞ rainfall for millions of years led to the buildup of
=⎜ ⎟r = 0.94 r ≅ 182×10 km
6
(18) the oceans.
⎝ 1947AU ⎠

Then, starting from the “radius” of the


cloud rcloud at distance r , we can obtain the
distances from the center of the Sun up to the
extremes of the cloud. They are respectively,
12 × 10 6 km and 376 × 10 6 km (See Fig.2).
Remembering that the distance of
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars to the center of
the Sun are respectively: 58×106 km , 108×106 km ,
149×106 km , 228×106 km , then we can conclude
that the cloud crossed Pluto, Neptune, Uranus,
Jupiter, Mars, Earth, Venus, Mercury and
stopped (its inner surface) between Mercury and
the Sun, involving Mars, Earth, Venus and
Mercury.
Substitution of Eq. (9) into Eq. (10) gives

r=
GM sun mcloud
(19 )
( )
2
p wind (sun ) rsun 2π 2 rcloud
This equation shows that the distance r
increases if rcloud decreases. This is what has
occurred, the extent to which the water vapor
was attracted by the gravitational fields of the
planets involved by the cloud.
The dotted circles in Fig.2 show the
progressive decreasing of the cross-section of the
cloud along the time, due to the absorption of the
water vapor by the gravitational fields of the
planets, and also the displacement of the cloud,
produced by the decreasing of the radius of the
cloud (according to Eq.(19)).
**
Based on the position of these planets In order to explain how the water disappeared of the
inside the water vapor cloud, it is easy to Mars, see ref. [12].

527
7

References
[1] Sarafian, A. R., et al., (2014) Early accretion of
water in the inner solar system from a
carbonaceous chondrite–like source. Science.
Vol. 346 no. 6209 pp. 623-626

[2] Alexander, C. M. O’D., et al., (2012) The


Provenances of Asteroids, and Their
Contributions to the Volatile Inventories of the
Terrestrial Planets. Science. Vol. 337, No. 6095
pp. 721-723.

[3] Cowen, R. (2013). Common source for Earth and


Moon water. Nature.2013.12963.

[4] H. Genda, H. and Ikoma, I. (2005) Origin of the


Ocean on the Earth: Early Evolution of Water
D/H in a Hydrogen-rich Atmosphere:
http://arxiv.org/abs/0709.2025

[5] Drake, M. J. (2005). Origin of water in the


Terrestrial planets. Meteoritics & Planetary
Science (John Wiley & Sons) 40 (4): 519–527.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.

[7] Jackson. P. W. (2006). The Chronologers' Quest: The


Search for the Age of the Earth, Cambridge University
Press, p. 202.

[8] Verschuur, G. L.(1989) Interstellar Matters. New York:


Springer-Verlag; Knapp, Gillian.(1995). The Stuff
Between The Stars. Sky & Telescope 89: 20-26; Bacon,
D.H. and Seymour, P.(2003). A Mechanical History of the
Universe. London: Philip Wilson Publishing, Ltd.

[9] Willians, D. R. (2013) Sun Facts Sheet, NASA.


nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html

[10] Johansen, A. et al.(2011) High-resolution simulations of


planetesimal formation in turbulent protoplanetary discs,
Astronomy & Astrophysics, available at arXiv: 1010.4757

[11] Stanley, Steven M. (1999). Earth System History. N. Y.,


W.H. Freeman and Company, p. 323.

[12] De Aquino, F., (2012) Gravitational Ejection of


Earth’s Clouds, available at:
http://vixra.org/abs/1212.0050

528
How a Planet with Earth’s size can have a Gravitational Field
Much Stronger than the Neptune
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this paper we show how the gravitational field can be amplified under certain
circumstances, and how a planet with Earth's size can have a gravitational field
much stronger than the Neptune. A new interpretation for quasars is here
formulated.

Key words: Amplified Gravitational Fields, Gravitation, Gravity, TNOs, Quasars.

1. Introduction 2. Theory
Recent numerical calculations have The quantization of gravity shows that the
revealed that there could be at least two unknown gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi are not
planets hidden well beyond Pluto, whose equivalents, but correlated by means of a factor χ ,
gravitational influence determines the orbits and i.e.,
strange distribution of objects observed beyond m g = χ mi0 (1)
Neptune [1, 2]. The authors believe that some
invisible forces are altering the distribution of the
orbital elements of the extreme trans-Neptunian where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
objects (ETNO) and consider that the most particle. The expression of χ can be put in
probable explanation is that other unknown the following forms [4]:
planets exist beyond Neptune and Pluto. The
calculation shows that these planets need to have
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
more mass than Neptune. Planets of this kind, ⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢⎢ 1 + ⎜
mg
even with the size of Neptune, at the predicted χ= n ⎟
⎜ m c2 r ⎟
− 1⎥⎬ (2)
mi0 ⎪
distance, would be very difficult to be detected in ⎩ ⎢

⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
visible light - but not impossible. They could still
be detected by the infrared that they emit. ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
However, a study published last year, using data mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ n ⎟
2 r⎟
− 1⎥ ⎬ (3)
⎢ ⎥
obtained by the NASA infrared satellite WISE [3], mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
showed that there are no planets with size of ⎩
Saturn up to the limit of 10 000 AU, or with size
of Jupiter up to the limit of 26 000 AU. Then, the where U is the electromagnetic energy absorbed
only possibility is that the planets must be much by the particle and n r is its index of refraction; W
smaller than Jupiter or Saturn, or even smaller is the density of electromagnetic energy on the
than Neptune. But as a planet smaller than
Neptune can have a gravitational field much
( )
particle J / m 3 ; ρ is the matter density of the
stronger than the Neptune? particle; c is the speed of light.
The correlation between gravitational mass If the particle is also rotating, with an
and inertial mass, recently discovered, associated angular speed ω around its central axis, then it
to the gravitational shielding effect, which results acquires an additional energy equal to its
of the mentioned correlation [4], show that the rotational energy E k = 1 2 Iω 2 ( I is the moment of
gravitational field can be amplified under certain inertia of the particle). Since this is an increase in
circumstances. the internal energy of the body, and this energy is
In this paper we show how a planet with basically electromagnetic, we can assume that E k ,
Earth's size can have a gravitational field much such as U , corresponds to an amount of
stronger than the Neptune. In addition, a new electromagnetic energy absorbed by the body.
interpretation for quasars is here formulated.

529
2

Thus, we can consider E k as an increase lamina). Only when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in
ΔU = E k in the electromagnetic energy U both sides of the lamina. The lamina works as a
Gravitational Shielding. This is the Gravitational
( )
absorbed by the body. Consequently, in this case,
we must replace U in Eq. (2) for (U + ΔU ) . If Shielding effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) ,
U << ΔU , the Eq. (2) reduces to we can consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg .
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ If we take two parallel gravitational
⎪ ⎛ Iω 2nr ⎞

mg ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mi 0 (4)
2⎟ ⎥ shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then the
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
2 m c
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g ,
Note that the contribution of the
electromagnetic radiation applied upon the
m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will
particle is highly relevant, because in the absence be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g . In
of this radiation the index of refraction in Eq.(4), the case of multiples gravitational shieldings, with
becomes equal to 1.
On the other hand, Electrodynamics tell us
χ 1, χ 2, ..., χ n , we can write that, after the nth
that gravitational shielding the gravitational
dz ω mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will be given by
v= = =
c
(5)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )
2
+ 1⎞⎟
2 ⎝ ⎠ mgn = χ1χ 2 χ3 ...χ n mg , g n = χ1χ 2 χ3 ...χ n g (8)
where kr is the real part of the propagation
r
vector k (also called phase constant); This means that, n superposed gravitational
r shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the
equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with
electromagnetic characteristics of the medium χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n .
(permittivity, magnetic permeability and electrical
conductivity) in which the incident radiation is Now consider a planet or any cosmic object
propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ; made of pure iron ( μr = 4,000; ρ iron = 7,800kg.m −3 ;
σ = 1.03 × 10 7 S .m −1 ), with size equal to the Earth
μ = μ r μ 0 , where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ).
( r⊕ = 6.371×10 6 m ). If it is rotating with angular
Equation (5), shows that the index of
velocity ω , then the gravity g produced by its
refraction nr = c v , for σ >>ωε, is given by
gravitational mass, according to Eq. (7), is given
μrσ
nr = (6) by
4πfε 0 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Gmi 0 ⎪ ⎛ Iω 2 μrσ ⎞
= − 2 ⎨1 − 2⎢⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
Gmg
Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (4) gives g=− ⎥
r2 r ⎪ ⎜ 2m c 2 4πfε 0 ⎟
⎩ ⎢

⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ Iω 2 μ rσ ⎞

m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mi 0 (7 ) ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢⎣
⎜ 2m c 2
⎝ i0 4πfε 0 ⎟


⎥⎦ ⎪
Gmi 0 ⎪ ⎢
= − 2 ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2
()
⎛ 1 mi 0r⊕2ω 2 μrσ ⎞
2
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
⎩ ⎭ ⎜ 2mi 0c 2 4πfε 0 ⎟ ⎥
r ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
It was shown that there is an additional effect
- Gravitational Shielding effect - produced by ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Gmi 0 ⎪ ⎛ r 2ω 2 μrσ ⎞
= − 2 ⎨1 − 2⎢⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⊕ 2 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
a substance whose gravitational mass was r ⎪ ⎜ 4c 4πfε 0 ⎟ ⎥
reduced or made negative [4]. It was shown ⎩ ⎢

⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
that, if the weight of a particle in a side of a
r ⎧
ω 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
r r ⎡
lamina is P = m g g ( g perpendicular to the =−
Gmi 0 ⎪
− ⎢ 1 + 4.71×1012 − 1⎥ ⎬ (9)
⎨1 2
r2 ⎪ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
lamina) then the weight of the same particle, in ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
r r
the other side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , where
Data from radioastronomy point to the
χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and mi 0 are respectively, the existence of an extragalactic radio background
gravitational mass and the inertial mass of the spectrum between 0.5 MHz and 400MHz [5].

530
3

Thus, if the considered object is in the Therefore, if the iron object has an own
interplanetary medium of the solar system, then magnetic field B , then, according to Eq.(3), the
this radiation incides on it. However, according to density of magnetic energy at the mentioned
Eq. (9), the more significant contribution is due to region will change the local value of χ , which
the lower frequency radiation, i.e. f = 0.5MHz . In will be given by
this case, Eq. (9) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎥⎪
Gm ⎧ ⎫ ⎜ ⎟
g = − 2i 0 ⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 9.42 ×106ω 4 − 1⎤ ⎬ (10) χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + n
⎜ ρ c2 r ⎟
− 1⎥ ⎬ =
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎭ mi0 ⎪
r ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ism ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
Note that the gravity becomes repulsive and ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞
greater than + Gmi 0 r 2 for ω > 0.0238rad .s −1 . ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜
B2 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
(Compare with the average angular velocity of ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0 ism ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
Earth: ω ⊕ = 7.29 ×10 −5 rad .s −1 ).
⎧ ⎫
This repulsive gravity repels the atoms = ⎨1 − 2 ⎡ 1 + 2.81 × 10 19 B 4 − 1⎤ ⎬ (11)
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎭
around the iron object, causing a significant
decreasing in the number of atoms close to the
object, and reducing consequently, the density at Thus, the region close to the object will become a
this region, which is initially equal to the density Gravitational Shielding, and the gravity
(
of the interplanetary density ρ ipm ≈ 10 −20 kg .m −3 . ) acceleration out of it (See Fig.1), according to Eq.
(8),(10) and (11), will expressed by
Thus, the density, ρ , at the mentioned region can
becomes of the order of 10 −21 kg.m −3 , i.e., very χGmi0 ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
g′ = χg = − ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 9.42 ×10 ω − 1⎥⎬ =
6 4
close to the density of the interstellar r2 ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
medium, ρ ism , (one hydrogen atom per cubic
⎧ ⎫
= ⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 2.81×1019 B4 − 1⎤⎬ ×
centimeter ≅ 1.67 ×10 −21 kg.m −3 [6]). ⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎥
⎦⎭

⎧ ⎫⎛ Gm ⎞
× ⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 9.42 ×106ω 4 − 1⎤⎬⎜ − 2i0 ⎟ (12)
Amplified ⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎥
⎦ ⎭⎝ r ⎠
ω Gravitational
B Field
g ′ = χg Therefore, if ω > 0.02rad .s −1 and B > 10 −4 T , then
g the gravity acceleration out of the gravitational
Gravitational shielding is
Shielding

⎛ Gm ⎞
ρ ≅ ρism ρ ipm g′ > (−103.0)(−1)⎜ − 2i0 ⎟ > −103 2i0 = − 2 i0 (13)
Gm GM
χ Iron object
⎝ r ⎠ r r

where M i 0 = 103m i 0 is the mass equivalent to the


mass of an object, which would produce similar
gravity acceleration.
( )
Since m i 0 = ρ iron 43 πr⊕3 = 8.44 × 10 24 kg , then
the gravity acceleration produced by the iron
Fig. 1 – Inversion and Amplification of the object would be equivalent to the one produced by
Gravitational Field. The gravitational field
produced by the rotating iron object, g (repulsive), is an object with mass, M i 0 , given by
inverted and amplified by the gravitational shielding
(region with density ρ ≅ ρ ism , between the iron M i 0 = 103mi 0 ≅ 8.6 × 1026 kg ≅ 8.4M Neptune (14)
object and the dotted circle). Thus, out of the
gravitational shielding the gravity acceleration
becomes attractive, with intensity: g ′ = χg . where N Neptune = 1.0243 × 10 26 kg is the Neptune’s
mass [7]. Thus, according to Eq. (13), the gravity
acceleration produced by the iron object would be
much stronger than the gravity of Neptune.

531
4

that the quasars are in dense regions in the


3. Quasars center of massive galaxies [19], and that their
radiation are generated by the gravitational
The results above make possible stress and immense friction on the
formulate a new interpretation for the surrounding masses that are attracted to the
quasars. center of the quasars [20] (See Fig.2).
Consider Eq. (12), which gives the
gravity acceleration out of the gravitational
shielding (See Fig.1). For ω > 0.02rad .s −1 and
B ≅ 10 3 T (neutron stars have ω ≈ 1rad .s −1 and Amplified
Dense region in the center
magnetic fields of the order of 10 8 Teslas ; of massive galaxies Gravitational
photons Field
magnetars have magnetic fields between 10 8 particle
to 1011 Teslas [8]), the result is g ′ = χg
ω B
( 16
)
⎛ Gm ⎞
g′ > −1.06×10 (−1)⎜ − 2i0 ⎟ > −1.06×1016 2i0
Gm
(15) g
⎝ r ⎠ r Gravitational
Shielding

where M i 0 = 1.06 ×1016 mi 0 is the mass χ Iron object ρ ≅ ρism


equivalent to the mass of an object, which
would produce similar gravity acceleration.
If m i 0 = ρ iron (43 πr⊕3 ) = 8.44 × 10 24 kg , then
the gravity acceleration produced by the iron
object would be equivalent to the one
produced by an object with mass, M i 0 , given
by

M i 0 = 1.06 × 1016 mi 0 ≅ 8.94 × 1040 kg ≅ 4.5 × 1010 msun (16)

This means 45 billion solar masses


( m sun = 1.9891×10 30 kg ).
Known quasars contain nuclei with Fig. 2 – Quasar - Surrounding the gravitational
shielding the gravity acceleration becomes
masses of about one billion solar masses strongly attractive, with intensity: g ′ = χg . The
(109 msun ) [9 - 16]. Recently, it was discovered radiation emitted from the quasar is generated
a supermassive quasar with 12 billion solar by the gravitational stress and immense friction
on the surrounding particles that are attracted to
masses [17]. the center of the quasar.
Based on the result given by Eq.(16),
we can then infer that the hypothesis of the
existence of “black-holes” in the centers of
the quasars is not necessary, because the
strong gravity of the quasars can be
produced, for example, by means of iron
objects with the characteristics above
( ω > 0.02rad .s −1 and B ≅ 10 3 T and r = r⊕ ), in the
center of the quasars.
As concerns to the extreme amount of
electromagnetic energy radiated from the
quasars [18], the new interpretation here
formulated, follows the general consensus

532
5

References
[1] Carlos de la Fuente Marcos, Raúl de la Fuente Marcos, [15] De Rosa, G. et al. (2011) Evidence for Non-evolving Fe
Sverre J. Aarseth. (2015) Flipping minor bodies: what II/Mg II Ratios in Rapidly Accreting z 6 QSOs.
comet 96P/Machholz 1 can tell us about the orbital Astrophysical Journal, 739, 56-69.
evolution of extreme trans-Neptunian objects and the
production of near-Earth objects on retrograde orbits. [16] De Rosa, G., et al. (2014) Black Hole Mass Estimates
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society and Emission-line Properties of a Sample of Redshift z
446(2):1867-1873. >6.5 Quasars. Astrophysical Journal, 790, 145-158.

[2] C. de la Fuente Marcos, R. de la Fuente Marcos. (2014) [17] Xue-Bing Wu et al., (2015) An ultra-luminous quasar
Extreme trans-Neptunian objects and the Kozai with a twelve-billion-solar-mass black hole at redshift
mechanism: signalling the presence of trans-Plutonian 6.30. Nature, 518, 512–515.
planets? Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society Letters 443(1): L59-L63. [18] Greenstein, J.L. and Schmidt, M. (1964) The
Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources 3c 48 and 3c 273.
[3] Luhman, K. L. (2014) A Search for a Distant Companion Astrophysical Journal, vol. 140, p.1.
to the Sun with the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer,
Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 781 4. [19] Irion, R. (2006) A Quasar in Every Galaxy? Sky
[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
and Telescope, p.2.
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
[20] Thomsen, D. E. (Jun 20, 1987). End of the World: You
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
Won't Feel a Thing. Science News (Society for Science
pp. 173-232.
& the Public) 131 (25): 391.
[5] Simon, A. J. B. (1977). The origin of the extragalactic
background radiation between 0.5 and 400MHz, Mon.
Not. R. astr. Soc., 180, 429-445.

[6] Verschuur, G. L.(1989) Interstellar Matters. New York:


Springer-Verlag; Knapp, Gillian.(1995). The Stuff
Between The Stars. Sky & Telescope 89: 20-26; Bacon,
D.H. and Seymour, P.(2003). A Mechanical History of the
Universe. London: Philip Wilson Publishing, Ltd.

[7] Williams, D. R. (2004). Neptune Fact Sheet. NASA.


http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/neptunefact.html

[8] Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (2003).


Magnetars . Scientific American; Page 35.

[9] Jiang, L. et al. (2007) Gemini Near-Infrared Spectroscopy


of Luminous z 6 Quasars: Chemical Abundances,
Black Hole Masses, and Mg II Absorption. Astronomical
Journal, 134, 1150-1161.

[10] Mortlock, D. J. et al. (2011) A luminous quasar at a


redshift of z=7.085. Nature, 474, 616-619.

[11] Venemans, E. P. et al. (2013) Discovery of Three z > 6.5


Quasars in the VISTA Kilo-Degree Infrared Galaxy
(VIKING) Survey. Astrophysical Journal, 779, 24-36.

[12] Willott, C. J., et al., (2003) 3 ×109Msolar Black Hole in


the Quasar SDSS J1148+5251at z=6.41. Astrophysical
Journal, 587, L15-L18 5.

[13] Kurk, J. D. et al. (2007) Black Hole Masses and


Enrichment of z 6 SDSS Quasars. Astrophysical
Journal, 669,32-44.

[14] Willott, C. J. et al. (2010) Eddington-limited accretion


and the black hole mass function at redshift 6.
Astronomical Journal, 140, 546-560.

533
Gravitational Condensation of Atmospheric Water Vapor
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Devices that collect water from the atmospheric air using condensation are well-known. They operate in a
manner very similar to that of a dehumidifier: air is passed through a cooled coil, making water to condense. This
is the most common technology in use. Here, we present a device that can collect a large amount of water (more
than 1m3/s) from the atmospheric air using gravitational condensation. Another novelty of this device is that it
consumes little electricity. In addition, the new technology of this device leads to a new concept of pump, the
Gravitational Pump, which can be used to pump water at very low cost from aquifers, rivers, lakes, etc., and also
to supply the high pressure (100atm or more) needed to push seawater through the semipermeable membrane, in
the desalinization process known as reverse osmosis.

Key words: Gravitational Condensation, Atmospheric Water, Reverse Osmosis, Gravity, Water Crisis.

1. Introduction

The percentage of water vapor in the gravitational compression produced in a


atmospheric air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C compression chamber, where gravity is strongly
[1] to 4.24% at 30 °C [2]. Water vapor is only increased by using gravity control technology
water in the form of invisible gas. The (BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
atmospheric air contains 0.001% of the 2008 [6]) based on the discovery of
planet’s water, which has a total volume of correlation between gravitational mass and
1.338×1018m3 [3]. Thus, the Earth’s inertial mass [7]. Also we present a
atmosphere contains a volume of about Gravitational Pump, which works based on
1013m3 of water, which is kept constant by the same principles, and can be used to pump
cycle evaporation /condensation. On the other water at very low cost from aquifers, rivers,
hand, the world’s population consumes lakes, etc., and also to supply the high
currently 9,087 billion cubic meters of water pressure (100atm or more) needed to push
per year (~1013m3) [4], which is seawater through the semipermeable
approximately, the same value maintained membrane, in the desalinization process
constant in the atmospheric air. known as reverse osmosis.
Devices that collect water from the
atmospheric air using condensation are well- 2. Theory
known. They operate in a manner very similar
to that of a dehumidifier: air is passed through The gravitational mass mg and inertial
a cooled coil, making water to condense. mass mi are not equivalents, but correlated by
A vapor is gas at a temperature lower means of a factor χ , i.e.,
than its critical point [5], which means that m g = χ mi0 (1)
the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
increasing its pressure without reducing the
particle.
temperature. The water, for example, has a
The expression of χ can be put in the
critical temperature of 374 °C, which is the
highest temperature at which liquid water can following form [7]:
exist. Therefore, in the atmosphere at ordinary ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞ ⎪
temperatures, water vapor will condense to χ= ⎜
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ n −1⎥⎥⎬

2 r⎟
(2)
liquid if its pressure is sufficiently increased.
mi0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝μ ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

Here we show how a large amount of where n r is its index of refraction; B is the
atmospheric water vapor (more than 1m3/s) intensity of the magnetic field (T ) ; ρ is the
can be condensed to liquid by means of

534
2

matter density of the particle; c is the speed of field B passes through its air core. The air density
light; μ is the magnetic permeability of the mean. inside the cylinder was reduced down to
It was shown that there is an additional ρ = 8.017 ×10 −14 kg.m −3 * , in order to produce a
effect - Gravitational Shielding effect - produced strong value (negative) of χ , using a practicable
by a substance whose gravitational mass was value of B . Thus, according to Eq. (2), the value
reduced or made negative [8]. It was shown that, of χ inside the air core is given by
if the weight of a particle in a side of a lamina is
r r r
P = m g g ( g perpendicular to the lamina) then χ = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 12176.20B4 − 1⎤⎫⎬ (3)
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
the weight of the same particle, in the other side Consequently, for B = 1.0T , we obtain
r r
of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , where χ = m g mi 0 χ ≅ −217.7 (4)
This means that the air inside the compression
( m g and mi 0 are respectively, the gravitational
chamber can be subjected up to a pressure
mass and the inertial mass of the lamina). Only 217.7 times greater than the atmospheric pressure
when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in both sides of at the Earth’s surface, i.e., 217.7atm.
the lamina. The lamina works as a Gravitational The pressure required to liquefy (to
Shielding. This is the Gravitational Shielding condense) water vapor at its critical temperature
( )
effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) , we can (373.946°C, 647.096K) is 217.7atm [9]. When
this occurs in the Gravitational Condenser, water
consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg . drops are driven to the top of the chamber (See
Fig.1), because they are subjected to repulsive
gravity † χg . Thus, this “reverse rain” fills with
water the top of the compression chamber. Then,
Valve
the regulator valve (placed at the top of the
Liquid Water chamber) opens, releasing the water to be stored
373.946°C and 217.7atm
and distributed. After the exit of the water, occurs
the exit of the dehumidified air, which was inside
Water drops the compression chamber. When the pressure
inside the chamber becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure, the regulator valve is
closed, and a new cycle of compression begins, in
Compressed Air order to produce more water.
If the atmospheric air inside the
Gravitational Condenser is at temperature of
30 °C, then the percentage of water vapor
Repulsive
contained it is 4.24% [2]. Assuming that the
gravity
Gravitational Condenser can withdraw of the air
just 30% of this value, then the total volume of
χg
water withdrawal from the atmospheric air inside
the chamber will be 1.27%(ρ wvapor ρ water ) of the
Air Air
ρ χ volume of atmospheric air compressed inside the
B
compression chamber. Since the state equation,
Gravitational Shielding g
Coil gives ρ wvapor = 2.2 ×10−3 ( pwvapor T ) [10], then for
pwvapor ≅ 217.7atm= 2.2 ×107 N / m2 and T = 647.096 K ,
Fig. 1 – Gravitational Condenser. Condensation of we get ρ wvapor ≅ 74.8kg .m −3 . Thus, if the volume
the atmospheric water vapor by means of
gravitational compression. (Developed starting of the compression chamber of the Gravitational
from a process patented in July, 31 2008, Condenser is 1,000 m3 , (10m×10m ×10m) and the
PI0805046-5 [6]). volume of the compressed air inside the chamber
Now consider the system shown in Fig.1.
At the base of the compression chamber there is a
*
gravitational shielding. In this case, this device is This density is equivalent to Earth’s atmospheric
basically a hollow cylinder, where a magnetic density at about 600km height.

In respect to Earth’s gravity which is attractive.

535
3

is 217.7×(the volume of the chamber)=217,700 etc., and also to supply the high pressure (100 atm
m3, then the total volume of water withdrawal or more (See Eq. (4)) needed to push seawater
from the atmospheric air will be given by through the semipermeable membrane, in the
(1.27% 100)(ρ wvapor ρ water ) × 217,700 ≅ 207m3 of water. desalinization process known as Reverse
Osmosis ‡ (See Fig.3). Thus, these devices can
Assuming that the time interval required to
strongly contribute to solve the current water
condense this volume of water is approximately
crisis.
60s, then just one Gravitational Condenser with
the mentioned characteristics can supply about 3.5
m3/s of water. This means that a set of 10 or 15
Gravitational Condenser of this type can supply
sufficient water for the total consumption of a semipermeable
membrane
large city as New York or S. Paulo. desalinated
water

concentrated
χg salt solution
Liquid 100 atm
(or more)

Gravitational g Gravitational Pump


Repulsive Shielding
gravity
Seawater
χg

ρ B χ Fig. 3 – Reverse Osmosis using a Gravitational


Pump.
Coil
Gravitational Shielding
Liquid

g
Fig. 2 – Gravitational Pump – Liquids (Water, Oil,
etc) can be propelled by using the gravitational
pump shown above (a process patented in July, 31
2008, PI0805046-5 [6]).

Reverse Osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent
from a region of high solute concentration through a
Figure 2 shows a Gravitational Pump semipermeable membrane to a region of low solute
based on the same principles described in Fig.1. A concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the
Gravitational Shielding placed at the bottom of osmotic pressure. The most important application of
the pump, reverses and intensifies the gravity in reverse osmosis is the separation of pure water from
the region above the gravitational shielding (it seawater and brackish waters. However, the
becomes equal to χg ). Thus, any liquid can be conventional process of reverse osmosis has a great
obstacle: it requires high amount of electricity to
propelled through this type of pump (See Fig.2). produce the high pressure (60 to 80atm), needed to
Obviously, the operational costs of the push seawater through the semipermeable membrane
Gravitational Condenser and of the Gravitational [11,12]. This process is best known for its use in
Pump are very low. In addition, the Gravitational desalination (removing the salt and other minerals from
Condenser can be constructed at the own cities, sea water to get fresh water), but since the early 1970s,
where the water will be consumed. it has also been used to purify fresh water for medical,
The Gravitational Pump, in turn, can pump industrial, and domestic applications.
water at very low cost from aquifers, rivers, lakes,

536
4

References
[1] Michael B. McElroy "The Atmospheric Environment"
2002 Princeton University Press p. 34 figure 4.3a

[2] Michael B. McElroy "The Atmospheric Environment"


2002 Princeton University Press p. 36 example 4.1

[3] Gleick, P.H., ed. (1993). Water in Crisis: A Guide to the


World's Freshwater Resources. Oxford University Press.
p. 13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth".

[4] Hoekstra, A. Y and Mekonnen, M.M. (2012) PNAS 109


(9) 3232-3237; published ahead of print February 13,
2012, doi:10.1073/pnas.1109936109.

[5] R. H. Petrucci, W. S. Harwood, and F. G. Herring,


General Chemistry, Prentice-Hall, 8th ed. 2002, p. 483–
86.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling


the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.

[8] De Aquino, F. (2011) Ultrafast Conversion of Graphite


to Diamond in Gravitational Pressure Apparatus,
http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0007, p. 4.

[9] International Association for the Properties of Water and


Steam, 2007, available at: http://www.iapws.org ;
http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/critical.html

[10] http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-air-d_680.html

[11] Shannon, M. A. et al., (2008) Nature 452, 301-310.

[12] Humplik, T. et al., (2011) Nanotechnology, 22, 292001.

537
The Intrinsic Magnetic Field of Magnetic Materials and
Gravitomagnetization
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Magnetic materials are composed of microscopic regions called magnetic domains that act like tiny permanent
magnets. Before an external magnetic field to be applied on the material, the domains' magnetic fields are
oriented randomly. Most of the domains’ magnetic fields cancel each other out, and so the resultant magnetic
field is very small. Here we derive the expression of this intrinsic magnetic filed, which can be used to calculate
the magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field at the center of the Earth’s inner core. In addition, it is also described
a magnetization process using gravity. This is gravitational magnetization process (or gravitomagnetization
process) since the magnetization is produced starting from gravity. It is absolutely new and unprecedented in the
literature.

Key words: Gravitomagnetization, High Saturation Magnetization, Earth’s Magnetic Field, Magnetic Domains.

1. Introduction
Before an external magnetic field to be Since the magnetization is produced
applied on the material, the domains' magnetic starting from gravity we can say that this is a
fields are oriented randomly. Most of the gravitational magnetization process (or
domains’ magnetic fields cancel each other out, gravitomagnetization process), which is a
and so the resultant magnetic field is very small. process absolutely new and unprecedented in
Here we derive the expression of this intrinsic the literature.
magnetic filed. This equation is very important
because can be used to calculate the magnitude of 2. Theory
the Earth’s magnetic field at the center of the
Earth’s inner core, and because leads to a
magnetization process using gravity. Basically
It was shown that correlation
this process consists in the following: a magnetic factor, χ = m g mi 0 , between gravitational mass
material is placed on a Gravity Control Cell and rest inertial mass can be put in the
*
(GCC) [1]. When it is actived, the magnetic following forms [3]:
material is magnetized and acquires a magnetic
field, whose intensity is proportional to the square ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
correlation factor, χ (GCC ) = mg mi 0 , between ⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢⎢ 1 + ⎜
mg
χ= n ⎟
⎜ m c2 r ⎟
− 1⎥⎬ (1)
gravitational mass (m g )
mi0 ⎪
and rest inertial mass ⎩ ⎢

⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(mi 0 ) of GCC’s nucleus. Thus, by increasing the
factor χ (GCC ) it is possible to obtain a high level ⎧ ⎡
⎛ W ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
χ= ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ n ⎟
2 r⎟
− 1⎥ ⎬ (2)
of magnetization. This is highly relevant because ⎢ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
it makes possible to produce permanent magnets ⎩

of low cost with ultra-high magnetic fields .
where U is the electromagnetic energy absorbed
by the particle and n r is its index of refraction; W
* is the density of electromagnetic energy on the
( )
The GCC is a device of gravity control based on a
gravity control process patented on 2008 (BR Patent particle J / m 3 ; ρ is the matter density of the
Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008[2]). particle; c is the speed of light.
† Magnetic fields of several Tesla can of course be In a previous paper it was shown that the
generated by copper coils. But this requires some
megawatts of energy. For certain applications like Stefan-Boltzmann equation is a particular case
magnetic bearings and motors the use of magnets of the expression below, which contains the
represents solutions more elegant and also less
expensive. correlation factor, χ = m g mi 0 [4]:

538
2

volume V0 related to the average volume Vd


D = χ σ BT4 4
(3) of the magnetic domains, in such way that

⎛V ⎞ cB 2 cB 2
where D is the surface power density (in D = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = (7)
watts .m − 2 ); σ B = 5.67 × 10 −8 watts / m 2 ° K 4
⎝ Vd ⎠ 8μ r μ 0 8ημ r μ 0
is the Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant, and T is
where η = Vd V0 and B is the intensity of the
the absolute temperature (in K).
Electrodynamics tells us that D can be intrinsic magnetic field, which results from
expressed by means of the following the random orientation of the domains’
expression: magnetic fields, at the magnetic center of the
set of magnetic domains that form the body.
By comparing Eq. (7) with Eq. (3), we
c
D= W (4) get
4
1
where W = 12 ε r ε 0 E 2 + 12 μ r μ 0 H 2 is the well- ⎛ 8ημr μ0σ B ⎞ 2 2 2
B=⎜ ⎟ χ T (8)
known expression for the volumetric density ⎝ c ⎠
of electromagnetic energy; E and H are
respectively, the electric field and magnetic Note that the value of B is usually very
field, whose produce the surface power small at ambient temperature. For example, in
density D ; ε r is the relative permittivity of the the case of iron (μr ≅ 4,000) at ambient
mean; μ r is the relativity permeability of the temperature (T ≅ 300K) , and η ≈ 1 , χ ≅ 1 , Eq.
mean; ε 0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ; μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m. (8) gives
If E = 0 the expression of W reduces to
B ≈ 10 −4 Tesla (9)
2
W = 12 μ r μ 0 H 2 =
B
(5)
2μ r μ 0 This is the order of magnitude of Earth’s
magnetic field (B⊕ ≅ 6 × 10 −5 Tesla ) .
Substitution of Eq. (5) into Eq. (4) gives In the case of iron, the Curie
temperature increases dramatically (and also
cB 2 the melting temperature) at very high
D= (6) pressures (Clausius-Clapeyron equation) [5].
8μ r μ 0
This is the case, for example, of Earth’s inner
core, which is basically composed of iron
We known that magnetic materials are with about 6% of Nickel [6], and is subjected
composed of microscopic regions called to pressure of about 360GPa, and temperature
magnetic domains that act like tiny permanent of about 5,700K. Under these conditions, the
magnets. Most of the domains magnetic fields Earth’s inner core is solid and maintains its
cancel each other out, and so the magnetic magnetic properties (μr ≅ 4,000) . In this case,
field resultant of the random orientation of the
the intensity of the magnetic field at the inner
domains’ magnetic field is very small. The
core’s center, given by Eq. (8), is
volumes of the magnetic domains changes
with the type of magnetic material. When the
volumes are smaller the density of magnetic B ≈ 10 −1 Tesla (10)
energy, D , in the magnetic material is higher,
showing that D is inversely proportional to The value of B measured in the border
the volumes of the magnetic domains. This of the inner core is Bborder = 2.5 × 10 −3 Tesla .
fact point to the existence of a reference

539
3

Obviously that, at the center of the inner core, Now consider a magnetic material just
the value of B is much larger than Bborder . above a GCC, both GCC and magnetic material
are at the same temperature, T , as shown in
The quantization of gravity shown the Fig.1. If the gravitational mass of the nucleus of
existence of the Gravitational Shielding effect
the GCC is m g (GCC ) = χ (GCC ) mi 0 (GCC ) . Then,
[3], which is produced by a substance whose
gravitational mass was reduced or made negative. according to Eq. (3), we have
It was shown that, if the weight of a particle in a
r r r
side of a lamina is P = m g g ( g perpendicular to DGCC = χ GCC
4
σ BT 4 (12)
the lamina) then the weight of the same particle, Similarly, if the gravitational mass of the
r r
in the other side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , magnetic material above the GCC is
m g (mm ) = χ mi 0 (mm ) . Then, considering the
where χ = m g mi 0 ( mg and mi 0 are
gravitational shielding effect produced by the
respectively, the gravitational mass and the
GCC, and Eq.(3), we have the following
inertial mass of the lamina). Only when χ = 1 , the
density, D , in the magnetic material:
weight is equal in both sides of the lamina. The
lamina works as a Gravitational Shielding when
χ → 0 . This is the Gravitational Shielding D = χ GCC
4
χ 4σ B T 4 (13 )
( )
effect. Since P ′ = χ P = χ m g g = m g (χ g ) , we By comparing Eq. (13) with Eq. (7), we get
can consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg .
1
⎛ 8ημ r μ 0σ B ⎞ 2 2
If we take two parallel gravitational
shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then the
B=⎜ ⎟ χ GCC χ 2T 2 (14)
⎝ c ⎠
gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g ,
m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will For χ GCC = 1 (absence of the GCC) this equation
be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g . In reduces to Eq. (8).
the case of multiples gravitational shieldings, with
χ 1, χ 2, ..., χ n , we can write that, after the nth
gravitational shielding the gravitational Magnetic
material
g ′′ = χ GCC χg
mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will be given by
T χ g ′′ D = χ GCC
4
χ 4σ BT 4
mgn = χ1χ2 χ3...χn mg , gn = χ1χ2 χ3...χn g (11)
g ′ = χ GCC g
This means that, n superposed gravitational
T χ GCC g′ D = χGCC
4
σ BT 4
shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with GCC
χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n . g

The Gravity Control Cell (GCC) is a
gravity control device that was developed in order
to realize the possibilities of the Gravitational
Shielding effect [2]. By controlling the Fig. 1 – Gravitomagnetization Process. When a
magnetic material is placed just above a Gravity
gravitational mass of the nucleus of the GCC
( )
m g (GCC ) = χ (GCC ) mi 0 (GCC ) it is possible to
Control Cell (GCC), the surface density, D ,
inside the magnetic material becomes
D = χ GCC
4
χ 4σ BT 4 . The weight of the GCC
control the gravity acceleration just above the
GCC, g ′ , since g ′ = χ (GCC ) g ; g is the gravity
(
nucleus is P(GCC) = mg (GCC) g ′ = mi 0(GCC) χ (GCC) g , )
and the weight of the magnetic material is given
acceleration below the GCC. (
by P = mg (mm) g ′′ = mi 0(mm) χχ(GCC) g . )

BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008.

540
4

It is important to note that Eq. (14) tells us


that B can be increased by increasing the factor
χ GCC (also by increasing χ ). This means then
that the intensity of the magnetic field can be
increased by gravitational action. Thus, we can
conclude that, in this case, we have a
gravitomagnetization process. However, is also
important to note that this increase in the intrinsic
magnetic field of the material is limited by the
saturation magnetic field of the magnetic
material. In the case of iron, for example, this
limit is of the order of 2 Tesla [7] whereas ferrites
saturate at 0.2 – 0.5 Tesla [8]. But, there are
magnetic alloys which have the saturation
magnetic fields much larger than the of iron.
Thus, in practice, it will be possible to produce
permanent magnets with very high values of
B simply putting specific magnetic materials just
above a GCC, which was developed to produce
the desired magnetization.

541
5

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas or Plasma at Ultra-
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology, 11 (2), pp. 178-247.
arXiv (2007): Physics/0701091

[2] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
arXiv (2002): Physics/ 0212033

[4] De Aquino, F. (2014) Divergence in the Stefan-Boltzmann


law at High Energy Density Conditions, available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01078404

[5] Aitta, A. (2006). Iron melting curve with a


tricritical point. Journal of Statistical Mechanics:
Theory and Experiment, (12): 12015–12030.

[6] Stixrude, L., et al., (1997). Composition and


temperature of Earth's inner core. Journal of
Geophysical Research (American Geophysical
Union) 102 (B11): 24729–24740.

[7] Parker, R. and Studders, R. (1962) Permanent Magnets


and their Application Wiley, esp. Chapter7,
“Magnetization and Demagnetization”.

[8] Sabbagh, E. (1961) Circuit Analysis, Ronald Press NY,


Esp. pp. 103-115.

542
The Genesis of the Earth’s Moon
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show how in the early Earth, a matter column, which extended from the Earth’s
surface down to near the upper boundary of the outer core, it was vaporized due to a suddenly
increase of temperature greater than 8,367°C, and after ejected of the Earth by the enormous
pressure at the bottom of the mantle (~136 GPa), forming posteriorly the Moon.

Key words: Moon origin, Earth, Solar UV Radiation, Gravitation, Gravitational Mass.

1. Introduction

For several years scientists have Samples of lunar rocks brought to


struggled to determine the origin of Earth’s Earth by the Apollo project have revealed
Moon. A common origin for the Moon and two important things:
Earth is required by their identical isotopic
composition. The Earth and Moon are a) The Moon lacks iron. While the
isotopically indistinguishable from one Earth’s core has a lot of iron [21].
another at the level of five parts per million
[1]. b) The Moon and the Earth have exactly
Five theories have been proposed in the same oxygen isotope composition
order to explain the formation of the Moon: [22].
1. The Fission Theory: The Moon was once
part of the Earth and somehow it has The fact that the Moon and the Earth have
been separated from the Earth early in exactly the same oxygen isotope composition
the history of the Solar System [2, 3, 4, has been a challenge for the giant impact
5]. theory, because the impactor’s composition
2. The Capture Theory: The Moon was would have likely differed from that of Earth.
formed somewhere else, and later In the impact theory, the Moon was formed
captured by the Earth’s gravitational field
from debris ejected into an Earth-orbiting
[6, 7, 8, 9].
disk by the collision of a large planetesimal
3. The Condensation Theory: Moon and
Earth have condensed together from the
with the early Earth. Prior impact simulations
original nebula that formed the Solar shows that much of the disk material
System [10, 11, 12, 13]. originates from the colliding planet. Thus, is
4. The Colliding Planetesimals Theory: The very difficult for the giant impact theory to
interaction of earth-orbiting and Sun- explain the fact that the Earth and the Moon
orbiting planetesimals early in the history have essentially identical oxygen isotope
of the Solar System led to their breakup. compositions. This led recently scientists to
The Moon condensed from this debris wonder if there is another explanation for the
[14, 15, 16]. origin of the moon besides the giant impact
5. The Giant Impact Theory: A theory.
planetesimal with the size of Mars struck Here we show how in the early Earth, a
the Earth, ejecting large amounts of matter column, which extended from the
matter. A disk of orbiting material was
Earth’s surface down to near the upper
formed, and posteriorly this matter was
boundary of the outer core, it was vaporized
condensed, forming the Moon [17, 18,
due to a suddenly increase of temperature
19, 20].
greater than 8,367°C, and after ejected of the
Earth by the enormous pressure at the bottom
of the mantle (~136GPa), forming posteriorly

543
2
r
the Moon. As the ejected matter was constant ); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ,
basically mantle’s matter, which is very poor
in iron, the Moon has been formed with low are the electromagnetic characteristics of the
portion of iron. This explain, why the Earth medium in which the incident radiation is
has a large portion of iron while the Moon propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
almost none. μ = μ r μ 0 , where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). Thus,
Equation (3), tells us that the index of
2. Theory
refraction nr = c v , for σ >> ωε , is given by
μr σ
The physical property of mass has two nr = (4)
distinct aspects: gravitational mass mg and 4πfε 0
inertial mass mi. The gravitational mass Substitution of Eq. (4) into Eq. (3) yields
produces and responds to gravitational fields;
it supplies the mass factor in Newton's
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσD ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬
famous inverse-square law of mg ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ (5)
( 2
)
gravity F = GM g m g r . The inertial mass χ=
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4πρ cf ⎠

is the mass factor in Newton's 2nd Law of ⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Motion (F = mi a ) . These two masses are not
It was shown that there is an additional
equivalent but correlated by means of the effect - Gravitational Shielding effect - produced
following factor [23]: by a substance whose gravitational mass was
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫ reduced or made negative [23]. Also it was
2
⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) shown that, if the weight of a particle in a side of
r
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ r r
a lamina is P = m g g ( g perpendicular to the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass and Δp is lamina) then the weight of the same particle, in
r r
the variation in the particle’s kinetic the other side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , where
momentum; c is the speed of light. χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and mi 0 are respectively,
This equation shows that only for the gravitational mass and the inertial mass of the
Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is equivalent lamina). Only when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in
to the inertial mass. When Δp is produced by both sides of the lamina. The lamina works as a
the incidence of electromagnetic radiation, Gravitational Shielding. This is the Gravitational
Eq. (1) can be rewritten as follows [23]: ( )
Shielding effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ we can consider that m ′g = χm g or that
mg ⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬ (2) g ′ = χg .
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ρ c ⎟ 3 ⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ If we take two parallel gravitational
shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then
where nr is the refraction index of the
particle; D is the power density of the the gravitational masses become: m g1 = χ 1 m g ,
electromagnetic radiation absorbed by the m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will
particle; and ρ , its density of inertial mass. be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g .
From Electrodynamics we know that
In the case of multiples gravitational shieldings,
with χ 1, χ 2 , ..., χ n , we can write that, after the nth
dz ω
v= = =
c
(3) gravitational shielding the gravitational
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2
mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will be given by
2 ⎝ ⎠
mgn = χ1χ2 χ3...χn mg , gn = χ1χ2 χ3...χn g (6)
where kr is
the real part of the This means that, n superposed gravitational
r shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
propagation vector k (also called phase

544
3
equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with belts, * between the conductivities of the
χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n . metallic conductors and the conductivities of
The dependence of the shielding effect on the semiconductors [25]. However, if a
the height, at which the samples are placed above sufficiently strong stream of UV radiation
a superconducting disk with radius crosses the mentioned region, then the
rD = 0.1375 m , has been recently measured up to conductivity at the region can be increased
a height of about 3m [24]. This means that the up to a value of the order of the
gravitational shielding effect extends, beyond the conductivities of the metallic conductors
disk, for approximately 20 times the disk radius. (10 7 S / m) .
Thus, assuming that this has occurred
3. Gravitational Shieldings in the Van Allen at about 4 billion years ago, in a region of the
belts
Van Allen belts, then two Gravitational
Shieldings have been formed in this region,
The Van Allen belts are torus of plasma
around Earth, which are held in place by with conductivities of the order of 10 7 S / m .
Earth's magnetic field (See Fig.1). The The strong stream of UV radiation here
existence of the belts was confirmed by the mentioned, can have coming from the Sun,
Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 missions in early and also should not have been a single stream
1958, under Dr James Van Allen at the but a beam of streams.
University of Iowa. The term Van Allen belts On the other hand, considering that the
refers specifically to the radiation belts quasi-vacuum of the interplanetary space
surrounding Earth; however, similar radiation might be thought of as beginning at an
belts have been discovered around other altitude of about 1000km above the Earth’s
planets. surface [25], then we can assume that the
densities ρi and ρo respectively, at the first
Van Allen belts
gravitational shielding Si (at the inner Van
Allen belt) and at So (at the outer Van Allen
belt) are ρo ≅ ρi ≅ 0.8 ×10−20 kg.m−3 (density of
Magnetic
axis
the interplanetary medium near the Earth
Outer [26]).
belt Thus, in these mentioned Gravitational
Inner
mantle
belt Shieldings, according to Eq. (5), we have,
core
~4500km
respectively:

⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ D
χi = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ 4.1×10 ⎟ −1 ⎬
11 i
(7)
⎢ ⎜ f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪
crust
⎪ ⎢ ⎝
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎥⎭
and
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ ⎞
Fig.1 – Van Allen belts
χ o = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ 4.1×1011 D o ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ (8)
⎢ ⎜ f ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎥⎭
where
P
The UV radiation emitted from the Sun
interacts with the atoms of the upper
Di ≅ Do ≅ rad (9)
Sa
atmosphere producing a large amount of
Prad is the UV radiation power; f is the
ions. This put the value of the current parallel
conductivities, σ 0i and σ0o , in the Van Allen *
Conductivity in presence of the Earth’s magnetic field

545
4
frequency of the UV radiation; S a is the area center, considering the effects produced by
of the cross-section of the UV radiation flux. the gravitational shieldings So and Si, is
Substitution of (9) into (7) and (8), leads
to the following expression for χ 0 χ i : E p = mcol rse (g − χ o χ i g sun ) (12)
2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪ Thus, the decrease in the gravitational
χ o χi = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 4.1×1011 rad − 1⎥⎬
P
⎢ ⎜

⎟ ⎥
(10) potential energy is
⎪ ⎝ Sa f ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭
( )
ΔE p = E p − E p0 = 1− χ o χ i mcol rse g sun (13)
4. Effect of the gravitational shieldings Si
and So on the Earth. Substitution of (10) into (13) gives

If the cross section of each stream of ⎧ ⎧ ⎡ ⎫⎫


2


2 ⎤
the beam of solar UV radiation, which can ⎪ ⎪ P ⎞ ⎪⎪
ΔEp = ⎨1−⎨1−2⎢ 1+⎜4.1×1011 rad ⎟ −1⎥⎬ ⎬mcolrsegsun (14)
have crossed a region of the Van Allen belts ⎢ ⎜ Sa f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎝
at about 4 billion years ago, had an average
⎩ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ ⎭
length scale of about 450km, then, based on
the Podkletnov experiment previously
mentioned, we can conclude that the effect of This decrease in the gravitational potential
the gravitational shielding formed in the Van energy of the matter column, ΔE p , produces
Allen belts extend down to near to the upper a decrease Δp in the local pressure
boundary of the Earth's outer core (about p (Bernoulli principle). Then the pressure
4,500Km below Si) (See Fig.1), affecting equilibrium between the Earth’s mantle and
therefore, a column of matter that extend the Earth’s core, in the region corresponding
since below of Si down to the upper border to the mentioned column, is broken. This is
of the Earth's outer core. equivalent to an increase of pressure Δp in
Since the mass that corresponds to the
the bottom of the column (Fig.2).
Earth’s mantle in the mentioned column of
matter, is much larger than the mass that Curst
corresponds to crust and the mass of air Earth’s
column, we can express the mass of the mantle
column by means of the following expression Matter column
mcol ≅ ρ mVm , where ρ m is the average density
Solar UV radiation
of the mantle; Vm is the volume of the Core
Sa=Smoo p − Δp
Sun p
column through the mantle. Prad
The gravitational potential energy
related to mcol , with respect to the Sun’s
center, without the effects produced by the Si
gravitational shieldings So and Si is
Earth

E p 0 = mcol rse (g − g sun ) (11) Fig. 2 - The decrease in the gravitational potential energy
of the matter column, Δ E p , produces a decrease Δ p in
the local pressure p (Principle of Bernoulli). Then the
where, rse = 1.49 × 1011 m (distance from the pressure equilibrium between the Earth’s mantle and the
Earth’s core, in the region corresponding to the matter
Sun to Earth, 1 AU), g = 9.8m / s 2
and column, is broken. This is equivalent to an increase of
pressure Δ p in the bottom of the mentioned column.
g sun = − GM sun rse2 = 5.92 × 10 −3 m / s 2 , is the
gravity due to the Sun at the Earth.
The gravitational potential energy The decrease, ΔE p , in the gravitational
related to mcol , with respect to the Sun’s potential energy increases the kinetic energy

546
5
of the local at the same ratio, in such way ΔT ≅
⎧ ⎫ ⎫⎪
2
that the mass mcol of the column acquires a
kinetic energy E k = ΔE p . If this energy is not
6 10 6⎪ ⎧
≅ × ⎨ −⎨ − ⎢ + ×
3. 1 1 2⎡ 1 (4.1 10−5
D ) 1⎤
rad − ⎥⎬ ⎬ (20)
2

⎪⎩ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎪⎭
enough to pluck the mass mcol from the where Drad is the power density of the UV
Earth, and launch it into space, then E k is radiation.
converted into heat, raising the local Note that for Drad > 845.28W / m 2 the
temperature by ΔT , the value of which can increase temperature in the column of matter
be obtained from the following expression: previously mentioned, according to Eq. (20),
Ek
≅ kΔT (15) is ΔT > 8,640 K = 8,367°C .
N Around four billion years ago, the
where N is the number of atoms in the temperature of Earth's mantle was around T
volume V of the substance considered = 1,700°C [30]. Thus, with the increase of
(V = Vm ) ; k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K is the ΔT > 8,367 °C , the matter column, which
Boltzmann constant. Thus, we can write that extended basically from the Earth’s surface
E (1 − χ o χ i )mcol rse g sun down to near the upper boundary of the
ΔT ≅ k = (16 ) outer core, it was suddenly vaporized (rock
Nk (nV m )k vapor), and after ejected of the Earth by the
Since mcol ≅ ρ mVm , we get enormous pressure at the bottom of the
(1− χ χ ) ρ r g mantle, which is of the order of 136 GPa
ΔT ≅ o i m se sun
(17) [28].
nk Therefore, if the beam of solar UV
where n is the number of atoms/m3 in the radiation (distribution of the streams inside
substance considered ( n ≅ 8 × 10 28 atoms .m −3 the beam) has affected a total area, which
for Earth’s mantle, since Earth’s mantle was approximately equal to, or greater than
contains 46.6% of Oxygen, 27.7% of Silicon, the area of the cross-section of the moon,
5% of iron, 2.1% Magnesium, 3.6 Calcium then the amount of ejected matter has been
[27]). The Earth’s mantle is a layer between sufficient to form the Moon.
the crust and the upper border of the outer As the ejected matter was basically
core. Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell mantle’s matter, which is very poor in iron,
about 2,900 km thick. The pressure at the the Moon has been formed with low portion
bottom of the mantle is ~136 GPa [28]. The of iron. This explain, why the Earth has a
average density of the Earth’s mantle is about large portion of iron while the Moon almost
4,500kg/m3 [29]. none.
Thus, from (17), we obtain the increase Also explains why the density of the
of temperature in the matter column (portion Moon is the same as that of the rocks of
of the mantle), i.e., Earth's mantle. In addition, condensing in
(
ΔT ≅ 3.6 × 106 1 − χ o χ i ) (18) space, the high-speed cloud of rock vapor
would incorporate refractory elements, while
By substitution of Eq. (10) into Eq. (18), we
would be poor in volatile elements (gases that
obtain
ΔT ≅ become liquids at very low temperatures
such as water vapor) because they would be
⎧ ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫⎫
2

⎪ ⎪ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎪⎪
slow to condense. This shows therefore, why
≅ 3.6×106 ⎨1− ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜4.1×1011 rad ⎟ −1⎥⎬ ⎬ (19) Moon rocks have a composition which is
⎢ ⎜ Sa f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎭ similar to that of our own planet, but are
⎩ ⎩ ⎣ ⎭ slightly enriched in refractory elements
Considering that the average frequency of (metals with a very high melting point), and
the UV radiation is about 10 16 Hz , then Eq. are relatively lacking in volatile elements.
(19) can be rewritten as follows

547
6

Rock vapor

The early Moon

Fig. 1 – The Genesis of the Moon. With the increase of ΔT > 8,367°C , the matter column, which extended from the
Earth’s surface down to near the upper boundary of the outer core, it was suddenly vaporized (rock vapor), and after
ejected of the Earth by the enormous pressure at the bottom of the mantle, which is of the order of 136 GPa, forming
posteriorly the Moon. The figures (1), (2), and (3) illustrate the phenomenon.

