™ CTC aS TCE HIDE EH | UG tt Cg© DK Rao, J J Kaur, 2006 First Published 2006 Revised Edition 2008 Third Reprint 2009 (Feb) ISBN 978-81-8332-378-9 O Rata Sagar P. Ltd. an 180 9001:2000 company VIRAT BHAVAN, MUKHERJEE NAGAR COMMERCIAL COMPLEX, DELHI 110009 PHONE: (011}47028000 ¢ FAX: (011)47038099 @ e-mail: rsagar@ratnasager.com OFFICES: CHENNAI # KOLKATA # LUCKNOW. AGRA ® BANGALORE @ COIMBATORE @ DEHRADUN @ GUWAHATI # HYDERABAD JAIPUR # KANPUR @ KOCHI # MADURAI® MUMBAI # PATNA WEBSITE: www.ratnasagar.comontents 1. Basic Biology (Study of a cell by examining onion peel and human cheek cells) Parts of a cell 9 Cell structures visible _under_a _light_microscope 11 Cell organelles found in cytoplasm 11 Differences between onion peel cells (plant cells) and human cheek cells (animal cells) 13 2. Cell Division .. Why cells divide? 16 Types of cell division 16 Mitosis (Gk, milos: thread) 17 Meiosis (Gk. meiomum: to diminish) 19 First_ meiotic division 19 Second meiotic division 21 Chromosomes—the cartiers of heredity 23 3. Heredity and Genetics..... Genetics, heredity and variations 29 Mendel—father of genetics 30 Mendel’s experiments 31 Mendel’s laws of inheritance 41 Genes—the physical basis of heredity 33 Human chromosomes 33 Sex determination—son or daughter? 34 Sex-linked inheritance 34 Sex-influenced and sex-limited traits 36 4, Absorption by Roots Why do plants need water and minerals? 40 How are roots adapted for water? 40 How do absorption and conduction of water and minerals occur? 41 Diffusion 41 Osmosis 42 Isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions 44 Imbibition 45 Active transport 45 Turgidity and flaccidity 46 Plasmolysis_and_deplasmolysis 47 Absorption of water_and minerals by the root 47 Copyrighted material5. Ascent of Sap in Plants... Conduction of water through xylem 54 Absorption of water by roots 55 Ascent of sap 55 Causative forces for ascent of sap 56 ‘Activities to demonstrate transpiration 59 How is water made available for transpiration? 61 Types of transpiration 61 ‘Mechanism of stomatal transpiration 61 Cuticular transpiration 63 Lenticular transpiration 63 Measuring rate of transpiration 63 Factors affecting the rate of transpiration 64 How are plants adapted to reduce excessive transpiration? 65 Significance of transpiration 65 Antictranspirants 65 ‘Guutation 65 Photosynthesis What is photosynthesis? 70 The mechanism of photosynthesis 73 Factors affecting photosynthesis 76 Carbon evcle 76 Experiments on_ photosynthesis 77 8. Nervous System in Human Beings .. Nerves 88 Structure of a nerve cell (Neuron) 88 Central_nervous system 90 Forebrain 91 Midbrain 91 Hindbrain 91 Spinal ‘cord 92 Peripheral nervous system 94 Autonomic n m (Al9. 10. 1. 12. Sense Organs. Some Key terms 101 The eye and the sense of sight 101 Structure of the eyeball 102 The retina 103 How eye works? 104 Common defects of the eye and their correction 105 Human ear, senses of hearing and balance 107 Mechanism of hearing and balance 109 Tongue and the sense of taste (gustatory sensation) 109 Zs Nose and taste of smell (olfactory sensation) 110 Skin receptors 110 Endocrine System... Homeostasis (Latin: Homeo: Similar; Stasis: Situation) 117 What are hormones? 118 Characteristics of hormones 118 Two main categories of hormones 119 Endocrine glands 119 Thyroid gland 119 Adrenal gland 121 Pancreas 122 Pituitary—the master gland 122 Feedback mechanism of hormone secretion 126 117 Reproductive System Sexual reproduction in humans 132 Reproductive system in human beings 132 Male reproductive system 133 Female reproductive system 135 Cycle in human females 137 Fertilization, pregnancy and development of the embryo 139 How twins occur? 142 Population—Problems and Control ... Few terms to remember 148 Problems posed by increasing population 149 Population control and family planning 151 Population control 15213. Aids to Health .. What is immunity and what does it do? 157 What are pathogens and how do they attack our body? 157 ‘The immune response 158 Immune system 160 Antigen and antibody 160 Antiseptic 160; Disinfectants 161; Sterilization 161 Antitoxin and serum 161 Antibiotics and penicillin 162 Sulfonamide family of drugs 162 Vaccination and immunisation 163 Immunisation 165; First aid 165 Artificial respiration 167 14, Health Organizations . Common health problems in India 171 Health organizations 172 Red Cross Society 173 World Health Organization 173 a7. Glossary Model Test Paper I... Model Test Paper I Model Test Paper Ill — Solved. Some Line Diagrams for Practice. Copyrighted materialaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.