548
7

References
[1] Pahlevan, K and Stevenson, D. J. (2007). [16] Mizuno H. and Boss, A. P. (1985) Tidal disruption of
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 262:438–449. dissipative planetesimals, Icarus, I, 455-458.

[2] Darwin, G.H. (1879). On the precession of a viscous [17] Safronov, V. S. (1966) Soviet Astronomy –AJ, 9, 987-
spheroid and on the remote history of Earth. Phil. Trans. 991.
Roy. Soc. Part II, 170, 447-530.
[18] Cameron A. G. W. and Ward W.R. (1976) The origin of
[3] Ringwood, A. E. (1960) Some aspects of the thermal the moon. In Lunar Science VII, pp. 120-122. The
evolution of the Earth. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 20, Lunar Science Institute, Houston.
241-259.
[19] Thompson, A. C. and Stevenson D. J. (1983) Two-
[4] Wise, D. U. (1963) An origin of the moon by rotational phase gravitational instabilities in thin disks with
fission during formation of the Earth’s core. J. Geophys. application to the origin of the moon. In Lunar Science
Res., 68, 1547-1554. XIV, pp. 787-788. The Lunar Science Institute,
Houston.
[5] Binder, A. B. (1986) The binary fission origin of the
moon. Origin of the moon; Proceedings of the [20] Stevenson D. J. (1985) Implications of very large
Conference, Kona, HI, October 13-16, 1984 (A86-46974 impacts on Earth accretion and lunar formation. In
22-91). Houston, TX, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Lunar Science XVI, pp. 819-820. The Lunar Science
1986. Institute, Houston.

[6] Urey, H. C. (1966). The capture hypothesis of the origin [21] Hood, L.L. (1986) Geophysical constraints on the lunar
of the moon. In the Earth-Moon system. Plenum, N.Y., interior. Origin of the moon; Proceedings of the
pp. 210-212. Conference, Kona, HI, October 13-16, 1984 (A86-
46974 22-91). Houston, TX, Lunar and Planetary
[7] MacDonald G. J. F. (1966) Origin of the Moon: Institute, 1986, p. 361-410.
dynamical considerations. In the Earth-Moon system.
Plenum, N.Y., pp. 165-209. [22] Wiechert, U. et al. (2001) Science 294, 345–348;
Clayton, R. N. And Mayeda (1975). Genetic relations
[8] Singer, S. F. (1968) The origin of the Moon and between the moon and meteorites. Proc. Lunar Sci.
geophysical consequences. Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Conf. 6th, pp.1761-1769.
Soc., 15, 205-226.
[23] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the
[9] Turcotte, D. I. and Kellogs I. H. (1986) Implications of Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
isotope data for the origin of the moon. Origin of the of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
moon; Proceedings of the Conference, Kona, HI,
October 13-16, 1984 (A86-46974 22-91). Houston, TX, [24] [19] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical
Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1986. Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.
[10] Schmidt O. Yu. (1959) A Theory of the origin of the
Earth. Lawrence and Wishart, London, p.139. [25] Van Allen, J. A., (1961), The Earth and Near Space,
Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, Vol. 17, Nº5, p.218.
[11] Ruskol, E. L. (1973) On the model of the accumulation
of the moon compatible with the data on the composition [26] Martin, M., and Turychev, S.G., (2004), Measuring the
and age of lunar rocks. The Moon, 6, 190-201. Interplanetary Medium with a Solar Sail, Int. J. Mod.
Phys.D13, 899-906. Astro-ph/0308108v2.
[12] Harris, A. W. and Kaula, W. M. (1975) A co-accretional
model of satellite formation. Icarus, 24, 516-524. [27] http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/tharriso/ast110/

[13] Weidenschilling, S. J., et al., (1986) Origin of the Moon


earthmantlemooncomp.gif
from a circumterrestrial disk. Origin of the moon;
[28] Burns, R. G. (1993). Mineralogical Applications of
Proceedings of the Conference, Kona, HI, October 13-
Crystal Field Theory. Cambridge University Press.
16, 1984 (A86-46974 22-91). Houston, TX, Lunar and
p. 354.
Planetary Institute, 1986.
[29] Anderson, Don L., (1989) Theory of the Earth: Boston,
[14] Öpik, E. J. (1972) Comments on lunar origin. Irish.
Blackwell Publications.
Astron. J., 10, 190-238.
[30] Jackson. P. W. (2006). The Chronologers' Quest: The
[15] Wood, J. A. and Mitler, H. E. (1974) Origin of the
Search for the Age of the Earth, Cambridge University
Moon by a modified capture mechanism. In lunar
Press, p. 202; Johnson, T. E. (2014) Nature Geoscience7,
scienceV, pp.851-853. The Lunar Science Institute,
pp.47–52.
Houston.

549
The Gravitational Heat Exchanger
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The heat exchangers are present in many sectors of the economy. They are widely used in
Refrigerators, Air-conditioners, Engines, Refineries, etc. Here we show a heat exchanger that works
based on the gravity control. This type of heat exchanger can be much more economic than the
conventional heat exchangers.

Key words: Heat Exchanger, Heat Transfer, Fluid Flow, Gravitation, Gravitational Mass.
1. Introduction

The energy transfer as heat occurs at the perpendicular to the lamina) then the weight of
molecular level as a consequence of a the same particle, in the other side of the lamina
r r
temperature difference. When a temperature is P ′ = χm g g , where χ = m g mi 0 ( m g and
difference occurs, the Second Law of
Thermodynamics shows that the natural flow of mi 0 are respectively, the gravitational mass and
energy is from the hotter substance to the colder the inertial mass of the lamina). Only
substance. Thus, temperature is a relative when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in both sides of
measure, which shows how hot or cold a the lamina. The lamina works as a Gravitational
substance is, and in this way, frequently is used Shielding. This is the Gravitational Shielding
to indicate the direction of heat transfer.
There are several modes of transferring
( )
effect. Since P′ = χP = χmg g = mg (χg) , we can
heat: thermal conduction, thermal convection, consider that m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg .
thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase If we take two parallel gravitational
changes. A heat exchanger is a system for shieldings, with χ 1 and χ 2 respectively, then
efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another. The heat exchangers are present in many the gravitational masses become: m g 1 = χ 1 m g ,
sectors of the economy [1]. They are widely used m g 2 = χ 2 m g1 = χ 1 χ 2 m g , and the gravity will
in Refrigerators, Air-conditioners, Engines,
Refineries, etc. [2,3]. Here we show a very be given by g1 = χ 1 g , g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g .
economic heat exchanger that works based on a In the case of multiples gravitational shieldings,
gravity control device called Gravity Control with χ 1, χ 2, ..., χ n , we can write that, after the nth
Cell (GCC) * .
gravitational shielding the gravitational
mass, m gn , and the gravity, g n , will be given by
2. Theory
mgn = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n mg , g n = χ1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (2)
The quantization of gravity shows that the This means that, n superposed gravitational
gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi are
shieldings with different χ 1 , χ 2 , χ 3 ,…, χ n are
not equivalents, but correlated by means of a
factor χ , which, under certain circumstances can equivalent to a single gravitational shielding with
be strongly reduced, and till become negative. χ = χ1χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n .
The correlation equation is [4] The extension of the shielding effect, i.e.,
m g = χ mi 0 (1) the distance at which the gravitational shielding
effect reach, beyond the gravitational shielding,
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the particle. depends basically of the magnitude of the
Also, it was shown that, if the weight of a shielding's surface. Experiments show that, when
r r r
particle in a side of a lamina is P = m g g ( g the shielding's surface is large (a disk with radius
a ) the action of the gravitational shielding
extends up to a distance d ≅ 20a [6].
* Now, we will show how this gravitational
The GCC is a device of gravity control based on a
technology can be used in order to develop a very
gravity control process patented on 2008 (BR Patent
number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008[5]).

550
2

Hot

ΔQ
GHE

Ep ΔQ
χ0 χi g

P
S0
Si

P′ P ′ << P

Cold

Fig. 1 – The Gravitational Heat Exchanger (GHE).

551
3

economic heat exchanger.


ΔT ≅
Ek
=
(
1 − χ o χ i m col r⊕ g ) (7 )
Consider two parallel Gravitational
Shieldings (Gravity Control Cells (GCC)) So and
Nk (nV col )k
Si, inside a container filled with a fluid, as shown
in Fig.1. The inertial mass of the fluid inside the Since mcol ≅ ρVcol , we get
GHE is mcol . The values of χ in each
Gravitational Shielding are χ0 and χi , (1− χ χ ) ρ r g
respectively.
ΔT ≅ o i ⊕
(8)
nk
The gravitational potential energy of
mcol with respect to the Earth’s center, where n is the number of molecules per
without the effects produced by the cubic meter.
gravitational shieldings So and Si is Note that, if χ o χ i > 1 the value of
ΔT becomes negative, which means that the
E p 0 = mcol hg (3) column loses an amount of heat, ΔQ ,
decreasing its temperature by ΔT .
where h ≅ r⊕ = 6.371 × 10 6 m , is the distance Since the number of molecules per
of the center of mass of the column down to cubic meter is usually expressed by the
following equation
Earth’s center; g = 9.8m / s 2 .
The gravitational potential energy
n = N0ρ M 0 (9)
related to mcol , with respect to the Earth’s
center, considering the effects produced by
where M 0 is the molecular mass ( kg.mol −1 );
the gravitational shieldings So and Si, is
N 0 = 6.02 × 10 23 molecules.mol −1 (Avogadro’s
E p = mcol r⊕ (χ o χ i g ) (4) number); ρ is the matter density of the
column (in kg/m3). Thus, Eq. (8) can be
Thus, the decrease in the gravitational rewritten as follows
potential energy is
(1− χ χ ) M r g
( ) (10)
0⊕
(5) ΔT ≅ o i
ΔE p = E0 − E p = 1− χ o χ i mcol r⊕ g N0k

The decrease, ΔE p , in the gravitational If the fluid is Helium gas


−1
potential energy increases the kinetic energy ( M 0 = 0.004 kg .mol ), then Eq. (10) gives
of the local at the same ratio, in such way
that the mass mcol of the column acquires a (
ΔT ≅ 3.009 × 10 4 1 − χ o χ i ) (11)
kinetic energy E k = ΔE p , which is converted
into heat, raising the local temperature by For example, if χ 0 = −1.9587 and
ΔT , which value can be obtained from the
χ i = −0.5110 , Eq. (11) gives
following expression:
Ek
≅ kΔT (6) ΔT ≅ −27K (12)
N
where N is the number of atoms in the Thus, if the initial temperature of the Helium
volume V of the substance considered; is about 300K , then it will be reduced to
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K is the Boltzmann
constant. Thus, we can write that T ≅ 273K ≅ 0°C (13)

552
4
It is important to note that if, for
example, χ 0 = −1.959 and χ i = −0.510 , then
the result is ΔT ≅ +27K . Note that there is ΔQ ≅ 1.013 × 10 8 joules ≅ 96,000 BTU (17 )
now an increase of temperature of about
27K. This shows the fundamental importance Note that the electric power required
of the precision of the values of χ 0 and χ i . for the Gravitational Heat Exchanger is only
In a previous paper [7] it was shown the need the necessary to activate the two gravitational
of to use very accurate voltage source, for shielding (some watts) † .
apply accurate voltages to the gravitational Thus, the Gravitational Heat
shielding, in order to obtain high-precision Exchanger shown in Fig .1 can work as an
values of χ . efficient and very economic heat exchanger.
Another vantage of this system is the fact
Now considering equations (6) and (9),
that it does not use CFCs gases, which are
and the Equation of State: ρ = PM 0 ZRT , very dangerous for mankind ‡ .
where P and T are respectively the pressure Finally, note that, if χ o χ i < 1 then the
and the temperature of the gas; Z ≅ 1 is the
GHE can be used as a heater (See Eq. (5) and
compressibility factor; R = 8.314 joule.mol−1.K −1
(6)).
is the gases universal constant, then we can
write that

E k = NkΔT = nVcol kΔT ≅ Vcol ΔT (P T ) (14 )

Therefore, the GHE loses an amount of heat,


ΔQ = E k . By substitution of ΔT and T
given respectively by Eq. (12) and Eq. (13)
into Eq. (14), we get

ΔQ ≅ 0.10Vcol P (15)
The gravitational compression
produced by the gravitational shieldings
inside the GHE can reach several hundreds
atmospheres [8]). Thus, for example, if the
GHE is designed to work with a compression
of P = 400 atm ≅ 4 . 052 × 10 7 N .m − 2 and
Vcol = (400 1)V0 ≅ 2.7 m 3 , ( V0 is the volume
of the chamber (GHE) and Vcol is the volume
of the Helium compressed into the camber.),
then Eq. (14) gives

ΔQ ≅ 1.094 × 10 7 joules ≅ 10,000 BTU (16 )


Now, if the pressure is reduced down
to P = 100atm , and the volume V0 of the
GHE is increased up to 1m 3 , then
Vcol = (100 1)V0 ≅ 100 m 3 , and the value of

The conventional heat exchangers require hundreds
of watts.
ΔQ becomes ‡
The use of these gases is prohibited in several
countries [9].

553
5

References
[1] Taylor, R.A., (2012) Socioeconomic impacts of heat
transfer research, International Communications in Heat
and Mass Transfer Volume 39, Issue 10, December
2012, pp. 1467–1473.

[2] Kakaç, S. and Liu, H.(2002). Heat Exchangers:


Selection, Rating and Thermal Design (2nd ed.). CRC
Press.

[3] Saunders, E. A. (1988). Heat Exchanges: Selection,


Design and Construction. New York: Longman
Scientific and Technical.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[6] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical


Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2014) Quantum Gravitational Shielding,


https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01074607v3.

[8] De Aquino, F. (2015) Gravitational Condensation of


Atmospheric Water Vapor, p.2.
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01119567.

[9] Nordberg, M. et al., (2009). Glossary of terms used in


Ecotoxicology, IUPAC Recommendations site of the
IUPAC.

554
The Gravitational Scanner
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In medicine, scanning is to be examined by a scanner, to determine if a patient has a


problem with your body. Here, we show a new type of scanner, which is absolutely new
and unprecedented in the literature. It can be widely used in medicine in order to observe
noninvasively the interior of a human body.

Key words: Gravitational Scanner, Gravity Control, Medical Scanning, Medical imaging.

1. Introduction

The medical imaging term is often used to


designate the set of noninvasive techniques that N0 ρ
n= ≅
produce images of an internal part of the body. A
The term noninvasive is used to denote a
procedure where no instrument is introduced into

(
6.02 × 1026 1,000kg.m −3

)
a patient's body, which is the case for most 9,000daltons
imaging techniques used.
Here, we show a new type of medical ≅ 6.7 × 1025 molecules.m −3 (1)
imaging that is absolutely new and
unprecedented in the literature, and it can be
widely used in medicine in order to observe where N 0 = 6.02 × 1026 molecules/ kmol is the
noninvasively the interior of a human body. It is number of Avogadro.
based on a gravity control process patented on In a previous paper [3], we have
2008 (BR Patent number: PI0805046-5, July shown that the gravitational mass of a water
31, 2008[1]). droplets cloud, m g (d ) , subjected to a radiation

2. Theory with frequency f (in Hz) and density D (in


watts/m2), can be expressed by means of the
The cytosol or intracellular fluid (ICF) is following equation:
the fluid found inside cells. The cytosol is a ⎧ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
mg (d ) ⎪ ⎛ 3 2 2 2
φ ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢⎢ 1 + ⎢⎜ ⎥ − 1⎥⎥⎬ =
n S S D 1
complex mixture of substances dissolved in water d f m m

⎢⎣⎜⎝ ρd Sd cf ⎟⎠ λmod ⎥⎦
2
(ions such as sodium and potassium; and also a mi0(d ) ⎪
large amount of macromolecules such as ⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
proteins). The average molecular mass (Molar
mass) of the cytosolic proteins is ⎧ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎛ 3 2 2 2
φ ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2⎢⎢ 1 + ⎢⎜ ⎟ r ⎥ − 1⎥⎪⎬ =
about 30 ,000 daltons . Although water forms the nd S f S m m D fn
⎢⎣⎜⎝ ρd Sd cf ⎟⎠ c ⎥⎦
2 ⎥
⎪ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
large majority of the cytosol (~70%), the amount
of protein in cells is extremely high, occupying ⎩ ⎢

~30% of the volume of the cytosol [2]. Based on
these data, we can calculate the average ⎧
⎪ ⎡ nd6 S 4f Sm4φm4 nr2 D2 ⎤⎫⎪
molecular mass of the substances dissolved in = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ρd2 Sd2 c 4 f 2 ⎥⎪
cytosol. The result is about 9,000 daltons .Thus, ⎣ ⎦⎭
considering a hypothetical fluid of molecules where mi 0(d ) is the rest inertial mass of the
with molecular mass of 9,000 daltons , and
water droplets cloud; nd is the number of
density ρ ≅ 1,000kg.m −3 , we can evaluate the
molecules per cubic meter in the droplet;
number of molecules per cubic meter in cytosol,
i.e., ρ d is the density of the droplet; S f is the
total surface area of the water droplets; S d is

555
2
⎧⎪ ⎡ S 4 D 2 ⎤⎫⎪
the surface area of one water droplet, which mg (tissue)
is given by S d = 4πrd2 , where rd is the droplet = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 9.1× 1015 R 2 − 1⎥⎬ (11)
mi 0(tissue) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
radius; φ m is the “diameter” of a water molecule
It is known that a radiation with
and S m = 14 πφ m2 ; nr is the index of refraction frequency, f, propagating through a material with
of the droplets, given by [4] electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and σ , has
ε μ the amplitudes of its waves decreased in e−1=0.37
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
⎠ (37%), when it passes through a distance z,
v 2 ⎝
given by
where c is the light speed; ε r is the relative 1
permittivity; μ r is the relative magnetic z= (12)
permeability and σ electrical conductivity of ω 12 εμ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 − 1⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠
the droplet; ω = 2πf . The radiation is totally absorbed at a distance
If σ << ωε Eq. (3) reduces to δ≅5z [7].
nr = ε r μr (4) Thus, if a radiation flux with frequency
The typical animal cell has a diameter of f = 1.4GHz , incides on a tissue with
about 10 − 50 μm [5]. Since the cells contain ε r = 80.4 , μ r ≅ 1 and σ ≅ 1S / m it penetrates
more than 70% water, then we can say that they a distance z ≅ 4.7cm . By varying the frequency
are similar to water droplets. f it is then possible to vary the distance z .
If we assume that the cells are similar In a previous paper [8], we have shown
to water droplets, then the cellular tissue is that if
similar to a cloud of water droplets, whose mg (body )
gravitational mass can be expressed by Eq. (2). − 0.159 < < 0.159 (13)
Assuming that the cellular tissue is formed by mi 0(body )
( )
cells with 30 μm radii rd = 3×10−5 m , then we then the body becomes imaginary, i.e., it
have: disappears from the real universe.
(5)
Now consider Eq. (11). By making
S d = 4πrd2 = 1.13 × 10−8 m 2
S R D f > 1.06 × 10 −8 ,
2
the result is
The “diameter” of a water molecule is
m g (tissue ) mi 0(tissue ) < 0.159 .
(6)
Under this
φm ≅ 2 ×10−10 m
condition, the tissue penetrated by the radiation
Then, flux becomes imaginary, disappearing
S m = 14 πφ m2 ≅ 3 × 10 −20 m (7 ) consequently from the real universe. When the
For water ε r = 80.4 [6] and μ r = 1 , then Eq. tissue layer disappears it is then possible to see,
for example, the organs below it. This fact point
(4) gives
to the possibility of to be made a new type of
nr2 = 80.4 (8) medical scanner. In medicine, scanning is to be
Substitution of the values given by Eqs. (1) examined by a scanner, to determine if a patient
(n = nd ) , (5), (6), (7) and (8) into Eq. (2) yields has a problem with your body.
In order to obtain S R2 D f > 1.06 × 10 −8 ,
mg (tissue) ⎧
⎪ ⎡ S 4f D 2 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 9.1×1015 − 1⎥⎬ (10) with f = 1.4GHz and S R = πφR2 4 = 0.0177m 2
⎢ ⎥⎪
2
mi 0(tissue) ⎪⎩ ⎣
f
⎦⎭ (φ R = 15cm) , it is necessary that the radiation
In cellular tissues, in which the cells are joined flux has a density D > 4.7 × 10 4 watts / m 2 .
together the total surface area of the water Masers with the f = 1.4GHz and
droplets, S f , can be considered as equal to the
D ≅ 10 4 W / m 2 already can be produced with
cross-section area¸ S R , of the radiation flux today’s technology (2012) [9].
incident on the tissue. Under this condition, Eq.
(10) can be rewritten as follows

556
3

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for
Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[2] Ellis RJ (2001). Macromolecular crowding: obvious


but underappreciated. Trends Biochem. Sci. 26 (10):
597–604.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2012) Gravitational Ejection of Earth’s


Clouds ,version 2, http://vixra.org/abs/1212.0050.

[4] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 269.

[5] Campbell, N. A. et al., (2006) Biology: Exploring Life.


[S. l.]: Pearson Prentice Hall.

[6] Lacaz-Vieira, F. and Malnic, G. (1981) Biofísica. Ed.


Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro, p. 212.

[7] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[8] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[9] Oxborrow, M., et al., (2012). Room-temperature solid-


state maser. Nature; 488 (7411): 353 DOI:
10.1038/nature11339.

557
Gravitational Generation of Rain
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show a new process for producing artificial rain. A region of low pressure is
produced in Earth’s troposphere, using gravity control. Then clouds are attracted to this
region, and thus a bigger cloud can be formed. During the compression process of the
cloud, water droplets become large drops through collision and coalescence, and
consequently they acquire sufficient fall velocities to reach the ground as rainfall.

Key words: Artificial rain, Cloud condensation, Gravity Control, Weather modification.

1. Introduction

The weather modification is the act of with several centimeters of thickness, around
intentionally manipulating or altering the the spacecraft is strongly ionized by means
weather. The most common form of weather of alpha particles emitted from several
modification is the artificial production of radioactive ions sources (a very small
rain [1]. quantity of Americium 241 * ) distributed in
Experiments in artificial production of the external surface of the spacecraft.
rain, or induced rainfall, date back to XIX A convenient distribution of the ions
century [2], and are in progress in many parts sources can strongly increase the electrical
of the world. conductivity, σ , in the air layer around the
Several countries spend millions of spacecraft, in such way that values of
dollars in artificial rain programs. In σ > 10 −4 S / m can be obtained. Thus, for
2011, China spent $150 millions of dollars example, if we make σ = 10 −3 S / m , then we
on a single regional artificial rain program. have σ >> ωε = 2πfε r ε 0 , ( ε r is the relative
The US, by comparison, spends around $15
millions of dollars a year [3]. permittivity of the air and ε 0 is the
Here we show a new process for permittivity of free space). In this case, the
producing artificial rain. A region of low index of refraction of the air, nr , around the
pressure is produced in Earth’s troposphere, spacecraft, is expressed by means of the
using a gravity control process patented on following equation [6]:
2008 (BR Patent number: PI0805046-5, July
31, 2008 [4]). Then clouds are attracted to μrσ
this region, and thus a bigger cloud can be nr = (1)
formed. During the compression process of 4πε0 f
the cloud, water droplets become large drops
through collision and coalescence, and where μ r is the relative magnetic
consequently they acquire sufficient fall permeability.
velocities to reach the ground as rainfall.
*
The radioactive element Americium (Am-241) has a half-
2. Theory life of 432 years, and emits alpha particles and low energy
( )
gamma rays ≈ 60 KeV . The Americium (Am-241) is
Consider an ellipsoidal gravitational widely used in ionization smoke detectors. The Americium
spacecraft [5] floating in the Earth’s is present in oxide form (AmO2) in the detector. The amount
troposphere. There is an oscillating electric of radiation in a smoke detector is extremely small. It is also
predominantly alpha radiation. Alpha radiation cannot
field, E , with extremely low frequency
( f = 1Hz ) , starting from the external surface
penetrate a sheet of paper, and it is blocked by several
centimeters of air. The americium in the smoke detector
could only pose a danger if inhaled.
of the spacecraft (See Fig.1). An air layer

558
2

Earth’s
troposphere

E f
P<<Patm
v
v0 Spacecraft
v Ionized region
(several centimeters thickness)
v >> v0

~10 km

Fig.1 – Gravitational Generation of Rain. A region of low pressure is produced in Earth’s troposphere, using
gravity control. Then clouds are attracted to this region, and thus a bigger cloud can be formed. During the
compression process of the cloud, water droplets become large drops through collision and coalescence, and
consequently they acquire sufficient fall velocities to reach the ground as rainfall.

559
3
The gravitational mass of the air, low pressure, and thus a bigger cloud can
m g (air ) , in the mentioned region is then be formed around the spacecraft. During the
expressed by means of the following compression process of the cloud the
equation [7]: collisions (and coalescence collisions)
among the water droplets become more
frequent and lead to the formation of large
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ μr μ0σD ⎞
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎪ drops with sufficient fall velocities to reach
mg(air) = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0(air) =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ the ground as rainfall.
⎦⎭

{ [ ]}
= 1− 2 1+ 6.49×10−37 D2 −1 mi0(air) (2)
where ρ is the air density,
ρ = 0.4135kg.m at 10km height [8]; μ 0 is
−3

the magnetic permeability of free space; c


is the light speed and mi 0 (air ) is the inertial
mass of the air.
Considering that D can be expressed by
the following equation [9]:

Em2 2
Erms
D= = (3)
2μ 0 f μ0 f

where E m is the amplitude of the oscillating


electric field and E rms = E m 2 . Then, Eq.
(2) can be rewritten as follows

{ [
mg(air) = 1− 2 1+ 4.11×10−25 Erms
4
−1 mi0(air) ]} (4)

For example, if Erms = 1.24 × 106 V .m −1 ,
then the gravitational mass of the air is
reduced to m g (d ) ≅ 0.2mi 0 (d ) . Consequently,
we can say that, close to the external
surface of the spacecraft, the air velocity
will be increased up to 5 times, i.e., if
a 0 = F0 mi 0 (d ) , v0 = a 0 t , then

a = F0 mg(d ) = F0 0.2mi0(d ) → a = 5a0 → v = 5v0 (5)

This causes a decreasing of about 25 times


in the local pressure (Bernoulli principle).
Then clouds are attracted to the region of


Corona effect arises when E > 3 × 10 6 V .m −1 [10]

560
4

References
[1] Gelt, J. (2012) Weather Modification: A Water Resource
Strategy to be Researched, Tested Before Tried.
University of Arizona.

[2] Chernikov, A. A. (2012). Artificial rainfall. Central


Aerological Observatory, Roshydromet, Russia.

[3] http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-
03/24/content_12218277.htm
http://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2009/12/11/
governments-turn-to-cloud-seeding-to-fight-drought

[4] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for


Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the
Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5,
July 31, 2008.

[5] De Aquino, F. (1998) Electric Spacecraft Journal, 27,


pp.6-13: http://arXiv.org/abs/physics/9904018

[6] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[8] Properties of Standard Atmosphere


http://www.braeunig.us/space/atmos.htm

[9] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)


Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.
[10] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-
Hill, p. 78.

561
A System to Generate Intense Fluxes of
Extremely-Low Frequency Radiation
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A system for generating intense fluxes (>>1μ W.m-2) of extremely-low frequency (ELF)
radiation, in the range of about 1Hz, is described in this work. It is based on the generation
process of cyclotron radiation, and can be used in the research of biological effects of the ELF
radiation and also in the therapies that use ELF radiation.

Key words: Extremely-Low Frequency Radiation, ELF Transmitter, Cyclotron Radiation.

1. Introduction 2. The System

Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation The frequency f and the intensity I
is the designation for radiation of the lower of the electromagnetic radiation emitted from
extreme of the electromagnetic spectrum
a particle with inertial mass m and electrical
( f << 10kHz ) . ELF radiation has not enough charge q that describes a circle with velocity
v , (v << c ) † , inside a constant, uniform
energy to remove charged particles such as
electrons. Thus, it is called of non-ionizing
radiation. Some sources of ELF radiation include magnetic field, B , are given, respectively, by
power lines, household wiring, etc. This means [2]
(1)
that people are frequently exposed to ELF qB
f =
radiation. But the ELF radiation emitted from 2πm
these sources has very-low intensity.
The building of ELF transmitters is very
2πμ r μ 0 q 2 v 2 f 2
difficult because the length of the antenna is I= (2)
enormous. In the case of 1Hz the antenna length 3c
must be of the order of 100.000km. However, by
using the process of gravitational redshift at This radiation, as we known, is called
laboratory scale, shown in a previous paper [1] it Cyclotron Radiation.
is possible for example, to reduce frequencies Now consider the system shown in Fig
f ≅ 1GHz down to ~1Hz. In order to produce a
1. Basically, it is a parallel plate capacitor,
power density D ≅ 10 −6 W / m 2 at ~1Hz, by the placed inside a coil, which produces the
mentioned redshift process, it is necessary an magnetic field B . The area of the plates of
initial flux with D ≅ 10 3 W / m 2 at ~1GHz, what the capacitor is A , and the distance between
corresponds to the minimum frequency band of them is d ; the dielectric is Barium Titanate,
masers. Unfortunately, this process wastes a lot which has a relative permittivity ε r = 1250 ‡
of energy.
Here is described a more efficient system at 20°C.
for generating intense fluxes * (>>1μ W.m-2) of
ELF radiation, in the range of about 1Hz. It is

based on the generation process of cyclotron c is the speed of light.
radiation, and can be used in the research of

biological effects of the ELF radiation and also in Recently, materials with giant dielectric
the therapies that use ELF radiation. constant of about ~104-106 have been discovered;
CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) has a giant dielectric
*
( )
Since we can write that DELF = f ELF flight Dlight , constant of up to 105 at room temperature [3, 4].
then, considering f ELF = 1Hz and f light ≈ 10 Hz ,
14 There have been numerous reports on discovery
−14
we get DELF ≈ 10 Dlight . An intense flux of of giant dielectric permittivity materials called
light usually has Dlight > 10 8 watts / m 2 . Thus, a internal barrier layer capacitor in the recent years.
flux with 1Hz and D ELF > 10 −6 watts / m 2 can One of such materials is BaTiO3 with SiO2
be considered intense. coating [5]. See also [6, 7, 8].

562
2
Therefore, the total mass m of the n
spinning Metglas disks is
Coil M M M M M M
2
( 2
)
m = n πrd − nφ πrφ Δxρ , where Δx is the
ω thickness of the disks and ρ the density of
V
d εr Barium titanate
them. If we make nφ πrφ2 = 0.9πrd2 , and if
Metglas foil
(15 μm thick) A nπrd2 ≅ A , then we get
μr = 1,000,000 ω
dielectric
V ( )
m = 0.1 nπrd2 Δxρ ≅ 0.1AΔxρ (4)
Dielectric disk
Metglas disk
Substitution of q = q − and m , given
respectively by Eqs. (3) and (4), into Eqs. (1)
(a) and (2) yields
2.11 m
qB 10ε r ε 0VB
f = = = 2.32 × 10−12
VB
(5)
0.71 m 2πm 2πΔxρd Δxd
rd

2πμr μ0 q 2 v 2 f 2 2πμr μ0 ⎛ ε r ε 0 AVvf ⎞


2
(b) I= = ⎜ ⎟ =
3c 3c ⎝ d ⎠
Fig.1 - A system for generating intense fluxes
⎛ AVω rd f
2
(>>1μ W.m-2) of extremely-low frequency (ELF) ⎞
radiation, in the range of about 1Hz. = 1.07×10 ⎜⎜−24

⎟ (6)
⎝ d ⎠

For V = 5kV (dielectric strength of Barium


As shown in Fig.1, there are several disks titanate is 6kV / mm ), d = 1mm ,
with radius rd above the dielectric (barium Δ x = 15 μm = 1 .5 × 10 m ,
−5
B = 1.29T ,
titanate). Each disk is made of dielectric material A = 1.5m , ω = 2.1 × 10 rad / s (200,000rpm)
2 4

with its bottom covered with a Metglas foil


and rd = 0.17m the Eqs. (5) and (6) give
( μ r = 1,000 ,000 ; ρ = 7 ,590 kg .m −3 , which )
spins with an angular velocity ω . Thus, we can
say that the charge q − , given by
f ≅ 1Hz (7)
and
q − = q + = ε r ε 0 CV = ε r ε 0 ( AV d ) (3)
I ≅ 7.67×10−4 W (8)

is spinning with an angular velocity ω ; Then, we get


ε 0 = 8.854 × 10 −12 F .m −1 is the permittivity of
the free space; V is the voltage between the
I
D = ≅ 5×10−4 W.m−2 (9)
A
capacitor plate and the Metglas disks ; d is
the distance between the plate and the disks
Thus, the system described in this work
(See Fig.1). can be used in the therapies using ELF radiation
Note that, in the Metglas disks there in the range of about 1Hz and power density
are several holes with radius rφ in order to >>1μ W.m-2 [9]. Also, it can be used in the
reduce the mass of the Metglas disks. research of biological effects of the ELF
radiation.
563
3

References

[1] De Aquino, F. (2012) Gravitational Blueshift and


Redshift generated at Laboratory Scale,
http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0239

[2] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969) Theorie


du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow, Portuguese
version (1974) Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, p.260.

[3] Subramanian, M. A. et al., (2000) J. Solid State Chem.


151, 323–325.

[4] Homes, C. C. et al., (2001) Science, 293, 673–676.

[5] Tatsuya I., et al., (2013). The possibility of giant


dielectric materials for multilayer ceramic capacitors,
App. Phys. Lett., 102, 062901.

[6] Wu J, et al., (2002) Giant Dielectric Permittivity


Observed in Li and Ti Doped NiO. Phys Rev Lett. 89:
217601.

[7] Thongbai P, et al., (2008) The sintering temperature


effects on the electrical and dielectric properties of
Li0.05Ti0.02Ni0.93O ceramics prepared by a direct
thermal decomposition method. J Appl Phys. 2008; 104:
074109.

[8] Sarkar. S., et al., (2006) Copper (II) oxide as a giant


dielectric material. Appl Phys Lett. 89: 212905.

[9] De Aquino, F. (2012) Quantum Reversal of Soul Energy


https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01129313

564
The Beginning and End of Time in our Universe
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this paper we show that the origin of spacetime precedes the beginning of the material
Universe. Thus, the Universe arises at a finite time, which defines the beginning of time
itself in our Universe. In addition, it is possible to calculate the maximum scale of time
between the beginning of the time and the end of the time in our Universe.

Key words: Beginning and End of Time, Gravitational Mass, Uncertainty Principle, Big Bang.

The most remarkable discovery of where Δp is the variation in the particle’s


modern cosmology is that the Universe had a kinetic momentum; U is the
beginning, about 15 billion years ago. The electromagnetic energy absorbed or emitted
Universe begins with a great explosion, the by the particle; nr is the index of refraction of
Big Bang. General Relativity predicts that at
the particle; W is the density of energy on the
this time the density of the Universe would
have been infinite. It would have been what is ( )
particle J / m 3 ; ρ is the matter density
called, a singularity. At a singularity, all the ( )
kg m 3 and c is the speed of light.
laws of physics would have broken down. Equation (1) tells us that the
However, if the law of gravity is incomplete, gravitational mass mg can be negative. This
i.e., if it can be repulsive besides attractive can occur, for example, in a stage of
then the singularity can be removed. Some gravitational contraction of a neutron star * ,
years ago I wrote a paper [1] where a when the gravitational masses of the neutrons,
correlation between gravitational mass and in the core of the star, are progressively turned
inertial mass was obtained. In the paper I negative, as a consequence of the increase of
pointed out that the relationship between the density of magnetic energy inside the
gravitational mass, m g , and rest inertial neutrons, Wn = 12 μ0Hn2 , reciprocally produced
mass, mi 0 , is given by by the spin magnetic fields of the own
neutrons [2],
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎛ Δp ⎞
⎪ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
mg ⎢ r ⎡r ⎤ ⎡r
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ( ) ( ) ⎤
(2)
3 3
⎢ ⎟ ⎥ Hn = ⎢Mn 2π rn2 + r2 2 ⎥ = γn ⎢eSn 4πmn rn2 + r2 2 ⎥
mi 0 ⎪ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎪ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎭

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ due to the decrease of the distance between


⎪ ⎛ Un ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ = the neutrons, during the very strong
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ compression at which they are subjected. In
r
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
equation (2), M n is the spin magnetic
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ momentum of the neutron; γ n = −3.8256 is
⎪ ⎛ Wn ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ r ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ (1)
⎜ ρc 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭ *
There is a critical mass for the stable configuration of
neutron stars. This limit has not been fully defined as
yet, but it is known that it is located between 1.8M~
and 2.4M~. Thus, if the mass of the star exceeds 2.4M~
, the contraction can continue.

565
2
r
the gyromagnetic factor; S n is the spin angular In the system of natural units known as
Planck units, the time required for light to
momentum; rn is the radius of the neutron and
travel, in a vacuum, a distance of 1 Planck
r is the distance between the neutrons. length is known as Planck time, t planck , i.e.,
The neutron star's density varies from
below 1×109 kg/m3 in the crust - increasing
with depth – up to 8×1017 kg/m3 in the core l planck t planck = c (6)
[3]. From these values we can conclude that
the neutrons of the core are much closer to The Planck length (the length scale on which
each other than the neutrons of the crust † . quantum fluctuations of the metric of the
This means that the value of Wn in the spacetime are expected to be of order unity)
crust is much smaller than the value in the and the Planck time (the time scale on which
core. Therefore, the gravitational mass of the quantum fluctuations of the metric of the
core becomes negative before the spacetime are expected to be of order unity)
gravitational mass of the crust. This makes are, respectively defined as:
the gravitational contraction culminates with
an explosion, due to the repulsive Gh
l planck = 3
= 1 . 61 × 10 − 35 m
gravitational forces between the core and the c
crust. Therefore, the contraction has a limit (7 )
and, consequently, the singularity ( g →∞ ) hG
t planck = 5
≅ 5 . 39106 × 10 − 44 s
never occur. Similarly, the Big Bang can have c
occurred due to the repulsive gravitational
forces between the core and the crust of the The elementary quantum of time, t min , can be
initial Universe ‡ . This means that the obtained, considering Eqs. (5) and (6), and the
Universe arises at a finite time, with a finite fact that lmin tmin = c. The result is
volume. Consequently, the origin of
spacetime precedes the beginning of our ~
t min = k t planck (8 )
Universe.
Also we have shown in [1] that time
and space are quantized and given by § In this context, there is no a shorter
time interval than t min . Consequently, the
t max Planck time does not exists really. It is only a
t= n = 1,2,3,... (3) fictitious value related with the occurrence of
n
quantum fluctuations of order unity, in the
lx =
lmax
ly =
lmax
lz =
lmax
(4) metric of the spacetime.
nx ny nz
When t = tmin or l = lminequations (3) and
(4) point to the existence of a n max , given by
where n x , n y , and n z are positive integers.
The elementary quantum of length, l min , was nmax = t max t min = l max l min (9)
obtained and is given by **
~ ~
l min = k l planck , where 5.6 < k < 14.9 (5) Assuming that the initial Universe
arises at a finite time t 0 = n0 t min , as a sphere

The density 1×109 kg/m3 in the crust shows that the
with diameter d min = n0lmin , where n0 is a
radius of a neutron in the crust has the normal value positive integer number, and disappears at
(1.4×10-15m). However, the density 8×1017 kg/m3 t = t max when its diameter is dmax = nmaxlmin ,
shows that the radius of a neutron in the core should be
approximately the half of the normal value. then we can write that

This phenomenon has been deeply detailed in [1]
§
Equations (37) and (28) of [1].
**
Equation (100) of [1].

566
3

d max d min = nmax n0 (10)

The value of d max can be obtained from the


††
expression of the quantization of charge [1] :

Q min = πε 0 hc 24 (d c d max ) =

= (πε 0
~
)
hc 2 96 H −1 d max = 13 e

~
where h is the Planck constant; H is the
Hubble constant; e is the elementary charge.
From the equation above, we get ‡‡

d max = 3.4 × 10 30 m (11)


Equations (9), (8), (5) and (10), shows that

⎛ n d ⎞~
~
t max = nmaxkt planck = ⎜⎜ 0 max ⎟⎟kt planck (12)
⎝ dmin ⎠

Since the grand-unification era begins


at ~ 10 −43 s [4,5], then we can conclude that
the Big bang must have occurred before
10 −42 s . This means that t 0 = n0 t min < 10 −42 s .
~
Thus, it follows that n0 = t 0 t min = t 0 k t planck
must be equal to 1. Thus, the time scale in our
~
Universe begins at t 0 = t min = k t planck and,
according to Eq.(12) ( dmin = lmin), ends at

⎛ n d ⎞~ ⎛ d ⎞~
t max = ⎜⎜ 0 max ⎟⎟kt planck = ⎜ ~ max ⎟kt planck =
⎝ lmin ⎠ ⎜ kl ⎟
⎝ planck ⎠
dmax
= ≅ 1.1×1022 s (13)
c

††
Equation (91) of [1].
‡‡
This is the maximum "diameter" that the Universe will
reach.

567
4

Beginning
of the material
Universe
t 0 = t min ~
tmin = k t planck ; 5.6 < k < 14.9
Elementary quantum of time
t min
Flat spacetime
.t
0
max ≈1022 s
Flat spacetime

Fig.1 – Schematic Diagram of the Beginning (t 0 = t min ) , and End (t max = nmax t min ) of Time in the material
Universe. In this context, there is no a shorter time interval than t min . Consequently, the Planck time does
not exists really. It is only a fictitious value related with the occurrence of quantum fluctuations of order
unity, in the metric of the spacetime.

568
5

References

[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11
(1), pp. 173-232.

[2] Alonso, M., and Finn, E. D., (1967) Fundamental


University Physics, Addison-Wesley. Portuguese version
(1972) Ed. Blucher, S. Paulo, Brazil, pp. 79-90.

[3] Miller, M. C. (2013), Astrophysical Constraints on


Dense Matter in Neutron Stars, arXiv:1312.0029.

[4] Battaner, E. (1996) Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics,


Cambridge University Press, GB, p.181.

[5] Schramm, D. N., (1983) Phys. Today., Abr., 27.

569
Improvements in the Design of the Gravitational Motor
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The Gravitational Motor is a new type of motor that can substitute the conventional motors with
large advantage. This motor works without the use of any type of fuel. It converts energy from the
Earth’s gravitational field directly into rotational mechanical energy, and can have a very high-
power (several thousand of HP), occupying only a volume smaller than one cubic meter. When a
Gravitational Motor of this type is coupled to a conventional generator of electrical energy, the
system Motor-Generator can supply several thousand kilowatt-hours of electrical energy, similarly to
hydroelectric plants, but without the needs to use of water of the rivers.

Key words: Gravity, Gravitational Motor, High-power Motors, Generation of Electrical Energy.

In a previous paper [1], we have due to the GCC3. The function of the
shown the design of a motor using GCC4 and of the GCC5, shown in Fig.1,
Gravity Control Cells (GCCs) [2,3]. is only for revert the gravity down to
This motor called Gravitational Motor values very close to g .
(BR Patent number: PI0805046-5, 2008), Thus, the gravity acceleration on
converts energy from the Earth’s the left half of the rotor becomes − ng
gravitational field directly into while the gravity acceleration on the
rotational mechanical energy. It can right half of the rotor becomes + ng .
substitute the conventional motors with
Consequently, this causes a torque
T = (− F ′′ + F ′)r and the rotor spins with
large advantage. Here, we show that the
previous design of the Gravitational
Motor can be improved in order to angular velocity ω .
increase its power and stability. Then average power, P , of the
In Fig.1 we show a schematic gravitational motor is given by
diagram (cross-section) of the new
gravitational motor. Now the P = Tω = [(− F ′′ + F ′)r]ω (1)
Gravitational Motor has 4 Gravity
Control Cells-GCCs, which can be where
conventional GCCs (boxes filled with
gas or plasma at ultra-low pressure) or F ′ = 12 m g g ′ F ′′ = 12 mg g ′′ (2)
quantum GCCs (See [3]). The GCC1,
GCC2 and the GCC3 are placed below and m g ≅ mi 0 is the mass of the rotor.
the rotor; GCC1 and GCC2 on the right
and GCC3 on the left, as shown in Fig. Thus, Eq. (1) gives
1. Above the GCC1 the local gravity
(g ) is intensified for χ1 χ 2 g = +ng , P = nm i gω r (3)
where χ1 = −n and χ 2 = −1 are the
On the other hand, we have that
correlation factors between gravitational
mass and inertial mass, produced by the
gravitational shielding effect at the − g ′′ + g ′ = ω 2 r (4)
GCC1 and at the GCC2 respectively.
Above the GCC3 the local gravity Therefore the angular speed of the rotor
becomes χ 3 g = −ng , where χ3 = −n is is given by

570
2

one with an average consumption of about


ω=
2ng
(5) 2
2kW per hour .
r Note that this is made without the
use of any type of fuel, because the
By substituting (5) into (3) we obtain energy, which moves the Gravitational
the expression of the average power of Motor comes from Earth’s gravitational
the gravitational motor, i.e., field, i.e., the Gravitational Motor
converts directly energy from the
P = nmi 0 gr
2ng
= mi 0 2n 3 g 3 r (6) Earth’s gravitational field into rotational
r mechanical energy.
Thus, the Gravitational Motors
Now consider an electric generator are similar to the turbines of the
coupling to the gravitational motor in order hydroelectric plants. While the turbines
to produce electric energy. convert energy from the Earth’s
Since ω = 2πf then for f = 60 Hz gravitational field into rotational
we have mechanical energy, by means of water
of the rivers, the Gravitational Motors
ω = 120πrad .s −1 = 3600rpm (7 ) convert energy from the Earth’s
. gravitational field directly into
−1
Therefore for ω = 120πrad .s and rotational mechanical energy, by using
n = 394 the Eq. (5) tells us that we must the GCCs.
have Finally, note the small volume of
the rotor of a high-power Gravitational
Motor, it shows that the total volume of
r=
2ng
= 0.0545m (8) the motor can be smaller than 1m3.
ω2

Since r = R 3 and mi = ρπR h where


2

ρ, R and h are respectively the mass


density, the radius and the height of the
rotor then for h = 0.5m and
ρ = 7800 Kg .m −3 (iron) we obtain

mi = 327.05kg (9)
Then Eq. (6) gives

P ≅ 2.59 × 10 7 W ≅ 25.9MW ≅ 34,732.5HP

Thus, when coupled to a conventional


generator of electrical energy, this
Gravitational Motor can supply an amount
of electrical energy of about 1
( )
0.9 2.59 × 10 7 W (3600s ) = 8.39 × 1010 j =
= 23,300 kW per hour. This energy is
enough to supply about 11,600 homes, each
2
In the US typical household power consumption is
about 1.3 kW per hour. In 2013, the average annual
electricity consumption for a U.S. residential utility
1
Assuming an efficiency of 90%. customer was 10,908kWh [4].

571
3

g’’’ =χ4 g’’ = g g’’’’ =χ5 g’ = g


GCC4 χ 4 = − 1 n χ 5 = + 1 n GCC5

g’’=χ3 g = − ng
R
r
Massive Rotor
r

g’ =χ1 χ2 = +ng

χ 1 = − n GCC1
GCC3 χ 3 = − n χ 2 = −1 GCC2

g g

Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram (cross-section) of the new Gravitational Motor.

572
4

References

[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11
(1), pp. 173-232. Also available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.
Also available at: http://vixra.org/abs/1401.0119

[3] De Aquino, F. (2014) Quantum Gravitational Shielding,


https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01074607v3

[4] U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013)


http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=97&t=3

573
Method for Obtaining Quantum Vacuum
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The possibility of obtention of quantum vacuum in laboratory is shown in this work. The method
consists in ward off air atoms from the surface of a solid material plate. The clearance can reach up
to several nanometers, thus producing a region where there are no elementary particles.

Key words: Quantum Vacuum, Universal Quantum Fluid, Continuous Universal Fluid, Gravity Control Cells.

Even in the densest matter found volume S Aφ e ( φe is the “diameter” of


in the Earth, the atoms are not together. one electron), we can write that
There are spaces among them,
configuring a domain region around N e = N atoms = n(S Aφe ) (3)
each atom. On the bidimensional
viewpoint, this region is defined for an
Consequently, the total charge of these
area, S A , around each atom. We can
electrons is
calculate, S A , starting from the atoms
(
density of the material, n , atoms / m 3 , ) q = N e e = n(S Aφe )e (4)
which can be calculated by means of
the following expression: where e is the elementary electric
N ρ
n= 0 (1) charge.
A
where N 0 = 6.02 × 1026 atoms / kmole is
the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
Elementary domain area, SA , of the
density (in kg/m3) and A is the atomic front atom (in black at the triangle
mass. center). Behind the area SA there are
Then, the amount of front atoms Natoms (circles in white).
in a volume Sφ atom (plane surface area,
S , and thickness φ atom (diameter of a
front atom)) of a material with density
of atoms n , is given by nSφ atom .
Therefore, we can write that
(nSφ atom )S A ≅ S , whence we obtain
SA =
1
(2 ) Plane area S
nφ atom
If we could see the front atoms in Fig.1 – Elementary domain area, SA , in a plane
the surface S , we would see that behind area (S). - The amount of front atoms in a
each the area S A , there are N atoms (See volume Sφ atom (thickness = φ atom ) of a
material with density of atoms n , is given by
Fig.1). If each one of these atoms has
only one electron in its electronic nSφ atom . Therefore, we can write that
external layer, then the number of (nSφ atom )S A = S . In each area SA there are
electrons, N e , in the area S A is N atoms (behind the area SA).
N e = N atoms . Thus, considering the

574
2

q air = nair S A(air )φ e (air )e =


Plate Δx Air
⎛N ρ ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 0 air ⎟⎟ S A(air )φ e (air )e (6)
Fp Fe ⎝ Aair ⎠
S A( plate )
q plate qair S
A( air )
Thus, we can write that

1 qplateqair
Fe = =
4πε0 r 2
Fig.2 – The forces Fe and F p – The force, F p ,
p air , is contrary to 1 q plateqair
exerted by the air pressure, = =
the repulsion force, Fe , produced by the electric 4πε0 (Δx + re( plate) + re(air) )2

charges, q plate , and q air . The equilibrium ⎛ N02e2 ⎞ (ρ plateS A( plate)φe( plate) )(ρairS A(air)φe(air) )
= ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ A A (Δx + r (7)
e( plate) + re( air) )
condition is Fe = F p . Then, the air close to the πε 2
⎝ 4 0 ⎠ plate air
plate is maintaining at a distance Δx from the
plate.
The equilibrium occurs when Fe = F p .
Under this circumstance, the air close to
the plate is maintaining at a distance
Δx from the plate. Then, by comparing Eq.
Now consider a plate inside the (7) with F p = p air S A ( plate ) , we can obtain
Earth’s atmospheric air (See Fig. 2).
The total electric charges due to the expression of Δx , i.e.,
electrons of the atoms in an area, S A ,of
Δx =
the plate( S A( plate ) ), is q plate , and the total
electric charges due to electrons of the
= N0e
(ρ φ )(ρairSA(air)φe(air) ) −
plate e( plate)
atoms in a same area in the air close to 4πε0 pair AplateAair
the plate is q air . These charges produce a
(
repulsion force, Fe = (1 4π ε 0 ) q plateqair r ,
2
) − (re( plate) + re(air) ) (8)
which is opposite to the force,
F p = p air S A( plate ) , exerted by the air Equation (2) tells us that
pressure, p air . The electric charges q plate
Aair
and q air , according to Eq. (4), can be S A(air) =
1
= (9)
nairφatom(air) N0 ρairφatom(air)
expressed by
Substitution of Eq. (9) into Eq. (8) gives
q plate = n plate S A( plate )φ e ( plate )e =
N0 ρplateφe( plate)φe(air)
Δx = e −(re( plate) + re(air) ) (10)
⎛ N 0 ρ plate ⎞ 4πε0 pairAplateφatom(air)
=⎜
⎜ A
⎟ S A( plate )φ e ( plate )e

(5)
⎝ plate ⎠
For any type of solid plate we have
φe( plate) = 2.8 ×10−15 m . For electrons in

575
3

the air we have φe(air) = 1.37×10−13 m [1]; ( ρ plate = 1850kg.m−3 and Aplate = 9.012), at
φ atom(air ) = 1.3 × 10
m. −10
Substitution −3
pair =10 atm= 0.76Torr=1.01×10 N / m . 2 2

these values into Eq. (10) yields Also it is possible to obtain quantum
vacuum if the plate is made of Iron
( ρ plate = 7800kg.m −3 and Aplate = 55.81), at
ρ plate
Δx = 6.4 ×10−10 − 7.01×10−14 m (11) pair = 10−3 atm = 0.76Torr = 1.01×102 N / m2
pair Aplate
. In this case, the result is
For Boron (B): ρ plate = 2340kg.m −3 and
Δx = 7.5×10−10 m ≅ 0.75nm (15)
A plate = 10.81 , then Eq. (11) gives

9.4×10−9
Δx = − 7.01×10−14 m (12)
pair

Δx
Thus, if p air = 1atm = 1.01 × 10 N / m , 5 2

we obtain
atoms
Δx = 2.9 × 10 m ≅ 0.29 Angstrons (13)
−11

This distance is insufficient to configure


a region of quantum vacuum because it 0.29Å
(a)
is much smaller than the diameter of
one atom (1-3Å). Under these
circumstances, the zone between the
plate and the air close to the plate Δx > 3 Å
practically does not exist, because some
atoms can penetrate partially the zone,
preventing the formation of the
quantum vacuum (See Fig.3 (a)).
However, if
atoms
pair = 10−3 atm = 0.76Torr = 1.01× 102 N / m 2

(b)
we obtain
Fig.3 – Quantum vacuum formation. (a) If the
−10
Δx = 9.2 × 10 m ≅ 1nm (14) distance Δx is smaller than the diameter of an atom
(1-3Å) the zone between the plate and the air close to
the plate practically does not exist, because some
In this case the distance Δx is greater atoms can penetrate partially the zone, preventing the
than 3Å, which is sufficient to configure formation of the quantum vacuum. (b) Only if Δx is
greater than 3 Å is that the quantum vacuum can be
a region of quantum vacuum (See Fig.3 configured.
(b)).
The result is approximately the
same in the case of Beryllium (Be)

576
4

It is easy to shown that, if the of this face disappears. Consequently,


plate is made with a material composed by applying an electric or magnetic field
of molecules with molecular mass in the layer of quantum vacuum, the
M plate , the equation (11) can be device becomes a simple GCC (See Fig.
rewritten in the following form 4(b)).

Two Quantum Vacuum Layers


ρ plate
Δx = 6.4×10−10 − 7.01×10−14 m (16) I
Iron
pair M plate II
Iron
Air Pressure 0.76 Torr
For most of plastics the value of M plate
is too large. Thus, according Eq. (16) (a)
this makes the value of Δx too small,
preventing the formation of quantum One Quantum Vacuum Layer
vacuum. Plastic coating
Iron
Consider for example an Iron I
plate. If one of its faces is coated with a II
Iron
plastic material, then there is not Air Pressure 0.76 Torr
formation of quantum vacuum together
to plasticized area. The quantum (b)
vacuum only will be formed in the
neighborhood of the face not coated Fig.4 – Double and Simple Gravity Control Cell
with plastic material.
It was shown in a previous paper
that the quantum vacuum is not an
empty region, but totally filled with
elementary quantum of matter, forming
a Continuous and Stationary Universal
Fluid or Universal Quantum Fluid,
whose density is of the order of
10 −27 kg.m −3 [2]. This ultra-low density
strongly facilitates the construction of
the Gravity Control Cells (GCCs),
mentioned in a previous paper [3].
Thus, the possibility of to obtain layers
quantum vacuum in practice, is highly
relevant for the construction of the
GCCs. For example, consider the device
shown in Fig. 4 (a). When the air
internal pressure is 0.76 Torr, two layers
of quantum vacuum are formed in the
internal faces (I and II) of the device.
Thus, by applying an electric or
magnetic field in these layers of
quantum vacuum, the device becomes a
double GCC. On the other hand, if the
internal face (I) of the device is coated
with a plastic material, then the layer of
quantum vacuum at the neighborhood

577
5

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2012) Superconducting State
generated by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified
Gravitational Interaction. (See Appendix A.
Available at : http://vixra.org/abs/1207.0008 ).

[2] De Aquino, F. (2011) The Universal Quantum


Fluid. Available at :
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01082611

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology,11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247,
Physics/0701091. Also available at:
http://vixra.org/abs/1401.0119

578
The Gravitational Invisibility
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The possible obtention of invisibility by means of a gravitational method is shown in this work. This method
is based on a gravity control process patented on 2008 (BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5). It goes far beyond
the known methods of invisibility and camouflage, which use the principles of light refraction to allow light
to pass right through an object (metamaterials).

Key words: Invisibility, Gravitational Invisibility, Real and Imaginary Universes.

1. Introduction
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
An object that cannot be seen by the
χ = = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (1)
human eyes is in called state of invisibility. mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ m c ⎠ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
i 0
At this state, the object neither reflects, nor
absorbs light, i.e., the light passes freely where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
through it. Under this condition, we can say
that the object is 100% transparent. In the particle and Δp is the variation in the
Nature, there is no material 100% particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
transparent. of light.
The concept of invisibility includes In general, the momentum variation Δp
others ranges of the electromagnetic is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
spectrum, such as radio, infrared,
ultraviolet, etc., since the object can be applied force during a time interval Δt .
detected by instruments operating in the Note that there is no restriction concerning
ranges of radio, infrared, ultraviolet, etc. the nature of the force F , i.e., it can be
Thus, the invisibility depends on the eyes of mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.
the observer and/or the instruments used to For example, we can look on the
detect the object. momentum variation Δp as due to
At the state of total invisibility, an absorption or emission of electromagnetic
object cannot be detected by any real energy. In this case, it was shown
observer or instrument, even making use of previously that the expression of χ can be
detectors, which operate in real ranges of expressed by means of the following
radio, infrared, ultraviolet, etc. expression [5]:
Here we will show a method to make
a real body totally invisibly. This method is ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞
⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ =
based on a gravity control process patented mg ⎢
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
on 2008 (BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎥
July 31, 2008[1]). It goes far beyond the ⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
known methods of invisibility and
camouflage, which use the principles of ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ Un ⎞
light refraction to allow light to pass right ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ =
through an object (metamaterials) [2, 3]. ⎜ m c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
2. Theory
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ Wnr ⎞
In a previous paper, I showed that ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ (2)
⎜ ρc2 ⎟ ⎥
gravitational mass, m g , and rest inertial ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
mass, mi 0 , are correlated by means of the
following expression [4]: where U is the electromagnetic energy
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is
the index of refraction of the particle; W is

579
2

the density of energy on the particle change E 4 by E rms 4


, and the equation
( )
J / m 3 ; ρ is the matter density kg m (3
) above can be rewritten as follows
and c is the speed of light. ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
mg ⎪ nr4n6Sα2Sm4φm4 Erms
4
In the particular case of χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (5)
heterogeneous mixture of matter * , (powder, mi0 ⎪ ⎢ 4μ02ρ2c6 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪
dust, clouds, air, smoke, heterogeneous ⎩ ⎣ ⎭
plasmas † , etc), subjected to incident Also, it was shown that our Real
radiation or stationary electromagnetic Universe is contained in an Imaginary
fields, the expression of χ can be expressed Universe; in such way that the real
by means of the following expression, spacetime of the Real Universe is contained
which is derived from the above equation in the imaginary spacetime of the Imaginary

[5]: Universe [4]. Thus, each action in the real
spacetime corresponds to an equivalent
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛nrn3SαSm2φm2E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ action in the imaginary spacetime. This,
χ = = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 =
mi0 ⎪ ⎢⎜ 2μ ρ c2 f 2 ⎟(c n f )⎥ ⎥⎬ means for
r
example, that any
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣
0 r momentum, p r , generated in the real

spacetime produces simultaneously an
r r
⎧ ⎡ n4n6S2S4φ4E4 ⎤⎫ equivalent momentum, pim = p r , in the
⎪ ⎪
α mm
= ⎨1−2⎢ 1+ 2 2 6 2 −1⎥⎬
r
(3) imaginary spacetime and vice-versa.
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ0ρ c f ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ In the case of a photon, the
where Sα is the maximum area of cross- momentum p is related to its energy E by
section of the body; φ m is the average means of the following expression:
diameter of the molecules of the E = pc , where c is the speed of light at
2 4 the free space. Thus, when a photon is
body; S m = πφm ; E is the instantaneous
generated in the Real Universe with an
electric field applied on the body; μ 0 is the energy E r = p r c its correspondent photon
magnetic permeability of the free space; in the imaginary spacetime will have energy
f is the oscillating frequency of the electric r r
Eim = pim c . As pim = p r we can
field and n is the number of atoms per unit
of volume in the body, which is given by conclude that E r = Eim . Consequently, the
N0ρ photon generated in the imaginary
n= (4 ) spacetime will have equal frequency, and
A the same direction of the real photon (due to
r r
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 atoms / kmole is
26 pim = p r ). Consequently, when an object
the Avogadro’s number and A is the molar is illuminated with real photons, it is also
mass (kg/kmole). being illuminated with imaginary photons.
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The Since there is imaginary mass associated to
§
the real mass [4] , then, the imaginary
average value for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 photons interact with the imaginary mass
because E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the associated to real mass of the object, and
can be reflected, absorbed or transmitted,
maximum value for E ). On the other
such as occurs with the real photons when
hand, Erms = Em 2 . Consequently we can they incide on the real matter. Real photons
in turn do not interact with imaginary

* ‡
From the macroscopic viewpoint, a heterogeneous The terms imaginary and real are borrowed from
mixture is a mixture that can be separated easily Mathematics (real and imaginary numbers) [6].
(sand, powder, dust, smoke, etc.). The opposite of a
heterogeneous mixture is a homogeneous mixture §
(ferrite, concrete, rock, etc). These new concepts are widely detailed and
explained in the ref [4]. It is essential to study the

Heterogeneous plasma is a mixture of different contents of this reference to get a complete
ions, while Homogeneous plasma is composed of a understanding of the matter here developed.
single ion specie.

580
3

matter. Consequently, they pass freely


through the imaginary mass (See Fig.1 (a)).
Note that the photons can be of any range Imaginary Photon
of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., radio, Real Photon
infrared, light, ultraviolet, etc.
The real light photons are detected by
the retina of our eyes, and thus we see the
object. If the gravitational mass, mg, of our Real Body
body is reduced to a value between
−0.159mi0 and + 0.159 mi0, (mi0 is the rest
inertial mass of the body), it becomes an
imaginary body and realizes a transition to
the Imaginary Universe [4], from where it
still will can see objects, because its Imaginary Body
imaginary retina can to detect the imaginary
(a)
light photons reflected from the imaginary
mass associated to the real object (See Fig.1
(b)). Window
Imagine then an observer inside a 1 (Glass)
spacecraft, seeing for an object out of the Light
spacecraft, through a glass window of the Source
spacecraft. If the spacecraft and the Imaginary
observer are turned into imaginary bodies, Observers
then, despite the real photons (reflected
from the object) no more interact with the
Real
retina of the observer, he will still continue Observer
seeing the object out of the spacecraft by 2
means of the imaginary photons (associated Imaginary Imaginary
to the real photons) that are reflected from Spacecraft Observer
(b)
the object (See Fig.1 (b)). A second 3
imaginary observer inside the spacecraft, Fig.1 – The real-imaginary pairs of photons
seeing for the internal wall of the spacecraft interacting with real and imaginary matter,
does not see the real object out of the respectively. (a) The imaginary photons interact
spacecraft, because the imaginary photons with the imaginary mass associated to the real mass,
reflected from the body do not surpass the and can be reflected, absorbed or transmitted, such as
wall of the spacecraft (such as occurs in a occurs when real photons incide on the real matter.
Real photons in turn do not interact with imaginary
real spacecraft with an real internal
matter. Consequently, they pass freely through the
observer, i.e., the observer cannot see out of imaginary mass. (b) The imaginary light photons
the spacecraft). On the other hand, a real reflected from the ball sensitize the retina of the
observer out of the spacecraft does not see observer 1, and then he can see the ball through the
the spacecraft (See Fig.1 (b)); because the window. The observer 2 cannot see the ball because
the real light photons do not interact with his retina,
real photons pass through the spacecraft and the imaginary photons reflected from the ball do
without interact with it, and the imaginary not reach it. The real observer (out of the spacecraft)
photons reflected from the surface of the cannot see the spacecraft because the imaginary light
spacecraft are not detected by the retina of photons reflected from the spacecraft do not sensitize
its retina, i.e., they pass freely through the eyes of the
the real observer (these photons pass freely
real observer, but they will sensitize the retina of the
through it). However, a third imaginary observer 3 (imaginary observer), and consequently he
observer positioned out of the spacecraft can see the spacecraft. In addition, when a human
will see the spacecraft, because the body becomes imaginary, he becomes invisible to
imaginary photons will sensitize its any real observer, but he can see real objects because
its eyes can detect the imaginary light photons
imaginary retina. reflected from real objects.

581
4

There are two ways to transform a Note that this method is very efficient
real body into an imaginary body. Reducing because there is no necessity of to alter
directly its gravitational mass, mg, to a directly the gravitational masses of the
value between −0.159mi0 and + 0.159 mi0 or others parts of the spacecraft. Thus, the
reducing the gravitational mass of a part of advantages of this method are evident. It
the body until it becomes negative, and the also can be used in order to transform real
total gravitational mass of the body be human bodies into imaginary human
reduced to a value inside the range above bodies.
mentioned (See Fig.2).

Spinning Spacecraft
Ferromagnetic
disk

m g ( part ) < 0

m g (rest ) > 0
Fig.3 – Clothes for Gravitational Invisibility.

m g (total ) = m (rest ) + m g ( part )


For example, consider a person
− 0 .159 m i 0 < m g (total ) < + 0 .159 m i 0 wearing a type of clothes similar to ninja
clothes (See Fig.3). The tissue of these
Fig.2 – Transforming a real spacecraft into clothes is similar to Metallic bubble wrap
an imaginary spacecraft. It is possible to (See Fig.4). It has 3 layers. Both the inner
transform a real spacecraft into an imaginary layer as the outer layer are metallic;
spacecraft by reducing the gravitational mass of between them there is a dielectric layer
a part of the spacecraft, mg(part), until it becomes (bubble wrap). Inside the bubbles there is
negative, and the total gravitational mass of the ionized air, which can be obtained by using
spacecraft be reduced to a value between
−0.159mi0 and + 0.159 mi0.

It was shown in a previous paper that


the decreasing of the gravitational mass can
become relevant in the particular case of
spinning ferromagnetic disks subjected to
electromagnetic fields with extremely low
frequencies (ELF) [7]. This means that a
ferromagnetic disk, subjected to
appropriated ELF radiation, and spinning
with sufficient angular velocity inside the
spacecraft can make strongly negative its
gravitational mass, m g ( part ) , in such way
that the total gravitational mass of the
spacecraft can be reduced to a value
between −0.159mi0 and + 0.159 mi0 , Fig.4 – Aluminum bubble warp.
transforming then the spacecraft into a
imaginary spacecraft.

582
5

an air ionizer ** . The ionization of the By substituting the values of nr (air ) , nair ,
air is necessary in order to increase its
electrical conductivity up to ρ and φm = 1.55×10−10m (Nitrogen), and
σ ≅ 1 × 10 S / m , which is an ideal
−6 ††
S m = πφ m2 4 = 1 . 88 × 10 − 20 m 2 , into
value, as we shall see in the following. Eq. (5), we get
From Electrodynamics we know
that when an electromagnetic wave with ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
Sα2 Erms
4
frequency f and velocity c incides on a χ air = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.6×104 −1⎥⎬ (9)
material with relative permittivity ε r , ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f4 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
relative magnetic permeability μ r and
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is where Sα is equal to the cross-section
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the area of one bubble of the metallic bubble
index of refraction of the material, wrap, whose diameter is φb ≅ 1cm ,i.e.,
given by [8] Sα = πφb2 4 ≅ 7.8 ×10−5 m2 (See Fig. 5);
E rms is the oscillating electric field,
εμ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (6)
c 2
with frequency f , through the ionized
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ air inside the bubbles of the metallic
bubble wrap.
Let us now apply this equation to Therefore, if the total
the ionized air inside the bubbles in the gravitational mass of the human body
metallic bubble wrap. Since the with the ninja clothes for invisibility
electrical conductivity of the ionized air is M g , then when a voltage Vrms is
is σ ≅ 1×10−6 S / m . Then, if f < 100Hz , we
applied on the metallic layers of the
have σ >>ωε = 2πfε 0 , ( ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F/ m tissue of the mentioned clothes, the
is the permittivity of the free space). In mass M g is reduced to
this case, Eq. (6) reduces to
Mg = Mg0 − χair Mi0(air) = Mi0 − χair Mi0(air) =
μ rσ
n r (air ) = ≅
94 .8
(7 )
4πε 0 f f ⎛ χair Mi0(air) ⎞
= ⎜1 −

⎟Mi0

(10)
⎝ M i0 ⎠
For atmospheric air, at 1atm,
25°C, we can assume ρ ≅ 1.2kg / m 3 . where M i 0 (air ) is the total inertial mass
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen)
of the ionized air and M i 0 is the total
per unit of volume, nair , according to
inertial mass of the human body with
Eq.(4), is given by
the ninja clothes for invisibility.
Since we must have
N0 ρ
nair = = 5.16×1025atoms/ m3 (8) − 0.159 M i 0 < M g < 0.159 M i 0 in order
AN to the human body (with ninja clothes)
to become imaginary, then from Eq.
(10), it follows that
**
For example, making the air passes through
⎛ M i0 ⎞ ⎛ M i0 ⎞
the plates of a capacitor subjected to a high
0.841⎜ ⎟ < χ air < 1.159⎜ ⎟ (11)
voltage. ⎜M ⎟ ⎜M ⎟
††
The electrical conductivity of atmospheric air ⎝ i 0( air ) ⎠ ⎝ i 0( air ) ⎠
at 1 atm, 25°C is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [9].

583
6

The total volume of the ionized air therefore Sα = πφb2 4 ≅ 7.8 ×10−5 m 2 . Then,
inside the bubbles can be obtained by for f = 1Hz , Eq. (13) gives
multiplying the total external surface
area, S c ≅ 2m 2 , of the clothes for
E rms = 1.4 × 10 3 V / m (14)
invisibility by the thickness of the
bubbles, hb ≅ 1mm (Fig.5). Thus, the total
This intensity of electric field can be
inertial mass of the ionized air, M i 0 ( air ) , is obtained through the ionized air when a
given by M i 0(air) ≅ ρ S c hb ≅ 2.4 × 10 kg .
−3 voltage Vrms , given by

Vrms = E rms hb ≅ 1.4V (15)


is applied on the metallic surfaces of the
metallic bubbles wrap.
It is important to note that the
Metallic surfaces bubble with ionized air, such as
described in this paper, it can also work
Bubble as a Gravity Control Cell (GCC). A
device widely mentioned in some of my
h b=1mm Ionized air Vr ms ~ previous works [10, 11, 12, 13, 14].

φ b = 1cm

Fig.5 – Dimensions of the bubbles

If M i 0 ≅ 100kg , then Eq.(11)


tells us that we must have

3.5 × 104 < χ air < 4.8 ×104 (12)

In order to obtain χ air = 4 × 10 4 , for


example, Eq. (9) tells us that we must
have

2
Sα E rms
= 158.1 (13)
f2

Since one bubble of the metallic bubble


wrap has diameter φb ≅ 1cm , and

584
7

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for
Controlling the Locally the Gravitational Mass
and the Gravity Acceleration, BR Patent Number:
PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008.

[2] J. B. Pendry, J.B., et al., (1996).Phys. Rev.


Lett. 76, 4773.

[3] J. B. Pendry, J.B., et al., (1999). IEEE Trans.


Micr. Theory Techniques 47, 2075.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11
(1), pp. 173-232.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2011) Ultrafast Conversion of


Graphite to Diamond in Gravitational Pressure
Apparatus, http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0007, p. 4.

[6] De Aquino, F., (2012) Beyond the Material


Universe, Journal for Interdisciplinary Research
on Religion and Science, No. 10, pp.83-128.

[7] De Aquino, F., (2013) New Gravitational Effects


from Rotating Masses. Avaiable at;
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01078046 and
http://vixra.org/abs/1307.0108 , version 2.

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo,


McGraw-Hill, p. 270.

[9] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et
al., (2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20,
DOI: 10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad
Nejadkoorki, Publisher InTech.

[10] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means


of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247,
Physics/0701091. Also available at:
http://vixra.org/abs/1401.0119

[11] De Aquino, F. (2014) Quantum Gravitational


Shielding,
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01074607v3

[12] De Aquino, (2015). Improvements in the Design


of the Gravitational Motor. Available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01188315v1
http://vixra.org/abs/1508.0293

[13] De Aquino, F., (2015) Method for Obtaining


Quantum Vacuum. Available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01199704
http://vixra.org/abs/1509.0134

[14] De Aquino, F., (2015). A System to convert


Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical
Energy. Available at:
http://vixra.org/abs/1205.0119

585
Control of the Gravitational Energy by means of Sonic Waves
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It is shown here that the incidence of sonic waves on a solid can reduce its gravitational
mass. This effect is more relevant in the case of the Aerogels, in which it is possible
strongly reduce their gravitational masses by using sonic waves of low frequency.

Key words: Gravitational Energy Control, Gravitational Mass, Sonic Waves, Sound Pressure.

The quantization of gravity showed that The number of atoms per unit of
the gravitational mass mg and the inertial volume, n , is given by
mass mi are correlated by means of the N0 ρ
following factor [1]: n= (2)
A
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
mass(kg/kmole).
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the When the sonic wave incides on the
lamina, it incides N f front electrons, where
particle and Δp is the variation in the
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed of Nf ≅ (ZnSf )φe , φe is the “diameter” of the
light. electron inside an atom † , which is
When an electromagnetic wave strikes φ e = 1.4 × 10 −13 m [2]. Thus, the sonic wave
an atom, it interacts electromagnetically with incides effectively on an area S = Nf Se , where
the atom, acting simultaneously on all its
structure. Unlike a sonic wave that strikes the S e = 14 πφe2 is the cross section area of one atom.
internal particles of the atom isolatedly, After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
interacting mechanically with them. Thus, if a with the other orbital electrons (See Fig.1).
lamina of monoatomic material, with
thickness equal to ξ contains n atoms/m3,
then the number of atoms per area unit is nξ .
Thus, if the sonic wave with frequency f
incides perpendicularly on an area S of the
lamina it reaches nSξ atoms. Consequently,
the wave strikes on ZnS ξ orbital electrons * electron
( Z is the atomic number of the atoms). Se
Therefore, if it incides on the total area of the Wave
lamina, S f , then the total number of Fig. 1 – Collisions inside the lamina.
electrons reached by the radiation is
N = ZnS f ξ . Thus, the total number of collisions in the
volume Sξ is

* †
Assuming that, all of them are reached by the sonic The diameter of the electron and protons depends on
wave. the region where it is placed.

586
2

Ncollisions= Nf + ncollisions= nl Sφe + (nl Sξ − neSφe ) = Substitution of P given by Eq. (4) into Eq. (8)
= nl Sξ (3) gives
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ N f Se D ⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
The power density, D , of the sonic radiation = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (9)
on the lamina can be expressed by mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎠⎜⎝ mi0(l )c ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
D=
P
=
P
(4 )
Substitution of Nf ≅ Z(nl Sf )φe and S = N f Se into
S N f Se
We can express the total mean number
of collisions in each orbital electron, n1 , by Eq. (9) results
means of the following equation
⎧ ⎡
⎡⎛ Z 2 nl3 S 2f Se2φe2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (10)
mg(l )
n total N collisions = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜
n1 =
phonons
(5 ) mi0(l ) ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥ ⎥
N ⎪ ⎢
⎩ ⎣
⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

Since in each collision a momentum h λ ‡ is where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .


transferred to the atom, then the total
The speed of the sound, v , as a function
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
of frequency, f , and wavelength, λ , is given
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
by v = λf , (phase velocity) [4]. When the
with Eq. (1), we can write that
sonic wave propagates itself through the
lamina its velocity is modified and becomes
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ h ⎤ ⎥⎪⎬ = v mod = v n r (l ) = λf n r (l ) , where n r (l ) is the
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ mi0cλ ⎦ ⎥⎪ sonic refractive index of the lamina, which
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ can be expressed by the following equation:
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ n r (l ) = v air vla min a . Since v mod = λ mod f , where
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ h ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal phononsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (6)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ mi0cλ ⎦ ⎥⎪ λ mod is the modified wavelength, then we can
⎦⎭
write that
λ
Since Eq. (3) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get λmod = =
v f
(11)
n r (l ) n r (l )
⎛ P ⎞ Substitution of λ by λ mod into Eq. (10) yields
n total ⎜ hf 2 ⎟⎟(n l Sξ )
phonons N collisions = ⎜ (7 ) ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎝ ⎠ ⎡⎛ Z2nl3S2f Se2φe2ξD⎞ nr(l ) f ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ −1 (12)
mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎢⎜ m cf 2 ⎟ v ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬
Substitution of Eq. (7) into Eq. (6) yields ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ i 0( l ) ⎠ ⎦ ⎦⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎭
Considering that m i 0 (l ) = ρ (l ) S α ξ , we obtain
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ h ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (8)
⎪ ⎢⎢ mi0 cλ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎪ ⎧ ⎡ Z 2 nr2(l ) nl6 S 4f Se4φe4 D2 ⎤⎫⎪
mi0(l ) ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎭ mg(l ) ⎪
⎩ ⎣ χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (13)
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ρ 2 2 2 2 2
S
(l ) α c f v ⎥⎪
⎦⎭

Phonon is a quantum of vibrational energy. The For S f = Sα we obtain
phonon energy is given by ε = hω = hf , and its
velocity is v = λf ( λ is the wavelength). Thus, the ⎧⎪ ⎡
mg(l ) Z2nr2(l )nl6Sα2Se4φe4D2 ⎤⎫⎪
momentum carried out by a phonon is χ= ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (14)
p = ε v = hf λf = h λ . Thus, the expression of mi0(l ) ⎢ ρ 2 2 2 2
c f v ⎥⎦⎪
the momentum carried out by the phonon is similar to ⎪⎩ ⎣ (l )

the expression for the momentum carried out by the
photon [3].

587
3

Since This shows that under these conditions, the


2
weight of the lamina (m g (l ) g ) will have its
D=
P
(15 )
2ρ v direction inverted. For P = 600 N / m 2 ;
where P is the pressure of the sonic radiation S α ≅ 1m 2 and f = 20 Hz the result is
[5], then substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (14) m g (l )
gives ≅ −85.2 (20)
mi 0 (l )
mg(l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ Z 2nr2(l )nl6Sα2Se4φe4P4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (16) In this case, the weight of the lamina besides
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ 4ρ(4l )c2 f 2v4 ⎥⎦⎪ to be inverted, it is intensified 85.2 times.
⎩ ⎣ ⎭
Thus, by controlling the magnitude of the
This equation, deduced for phonons, is only gravitational mass is then possible to control the
valid for solids § , unlike the correspondent gravitational energy, gravity, etc.
equation deduced for photons, which is valid Vulcanized Rubber can be as
for solid, liquid and gases. advantageous as Aerogels. In this case we
The speed of the sound for pressure have: v = 54 m.s −1 ; ρ (l ) ≅ 930kg.m −3 ;
waves in solid materials is given by
nr (l ) = vair v = 343 54 = 6.3 . The main
v solid =
Y
(17 ) constituent of Vulcanized Rubber is synthetic cis-
ρ
polyisoprene. Based on its chemical structure, we
where Y is the Young’s modulus. can calculate the value of nl . The result is
Aerogels are solids with high porosity
(<100 nm), with ultra low density (~3 Kg/m3 nl ≅ 4 × 1029 atoms / m3
or less) and with ultra low sound speed
(~110m/s) [6,7,8]. We can take Eq. (16) for a Assuming Z = Z (C ) ≅ 6 and considering that
hypothetic aerogel with the following
characteristics: Debye speed of S e = πφe2 4 = 1.6 × 10 −26 m 2 ; φe =1.4×10−13 m,
sound v = 110m.s −1 ; then by substitution of these values into Eq. (16),
we get
n r (l ) = v air v = 343 110 = 3.1 ; ρ (l ) = 3kg.m ; −3

n l ( solid ) = N 0 ρ solid Asolid ≅ 1 × 10 29 atoms / m 3 ⎧⎪ ⎡


mg(l ) S 2 P4 ⎤⎫⎪
( ρ solid is neither the bulk density nor the χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 6.4×10−11 α 2 −1⎥⎬ (21)
skeletal density it is the specific mass of the
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
part solid) ; S e = πφ e2 4 = 1 .6 × 10 −26 m 2 ;
For P = 600N / m2 ; Sα ≅ 1m2 and f = 0.2Hz
φe =1.4×10−13 m; Z ≅ 10 . By substitution of
(Infrasound ** ) the result is
these values into Eq. (16), we get
mg(l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 2 4
−6 Sα P
⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 6×10 −1⎥⎬ (18) m g (l )
≅ −25.8 (22 )
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ f 2
⎥ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ m i 0 (l )
Note that for S α ≅ 1m , f = 20 Hz and
2

P = 120 N / m 2 , (Loudest human voice at


1 inch reach 110 N / m 2 ; Jet engine at 1 m
reach 632 N / m 2 [9].), the Eq. (18) tells us that
mg (l )
≅ −1 (19)
mi 0(l )

§ **
Since a phonon is a mechanical excitation that Such sound waves cover sounds beneath 20 Hz
propagates itself through the crystalline network of a down to 0.001 Hz.
solid.

588
4

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2012) Superconducting State


generated by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified
Gravitational Interaction, Appendix A. Available
at: http://vixra.org/abs/1207.0008

[3] Riessland, J. A. (1973). The Physics of Phonons,


Wiley-Interscience Publication.

[4] Ference Jr, M., et al., (1956) Analytical


Experimental Physics, The University of Chicago
Press. Portuguese version, Ed. Edgard Blucher, S.
Paulo, Brazil, p.5.

[5] Ference Jr, M., et al., (1956) Analytical


Experimental Physics, The University of Chicago
Press. Portuguese version, Ed. Edgard Blucher, S.
Paulo, Brazil, p.38.

[6] Thapliyal, P. C and Singh, K. (2014) Aerogels as


Promising Thermal Insulating Materials: An
Overview. Journal of Materials, Volume 2014,
Article ID 127049.

[7] Gurav, J.L. et al., (2010) J. Nanomaterials, 409310.

[8] Jing, X., et al., (2013) Thermal conductivity of a


ZnO nanowire/silica aerogel nanocomposite.
Applied Physics Letters, 102, 193101.

[9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_pressure

589
Nuclear Fission by means of Terahertz Sonic Waves
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It is shown here that when terahertz sonic waves strike on an atomic nucleus they can
produce the fission of the nucleus. This fact can be now checked in practice since recently it
was developed an acoustic device called a SASER that is the first to emit sonic waves in
the terahertz range.

Key words: Nuclear Fission, Terahertz Sonic waves, Sasers, Sonic Waves.

r r
The quantization of gravity shows that Since q has always the same direction of v ,
the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi
then the coefficient mg 1− v2 c2 cannot be
are not equivalents, but correlated by means
of a factor χ , i.e., negative as occurs in the case of m g be
m g = χ mi0 (1) negative. For this coefficient always be
positive the unique way is take m g in
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the modulus, rewriting Eq. (3) as follows:
particle. The expression of χ can be put in
r
the following form [1]: r mg v
q = (5)
1− v2 c2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 r⎟
(2)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎪ This is not necessary in Eq. (4) because the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ energy can be both positive as negative. Then
substitution of m g given by Eq.(1) into Eqs.
where W is the density of electromagnetic
energy on the particle (J / m 3 ); ρ is the matter
(4) and (5) gives
density of the particle; c is the speed of light,
mg c 2 χ mi0 c 2
and n r is its index of refraction of the Eg = = = χ Mi 0 c 2 (6)
particle. 1− v c2 2
1− v c
2 2

Equation (2) shows that χ can be


positive or negative. This fact affect and
fundamentally the expressions for the
r r r
momentum q and energy E g of a particle r mg v χ mi 0 v r
with gravitational mass m g and velocity v ,
r q = = = χ M i0v (7)
1− v c 2 2
1− v c 2 2

which are respectively given by


r By substituting M i 0 by hf c 2 into equation
r mg v
q = (3) (6) and (7), it is possible to transform these
1− v2 c2 equations for the case of particles with null
mass as photons and phonons, etc. The result is

mg c 2 Eg = χ hf (8)
Eg = (4) and
1 − v2 c2

590
2
r
r ⎛v ⎞ h 2Ek c 8.5 ×1014
q= χ⎜ ⎟ (9) f = > (14)
⎝c⎠λ χ hvs χ vs

In the case of photons (v = c ) the equations


For example, in order to produce
are the followings nuclear fission in Uranium (v s = 3155m.s −1 ) ,
r in the case of χ ≅ 1 , the frequency, f , must
Eg = χ hf and q= χ
h
(10) have the following value
λ
8.5 × 1014
Note that the energy and the momentum of the f > ≅ 15THz (16)
photons depend on the factor χ , which χ vs
depends on the medium where the photons
propagate, and the local energy density. In the case of the Air
Only for χ = 1 is that the equations (10) are
reduced to the well-known expressions of
(v s = 343,4m.s at 20 C ) , the frequency, f ,
−1 0

Einstein (hf ) and DeBroglie (q = h λ ) .


is given by

For phonons ( v = v s and λ = λ s ) Eq.


8.5 ×1014
(9) tells us that f> ≅ 45.8THz (17)
χ vs
r
r ⎛ vs ⎞ h
qs = χ ⎜ ⎟ = χ
hf
(11) In 2009, it was developed an acoustic
⎝ c ⎠ λs c
device called SASER that is the first to emit
sonic waves in the terahertz range [3]. While
Thus, when a sonic wave strikes on an atomic a laser uses packets of electromagnetic
nucleus, the total momentum transferred for vibrations called photons, the SASER uses
the nucleus in 1second, for example, is given by sonic waves composed of sonic vibrations
called phonons.
r r ⎛ 1s ⎞ hf 2
qs(1second) = qs ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = χ (12) The advent of the sasers is highly
relevant mainly because it will be possible to
⎝1 f ⎠ c
check the theoretical predictions made here.
r
We can express qs(1second) , as a function
of the kinetic energy E k absorbed in one
second, by means of the following equation:

r 2E
qs(1second) = k (13)
vs

Nuclear fission can occur in a


heavy nucleus when it acquires sufficient
excitation energy (E k > 5Mev = 8 × 10 −13 J ) [2].
Thus, comparing Eq. (12) and (13), we can
conclude that the frequency f of a phonon,
necessary to produce nuclear fission, is given
by

591
3

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[2] Beiser, A. (1963) Concepts of Modern Physics.


Portuguese version, (1969) Ed. Poligono, S. Paulo,
p.404.

[3] Walker, P.M. et al., (2009) Terahertz acoustic


oscillations by stimulated phonon emission in an
optically pumped superlattice, Phys. Rev. B
79(24), 245313.

592
Electromagnetic Radiation can affect the Lift Force
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2015 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show that, under certain circumstances, electromagnetic radiations can strongly
reduce the lift force. An aircraft for example, can be shot down when reached by a flux of
specific electromagnetic radiation. This discovery can help the aircraft pilots to avoid
regions where there are electromagnetic radiations potentially dangerous. Not only the
flight of the aircrafts are affected by the electromagnetic radiation, but also the flight of any
flying object whose flight depends on the lift force, including birds and flying insects.

Key words: Lift Force, Aircrafts, Gravitational Mass, Microwave Radiation.

The expression of the lift force (L) is L = CL ( 1


2
ρ g v 2 )A = C L (12 χρ i 0 v 2 )A (5)
given by [1]

( ρv 2 )A
This is the generalized expression for the lift force
L = CL 1
2
(1) (See Fig. 1).
The atmospheric air contains water
where C L is the lift coefficient, ρ is air droplets. Thus, if a region of the Earth’s
atmosphere is subjected to electromagnetic
density, v is true airspeed, A is the wing radiation then, according to Eq. (3), the
area. Equation (1) is derived from the gravitational mass of the water droplets in this
Bernoulli equation region will be reduced. In this particular case, the
2 ρv + ρgh + P = C
1 2
(2) gravitational mass of the water droplets
(gravitational mass of water droplets cloud
which is obtained starting from the variations
of the potential energy (mgh) , and kinetic
(WDC)) will be reduced according to the
following expression [3]:
energy (12 mv 2 ); the mass m is expressed by
mg(wdc)⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎢ nr2 n6 Sα2 Sm4φm4 D2 ⎤⎫⎪
means of the following equation: χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (6)
m = ρAvΔt = ρV , ( V is refers to the volume). mi0(wdc) ⎪ ⎢ ρi20(wdc) c4 f 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The quantization of gravity [2] showed that where f and D are respectively the frequency
the gravitational mass m g and rest inertial mass and the power density of the electromagnetic
mi 0 are not equivalents, but correlated by means radiation; φ m is the average “diameter” of the
of a factor χ , which can be reduced and made molecules of water, S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross
negative, for example by means of absorption or
emission of electromagnetic radiation. Only section area; ρ i0 ( wdc ) is the density of the water
for χ = 1 , m g = mi 0 . The correlation is expressed droplets cloud inside the air, ρ i 0 ( wdc ) ≅ ρ i 0 ( air ) ;
by means of the following equation Sα is the maximum area of the cross-section of
m g = χ mi 0 (3) the water droplets cloud (perpendicular to the
In addition, it was shown [2] that the incident radiation); nr is the index of refraction
new expressions for the kinetic energy and of the water droplets cloud, and n is the number
potential energy are respectively, given by of molecules per unit of volume in the water
1
2 mg v
2
m g gh (4) droplets cloud, which is given by weighted

Consequently the variable ρ = m V , in the


(
arithmetic mean n = p1n( water) + p2 n(air) p1 + p2 , )
where n( water ) and n( air ) are calculated by means of
Eqs. (1) and (2) must be replaced
by ρ g = mg V = χ mi0 V = χ ρi 0 . Thus, the Eq. the following equation:

(1) will be rewritten as follows

593
2

(air) − ρg( wdc) = ρi0(air) − χ ρi0( wdc) ≅ (1− χ )ρi0(air) (9)


N0 ρm ρg(air) = ρginitial
n = (7)
A
Then, the expression of the lift force will be given
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is
by
the Avogadro’s number; ρ m is the matter density
(in kg.m-3) and A is the molar mass of the L = 12 CL ρ g (air) v 2 A = 12 CL (1 − χ )ρi 0(air) v 2 A (10)
molecules (in kg.kmol-1). Since
ρ i 0( water ) = 10 3 kg.m −3 , Awater = 18kg .kmol −1 , Note that for
A air = 14 kg .kmol −1
, then we get χ >1
n ( water ) = 3 . 3 × 10 28 molecules / m 3 and The lift force becomes negative.
ρ i 0 (air ) molecules / m
n (air ) = 4 . 3 × 10 25 3 According to Eq. (8), for χ > 1 , we
. Considering a region of the Earth’s must have
Sα D
atmosphere, where the percentage of water is > 2.5 × 10 − 6 (11)
about 4% ( p1 = 4%) and the percentage of air f
is about 96% ( p 2 = 96%) , then for water
droplets cloud, we can write that Now consider a maser beam with an initial
diameter of φ0 . If it is directed to an aircraft flying
4n(water) + 96n(air) 4n(water) at height h , then the cross-section area of the
n= ≅ =1.3×1027 molecules
/ m3 maser beam at the height h (focus area) is given
100 100
by
By reducing the gravitational mass of the water
Sα = π (φα ) 4 = π (φ0 + 2htgα ) 4 (12)
2 2
droplets cloud inside the air, it is possible reduce
the gravitational mass of the air, m g (air ) and,
consequently, to reduce the air where α is the divergence angle of the maser
beam. Assuming φ 0 = 0.8m , h = 10km and
*
density ρ g (air) = mg (air) V = χ mi0(air) V = χ ρi0(air)
. According to Eq. (5), this affects the intensity of α ≅ 0.10 † , we obtain: S α ≅ 1000m 2 . This is
the lift force. the focus area of the maser beam, containing the
In order to evaluate how much the lift aircraft. Note that this area is sufficient to contain
force can be affected, we will start from Eq. the most known aircrafts.
(6). By substituting the values: The power density in the area Sα is
n r ≅ n r ( water ) ≅ 1 . 33 ; ρ i 0 ( wdc ) ≅ ρ i 0 (air ) ;
2
n = 1.3 × 10 27 molecules / m 3 , φm =1.55×10−10m, ⎛ φ0 ⎞
Dα = η (φ0 φα ) D0 = η ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ D0 (13)
2

S m = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 , and c (speed of light) into ⎝ φ0 + 2htgα ⎠


Eq. (6), we get
where η is the absorption factor.
Substitution of Sα and D = Dα into Eq. 11,
ρg(wdc) ⎧⎪ ⎡ S 2 D2 ⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.6 ×1010 2 α 2 −1⎥⎬ (8) gives
ρi0(wdc) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρi0(air) f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎛ 10−5 ⎞ f
D0 > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 (14)
This equation shows that the gravitational ⎝ πη ⎠ φ0
density of the water droplets cloud, ρ g ( wdc ) ,
can become negative, reducing the initial
value of ρ ginitial
( air ) = ρ i 0 ( air ) ≅ ρ i 0 ( wdc ) . Under
*
Usual height of most aircraft flights.
Most of laser beams has 1.26mrad < α < 6.3mrad ;

these conditions, we can write that
then α = 1.26mrad.6.3mrad ≅ 2.8mrad ≅ 0.10 [4].