% The nuclear membrane reappears around the chromatin network at each pole. # Nucleolus reappears in cach daughter nucleus and spindle fibres disappear. In animal cells, centrosome organizes itself above the nucleus, thus making the completion of aryokinesis| ‘The karyokinesis (mitosis proper) is followed by the division of the cytoplasm known as cytokinesis, Cytokinesis (Gk. Cyto: cell, kinesis: movement) It is the division of cytoplasm to form two daughter cells. It begins during late anaphase and is completed soon after telophase. It is different in animal and plant cells. In animal cells, a constriction (or furrow) appears in the plasma membrane, This constriction deepens by the end of telophase, finally completing the division of cytoplasm, In plant cells, a cell plate is formed in the centre of the cell at the end of anaphase, The cell plate extends on either side until it completely divides the cell into two daughter cells. In animal cells, cytokinesis starts from the Periphery and proceeds towards the centre, but in plant cells, cytokinesis starts from the Centre due to cell plate formation, and extends towards the periphery. Significance of mitosis Mitosis keeps the number of chromosomes constant in all the cells of an individual. In other words, mitosis is an equational division in which two daughter cells produced are identical fo each other and even to their parent cell © It plays a significant role in wound healing, replacement of cells lost during normal wear and tear It is the cell division which is responsible for the growth of an organism. A fenilized cell develops into an embryo and finally into an adult as a result of call division % Mitosis helps the cells maintain the proper size. It is a method of mutiplication (reproduction) in unicellular organisms © If mitotic cell division becomes uncontrolled, it may cause tumours or cancerous growths. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 ‘A. Answer these questions. 1. Name the two kinds of cell living beings. 2. What is the significance of mitosis for plant calls? Give three points. sion found in B. Name the stage of mitotic cell division showing following event 1. The chromatin material undergoes condensation and changes into thread-like structures called chromosomes. 2. The spindle fibres’attach themselves to the centromere of the chromosomes. 3. The sister chromatids separate and begin to move towards opposite poles due to contraction of spindle fibres. 4. Cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells. C. Name the kind of cell division that take place in 1. formation of sperms in animals. 2. repair of wound and replacement of cell during wear and tear. 3, growth of an organism, MEIOSIS (GK. MEIOMUM: TO DIMINISH) Meiosis takes place in reproductive cells that produce gametes. Meiosis is modified mitosis in which chromosomes divide once and the nucleus divides twice, after which the number of chromosomes are reduced 10 half. thus, the four celly resulting from a meiotic division have a haploid number of chromosomes. Meiosis is a reductional Stages of meiosis Meiosis includes two nuclear divisions: first meiotic division (heterotypic second meiotic division (homotypic division) Thus, in this cell division, all the stages, i. prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase are repeated twice (A) FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION In this division, homologous chromosomes come together (associate) and subsequently segregate into daughter cells. Thus, the number of chromosomes are reduced from diploid to the haploid state CELL DIVISION © 19aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.meiotic division, four haploid nuclei are produced in each cell. (V) Cytokinesis Its the division of cytoplasm. In animal cells, it occurs due to the formation of constriction whereas in plant cells it occurs by cell-plate formation. Significance of meiosis % The number of chromosomes are reduced to half in the daughter cells. It results in the formation of haploid sex cells (sperms and ova), which after Fesilization restore the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote: % During crossing over which occurs in meiosis, part of chromatids are exchanged between homologous chromosomes which bring about variation 4% The four chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes are passed on to four different daughter cells. This also causes. gametic variation 4 Teavoids the multiplication of chromosomes, and thus maintains the stability of species. Differences between mitosis and meiosis ‘The major differencs given in Table 2.1 's between mitosis and meiosis is CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 A. State whether following statements are True or False. 1. In meiosis chromosomes divide twice and nucleus divides once. 2. Meiosis is reductional division. 3. The first meiotic division is a homotypic division. 4. The 1g of non-sister chromatids of a tetrad around each other is known as chiasmata formation 5. Each daughter nucleus formed at the end of meiosis |, has half the number of chromosomes as compared to a parent cell. ‘6. Meiosis results in the formation of haplcid sex cells, Name the stages of meiotic cell division showing following events. 1. Condensation and shortening of chromatin network. 2. The paired homologous chromosomes begin to move away from each other. 