594
3

⎛ ρg ⎞ 2
L = C L ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟v A
⎝ 2 ⎠
v Aircraft wings

⎛ ρg ⎞ 2
L = C L ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟v A
v = ωr ⎝ 2 ⎠ Helicopter helices

Wings of birds, mosquitoes, etc.

y V = A′y
A′
S S

y
a v = 2ay
y
F

The wings push the air with a force F , and it reacts with a force L = F . Then,
⎛m ⎞
L = F = mg a = ⎜⎜ g ⎟⎟Va = ρ g ( A′y )a = ρ g A′(ay ) =
⎝V ⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
= ρ g A′⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ( Since v = 2ay )
⎝2⎠
⎛ v2 ⎞
= ρ g (CF A)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ( Since A′ = C F A )
⎝2⎠
⎛ ρg ⎞ 2
L = C F ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟v A
⎝ 2 ⎠

Fig. 1 – The Lift Force

595
4

Assuming η ≅ 0.9 , f = 1.4GHz and φ 0 = 0.8m D > 0.85watts / m 2


then Eq. (14) gives
This is sufficient to shot down any bird
D0 > 7736.7 watts / m 2
or flying insect that penetrates the house ‡ .
This can be very useful in the combat to the
This is therefore, the necessary power density mosquitoes, which are responsible by the
at the level of diameter φ0 of the maser beam, transmission of several diseases.
Now consider the following: nearby of
in order to make negative the lift force and the water surface of the oceans, rivers, lakes,
shooting down the aircraft. etc., there is a range of water that is rich in air
Masers with the f = 1.4GHz and droplets due to the pressure of the
D0 ≅ 10 4 W / m 2 already can be produced [5]. atmospheric air, temperature, etc. If an
Note that, if a radiation with a suitable electromagnetic radiation strikes a part of this
ratio D f hits an airstrip, then none aircraft range, then according to Eq. (6), the
gravitational mass of the air droplet cloud
will able to take-off from this airstrip, because
(adc) existing at this region will be reduced,
the negative lift force makes impossible the
reducing therefore the gravitational
take-off.
Consider for example, an airstrip with mass, m g ( water ) , of the water in this region, and
area S α ≅ 1000m 2 , and nearby the sea level also the water density ( ρ g ( water) = mg ( water) / V ).
( ρi0(air) = 1.2kg.m ). If it is subjected to an
−3
This affects the lift force (buoyant force, B) at
electromagnetic radiation with frequency mentioned region, because it is expressed by §
f = 1.4GHz , then according to Eq. (8), we
have
B = ρ g ( water )Vc g (17)

χ=
ρ g (wdc)
ρi0(wdc)
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 0.027D 2 −1 ]} (15)
where Vc is the volume in contact with the
fluid, that is the volume of the submerged part
of the body; g is the local gravity
acceleration.
In order to obtain χ > 1 , we must have
In order to evaluate how much the
buoyant force can be affected, we will start
D > 10.5watts / m 2 from Eq. (6), replacing ρ i 0 ( wdc ) by ρ i 0 (adc ) ,
where adc means air droplets cloud. Then,
Note that the maximum output from a by substituting the values:
GSM850/900 mobile phone is ~2W at n r ≅ n r ( water ) ≅ 1.33 ; ρ i 0(adc) ≅ ρ i 0(air) ≅ 1.2kg.m −3 ;
~1GHz. Thus, the power density nearby the
head (~8cm) is greater than 25W/m2. n ≅ n ( water ) = 3 . 3 × 10 28
molecules /m3,
On the other hand, if S α ≅ 450m 2 (a φm = 1.55×10−10 m and S m = 1.88 × 10 −20 m 2 ,
house, for example) and f = 50 MHz , the into Eq. (6), we get
result is

χ=
ρ g(wdc)
ρi0(wdc)
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 4.2D2 −1 ]} (16)

Lift forces caused by moving air keep aloft aircrafts,
In order to obtain χ > 1 , we must have §
as well as birds and flying insects [6].
The general expression of the buoyant force (for any
fluid) is B = ρ f Vc g , where ρ f is the density of the
fluid.

596
5

ρ g (adc) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 2 2 ⎤⎫⎪ D ≅ 1 × 10 −6 watts / m 2


19 Sα D
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.4×10 −1⎥⎬ (18)
ρi0(adc) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ Considering that the microwave power
density emanating from the Earth’s surface at
This equation shows that the gravitational 300K, with frequency of the order of 1GHz is
density of the air droplets cloud, ρ g (adc ) , can 9.62 × 10 −7 watts / m 2 [7]. Then, we can
become negative, reducing the initial value of conclude that an increase of few degrees in
ρ ginitial the temperature of the Earth’s surface can
( water ) = ρ i 0 ( water ) . Under these conditions,
make negative the buoyant force in the
we can write that mentioned water range.
This may already be happening in some
( water) − ρg(adc) = ρi0( water) − χ ρi0(adc) (19)
ρg(water) = ρginitial regions of the Earth ** , producing the death of
hundreds of fishes. In fact, something strange
Then, the expression of the buoyant force is is happening in the world. It was recently
now announced that hundreds of fishes have been
were found dead on the surface of oceans,
B = ρ g (water)Vc g = (ρi 0(water) − χ ρ i 0(adc) )Vc g (20) lakes, etc., and that hundreds of birds fell
from the sky and died [8]. It is not cold which
was killing the birds and the fish, it is not
Note that for pollution either. No explanation for these
phenomena has been found so far.
ρ i 0 ( water )
χ > ≅ 833.3
ρ i 0 (adc )

the buoyant force becomes negative. Under


these conditions, the fishes in the mentioned
water range will be subjected to a negative
buoyant force, and so they can not stay in this
more oxygenated region, and consequently
they may even die if the radiation to remain
for a long time.
Equation (18) shows that, in order to
obtain χ > 833.3 , we must have

Sα D
> 1.1 × 10 − 7 (21)
f

Consider a region in the Earth’s surface, with


area Sα = π (104 ) 4 ≅ 108 m2 , recovered with a
2

large water range (a part of ocean, lake, etc).


If an electromagnetic radiation with frequency
of the order of 1GHz strikes on this region,
then, according to Eq. (21), the power density
necessary to make negative the buoyant force,
in the water range below the surface, is given
by
**
As consequence of the global warming.

597
6

References
[1] Anderson, J. D. (2004), Introduction to Flight (5th
ed.), McGraw-Hill, pp. 257–261.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2011) Scattering of Sunlight in


Lunar Exosphere Caused by Gravitational
Microclusters of Lunar Dust, p.2. Available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01078052

[4] Gan, F. (1995) Laser Materials, World Scientific,


p.311.

[5] Oxborrow, M., et al., (2012). Room-temperature


Solid-state maser. Nature; 488 (7411): 353 DOI:
10.1038/nature11339.

[6] Rosen, J., (2004) Encyclopedia of Physics, Ed.


Facts on File, Inc., p.189.

[7] Richards, J. A. (2009) Remote Sensing with


Imaging Radar, Springer, p.18.

[8] http://www.eutimes.net/2011/01/birds-and-fish-are-
now-dying-all-around-the-world/ ;
http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/weird-news/dead-
birds-falling-from-the-sky-dead-102882

598
How a Massive Planet can affect Human Consciousnesses when
Passing Nearby the Sun
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2016 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Evidences of a giant planet orbiting our sun, in an orbit whose period would last approximately of 15 thousand
years it seems to have been found. The orbit of the new planet is gigantic, never coming closer to the Sun than
30.5 billion kilometers. The discovery of planets whose orbits go beyond Pluto is not new. We know Sedna,
Haumea and Makemake, and also Eris, which is more massive than Pluto. But all these planets have much less
mass than the giant planet that was recently found orbiting our sun. Here we show how massive planets like
these can affect the human consciousnesses, when they approach the Sun, and pass nearby the Earth.

Key words: Giant Planet orbiting our Sun, Human Consciences, Earth’s Psychic Atmosphere, Psychic Interaction.

Introduction

The existence of other planets, orbiting these planets have much less mass than the giant
our Sun beyond Pluto, has been frequently planet that was recently predicted by Batygin and
proposed by several astronomers. Usually Brown.
they result from the search for explanations In this article we show how massive planets
for anomalies in the orbits of objects near the like these can affect the human consciousnesses,
Kuiper Belt. when they approach the Sun, and pass close to
In 2014, Scott Sheppard and Chad Earth.
Trujillo wrote an article [1] on small objects
2. Theory
with strange discrepancies in their orbits,
which can have been caused by several In a previous article we have shown that the
factors. However, the most likely cause would mass of a material particle is composed by a real
be a new unknown planet. part and an imaginary part, both related to the
Now, scientists at Caltech (Konstantin gravitational mass of the particle [3], i.e.,
Batygin and Mike Brown) seem to have found m g + km g i
{ 123
(1)
evidences of a giant planet orbiting our sun, in
real imaginary
an orbit whose period would last part part
approximately of 15 thousand years. The where k is coefficient related to the particle. The
article published by Batygin and Brown in the first term is therefore the real gravitational mass
The Astronomical Journal [2], describes this of the particle while the second is the imaginary
new planet as being five to ten times more gravitational mass of the particle.
massive than the Earth, and having a It was shown that an imaginary body
diameter of two to four times the diameter of (containing imaginary mass only) is equivalent to
the Earth. The orbit of the new planet is a consciousness, in such way that imaginary
gigantic, never coming closer to the Sun than particles would be equivalents to psychic particles
and, therefore their masses (imaginary and
30.5 billion kilometers.
psychic) would be equivalents. This lead to the
The discovery of planets whose orbits conclusion that material particles have a psychic
go beyond Pluto is not new, because we know mass associated to its real mass. In a general way,
of the existence of Sedna, Haumea and it would be something similar to electric charges
Makemake (dwarf planets), and also Eris, associated to material particles. Thus, similarly
which is more massive than Pluto. But all that the electric charges interact each other

599
2

through electrical interaction, and the gravitational If q < 0 then q = − q . Thus, Eq.(5) gives
masses by means of gravitational interaction, also
psychic masses interact each other through a
q
(6 )
specific interaction, which we call psychic
interaction. mψ = + i
4πε 0 G
We have shown that the psychic interaction
between two psychics masses mψ 1 and
mψ 2 generates a force, Fψ , whose expression is If q > 0 then q = + q . Then, Eq. (5) yields
similar to the expression of the force between two
gravitational masses(Newton’s law)[3], i.e., q
r mψ 1 mψ 2 mψ = − i (7 )
Fψ = −G μˆ (2) 4πε 0 G
r2
where On the other hand, the psychic mass of
mψ = m g (imaginary ) = psychic particles (containing psychic mass
= χm i 0 (imaginary ) = χ (km i 0 ) i = km g i (3) only) is given by
Also it was shown in the mentioned paper that the
superficial electric charge, q , of a material
mψ = m i (8)
particle (or consciousness) is related to its psychic
mass, mψ , by means the following expression: where m a real mass.
The electric charge of Earth’s is
q E ≅ −500,000C [4], because the
q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i =
electrostatic potential near the surface of the
= ( )
4πε 0 G mψ i (4 )
Earth is about 100 V [5, 6]. Thus, according
to Eq. (5) the Earth’s psychic mass is given
by
From this equation we can conclude that the mψ E = + 5 .8 × 10 15 i (9 )
psychic mass of material particles with electric
charge is given by
* Now consider the following
situation: A massive planet X, with a negative
electric charge † , q X , and individual psychic mass,
mψ = −
q
i (5) (
mψX = + q X )
4πε 0 G i = +1.16 × 1010 q X i ,
4πε 0 G
passes near the Earth (individual psychic mass,
mψE = +5.8 × 10 15 i ). In the planet Earth exists
human consciousnesses with positive psychic
*
According to Eq. (3), we have: mass, mψcE = + mcE i , and negative psychic mass,
mψ = m g (imaginary ) = χ mi 0(imaginary ) = χ (kmi 0 ) i mψcE = − mcE i , incorporated in human bodies .

Then, Eq. (5) can be rewritten in the following form Therefore, the psychic force that the individual
mψ = χ (kmi 0 ) i = − q 4πε0 G i whence we psychic mass of the planet X, mψX , exerts on one
obtain k = − q χ mi 0 4πε0 G . It was also shown in

Superficial electric charge.
reference [3] that in the case of electrons, k = − 2 3 ‡
It was shown in a previous paper [7] that the
and χ = χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 (then electrons have cultivation of good-quality thoughts is highly
beneficial to a person because increase the psychic
positive psychic masses); in the case of protons mass of its consciousness. On the contrary, the
χ = χ p = −9.7 × 1017 and k = +2 3 (then cultivation of bad-quality thoughts makes human
consciousness lose psychic mass. Thus, the psychic
protons have negative psychic masses). These values masses of the human consciousnesses can be positive
are in agreement with the above expression of k . or negative (by the frequent loss of psychic mass).

600
3

human consciousnesses with positive psychic r r mψcE mψB


mass, is given by Fψ (+cE&mψB ) = −Fψ (mψB &+cE) = −G =
rB2

(+ mcEi)(+1.16×1010 qB ) μˆ
r r mψX mψcE
Fψ (mψX &+ cE ) = − Fψ (+ cE & mψX ) = −G μˆ = i
( ) = −G =
2
R
+ 1.16 × 1010 q X i (+ mcE i )
B
rB2
= −G μˆ =
R2
q X (mcE )
(
= +G 1,16×1010 ) mcE qB
μˆ B (13)
(
= +G 1.16 × 1010 ) μˆ (10) rB2
R2 where μ̂ B is a versor oriented from the body to
the human consciousness.
where μ̂ is a versor oriented from the planet In the case of negative psychic mass
X to Earth. mψcE = − mcE i it is maintained in the human body
The psychic force that the individual
( mψB = +1.16 × 1010 q B i ) by means of the
psychic mass of the planet X, mψX , exerts on
one human consciousnesses with negative contrary psychic forces between, mψcE , and mψB ,
psychic mass, is given by which is given by
r r mψB mψc E
r r mψ X mψ cE Fψ (mψB &−cE) = −Fψ (−cE&mψB ) = −G =
Fψ (mψ X & − cE ) = Fψ (− cE & mψ X ) = − G μˆ = rB2
( )
2
R
= −G
+ 1 .16 × 10 10 q X i (− m cE i )
μˆ = = −G
(+ 1.16×10 10

μˆ B =
)
qB i (− mcE i )
R2 rB2
q X (m cE )
(
= − G 1 .16 × 10 10 ) R2
μˆ (11 ) (
= −G 1.16 × 1010
mcE qB
μˆ B ) (14)
rB2
The psychic force that the individual psychic The psychic forces between a positive psychic
mass of the planet X, mass mψcE = + mcE i and the individual psychic
mψX = +1.16 × 10 q X i , exerts on the
10
mass of Earth, mψE = +5.8×1015 i , are given by
individual psychic mass of Earth, r r mψE mψcE
mψ E = + 5 .8 × 10 i , is expressed by
15 Fψ (mψE &+ cE ) = − Fψ (+cE &mψE ) = −G =
rB2
r r
Fψ (mψX &mψE ) = −Fψ (mψE &mψX ) = −G
mψX mψE
μˆ = −G
(+ 5.8 × 10 i )(+ m i ) μˆ =
15
cE

( )(
2 2

)
R r E
+ 1.16 × 1010 q X i + 5.8 × 1015 i
= −G μˆ = (
= +G 5.8 × 10 cE
μˆ
15
)m (15)
R2 rE2
( )
= +G 6.7 × 1025 2 μˆ
qX
(12) The psychic forces between a negative psychic
R mass mψcE = − mcE i and the individual psychic
A positive psychic mass mψcE = + mcE i mass of Earth, mψE = +5.8 × 1015 i , are given by
is maintained in the human body
r r mψE mψcE
( mψB = +1.16 × 1010 q B i ) by means of the Fψ (mψE &−cE ) = −Fψ (−cE&mψE ) = −G =
rB2
contrary psychic forces between, mψcE , and
mψB , which is given by = −G
(+ 5.8 ×10 i)(− m i) μˆ =
15
cE
2
rE

(
= −G 5.8 × 10 15
)m cE
μˆ (16)
rE2
The resultants upon the human consciousnesses

601
4

with positive psychic mass R+ cE , and upon the ⎛ qB 5×105 ⎞


human consciousnesses with negative psychic q X >> ⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟R 2 ≅ 1019 C (20)
mass R−cE , are respectively, given by (See Fig.1) ⎝ r B rE ⎠
r r
r r r then R−cE >> Fψ (mψB&−cE) , (Eqs. (18) and (14)).
R+cE = Fψ (mψX &+cE ) + Fψ (mψE &+cE ) =
When this occurs, the link between the human
consciousnesses with negative psychic masses
(
= +G 1.16 × 1010 )q X mcE
μˆ + and the human bodies, in which they are
R2 incorporated into, will be broken § . After, the

( )m
mentioned consciousnesses will be sucked to
+ G 5.8 × 1015 cE
μˆ = the planet X, by means of the action of the
rE2 r
force R−cE . Similarly, the human
⎛ 1⎞
( )
= +G 5.8 × 1015 mcE ⎜⎜
qX
+ 2 ⎟⎟μˆ (17)
consciousnesses with negative psychic
(
⎝ 5 × 10 R
5 2
)
rE ⎠ masses, which are not incorporated into
r r r human bodies on Earth, also they will be
R−cE = Fψ (mψX &− cE ) + Fψ (mψE &−cE ) = sucked to the planet X (See Fig.1).
The removal of the consciousnesses with
(
= −G 1.16 × 1010 )q X mcE
μˆ − negative psychic masses means that all the
R2 evil will be removed from Earth because they
are basically the cause of the evil on Earth.
(
− G 5.8 × 1015 )m cE
μˆ = Under these new conditions, the
rE2 consciousnesses with positive psychic masses,
which will remain on Earth will live in peace,
⎛ 1⎞
( )
= −G 5.8 × 1015 mcE ⎜⎜
qX
+ 2 ⎟⎟μˆ (18) evolving with their good-quality thoughts.
⎝ 5 × 10 R
5 2
(rE ⎠ ) Stated thus, “the good shall inherit the earth”.
Note that, if Finally, note that, according to Eqs. (19)
and (20), the planet X should have negative
( ) (
q X << 8.6 × 10−11 gR2 G − 5 × 105 R 2 rE2 ≅ ) electric charge qX in the range
10 C << qX <<10 C , in order to produce the
19 28

≅ 1.2 × 1028 C (19) phenomena above mentioned.


r
then g cE = R+cE / m+cE << g . This electric charge range is not exotic
This shows that, under these conditions, the or unusual in the Universe, on the contrary,
psychic accelerations are negligible when for example, it is known that the periastron
compared to Earth’s gravity acceleration. rate of the double pulsar PSR J0737-3039A/B
The psychic force that the individual system allows inferring Q NS ≅ 5 × 1019 C .
psychic mass of the planet X exerts on the
individual psychic mass of Earth, is expressed by According to the perinigricon precession of
r the main sequence S2 star in Sgr A*, the
Fψ (mψX &mψE ) (Eq. (12)). By comparing the
electric charge carried by the compact object
intensity of this force with the intensity of the hosted in the Galactic Center may be as large
gravitational force between Earth and the Sun, as Q• ≅ 4 × 10 27 C [8].
( − GmS mE rS2 ≅ 3.4 × 1022 N ), then we can easily
r Considering that mψcE = ± mcE i (see
see that Fψ (mψX &mψE ) << −GmS mE rs2 , because it is Eq.(8)), and that, according to Eq. (5) we have
−4 2
expected that qX <<5.07×10 R G ≅ 6.8×10 C .
33
( ) mψcE = −
qψcE
i (21)
Therefore, we conclude that the Earth’s 4πε 0 G
trajectory around the Sun will not be
significatively disturbed by the psychic interaction
between the planet X and Earth.
On the other hand, note that if §
Obviously, this will cause the death of the person.

602
5

Planet X
r
Fψ (mψE & mψ X )

r
Fψ (mψ E & − cE )

r
Fψ (mψ X & − cE )

r
Fψ (mψ E & − cE )

r
Fψ (mψ X & − cE )
mψ < 0
(b)

mψ < 0 mψ > 0
− cE + cE

r r r r
Fψ (mψ B & − cE ) = − Fψ (− cE & mψ B ) Fψ (mψ B & + cE ) = − Fψ (+ cE & mψ B )
μ̂ B

B B
r
(a) (c) Fψ (mψX & + cE )
r
Fψ (mψE & + cE )

r
Fψ (mψ X & mψ E )

Earth

Fig. 1 – Psychic Interaction among Planet X, Earth and Human Consciousnesses:


(a) Human consciousnesses with negative psychic mass, incorporated to human bodies.
(b) Human consciousnesses with negative psychic mass, not incorporated to human bodies.
(c) Human consciousnesses with positive psychic mass, incorporated to human bodies.

603
6

Then, we can write that Equation (7) tells us that, if the electric charge
qψcE qψcE associated to a psychic mass is positive, then the
mcE = − = (22) psychic mass is negative, and vice-versa.
4πε 0 G 4πε 0 G The Human Consciousnesses are
obviously, connected to the human bodies (more
where qψcE is the electric charge related to mψcE
exactly connected to their Material Individual
(the psychic mass of the human consciousness). Consciousnesses ** ), which they are incorporated.
Starting from Eqs. (17), (18) and (22), we This connection should be similar to an electrical
can easily show that umbilical cord, in order to transfer to the human
r r 1 qψcE q X bodies the commands sent by the Human
RcE = R−cE = R+cE = (23) Consciousnesses incorporated to the human
4πε0 R 2 bodies. Then, electric charges would be
In practice, the maximum psychic force, transferred from the Human Consciousnesses to
max
F e , which is possible to exert on a the Material Individual Consciousnesses of the
consciousness, placing it very near (rmin ≈ 1m ) to
bodies, and vice-versa.
The transfer of negative electric charges
a powerful generator of Van Der Graaf from a Human Consciousness to a Material
(qmax = CV = 4πε0 rV = 4πε0 (1m)(10MV) ≅ 10−3 C , ) Individual Consciousnesses of a human body,
or very near to a plate of a big capacitor would occur, for example, during the increasing
with large electric charge of negative psychic mass of a consciousness,
(q max ( )
= CV = ε rε 0 ( A d)V =100ε 0 10 10−3 (500) ≅10−3 C ) according to Eq. (7). Similarly, the transfer of
negative electric charges from the Material
is given by Individual Consciousnesses of human bodies to
1 qψcE qmax the Human Consciousnesses, which they are
Femax = ≅ 107 qψcE (24) incorporated, it would occur during the
4πε0 rmin
2
decreasing of negative psychic mass of the
Then, by dividing equations (23) and (24) member consciousnesses. Obviously that there would
by member, we get have an electrostatic equilibrium between the
⎛ qX ⎞⎛ rmin ⎞2 max ⎛q ⎞ Human Consciousness and the Material Individual
RcE = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ Fe ≅ 103 ⎜ X ⎟ Femax
⎟ ⎜ R2 ⎟
(25) Consciousness of the human body, in such way
⎝ qmax ⎠⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ that the electric charge in the human
Substitution of R ≅ 3 × 10 13 m into Eq. (25) consciousness, qψcE , and the electric charge
yields transferred to the Material Individual
RcE = 10 −24
qX F e
max
(26) Consciousness of the human body, qψb , are
The value of q X is correlated to the symmetric and equals in modulus, i.e., qψb = −qψcE .
intensity of the psychic attraction force that links In this context, the psychic force that links a
the human consciousness to the human body, human body (its Material Individual
which it is incorporated. In order to calculate the Consciousness) to a Human Consciousness †† with
intensity of this force, we start from Eq. (4), a negative psychic mass, mψcE < 0 ,
which tells us that the superficial electric
charge, q , of a consciousness is related to its ( mψcE < 0 ⇒qψcE > 0 ⇒ qψcE = + qψcE ⇒ qψb = −qψcE ),
psychic mass, mψ , by means of the following
expression **
See about the consciousnesses of the materials in reference
q = 4πε 0 G mψ i (27) [9]. The Material Individual Consciousnesses are formed by
the aggregation of psychic mass associated to the protons and
that can be rewritten as the electrons of a body. The psychic masses of neutrons are
null. The protons have negative psychic masses (positive
mψ = −
q
i (28) electric charge) while the electrons have positive psychic
4πε 0 G mass (negative electric charge). Thus, the total electric charge
associated to a Material Individual Consciousnesses is null.
††
From this equation, we have derived the Eqs. (6) The Human Consciousness is the consciousness
and (7). Equation (6) tells us that, if the electric incorporated to the human body, which leaves the human
charge associated to a psychic mass is negative, body after its death. The Material Individual Consciousness
is the consciousness which results from the aggregation of
then the psychic mass is positive, and vice-versa. psychic mass of matter of the body.

604
7

can be expressed by means of the following 2 2


⎛ − qψcE ⎞ q q
equation
mψcE = ⎜
⎜ 4πε G ⎟
⎟ = ψcE = ψcE (33)
1 qψcE qψb ⎝ 0 ⎠
4πε0G 4πε0G
Flink = =
4πε 0 r 2 or
(+ q )(− q ) 2 qψcE = 4πε 0 G mψcE (34)
1 qψcE
=
1 ψcE
= − (29)
ψcE

4πε0 r2 4πε 0 r 2
R − cE
Similarly, the psychic force that links a + Human Consciousness
human body (its Material Individual qψcE = + qψcE + +(with negative psychic mass)
Consciousness) to a human consciousness with + +
mψcE < 0 ⇒ qψcE > 0
positive psychic mass, mψcE > 0 , + F+
link
Electrical +
( mψcE > 0 ⇒qψcE < 0 ⇒ qψcE = − qψcE ⇒ qψb = + qψcE ), Umbilical Cord r
is given by v-
1 qψcE qψb qψb = − qψcE - Flink
-
Flink = = - -
4πε 0 r 2 - - Material Individual
Consciousness of the
(− q )(+ q ) 1 qψcE
2
- Human body
=
1 ψcE ψcE
=− (30) (a)
4πε 0 r2 4πε 0 r 2
- Human Consciousness
Note that in both cases the expression of the qψcE = − qψcE - - (with positive psychic mass)
psychic force that links the Human Consciousness
- -
F-link mψcE > 0 ⇒ qψcE < 0
to the body is the same. In this equation, the
-
variable r is the distance between the center of
the human consciousness and the center of the Electrical
-
Material Individual Consciousness of the human Umbilical Cord R+ cE r
body (See Fig.2). +
The value of r reaches its minimum value qψb = + qψcE + F+ link
when the Human Consciousness is inside the + +
human body. Based on the dimensions of the Material Individual
+ + Consciousness of the
human bodies, we can conclude that rmin << 1cm . + Human body
Under these conditions, the force, Flink , has it (b)
maximum value given by Fig.2 – The attraction force, Flink , that links the
2
1 qψcE
Flink = −
max
(31) Human Consciousnesses to the human bodies.
4πε 0 rmin
2

The necessary condition for a human According to Eq. (3), if χ ≅ 1 , then we can
consciousness, with negative psychic mass, be write that
sucked by the planet X is that R−cE > Flink
(35)
max
mψb = kmi 0b i
( R−cE is given by Eq. (23). Thus, we can write that and

1 qψcE q X 2
1 qψcE mψb = (kmi0b )2 = kmi 0b
2
= kmi 0b ≅ mi 0b (36)
>−
4πε0 R2 4πε0 rmin
2
since k ≅ 1 (See footnote of column 1, page 2).
In the particular case of Human
whence we obtain Consciousnesses incorporated in human bodies on
2
⎛ R ⎞ Earth (little-evolved consciousnesses, and
qX > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ qψcE (32) therefore with low psychic masses), we can
⎝ rmin ⎠ assume that
Equation (21) tells us that
(37)
( ) cE ≈ mψb
qψmax max

mψcE = − qψcE 4πε0G i , then we can write that

605
8

By comparing Eqs. (34) (37) and (35), we get Note that in spite of the intensity of the force
q max
ψcE = 4πε 0 G m max
ψcE ≈ 4πε 0 G m max
ψb = RcE , the maximum acceleration that it will
produce upon the consciousnesses over the
= 4πε 0 G mimax
0b (38) Earth will be very smaller than the local
r
gravity acceleration, g , (see Eq. (19)).
0b ≅ 200kg , then Eq. (38) gives
assuming that mimax r
−8
cE ≈ 1 × 10 C
qψmax (39) While the psychic force R−cE sucks
from the Earth the consciousnesses with
By substuting this value into Eq.(32), and also
negative psychic mass, simultaneously the
R = 3 × 1013 m ; rmin << 1cm , we obtain r
psychic force R+cE compresses against Earth
q X >> 10 23 C (40) the Human Consciousnesses with positive
Thus, if q X ≅ 10 C , for example, Eq. (26) tells
25
psychic mass (See Fig.3). However, these
us that consciousnesses do not leave the bodies
RcE ≅ 10Femax (41) which are incorporated (See Fig.3 (b))
because they can not penetrate in the Earth’s
This means that the intensity of the psychic
consciousness [9]).
force, RcE , exerted by the planet X in the
Now, we will show that, when Human
consciousnesses over the Earth, will be about 10 consciousnesses leave abruptly the human
times higher than maximum psychic force, Femax , bodies they (the Human bodies) can become
which is possible to exert on a consciousness, imaginary bodies (psychic bodies), and
placing it very near to a powerful generator of consequently they disappears from the real
Van Der Graaf, or very near to a plate of a big Universe.
capacitor with large electric charge. When a human being dies its vital energy,
correspondent to Ehb ≅ 2500kcal ≅ 1.1×107 joules,
Human consciousness R−cE is radiated from its body ‡‡ . Obviously, this
(with negative psychic mass) amount of energy (equivalent to 3kg of TNT)
should be radiated in a spectrum of extra-low
frequencies (possibly the lower frequencies
Human body that the human body can emit). On the
contrary, the emission of this energy would
produce destruction in the local.
Delta waves are the slowest recorded
Earth brain waves in human beings. They were
recently defined as having a frequency
Earth’s consciousness (a)
between 0.01 – 4 Hz [10]. Spontaneous slow
fluctuations (0.1–1 Hz) and infra-slow
fluctuations (0.01–0.1 Hz) are ubiquitous in
brain dynamics. In electrophysiological
recordings, these fluctuations have been
observed both in single-unit and multiunit
R+ cE firing rates [11, 12, 13, 14, and 15].
Earth
Assuming that the lower frequencies of delta
Earth’s consciousness radiation correspond to the lower frequencies
(b)
of radiation that a human body can emit, and
Fig.3 – Schematic Diagram of the Action of the that, based on the experimental observations,
forces R-cE and R+cE. (a) Suction of the these frequencies should be of the order of
consciousness with negative psychic mass. (b) 0.001Hz, then we can infer that the spectrum
Compression of the consciousness with positive
psychic mass, on the Earth’s consciousness. ‡‡
The liberation of this postmortem energy is a
phenomenon known for centuries.

606
9

of emission of the energy E hb should have these conditions, the gravitational mass of the
frequencies very close to 0.001Hz. It is easy human body is strongly reduced, according to
to show that human bodies practically do not the following equation [3]:
absorb radiations with this frequency.
Consider for example, the following equation ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛μ σ D ⎞ ⎪
of the Electrodynamics [16], which gives the mghb = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ hb hb X ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0hb ≅
length δ necessary to totally absorb a ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρ hb c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
radiation with frequency f , through a body
with electrical conductivity σ , magnetic ≅ −0.1mi 0hb (43)
permeability μ , and electrical permittivity ε , i.e.,
where μ hb ≅ μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m is the
δ = 5 2πf 1
εμ ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ 2πfε )2 − 1⎞⎟ (42) magnetic permeability of the human body;
2
⎝ ⎠ σ hb ≅ 5S / m is its electrical conductivity, and
ρ hb ≅ 1010 kg / m 3 is its density.
For human bodies we have that ε ≅ ε 0 , μ ≅ μ 0 .
Note that χ hb = m ghb mi 0 hb ≅ −0.1 is
The electrical conductivity of the human bodies is
very close to the electrical conductivity of the sea inside the range − 0.156 < χ < +0.156 , which
water (5S/m). By substitution of these values, and is the critical range in which the particles
f ≅ 0.001Hz , into equation above we obtain become imaginaries, i.e., they make a
δ ≅ 35,000 m , which shows that human bodies transition to the imaginary spacetime [3].
practically do not absorb energy of the radiations Consequently, we can conclude that, in the
with f ≅ 0.001Hz . above condition (Eq. (43)), a human body
When the consciousness of a human being becomes imaginary, leaving the real
is removed abruptly, as previously mentioned (for Universe. On the other hand, due to its
example in the case of planet X), the energy E hb negative psychic mass mψhb ≡ mghb ≅ −0.1mi 0hb ,
should be radiated in a very short time interval. it will also be sucked to the planet X,
This situation is similar to the case, when by similarly to the Human consciousnesses with
collision with another particle or atom the valence negative psychic masses.
electron is raised to an excited state, and it It is important to note that, when these
remains there for a period (mean life) psychic bodies will approach sufficiently of the
Δt ≅ 1.6 × 10 −8 s before jumping down to a lower planet X all they will be definitively destroyed, by
level with emission of a photon. The emission the fragmentation caused by the difference of
occurs during a time interval of the order of Δt . acceleration inside them, due to the psychic field
In the case of the consciousness removed from the planet X, (Tidal force. See Fig. 4). Under
abruptly, the energy E hb should then remain, these circumstances, the energy psychic,
concentrated inside these psychic bodies, will
after the consciousness be removed, for a similar dispersed in the Universe.
period Δt ≅ 10 −8 s before to be emitted, in a
time interval of the order of Δt . Consequently,
we can write that the power of the radiation
emitted from the human body is
−8
PX = 1.1 × 10 joules 10 s ≅ 1.1 × 10 watts ,
7 15
X
and the radiation density, is given by Psychic body

DX = PX Ahumanbody ≅ 7 ×1014 watts/ m2 §§ . Under

§§ Fig. 4 – Destruction of the psychic bodies


Note that, if the energy E g is radiated during 1
sucked to the planet X, when they are close
second, then D X ≅ 10 7 watts / m 2 , and the to the planet X (psychic Roche limit).
decreasing in the gravitational mass of the human body
becomes negligible.

607
10

References
[1] Trujillo, C. A., and Sheppard, S. S. (2014), Nature, [14] Ruskin D.N., et al., (2003) Correlated multisecond
507, 471. oscillations in firing rate in the basal ganglia:
modulation by dopamine and the subthalamic nucleus.
[2] Batygin, K and Brown, M. (2016). The Neuroscience 117:427–438, doi:10.1016/S0306-
Astronomical Journal, 151:22 (12pp), February. 4522(02)00921-1, pmid:12614683.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations [15] Allers KA. , et al., (2002) Multisecond periodicities in
basal ganglia firing rates correlate with theta bursts in
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
transcortical and hippocampal EEG. J Neurophysiol
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), 87:1118–1122, pmid:11826075.
pp. 173-232.
[16] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-
[4] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric Hill, p.270.
Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

[5] P. Siemens, P. (1999) Capstones in Physics:


Electromagnetism. LCL Problem 3-7 (The Orgeon
State University, Corvallis).

[6] Chavalier, G. (2007) The Earth’s Electrical


Surface Potential. A summary of present
understanding (California Institute for Human
Science, Encinitas).

[7] De Aquino, F. (2012) Beyond the Material


Universe, Journal for Interdisciplinary Research on
Religion and Science, No. 10, January 2012,
pp. 91-94.

[8] Iorio, L. (2012) Constraining the electric charges of


some astronomical bodies in Reissner-Nordström
spacetimes and generic r−2−type power-law
potentials from orbital motions,
http://arxiv.org/abs/1112.3520v4

[9] De Aquino, F. (2010) Physical Foundations of Quantum


Psychology, Bulletin of Pure and Applied Science (Delhi,
India) Volume 29D. Number 2. December 2010 (Section
D - Physics),pp.105-130.

[10] Hiltunen, T., et al., (2014). Infra-slow EEG fluctuations


are correlated with resting-state network dynamics in
fMRI. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34(2): 356-362.

[11] Werner G., and Mountcastle, V.B. (1963) The variability


of central neural activity in a sensory system, and its
implications for the central reflection of sensory events.
J Neurophysiol 26:958–977, pmid:14084169.

[12] Albrecht, D., and Gabriel, S.(1994) Very slow


oscillations of activity in geniculate neurones of
urethane-anaesthetized rats. Neuroreport 5:1909–1912,
doi:10.1097/00001756-199410000-00017, pmid:7841374.

[13] Ruskin, D.N., et al., (1999) Multisecond oscillations in


firing rate in the basal ganglia: robust modulation by
dopamine receptor activation and anesthesia.
J Neurophysiol 81:2046–2055, pmid:10322046.

608
Quantum Controller of Gravity
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2016 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

A new type of device for controlling gravity is here proposed. This is a quantum device because results
from the behaviour of the matter and energy at subatomic length scale (10-20m). From the technical point of
view this device is easy to build, and can be used to develop several devices for controlling gravity.

Key words: Gravitation, Gravitational Mass, Inertial Mass, Gravity, Quantum Device.

Introduction
Some years ago I wrote a paper [1] the weight is equal in both sides of the
where a correlation between gravitational lamina. The lamina works as a Gravity
mass and inertial mass was obtained. In the Controller. Since P′ = χP = (χmg )g = mg (χg ) ,
paper I pointed out that the relationship we can consider that
between gravitational mass, m g , and rest m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg
inertial mass, mi 0 , is given by In the last years, based on these concepts, I
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ 2 have proposed some types of devices for
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ = controlling gravity. Here, I describe a device,
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ which acts controlling the electric field in the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ( )
Matter at subatomic level Δx ≅ 10 −20 m . This
Quantum Controller of Gravity is easy to build
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ Unr ⎞ ⎪ and can be used in order to test the correlation
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ =
⎟ between gravitational mass and inertial mass
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭ previously mentioned.

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ 2. The Device
⎪ ⎛ Wn ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2r ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1)
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
Consider a spherical capacitor, as shown in
Fig.1. The external radius of the inner spherical
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic shell is ra , and the internal radius of the outer
momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy
spherical shell is rb . Between the inner shell and
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the
the outer shell there is a dielectric with electric
index of refraction of the particle; W is the permittivity ε = ε r ε 0 . The inner shell works as an
density of energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is the
inductor, in such way that, when it is charged with
( )
matter density kg m 3 and c is the speed of an electric charge + q , and the outer shell is
light. connected to the ground, then the outer shell
Also it was shown that, if the weight of a
r acquires a electric charge − q , which is uniformly
r r
particle in a side of a lamina is P = mg g ( g distributed at the external surface of the outer
perpendicular to the lamina) then the weight of the shell, while the electric charge + q is uniformly
same particle, in the other side of the lamina is distributed at the external surface of the inner
r r shell (See Halliday, D. and Resnick, R., Physics,
P ′ = χm g g , where χ = m gl mil0 ( m gl and mil0
Vol. II, Chapter 28 (Gauss law), Paragraph 28.4).
are respectively, the gravitational mass and the
inertial mass of the lamina). Only when χ = 1 ,

609
2

capacitive reactance; f is the frequency;


R10
V C = 4πε (ra rb rb − ra ) is the capacitance of the
-q - - - spherical capacitor; R is the total electrical
- +q + - resistance of the external shell, given
+ + by R = (Δz σS ) + R10 , where Δz σS is the
- + +
- electrical resistance of the shell ( Δz = 5mm is
- + rb + - its thickness; σ is its conductivity and S is its
- + r + - surface area), and R10 is a 10gigaohms resistor.
ra
- + + - Since R10 >> Δz σS , we can write that
+ V1=V
- + + +
+ - R ≅ R10 = 1 × 1010 Ω .
- -
- - -
V2=0
Fig.1 – Spherical Capacitor - A Device for
Controlling Gravity developed starting from a
Spherical Capacitor.
ε
Under these conditions, the electric field
between the shells is given by the vectorial sum of E R= 0 E= 0 ER=Ea + Eb E= 0 E R= 0
r r
the electric fields Ea and Eb ,respectively Eb Eb -
Eb
+
produced by the inner shell and the outer shell. Ea Ea Ea
Since they have the same direction in this region,
then one can easily show that the resultant ra rb
intensity of the electric field for ra < r < rb is
ER = Ea + Eb = q 4πεr ε 0 r 2 . In the nucleus of the
V
capacitor and out of it, the resultant electric field
r r
is null because Ea and Eb have opposite directions
(a)
(See Fig. 2(a)).
r
Note that the electrostatic force, F , between
− q and + q will move the negative electric
charges in the direction of the positive electric ε Δx
charges. This causes a displacement, Δx , of the
r
electric field, Eb , into the outer shell (See Fig. 2 E R= 0 E= 0 ER=Ea + Eb E= 0 E R= 0
(b)). Thus, in the region with thickness Δx the Eb Eb Eb
-
intensity of the electric field is not null but equal +
to Eb . Ea Ea F Ea
The negative electric charges are ra
r rb
accelerated with an acceleration, a , in the
direction of the positive charges, in such way that
they acquire a velocity, given by v = 2aΔx V
(drift velocity).
The drift velocity is given by [2] (b)

i V Z V R + XC
2 2
Fig.2r - The displacement, Δx , of the electric
v= = = (2) field, E b , into the outer shell. Thus, in the region
nSe nSe nSe with thickness Δ x the intensity of the electric field
where V is the positive potential applied on the is not null but equal to E b .
inner shell (See Fig. 1); X C = 1 2πfC is the

610
3
r
If the shells are made with Aluminum, with constant); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are
the following characteristics: ρ = 2700kg.m −3 ,
the electromagnetic characteristics of the
A = 27kg / kmol, n = N0ρ A≅ 6×1028m−3 ( N 0 is the medium in which the incident (or emitted)
Avogadro’s number N 0 = 6.02 × 1026 kmol−1 ), and radiation is propagating ( ε = εrε0 ;
ra =0.1m; rb = 0.105m ; S = 4π (rb + Δz) ≅ 0.152m2 ; ε 0 = 8.854 × 10 −12 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where
2

(
rb −ra =5×10−3m, then R >> XC = 6.8×108 f ohms, ) μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). It is known that for free-
( f > 1Hz ) , and Eq. (2) can be rewritten in the space σ = 0 and ε r = μ r = 1 . Then Eq. (7)
following form: gives
i V R10
v= ≅ = 6.8×10−20V (3) v=c
nSe nSe From Eq. (7), we see that the index of
The maximum size of an electron has refraction nr = c v is given by
been estimated by several authors [3, 4, 5].
The conclusion is that the electron must have
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (8)
a physical radius smaller than 10-22 m * . c 2

Assuming that, under the action of the v 2 ⎝ ⎠


r
force F (produced by a pulsed voltage
waveform, V ), the electrons would fluctuate
about their initial positions with the amplitude
of Δx ≅ 1×10−20 m (See Fig.3), then we get
2Δx 2Δx 0.294
Δt = = ≅ (4) Δ x ≅ 1 × 10 −20 m
a v V
However, we have that f = 1 ΔT = 1 2Δt .
Thus, we get
V
(5)
Eb
f = 1.7V 0 −
Now consider Eq. (1). The
instantaneous values of the density of F
+ Δt −
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s Eb Eb
equations and has the following expression − +

W = 12 ε E2 + 12 μH 2 (6) Δt −
F
+

where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are + −


Eb
the instantaneous values of the electric field Eb
and the magnetic field respectively.
It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r
[6] and
dz ω
v= = =
c
(7)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ Fig.3 - Controlling the Electric Field in the Matter
2 ⎝
2 ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟

( −20
at subatomic level Δx ≅ 10 m . )

where kr is
the real part of the
r Equation (7) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
propagation vector k (also called phase
E B = ω k r = v , i.e.,
*
Inside of the matter.

611
4

E = vB = vμH ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
3
⎪ ⎢
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 −1 ⎬mi0 =
Then, Eq. (6) can be rewritten in the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
following form: ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ0 ⎞⎛ μrσ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪

3
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟E −1⎥⎬mi0 =
( )
W = 12 ε v2μ μH2 + 12 μH2 (9) ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ 256π 3 2 ⎜ 2 3⎟
c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

⎧ ⎡ ⎛μ σ ⎞ ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
3
For σ << ωε , Eq. (7) reduces to = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟E 4 −1⎥⎬mi0
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

v=
c (16)
ε r μr
Then, Eq. (9) gives Using this equation we can then calculate the
gravitational mass, m g ( Δx ) , of the region with
⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 thickness Δx , in the outer shell. We have already
W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH 2 = μH 2 r
ε μ
⎣ ⎝ r r⎠ ⎦ seen that the electric field in this region is Eb ,
whose intensity is given by Eb = q 4πε (rb +Δz) .
2
This equation can be rewritten in the following
forms: Thus, we can write that
B2
W= (10) Eb ≅
q
=
CV
(17)
μ
4πε r b
2
4πε rb2
or
W = ε E2 (11)
where C = 4πε (ra rb rb − ra ) is the capacitance
For σ >> ωε , Eq. (7) gives of the spherical capacitor; V is the potential
applied on the inner shell (See Fig. 1 and 3). Thus,
Eq. (17) can be rewritten as follows

v= (12)
μσ
Eb =
ra V
≅ 1.9×102V (18)
rb(rb − ra )
Then, from Eq. (9) we get

⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ Substitution of ρ = 2700kg.m −3 , σ = 3.5×107 S / m,


⎛ ωε ⎞
W = ⎢ε⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅
1
μ r ≅ 1 (Aluminum) and E = E b ≅ 1.9 × 10 2 V
⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠
2

into Eq. (16) yields


≅ 12 μH2 (13)
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎪ 1.3×10−2 V4 ⎤⎥⎪
Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite (13) in mg(Δx) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1 ⎬mi0(Δx) (19)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f 3

the following forms: ⎦⎪⎭
Equation (5) shows that there is a
B2
W ≅ (14 ) correlation between V and f to be obeyed,

i.e., f = 1.7V . By substituting this expression
or
into Eq. (19), we get
⎛ σ ⎞ 2
(15 )
{ [ ]}
W ≅⎜ ⎟E mg(Δx)
⎝ 4ω ⎠ χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 2.64×10−3V −1 (20)
mi0(Δx)
Substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (2), gives

612
5

For V = 35.29 Volts (f = 1.7V = 60 Hz ) † , Eq. χ 2g


(20) gives
mg(Δx)
χ= ≅ 0.91 (21)
mi0(Δx)

For V = 450 Volts (f = 1.7V = 765Hz ) , Eq. 2


(20) gives χg
mg(Δx)
χ= ≅ 0.04 (22) 1
mi0(Δx)
Δx
For V = 1200 Volts (f = 1.7V = 2040 Hz ) , Eq. 10 GΩ
(20) gives V f
mg(Δx) + g χ
χ= ≅ −1.1 (23) -

mi0(Δx) Pulsed

In this last case, the weight of the shell with


r r
thickness Δx will be PΔx ≅ −1.1mi 0 (Δx ) g ; the
Fig.4 – The shell with thickness Δ x works as a
sign (-) shows that it becomes repulsive in respect Quantum Controller of Gravity.
to Earth’s gravity. Besides this it is also
intensified 1.1 times in respect to its initial value.
It was shown that, if the weight of a particle Since the voltage V is correlated to the
r r r frequency f by means of the expression
in a side of a lamina is P = mg g ( g perpendicular
f = 1.7V (Eq. (5)), then it is necessary to put
to the lamina) then the weight of the same
particle, in the other side of the lamina is a synchronizer before the pulse generator (See
r r Fig.5), in order to synchronize V with f .Thus,
P ′ = χm g g , where χ = m gl mil0 ( m gl and mil0
when we increase the voltage, the frequency
are respectively, the gravitational mass and the is simultaneously increased at the same
inertial mass of the lamina) [1]. Only proportion, according to Eq. (5).
when χ = 1 , the weight is equal in both sides
of the lamina. The lamina works as a Gravity
Controller. Since P′ = χP = (χmg )g = mg (χg ) ,
we can consider that

m ′g = χm g or that g ′ = χg

Now consider the Spherical Capacitor


previously mentioned. If the gravity below the
capacitor is g , then above the first hemispherical
shell with thickness Δx (See Fig.4) it will
become χg , and above the second hemispherical
shell with thickness Δx , the gravity will be χ 2 g .


Note that the frequency f must be greater than 1Hz
(See text above Eq. (3)).

613
6

QCG

Mechanical dynamometer -3P

-2P

-P
Pulse Generator
0
Resistor
V, f Synchronizer
P 10 giga ohms V
0–1. 2kV
0–2. 04kHz

Fig.4 – Experimental Set-up using a Quantum Controller of Gravity (QCG).

614
7

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[2] Griffiths, D., (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics


(3 Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, p. 289.

[3] Dehmelt, H.: (1988). A Single Atomic Particle Forever


Floating at Rest in Free Space: New Value for Electron
Radius. Physica Scripta T22, 102.

[4] Dehmelt, H.: (1990). Science 4942 539-545.

[5] Macken, J. A. Spacetime Based Foundation of Quantum


Mechanics and General Relativity. Available at
http://onlyspacetime.com/QM-Foundation.pdf

[6] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.

615
Transforming a Quantum Controller of
Gravity into a Gravitational Spacecraft

by
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2016 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

July 2016

616
Consider the Quantum Controller of
Gravity (QCG) shown in Fig. 4 of reference [1].
Here, Fig.1 shows it transformed into a
spacecraft. It was shown that in the region
hatched in red on Fig.1 we have m′g = χm g ,
where χ is given by

10 GΩ χ=
mg(Δx)
mi0(Δx)
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 2.64×10−3V −1 ]} (1)
Fi Thruster V
Thus, the gravitational mass of the
χ m g = χ m i0 spacecraft becomes m′g = χm g = χmi 0 , where
Δx mi 0 is its inertial mass.
Equation (6) of reference [2] shows that
r
the spacecraft will acquires an acceleration a ,
χ given by
r 3 r 3
r F ⎛ v ⎞ 2 2 F ⎛ v ⎞ 2 2
(2)
Fig.1 – A Quantum Controller of Gravity
transformed into a Spacecraft. a= i ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = i ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
m′g ⎝ c ⎠ χmi0 ⎝ c ⎠

617
where Fi′ is the thrust produced by the thruster This means that at one second the velocity of
of the spacecraft (See Fig.1). In the non- the spacecraft will be about 36,000km/h (Earth’s
relativistic case ( v<<c ), Eq. (2) reduces to circumference at the equator has about
r 40,000km).
r F
a≅ i (3) The total energy of the spacecraft,
χmi0 according to Eq. (7) of reference [2], is given by
Equation (1) shows that for V = 473.428volts , mgc2 χmi0c2
Eg = = (6)
we obtain χ ≅ 1×10−4 . Then, if the inertial 1−v c2 2
1−v c
2 2

mass of the spacecraft is mi0 = 10,000kg , we and consequently, its kinetic energy, in the non-
relativistic case, is expressed by
get
r r
a ≅ Fi (4) K ≅ 12 χmi0v2 (7)
r
Therefore, if Fi ≅ 10,000N (The thrust of the
which is equivalent to
F-22 Raptor reaches 160,000N) then the 2
K≅ 12 mi0veq (8)
spacecraft will acquires an acceleration
where
r
a ≅10,000m.s−2 (5) veq = v χ (9)

618
Therefore, for χ = 10 −4 and v = 36,000km / h ,
the equivalent velocity of the spacecraft is only
veq = 360km / h (10)
This means that, despite the enormous velocity
of the Gravitational Spacecraft
( v = 36 ,000 km / h ), its surface temperature –
due to the friction with the atmospheric air, does
not increase significantly, because it becomes
equivalent to the surface temperature of a
conventional spacecraft, flying in atmospheric
air, with only 360km/h.

References

[1] De Aquino, F. (2016) Quantum Controller of Gravity.


https://uema.academia.edu/FranDeAquino/Papers
[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11
(1), pp. 173-232.
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520
619
Gravitational Motor
Using the Quantum Controller of Gravity
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2016 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The Gravitational Motor is a type of motor which converts Gravitational Energy directly into Rotational Kinetic
Energy. Its fuel is therefore the Gravitational Energy (no needs gasoline, oil, etc). An example of Gravitational
Motor is the turbines of the hydroelectric plants. However, they are not mobile i.e., they cannot be transported
from one place to another as the combustion motors or the electric motors. Mobiles Gravitational Motor can be
developed starting from the devices of gravity control, such as the Quantum Controller of Gravity (QCG) [1].
The form of the QCG originally proposed is spherical. Here, it is described a Gravitational Motor which uses a
QCG with spherical cylindrical form. This Gravitational Motor can have very-high power, and it can be used in
order to generate electrical energy at large scale or traction to move cars, ships, tankers, aircraft carrier, trains,
etc.

Key words: Gravitation, Gravity, Gravitational Energy, Gravitational Motor, Quantum Controller of Gravity.

1. Introduction
In the last years I have proposed several QCG becomes χ 2 g (See Fig.2), where χ is
types of Gravitational Motors based on some the factor defined by the correlation
devices of gravity control * [2, 3, 4]. Here, I m g (Δx ) mi 0 (Δx ) between the gravitational mass
describe a Gravitational Motor which uses a
new gravity control device: the Quantum m g (Δx ) and the inertial mass at rest, mi 0 (Δx ) , of
Controller of Gravity (QCG) with spherical the region with thickness Δx , in the outer shell of
cylindrical form. The spherical cylinder, also the QCG.
called spherinder, is constructed as shown in
Fig 1.
χ 2g

2
χg
1

Δx
Fig.1- The spherical cylinder.
10 GΩ
V f
+ g χ
-
According to theory of the QCG, if the
Pulsed
gravity below the QCG is g then above the

Fig.2 – The shell with thickness Δ x works as a


Quantum Controller of Gravity [1]
*

BR Patent number: PI0805046-5, 2008.

620
2

Now consider the Schematic Diagram of Assuming that η = 0.8 ; ρ = 1000kg / m 3


a Gravitational Motor using QCG with (water † ); x = 0.10m ( φ = x = 0.10 m ; d = 2x
spherical cylindrical form, shown in Fig.3.
By increasing the gravity acceleration above = 0.20m); L = 0.60m ; χ = 11 ; g = 9.8m / s 2
the QCG it is possible to move a fluid through and h = 0.10m (H = 0.61m; l = 0.26m ) , then
a turbine and consequently to produce Eq. (3) yields
rotational kinetic energy (See Fig.3). It will be
shown that this Gravitational Motor can be Pmotor = 87,654.34 watts ≅ 117 HP (4 )
designed for have any power in the range of
0-200,000 HP. Thus, it can be used in order to Note that this power is of the order of the
generate electrical energy at large scale or power of most motors of the cars.
traction to move cars, ships, tankers, aircraft By increasing only the dimensions of
carrier, trains, etc. this Gravitational Motor, for example, if
x = 0.20m ( φ = x = 0.20 m ; d = 2x = 0.40m);
2. The Power of the Gravitational Motor
Using a QCG L = 1.00m ; h = 0.20m (H = 1.21m; l = 0.51m ) ,
the power of the motor becomes
Since the gravity acceleration upon the
liquid inside the Gravitational Motor (See Pmotor = 826,413.0 watts ≅ 1,108HP (5)
Fig.3) is by a = χ 2 g then the velocity v of
In practice, the increasing of the dimensions
the liquid is given by v = 2ah = 2 χ 2 gh . of this motor is obviously limited. However,
Therefore, the liquid acquires a kinetic energy possibly they can be increased up to the
K = 12 mv 2 , where m is the inertial mass of following values: x = 0.60m ( φ = x = 0.60 m ;
the liquid. Thus, we can write that the power d = 2x = 1.20m); L = 5m ; h = 0.60m
P transported by the liquid is (H = 3.61m; l = 1.51m) .Then, making χ = 14.5 ,
we conclude that the power of this
K 1⎛ m ⎞ 2 1
P= = ⎜ ⎟v = 2 ρQv 2 (1) Gravitational Motor can reach the following
Δt 2 ⎝ Δt ⎠ value:

( )
where ρ kg / m 3 is the density of the liquid Pmotor = 1.5 × 108 watts ≅ 200,000HP (6)
( )
and Q m 3 / s is the volumetric flow rate,
which is expressed by Q = Av , where A is This power can be used to move tankers,
aircraft carrier, trains, etc.
the area of the cross-section, given by A = xL
(See Fig 3 (b)). Thus, Eq. (1) can be rewritten
as follows

3 3
P = 12 ρQv 2 = 12 ρAv 3 = 2 ρ (xL )χ 3 g 2 h 2 (2)

The power of the Gravitational Motor, Pmotor ,


depends on the performance of the motor i.e.,
Pmotor = ηP , where η is the performance ratio.
Thus, we can write that

Others liquids can also be used. Liquids with
3 3
Pmotor = 2ηρ ( xL )χ g h
3 2 2
(3) high-density (Bromo, ρ = 3,119kg / m 3 ; Mercury
ρ = 13,534kg / m 3 , etc.) can be used in specific
cases.

621
3

φ
d ----

Liquid
(density ρ )

h a = χ2 g

QCG
with spherical QCG
cylindrical form with spherical
A A’
cylindrical form

H L
x x

Q = Av = (xL) v

----
x
----
l l

(a) Vertical Cross-section (b) AA’ Cross-section

Fig.3 – Schematic Diagram of a Gravitational Motor using a Quantum Controller of Gravity (QCG)
with spherical cylindrical form.

622
4

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2016) Quantum Controller of
Gravity. Available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01320459

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Pacific Journal of Science


and Technology, 11 (2) (Physics), pp. 178-247.
Available at http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0701091

[4] De Aquino, F. (2015) Improvements in the Design


of the Gravitational Motor, Available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01188315v1

623
The Gravelectric Generator
Conversion of Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical Energy
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2016 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
The electrical current arises in a conductor when an outside force acts upon the free electrons of the
conductor. This force is called, in a generic way, of electromotive force (EMF). Usually, it has electrical
nature. Here, we show that it can have gravitational nature (Gravitational Electromotive Force). This fact led
us to propose an unprecedented system to convert Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical Energy. This
system, here called of Gravelectric Generator, can have individual outputs powers of several tens of kW or
more. It is easy to be built, and can easily be transported from one place to another, on the contrary of the
hydroelectric plants, which convert Gravitational Energy into Hydroelectric energy.
Key words: Gravitational Electromotive Force, Gravitational Energy, Electrical Energy, Generation of Electrical Energy.

1. Introduction
The research for generate Gravitational there is a magnetic field through the iron core. If
Electromotive Force (Gravelectric Effect) began the system is subject to a gravity acceleration g
with Faraday [1]. He had a strong conviction that (See Fig.1), then the gravitational forces acting
there was a correlation between gravity and ( )
on electrons (Fe ) , protons Fp and neutrons
electricity, and carried out several experiments
trying to detect this Gravelectric Effect (Fp ) of the Iron core, are respectively expressed
experimentally. Although he had failed several by the following relations [4]
times, he was still convinced that gravity must be
related to electricity. Faraday felt he was on the
Fe = mge ae = χ Beme0 g (1)
brink of an extremely important discovery. His Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp m p0 g (2)
Diary on August 25, 1849 shows his enthusiastic Fn = mgn an = χ Bn mn0 g (3)
expectations:
“It was almost with a feeling of awe that I went to m ge , m gp and m gn are respectively the
work, for if the hope should prove well founded, how gravitational masses of the electrons, protons and
great and mighty and sublime in its hitherto
unchangeable character is the force I am trying to neutrons; me 0 , me 0 and me 0 are respectively the
deal with, and how large may be the new domain of inertial masses at rest of the electrons, protons
knowledge that may be opened up to the mind of and neutrons.
man.”
Here we show how to generate
Gravitational Electromotive Force, converting
Gravitational Energy directly into electricity. r
This theoretical discovery is very important B
because leads to the possibility to build the Iron core
Gravelectric Generator, which can have
individual outputs powers of several tens of kW.
r
g
2. Theory Fig. 1 – An iron core of a coil subjected to a
r
r
In a previous paper, we have proposed a gravity acceleration g and magnetic field B
system to convert Gravitational Energy directly with frequency f .
into Electrical Energy [2]. This system uses
Gravity Control Cells (GCCs). These GCCs can
be replaced by the recently discovered Quantum The expressions of the correlation
Controllers of Gravity (QCGs) [3], which can factors χ Be , χ Bp and χ Bn are deduced in the
produce similar effect. In this paper, we propose
a simplification for this system, without using previously mentioned paper, and are given by
GCCs or QCGs. ⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 re4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
Under these conditions, the system shown χ Be = ⎨ − ⎢ + 2 2 2 2 − ⎥⎬
1 2 1 1 (4)
in the previously mentioned paper reduces to a ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 me c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
coil with iron core. Through the coil passes a
electrical current i , with frequency f . Thus,

624
2
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2rp4Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ momentum: ΔxΔp ≳ h , making Δp = me ve ,

χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (5)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02m2pc2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪ where ve is the group velocity of the electrons,
⎭ which is given by v e = hk F me . Then, the
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 r 4 B4 ⎤⎫⎪
(6)
result is
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2n 2rms −1⎥⎬ h
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ μ m
0 n c f ⎥
⎦⎪⎭ Δx≳ =
1
=
1
(8)
( )
1
me ve k F 3π 2 N V 3
According to the free-electron model,
the electric current is an electrons gas In the case of Iron,
propagating through the conductor (free ( N V ≅ 8.4 × 10 electrons / m ), Eq.(8) gives
28 3

electrons Fermi gas). If the conductor is Δx


made of Iron, then the free-electrons density re = ≳ 1 × 10 −10 m (9)
2
is N V ≅ 8.4 × 10 28 electrons/ m 3 * . Comparing with the value given by Eq. (7), we
The theory tells us that the total energy of can conclude that re ≅ 1.4 ×10−10 m is a highly
the electrons gas is given by 3NE F 5 , where plausible value for the electrons radii, when the
( )
1
EF = h2kF2 2me ; kF = 3π2N V 3 (The Fermi sphere). electrons are inside the mentioned free electrons
Fermi gas. On the other hand, the radius of
Consequently, the electrons gas is subjected to a protons inside the atoms (nuclei) is
pressure (−3N 5)(dEF dV) = 2NEF 5V . This rp = 1.2×10−15m, rn ≅ r p . Then, considering these

gives a pressure of about 37GPa . This
enormous pressure puts the free-electrons very values and assuming re ≅ 1.4 ×10−10 m , we obtain
close among them, in such way that if there are from Eqs. (4) (5) and (6) the following expressions:
8.4 × 10 28 electrons inside 1m 3 , then we can ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
conclude that the each electron occupies a χBe = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+1.46×1018 −1⎥⎬ (10)
volume: Ve = 1.2 ×10−29 m3 . Assuming Ve = 43 πre3 , ⎪⎩⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
for the electron’s volume, then we get ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−9 Brms
re ≅ 1.4 × 10 −10 m (7) χ Bn ≅ χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10 − 1⎥⎬ (11)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
It is known that the electron size depends
of the place where the electron is, and that it can where Brms is the rms intensity of the magnetic
vary from the Planck length field through the iron core and f is its oscillating
10 −35 m ( lplanck= hG c3 ~10−35m) up to 10 −10 m , frequency. Note that χ Bn and χ Bp are negligible
which is the value of the spatial extent of the in respect to χ Be .
electron wavefunction, Δx , in the free electrons
It is known that, in some materials, called
Fermi gas (the electron size in the Fermi gas is
conductors, the free electrons are so loosely held
Δx ≡ 2re ). The value of Δx can be obtained by the atom and so close to the neighboring
from the Uncertainty Principle for position and atoms that they tend to drift randomly from one
atom to its neighboring atoms. This means that
the electrons move in all directions by the same
*
N V = N0ρiron Airon,; N0 = 6.02×1026 atoms/ kmole
amount. However, if some outside force acts
is the Avogadro’s number; ρ iron is the matter density of upon the free electrons their movement becomes
3
the Iron (7,800 kg/m ) and Airon is the molar mass of the
not random, and they move from atom to atom at
the same direction of the applied force. This flow
Iron ( 55.845kg/kmole).
† of electrons (their electric charge) through the
The artificial production of diamond was first achieved by
H.T Hall in 1955. He used a press capable of producing
conductor produces the electrical current, which
pressures above 10 GPa and temperatures above 2,000 °C is defined as a flow of electric charge through a
[5]. Today, there are several methods to produce synthetic medium [6]. This charge is typically carried by
diamond. The more widely utilized method uses high moving electrons in a conductor, but it can also
pressure and high temperature (HPHT) of the order of be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both
10 GPa and 2500°C during many hours in order to produce
a single diamond. ions and electrons in a plasma [7].
Thus, the electrical current arises in a
conductor when an outside force acts upon its
625
3
free electrons. This force is called, in a generic amount of Gravitational Energy directly into
way, of electromotive force (EMF). Usually, it is electrical energy. Basically, it consists in a
of electrical nature (Fe = eE ) . However, if the Helmholtz coil placed into the core of a Toroidal
nature of the electromotive force is gravitational coil. The current iH through the Helmholtz coil
( )
Fe = m ge g then, as the corresponding force of has frequency f H . The wire of the toroidal coil
electrical nature is Fe = eE , we can write that is made of pure iron ( μ r ≅ 4000 ) with
m ge g = eE (12 ) insulation paint. Thus, the nucleus of the
Helmholtz coil is filled with iron wires, which
According to Eq. (1) we can rewrite Eq. (12) as
are subjected to a uniform magnetic field BH
follows
χ Be me 0 g = eE (13) with frequency f H , produced by the Helmholtz
coil. Then, according to Eq. (10), we have that
Now consider a wire with length l ; cross-section
area S and electrical conductivity σ . When a ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪

4
18 BH ( rms)
voltage V is applied on its ends, the electrical χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.46×10 −1⎥⎬ (18)
current through the wire is i . Electrodynamics ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ fH2 ⎥⎦⎪

tell us that the electric field, E , through the wire By substitution of Eq.(18) into Eq.(16), we obtain
is uniform, and correlated with V and l by ⎧ ⎡ B4 ⎤⎫⎪⎛ m ⎞
⎪ ⎢ 18 H ( rms)
⎥⎬⎜ e0 ⎟gl (19)
means of the following expression [8]
r r V = ⎨1− 2 1+1.46×10 −1
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎪⎝ e ⎠
2
V = ∫ Edl = El (14) fH
⎦⎭
If B H (rms ) = 0.8T and f H = 0.2 Hz , then Eq.

Since the current i and the area S are
r
constants, then the current density J is also (19) gives
constant. Therefore, it follows that
r r V ≅ 0.43 l (20)
i = ∫ J .dS = σES = σ (V l )S (15) In order to obtain V = 220volts , the total length
By substitution of E , given by Eq.(14), into l of the iron wire used in the Toroidal coil must
Eq.(13) yields have 511.63m. On the other hand, the maximum
V = χ Be (m e 0 e )gl (16 ) output current of the system (through the
This is the voltage V between the ends of a wire, Toroidal coil ) (See Fig.3 (a)) will be given by
when the wire with conductivity σ and cross- (Eq.17), i.e.,
section area S , is subjected to a uniform i max = 0.43σS (21)
magnetic field B with frequency f and a gravity Since the electrical conductivity of the iron is
g (as shown in Fig.(2)) (The expression of χ Be is σ = 1.04×107 S / m and, assuming that the
given by Eq. (4)). diameter of the iron wire is φironwire = 4mm,
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15), gives ( S = πφironwire
2
4 = 1.25 × 10 −5 m 2 ), then we get
imax = χ Be (me0 e)σgS (17) imax ≅ 56 Amperes (22)
This is the maximum output current of the system This is therefore, the maximum output current of
for a given value of χ Be . this Gravelectric Generator. Consequently, the
S maximum output power of the generator is
Pmax = Vi max ≅ 12 .3kW (23 )
r
B Note that, here the Helmholtz coil has two turns
V
only, both separated by the distance R (See Fig.3
wire (a)). By using only 2 turns, both separated by a
σ r large distance, it is possible strongly to reduce the
capacitive effect between the turns. This is highly
g
Fig. 2 – The voltage V between the ends of a wire

when it is subjected to a uniform magnetic field B The magnetic field at the midpoint between the coils
with frequency f and gravity g (as shown above). is BH = 0.71μr μ0 Ni R. Here μ r ≅ 4000 (pure iron;
Now consider the system shown in Fig.3. commercially called electrical pure iron (99.5% of
It is an electricity generator (Gravelectric iron and less than 0.5% of impurities.)
Generator). It was designed to convert a large

626
4

Wire spiral
(Iron with insulation R R
paint)

Helmholtz Coil GRAVITATIONAL R


Electromotive Force

(a)

i
Gravitational
Electromotive Force

l (total length)

Wire spiral
(in red)

(b)

Fig. 3 – Schematic Diagram of the Gravelectric Generator (Based on a gravity control process
patented on 2008 (BR Patent number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008).

627
5
relevant in this case because the extremely-low that in this case, we must have rd = 14.1mm .
frequency f = 0.2Hz would strongly increase the Thus, if the ferromagnetic tube is covered with
capacitive reactance ( X C = 1 2πfC ) associated insulation of 1mm thickness, then the outer
to the inductor. radius of the ferromagnetic tube is
Let us now consider a new design for the rout = rd −1mm=13.1mm. The area of the cross-
Gravelectric Generator. It is based on the device section of the ferromagnetic tube, S ft , must be
shown in Fig. 4 (a). It contains a central pin,
which is involved by a ferromagnetic tube. When equal to the area of the pin cross-section, i.e.,
r
the device is subjected to gravity g and a (
S ft = π rout
2
− rinner
2
)= πrpin
2
(27 )
magnetic field with frequency f H and where rinner is the inner radius of the
intensity BH (as shown in Fig. 4 (a)) the ferromagnetic tube.
magnetic field lines are concentrated into the Therefore, if the pin is covered with
ferromagnetic tube, and a Gravitational insulation of 0.5mm thickness, then we can
Electromotive Force is generated inside the tube, conclude that rinner = rpin + 0.5mm. Consequently,
propelling the free electrons through it. The pin is we obtain from Eq. (27) that
made with diamagnetic material (Copper, Silver,
etc.,) in order to expel the magnetic field lines
rpin = 9mm (28)
from the pin (preventing that be generated a Then, the area of the cross-section of the pin is
Gravitational Electromotive Force in the pin, S pin = πrpin
2
= 2.5 × 10 −4 m 2 (29 )
opposite to that generated in the ferromagnetic On the other hand, the maximum output
tube). current of the Gravelectric Generator shown in
Several similar devices ( N devices) are Fig.4, according to Eq. 17, will be given by
jointed into a cylinder with radius R and i max = 0 .43σ S pin (30 )
height R . The pin, the ferromagnetic tube and
the cylinder have length R (See Fig. 4 (a) and where σ is the electrical conductivity of the
(b)). On the external surface of the cylinder there ferromagnetic tube. If the ferromagnetic tube is
made with Mumetal( σ = 2.1×106 S / m ) , then
§
is a Helmholtz coil with two turns only. The
current through the Helmholtz coil has frequency we get
r
f H in order to generate the magnetic field B H . imax ≅ 225.7 Amperes (31)
The devices are connected as shown in Fig. 4 (c). This is therefore, the maximum output current of
Since the pin and the ferromagnetic tube this Gravelectric Generator. Consequently, the
have length R , then the total length of the maximum output power of this generator is
conductor through the Gravelectric Generator, Pmax = Vi max ≅ 49 .6 kW (23 )
l , is given by l = N (2 R ) . Equation (20) tells us
that in order to obtain V = 220volts (assuming 3. Conclusion
the same value of χ Be = 0.43 given by Eq. (18)) These results show that the discovery of the
Gravelectric Generators is very important,
the total length l must have 511.63m. This because changes completely the design of the
means that electricity generators, becoming cheaper the
N (2R ) = 511.63m (24) electricity generation. They can have individual
If the area of the cross-section of the cylinder outputs powers of several tens of kW or more. In
addition, they are easy to be built, and can easily
above mentioned is S = πR 2 , and the area of the be transported.
cross-section of the device is S d = πrd2 , then
assuming that S ≅ 1.2 NS d , we can write that
(
N ≅ 0.8 R rd )2
(25 )
Substitution of Eq. (25) into Eq. (24) gives
rd = 0 . 056 R 1 .5 (26 ) §
Note that, if the ferromagnetic tube is made with
Equation (24) tells us that for
N = 640 devices, the cylinder radius must be
( )
electrical pure iron σ = 1.04 × 10 7 S / m , the
maximum current increases to i max = 1117.7 A .
R ≅ 0.40m . On the other hand, Eq. (26) tells us

628
6

BH , fH Magnetic field lines

Insulation 1mm thick


Ferromagnetic tube
Gravitational Electromotive Force
Fundamental Device R i Insulation 0.5 mm thick
Diamagnetic pin (Copper)

g
rpin
rinner
router
rd
(a)

Cylinder
R

Helmholtz Coil N devices R

(b)

(c)

Fig. 4 – Schematic Diagram of another type of Gravelectric Generator

629
7

APPENDIX ⎧ ⎡ BH4 (rms) ⎤⎫⎪⎛ me0 ⎞



The Eq. (4) of this work is derived from V = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.5×1023 −1⎥⎬⎜ ⎟gl (IV)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ 2
⎥ ⎝ e ⎠
⎦⎪⎭
the general equation below (See Eq. (20) of f H
reference [9]).
If BH (rms) = 0.8T and fH =60Hz, then Eq.(III)gives
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 18 2 −1⎥⎬ = V ≅ 0.46 l (V )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 me c re f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ Note that this equation is approximately equal to
Eq. (20). Therefore, the only change is in the
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 kxe22re4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ frequency of the voltage (and current); previously
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (I ) 0.2Hz and now 60Hz (See Fig.5).
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02 me2c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ i, f = fH
Therefore, Eq. (4) expresses χ Be in the particular ←iH, fH
case of kxe = 1. However, the values obtained in
r
V l BH , fH
Eqs. (7) and (8) led us to think that, in the Fermi f=fH
gas, kxe >1. This conclusion is based on the
following: while rxe ≅ 1.4×10−10 m (See Eq.(7)), r
g
the value of er is given by
Fig. 5 – The voltage V (and current i ) with
(
re ≅ Δx 2≳ 12 3π 2 N V )
−1
3≳ 0.37×10−10 m , which frequency equal to f H , now f H = 60 Hz .
shows that, in the Fermi gas, re , is not smaller
The equations (5) and (6) are also similarly
than 0.37 × 10−10 m . Therefore, we can write that derived from the general expression, i.e.,
remin ≅ 0.37×10−10m. Since rxe ≅ 1.4×10−10 m, then it ⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxp22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪

max
= rxe remin ≅ 3.7. On the other hand,
χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
follows that kxe
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02m2pc2rp18 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪

assuming that remax ≅ rxe , we get kxe
min
= rxe remax≅1.
Thus, the value of k xe is in the interval ⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2kxp22rp4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪

kxemin < kxe < kxemax.The geometric media for k xe ,i.e.,
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1⎥⎬ (V )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02m2pc2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪

kxe = kxeminkxemax ≅ 1.9, produces a value that ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
45.56π 2r 22B4
possibly should be very close of the real value of χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 xn18 rms − 1⎥⎬ =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c rn f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
k xe . Then, assuming that k xe ≅ k xe and
substituting this value into Eq. (I), we get an
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2kxn22rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
approximated value for χ Be , given by = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (VI)
⎧⎪ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02mn2c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
χ Be ≅ ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.5×1023 −1⎥⎬ (II) With the dimensions previously
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ mentioned the free electrons, if the Fermi gas,
Note that the numerical coefficient of the term have the size of atoms, and therefore they can not
cross the atoms of the conductor. Thus, passing
4
Brms f 2 of this equation is about1.02×105 times
far from the atoms nuclei, they practically do not
greater than the equivalent coefficient of Eq. (10). affect the structures of the protons which are in
Making Brms = BH (rms) and f = f H (See Eq. the nuclei of these atoms. In this way, we have
(18)), then Eq. (II) can be rewritten as follows that rxp ≅ r p → k xp ≅ 1 . Substitution of this
⎧ ⎡ BH4 (rms) ⎤⎫⎪ value into Eq. (V) leads to Eq. (5).
⎪ ⎢
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.5 ×1023
− 1⎥⎬ (III) In the case of the neutrons, due to its
⎪⎩ ⎢ f 2
⎥⎪ electric charge be null, we obviously have
⎣ H
⎦⎭
k xn = 1 . Substitution of this value into Eq. (VI)
Substitution of Eq. (III) into Eq. (16),
yields leads to Eq. (6).

630
8

References
[1] Cantor, G. (1991) Faraday’s search for the Gravelectric effect, Phys. Ed. 26, 289.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2012). A System to convert Gravitational


Energy directly into Electrical Energy.
Available at http://vixra.org/abs/1205.0119

[3] De Aquino, F. (2016) Quantum Controller of Gravity.


Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01320459

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[5] Hall, H. T. (1960). "Ultra-high pressure apparatus".


Rev. Sci. Instr. 31 (2): 125.

[6] Valkengurg, V., (1992) Basic Electricity, Prompt


Publications, 1-38.

[7] Fischer-Cripps, A., (2004) The electronics companion.


CRC Press, p. 13, ISBN 9780750310123.

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 107-108.

[9] De Aquino, F. (2012) Superconducting State generated by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified Gravitational Interaction,
Available at http://vixra.org/abs/1207.0008 , v2.

631
Asteroid Redirect
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Asteroids are a great threat to mankind. Here we will show that it is possible to redirect
them from their trajectories by means of a strong gravitational repulsion, produced by the
gravitational interaction between the asteroid and a Gravitational Spacecraft positioned
close to the asteroid.

Key words: Asteroid Redirect, Gravitational Spacecraft, Gravitational Mass, Gravity.

Previously, I have published a paper where with several (n ) concentric spherical


it is shown a new type of quantum device for capacitors each one with a Gravity Controller,
controlling gravity, called Quantum Controller of as shown in Fig.2. In this case, if all the n Gravity
Gravity [1], which is basically a spherical Controllers have the same value for χ , and the
capacitor connected to a specific voltage source.
gravity acceleration at the inner border of the first
This device acts controlling at subatomic level, the
Gravity Controller is g = − Gmg ( S ) r , where
2
gravitational mass of a thin spherical shell at the
outer plate of the spherical capacitor. This thin mg ( S ) ≅ mi 0(S ) ( mi 0( S ) is the inertial mass of the
shell works as a Gravity Controller, in such way
gravitational spacecraft, correspondent to the
that if the gravity acceleration at the inner border
region involved by the first Gravity Controller),
of the Gravity Controller is g (See Fig.1) then
then the gravity acceleration outside the nth
the gravity acceleration outside the Gravity
Gravity Controller becomes g ′ = χ n g .
*
Controller becomes g ′ = χg (assuming that the
Gravity Controller is sufficiently far from other In addition, if χ < 0 and n is odd then
bodies in such way that the intensity of their the expression above can be rewritten as follows
gravitational fields are negligible in the region); ⎛ mg ( S ) ⎞ mi 0( S )
χ = m g mi 0 [2] ( mi 0 and m g are respectively, g ′ = χ n g = − χ n ⎜⎜ − G 2 ⎟⎟ ≅ + χ n G 2 (1)
⎝ r ⎠ r
the inertial mass and the gravitational mass of the This means that if a Gravitational Spacecraft with
thin spherical shell (region of the Gravity n (odd) Gravity Controllers is positioned close to
Controller)); the value of m g is controlled by an asteroid, then the asteroid will be repelled from
means of the variation of the electric field in the it with a gravity acceleration g ′ ≅ + χ n Gmi 0 r 2 .
mentioned region.
Therefore, if for example, n = 29 , χ = −3 ,
r = 10km and mi 0 = 15ton , then the gravity
Gravity Controller
g'=χg acceleration, g ′ , acting on the asteroid due to the
Gravitational Spacecraft, will be
g ′ ≅ +0.6m / s (repulsive in respect to the
2

g spacecraft).
The idea of generation of a repulsive
gravitational force field using Gravity
Controllers is not new. In a previous paper we
Fig.1 – Schematic diagram of a Gravity Controller have showed a similar method [4].

I have also shown that a Quantum *


Controller of Gravity can be transformed into a In this case, there is also a contribution due to the
Gravitational Spacecraft [3]. In this way, we can spherical capacitors, but it can be inconsiderate if the
imagine a spherical Gravitational Spacecraft capacitors are very thin (thick << 1mm); n << 100;
χ < 10 and mi 0 ( S ) > 10ton .

632
2

Gravitational Spacecraft
(with n concentric spherical capacitors, each one with
one Gravity Controller)

g′
g r
1 2 3 n
⎛ mg ( S ) ⎞ mi 0( S )
g ′ = χ n g = − χ n ⎜⎜ − G 2 ⎟⎟ ≅ + χ n G 2
⎝ r ⎠ r

χ <0 and n is odd

mi 0
Asteroid

Fig.2- Asteroid Redirect. For example, if n = 29 , χ = −3 , r = 10km and mi 0( S ) = 15ton , then the
gravity acceleration, g ′ , acting on the asteroid due to the Gravitational Spacecraft, will be
g ′ ≅ +0.6m / s 2 (repulsive in respect to the spacecraft).

633
3

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2016) Quantum Controller of
Gravity. Available at: http://vixra.org/abs/1605.0244
and https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01320459

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[3] De Aquino, F. (2016) Transforming a Quantum


Controller of Gravity into a Gravitational
Spacecraft.
Available at: http://vixra.org/abs/1607.0082 and
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01342900

[4] De Aquino, F. (2013) Repulsive Gravitational


Force Field.
Available at:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01077840 and
https://pt.scribd.com/document/194252210/Repulsive-
Gravitational-Force-Field

634
Activation of Autophagy Process in Cancerous Cells at
Quasi-Zero Gravity Environments
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Autophagy is a well-known process of cell death. In this work we show that it can be actived in
cancerous cells at Quasi-Zero Gravity environments. The result is the total destruction of the cancerous
cells without use of medicaments.

Key words: Cancerous Cell, Autophagy, Microgravity, Quantum Controllers of Gravity.

The gravitational acceleration that only needs a short duration of


experienced by an object in a microgravity microgravity, or for an initial validation for
environment, by definition, is one-millionth experiments that will be carried out in longer
(10-6) of that experienced at Earth’s surface duration of microgravity.
(g ⊕ ) . Consequently, a microgravity Aircraft can fly in parabolic arcs to
environment is one where the acceleration achieve period of microgravity of 20 to 25
induced by gravity has very little effect seconds with g-level of approximately 0.02
(g ≈ 1μg ⊕ ) . g. The airplane climbs rapidly until its nose is
about 45-degree angle to the horizon then the
Only three methods of creating a engines are cut back. The airplane slows; the
microgravity environment are currently plane remains in free fall over the top of the
known: to travel far enough into deep space parabola, then it nose-dives to complete the
so as to reduce the effect of gravity by parabola, creating microgravity conditions.
attenuation, by falling, and by orbiting a Aircraft parabolic flights give the
planet. opportunity to perform medical experiments
The first method is the simplest in on human subjects in real microgravity
conception, but requires traveling an environment. They also offer the possibility
enormous distance, rendering it most of direct intervention by investigators on
impractical with the conventional board the aircraft during and between
spacecrafts. The second method, falling, is parabolas. In the mid-1980s, NASA KC-135,
very common but approaches microgravity a modified Boeing 707, provided access to
only when the fall is in a vacuum, as air microgravity environment. A parabolic flight
resistance will provide some resistance to provided 15 to 20 seconds of 0.01 g or less,
free fall acceleration. Also it is difficult to followed by a 2-g pull out. On a typical
fall for long enough periods of time. There flight, up to 40 parabolic trajectories can be
are also problems which involve avoiding too performed. The KC-135 can accommodate
sudden of a stop at the end. The NASA up to 21 passengers performing 12 different
Lewis Research Center has several drop experiments. In 1993, the Falcon-20
facilities. One provides a 132 meter drop into performed its first parabolic flight with
a hole in the ground similar to a mine shaft. microgravity experiment on board. This jet
This drop creates a reduced gravity can carry two experimenters and perform up
environment for 5.2 seconds. The longest to 3 experiments. Each flight can make up to
drop time currently available (about 10 4 parabolic trajectories, with each parabola
seconds) is at a 490 meter deep vertical mine lasting 75 seconds, with 15 to 20 seconds of
shaft in Japan that has been converted to a microgravity at 0.01g or less.
drop facility.
Drop towers are used for experiments

635
2
The third method of creating a
microgravity environment is orbiting a χ 2g
planet. This is the environment commonly
experienced in the space shuttle,
International Space Station, Mir (no longer in
orbit), etc. While this scenario is the most
suitable for scientific experimentation and
commercial exploitation, it is still quite 2
expensive to operate in, mostly due to launch χg
costs. 1
A space shuttle provides an ideal
laboratory environment to conduct
microgravity research. A large panoply of Δx
10 GΩ
experiments can be carried out in
microgravity conditions for up to 17 days, V f
+ g χ
and scientists can make adjustment to avoid -
experiment failure and potential loss of data. Pulsed
Unmanned capsules, platforms or satellites, Fig.1 – The shell with thickness Δ x works as a
such as the European retrievable carrier Quantum Controller of Gravity.
Eureka, DLR's retrievable carrier SPAS, or
As show in the figure above, the gravity in
the Russian Photon capsules, the US Space
the blue spherical region becomes χg , where χ
Shuttle (in connection with the European
is the expression of the correlation between
Spacelab laboratory or the US Spacelab
gravitational mass and the rest inertial mass of
module), provide weeks or months of the QCG, which is given by [1]

{ [ ]} (1)
microgravity.
mg
A space station, maintaining a low χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 2 .64 × 10 − 3 V − 1
earth orbit for several decades, greatly mi 0
improves access to microgravity environment where V is the voltage applied (See Fig.1).
for up to several months.
Thus, microgravity environment can be
obtained via different means, providing
different duration of microgravity. While
short-duration microgravity environments
can be achieved on Earth with relative
easiness, longer-duration microgravity
environments are too expensive to be
obtained. χ ng 1 2 n
In a previous paper we shown that the
intensity of the local gravity can be
controlled by means of a device called mi 0 (nucl )
Quantum Controller of Gravity (QCG) [1].
Fundamentally, a QCG can have any
spherical form (ellipsoidal, spherical,
spherical cylindrical, etc.). Figure 1 shows a
system with 1 (one) spherical QCG (shell
g
with thickness Δx ). Fig. 2 – A system with n QCG
It is possible to build a system with n
concentric QCGs (See schematic diagram in
Fig. 2.). In this case, the gravity inside the
system becomes χ n g [2].

636
3
Here, we propose to use QCGs, in where g is the gravity acceleration
order to create, a Quasi-Zero Gravity 1 produced by the mass M .
environments of longer-duration, at Earth’s Note that, if gravity g is reduced the
surface. Due to the cost of the QCGs to be energy E increases. This explains why the
relatively low, also the Quasi-Zero Gravity cellular metabolism increases in
environments of longer-duration. will be microgravity environments. That is, if a cell
produced with low costs. is placed in a microgravity environment,
This possibility is absolutely new and then, according to Eq. (3), its total energy
unprecedented in the literature. increases and, consequently, its metabolism
The Quasi-Zero Gravity environments will be accelerated. Therefore, strongly
produced by QCGs will be a special tool for reducing the gravity that acts on a cell it is
ultra-low gravity research. It will allow to possible strongly increase its cellular
improve and to optimize physical, chemical metabolism. The healthy cells are able to
and biological processes on Earth that are support this effect for a long-time. But the
important in science, engineering and also cancerous cells do not support by a long time
medicine. the metabolic stress [3,4,5] produced by the
In this work we show that the well- strong acceleration of their metabolisms and,
known Autophagy process (cell death) can be at a given moment, they activate the
actived in cancerous cells at Quasi-Zero Autophagy process which leads to death of
Gravity environments of longer-duration. the cancerous cells.
Consider a non-relativistic system with This fact is not new, several papers [6,
mass m and velocity v in a gravitational 7, 8, 9] show that the cells are strongly
field. Its kinetic energy is K = 12 mv 2 and its affected by microgravity and under certain
potential energy in the gravitational field is conditions can activate the Autophagy or
U = − GMm r ; M is the mass of the body Apoptosis process. The novelty is the
(spherical with radius r ) that creates the possibility the use of QCGs in order to
gravitational field. Under these create, at the Earth surface, Quasi-Zero
circumstances, the total energy of the Gravity environments of longer-duration
system, E , is given by which can activate the Autophagy or
Apoptosis process.
E = K + U = 12 mv 2 − GMm r (2) Now consider that the body with the
mentioned cancerous cells is on Earth’s surface.
Considering Eq. (3), in this case, we can take
Note that the potential energy reduces the r = r⊕ = 6.378 × 10 6 m and v ∝ 1μm.s −1 ( v is
total energy of the system. Consequently, if it the average speed inside the cells; the length
is decreased then the total energy of the scale of human cells is about ~ 1μm ).
system will be increased.
The Eq. (2) can be rewritten in the In order to make 2 gr⊕ << v 2 in Eq.
following form: (3), we must reduce the value of g down to
g << v 2 2r⊕ ∝ 10−20 m.s −2 . An environment

[ ( )] [
E = 12 m v 2 − 2GM r 2 r = 12 m v 2 − 2 g r ] (3)
with this level of gravity can be considered a
Quasi-Zero Gravity environment. Since
g = χ n g ⊕ then, we must make

g << 1μg ⊕ . Here we use the term Quasi-Zero


1
χ n << 10−21 (4)
Gravity because the term zero-gravity is, obviously
inappropriate since the quantization of gravity [2]
shows that the gravity can have only discrete values If we make n = 30 , we must have χ < 0.2
different of zero. in order to satisfy Eq.(3). It is important to
note that the value of χ cannot be in the
interval: − 0.159 < χ < +0.159 because this is
637
4
the condition to transform a particle into an
imaginary particle [2].

χ 30 g ⊕ 1 2 30

g⊕

Fig. 3 – A Quasi-Zero Gravity Chamber on Earth’s


surface with 30 QCGs

Figure 3 shows a Quasi-Zero Gravity


Chamber, where n = 30 and χ < 0.2 . The
Quasi-Zero Gravity environment produced
by the chamber ( g << 1 × 10 −21 g ⊕ ) will
activate, after a time interval, the Autophagy
process in all cancerous cells of the body
inside the chamber. The result is the cure of
the cancer.
The time intervals, inside the Quasi-
Zero Gravity Chamber, which each type of
cancerous cell (or set of them) requires in
order to be destroyed only can be determined
by means of experimental studies.

638
5
References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2016) Quantum Controller of Gravity.
Available at http://vixra.org/abs/1605.0244 and
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01320459

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[3] Danial NN, Korsmeyer SJ. (2004) Cell death:


critical control points. Cell. 2004;116:205-19.

[4] Lum JJ, DeBerardinis RJ, Thompson CB. (2005)


Autophagy in metazoans: cell survival in the land
of plenty. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2005;6:439-48.

[5] Kelekar A. (2005) Autophagy. Ann NY Acad Sci.


2005; 1066:259-71.

[6] Vassy, J., et al. (2001) The effect of weightlessness


on cytoskeleton architecture and proliferation of
human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. FASEB J
2001 Apr;15(6):1104-6.

[7] Schatten, H. et al., (2001) Spaceflight and


clinorotation cause cytoskeleton and mitochondria
changes and increases in apoptosis in cultured
cells. Acta Astronaut 2001 Aug-Nov;49(3-10):399-
418.

[8] Vercoutere W . et al., (2002) NASA Astrobiology


Science Conference 2002, Apr. p32 Integrin-
Mediated Cellular Response to Hypergravity.

[9] Guignandon, A., et al., (2001) Cell cycling


determines integrin-mediated adhesion in
osteoblastic ROS 17/2.8 cellsexposed to space-
related conditions. FASEB J 2001
Sep;15(11):2036-8

639
Conversion of Kinetic Energy into an Electromagnetic Pulse by
means of Control of the Gravitational Mass
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It is shown a system that, if launched radially into the Earth’s gravitational field, it can acquires a ultra
high amount of kinetic energy, which can generate a highly intense pulse of electromagnetic energy
(EMP) with magnitude of the order of 20 Megatons or more.

Key words: EMP, Kinetic Energy, Gravitational Mass.

In a previous paper we shown that the Fig. 2.). In this case, the gravity inside the
intensity of the local gravity can be system becomes χ n g [2]. Thus, if the rest
controlled by means of a device called inertial mass of the nucleus of the system (in
Quantum Controller of Gravity (QCG) [1]. blue) is mi 0 (nucl ) , and the system is launched
Fundamentally, a QCG can have any
spherical form (ellipsoidal, spherical, from a height H into the Earth’s gravitational
spherical cylindrical, etc.). Figure 1 shows a field, then the weight of the system 1 becomes
system with 1 (one) spherical QCG (shell P( sys ) = m g ( sys ) g = χ n mi 0( sys ) g ≅ χ n mi 0(nucl ) g ,
with thickness Δx ). and it will acquire an acceleration a = χ n g .

χ 2g

2
χg
1
χ ng 1 2 n

Δx
10 GΩ mi 0 (nucl )
V f
+ g χ
-
Pulsed

Fig.1 – The shell with thickness Δ x works as a


Quantum Controller of Gravity. g

As show in the figure above, the Fig. 2 – A system with n QCG


gravity in the blue spherical region
becomes χg , where χ is the expression of
the correlation between gravitational mass
and the rest inertial mass of the QCG, which
is given by [1]
m
{ [
χ = g = 1 − 2 1 + 2.64 × 10 − 3 V − 1 (1)
mi 0
]} 1
Since the n spherical capacitors are too thin, then
the total inertial mass of them is very less than the
where V is the voltage applied (See Fig.1).
inertial mass of the nucleus of the system. Then, we
It is possible to build a system with n
can write that mi 0 ( sys ) ≅ mi 0 (nucl ) .
concentric QCGs (See schematic diagram in
640
2
Then, the velocity v of the system, at In this case the velocity of the system at the
the distance h (starting from the launch point end of the 10km distance is
(zero point). See Fig. 3), is
v = 2ah = 2 χ n gh , and the time interval v = 2 χ n gh ≅ 3 × 10 5 m.s −1 (4)
to go from the zero point down to the end of
the height h is given by t = 2h χ n g . At With this velocity the inertial mass of the
system is given by
this point, the kinetic energy of the system
will be E = 12 m g ( sys )v 2 = 12 χ n mi 0(nucl )v 2 . mi 0 ( sys )
Therefore, if at this moment the QCGs are mi ( sys ) = ≅ mi 0 ( sys ) (5)
v2
turned off, then the gravitational mass of the 1− 2
system will sudden reduce to its inertial c
mass. Consequently, the system will release,
in the form of a high-power electromagnetic On the other hand, the traveling time of the
pulse, an amount of energy ΔE system (from the zero point down to the end
of the10 km distance) is
ΔE = 12 (mg (sys) − mi 0(sys) )v 2 ≅ 12 χ n mi 0(nucl) v 2 =
t = 2h χ n g ≅ 67ms (6)
= 12 χ 2n mi 0(nucl) gh (2)
This time interval is insufficient for that the
For example, if n = 6 ; χ = −8.77 friction with the rarefied atmosphere heats
(obtained from Eq. (1) for V = 12.7kV ); significatively the system.
It is easy to see that the mentioned
mi 0 (nucl ) = 10kg ; g = 9.8m.s −2 and h = 10km ,
system can be launched into outer space (or
then the released energy is in an orbit of Earth) by itself 2 . It is sufficient
activates only one QCG of the system. In this
ΔE = 12 χ2nmi0(nucl) gh=1.0×1017J ≅ 24 Megatons (3) case, the gravity on the nucleus of the system
becomes χg . Then, for χ < 0 the direction
of the gravity acting on the nucleus becomes
H = 410 km opposite the direction of the Earth’s gravity
a (g), and consequently the system leaves the
h = 10 km Earth’s surface and climbs. Thus, by
controlling the value of χ it is possible
control the ascending speed of the system.
ΔE ∼24 Megatons
In addition, by using retrorockets it is
possible to put the system, for example in an
EMP Earth’s synchronous orbit 3 .
Note that, if the QCGs are not turned
400 km off along the distance of the 410km, then the
system strikes on the Earth surface in 0.43s,
with a velocity of 1.9 × 10 6 m.s −1 and energy
>3000 km of about 1 Gigaton .

Fig. 3 – EMP of ~24 Megatons produced by the 2


sudden conversion of kinetic energy into Without use of a rocket.
3
electromagnetic energy. Synchronous Orbit — An orbit in which a satellite
has a velocity synchronized to the speed of the
rotation of the earth and thus remains above a fixed
point on the earth’s surface.

641
3

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2016) Quantum Controller of Gravity.
Available at http://vixra.org/abs/1605.0244 and
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01320459

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

642
Searching for the Gravific Photons
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It was show that the linear momentum transported by electromagnetic waves has a negative component,
in such way that, when a radiation incides on a surface, it is exerted a pressure on opposite direction to
the direction of propagation of the radiation. In addition, it was predicted the existence of photons in
which the negative component of the momentum is greater than the positive one. These photons were
called attractive photons or gravific photons. Here, we show how to produce and to detect this type of
photons.

Key words: Gravity, Gravitation, Electromagnetic Waves, Radiation Pressure.