3. The homologous chromosomes attract each other end lie in pairs. 4. The non-sister chromatids of a tetrad twist around each other and exchange of some genes portion takes place between the two. 5. Nucloar mombrano reappears around the chromatin network leading to formation of two daughter nuclei. 6. The bivalent chromosomes arrange thomeelves in tho equatorial plane. in a way that their two centromeres remain diverted towards opposite poles and the arms towards equator. 7. The members of homologous chromosomes completely separate from each other and move towards opposite poles. CHROMOSOMES—THE CARRIERS OF HEREDITY The term chromosome means coloured body (Greek chrome means colour and soma means body) Chromosomes are the hereditary vehicles found in the nucleus of a cell. The chromosomes contain genes, thus, they are carriers of heredity. ‘The characteristics travel from parents to the offsprings in the form of genes situated in the chromosomes (Fig, 2.5) ‘The genes are composed of DNA and proteins DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic acid) fur ‘genetic material. It forms the chemical basis of heredity A gene (segment of DNA) codes for the synthesis of specific protein which controls the expression of a particular characteristic in an individual. Thus, the gene is the basic unit of heredity found on chromosome. Chromosome number The number of chromosomes is constant for all individuals in a species and each one of them has a fixed and equal number of chromosomes, The number of chromosomes in the somatic cells of higher plants and animals is known as diploid number represented by 2N. In gametes (sperm and egg), it is known as haploid number and is represented by N. The chromosome number of some plants and animals is given in Table 2.2. Chromosome structure Chromosomes differ greatly in their size and shape person may have different sizes of chromosomes. may differ in the position of the centromere. Gentromere is the place on the chromosome where spindle fibres are attached during CELL Division # 23aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.17. Distinguish between centriole, centromere and chiasmata. 18. Explain the important features of pachytene stage, 419. A cell contains 16 chromosomes. How many chromosomes will be present in the daughter cell produced by ‘@. mitotic cell division, and 'b. meiotic cell division and why? 20. ‘First meiotic division is the reduction division’. What does the word ‘reduction’ refer to in this statement? 21. ‘Gametes must be produced by meiotic cell division for sexual reproduction’. Why so? 22, What is the basic unit of heredity? Where is it found? 23. Why are chromosomes referred to as hereditary vehicles? Choose the correct answer of the following. 1. Acoli has 8 chromosomes. Atter mitotic call division, the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells will be a4 bB «2 a 16 2. Division of nucleus is known as a. cytokinosis. b. karyokinesis. ©. call cycle. . both @ and b 3. Crossing over takes place during a pachyiene. . diplotene. © diakinesis, 4. leptotene, 4. Second meiotic division is @ reductonal '». equational homotypic. 4. heterotypic. Differentiate between the following. 4. Sex chromosomes and autosomes 2. Cytokinesis and karyokinesis 3. Prophase and metaphase 4. Anaphase and telophase 5. Moiosis | and meiosis Il 6. Bivalont and tetrad E. Given alongside is a diagram represe! mitotic cell division in an animal cell. 1. Identify the stage shown in the diagram. Give a reason to support your answer. 2. Name the cell organelle that forms the ‘aster. 3. Name the parts labelled 1, 2 and 3. . 4, Name the stage that follows this stage of mitosis. 4 nuclear membrane How will you identify this stage? cisappears 5. Mention two points cf difference between mitosis and meiosis with regard to: a. The number of daughter cells formed. . The chromosome number in the daughter cells ing a stage during 1 F. The drawings given below show animal cells in different stages of mitosis. CELL DIVISION © 27aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Fig. 3.6 Plates to test or colour blindness 4 X-linked genes are present on that portion of the X chromosome for which there is no homologous region on the Y-chromosome. Examples of inheritance of traits determined by X-linked genes include colour blindness and haemophilia. These diseases are caused by recessive alleles located on the X-chromosome. A person suffering from colour blindness is unable to distinguish between red and green colours (Fig, 3.6). Let us understand how colour blindness is an X-linked characteristic. X-chromosomes having the two alternative alleles of the colour blind characteristic are indicated as: Alleles X*—normal (dominant allele) X‘—colour blind allele (recessive allele) Possible genotypes of females 2©X*—normal female ‘X©X carrier female (does not show symptoms of the disease) XX—colour blind female Possible genotypes of males X°¥—normal male XY—colour blind male In a cross between cartier female and normal male, offsprings