1. Introduction

Electromagnetic waves transport energy as (Mesons π 0 ), by means of the collision of high-


well as linear momentum. Then, if this momentum speed protons. i.e.,
is absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on the
surface. In a previous paper [1] we shown that
p + p → p + p +π 0 (1)
this pressure has a negative component (opposite Neutral pions decay with a much shorter lifetime
to the direction of propagation of the photons) due of 8.4×10−17 seconds, producing 2 gamma rays.
to the existence of the negative linear momentum π0 →γ +γ (2)
transported by the photons. Then, it was predicted When the velocities of the protons are ultra-
the existence of photons in which the negative relativistic the energy of the neutral pion, E 0 , is
π
component of the momentum is greater than the
positive one. These photons were called gravific given by [2]
2
photons 1 and is expected that they have ⎛ E proton ⎞
frequencies greater than 10 28 Hz . In addition, it E 0 =⎜
π ⎜m
⎟ m 0 c2
⎟ π
(3)
was shown that the limit between the spectrum of ⎝ i 0 ( proton ) ⎠
the gravific photons and the gamma ray spectrum Neutral pions have rest inertial mass, m equal to
π0
is defined by a characteristic frequency,
264me . Thus, the frequency of the gamma rays is
2 fg ≈1028Hz (See Fig. 1). 2
1 ⎛⎜ E proton ⎞⎟
f = m 0 c2 ≅
1031 2h ⎜⎝ mi 0 ( proton ) ⎟⎠ π
1030 Gravific photons 2
⎛ E proton ⎞
2fg 1029
1028 ≅ 1.6 × 10 ⎜
⎜m
22 ⎟
2 ⎟
(4)
1027 ⎝ i 0 ( proton ) c ⎠
1026
Note that, if E proton > 10 mi 0( proton ) c , then the
3 2
1025
1024 Gamma rays
1023 produced gamma rays will have frequency
1022
1021 > 10 28 Hz . Therefore, by means of collision of
1020 ultra-relativistic protons it is possible to produce
1019
1018
1017
X rays
(
Gravific Photons f > 2 f g ≈ 10 Hz 2 . In the
28
)
system shown in Fig. 2, when the Gravific Photons
Fig. 1 – The Gravific Photons Spectrum (above strike on a plate, it is exerted a pressure on
2 f g ≈ 10 Hz ).
28
opposite direction to the direction of propagation
of the radiation. By measuring the pressure on the
Here, we show how to produce and to plate it is then possible to confirm the existence of
detect gravific photons. We start with the well- the Gravific Photons.
know process of production of neutral pions
2
At the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) the protons
1
each have an energy of 6.5 TeV, giving a total
Gravific Radiation is electromagnetic radiation and cannot collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy the protons
be confused with gravitational radiation or gravitational move at about 0.999999990 c. Then the frequency of
waves, which are ripples on the space-time (predicted by the the gamma rays produced by the disintegration of the
Einstein Theory). neutral pions can reach about 1030Hz.

643
2

Vacuum
Ultra-relativistic Ultra-high energy
protons gamma rays produced by
the disintegration of the
Plate
mesons π0
Mesons π 0

produced by
the shock of
the protons

γ If the incident photons have

Ultra-relativistic Vacuum frequencies f > 2 fg , then the


protons pressure is exerted on the surface
in the opposite direction of
propagation of the photon.

p + p → p + p + π0

γ+γ

Fig. 2 – If the photons have frequencies f > 2 f g the resultant momentum transported by the photon
is negative. If this momentum is absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on the surface, in the
opposite direction of propagation of the photon. This special type of photon is denominated of
attractive photon or Gravific Photons.

644
3

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2014) The Bipolar Linear Momentum
transported by the Electromagnetic Waves: Origin of the
Gravitational Interaction : https://hal.archives-
ouvertes.fr/hal-01077208 ;
http://vixra.org/abs/1402.0022

[2] Boldt, E. (1969) Cosmic Rays Photons, chap. 4,


p.49, in Lectures in High-Energy Astrophysics,
STID, NASA, Washington, DC.

645
Directional Control of Weight Forces in Rotating Bodies
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright  2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

The frame-dragging effect tells us that when a body rotates around itself the metric of spacetime around its surface is dragged. This occurs, for
example, in the metric of the spacetime around the Earth surface, and produces the well-known phenomenon of shifting of the orbits of the satellites
near the Earth. Such as the orbits of the satellites, the force lines of the gravitational field produced by rotating bodies are also affected by the frame-
dragging effect. This means that the direction of a gravitational central force in a rotating body should be radially displaced, in respect to their initial
position. In this work, we show that the radial displacement angle depends on the angular velocity of the rotating body, and that this fact point to the
possibility of controlling the direction of these gravitational central forces, simply by controlling the angular velocity of the rotating body.

Keywords: Gravitation, Experimental studies of gravity, Lense-Thirring effect.

General relativity predicts that rotating objects  is expressed in rad .s 1 . Note that,  , can be
should drag spacetime around themselves as they rotate. expressed in rad , in this case, k must be expressed in
This effect on spacetime is known as frame-dragging. The seconds.
first frame-dragging effect was discovered by the
Besides the internal angle  i , there is also the
physicists J. Lense and H. Thirring, and is known as the
Lense–Thirring effect [1, 2, 3]. This phenomenon tells us external angle  e (produced by the bending of the
for example, that the Earth drags spacetime around itself internal metric of spacetime (See Fig. 1 (b)). Since the
as it rotates, and consequently shifting of the orbits of the
satellites near the Earth. This fact led to the verification
arches, defined by si   i R , se   e r , have the same
of the mentioned effect by means of satellites, and it was order of magnitude, then, we can write that  i R   e r or
 i   e r R  2
experimentally observed in 2004 by using the LAGEOS
satellites [4].
The frame-dragging effect tells us that when a body Substitution of Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) gives
rotates the metric of spacetime around its surface is  e  k R r  3
dragged at the same direction of the rotation [5]. Due to The Gravity Probe B experiment measured the
this phenomenon the force lines of the gravitational field angle  e , in the case of the Earth. The result
produced by a rotating body are also curved following the
curvature of the metric of the local spacetime, similarly to is e   0.041 arc sec ond  1.97 107 rad [6, 7]. Since
the orbits of the satellites near the Earth. Earth’s angular velocity is    7.29  10 5 rad .s 1 , then
The bend of the force lines allows us to infer that
 Eq. (3), gives
k   e  r R   2.7 10 3 r R  4
the direction of a gravitational central force, F , in a
rotating body, should be displaced due to the curvature of
the force lines. Thus, it is to be expected that the direction Since the Earth’s rotation affects the orbits of the
 satellites near the Earth, and as most these orbits are at
of the force F describe an angular displacement  i , in
altitudes close to 600km (Gravity Probe satellite was
respect to its initial position (See Fig. 1(b)). Since the in a typical polar orbit of 642 km altitude [6]), then 
magnitude of this angle depends only of the magnitude of
 as r must have a value greater than these values (but
the angular velocity, i.e.,  i   , and  i has the same
 close of them), we can infer that r  1,000km (See
direction of  (See Fig. 1(b)), then we can write that
 
 i  k 1 Fig.1 (b)), Substitution of this value and
R  6.3  10 3 km , into Eq. (4), gives
where k is a constant to be determined. If  is expressed
in rad . yr 1 , then k must be expressed in s. yr 1 because

e
Force line of the Force line of the
gravitational field  gravitational field
F r

F i R Direction of
rotation
 External spacetime  
0  , i
Internal spacetime Internal spacetime

(a) (b)

Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram of the angular displacement of a gravitational central force, F , in a spherical rotating
body, due to the bending of the force lines of the gravitational field of the body, consequence of the bending of the
metric of the local spacetime produced by the rotation of the body.
646
2

k  4  10 4 s 5 with the removal of said spherical shells. Thus, by



Then, according to Eq. (1), we get  i  4  10  , 4 increasing the magnitude of Pm it is possible to

whence we conclude that increasing the magnitude of R .
  2,500rad .s 1  i  23,873rpm  i 6   
This equation shows that, in order to obtain a R  PR  Pm
significative value of  i , in this case, the value of 
must be very greater than 5,000rpm . 
 PS
If the gravitational force F is the weight force, i 
 Pg  S  R  is the weight of the
PR , of the rotating body (Rotor), then it can be moved of system without the weight of the

an angle  i in order to produce horizontal displacement  rotor and the spherical shells, ( R ).
Pg  S  R 
to move, for example, cars, ships, trains, etc., or it can be
moved to produce an ascending displacement of the body (a)
(take-off) as shown in Fig.2 (a), or in order to produce a
descending displacement of the body (landing) as shown
in Fig.2 (b).
 Rotor

P S  R  is the weight of the system without , PR . 
 PR
 PS  R   i PR
Rotor PR
0     i 1
2
P P Pm
PR PS  R  i R S  R  n
(b)
(a) Take-off
Fig. 3 – The rotor inside spherical shells. The weight
force, Pm , increases with the increase of superposed

  spherical shells added around to the rotor (without


PS  R  i R
P touching the rotor).

  0  The phenomenon here described can be


PS  R  i PR PR easily checked by means of the experimental set-up

shown in Fig. 4. By measuring the components Px
(b) Landing
 
PR , PR  PS  R  .

Fig 2 – Take-off and landing by means of the control of and Py of the force PR of the rotor, it is possible to

It is important to note that, if there is a calculate the angle  i .


symmetric and homogeneous mass distribution around
Rolling bearing
the rotor, with mass center coincident with the mass Strength
center of the rotor (for example in the case of a solid Pulley Sensors
spherical rotor, spinning inside a hollow sphere), then,

when PR be displaced of an angle  i (  i is the angle Rotor
Px
given by Eq. (1) at the first page of this article), also the Rotor
 Axis
weight force, Pm , of the mentioned mass around the rotor,
 Py  i PR
will be displaced of the same angle  i , together with PR .

Thus, at the direction of PR , during its displacement (  i ),
  
the resultant will be: R  PR  Pm (See Fig. 3 (a)). Note
that this increasing does not have influence on the torque Fig.4 – The strength sensors will detect the forces
produced by the rotor in the case of an angular
of the motor connected to the rotor. displacement of its weight force.
On the other hand, note that, the amount of mass
around the rotor can be controlled by means of addition The possibility of controlling the direction of
(or removal) of superposed spherical shells around the
 weight forces, simply by controlling the angular
rotor (See Fig. 3 (b)). In this case, the weight force Pm velocity of the rotating body, can provides a new and
increases progressively with the amount of spherical powerful technology in order to move cars, ships,
647
shells that are added around the rotor, and it will decrease trains, etc., or to produce thrust to the flight of an
3
aircraft, without use of any type of fuel. Also, it can be  
where  kg / m is the density of the liquid
3

used in a motor (Gravitational Motor), which can


transform gravitational energy directly into rotational  
and Q m 3 / s is the volumetric flow rate, which
energy (See Fig.5). Initially, the angular velocities of the is expressed by Q  Av , where A is the area of
mini-rotors are programmed to displace their weight
 the cross-section, given by A  xL (See Fig 5).
forces, PR , of an angle  i  180 0 . Thus, the weight Thus, Eq. (7) can be rewritten as follows
  3 3
Pm  mi 0 g (See Fig.5) will be displaced of the same P  12 Qv 2  12 Av 3  11.3 xLg 2 h 2 8

angle  i , together with the PRs , nPR  mi 0 g  . The power of the Gravitational Motor, Pmotor , depends
Under these conditions, the gravity acceleration
 on its performance i.e., Pmotor  P , where  is the
upon the liquid around the mini-rotors (See Fig.5) is  g , performance ratio. Thus, we can write that
then it acquires a velocity v1 (in the opposite direction of 3 3

     Pmotor  11.3  xLg 2 h 2 9


g ), given by v1  v0  2 gh  2 gh , where v0 is the
For example, if   0.9 ;   1,000kg / m 3 ;
initial velocity. Then the velocity v is given by
    x  0.15m ; L  1m ; h  0.5m , then the power is:
v  v1  2 gh  2 2 gh (See Fig.5). Therefore, the
Pmotor  1.6  10 4 W  21HP . Note that, if an
liquid acquires a kinetic energy K  12 mi 0 v 2 , where electrical generator is coupled to this motor, then it
mi 0 is the inertial mass of the liquid. Thus, the power P can produce sufficient electrical energy to supply, for
transported by the liquid is example, the electrical consumption of a high-standard
residence.
m 
P
K
 12  i 0 v 2  12 Qv 2 7 
t  t 

v1

Pm  mi 0 g
 v1
PR
i
h
Mini-rotor
x x L
A A’
v0 Q = Av = (xL) v

Vertical Cross-section AA’ Cross Section

Fig.5 – Schematic Diagram of a Gravitational Motor using Mini-rotors.


648
4

Appendix: Experimental Set-Up to Check the Theoretical Predictions


Miniature Compression Sensor (4 units)
Model MR 04 – 025 (1N X 0.001N)
http://www.wagnerinstruments.com
To Remote Digital Force Gauge

20mm Electric Motor or


Compressed Air turbine

PRx 2mm Rod

Direction of
Rotation
i
PRy PR
Cross Axis

Sphere
To Remote Digital Force Gauge

(a)

Miniature Compression Sensor (4 units)


Model MR 04 – 025 (1N X 0.001N)

Spherical Shell


Rx

Direction of
Rotation
i   
 R  PR  Pm
Ry

(b)

Fig. 1A – It is shown in (a) an experimental arrangement to measure the magnitudes of the components PRx and
 
PRy produced by the displacement of PR (weight of the rotating sphere). In (b) it is added a spherical shell around
the rotating sphere (rotor), in order to measure the magnitudes of the components R x and R y produced by the
 
   
displacement of R  PR  Pm ; Pm is the weight of the spherical shell.
649
5

12  22 g  g ;  2  11

Quantum Controller of Gravity (See Fig. 3)


(QCG 2)
12 g

Rx

Direction of
Rotation
i   

Ry
R  12 PR  12 Pm

1  1 12 g
Quantum Controller of Gravity
(QCG 1)
g


Fig. 2A – The resultant R can be increased by the action of a Quantum Controller of Gravity (QCG 1), as shown
above. The objective of the QCG 2 it is to revert the local gravity to its initial value g . (See De Aquino, F. (2016)
Quantum Controller of Gravity. Available at http://vixra.org/abs/1605.0244 and https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01320459).

650
6

Column Column

Rotor
Quantum Controllers of Gravity (QCG)

Aerocraft
Front View
Motor or
Turbine
Hollow axis Thread lead screw
+ electric motor
Hollow sphere

Ball bearing R

QCG
Encapsulation
Ultra-rigid rod
Lower rails
Top View
Upper and Lower Rails Motor

Fig. 3A - Schematic Diagram of the Gravitational Thruster for Aerocrafts.

651
7

References
[1] Thirring, H. (1918) Über die Wirkung rotierender
ferner Massen in der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie.
Physikalische Zeitschrift 19, 33.
[2] Thirring, H. (1921) Über die Wirkung rotierender
Massen in der Einsteinschen Gravitationstheorie.
Physikalische Zeitschrift 22, 29.
[3] Lense, J. and Thirring, H. (1918) Über den Einfluss
der Eigenrotation der Zentralkörper auf die Bewegung
der Planeten und Monde nach der Einsteinschen
Gravitationstheorie. Physikalische Zeitschrift 19 156-63.
[4] Ciufolini I, Pavlis EC, Chieppa F, Fernandes-Vieira E,
Pérez-Mercader J (1998) Test of General Relativity and
Measurement of the Lense-Thirring Effect with Two
Earth Satellites. Science 279: 2100–2103; Ciufolini I,
Pavlis EC (2004) A confirmation of the general
relativistic prediction of the Lense-Thirring effect.
Nature 431: 958–960.
[5] Saa, A. (2004) Arrasto de referenciais e o
princípio de Mach, Revista USP, São Paulo, n. 62
(junho/agosto), p.100.
[6] Everitt, C. W. F. et al. (2011) Gravity Probe B:
Final Results of a Space Experiment to Test General
Relativity, Phys. Rev. Lett. 106, 22 1101
[7] Eckstein, D. (2003) Epstein Explains Einstein, epubli
GmbH Berlin, p. 149.

652
Negative Gravitational Mass in a Superfluid
Bose-Einstein Condensate
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Newton's 2nd law of motion tells us that objects accelerate in the same direction as the applied force. However,
recently it was shown experimentally that a Superfluid Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) accelerates in the
opposite direction of the applied force, due to the inertial mass of the BEC becoming negative at the specifics
conditions of the mentioned experiment. Here we show that is not the inertial mass but the gravitational mass of
the BEC that becomes negative, due to the electromagnetic energy absorbed from the trap and the Raman beams
used in the experimental set-up. This finding can be highly relevant to the gravitation theory.

Key words: Negative Gravitational Mass, Bose-Einstein Condensates, Superfluids.

1. Introduction

A recent paper described an experiment gravitational masses where the force would be
that shows a Superfluid Bose-Einstein of attraction.
Condensate (BEC) with negative mass, and In this article, we show that is not the
accelerating in the opposite direction of an inertial mass but the gravitational mass of the
applied force [1]. The experiment starts with a BEC that becomes negative, due to the
BEC of approximately 105 87Rb atoms electromagnetic energy absorbed from the
confined in a cigar-shaped trap oriented along trap and the Raman beams used in the
the x-axis of a far-detuned crossed dipole trap. experimental set-up. The consequences of this
Using an adiabatic loading procedure, the finding can be highly relevant to the
BEC is initially prepared such that it occupies gravitation theory.
the lowest minimum of the lower spin-orbit
coupled (SOC) BEC. By suddenly switching 2. Theory
off one of the two dipole trap beams, the
condensate is allowed to spread out along the Some years ago I wrote a paper [2]
x-axis. Then, the BEC is imaged in-situ for where a correlation between gravitational
expansion times of 0, 10 and 14 ms. In the mass and inertial mass was obtained. In the
negative x-direction, the BEC encounters an paper I pointed out that the relationship
essentially parabolic dispersion, while in the between gravitational mass, m g , and rest
positive x-direction, it enters a negative mass inertial mass, mi 0 , is given by
region. This leads to a marked asymmetry in
the expansion.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Obviously, negative mass does not ⎪ ⎛ Unr ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mg
mean anti-matter. Anti-matter is simply χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
(1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
matter which has the opposite electric charge ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
from normal matter, whereas negative mass
means more exactly negative gravitational where U is the electromagnetic energy
mass. If one particle had ordinary positive
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr = c v
gravitational mass, and one had negative
gravitational mass, then the gravitational is the index of refraction of the particle; c is
force between the masses would be repulsive the speed of light.
differently of in the case of two positive Equation (1) can be rewritten as follows

653
2

⎧⎪ ⎡ 1.8×108 ⎤⎫⎪
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ mg ( BEC) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 4 −1⎥⎬mi 0( BEC) (6)
mg ⎪ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪ ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ v ⎦⎥⎪⎭
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2) BEC

mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc v ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where ρ is the matter density, v is the velocity
Note that, for v BEC < 109.5m.s −1 the
of radiation through the particle, and W is the gravitational mass of the BEC ( m g ( BEC ) )
density of absorbed electromagnetic energy. becomes negative. Lene Hau et al., [3]
Substitution of the well-known relation showed that light speed through a BEC
W = 4 D v into Eq. (2) yields reduces to values much smaller than
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ 100 m.s −1 .
mg⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
4 D
⎟ − 1⎥⎬
2 ⎟
(3) Consequently, we can conclude that it
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρcv ⎠ ⎥⎪ is the gravitational mass of the BEC of 87Rb
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ atoms that becomes negative and not its
where D is the power density of the radiation inertial mass.
absorbed by the particle. Also it was deduced in the reference [2]
In order to apply the Eq. (3) to the BEC
a generalized expression for the Newton's 2nd
previously mentioned, we start calculating the rest
inertial mass of the BEC, which is given by
law of motion, which shows that the
(
mi 0( BEC ) ≅ 1 × 105 86.909187× 1.66 × 10 −27 kg = ) expression for inertial forces is given by
r
F = mg a
r
(7 )
= 1.4 × 10−20 kg The presence of m g in this equation shows
Assuming that the average radius of the BEC is that the inertial forces have origin in the
approximately 40 μm (See reference [1]), then we gravitational interaction between the particle
can calculate the density of the BEC, i.e.,
and the others particles of the Universe, just
mi0( BEC) 1.4 ×10−20 kg
ρBEC = = ≅ 5.2 ×10−8 kg.m−3 as Mach’s principle predicts. In this way, the
π (40×10 m)
−6 3
VBEC 4 new equation expresses the incorporation of
3
the Mach’s principle into Gravitation Theory,
Substitution of the values of ρ BEC into
and reveals that the inertial effects upon a
Eq. (3) gives body can be strongly reduced by means of the
mg( BEC) ⎧⎪ ⎡ D2 ⎤⎫⎪ decreasing of its gravitational mass. Note that
χ BEC = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 0.065 4 −1⎥⎬ (4) only when m g reduces to mi 0 is that we have
mi0( BEC) ⎪ ⎢⎣
⎩ v BEC ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ r r
The variable D , in Eq. (4), refers now to the total the well-know expression ( F = mi a ) of the
power density of the radiation absorbed by the Newton’s law.
BEC (from the trap and the Raman beams, used Taking Eq. (6) for an arbitrary value of
in the experimental set-up of reference [1]). vBEC < 109.5m.s −1 , we obtain mg( BEC) = −Kmi 0( BEC) ,
According to the authors of the experiment the
power of the Raman beams are of approximately where K is a positive number. Substitution of
3mW (2.9 mW in one of the two beams,3.3 mW in this equation into Eq. (7) yields
the other), focused to a beam waist of 120 microns
r r
( 60 μm radius); the absorption coefficient is FBEC = − Km i 0 ( BEC ) a (8 )
1ER 2.5ER = 0.4 . Thus, we can write that
P 0.4Pbeams The sign (− ) in this expression reveals clearly
D = abs = =
S BEC 4π (60×10−6 m)2 why the BEC accelerates in the opposite
direction of the applied force, i.e.,
0.4 × (2.9mW + 3.3mW)
= ≅ 5.4 ×104 W.m−2 (5) s r r
(
4π 60×10 m −6
)
2
FBEC = −FBEC = Kmi0( BEC)a (9)
Substitution of this value into Eq. (4) gives

654
3

Recently it was created a BEC with Then, consider a system in which the
2.506 × 1017 23Na atoms [4]. The inertial inertial mass of the hollow sphere is
mass of this BEC is mi 0 ( sphere ) = 10,000 kg ; mi 0( BEC ) = 3.8 × 10 −9 kg ;
*
D ≅ 1W m 2 and v BEC = 10 −9 m.s −1 , then the
17
(
mi0( BEC) = 2.506×10 (23) 1.66×10 −27
) = 3.8×10 −9
kg gravitational mass of the system will have the
following value:
The number of atoms/ cm 3 , as showed in mg ( SYS) = mi 0(sphere) − 2.5 ×1013 mi 0( BEC) =
reference [4],is n0 = 2.742×1016cm−3 = 2.742×1022m−3 .
Thus, the density of the BEC is given by = −8.5 ×104 kg (12)
Thus, if this system is subjected to a gravity
ρ = (23)(1.66×10 )2.742×10 r
−27 22 −3
= 1.04×10 kg.m −3
acceleration g = 9.8m.s −1 , as shown in Fig.2,
then its weight force will be given by
s r r
Substitution of these values into Eq. (3) gives P = mg(SYS) g = 8.5×104 g , (P = 8.3 × 10 5 N ).
⎧⎪ ⎡ D2 ⎤⎫⎪
mg( BEC) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.6×10−10 4 −1⎥⎬mi0( BEC) (10)
This value is greater than the thrust of the fighter
vBEC ⎥⎦⎪⎭ aircraft F-22 Raptor (fifth-generation), which
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣
reaches 160,000N.
s r
P = m g ( SYS ) g

BEC

BEC

Fig. 1 – A BEC inside a hollow sphere.

Now consider the system showed in Fig.1. r


Inside the hollow sphere, whose gravitational g
mass is m g ( sphere ) ≅ mi 0 ( sphere ) , there is a BEC
Fig. 2 – The system sphere-BEC, with negative
whose gravitational mass is given by Eq. (10).
Thus, the total gravitational mass of the gravitational mass ( mg ( SYS) < 0 ), in a gravitational
system, m g ( SYS ) , is given by field.

mg(SYS) = mg(sphere) + mg( BEC) = It is important to note that, in spite the light
speed reach values very close to zero through the
BEC in the Lene Hau experiments, the number of
⎧⎪ ⎡ D2 ⎤⎫⎪
≅ mi0( sphere) + ⎨1−2⎢ 1+1.6×10−10 4 −1⎥⎬mi0( BEC) (11) atoms in the BEC, in this case is very small
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ vBEC ⎥⎦⎪⎭ ( )
10 5 − 10 6 atoms in comparison with the
In 2001 Lene Hau et al., have shown that the 2.506 × 10 17
atoms of the BEC of 23Na, here
light speed through a BEC could have values very mentioned. Consequently, the weight force, acting
close to zero. Therefore, v BEC with these on the BEC in the case of the Lene Hau
magnitudes are not unusual. This shows that the experiments is approximately 10 −12 times smaller
value of m g ( SYS ) , given Eq. (11), can be strongly than in the case of the BEC of Na atoms.

reduced even the value of D be small, for


*
example, of the order of 1W m 2 . With this velocity the light beam would travel about
0.1mm in a day.

655
4

References

[1] M.A. Khamehchi et al. (2017). Negative-Mass


Hydrodynamics in a Spin-Orbit–Coupled Bose-
Einstein Condensate. Phys. Rev. Lett. 118 (15):
155301; doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.155301
Available at: https://arxiv.org/abs/1612.04055

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01128520

[3] Hau, L.V, et al., (1999) Light Speed Reduction to


17 Meters per Second in an Ultracold Atomic Gas,
Nature 397, 594-598.

[4] Pei-Lin You (2016) Bose–Einstein condensation in a


vapor of sodium atoms in an electric field, Physica B,
491, 84-92.

656
Gravitational Interaction between Photons and
Unification of All the Fundamental Interactions
Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2018 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Recently, it has been reported an experiment where a very weak laser beam passes through a
dense cloud of ultracold rubidium atoms. Under these circumstances, it was observed that the
photons bound together in pairs or triplets, suggesting an unexpected attractive interaction
between them. Here, it is shown that mentioned interaction can be related to the gravitational
interaction, and that this possibility permits the formulation of a solid approach for the
unification of all the fundamental forces of the Universe.
Key words: Interaction Gravitational, Casimir Force, Interaction between Photons.

1. Introduction
⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤
Δ
In a paper recently published in
Δm g = Δmi 0 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Δmi 0 (2)
Science [1], researchers have reported that ⎢ ⎝ Δmi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
when they have put a very weak laser beam ⎣ ⎦
through a dense cloud of ultracold rubidium From the uncertainty principle for position and
atoms (as a quantum nonlinear medium), the momentum, we know that the product of the
photons bound together in pairs or triplets, uncertainties of the simultaneously measurable
values of the corresponding position and
suggesting an unexpected attractive
momentum components are at least of the
interaction between them.
magnitude order of h , i.e.,
Here, it is shown that mentioned
Δ p Δr ~ h
interaction is related to the gravitational
interaction, and that this possibility permits Substitution of Δp ~ h Δr into (2) yields
the formulation of a solid theory for the ⎡ ⎛ h Δmi c ⎞
2 ⎤
unification of all the fundamental forces of Δmg = Δmi − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥Δmi (3)
the Universe. ⎢
⎣ ⎝ Δr ⎠ ⎥

Therefore if
2. Theory h
Δr << (4 )
I have show in the Mathematical Δm i c
Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Then the expression (3) reduces to:
2h
Quantum Gravity [2] that, by combination of Δm g ≅ − (5)
Gravitation and the Uncertainty principle it Δrc
is possible to derive the expression for the Note that, Δmg does not depend on m g .
Casimir force. The starting point is the Consequently, an uncertainty ΔF in the
expression of correlation between
gravitational force F = − Gmg m′g r , will be
2
gravitational mass mg and rest inertial mass,
mi0, obtained in the mentioned paper, i.e., given by
Δmg Δm′g
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ΔF = −G =
2
⎛ p ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) (Δr )2
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ ⎡ 2 ⎤ hc ⎛ Gh ⎞
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ = −⎢ (6)
2⎥ 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟
where p is the variation in the particle’s ⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
kinetic momentum; c is the light speed.
Thus, an uncertainty Δmi 0 in mi 0
The amount (Gh c ) 3
1
2
= 1.61 × 10 −35 m is
called the Planck length, l planck ,( the length scale
produces an uncertainty Δp in p and
on which quantum fluctuations of the metric of
therefore an uncertainty Δmg in m g , which the space time are expected to be of order unity).
according to Eq.(1) , is given by

657
2
Thus, we can write the expression of ΔF as were of approximately 130 μm (along the
follows propagation direction), while the transverse
extent of the probe beam waist had about 4.5μm .
⎛ 2 ⎞ hc 2 Therefore, the distances r between the photons
ΔF = −⎜ ⎟ l =
⎝ π ⎠ (Δ r )
4 planck
of the cloud were very small. As we have already
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎡ ⎛ 960 ⎞ 2 ⎤ seen, at very small scale, the gravitational
= −⎜ ⎟ 4 ⎢⎜ ⎟ l planck ⎥ = interaction cannot be trated via usual Newton’s
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r ) ⎣ ⎝ π ⎠
2
⎦ equation of gravitation. In this case, Eq. (9) must
⎛ π A ⎞ hc
= −⎜ 0 ⎟ (7 ) be used. Thus, assuming A ≈ λ2 = (c f ) ≅ 10−13m2 ,
2

⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
4
and substituting this value into Eq. (9), we
or obtain:
⎛ πA ⎞ hc
F0 = −⎜ 0 ⎟ 4 (8) F ≈ 10 −40 r 4 (10)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r

which is the expression of the Casimir force for Using the above equation, and considering
( )
A = A0 = 960 π 2 l planck
2
.
the dimensions of the mentioned cloud
(130μm × 4.5μm) , we can calculate the
Now, multiplying Eq. (8) (the expression
intensity of the gravitational force between
of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
two photons of the cloud, when the distance
r between them were, for example, of the
⎛ πn 2 A0 ⎞ hc πA ⎞ hc order of 1 μ m , i.e.,
F = n F0 = −⎜⎜
2
⎟ 4 = −⎛⎜ ⎟ 4 (9)
⎟ ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
⎝ 480 ⎠ r
F ≈ 10 −16 N (11)
This is the general expression of the Casimir
force. The intensity of this gravitational force is highly
We can then conclude that the Casimir significative. Compare for example, with the
effect is just a gravitational effect related to the Coulombian attractive force between an electron
uncertainty principle. In this context, the nature and a proton, separated by the same distance
of the Casimir force is clearly gravitational as ( r ≈ 1μm ), which is given by
shown in the derivation of Eq. (9), which
expresses, in turn, the intensity of the
e2 10 −28
gravitational force in the case of very small scale Fc = ≅ ≈ 10 −16 N (12)
( r very small) * . 4πε 0 r 2 r2
Now consider the discovery reported
recently in Science [1]. When the researchers The Coulombian repulsive force between two
have put a very weak laser beam through a dense protons in an atomic nucleus, considering that,
cloud of ultracold rubidium atoms † , the photons
bound together in pairs or triplets, suggesting an rproton = 1.4 × 10 −15 m , and that the distance
unexpected attractive interaction between them. between them is r = 4 ×10−15 m [4], is given by
Now, we will show that the nature of this
interaction is gravitational.
e2
According mentioned in the paper, the Fc = ≅ 14 N (13)
length of the cloud of ultracold rubidium atoms 4πε 0 r 2

*
The Casimir force is only significative when the This enormous repulsive force must be
value of r is very small (microcosm scale). overcomed by the intense attractive nuclear force

The velocities of the photons through the cloud of (strong nuclear force).
ultracold rubidium atoms are strongly reduced. This is Now consider Eq. (9), where we put
the reason for the laser to pass through the mentioned
cloud. Lene Hau et al., [3] showed that light speed A = πrproton
2
≅ 6 × 10 −30 m 2 and r = 4 ×10−15 m ,
through a cloud of ultracold rubidium atoms reduces then the result is
−1
to values much smaller than 100m.s .

658
3
⎛ πA ⎞ hc αW 2 2 2 2
F = −⎜ ⎟ 4 ≅ 30N (14) =
480r e
= 3 2 ≈ 3 × 10 −7 (17)
480r e
⎝ 480 ⎠ r α S 4π ε 0 Ahc 4π ε 0 rp hc
2

Comparing Eq. (14) with Eq. (13), we can This is the same value mentioned in the
conclude that the attractive gravitational force
(30N) is sufficient to overcome the repulsive
literature for α W α S [6].
Coulombian force expressed by Eq. (13). Now, considering that FW FE = αW αE ,
These results lead us to formulate the where α E is the electromagnetic force
following question: What is the true nature
coupling constant, then we can write that
of the “strong nuclear force”? Is it
⎛ α ⎞ e2
gravitational as shown above? FW = ⎜⎜ W ⎟⎟ (18)
This possibility is reinforced by the α
⎝ E⎠ 4πε 0 r 2

derivation the Coupling Constants for the At the maximum range of the weak
Fundamental Forces that we will make interaction, rmax , we have the minimum value
hereafter, starting from Eq. (9).
It is known that the weak force, FW , of the weak force, FWmin , which can be
expressed by Eq. (16) or Eq. (18) as follows
which is related to the strong force, FS , by
⎛ α ⎞⎛ πA ⎞ hc
means of the following expression: FWmin = ⎜⎜ W ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ 4 (19)
FW α W ⎝ α S ⎠⎝ 480 ⎠ rmax
= (15 )
αS ⎛ αW ⎞ e 2
FS
F = ⎜⎜
min
⎟⎟ (20)
where α W is the weak force coupling ⎝ α E ⎠ 4πε 0 rmax
W 2

constant, and α S is the strong force coupling By comparing these equations, we obtain
constant ‡ .
Assuming that FS = F , where F is ⎛ αW ⎞⎛ πA ⎞ hc ⎛ α W ⎞ e2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (21)
given by Eq. (9), then Eq.(15) can be ⎝ αS ⎠⎝ 480 ⎠ rmax ⎝ α E ⎠ 4πε 0
rewritten as follows or
α S 4π 2 Aε 0 hc 4π rp ε 0 hc
3 2

⎛ α ⎞⎛ πA ⎞ hc = = =
FW = ⎜⎜ W ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ 4 (16) α E 480e 2 rmax
2
480e 2 rmax
2

⎝ α S ⎠⎝ 480 ⎠ r
⎛ 4πε 0 hc ⎞⎛⎜ 2π rp ⎞⎟
3 2

=⎜ ⎟⎜ (22)
At r ≅ 3 × 10 −18 m (0.1% of the diameter of a ⎝ e ⎠⎝ 480rmax ⎟⎠
2 2

proton), the weak interaction has a strength


Experimental data, describing the
of a similar magnitude to electromagnetic
strong force between nucleons is consistent
force, FE = e 2 4πε 0 r 2 [5]. Thus, making with a strong force coupling constant of
FW = FE , and substituting the above about 1 [6]. Thus, making α S = 1 (strong
mentioned value of r , we obtain force coupling constant) in Eq. (22), we
obtain

Similarly, the weak force is related to the
⎛ e 2 ⎛
⎞⎜ 480 rmax2 ⎞
electromagnetic force, FE , by means of the α E = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 3 2 ⎟
⎟ (23 )
⎝ 4πε h c ⎠⎝ 2π r p ⎠
expression: FW FE = α W α E ; and the strong 0

force is related to the electromagnetic force, by means


of the expression: FS FE = α W α E ; and the The maximum range of the weak interaction,
rmax , is of the order of 10 −16 m [7]. Equation
gravitational force, FG , is related to the
electromagnetic force, by means of the expression: above shows that, for rmax ≅ 5 × 10 −16 m the
FG FE = α G α E . term

659
4
⎛ 480 r 2 ⎞ weak nuclear force are gravitational forces

⎜ 2π r
max
3 2
⎟ ≅1

(24 ) expressed by Eq. (9), we have showed that,
⎝ p ⎠ at the range of about 10−15 m
( rmax ≅ 5 × 10 −16 m ), the strong force( α S = 1 )
Consequently, Eq. (23) reduces to is approximately 137 times as strong as
electromagnetic force ( α E = 1 137 ), about a
e2
αE = ≅
1
(25 ) million times as strong as the weak force
4πε 0 hc 137 ( α W ≅ 3 × 10 −7 ), and about 1038 times as
strong as gravitation( αG ≅ 5.9 ×10−39 ). All these
this is the expression of the electromagnetic force
coupling constant. values are in strong accordance with the
Multiplying α W α S (given by Eq. (17)) by values widely mentioned in the literature [9,
10], given below
α S α E (given by Eq. (22)), we get
αS = 1
αW ⎛⎜ 480r 2 e 2 ⎞⎟⎛ 4πε0 hc ⎞⎛⎜ 2π rp ⎞⎟
3 2 α E = 1 137
= ⎜ ⎟ α W ≈ 3 × 10 −7
α E ⎜⎝ 4π 3ε 0 rp2 hc ⎟⎠⎝ e 2 ⎠⎜⎝ 480rmax
2 ⎟
⎠ α G ≅ 5.9 × 10 −39

whence we obtain Finally, we complete the unification of


the Fundamental Forces of the Universe, by
⎛ 480r 2 e 2 ⎞⎛ 4πε0 hc ⎞⎛ 2π 3 rp2 ⎞ deriving from Eq. (9) the equations of the
αW = ⎜ 3 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟α =
⎜ 4π ε r hc ⎟⎝ e ⎠⎜ 480r 2 ⎟ E Coulombian Force and of the Newtonian
⎝ 0 p ⎠ ⎝ max ⎠
Force.
⎛ 480r 2 e 2 ⎞⎛ 2π 3 rp2 ⎞ Consider two electric charges q1 and
= ⎜ 3 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟≅ q 2 separated by a distance r . If we define
⎜ 4π ε r hc ⎟⎜ 480r 2 ⎟
⎝ 0 p ⎠⎝ max ⎠ the area A in Eq. (9) by means of the
following expression
⎛ r 2e2 ⎞
≅ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≅ 3 ×10−7
⎟ (26)
⎝ 2ε 0 rmaxhc ⎠
2
2 2
⎛q ⎞ ⎛q ⎞
A = A1 A2 = k e ⎜ 1 ⎟ r 2 × k e ⎜ 2 ⎟ r 2 =
Now, we will obtain the gravitational force ⎝e⎠ ⎝ e ⎠
coupling constant, α G , starting of the fact ⎛q q ⎞
= k e ⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟r 2 (29)
that the strong force, FG , is related to the ⎝ e ⎠
electromagnetic force, FE , by means of the
where k e is a constant to be determined, and
following expression:
FG α G e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C , then Eq. (9) can rewritten
= (27 ) as follows
FE α E
Then, we can write that
πhcke q1q2 1 ⎛ 4π 2 hckeε 0 ⎞ q1q2
F= = ⎜ ⎟ (30)
⎛ ⎞ 480e 2 r 2 4πε0 ⎜⎝ 480e 2 ⎟⎠ r 2
⎜ ⎟
⎛ FG ⎞ ⎜ Gm 2p ⎟
α G = α E ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = α E ⎜ 2 ⎟ ≅ 5.9 × 10
−39
(28) Note that, the term in brackets is equal to 1 for
⎝ FE ⎠ ⎜⎜
e
⎟⎟ k e = 120e 2 π 2 hcε 0 ≅ 0.1769 . In this case,
⎝ 4πε 0 ⎠ Eq. (30) reduces to

The relative strength of interactions


varies with distance [8]. Here, starting from
the fact that the strong nuclear force and the
660
5
1 q1q2
F= (31) m0 =
hc
(37)
4πε0 r 2 4G
This expression it was first derivated by
which is the expression of the Coulombian Hawking (1971) [11], and it is known as
Force. Hawking mass limit. Starting from the
In a similar way, we can derive the principle that the gravitational collapse is a
expression of the Newtonian Force for two process essentially classic, Hawking have
particles with masses m1 and m2 respectively, concluded that black-holes could not exist
separated by a distance r . First we define the with radius less than the Planck length
area A in Eq. (9) by means of the following
expression
( Gh c ) (limit for which quantum fluctuations
3

in the metric of the spacetime are considered of


the order of 1). In this way, the minimum
2 2
⎛m ⎞ 2 ⎛m ⎞ 2 radius of Schwarzschild, rS = 2Gm0 c 2 ,
A = A1 A2 = k g ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ r × k g ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ r =
⎝ m0 ⎠ ⎝ m0 ⎠ would have this value and, to this radius
⎛m m ⎞ would correspond to a minimum value of
= k g ⎜⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟⎟r 2 (32) mass m0 , given by
⎝ m0 ⎠
2 3
rS c 2 c Gh c hc
where k g is a constant to be determined, and
m0 = = = (38)
2G 2G 4G
m0 , is a minimum value of mass that will be This would be, obviously, the smaller mass value
for any macroscopic gravitational systems
calculated hereafter. Then substitution of Eq. (black-holes, etc).
(32) into Eq. (9) yields Now, just substitute Eq. (36) and Eq. (37)
into Eq.(33), in order to obtain the expression of
πhckg m1m2 ⎛ 2π 2 hckg ⎞ m1m2 the Newtonian Force.
F= = G⎜
⎜ 480Gm2

⎟ r2
(33) m1m2
480m02 r 2 ⎝ 0 ⎠ F =G (39)
r2
The derivation of the Equations (31) and
The term in brackets is equal to 1 for (39) via Eq. (9), shows clearly the unification of
the Fundamental Forces of the Universe, i.e.
kg ⎛ 60 ⎞⎛ 4G ⎞
= ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟ (34) shows that the nature of all the fundamental
⎝ π ⎠⎝ hc ⎠ interactions is Gravitational.
2
m 0
Starting from Eq. (15), which expresses the
correlation between FW e FS , i.e.,
Equation (34) can be rewritten as follows
⎛ 60 ⎞ FW α W
⎜ 2⎟ =
π FS αS
= ⎝ ⎠2
kg
2
(35) we can write that
m0 ⎛ hc ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎡⎛ πA ⎞ hc ⎤
⎜ 4G ⎟ α W ⎢⎜ ⎟ 4⎥
⎝ ⎠ FW
= ⎣⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎦ (40 )
where hc 4G = 1.08 × 10 −8 kg . FS ⎡⎛ πA ⎞ hc ⎤
Equation (35) shows that, the term α S ⎢⎜ ⎟ 4⎥
⎣⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎦
(60 π 2 ) is a pure number such as k g , and whence we obtain
the term hc 4G is expressed in kg such as ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
FW = α W ⎜ ⎟ 4 (41)
m0 , then we can conclude that ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
⎛ π A ⎞ hc
kg = 2
60
(36 ) FS = α S ⎜ ⎟ 4 (42 )
π ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
and In addition, since

661
6
FW α W FW α W N ( πr
4 3
)≈ 4
πr3
(49 )
= and = 3 0 3 Univ
FE α E FG α G where we get
rUniv
we get
r0 ≈ ≅ 10 −35 m (50)
⎛α ⎞ πA ⎞ hc
⎟⎟ FW = α E ⎛⎜
3
FE = ⎜⎜ E ⎟ 4 (43) N
⎝ αW ⎝ 480 ⎠ r Therefore, we can assume that the distances r

among the particles it was of the order of the
⎛α ⎞ πA ⎞ hc
⎟⎟ FW = α G ⎛⎜ (44 ) **
FG = ⎜⎜ G ⎟ 4 Planck length, l Planck = Gh c 3 ≅ 1.6 ×10−35 m .
⎝ αW ⎠ ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
Substitution of m1 = m2 = m0 and
Before 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang
the forces FS , FW , FE and FG become equal in r ≅ l Planck into Eq. (48) gives
strength, unifying themselves into a single force,
1 hc 5 1
FU , i.e.,
UU ≅ ≅ E p ≅ 3 ×1018 GeV (51)
⎛ πA ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc 4 G 4
FU = α S ⎜ ⎟ 4 = αW ⎜ ⎟ 4 =
⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
⎛ πA ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc where E p = hc 5 G ≅ 1.22 × 1019 GeV is the
= αE ⎜ ⎟ 4 = αG ⎜ ⎟ 4 (45)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r called Planck Energy
where α S = α W = α E = α G . Note that the energy U U is above, but very
Since α S = 1 , we then conclude that close to, the energy level of the Total
††
⎛ πA ⎞ hc Unification Energy Λ Total (the energy level
FU = ⎜ ⎟ 4 (46)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r above which the electromagnetic force, weak
force, strong force and the gravitational force
Under these conditions, the energy U U of a
become equal in strength and unified in a single
system of two particles with masses m1 and m2 , force)., i.e., U U ≳ Λ Total . Thus, as UU ≅ 1 4 E p ,
separated by a distance r , is given by
we write that
⎛ πA ⎞ hc
U U = FU r = ⎜ ⎟ 3 (47 ) Λ Total ≲ U U ≅ 3 × 1018 GeV
⎝ 480 ⎠ r
Therefore, the Total Unification Energy,
(
Since, A = kg m1m2 m0 r
2
) 2
where k g = 60 π ,
2
Λ Total is about 300 times greater than the called
‡‡
(See Eqs. (32) and (36)). Then, Eq. (47) can be Grand Unification Energy, ΛGUT ≅ 1×1016GeV .
rewritten as follows
⎛ m m ⎞ hc
UU = ⎜⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟⎟ (48) **
The unification of the electromagnetic force, weak
⎝ m0 ⎠ 8π r force, and strong force with the gravitational force is
Assuming that, in the mentioned conditions (at generally assumed to be close to the Planck Scale.
the beginning of the Universe), m1 = m2 = m0 , ††
and that the total mass of the Universe, Above Λ Total , as showed in Eq. (45) and (47).
M Univ ≅ 10 54 kg § , at this epoch, it was formed Very close to Λ Total because the unification of the 3
fundamental forces with the gravitational force
by a number N = M Univ m0 ≅ 10 62 of particles
requires that Λ Total has a value close to the Planck
with mass m0 and radius r0 , compressed into
Energy.
the volume of the Initial Universe,
VUniv = 43 πrUniv
3
, where rUniv ≅ 10 −14 m , then we ‡‡
The grand unification energy Λ GUT , is the energy
can write that level above which, it is believed, the electromagnetic
force, weak force, and strong force become equal in
§ strength and unified in a single force.
M Univ = c 3 2GH 0 ≅ 10 54 kg [12]. H 0 is the
Hubble constant.

662
7
3. Conclusion

The theoretical results here obtained


are in surprisingly good conformity with the
experimental and theoretical data accepted
currently, and form a solid unified theory for
all the fundamental forces of the Universe.

References
[1] Liang, Qi-Yu, et al., (2018) Observation of three-
photon bound states in a quantum nonlinear
medium, Science, Vol. 359, 6377, pp. 783-786.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[3] Hau, L.V, et al., (1999) Light Speed Reduction to


17 Meters per Second in an Ultracold Atomic Gas,
Nature 397, 594-598.

[4] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J.


Willey & Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP,
p.718.

[5] HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.


http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Forces/funfor.html

[6] Coupling Constants for the Fundamental Forces.


(2011) HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Forces/couple.html

[7] S. B.,Treiman, (1959)The Weak Interactions,


Scientific American.

[8] Strassler, M. (2013). The Strengths of the


Known Forces. Available at:
https://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/particle-
physics-basics/the-known-forces-of-nature/the-strength-of-the-
known-forces/

[9] Rohlf, J.W.(1994) Modern Physics from a to


Z0,Wiley.

[10] Coupling Constants for the Fundamental Forces.


(2011) HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Forces/couple.html

[11] Hawking, S.W (1971) Gravitationally Collapsed


Objects of Very low Mass. MNRAS., 152, 75-78.

[12] Kragh, H. (1999). Cosmology and Controversy:


The Historical Development of Two Theories of
the Universe: Princeton University Press.

663
Controlling the Gravitational Mass of a Metallic Lamina,
and the Gravity Acceleration above it.
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2018 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It is proposed a very simple device for controlling the gravitational mass of a metallic lamina, and the gravity
acceleration above it. These effects are obtained when a specific extra-low frequency current passes through a
specially designed metallic lamina.
Key words: Gravitational Interaction, Gravitational Mass, Gravitational Force Control.

1. Introduction
In a previous paper [1] we shown that propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
there is a correlation between the gravitational μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). From Eq.
mass, m g , and the rest inertial mass mi 0 , which
(3), we see that the index of refraction nr = c v
is given by
is given by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ ε μ
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ = c
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
nr =
2
(4)
⎢ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c
⎦ ⎪⎭ v 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Un r ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ Equation (3) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ = E B = ω k r = v , i.e.,
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ E = vB = vμH
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎛ Wn ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2r ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1) Then, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as follows
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥ ⎪ ⎛ E ⎞
2
⎣ ⎦⎭ W = 1
ε E 2
+ ⎟⎟ =
1
μ ⎜⎜
⎝ vμ ⎠
2 2
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic
⎛ 1 ⎞
momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy = 12 ε E 2 + 12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 =
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the ⎝v μ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
index of refraction of the particle; W is the = 12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 + 12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 =
density of energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is ⎝v μ ⎠ ⎝v μ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ c2 ⎞ 2
( )
the matter density kg m 3 and c is the speed = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E = ⎜⎜ 2
⎝v μ ⎠ ⎝ v μc ⎠
⎟E =
2 ⎟

of light. ⎛ n2 ⎞
The instantaneous values of the density of = ⎜⎜ r 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 (5 )
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic ⎝ μc ⎠
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations For σ >> ωε , Eq. (3) gives
c 2 μσ 2
and has the following expression
(2)
n r2 = = c (6 )
W = 12 ε E2 + 12 μH2 v2 2ω
where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (5) gives
instantaneous values of the electric field and the
W = (σ 2ω )E 2 (7)
magnetic field respectively. Substitution of Eq. (7) into Eq. (1), yields
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [2] and μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
3

ω
m g = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 − 1 ⎬mi 0 =
v=
dz
= =
c
(3 ) ⎪⎩ ⎢ c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪
dt κr εrμr ⎛ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1 ⎞⎟ ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ 0 ⎞⎛ μ r σ ⎞ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
2


3
⎝ ⎠
2
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ E − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 =
3 2 ⎜
where k r is the real part of the propagation ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 64π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪

r
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μσ ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
vector k ⎪
3
(also called phase constant);
r = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.032×10 − 27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟ E 4 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (8)
k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪

electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in Note that if E = E m sin ωt .Then, the
which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
average value for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because

664
2
E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value and also the modification of the gravity
acceleration above the lamina (χg ) .
for E ). On the other hand, we have Erms = Em 2.
4 4
Consequently, we can change E by E rms , and 2. The Device
the Eq. (8) can be rewritten as follows Consider the device shown in Fig.1 (a). It
⎧⎪ ⎡ is basically a thin Aluminum strip attached to an
⎤⎫⎪
−27⎛ μrσ ⎞ 4
3
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.032×10 ⎜ 2 3 ⎟Erms −1⎥⎬mi0 (9)
⎜ ⎟ electrical insulating plate. This strip has been
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ designed over an Aluminum lamina, in order to
an electrical current ( j rms ; f ) to pass through it,
The Ohm's vectorial Law tells us
producing the decreasing of its gravitational
that j rms = σE rms . Thus, we can write Eq. (9) in
the following form: mass m g ( strip ) , according to Eq. (10). The
⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫⎪ Aluminum of this strip has the following
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.032×10−27 r 2 rms3 −1⎥⎬mi0 (10) characteristics: 99.9% Aluminum; μ r = 1 ;
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ ρ = 2700 kg/m ;σ = 3.5x107S/m. The Aluminum
-3

strip has the following dimensions; Length,


where j rms = j 2 [3]. Since L=3528 mm; Width: l = 5mm; Thickness: Δx
⎛V ⎞
j=
i V R V
= = =
V
= σ⎜ ⎟ (11) =3μm. The Resistance of the Aluminum strip
is: R = L σS = L σ(Δxl) =6.7Ω and the maximum
S S RS (L σS )S ⎝ L⎠
Then, we can write that current density, according to Eq. (12), is:
σ ⎛V ⎞ σ
j rms = ⎜ ⎟ (12) jmax(rms) = (V L)max = 3.5×106 A/ m2 = 3.5A/ mm2 ;
2⎝L⎠ 2
By substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq.(10), we get the maximum current is imax(rms) = jmax(rms) S = 0.05A
m ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ (V L)4 ⎤⎫⎪
*
; the Maximum Dissipated Power is:
χ = g = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27⎜⎜ r 2 ⎟⎟ 3 −1⎥⎬ (13) Pmax = Ri 2
max ( rms ) = 0.017 watts .
mi0 ⎪ ⎢
⎩ ⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
By substuting the values of μ r , σ , ρ and
Also, it was shown in the above mentioned
paper [1] that, if the weight of a particle in a side
L into Eq. (13), we obtain.
r ⎧⎪
r r
of a lamina is P = mg g ( g perpendicular to the mg ( strip) ⎡ V 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 6.67 ×10−14 3 ⎥ − 1⎬ (14)
lamina) then the weight of the same particle, in
r r
mi0(strip) ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥ ⎪

the other side of the lamina is P ′ = χm g g , Consequently, the gravity acceleration above the
Aluminum strip is given by
where χ = m
l l l l
m (m and m are
⎧⎪ V 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
g i0 g i0

respectively, the gravitational mass and the rest g ′ = χg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 6.67 × 10−14 3 ⎥ − 1⎬g (15)
inertial mass of the lamina). Only when χ = 1 , is ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦ ⎪

that the weight is equal in both sides of the
The calculated results starting from
lamina. Thus, the lamina can control the gravity
Eqs.(14) and (15) for f = 5μHz ; f = 10 μHz ;
acceleration above it, and in this way, it can work
as a Gravity Controller Device. f = 15 μHz , in the voltage range 0.1V − 0.5V
Since the gravitational mass of a body are plotted in Table 1.
above the lamina is m g = mi 0 , then we can Figure 1(b) shows an experimental set up
conclude that P ′ = mi 0 (χg ) . Therefore, this
in order to control the decreasing of the
Gravitational Mass of the Aluminum strip.
means that the gravity acceleration above the Figure 1(c) shows an experimental set up in order
lamina is g ′ = χg . to control the decreasing of the gravity
Here, we describe a very simple device, acceleration above the Aluminum strip.
which works as the mentioned lamina. This
device is easy to build, and can be used in order *
The maximum out put current of the HP 3325 Function
to test the correlation between gravitational mass Generator (option 002 High Voltage out put) is
and inertial mass previously mentioned (Eq. (1)), 0.08App.(0.056Arms). Voltage range 4.0mV to 40.0Vpp; sine
1 μHz to 20MHz.

665
3

250 mm
1mm 11mm

5mm

200 mm
10mm
Ø 20 AWG
10mm

146 mm Aluminum strip


l 5mm 99.9% Aluminum
ρ = 2700 kg/m-3
σ = 3.5x107S/m
Electrical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Length: L=3528 mm
insulating Width: l =5mm
plate Thickness:Δx =3μm
Gravitational Mass

1mm
m g ( strip )
144 mm Rest inertial mass
(a) Device to produce the decreasing in the Gravitational Mass of the Aluminum strip. mi 0 (strip )

Ø 20 AWG
χ = mg(strip) mi0(strip) Aluminum strip

Precision balance Function Generator


Max. 320g Frequency range > 1μHz (Sine)
3 digits resolution:1mg Maximum output current > 0.075 App

(b) Experimental set up, using the device shown in (a), in order to control the decreasing of the Gravitational Mass
of the Aluminum strip.

Dynamometer
Proof mass

χ χ g mg( p) P = m g ( p ) (χg )
Ø 20 AWG χ <1

Precision balance Function Generator


Max. 320g g Frequency range > 1μHz (Sine)
3 digits resolution:1mg
Maximum output current > 0.075 App

(c) Experimental set up, using the device shown in (a), in order to control the decreasing of the Local Gravity ( g )
above the Aluminum strip (Gravity Controller Device).
Fig. 1 – Experimental set ups for controlling the Gravitational Mass of the Aluminum strip,
and the Gravity acceleration above it.

666
4
m g ( strip ) ⎧
⎪ ⎡ ⎛μ σ3 ⎞V 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
−14 V
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 1.758 × 10 − 27 ⎜⎜ 4r 2 ⎟⎟ 3 ⎥ − 1⎬ = ⎨ 1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 6 . 67 × 10 ⎥ − 1⎬
m i 0 ( strip ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝L ρ ⎠ f ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f3 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭

σ = 3.5 × 10 7 S / m ; ρ = 2700 kg / m 3 ; L = 3.528 m ; μ r = 1;


m i 0 ( strip ) = ρ (ΔxlL ) = 1.428 × 10 − 4 kg = 0.1428 grams

f = 5 μHz

V mi 0 ( strip ) m g ( strip ) χ χg g =9.81 m/s2


2
(volts) (gr) (gr) (m/s )
0.1 0.1428 0.1352 0.9473 9.2930
0.2 0.1428 0.0395 02769 2.6771
0.3 0.1428 -0.2304 -1.6139 -15.8323
0.4 0.1428 -0.6651 -4.6577 -45.6922
0.5 0.1428 -1.2454 -8.7217 -85.5598

f = 10 μHz

V m i 0 ( strip ) m g ( strip ) χ χg g =9.81 m/s2


2
(volts) (gr) (gr) (m/s )
0.1 0.1428 0.1418 0.9933 9.7442
0.2 0.1428 0.1279 0.8959 8.7887
0.3 0.1428 0.0794 0.5178 5.0796
0.4 0.1428 -0.0415 -0.2909 -2.8537
0.5 0.1428 -0.2209 -1.5469 -15.1750

f = 15 μHz

V m i 0 ( strip ) m g ( strip ) χ χg g =9.81 m/s2


(volts) (gr) (gr) (m/s2)
0.1 0.1428 0.1425 0.9980 9.7903
0.2 0.1428 0.1383 0.9686 9.5019
0.3 0.1428 0.1207 0.8458 8.2972
0.4 0.1428 0.0779 0.5456 5.3523
0.5 0.1428 0.0014 0.0098 0.0961

Tab. 1 – Calculated results for the Gravitational Mass of the Aluminum strip m g ( strip ) , and for the
Gravity acceleration above the Aluminum strip (χ g ) .

667
5
Next, we will show that by reducing the L

thickness of the Aluminum strip to 3nm it is Rstrip = =
σS
possible to design a similar device for working
with frequency up to f = 2mHz . In this case the 3.528
= = 6720Ω
period T of the wave is T = 500s ≅ 8.3 min .

(3.5 × 10 )([
7
)( )]
3 × 10 −9 5 × 10 −3
Let us then consider an Aluminum strip
with 3nm thickness, 5mm width and 3,528 mm Therefore, the maximum dissipated power by the
length as shown in Fig.2. If the maximum strip has now the following value
applied voltage is Vmax = 22.2volts then,
according to Eq. (13), we have
max
Pstrip = R strip i max
2
= 73 .2 mW
mg(strip)
χ= = Note that this power is almost the double of the
mi0(strip) power in the first device (37.7mW).
Let us now verify if the area of the surface
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ 3 ⎞ (V L)4 ⎤⎫⎪ of the Aluminum strip (area of the surface of

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r 2 ⎟⎟ max 3 −1⎥⎬ = thermal transfer ; 5mm x 3,528mm) is sufficient
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ρ ⎠ f ⎥⎦⎪ to transfer to the surrounding air all the heat
⎭ produced by the strip (in order to avoid the fusion
of the strip).
⎧⎪ ⎡ 1.6 ×10−8 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ (16) expressedThe coefficient of heat transfer, h , can be
by the following equation [4, 5,6]
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f3 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
h=
(ΔQ Δt )
(18)
An ΔT
For f = 2mHz , Eq. (16) gives
where ΔQ Δt (in W) is the dissipated power ;
mg( strip) An (in m2) is the necessary area of the surface of
χ= = −0.46 (17) thermal transfer and ΔT the difference of
mi0(strip)
temperature between the area of the solid surface
and the surrounding fluid (K).
Through the Aluminum strip, the When the surrounding fluid is the air , the
maximum intensity of the electrical current is heat transfer coefficient, h , varies from 10 up to
given by
100 W m 2 .° K [7]. Assuming h =10W m2 .°K ,
imax = jmax S = σ (Vmax L)S = and ΔT = 1° K , then for Pstrip = 73.2mW , Eq.
max

( ) [( )( )]
(18) gives
= 3.5 × 107 S / m (22.2 3.528) 3 × 10−9 5 × 10−3 = (ΔQ Δt )
An = = 7.32 × 10 − 3 m 2 (19 )
= 3.3mA hΔ T
Since the area of the surface of the Aluminum
The electrical resistance of the Aluminum strip is strip is

Astrip = 5mm × 3,528mm = 17.6 × 10 −3 m 2 >> An



Ultra Thin Aluminum Nanofoils (foils with Then, we can conclude that the area of the
nanometers thicknesses) are manufactured, for Aluminum strip is sufficient to transfer to the
example by American Elements - The Advanced surrounding air all the heat produced by it. The
Materials Manufacturer (See the available nanofoils at: same is valid in the case of the first device, where
https://www.americanelements.com/ultra-thin- the dissipated power by the Aluminum strip is
aluminum-nanofoil-7429-90-5).

even smaller than in the second device.
In the case of the first device the frequency it were
f =10μHz and the period T = 105 s ≅ 27.77hours .

668
6

250 mm
1mm 11mm

5mm

200 mm
10mm
Ø 20 AWG
10mm

146 mm Aluminum strip


l 5mm 99.9% Aluminum
ρ = 2700 kg/m-3
σ = 3.5x107S/m
Electrical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Length: L=3528 mm
insulating Width: l =5mm
Thickness:Δx =3nm
plate
Gravitational Mass

1mm
m g ( strip )
144 mm Rest inertial mass
m i 0 ( strip )

Fig. 2 – Device using Aluminum strip with 3nm thickness.

669
7

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520

[2] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.

[3] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1410.

[4] Halliday, D., Resnick, R., Walker, J., (1996)


Fundamentos de Física 2 - São Paulo: Livros
Técnicos e Científicos Editora, 4a Edição, 1996.

[5] Sears, F. W. E Zemansky, M. W. – Física - vol. 2,


cap. 15, Ed. Universidade de Brasília, Rio de
Janeiro – 1973.
.
[6] Heat transfer coefficient Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer_coefficient

[7] Overall heat transfer coefficient. Available at:


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer_coefficient

670
Electromagnetic Control of the Gravitational Mass of a Ferrite Lamina,
and the Gravity Acceleration above it.
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2018 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show that it is possible controlling the gravitational mass of a specific ferrite lamina, and the gravity
acceleration above it, simply applying an extra-low frequency electromagnetic field through it.

Key words: Gravitational Interaction, Gravitational Mass, Gravity Control.

1. Introduction

In a previous paper [1] we shown that which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
there is a correlation between the gravitational propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
mass, m g , and the rest inertial mass mi 0 , which
μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). From Eq.
is given by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ (3), we see that the index of refraction nr = c v
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ = is given by
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭ ε μ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
⎩ c
nr =
2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ v 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎪ ⎛ Un r ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
⎢ 2 ⎟
⎥⎪ Equation (3) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎦⎭
⎩ E B = ω k r = v , i.e.,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎛ Wn ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2r ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1) E = vB = vμH
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥ ⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ Then, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as follows
2
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic ⎛ E ⎞
W = ε E + μ ⎜⎜
1 2 1
⎟⎟ =
⎝ vμ ⎠
2 2
momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 12 ε E 2 + 12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 =
index of refraction of the particle; W is the ⎝v μ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
density of energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is (5 )
1
= 12 ⎜⎜ ε + 2 ⎟⎟ E 2
v μ ⎠
( 3
)
the matter density kg m and c is the speed
For σ

>> ωε , Eq. (3) gives
of light.
2ω 2ω
The instantaneous values of the density of v2 = ⇒ v2μ = (6 )
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic μσ σ
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (5) gives
and has the following expression W = 12 (ε + σ 2 ω )E 2 . Since σ >> ωε , i.e.,
W = 12 ε E2 + 12 μH2 (2) σ ω >> ε , then we can write that
where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the W ≅ 12 (σ 2ω )E 2 (7)
instantaneous values of the electric field and the Substitution of Eq. (7) into Eq. (1), yields
magnetic field respectively. ⎧ ⎫

μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
3
It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [2] and ⎪ ⎢
m g = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − 1 ⎬mi 0 =
ω ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎟⎠ ρ 2 ⎥ ⎪
v=
dz
= =
c
(3 ) ⎣ ⎦⎭
dt κr εrμr ⎛ ⎧ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1 ⎞⎟ ⎪ ⎛ μ ⎞ μ rσ
⎛ ⎞
2 3

2 ⎝ ⎠ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0
⎟⎜
3 2 ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎟ E 4
− 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 256π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪

where k r is the real part of the propagation
r ⎧ ⎡ ⎛μ σ ⎞ ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
3
vector k (also called phase constant); = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10 − 27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟ E 4 −1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (8)
r ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the ⎪⎩ ⎭
electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in Note that if E = E m sin ωt .Then, the

671
2
2 2
average value for E is equal to 1
2 E m because electric field, E rms , with extra-low frequency,
E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value f = 1Hz (See Fig.1), then according to Eq. (9),
we get
for E ). On the other hand, we have Erms = Em 2.
Consequently, we can change E 4 by E rms 4
, and { [
m g = 1 − 2 1 + 2.8 × 10 − 21 E rms
4
− 1 mi 0 ]} (11)
the Eq. (8) can be rewritten as follows max
For a maximum electric field, E rms , given by
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪

mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟Erms −1⎥⎬mi0 (9) E max
rms = 180V mm = 1.8 × 10 V m 5
(12)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ Eq. (11) gives
Also, it was shown in the previously χ = mg mi ≅ −1 (13)
mentioned paper [1] that, if the weight of a Considering the value of the maximum electric
r r r
particle in a side of a lamina is P = mg g ( g field ( 180V mm ), and that the ferrite lamina has
perpendicular to the lamina) then the weight of 2mm thickness, then, in order to obtain the above
the same particle, in the other side of the lamina result, the breakdown voltage of the ferrite
r r lamina must be greater than 360V , i.e.,
is P ′ = χm g g , where χ = m gl mil0 ( m gl and
(≳360V). This is a low breakdown voltage for a
mil0 are respectively, the gravitational mass and
ferrite because several of them have breakdown
the rest inertial mass of the lamina). Only voltage of the order of some kV and maximum
when χ = 1 , is that the weight is equal in both electric field of some kV / mm [6].
sides of the lamina. Thus, the lamina can control Figure 1 shows an experimental set up in
the gravity acceleration above it, and in this way, order to verify the decreasing of the
it can work as a Gravity Controller Device. Gravitational Mass of the ferrite lamina, and the
Since the gravitational mass of a body decreasing of the gravity acceleration above the
above the lamina is m g = mi 0 , then we can ferrite lamina. The ferrite lamina is attached over
conclude that P ′ = mi 0 (χg ) . Therefore, this one of the plates of a parallel plates capacitor
(See Fig.1).Under these conditions, the electric
field close to the capacitor plate (E = q 2 Sε 0 ) ,
means that the gravity acceleration above the
lamina is
g ′ = χg (10 ) is the electric field across the ferrite, E ferrite , i.e.,
Here we show that it is possible controlling ε (S d )V ε rV
the gravitational mass of a ferrite lamina, and the E ferrite =
q
=
CV
= r = (14)
2Sε 0 2Sε 0 2Sε 0 2d
gravity acceleration above it (χg ) , simply
where ε r is the relative permittivity of the
applying an extra-low frequency electromagnetic
field through it, according to Eq.(9) and Eq. (10). dielectric of the capacitor; V is the voltage
difference between the plates of the
2. The Device capacitor, and d the distance between them.
max
Since Erms = 1.8×105 V m , then in order
Ferrites are ceramic materials electrically
ferrite ( rms ) = Erms ,
obtain E max max
non-conductive [3]. Usually all ferrites are to we must have
electrically insulator (the electrons in ferrites are ε rVmax

not free [4]). But the order of resistivity is ferrite ( rms) =


E max rms
= Erms
max
= 1.8 × 105 V m (15)
different for different ferrites. The resistivity of 2d
ferrites varies in the range of 10-3 ohm-cm to If ε r = 2.03 (Teflon), and d = 1mm , then Eq.
1011ohm-cm ( 10 5 S m to 10 −9 S m ), at room (15) shows that the maximum rms voltage
temperature [5]. difference between the plates of the
Consider a ferrite lamina with 2mm capacitor must be given by
thickness 200mm, width and 200mm length;
max
Vrms = 177 .34V (16 )
coated with a insulating paint, and with the The concepts here developed can also
following characteristics: ρ = 5000 kg / m 3 ; be useful to build a Gravitational Motor,
μ r = 5000 ; σ = 2 × 103 S / m . Applying across which can convert the Gravitational Energy
the above mentioned ferrite lamina an oscillating into Rotational/Electric Energy (See Fig.2).

672
3

200 mm

200 mm FERRITE
σ = 2000 S/m μr =5000

2 mm

ALUMINUM
+
INSULATING PAINT
Parallel Plate
Capacitor
1 mm
TEFLON

1 mm
ALUMINUM
+
INSULATING PAINT

1 mm

TEFLON

1 mm

Dynamometer

Proof mass
mg( p) P = m (χg )
g( p)

χ χ g χ <1
Ferrite V

Parallel Plate
Capacitor Generator
Precision balance g Frequency = 1Hz (Sine)
Resolution: 0.01g Max. Voltage = 200Vpp

Fig. 1 – Experimental set up for controlling the Gravitational Mass of the Ferrite
Lamina, and the Gravity acceleration above it. Note that the Ferrite Lamina has inertial
mass mi ( ferrite) = 0.20 × 0.20 × 2 × 10−3 × 5000 = 0.4kg . Thus, the precision balance must have
resolution of 0.01g or less.

673
4

r
Pferrite = (− m g )g
r

Parallel Plate
Capacitor

Ferrite with negative Parallel Plate Ferrite with positive


gravitational mass Capacitor gravitational mass

r r
P ferrite = m g g

r
g

(a)

Ferrite
r
1 Spacecraft F21
m g ( ferrite ) = χ m i 0 ( ferrite )

mgS = mi 0( S )
r r (mgS + mg ( ferrite) ) mg (2) r
F21 = −F12 = −G μ̂ F12
mg (1) = mgS + mg ( ferrite ) r2
2
mg (2 ) = mi 0(2 )
(b)

Fig. 2 – (a) Gravitational Motor - Conversion of Gravitational Energy into Rotational Energy/Electric Energy.
(b) Gravitational Spacecraft – Gravitational Thrust. If ms( ferrite) becomes negative, i.e., if χ < 0 ,

( ) r r
and χ > mi 0( S ) mi 0( ferrite) , mgS ( ferrite) > mgS then, the gravitational forces F21 and F12 become
repulsive. Note that the gravity inside the spacecraft can be made equivalent to the gravity on the Earth
(g = 9.8m.s −2 ) , simply putting on the spacecraft floor a set of n ferrite plates (inside the parallel plates of
( )
capacitors). In this case, the gravity above the set of ferrite plates will be χ n G m g r 2 (See Eq. (10)). Thus,
for example, if G m g r( 2
) ≈ 10 −11
the gravity on the floor can be made of the order of 10 m.s −2 by making
n = 12 and χ ≅ 10 .

674
5

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520

[2] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.

[3] Carter, C. Barry; Norton, M. Grant (2007).


Ceramic Materials: Science and Engineering.
Springer. pp. 212–15.

[4] Verenkarv, V., (1997) PhD Thesis, chapter IV,


p.203 (Electrical properties).

[5] L.G.Van Uitert (1956), Proc. I.R.E. 44, 1294.

[6] Curry, R et al., (2016) Development of Metamaterial


Composites for Compact High Power Microwave
Systems and Antennas, University of Missouri-
Columbia, Center for Physical and Power Electronics
Electrical and Computer Engineering, p. 65.

675
The origin of the Ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray particles
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2019 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this paper, we show that the extremely-high energies of some cosmic-ray particles can be
related to the strong increase of their gravitational masses when they have been generated.
Key words: Cosmic-ray particles Energy, Gravitational Mass, Mini-blackholes.

1. Introduction

The energy spectrum of cosmic-ray hν ≈ kT , where k = 1.38 ×10−23 J K is the


particles extends to ~1020 eV [1]. The origin Boltzmann's constant. Thus, in that case, the
of these ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray energy absorbed by a particle will be
particles is not yet firmly established [1, 2, 3- U = η hν ≈ ηkT , where η is a particle-
6]. Actually, this is one of the great dependent absorption coefficient (η ≅ 0.1 , see
challenges of modern Astrophysics [7, 8]. In [12]). Therefore, Eq.(4) can be rewritten in the
this paper, we show that the extremely-high following form:
energies of these cosmic particles can be ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ηkTnr ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬
mg
related to the strong increase of their
≈ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ (5)
gravitational masses when they have been mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c 2 ⎠ ⎥⎪
generated. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
According to Eq. (1), the temperature (T ) of
2. Theory mini black holes can be very high, in such way
that the term ηkTnr mi0 c 2 in Eq. (5), can become
In 1974, Stephen Hawking shown that
very greater than 1. In this case, Eq. (5) shows
black holes could emit particles (neutrinos,
that, the gravitational masses of the particles
electrons, protons, nucleons, etc.) and so
emitted from a mini black hole will be given by:
evaporate [9]. The Hawking’s theory [9, 10]
establishes that the internal temperature (T ) of a ⎛ ηkTn ⎞
m g ≈ −2⎜ 2 r ⎟ ≈ −10 − 41 T ; (nr ~ 1) (6)
black hole, its lifetime (τ ) and the number (N ) ⎝ c ⎠
of particles emitted from it, are respectively Thus, these particles will have energy, E ,
given by expressed by [11]:
mg c 2 10 −41 Tc 2
T≈
10 26
(1) E= ≈ (7 )
m 1− v2 c2 1− v2 c2
τ ≈ 10 −27 m 3 (2) For v << c , Eq. (7) reduces to
and E ≈ 10 −24 T (8)
N ≈ 10 m11
(3) In the case of mini black holes with inertial
masses m < 1000 g , the temperature, T ,
*
where m (in grams) is the inertial mass of the
black hole. according to Eq.(1), is T > 10 23 K . Then, Eq.
In a previous paper [11] it was shown that (8), tells us that the particles emitted from these
there is a correlation between the gravitational mini black holes can have energy, E , given by
mass, m g , and the rest inertial mass mi 0 , which
E > 0 .1 joule ≈ 10 19 eV (9 )
is given by This energy corresponds to the extremely-high
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ energies of the spectrum of the cosmic-ray
mg ⎪ ⎛ Unr ⎞
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬
2 ⎟
(4) particles. Consequently, we can conclude that,
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ possibly the ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ particles can have originated in mini black holes.
where U is the electromagnetic energy absorbed
or emitted by the particle; nr is the index of
*
refraction of the particle and c is the light speed. In 1971 Hawking shows that many mini black holes
In the particular case of thermal radiation,
it is usual to relate the energy of the photons to
(m << 10 g ) with masses down to ~10 g could
9 -5

have be created in the initial stages of the formation of


the temperature, through the relationship the Universe [13].

676
2

References
[1] Eichmann B., et. al., (2018) J. Cos. Astroparticle
Physic, 2018, 036.

[2] Hillas A.M., (1984) Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys.,


22, 425.

[3] Feng J.L.,(2010) Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys.,


48, 495.

[4] Grib A.A., Pavlov Yu.V., (2009) Gravitation and


Cosmology, 15, 44.

[5] Belotsky K., et al., (2014) Advances in High


Energy Physics, 2014 214258.

[6] Belotsky K., Khlopov M., Laletin M., Kouvaris C.,


(2015) International Journal of Modern Physics D,
24 1545004.

[7] Abraham J. et al. (Pierre Auger Collaboration)


(2010) Phys. Rev. Lett., 104, 091101.

[8] DAMPE Collaboration: (2017) Nature, 552, 24475.

[9] Hawking, S. W. (1974) Nature, 248, 30.

[10] Carr, B. J. and Hawking, S. W. (1974) Mon. Not. R.


Astr. Soc., 168, 399.

[11] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520

[12] De Aquino,F. (1999)Gravitation and Electromagnetism


Correlation and Grand Unification, gr-qc/ 9910036
or physics/9905003.

[13] Hawking, S.W (1971) Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 152,


75.

677
AN EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT THERE IS GRAVITATIONAL
INTERACTION AMONG PHOTONS, BECAUSE THEY HAVE
NON-NULL IMAGINARY GRAVITATIONAL MASSES
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2019 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

An experimental arrangement, using two petawatts laser beams, is proposed here in order to show
that the two laser beams interact gravitationally between them, due to the photons have non-null
imaginary gravitational mass.
Key words: Imaginary Gravitational Mass, Gravitational Interaction, Petawatts laser, Photons.
INTRODUCTION
2
In a previous paper [1] we have show M gp (imaginary )
Fy = −G 2
=
that photons should have imaginary r 2
gravitational mass, m gp (imaginary ) , given by ⎡ ⎛ hf ⎞ ⎤
⎢+ N ⎜ 2 ⎟i ⎥
4

⎝c ⎠ ⎦
= −G ⎣
3
4 ⎛ hf ⎞ =
m gp (imaginary ) = + ⎜ 2 ⎟i (1) r2
3⎝c ⎠
2
where f is the frequency of the photon. Thus, ⎛ 16 ⎞ ⎛ hf ⎞ GN
2

the gravitational forces, Fpp , between two


= −⎜ ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟ (3 )
⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ c ⎠ r2
photons separated by a distance r , at the free
space, can be expressed by The acceleration a y produced by the force
2
m gp (imaginary )
F pp = − G 2
= F y upon a central photon in one of the laser
r 2 beam (See Fig.1) can be then expressed by
⎡ 4 ⎛
hf ⎞ ⎤ a y = F y m gp (imaginary ) . Consequently, the
⎢+ ⎜ 2 ⎟i ⎥
⎝c ⎠ ⎦
= −G ⎣
3
= trajectory of the photon will have a deflection
r22 Δy (and also the trajectory of the laser beam),
⎛ 16 ⎞ ⎛ hf ⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟
G
(2 ) which can be expressed by the following
⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ c ⎠ r2 equation:
It is then expected that the gravitational ⎛ Fy ⎞
forces, between two parallel laser beams, curve Δy = 12 a y t y2 = 12 ⎜ ⎟t 2 (4)
⎜m ⎟y
the laser beams mutually, approaching them ⎝ gp (imaginary) ⎠
progressively. where t y = t x = x c (See Fig.2).
Here it is proposed an experimental
arrangement to check the phenomenon above.
Δy Δy
THEORY

Assuming that the total imaginary r


gravitational mass of each laser beam is given by Fy Fy
Laser Beams
M gp (imaginary ) = Nm gp (imaginary ) , where N is the
number of photons in each laser beam, and Central photon
m gp (imaginary ) is the imaginary gravitational mass
Fig.1 – Displacement Δy of the trajectory of the
of one photon (Eq. (1)). Then, the gravitational
laser beams due to the mutual gravitational
forces F y between the two laser beams will be interaction of the laser beams.
given by

678
2
ty picosecond, i.e., pulses with energy of about
*
Δy Δy 2000 joules [2].
Consider two laser beams each one with
this energy (Pt L = 2000 joules) and frequency
tx x laser beams f = 6.3 × 1014 Hz . If they are on the Earth’s
surface (separated by a distance r = 0.5m) , and
Fy Fy
are projected to the Moon surface in such way
r
that the distance x is
Fig.2 – Top view of the displacement Δy of the
trajectory of the laser beams. x = d Earth / Moon − rEarth − rMoon =

= 385,823.433km − 6,371.0km − 1,737.1km


By substuting equations (3) and (1) into
Eq. (4), we get
≅ 377,715.33km ≅ 3.77715× 108 m
⎛ ⎛ 16 ⎞⎛ hf ⎞ 2 GN 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Then, Eq. (6) tells us that in this case, we have
⎜ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ c 2 ⎠ r 2 ⎟⎛ x ⎞ 2 2 G ⎛ Pt L x ⎞
2

Δy = 2 ⎜
1
⎟⎜ ⎟ Δy = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ≅ 0.05 m (7 )
⎜ 4 ⎛ hf ⎞ ⎟⎝ c ⎠ 3 hf ⎝ c r ⎠
⎜⎜ + ⎜ 2 ⎟i ⎟⎟
3⎝c ⎠ This displacement can be easily measurable.
⎝ ⎠ Therefore, this experiment is feasible, and can be
used in order to prove that photons interact
2 ⎛ hf ⎞⎛ GN 2 ⎞⎛ x ⎞
2

= ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟ (5 ) gravitationally among them because they have


3 ⎝ c ⎠⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠⎝ c ⎠ imaginary gravitational masses, as expressed by
Eq. (1).
Since Nhf = Pt L , where P is the power Δy Δy
Moon
of the laser beam and t L the pulse duration, then
Eq.(5) can be rewritten as follows αα αα
2 ⎛ hf ⎞ G (Pt L hf )2 ⎛ x ⎞ 2
Δy = ⎜ 2⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =
3⎝c ⎠ r2 ⎝c⎠
2
2 G ⎛ Pt L x ⎞
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ (6 )
3 hf ⎝ c r ⎠

SUGGESTED EXPERIMENT

Equation (6) shows that the value of Δy is


only relevant if the distance x is very great
(thousands kilometers) and also if the laser beams
have very great energy (Pt L ) . Earth
Δy′ Δy′
Recently, it were developed powerful r = 0 .5 m
lasers called Petawatt lasers. These lasers are Fig. 3 – Petawatt lasers sent from a telescope on Earth (in
red). Laser beams reflected (in blue) from reflectors on
used for study of basic science, generating such the Moon surface.
high-energy quantum beams as neutrons and
ions, but only a few facilities in the world have *
this type of laser. Petawatt lasers in the world In 2016, a team of Chinese physicists working in the
have had relatively a small output (to a few tens Superintense Ultrafast Laser Facility (SULF) in
of joules). However, in 2015, the Institute of Shanghai announced success in creating a laser beam
generating 5.3 petawatts power. The researchers are
Laser Engineering (ILE), Osaka University, has
now upgrading their laser and hope to beat their own
succeeded to reinforce the Petawatt laser "LFEX" record by the next year with a laser of 10 petawatt.
to deliver up to 2 petawatts in the duration of one They intend to build a 100 Petawatt laser up to 2023.

679
3

Δy Δy
Moon

Earth
r = 0 .5 m
Fig. 4 – Petawatt lasers sent from a telescope on Earth (in
red). Laser beams reflected (in blue) from retroreflectors
on the Moon surface. The laser beams in green has low-
power their function is only for reference in the case of a
telescopic observation of the retroreflectors on the Moon
surface.

Retroreflectors are optical devices that return any


incident light back in exactly the direction from
which it came.

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520

[2] Osaka University. Public Release: 6-Aug-2015


https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2015-
08/ou-wpl080615.php
[Accessed 16 April 2019]

680
Gravitational Micro-Thrusters
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2019 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Here we show how to produce thrusts of the order of 100kN or more, starting from sets of
micro-tubes (diameter<< 1cm) filled with air at low pressure, subjected to gravity g, and a
strong magnetic field H . Under these conditions, these micro-tubes work as micro-thrusters,
where the thrust is produced starting from the local potential gravitational energy.

Key words: Gravitational Mass, Gravitational Interaction, Gravitational Thruster.

INTRODUCTION
W = 12 ε E2 + 12 μH2 (2)
In this paper we will show that micro-tubes where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the
(diameter << 1cm) filled with air at low instantaneous values of the electric field and the
r
pressure, subjected to gravity g , and a strong magnetic field respectively.
magnetic field H , can works as micro-thrusters, It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [2] and
where the thrust is produced starting from the ω
v=
dz
= =
c
(3 )
local potential gravitational energy. In this dt κr εrμr ⎛
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1 ⎞⎟
2
context, it is also shown that sets of these micro- 2 ⎝ ⎠
thrusters can produce thrust of the order of 100kN
or more. where k r is the real part of the propagation
r
vector k (also called phase constant);
THEORY r
k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the

In a previous paper [1] we shown that electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in


there is a correlation between the gravitational which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
mass, m g , and the rest inertial mass mi 0 , which propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
is given by μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ; σ is the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ electrical conductivity in S/m). From Eq. (3), we
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ = see that the index of refraction nr = c v is
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ given by
⎧ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫
ε μ
2
⎪ ⎛ Un r ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ nr =
2
2 ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ v 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫ Equation (3) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
⎪ ⎛ Wn ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2r ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1) E B = ω k r = v , i.e.,
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ E = vB = vμH (5)
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic Then, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as follows
momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy W = 12 ε v 2 μ 2 H 2 + 12 μ H 2 =
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the
index of refraction of the particle; W is the ( )
= 12 μ H 2 ε v 2 μ + 12 μ H 2 =
density of energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is
( )
the matter density kg m 3 and c is the speed = μH 2 (6 )
of light. For σ >> ωε , Eq. (3) gives
c 2 μσ 2
The instantaneous values of the density of
n r2 = 2 = c (7 )
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic v 2ω
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations Substitution of Eqs. (6) and (5) into Eq. (1) gives
and has the following expression

681
2
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟H −1⎥⎬
2 2 ⎟
(8) It is known that the electrical
⎪ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪ conductivity is proportional to both the
⎩ ⎭
concentration and the mobility of the ions
Note that if H = H m sin ωt .Then, the and the free electrons, and is expressed by
average value for H 2 is equal to 1
2 H m2 because
H varies sinusoidaly ( H m is the maximum σ = ρ e μe + ρi μi (10)
value for H ). On the other hand, we
have Hrms = Hm 2 . Consequently, we can change where ρ e and ρ i express respectively the
H 4 by H rms
4
, and the Eq. (8) can be rewritten as ( )
concentrations C m 3 of electrons and ions;
follows μ e and μ i are respectively the mobilities of
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ the electrons and the ions.
χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟H
2 2 ⎟ rms
−1⎥⎬ (9) In order to calculate the electrical
⎪ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪ conductivity of the air inside the metallic
⎩ ⎭
tube, we first need to calculate the
Now consider a metallic cylindrical tube
( φ internal diameter, hφ height and 0.2mm
concentrations ρ e and ρ i .
thick), filled with air at low pressure and Since the number of atoms per m 3 ,
r n a , is given by
subjected to gravity, g , and an oscillating
r
N ρ
magnetic field H rms with frequency f . The na = 0 s (11)
metallic tube is inside a dielectric, and is As
electrically charged as shown in Fig.1. If where N 0 = 6.02214129 × 10 26 atoms / kmole ,
φ << 1cm then, the distances among these
is the Avogadro’s number; ρ s is the matter
electric charges and the atoms of air inside the
tube will be very smalls. Consequently, the
density (in kg/m3) and As is the molar mass
electrical forces that will act on these atoms will ( kg.kmole −1 ). Then, for ρs = ρair =1×10−4 kg.m−3
be very strong, and will be sufficient to ionize the
oxygen and nitrogen atoms of the air, increasing
(6.62×10 −2
)
Torr , Eq. (11) gives
the electrical conductivity of the air inside the
na =
N0 ρ air

(6.02214129×10 )(1×10 ) =
26 −4

tube. Aair 28.0134


DIELECTRIC = 2.15×1021 atoms/ m3 (12)
0.2mm φ 0.2mm
Using techniques of the Statistical
Mechanics we can calculate the most
- Upper surface - D
- - I probable number of ions, N i , in the volume
- -
-
Air at
-
E
L
V = π4 φ 2 hφ of air cylindrical tube, by means
Low pressure
- r -
E of the following expression [3].
- H rms -
C

-
- μ ;σ
-
- T
N
N i = ai (13)
- r - R S
- g - I where N = n a × 1m 2 is the total number of
( )
- - C
- - atoms; S is the area total of the box 1m 2
and ai is the area of the cell (hφ φ ) . Therefore,
- -
- Down surface -
- -
Eq. (13) can be rewritten as follows
Sφ n 1m 2 ( )
N i = a 2 (hφ φ ) (14)
See Appendix B
Fig. – 1 Air Cylindrical tube ( φ diameter; hφ height).
1m ( )
For φ = 1.6mm and hφ =12cm, Eq.(14) yields

682
3
N i = 4.1× 10 ions 17
(15) the cylindrical tube works as a gravitational
micro-thruster, producing a thrust F , given by
Obviously, the number of free electrons will r r r r
be equal the number of ions, thus we can F = PSφ = −0.0164hφ Sφ g = −0.0129φ 2 hφ g (23)
write that If hφ = 12cm .; φ = 1.6mm and
Ne = Ni = 4.1×1017 ions (16) −2
r
g = 9.81m.s , then the intensity of the force F
Now, we can calculate the concentrations ρ e is given by
( )
and ρ i C m 3 of electrons and ions by F = 3.89 × 10 −8 N (24 )
means of the following expression In the case of a plate with Nφ
eN eN
ρ e = ρ i = i = π 2 1 = 2.7 ×105 C / m3 (17)
gravitational micro-thrusters, the Eq. (24) can be
V 4 φ hφ ( ) rewritten as follows

This corresponds to a strong concentration


FN = 3.89 × 10−8 Nφ (25)
level in the case of conducting materials. For For example, if N φ = (560 × 560 ) = 313600 ,
these materials, at temperature of 300K, the then Eq. (25) gives
mobilities μ e and μ i vary from 10 up
to 100 m 2V −1 s −1 [4]. Assuming that FN = 0.0122 N = 1.2 × 10 −3 kgf = 1.2 gf (26 )
μe = μi ≅ 30 m V s (Geometric mean of
2 −1 −1

Assuming that, the 313600 metallic cylindrical


mobility level for conducting materials), the
tubes (external diameter= φex =φ + 0.4mm= 2.0mm
electrical conductivity of the air inside the
tube is given by and height = hφ ) are distributed into a square
( )
σ air = ρ e μ e + ρ i μ i = 2 2.7 × 10 5 (30) = dielectric plate with sides l , according to the
pattern shown in Fig.2, then we can write that
≅ 2 × 10 7 S .m −1 (18) l = 2.2φ ex N φ 5 (See Fig. 2). This means that
r
The pressure, P , exerted on the area Sφ , by the dielectric plate will have
of the air confined inside the tube, according to l = 1.10m (27)
Eq.(1), is given by
r r
r m g g χmi 0 gr χmi 0 hφ g r
= χρ air hφ g (19)
l1
P= = =
Sφ Sφ Sφ hφ 0.55øex 0.55øex 0.55øex 0.55øex
Substitution of Eq.(9) into Eq. (19) gives dielectric plate
r ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ3 σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ r
+ ⎜⎜ air air air ⎬hφ g (20)
P = ⎨ρair − 2⎢ ρair
2
⎟H
2 ⎟ rms
− ρ ⎥
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfc ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
For, f = 0.2Hz, σair ≅ 2×10 S / m, Eq.(20) gives
7

r
{
P = ρair − 2 ρair
2
[+1.75×10−28Hrms
4 r
]}
− ρair hφ g (21) l1

(
For ρ air = 1×10−4 kg.m −3 6.62 × 10 −2 Torr , ) and
Hrms = 7.96×10 A / m (1 T ) , Eq. (21) gives
5
(2.2øex)2 ............ 5
r r
P = −0.0164hφ g (22) S ............ Nø
Nφ Nφ
Note the sign (-) in Eq. (13). It indicates
r S= (2.2φ ex )2 = l 2 ⇒ l = 2.2φ ex
that, in this case, the pressure P acts on the 5 5
r
contrary direction of the gravity g . This means
Fig. 2 – Distribution of metallic cylindrical tubes into a
that the pressure will be exerted on the upper dielectric plate.
surface of the cylindrical tube (See Fig.1). Thus,

683
4
Figure 3 shows an experimental set-up M total = mMgφ + mMg(2mm) = 28.51 + 2.35 = 30.86kg
in order to check the total thrust produced by
the dielectric plate, with N φ gravitational Therefore, the balance (see Fig.3) can have the
following characteristics:
micro-thrusters, subjected to an oscillating
magnetic field, given by
Maximum capacity 35kg
H rms = ( N turns y )irms = (300 0.01)irms = Measuring accuracy 0.1g
= 3 × 10 4 irms
If the magnetic field H rms is increased to
5.57 × 10 8 A / m (700T ) *
( ρ = 1×10−4 kg.m−3 ),
Coil: 300 turns (in X , in order to reduce the effect of distributed
capacitance ); # 14 AWG
then Eq. (21) gives

Nø Gravitational Micro-Thrusters (in white) P = −9.66×103 N / m2 (28)


(Filled with air at 66.2 m Torr)
(Diameter φ = 1.6mm; height hT = 12cm ; Therefore, the thrust Fφ produced by one micro-
Air density ρ ≅ 1×10 kg.m )
−4 −3
thruster (diameter φ = 1.6mm and
l y = 1cm
height hφ = 12cm ), is given by

hø HT
Fφ = PSφ = πrφ2 P = 0.0194 N (29)
Consequently, the total thrust produced by the
Vacuum Bottom cover system (one plate) with N φ = 313600 micro-
Balance (1mm thick)
pump thrusters will be given by
Total mass of the system (without coils) = Mtotal = 30.86 kg
HT = hφ + 5mm FNφ = N φ Fφ = 6090.9 N (30)
Fig. 3 – Schematic Diagram of the dielectric plate, with Nφ
Gravitational Micro-Thrusters, on a balance, and inside a In practice, we can overlap several similar plates
magnetic field produced by two external coils. in order to increasing the total thrust. In this case,
if the number of plates is N plates , the result is
Ftotal = N plates FNφ (31)
The mass of one dielectric plate (High- For example, if number of overlapping plates
density polyethylene (HDPE), 970 kg .m − 3 ), (with N φ = 313600 micro-thrusters) is
(
12.2cm thickness 12.2cm = hφ + 2mm (See Fig ) N plates = 27 , then the total thrust produced by
3), without the micro-thrusters is given by. the stack of plates (~3.4cm total height) will
be given by
mMg = l 2 (12.2cm)(970) = 143.19kg
Ftotal ≅ 164.4kN (32)
The mass of one dielectric plate, 12.2cm This thrust is of the order of the thrust of a
thickness, with N φ cylindrical tubes, is given by fifth-generation jet fighter F-22 Raptor,
mMgφ = m Mg − Nφ (970 π4 φex2 hφ ) = 28.51kg which reaches 160,000N.
The mass of one dielectric plate, 2mm *
thickness (Bottom cover, see Fig.3), is Recently, a magnetic field of 1200 T was generated
mMg(2mm) = l 2 (2mm)(970) = 2.35kg .
by the electromagnetic flux-compression (EMFC)
technique with a newly developed megagauss
Thus, the total mass of the system is given by generator system [5].

684
5
It is important to note that the vertical Thus, gravitational micro-thrusters
r
direction (− g ) of the thrust produced by the can be used to produce vertical or horizontal
r
plates can be turned of 90°, in order to thrusts (in respect to g ). It is easy to see that,
produce horizontal displacements (See Fig.4 due to the magnitude of the thrust produced
and Fig.5). by these systems and their versatility, they
can be can be used to move several types of
vehicles.

Air at low
CG pressure
References
Fx
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Ftotal Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
g Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520

[2] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics,


J. Willey & Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP,
p.1118.
Gravitationalr Micro-Thrusters
Fig. 4 - The vertical direction (− g) of the thrust produced by a [3] Beiser, A. (1969) Concepts of Modern Physics,
plate, with Nφ gravitational micro-thrusters, can be turned of 90°, in Portuguese version, Ed. Polígono and Ed.
order to produce horizontal displacements. Universidade de S. Paulo., p. 272.

[4] Hayt, W. H. (1974),Engineering Electromagnetics,


McGraw-Hill. Portuguese version (1978)Ed.Livros
Técnicos e Científicos Editora S.A, RJ, Brasil. P.146.

[5] Nakamura, et al., (2018) Record indoor magnetic


field of 1200 T generated by electromagnetic flux-
compression, Review of Scientific Instruments
Fx 89, 095106
https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.5044557
Fx Fx [Accessed 4 July 2019]

Plate, with Nφ Gravitational Micro-Thrusters

Fig. 5 – Horizontal displacement of Fx in several


directions, simply rotating the plate with N φ
Gravitational Micro-Thrusters
.

685
6

APPENDIX A – Gravitational Thruster System (using plates with N φ Gravitational


Micro-Thrusters) to be used in aerospatial vehicles: the sub-systems S5 and S6
provide the vertical thrust (lift force). The sub-systems S1, S2, S3, S4 provide the
horizontal thrusts in any direction. Note that the opposite thrusts (S1,S3), (S2,S4) can
stop quickly the vehicle (see top view).

S1

Fx

S2
CG Fx Fx

S4

Fx

S3

Top view

S5 S6 Ceiling

Fv CG Fv

S4 S3 S2

Column 1 Column 2
Floor

Side view

686
7

APPENDIX B – Ionization of the atoms of the Air inside the Micro-thrusters.


φ

- -
- -
- -
- r1 -
- -
r2
- -
- -
L - F1 - F0 F0 F2 F2 - F1
+
- e e - q
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
V
e2 eq eq
F0 = ; F1 = ; F2 = C
4πε 0 (r2 − r1 ) 4πε 0 r12 4πε 0 r22
2

If F1 > F0 then F2 > F0 because F2 > F1 . Under these circumstances, occurs the ionization of
the atoms of the Air inside the micro-thrusters. This means that the condition for the ionization
occurs is F1 > F0 . By comparing the expressions of F1 and F0 , we then conclude that
2
⎛ r ⎞
q > ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ e (1)
⎝ r2 − r1 ⎠
However, if the number of micro-thrusters in each plate is N φ , then the total charge, Q , to be
provide by the capacitor is
2
⎛ r ⎞
Q = N φ q > N φ ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ e (2)
⎝ r2 − r1 ⎠
If we use N c similar capacitors associated in parallel, then the total charge produced by them is
given by
Q = Nc q = NcCV (3)
By comparing with Eq. (2) with Eq. (3), we conclude that
2
⎛ Nφ ⎞⎛ r ⎞ e
V > ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ (4)
⎝ Nc ⎠⎝ r2 − r1 ⎠ C
For N φ = 313600 ; N c = 10 ; r2 − r1 ≅ 10 −10 m ⇒ r2 ≅ r1 ≅ φ 2 and C = 8000 μF − 75V , the Eq. (4)
gives

V > 41.1 volts (5)

687
Gravity Control: The Greatest Challenge in Contemporary Physics
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2019 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Controlling gravity represents much more than a major technological advance, it means overcoming a
highly relevant stage in the evolutionary process of mankind. Here we show that, in practice, gravity
control means the possibility of building spacecraft that will allow us to explore the Universe. It also
means a radical improvement with huge benefits in transportation, electric power generation and
telecommunications systems.
Key words: Gravity, Gravity Control, Gravitational Energy.