produced are as follows: — xexe * xey PS “N comes XS XE xe UY Zygotes — X°XS xey exe xy nema! norma carir cour fomse nae fenele tind male The ratio of normal to affected progeny is 3:1 Of the female offsprings, half are normal and half are heterozygotes or carriers. However, in males, half are normal sighted but the other half are affected, ie colour blind. It can be concluded that, # an X-linked recessive gene affects more males than females because males need only one copy of the defective allele to express the characteristic. ® an X-linked recessive characteristic can skip generations because males can receive an X- linked recessive only from their mothers and very few females are homozygous for the gene What would happen if the X-linked gene were dominant? The pattern of inheritance of an X-linked dominant gene is different from the X-linked recessive one. In this case, both males and females are equally affected by the presence of the gene. Irrespective of sex, half the male and female offsprings are affected to the gene or trait. Inheritance of defective tooth enamel is an example of X-linked dominant inheritance, Y-linked gene The gene for hairy pinna is an example of Y-linked inheritance. Will it be expressed if it were in the recessive form? Of course, yes, the gene shall be expressed irrespective of it being dominant or recessive. Can you guess the reason? Y-chromosome is present singly in the male genotype. Will females he carriers of this gene? The obvious answer is ‘no’ as the human female genotype does not have Y-chromosome. The characteristics of a Y-linked trait are They are expressed only in males % They are always passed from father to son. HEREDITY AND GeNETICS ¢ 95aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.G, Name the following. 1. A disease caused by recessive allele located on X-chromosome. A disease caused by dominant allele located on X-chromesome, The genetic constitution of an organism. An individual with morphologically simiiar sex-chromosomes. ‘An individual with morphologically dissimilar sex-chromosomes, Father of modern genetics. 7. Scientific name of plant on which Mendel conducted his experiments. 2 a 4 5 H. Given below is a schematic diagram showing Mendel’s experiment on sweet pea plants with yellow round seeds (YYRA) and green wrinkled seeds (yyrt). Answer the foltowing questions. 1. Complete the diagram by filling in the blanks numbered 1-6. 2. Give the phenotypes of F, progeny. 3. Name the phenotypes produced in Fp progeny upon self pollination of F; progeny. 4. Give the Fz progeny ratio. 5. Name the law deduced by Mendel on the basis of above observations. Yetow rouna ‘Green wrinkled , YY RR wir Garetes: 1 2 yr 3 F progeny: YYRE 4 s 6 IL In humans the gene for biue eye (b) is recessive to the gene for brown eyes (B). The diagram below represents part of a pedigree chart in which some have brown eyes and some have blue eyes. Grandmathes Granatathor Parents 68 be F, goneration »—— 7 father mother F, generation bb Bb Be be Son Son 2 Daughier 1 Daugiter 2 4. Using the symbols given above write the genotype of mother in the space provided. 2. What is the phenotype of the grandfather? 3. What is the ratio of individuats with brown eyes to those with blue eyes in the F, generation?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.activity 2 Take a thistle funnel and fil it with concentrated sugar solution. Cover the mouth of the thistle funnel with cellophane paper. Tie the cellophane paper as shown in Fig. 4.7. Now take a beaker filed with water. Invert the thistle funnel in the beaker and suspend it with a stand as shown in Fig. 4.7. Mark the level of sugar solution at the end of funnel and level of water in the beaker. Leave the set-up for about two hours. Repeat the same experiment but without sugar solution in the thistle funnel, Instead, put water in the thisle funnel and mark the reading. This acts {as control. After about two hours you will observe that the level of sugar solution in the thistle funnel rises in the experimental set-up, while there is no change in the level of solution in thistle funnel in control The level of water in the beaker in experimental set-up drops slightly while it remained unchanged in the control. CONCLUSION This shows that the water molecules trom dilute solution (water in beaker) pass to the concentrated sugar solution (in the thistle funnel) through cellophane paper. Cellophane paper acts as a semi-pemmeable membrane. level of water nee Anal love ‘cllopha paper Fig. 4.7 Experimental se-up to demonstrate osmosis, activity 3 Demonstration of osmosis through a visking bag Repeat the earlier mentioned activity (no. 2) with a visking bag. The visking bag acts as a semi- permeable membrane. Take @ visking bag and tie a knot at its one end. Fill this bag with sugar solution from its other end. Insert a long glass capillary tube into it. You will find that the sugar solution rises in the capillary. Now immerse the visking bag in a beaker containing water and clamp the capillary tube vertically as shown in Fig. 4.8, Leave the experimental set-up for about one hour After about 1 hour you will find that the level of solution in the capillary tube rises. This happens because the water diffuses inside through the walls of the visking bag. capi tube ‘dastc bans }— visting bag containing ‘sugar saluton knot Fig. 4.8 Experimental setup to show osmosis through visking bag containing sugar solution Osmotic pressure The results of the above activity show that the pressure builds up in the sugar solution and forces the solution up the capillary tube. The pressure results from the rapid diffusion of water molecules fiom the weak to the strong, solution. ‘The osmotic pressure is the maximum pressure which can develop in an osmotically active solution when it is separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure can also be defined as the pressure required to completely stop the entry of water into a solution across a semi-permeable ‘membrane. ABSORPTION BY ROOTS ¢ 43aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.pressure of the contents of guard cells. As a result, guard cells absorb more water from the neighbouring cells, thus becoming turgid. The high turgor pressure causes the guard cells to cure and open the stoma between them. At night when there is shortage of water in the leaf, the guard cells become flaccid, their inner walls become straight and the stomata are closed. vars ote ~ epaermal cat —— 1. Open stoma Fig 4.14 Opening and closing of stomata . Closed stoma Flaceidity Flaccidity is the reverse of turgidity. If « fully-distended cell is pliced in a hypertonic solution, its cytoplasm will shrink and the plasma membrane will withdraw from the cell wall (Fig. 4.15). This condition of the cell is called flaccid and the phenomenon is known as flaccidity. plasma membrane 1 eytoplasm 1, Sotuion cuisige Is concentrated han the cet sap. 2. Water passes out ol the vacucle by osmosis. 3. The vacuole stinks, pung te cytoplasm away trom tne cell wa ‘and leaving the cell acca. Fig 4.15 Flaccidity ina plant cell PLASMOLYSIS AND DEPLASMOLYSIS Plasmolysis Shrinkage of the protoplast (cell content) of a cell from its cell wall under the influence of a hypertonic solution is called plasmolysis. if we place a living turgid cell in hypertonic solution, withdrawal of water Celis in normal ‘urgid condition b. Plasmolysed cells atter being kept a 5% salt solution, The protoplasm shrinks and the cell becomes faccid. Fig. 4.16 Aportion of leat of water weed showing plasmolysis (exomoxis) occurs from the central vacuole of the cell As a result the size of protoplasm becomes reduced and the plasma membrane is withdrawn from the cell wall (Fig, 416, 4.17), This is called plasmolysis. Pretest a Fig.4.17 Diagrammatic representation ol plasmolysis in a cal ‘Acel in normal turgid condition; tages in shrinkage of protoplasm ‘rom the cellwall after keeping n a hypertonic solution. Deplasmolysis If a plasmelysed cell is placed in water, its protoplasm aguin swells up and presses against the cell wall, This happens due to endosnosis. The swelling up of a plasmolysed protoplasm under the influence of solution or water is called deplasmolysis. Deplasmolysis is pessible only # the cal is alive and ts protoplasm is not dead or damaged. Differences hetween plasmolysis and deplasmolysis are given in Table 4.5 ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERALS. BY THE ROOT Absorption of water ‘The absorption of water occurs through root hai Root hairs are thin-walled extensions from the cells of Roors « 47aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.8. A plant cell kept in hypertonic solution shrinks. Why? ‘8. What is the difference between endosmosis and exosmosis? Give one example of each. |. The diagram given alongside represents an experimental set-up to demonstrate a certain process. Study the same and answer the following question: 1. Name the process. 2. Define the above named process. ‘3, What do you observe in this experimental set-up? 4. Mention any one advantage of this process to the plant. J. Given alongside is @ diagram demonstrating certain proces: Study the same and answer the following questions. 1. Name the process. 2. Define the above named process. 3. What do the numbers 1, 2 and 3 signity? 4. Explain the impact of point number 2 on the cell shape. K. Given alongside are the diagrams of a certain structure in plants in two conditions, 1. Name the structures shown. 2 2. Name the parts numbered 1-5. 3 3. What is the most apparent difference between A and B 4 structures shown? Sg ism which brings about the change in in A and B. a 8 L. The apparatus arranged alongside signifies an important process. 1. Name the process. 2. Define the above named process. 3. Where does this process occur in plants? coeste band 4. What solution is placed inside the dialysis tubing? 