By the early 20th Century, are 10 sextillions of stars. Modern


astronomers were beginning to realize theories of solar system formation
that the stars we see in the sky were suggest that practically all isolated
only a small part of the universe. They stars have a planetary system
soon realized that the Milky Way, associated with them. However, the
containing approximately 100 billion number of single stars, i.e., those that
sun-like stars, was just one more do not belong to multiple systems
galaxy among over 100 billion others (double stars, etc.) is estimated at
scattered throughout outer space. Most about 15% of the total. Therefore we
of these galaxies are organized into can assume that there are about 1
groups each containing up to ten sextillion stars with an associated
thousand galaxies. Our galaxy is part planetary system, such as our solar
of a small group called the Local system. Thus, even if there were only
Group. one planetary system inhabited per
These findings have led the billion, we would still have at least 1
astronomers to believe that the galaxy trillion dwellings in the Universe.
in which we live is but a practically We see then that, even in a
imperceptible point in the context of simplified estimate like the one we just
the observable universe. What about made, there is no way of not believing
the solar system which in turn is just a that there are humans on other planets,
tiny dot in the Milky Way? Is it then and that they are more evolved on
possible that in this gigantic universe some planets than on others. Why
only our planet is habited? Is agreeing shouldn't it be like this? Why would
with this not the narrow Earth have to be unique in a Universe
anthropocentrism that guided the made up of the repetition of so many
ancient cosmologies, attributed to man similar structures and systems? The
and his abode - the Earth – and their process of life is undoubtedly the same
exaggerated roles, out of proportion throughout the universe, and therefore,
with their true importance in the it must develop on these planets in a
general context? manner analogous to that on Earth. As
Since it is known that there are such, other similar humanities must
over 100 billion galaxies in the have developed in the Universe, and
universe and that a galaxy like ours obviously some must be more evolved
contains approximately 100 billion than others, simply because they
stars, then we can estimate that there started first.

688
2
It does not take much Nature here is cruel ... only the
discernment to realize that the Earth is strongest survives, while the weak are
a primitive planet. Humanity lives here often destroying. But it is in perfect
at the beginning of the evolutionary harmony with the average
scale. Just look at the successive wars evolutionary level of those who live
that have been going on here for here since beings tend to group
centuries. Nations invade others for together according to mutual affinity.
the purpose of dominating, looting, Just as cells with a high degree of
destroying, etc. The most powerful mutual affinity group together to form
countries constantly cheat in an tissues and organs, so each planet's
attempt to oppress the weak. Most ecosystem results from the clustering
politicians strive to get rich at the of related parts. Thus, the ferocity
expense of the public money; they found in the behavior of most
practice all types of cheating, solely terrestrial humans reflects only the
for their own benefit, and the groups fierce nature of the planet. So, it is not
they represent, so Politics on this surprising that so many pathogenic
planet simply becomes the art of microorganisms exist in this world. It
deceiving the people. People suffer is in this environment that terrestrial
without getting back the benefits that humanity exercises its sovereignty.
should come from the heavy taxes they How, then, could this terrible existence
pay. Much of the tax revenue is on planet Earth be classified beyond
intended for the maintenance of the the beginnings of an evolutionary
corrupt governments that the people scale?
themselves often reelect after being Assuming that Earth is at the
wickedly deceived by election beginning of an evolutionary
campaigns deliberately designed to escalation, it is to be expected that, in
deceive and seduce the voter. On the the Universe, there are other
other hand, the big financial humanities, more evolved or even
conglomerates, always eager for profit, much more evolved, than ours. In this
seek to invest in countries where context, by the law of mutual affinity,
corruption prevails, injecting large more evolved planets with more
sums of money to lend the population evolved natural systems would house
at extortionate rates of interest, which these humanities; more evolved
the population will pay with great humans living with more evolved
sacrifice. animals in an environment where the
The simple truth of brotherly word predator is meaningless.
love is ignored. On the other hand, However, it cannot be denied
most citizens still do not understand that terrestrial humanity has evolved
that the health of the parties defines greatly since its emergence on the
the health of the whole, and that, first planet approximately six million years
it is necessary to adjust our individual ago. Emergence of the arts and the
conduct and strengthen our will and sciences, improved quality of life,
character, to then be entitled to a providing materially and
government of our level. psychologically more evolved
689
3
environments that, in turn contributed inhabitants would be so insignificant
to the development of relevant works to the rest of the universe that no one
for our humanity. Thus, if humanity would have deigned to visit us. But
has evolved this far, it means that it is while the first possibility would
very likely to continue to evolve in the certainly lead us to incur the common
future, unless, of course, a major error of anthropocentrism, the second
catastrophe occurs causing significant possibility tends to exaggerate the role
destruction on the planet. of earthlings in the universe, mainly
Perhaps we can evaluate our because this does not live up to the
current evolutionary level by the level technological development that we
of development of our science. It is have acquired by means of the
still very young. Basically, it's only a sacrifice of several generations of
few centuries old. Our spacecrafts scientists.
can't even take us beyond the moon. However, what has really been
But, with great difficulty, we've verified are the several frequent UFO
already sent unmanned spacecraft to sightings on our planet, a clear
neighboring planets. The big problem indication that we are not the most
is overcoming gravity. We are stuck in technologically advanced. These
the Earth and what holds us is gravity. fantastic devices lead us to believe that
So, controlling gravity means other beings in the universe have
much more than a major technological already dominated gravity and made
advance; it means overcoming a highly use of this knowledge to build
relevant stage in the evolutionary spaceships, which we call UFOs.
process of humanity. Have more We must take this possibility
evolved humanities ever achieved this seriously as it carries with it the
feat? indication that, just as it did for us, the
It is well-known that if man technological developments achieved
encounters intelligent creatures on by other beings on other planets
other planets, they may even be found converge on the domain of gravity. In
to have the same degree of the end, without mutual interference,
technological advancement as ours, many will reach this point of
but they may also be less or more convergence.
advanced than we are. Needless to say, If we are right, then, the free will
if they had arrived on our planet first, is expressed not only at the level of
they would have to be technologically our little planet, but universally.
advanced. Respect for free will. This must
If, throughout the history of then be our attitude towards other
mankind, no observations of UFOs civilizations that have not yet managed
(Unidentified Flying Objects) had ever to free themselves from gravity. We
been reported, then we would perhaps can never use this technological
have the privilege of being the most superiority to influence their
technologically advanced in the entire individual developments under penalty
universe. The other possibility, less of violating free will.
honorable, is that Earth and its
690
4
In practice, gravity control The result was the derivation of a
means much more than the possibility theoretical background that finally led
of building spacecraft that will allow to the so-sought-after quantization of
us to explore the universe. It also gravity and spacetime, which has been
means a radical improvement with published under the title of
huge benefits for transportation, power "Mathematical Foundations of the
generation and telecommunications Relativistic Theory of Quantum
systems. In the field of energy, the Gravity" [1].
possibility of gravity control shows us The Relativistic Quantum
that gravitational energy could easily Theory of Gravity provides a
be transformed into mechanical consistent unification of gravity with
rotational energy through the electromagnetism. In this theory, the
gravitational motor, a motor of simple principle of strong equivalence is
construction and few components that reaffirmed, and, consequently,
will change the paradigm of electric Einstein's equations are preserved. In
power generation. fact, the General Relativity equations
How many practical applications can be deduced directly from the
can we conjure? At the present stage, Relativistic Quantum Theory of
it is very difficult to say. We can only Gravity thus showing that General
say that they will be many, and that the Relativity is a particularization of the
coming centuries will make them new theory, just as Newtonian theory
indispensable. is also a subset of General Relativity.
The greatest challenge of In addition, an important correlation
contemporary theoretical physics has between gravitational mass and
been to prove that gravity is a quantum inertial mass was deduced † .
phenomenon. Since Einstein's theory This correlation shows that
of gravity describes gravity as related gravitational and inertial masses are
to the curvature of spacetime, the not equivalent ‡ as one had thought, but
quantization of gravity implies the correlated by the factor:
quantization of spacetime itself. By the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
end of the 20th Century several = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (1)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
attempts at quantization were made. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
All, however, proved fruitless.
At the beginning of this century, †
The physical properties of mass have two distinct
we clearly realized that the adopted aspects: gravitational mass, m g , and inertial mass,
notion of quantization was mi . Gravitational mass produces and responds to
unsatisfactory and that the gravitational fields. It provides the mass factors in
quantization process contained many Newton's law of gravitation. Inertial mass, in turn, is
the mass factor in Newton's Second Law of Motion
ambiguities. Then, a new approach
( F = mi a ) .
was proposed, starting from the ‡
This fact does not invalidate the equivalence
generalization of the action function * . principle. There is a reaffirmation of the strong
equivalence principle and, consequently Einstein's
* equations are preserved.
The formulation of action in classical mechanics
extends to quantum mechanics.

691
5
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass and big boost. Today, as we know most
Δp is the change in particle kinetic of the fuel carried by a spacecraft is
momentum; c is the speed of light. used to escape the earth's gravitational
So, only when Δp = 0 does force. In addition, it is well-known that
gravitational mass equal inertial mass. revolutionary pharmaceutical drugs
Equation (1) shows that the can be manufactured in micro-gravity
gravitational mass of a particle can be environments bringing great benefits
decreased and even made negative to medicine. All of this can have only
regardless of its inertial mass. This is one meaning: the arrival of a new era
highly relevant; it means that the for humanity that would leave behind
weight of a body can be equally a period of darkness and move forward
reduced even reversed, under certain with determination to a new horizon of
circumstances, since Newton's law of possibilities.
gravity defines the weight of a body, There is a consensus among
P , by the product of its gravitational
leading physicists on the planet that by
this time chemistry, biology, and even
mass, m g , by the local gravitational
economics shall already have been
acceleration, g , i.e., incorporated into physics. It will then
be the time for psychic phenomena to
P = mg g (2 ) be fully explained by physics. Man
will begin to develop his psychic
It also follows from the possibilities during regular training at
aforementioned law that the his own school. I would imagine – for
acceleration of gravity or simply the the physicists of that time – a simply
gravity produced by a body of mass, bright future.
M g , is given by
GM g
g= (3)
r2
References
What gravity control can mean
to the world is so revolutionary and [1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
great that we can hardly imagine it. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
Almost everything will be changed on pp. 173-232.
the planet. Gravitational Spacecrafts Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520
[2], for example, would travel in space
using gravitational energy (non- [2] De Aquino, F. (2007) “Gravity Control by means
of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-
polluting). The construction industry Low Pressure”, physics/0701091.
would employ the new discovery to
load huge blocks, eliminating the
cranes. Rivers would be easily moved
from one place to another; food would
easily be transported, fighting drought
and famine in various parts of the
world. And space conquest will get a
692
The Observed Magnitude of Cosmological Constant directly derived
from the Quantization Theory of Gravity
*
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2019 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

* www.professorfrandeaquino.org
deaquino@elointernet.com.br

Starting from the theoretical background developed for obtaining the Quantization of
Gravity, in the paper Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of
Quantum Gravity, I show here that, it is possible to derive a theoretical value of the
Cosmological Constant, extremely close to the observed value.

Key words: Cosmological constant, Cosmological constant problem, Quantization of Gravity,


Quantization of Mass, Cosmology.

INTRODUCTION THEORY

The foremost challenge of Quantum The Quantization of Gravity [7] shown


Gravity Theory is to find the theoretical in the Mathematical Foundations of the
background, which would allow determining Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity (See
the observed positive value of Cosmological page 6) predicts the existence of an
Constant Λ * , elementary quantum of matter (smallest
indivisible particle of matter) with inertial
(Λl 2
)
planck observed = 1.38 × 10 −123 (1) mass, mi 0 (min ) , given by

related to the accelerating expansion of our mi 0(min ) = ± h 3 8 cd max = ±3.9 × 10 −73 kg (2)
Universe [1, 2]. The finding that the Universe
is in accelerating expansion was first where d max = 3.4 × 10 30 m is defined as the
announced in 1998, and it results from
astronomical observations of type IA maximum “diameter” that the Universe can
supernovae carried out by Supernovae reach [7] (See page 34).
Cosmology Project and High-z Supernova It also predicts that the space in the
Search Teams. The unexpected large Universe is totally filled with particle of this
discrepancy between theoretical results and type, forming a Continuous Universal
observed result for Λ still exists [3, 4, 5, 6]. Quantum Fluid (CUF), containing nU
In this article I show that, starting from particles, with density ρ CUF , respectively
the theoretical background developed for the given by (See [7] page 34)
Quantization of Gravity, in the paper MU
Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic nU = (3)
mi 0 min
Theory of Quantum Gravity [7] it is possible
to derive a theoretical value of the and
nU mi 0(min )
Cosmological Constant, extremely close to
the observed value (Eq. 1).
ρ CUF = (4)
VU
*
where M U is the total mass of particles
The Cosmological Constant is defined as Λ =
8π(G/c2)ρvac = κρvac, where κ is Einstein's constant.
(elementary quantum of matter) in the
The true dimension of Λ is a length−2. Thus, Universe, and VU is the volume of the
Λl planck
2
is a dimensionless number. Universe.

693
2
Since the space, in the Universe, is Multiplying both sides of the Eq. (10)
expanding, then the space traversed by a (
by Einstein’s constant 8πG / c 2 , the result is )
photon expands behind it during the voyage
since the Big-Bang. Thus, considering this
⎛ 8πGρ CUF ⎞ 4Gd max mi 0(min )
fact, it is possible to show that the current ⎜ ⎟= (M U VU ) (11)
⎝ c ⎠
2
distance to the most distant object we can see ch 3 8
is evaluated in 46 billion light-years
( )
4.4×1026 m [8], and not RH ≅ c H , which is whence, we obtain
the radius of the not expanding Universe,
⎛ 8πGρCUF ⎞ ⎛ Gh ⎞ 4G d maxmi0(min) ⎛ MU ⎞
2
where the density of matter is approximately
equal to the critical density, ρ crit = 3H 2 8πG
⎜ ⎟⎜ 3 ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (12)
⎝142 c 2 ⎠ ⎝12c 3⎠ c 4
3 8 ⎝ VU ⎠
43
(recent measurements point to H = 2.1×10−18 s −1 Λ l2

(67.36km.s )
planck
−1
/ MPc [9]). Thus, VU = πR is 4
3
3
U

the volume of the expanding Universe Therefore, Eq. (12) can be rewritten in the
( RU = 4.4 ×1026 m ), while V H = 43 πR H3 is the following form
volume of the not expanding Universe.
4G 2 d max mi 0(min ) ⎛ M U ⎞
Consequently, we can write that Λl 2
planck = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (13)
M c4 3 8 ⎝ VU ⎠
ρU = U (5)
VU
and Substitution of M U VU given by Eq. (7) into
M 3H 2
ρ crit = U = (6 ) Eq. (13), yields
VH 8πG
3
From Eq. (5) and (6), we get 4G 2 d max mi 0(min ) 3H 2 ⎛ RH ⎞
Λl 2
= ⎜ ⎟⎟ =
8πG ⎜⎝ RU
3
M U 3H 2 ⎛ RH ⎞ planck
c4 3 8 ⎠
ρU = = ⎜ ⎟ (7 )
VU 8πG ⎜⎝ RU ⎟⎠
3
Now, starting from Eq. (3) and (2), we can 4G 2 d max mi 0(min ) 3H 2 ⎛ c ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ =
write that c4 3 8 8πG ⎜⎝ RU H ⎟⎠
MU MU
nU = = (8) Gd max mi 0(min )
mi 0min 2πh 3 8 cd max =
3
(14)
c 38 2πRU3 H
By substitution of nU given by Eq.(4) into Eq.
(8), we obtain
Substituting the values in Eq. (14), we obtain
ρ CUF VU MU
= (9)
mi 0(min ) 2πh 3 8 cd max Λl planck
2
= 1.3 × 10 −123 (15)
whence
(M V )m
ρ CUF = U U i 0(min ) (10) Comparing this result with the observed value,
2πh 3 8 cd max given by Eq.(1)

(Λl )
Substituting the values in Eq. (10), we obtain the
density of Cosmological Quantum Vacuum, i.e.,
2
planck observed = 1.38 × 10 −123

ρ CUF = 0.058ρ crit = 4.6 × 10 −28 kg.m −3 we can conclude that theoretical value of the
Cosmological Constant here obtained is
Cosmological observations point to extremely close to the observed value.
−28 −3 −10 −3 −11 −3
~ 2.2 ×10 kg.m ( ~ 2×10 erg.cm ~ 2×10 J.m )
[10].

694
3
REFERENCES

[1] Greene, B., (2011). The Hidden Reality:


Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the
Cosmos, Chapter 6, pp. 174 and 394 (Published in the
United States by Alfred Knopf, a division of Random
House, Inc., New York).

[2] Carroll, S., (2004). Spacetime and Geometry:


An Introduction to General Relativity,
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing

[3] Padmanabhan, T., (2003), Phys. Rept. 380,


235, (2003).

[4] Perlmutter, S. et al (1999), The Astrophysical


Journal 517 (2), 565-586;
Available at: astro-ph/9812133v1.

[5] Reiss, A. G. et al (1998), The Astronomical


Journal 116 (3), 1009-1038;
Available at: astro-ph/9805201v1

[6] Perlmutter, S., Schmidt, B. P., (2003),


Available at: astro-ph/0303428v1.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520 (See page. 6 and 34).

[8] Lineweaver, C., and Davis, T.M., (2005).


Misconceptions about the Big Bang. Scientific
American, p. 43. (Accessed: 20 October 2019).

[9] Planck Collaboration (2019). Planck 2018 results.


VI. Cosmological parameters. Astronomy &
Astrophysics.
Available at: astro-ph/1807.06209v2

[10] Carroll, S. M. (2000). The Cosmological


Constant, See p.7, Eq. (20).
Available at: astro-ph/0004075v2.

695
Experimental set-up to check the decreasing of the Gravitational Mass in
Metallic Discs subjected to an alternating voltage of extremely low frequency.

Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2020 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
www.professorfrandeaquino.org
deaquino@elointernet.com.br

A very simple experimental arrangement is proposed here in order to check the decreasing of the
Gravitational Mass in Metallic Discs subjected to an alternating voltage of extremely low frequency (ELF).

Key words: Gravitational Mass, Gravitational mass and inertial mass, Gravitational Interaction.
INTRODUCTION
which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
In a previous paper [1] we shown that propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
there is a correlation between the gravitational
mass, m g , and the rest inertial mass mi 0 , which μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). From Eq.
is given by (3), we see that the index of refraction nr = c v
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ is given by
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ = ε μ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
⎢ ⎥
c
nr =
2
mi 0 ⎪ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c
⎦ ⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ v 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
Equation (3) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
2
⎪ ⎛ Un r ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ E B = ω k r = v , i.e.,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Wn ⎞
2 ⎤ ⎫ E = vB = vμH
⎪ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2r ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1) Then, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as follows
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ ρ c ⎠ ⎥ ⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎛ E ⎞
2

W = 1
ε E 2
+ 1
μ ⎜⎜
⎟⎟ =
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic 2
⎝ vμ ⎠
2

momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy ⎛ 1 ⎞


= 1
ε E 2 + 12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 =
⎝ v μ ⎠
2
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
index of refraction of the particle; W is the = 1
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E + 12 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ E 2 =
⎝ v μ ⎠ ⎝ v μ ⎠
2

density of energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 ⎛ c2 ⎞ 2


( 3
)
the matter density kg m and c is the speed
= ⎜⎜

⎟ E = ⎜⎜ 2
v 2 μ ⎟⎠ ⎝ v μ c
⎟E =
2 ⎟

⎛ n r2 ⎞ 2
of light. = ⎜⎜ ⎟E (5 )
The instantaneous values of the density of ⎝ μ c 2 ⎟⎠
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic For σ >> ωε , Eq. (3) gives
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations c 2 μσ 2
and has the following expression n r2 = = c (6 )
v2 2ω
W = 12 ε E2 + 12 μH2 (2) Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (5) gives
where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the W = (σ 2ω )E 2 (7)
instantaneous values of the electric field and the Substitution of Eq. (7) into Eq. (1), yields
magnetic field respectively. ⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
⎪ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E4 ⎥ ⎪⎬m i 0 =
It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [2] and m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎪⎩ ⎢ c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ 2
⎥⎪
ω ⎣ ⎦⎭
v=
dz
= =
c
(3 ) ⎧ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
dt κr εrμr ⎛ ⎪ ⎛ μ 0 ⎞ μ rσ ⎛ 3

⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 + 1 ⎞⎟ = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ 3 2 ⎜
⎟⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ E 4 − 1⎥ ⎬m i 0 =
2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 64π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪

where k r is the real part of the propagation ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪

3
r = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 7.032 × 10 − 27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟ E 4 − 1⎥ ⎬m i 0 (8)
vector k
r
(also called phase constant); ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪

k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the
electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in

696
2
Note that if E = E m sin ωt .Then, the a = Z P Z S = ( N P N S ) , then we
2 2
Since
have Z P = Z S . On the other hand, since
2 2
average value for E is equal to 1
2 E m because
E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value VP i P = VS i S then we have that i P = i S ( i S is the
for E ). On the other hand, we have Erms = Em 2. current through the secondary inductor; i P is
Consequently, we can change E by E 4 4
, and the current through the primary inductor).
rms
the Eq. (8) can be rewritten as follows Since V = 220volts − Rr i P (See Fig.2), then
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ i P = (220 − V ) Rr ; Rr is the electrical
⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.032×10−27⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟Erms −1⎥⎬mi0 (9) resistance of the potentiometer. Therefore, we
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ can write that
220 − V
The Ohm's vectorial Law tells us iP = (15)
that j rms = σE rms . Thus, we can write Eq. (9) in Rr
the following form: On the other hand, we can write that
⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.032×10−27 r 2 rms3 −1⎥⎬mi0 (10) iP = iS = VS Z S = VP Z P (16)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Where VP =VS =V and ZS = ZP ≅ XL . Thus, we get
where j rms = j 2 [2]. Since

j=
i V R V
= = =
V ⎛V ⎞
=σ⎜ ⎟ (11) iP = V X L (17)
S S RS (l σS )S ⎝l⎠ By comparing Eq.(17) with Eq.(15), we obtain
Then, we can write that
σ ⎛V ⎞
j rms = ⎜ ⎟ (12) V=
220
(18)
2⎝ l ⎠ R
1+ r
By substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq.(10), we get XL

mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
−27⎛ μrσ ⎞ (V l)
3 4
where X L = 2πfL ; L is given by [3].
χ = = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+1.758×10 ⎜ 2 ⎟ 3 −1⎥⎬ (13)
⎜ ⎟
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρ ⎠ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ μ0 N 2 A
⎩ ⎣ L= (l B >> d ) (19 )
(l B − 0.45d )
In this paper it is proposed a very simple In the equation above N is the number of turns
experimental set-up to check the decreasing of in each winding, A is the cross-sectional area of
the Gravitational Mass in Metallic Discs the core, l B is the length of the coil and d is the
subjected to an alternating voltage V of diameter of the core (See Fig 1).
extremely low frequency (See Fig.2). d
SUGGESTED EXPERIMENT
A
Consider the experimental set-up showed
in Fig.2. Basically it is an electrical transformer
where the secondary winding is coupled to a lB N
metallic disc with l thickness, relative
permeability μ r , electrical conductivity σ and
mass density ρ ; the electrical resistance of the
disc is Rd , and it is subjected to an alternating
Fig. 1 – Inductance L of a coil of wire
voltage V with frequency f , as showed in Fig.2.
Since the number of turns in both windings Note that, in the Eq.(18), if Rr = 0 then
is the same, i.e., N p = N S = N , then we have V = 220volts . On the other hand, for Rr > X L
that VP VS = N P N S = 1, i.e., V P = VS = V . the result is V < 220volts . In addition note that

697
3
the maximum value of i P must be smaller than In the case of an Aluminum disc
the maximum current, imax , supported by the ( μr = 1, σ = 3.5 × 10 7 S / m , ρ = 2700kg / m3 ),
conductor used in the secondary winding , i.e.,
* with 2mm thickness, the Eq. (13) gives

iP = V X L < imax (20) χ=


mg(disc)
mi0(disc)
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 2.99×10−6 V 4 −1]} (25)
As higher the value of X L the lower the current
intensity across the secondary. Since in the set-up Compare this equation with Eq. (22). Note that
shown in Fig.2 we have Vmax = 220volts , then they supply close results for the same values of
we concluded that V.
If V = 50volts the gravitational mass of
the disc, according to Eq. (25), will be given by
XL >
220
(21)
i max
m g (disc ) ≅ −5.8mi 0(disc ) (26 )
Now, consider the case in which the
metallic disc is made iron ( μ r = 250 ,
† In the case of V = 220volts (Rr = 0) the
gravitational mass of the disc becomes
σ = 1 . 05 × 10 7 S / m , ρ = 7874 kg / m 3 )
with 2mm thickness, subjected to a voltage V mg (disc) ≅ −164.4mi 0(disc) (27)
with frequency f = 60 Hz . In this case the Eq.
(13) gives
Obviously, the mass of the disc holder, m holder ,

{ [ ]}
mg(disc) shown in the Fig.2, must be greater than this
χ= = 1− 2 1+ 2.37×10−6 V 4 −1 (22) value, i.e., m holder > 164 .4mi 0 (disc ) . This value
mi0(disc)
defines then the weighing capacity of the balance
shown in Fig.2.
Equation (18) tells us that if, for
example, Rr = 12 X L , then the value of V
reduces to V = 16.9volts . In this case, Eq. (22)
shows that the gravitational mass of the
disc, m g (disc ) , reduces to

m g (disc ) ≅ 0 .8 m i 0 (disc ) (23 )


This means that the initial gravitational mass of
the disc, measured by the balance
( )
m g (disc ) = Pdisc g = mi 0 (disc ) , is reduced of
about 20%.
On the other hand, if V = 50volts , the
gravitational mass of the disc, according to Eq.
(22), is then strongly reduced becoming negative
and given by

m g (disc ) ≅ −4.9mi 0 (disc ) (24 )

*
In the case of wire #12 AWG, imax ≅ 10 A .

Without current in the coil.

698
4

Metallic Disc (μr, σ, ρ) ( l = 2mm )

Disc Holder

Digital Balance
50kg-1g

Potentiometer Rr

Transformer

220 V
S f = 60Hz

iS Zp=ZS≈XL iP Rr
Metallic disc
(in red) XL XL

VS =V l VP = V AC voltage source
220V
N N
S f = 60 Hz

Secondary winding Primary winding


Equivalent electrical circuit of the set-up

Fig. 2 - Experimental set-up to check the Gravitational Mass of metallic discs subjected to
alternating voltage V with frequency f = 60 Hz .

699
5

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,11 (1),
pp. 173-232.
Available at https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-
01128520

[2] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J.


Willey & Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP,
p.1410.

[3] Fernandes, T. S. P. Elementos Armazenadores de


Energia. UFPR
Available https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indut%C3%A2ncia

700
Decreasing of the Gravitational Mass in materials with
Extremely High Permeability subjected to an Alternating
Magnetic Field of Extremely Low Frequency.
Fran De Aquino
Professor Emeritus of Physics, Maranhao State University, UEMA.
Titular Researcher (R) of National Institute for Space Research, INPE
Copyright © 2020 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
www.professorfrandeaquino.org
deaquino@elointernet.com.br

Here we propose a very simple experiment in order to check the decreasing of the Gravitational
Mass in materials with Extremely High Permeability subjected to an Alternating Magnetic Field
of Extremely Low Frequency.

Key words: Gravitational Mass, Magnetic Field of Extremely Low Frequency, Extremely High Permeability.

INTRODUCTION W = 12 ε E2 + 12 μH2 (2)


In this paper it is proposed a very where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the
simple experimental set-up in order to check instantaneous values of the electric field and the
the decreasing of the Gravitational Mass in magnetic field respectively.
materials with Extremely High Permeability It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [2] and
subjected to an Alternating Magnetic Field ω
v=
dz
= =
c
(3 )
of Extremely Low Frequency. dt κr εrμr ⎛
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1 ⎞⎟
2
THEORY 2 ⎝ ⎠
where k r is the real part of the propagation
In a previous paper [1] we shown that r
there is a correlation between the gravitational vector k (also called phase constant);
r
mass, m g , and the rest inertial mass mi 0 , which k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the
is given by electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫ which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
2
⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ = propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ; σ is the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎛ Un r ⎞
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬ = electrical conductivity in S/m). From Eq. (3), we
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ see that the index of refraction nr = c v is
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫ given by
⎪ ⎛ Wn ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2r ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (1) ε μ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c
nr =
2
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ ρ c ⎠ ⎥ ⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ v 2 ⎝ ⎠
where Δp is the variation in the particle’s kinetic Equation (3) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
momentum; U is the electromagnetic energy E B = ω kr = v, i.e.,
absorbed or emitted by the particle; nr is the
E = vB = vμH (5)
index of refraction of the particle; W is the
Then, Eq. (2) can be rewritten as follows
density of energy on the particle ( J / kg ) ; ρ is
( )
the matter density kg m 3 and c is the speed W = 12 ε v 2 μ 2 H 2 + 12 μ H 2 =
of light. ( )
= 12 μ H 2 ε v 2 μ + 12 μ H 2 = μ H 2 (6 )
The instantaneous values of the density of
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic For σ >> ωε , Eq. (3) gives
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations
c 2 μσ 2
and has the following expression n r2 = = c (7 )
v2 2ω
Substitution of Eqs. (6) and (5) into Eq. (1) gives

701
2
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪
mg
(8) ⎪ −20 Hrms
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟H − 1⎥⎬ χMetglas= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2.1×10 ⎜⎜
⎢ ⎟ −1⎥⎬ (10)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρ 2 c 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭
Note that if H = H m sin ωt .Then, the average ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ −20 ⎛ H rms ⎞
4

⎟ − 1 ⎬ (11)
value for H 2
is equal to 1
2 H 2
because H χ Supermalloy = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3.6 ×10 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
m

varies sinusoidaly ( H m is the maximum value ⎪⎩

for H ). On the other hand, we have Hrms = Hm 2 . ⎧


⎪ ⎡
−21 ⎛ H rms
4
⎞ ⎤⎫⎪
χ Iron = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ 2.5×10 ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎬ (12)
Consequently, we can change H 4 by H rms4
, and ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ f ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
the Eq. (8) can be rewritten as follows
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ For f = 60 Hz , the result is
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟H −1⎥⎬
2 2 ⎟ rms
(9)
π ρ
{ [ ]}
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4 f c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎭
Note that in this equation the value of the
χ Metglas = 1 − 2 1 + 3.5 × 10 − 22 H rms
4
−1 (13)
magnetic permeability, μ , is raised to the third
power. This means that the decreasing of the χ Supermallo y = {1 − 2[ 1 + 6.0 × 10 − 22 4
H rms −1 ]} (14)
Gravitational Mass in materials with Extremely

= {1 − 2[ 1 + 4.1 × 10 H ]}
High Permeability ( μ r > 100,000 ; μ = μ r μ 0 ;
μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ) subjected to an
χ Iron − 23 4
rms −1 (15 )
Alternating Magnetic Field (H rms ) of Extremely
Then, for H rms = 4 ×105 A / m (B = 0.5T ) , we get
Low Frequency ( f < 100 Hz ) can be easily
observed experimentally.
χ Metglas = −3.3 ⇒ m g ( Metglas ) = −3.3mi 0( Metglas )
SUGGESTED EXPERIMENT (P( Metglas ) = m g ( Metglas ) g = −3.3mi 0 ( Metglas ) g = −3.3P )
Let us consider some known materials with
Extremely High Permeability. For example:
Metglas, Supermalloy and pure Iron, which the χ Smalloy = −5.1 ⇒ m g ( Smalloy ) = −5.1mi 0 ( Smalloy )
following characteristics [3, 4]: (P( Smalloy ) = m g ( Smalloy ) g = −5.1mi 0 ( Smalloy ) g )

Metglas (Metglas 2714A, annealed)


μ r = 1,000,000 At 0.5 T χ Iron = − 0.13 ⇒ m g ( Iron ) = −0.13mi 0( Iron )
σ = 7.04 × 10 5 S / m (P( Iron ) = m g ( Iron ) g = − 0 . 13 m i 0 ( Iron ) g )
ρ = 7590 kg.m −3
Supermalloy (annealed in H controlled cooling) The results above can be easily checked by
μ r = 1,000,000 At 0.7 T means of the experimental set-up shown in Fig.1.
σ = 1.6 × 10 6 S / m
ρ = 8770 kg.m −3
Iron (99.95% pure Fe annealed in H)
μ r = 200,000
σ = 1.05 × 10 7 S / m
ρ = 7600 kg.m −3
For these materials Eq. (9), respectively,
gives

702
3

-6P
Mechanical -5P
Dynamometer -4P
-3P
-2P
-P
0
P

Coil
H rms

Body Test
(Metglas, Supermalloy, Iron)

0-220V
60Hz

Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up to check the decreasing of the Gravitational Mass
in materials with Extremely High Permeability subjected to an Alternating Magnetic Field with
frequency f = 60 Hz .

703
4
APPENDIX A: How the Inertial Properties of a Spacecraft can be strongly reduced.

Consider the schematic diagram of a M gS(total) ≅ Mi0S + mgC =


spacecraft shown in Fig. 2. At the center of
the spacecraft has a ferromagnetic material ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪

with Extremely High Permeability, μ , subjected ⎢
≅ Mi0S + ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟H −1⎥⎬mi0C ( A3)
2 2 ⎟ rms
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ 4π fρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
to an alternating magnetic field H rms of Extra- ⎭
low frequency, f . According to Eq. (9), its Therefore, for (μ σ 4π fρ c )Hrms >>1, we get
3 2 2 4

gravitational mass, m gC , is then given by ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤


M gS(total) ≅ M i 0S − ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟H ⎥mi 0C
2 2 ⎟ rms
( A4)
⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ π fρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦
mgC = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟H
2 2 ⎟ rms
−1⎥⎬mi0C ( A1)
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 4π fρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪ If the ferromagnetic material is the Supermalloy,
⎭ then Eq. (A4) gives (See Eq. (11))
In the equation (A1), σ is the electrical ⎡ ⎛ H 4 ⎞⎤
conductivity of the ferromagnetic material; M gS(total) ≅ M i 0S − ⎢ 3.6 × 10−20 ⎜⎜ rms ⎟⎟ ⎥mi 0C ( A5)
ρ is its mass density, and mi 0C is the rest ⎢⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦
inertial mass of the mentioned material. For example, if M gS ≅ Mi0S = 10,000kg ;
mi0C = 100kg ; f =1Hz and Hrms = 7.2597×105 A / m ,
(Brms ≅ 0.9T ) , then Eq. (A5) yields
Ferromagnetic core with Extremely
High Permeability, μ , subjected to
an alternating magnetic field, H rms ,
of Extra-low frequency, f. M gS (total ) < 1kg .

This means a decreasing greater than 10,000


times in the gravitational mass of the spacecraft.
Mach’s principle predicts that inertial
m gC forces acting on a particle are the result from
the gravitational interaction between the
particle and the other particles of the
M gS (total ) Spacecraft Universe. Thus, the inertial forces Fii acting
on a particle are proportional to gravitational
Fig.2 – Schematic diagram of an Ellipsoidal mass, m g , of the particle, i.e., Fii = mg ai [1].
Spacecraft This fact shows that the inertial effects upon
a spacecraft can be strongly reduced because,
Then, the total gravitational mass of as we have seen, the gravitational mass of
the spacecraft, M gS (total ) , can be expressed by the spacecraft M gS (total ) can be strongly
means of the following expression: reduced ( Fii = M gS (total ) a i ). In practice, it
M gS (total ) = M gS + m gC ( A2) means that will be possible to become quasi-
where M gS is the total gravitational mass of null the inertial properties of the spacecraft.
the spacecraft without the gravitational mass Under these circumstances, the
of the ferromagnetic core. Assuming that spacecraft can describe incredible
density of external electromagnetic energy in trajectories, and to make super accelerations
M gS is negligible, then we can write that and super decelerations in a very short time
interval (<1s), without be destructed (See
M gS ≅ M i 0 S , where M i 0 S is the rest inertial The Gravitational Spacecraft [5]).
mass of the spacecraft (without the
ferromagnetic core) (See Eq. 1). Thus, Eq.
(A2) can be rewritten as follows:

704
5

APPENDIX B: Gravitational Motor with design similar to an Internal Combustion Engine


Based on the possibilities described in this
paper, we show now how it is possible to convert If f =1Hz and Hrms = 7.2597×105 A / m ,
gravitational energy into rotational kinetic
energy by means of a Gravitational Motor, which (Brms ≅ 0.9T ) , then Eq. (B2) yields
design is similar to the Internal Combustion mgP
Engine (See Fig.3). In that Gravitational Motor χ= ≅ −197 (B3)
the pistons are made of ferromagnetic material
mi0P
r
with Extremely High Permeability, μ , subjected Then, the gravitational force, F , acting on one
to an alternating magnetic field, H rms , of Extra- piston (See Fig.3) is
r r r r r
F = m gP g = χmi 0 P g = mi 0 P (χg ) = mi 0 P a ,
*
low frequency, f . According to Eq. (9), the
gravitational mass of one piston, m gP , is given and the average power is P = Fv , where
by v = 12 2aH = χg H 2 (B4)
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ Thus, we can write that
mgP = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟H
2 2 ⎟ rms
−1⎥⎬mi0P (B1)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4π fρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ P = Fv = mi 0P a χg H 2 = mi 0P χg H 2 (B5)
3

In the equation (B1), σ is the electrical


conductivity of the ferromagnetic material; ρ is For g = 9.81m.s −2 , χ = −197 (See Eq. (B3),
its mass density, and mi 0 P is the rest inertial mi 0 P = 5kg and H = 0.15m we get
mass of the piston.
If the pistons are made of Supermalloy, the P = 1.1 × 105 W ≅ 147HP ( B6 )
result is
mgP ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ H 4 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ * r
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 3.6 ×10−20 ⎜⎜ rms ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (B2)
Note that the acceleration a has direction
χ= r
mi 0P ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ opposed to g , because χ is negative (See B3).
⎩ ⎣

v = 2aH

Helmholtz F = mgP a F = m gP a
Coils (ON) Helmholtz Coils
H (OFF)
v=0
Flywheel

Piston

crankshaft

g
Fig. 3 – Schematic diagram of a Gravitational Motor with design similar to the Internal Combustion Engine.
Here the pistons are made with materials whose magnetic permeabilities are Extremely High. The
Helmholtz Coils provide the alternating magnetic field H rms .

705
6
APPENDIX C: Gravitational Thruster of Fluids

In a previous paper [6] it was shown that, materials with Extremely High Permeability, μ ,
when the gravitational mass, m g 1 , of a plate is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, H rms ,
reduced by the factor χ 1 = m g1 mi 01 , then the of Extra-low frequency, f . If the gravitational
gravity acceleration after the plate, g 1 , is masses of the plates are, m gP , then, according to
reduced at the same proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g Eq. (9), we can write that
where g is the gravity acceleration before the mgP ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ H −1⎥⎬ (C3)
plate (See Fig. 4).
4π fρ 2 c 2 ⎟⎠
rms
mi 0P ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
χ1
.
g
.
g1 = χ 1 g
⊥ Axis
If the plates are made of Supermalloy, we get

χ=
mgP ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ H 4 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 3.6 ×10−20 ⎜⎜ rms ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (C4)
mi 0P ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣
If f =1Hz and H rms = 4 ×105 A / m (B = 0.5T ) , ,
mg1
Fig. 4 - The gravity acceleration after the plate is
then Eq. (C4) yields
g1 = χ 1 g where g is the gravity acceleration
before the plate. The perpendicular axis of the plate
χ = mgP mi0P ≅ −57.7 (C5)
can be in any direction. If g refers to the gravity produced by a sphere
Consequently, after a second plate, with with inertial mass mi 0 = 10 Kg , and M g = mi 0 ,
gravitational mass, m g 2 , the gravity becomes: at the r = 1cm ,
distance then
−2 −6
g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 = mg 2 mi 02 . In a g = GM g r = 6.6 × 10 m.s . Thus, the
2

generalized way, we can write that after the nth gravity acceleration after the nth plate, g n , for
plate the gravity, g n , will be given by n = 5 , will be given by
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (C1) ( )
gn = χ 5 g = (− 57.7) g = +4.2 ×103 m.s −2
5
(C6)
If χ1 = χ2 =,...,= χn = χ < −1, and n is odd then, Fluid
the gravitational forces, F , between a body B
before the first plate and another body A after the r
nth plate are repulsive (See Fig.5), and given by H rms
gn M g g = GMg/r2 gn = χ n g
( ⎛
)M gB ⎞
F = mgA g n = mgA (χ n g ) = mgA − χ n ⎜⎜ − G 2 ⎟⎟ =
⎝ r ⎠ Fluid
M m
=+χn G
gB gA
(C2) Fig. 6 - Gravitational Thruster of Fluids
r2
Note that this system can be modified to
χ1 χ2 χn produce microgravity environments (See Fig. 6a).
F mgA F In a previous paper [7] we described another way
g gn = χ g
n to produce microgravity environments in order to
“activate” the cellular autophagy. After an
MgB infection, autophagy can destroy bacteria and
mg1 mg2 mgn
viruses.
Fig. 5 – The gravity after a battery of plates
This possibility shows that, by means of a Microgravity g1 = χ1 g ≅0
battery of similar plates, we can make particles Environment Human body
acquire enormous accelerations. In practice, this
can lead to the conception of a Gravitational
Thruster of Fluids (See Fig.6). In this case, the χ1 H rms
plates have the same dimensions (with the same g
inertial mass mi 0 P ), and they are made of Fig. 6a – Activation of cellular Autophagy in
Human bodies.

706
7

APPENDIX D: Another type of Gravitational Motor


In Fig.7, we show a schematic Then, the average power, P , of the
diagram of another type of Gravitational gravitational motor is given by
Motor. Now the Gravitational Motor has 4 P = Tω = nmi0 gω r (D5)
Gravity Control Cells (GCC), which can be
made with plates of materials with On the other hand, we have that
Extremely High Permeability, μ , subjected g ′′ + g ′ = ω 2 r (D6)
to an alternating magnetic field, H rms , of Therefore the angular speed of the rotor is
Extra-low frequency, f . If the gravitational ω = 2ng r (D7)
masses of the plates are, m gP , then, By substituting (D7) into (D5) we obtain
the expression of the average power of the
according to Eq. (9), we can write that gravitational motor, i.e.,
mgP ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ μ3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+⎜⎜ ⎟H −1⎥⎬ (D1) P = nmi 0 gr
2ng
= mi 0 2n 3 g 3 r (D8)
mi0P ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4π fρ 2c2 ⎟⎠
rms
⎥⎦⎪ r
⎩ ⎣ ⎭
Now consider an electric generator
For Supermalloy plates, (See Eq. (11)), we coupling to the gravitational motor in order
get to produce electric energy. Since
m ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ H4 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ ω = 2πf then for f = 60 Hz we have
χ = gP = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 3.6×10−20⎜⎜ rms ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (D2)
mi0P ⎪ ⎢
⎩ ⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ ω = 120πrad.s −1 = 3600rpm (D9)
−1
If f =1Hz and Hrms = 4×105 A/ m , (B = 0.5T) , . Therefore for ω = 120πrad .s and
then Eq. (D2) yields the following value for χ1 = χ 3 = −n = −57.7 (See (D3)) the Eq.
the correlation factor χ : (D7) tells us that we must have
χ = mgP mi 0P ≅ −57.7 (D3) r = 2ng ω 2 = 0.0786m (D10)
Since r = R 3 and mi = ρπR h where
2
The Gravity Control Cells, GCC1,
GCC2 and the GCC3 are placed below the ρ, R and h are respectively the mass
rotor (See Fig.7); GCC1 and GCC2 on the
density, the radius and the height of the
right and GCC3 on the left. Above the
r
GCC1 the local gravity, g , is intensified for
rotor then for h = 0.5m and
r v r
g ′ = χ1χ 2 g = + ng , where χ1 = −n and ρ = 7800 Kg .m −3 (iron) we obtain
χ2 = −1 are the correlation factors for GCC1 mi = 75.69kg (D11)
and GCC2, respectively. Above the GCC3 Then Eq. (D8) gives
r r r P ≅ 4.04 × 10 5 W ≅ 404kW ≅ 541HP
the local gravity becomes g ′′ = χ 3 g = −ng ,
Thus, when coupled to a
where χ3 = −n . The function of GCC4 and
conventional generator of electrical energy,
GCC5 (See Fig.7), is only to revert the this Gravitational Motor can supply an
gravity down to values very close to g . amount of electrical energy of about 2
As the gravity acceleration on the left
r r ( )
0.9 4.04 × 10 5 W (3600s ) = 1.3 × 10 9 j =
half of the rotor becomes g ′′ = − ng while
≅ 361kW per hour. This energy is enough
the gravity acceleration on the right half of
r r to supply about 180 homes, each one with
the rotor becomes g ′ = +ng , the torque on an average consumption of about 2kW per
the rotor is hour 3 .
Note that this electrical energy is
( )
r r r
T = − F ′′ + rF ′ × r = r r produced without the use of any type of fuel,
= (− 12 m g g ′′ + 12 m g g ′)r (D 4 )
2
Assuming an efficiency of 90%.
( m g ≅ mi 0 is the mass of the rotor), and the 3
In the US typical household power consumption is
rotor spins with angular velocity ω .
about 1.3 kW per hour.
http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=97&t=3.

707
8

because the energy, which moves the water of the rivers, this type of
Gravitational Motor comes from Earth’s Gravitational Motors convert energy from
gravitational field, i.e., the Gravitational the Earth’s gravitational field directly into
Motor converts directly energy from the rotational mechanical energy, by using the
Earth’s gravitational field into rotational GCCs.
mechanical energy. Finally, note the small volume of the
Thus, the Gravitational Motors are rotor of this type Gravitational Motor, it
similar to the turbines of the hydroelectric shows that the total volume of the motor
plants. While the turbines convert energy can be smaller than 1m3.
from the Earth’s gravitational field into
rotational mechanical energy, by means of

g’’’ =χ4 g’’ = g g’’’’ =χ5 g’ = g


GCC4 χ 4 = − 1 n χ 5 = + 1 n GCC5

r r r
g ′′ = χ 3 g = −ng
R
r
Massive Rotor
r
r r r
g ′ = χ 1 χ 2 g = + ng

χ 1 = − n GCC1
GCC3 χ 3 = − n χ 2 = −1 GCC2

r r
g g

Fig. 7 – Schematic diagram (cross-section) of another type of Gravitational Motor.

708
9

APPENDIX E: Cooling and Heating Gravitational System


Consider the system shown in Fig. 8. It magnitude χ . In this case, g ′ will be expressed by
shows two spherical shells A and B connected
by a tube; inside this system there is a liquid g ′ = − χ g , and the pressure pb at point b becomes
v r r
with density ρ . Bellow spherical shell A there p b = ρhg ′ = − ρh χ g (E 4 )
is a plate (in red Fig.8) made of ferromagnetic r
Note that, the pressure pb is in opposite direction to
material with Extremely High Permeability, μ , r r
g . The increase of pb causes a increasing of the
subjected to an alternating magnetic field H rms of
pressure inside the spherical shell B, producing
Extra-low frequency, f . According to Eq. (9), consequently, an increasing of the temperature, TB ,
the gravitational mass, m gC , of the in the spherical shell B. In this case, the system
ferromagnetic plate, is then given by shown in Fig 8 can works like a Heating
⎧ Gravitational System.
⎡ ⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
H −1⎥⎬mi 0C (E1)
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ Note that in all the red hatched area,
mgC = ⎨1 − 2 1 +
⎢ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ rms
⎥⎪ gravity is g ′ .
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ 4π fρ p c ⎠ ⎦⎭ g'
In equation (E1), σ is the electrical conductivity
of the ferromagnetic material; ρ p is its mass
density and mi 0C is the rest inertial mass of the B
mentioned ferromagnetic plate.
h pb
Equation(E1) can between rewritten as follows:
⎧ ⎡ b
⎛ μ 3σ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫
mgC ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟H rms −1⎥⎬ (E2)
⎜ 4π fρ c ⎟ ρ
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎪
2 2
mi0C ⎝ ⎠
p
⎦⎭
In a previous paper [6] it was shown that, a
pa h
when the gravitational mass, m g , of a plate is
reduced by the factor χ = m g mi 0 , then the A
gravity acceleration above the plate, g ′ , is
Hrms
reduced at the same proportion, i.e., g ′ = χg
m gC
where g is the gravity acceleration below the
Magnetic Coil g Ferromagnetic plate
plate. Here, the gravity above the ferromagnetic
plate becomes then g ′ = χg , where g is the
Fig.8 – Schematic Diagram of an element of
gravity below the system. Therefore, the pressure Gravitational System for Cooling and Heating.
p a at point a (See Fig.8)is given by
v r r
p a = ρhg ′ = ρhχg (E 3)
Equation above shows that the pressure inside the
spherical shell A can be reduced by reducing χ
(See Eq. (E2)). The decreasing of the pressure
causes the decreasing of the temperature, T A , in
spherical shell A, (P′ T ′ = P T ) . In this case the g
system shown in Fig 8 can works like a Cooling Magnetic Coil Ferromagnetic plate
Gravitational System.
By increasing the magnitude of the Fig.9 – Schematic Diagram of a Gravitational
System for Cooling and Heating.
magnetic field H rms , it is possible to make χ
negative (See Eq. (E2)), and also to increase its

709
10

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J. Willey & Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP,
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Metglas.com. Archived from the original
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[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) The Gravitational Spacecraft,


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