5. What happens to the level of the solution in the capillary tubo? “The capilary i pushed into the dialysis tubing unt the ‘soluon reaches ths leva | 5 mm dials tubing ABSORPTION BY RocTS @ 51aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6. Nama any other substance that can be used instead of parchment paper in the above experiment, 7. Mention two advantages of this process to the plant. . Potato cubes of 1 cm? in size were placed in two containers, one containing water and the other containing concentrated sugar solution. After about 24 hours when the cubes were examined, those placed in water were found to be firm and had increased in size by a few millimetres. On the other hand those placed in concentrated sugar solution were found to be soft and had decreased in size. Use the above information to answer these questions. 1. Account for the firmness and increase in size of the potato cubes which were placed in water. 2, Account for the softness and decrease in size of the potato cubes which were placed in the sugar solution, 3. Name and define the physical process being investigated in this experiment.ASCENT OF SAP IN You have already studied in the previous chapter that plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil by their root system, Most of the absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tip where the epidermis is permeable to water. ‘The absorbed water has to be transported to all pans of the plant. Similarly, leaves manufacture food through the process of photosynthesis. This food has to be transported to various parts of the plant, These functions of intemal transport are cartied out by specialized conducting tissues—aylem and phloem, In this chapter we will learn about the movement of water up to the xylem and the causative forces responsible for this movement CONDUCTION OF WATER THROUGH XYLEM ‘The water and minerals absorbed by roots are transported through the xylem tissue. This transport of water occurs by the process of ascent of sap. Let us first leam about xylem vessels Xylem vessels and tracheids Xylem is a compound tissue consisting of two kinds of elements, xylem vessels and tracheids which help in conducting water and minerals dissolved in water from roots to upper parts of the plant. Both vessels and tracheids are nondliving plant tissues and highly thick-walled Depending upon the arrangement of lignin bands or rings, the xylem vessels are of four types, namely spiral vessels, annular vessels, reticulate vessels and pitted vessels (Fig, 5.1), The transverse walls of xylem vessels partially or totally disappear and vessels become continuous tubes. In pitted vessels pits occur in the side walls, Pits facilitate lateral movement of water. The strength of lignified cell walls enables xylem vessels to resist compression and tension. The water column in xylem vessels is under tension because spit vessels annular vesses. Fig. 5:1 Types of xylem vessel water is drawn up the stem as a result of reduction in pressure in leaves due to evaporation. The thickening in xylem vessels resists the vessels to collapse under tension, After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ‘% describe the role of xylem vessels in the ‘ise of water up to the xylem in the plant; © explain the ascent of sap in a plant; discuss the causative forces in the ascent of sap; ® demonstrate the ascent of sap in plant with the holp of dyos. | 54 @ ASCENT OF SAP IN PLANTSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.The elongated, lignified tracheids and xylem vessels, placed end-to-end without any cross wall, form the pipeline for conducting water and minerals from the roots to the leaves. Water enters the root hair cells by imbibition and then by the process of osmosis. This water from the root hair cells passes into the xylem vessels through the cells of cortex, endodesmis and pericycle. Ascent of sap takes plice from the root, into the stem and finally the leaf veins though vessels and tracheids by means of a pull exested by the leaf cells at the top of, the sap column (Fig, 5.3). Cohesive force between the water molecules also helps to maintain the continuity of the water column. In the leaf blade, water passes from the xylem into the cells of the mesophyll and epidermis by the process of osmosis ACTIVITY 1 To demonstrate that xylem is the path of ascent of sap Cut two leaf shoo's under water. Keep their lower ends dipped in water. In one shoot remove 2-4 fem long ring of bark (phloem) roughly from the middle region of the shoot Remove the xylem from the middle region of the second shoot. Fix the shoots with the help of a stand and leave the apparatus as such for 1~2 days, RESULT: In the first case (Set-up a), the leaves remain turgid even alter 24 hours which shows that water continues to rise even if the phloem is removed. Leaves of the second shoot (Set-up b) get wilted. This shows that when xylem is removed, water cannot rise up ‘The experiment proves that water rises through the xylem vessels (Fig. 5.4) ‘Shoot with xylem intact Fig.54 Experimental set-up ». Shootwith xylem removed Minerals are absorbed from the soil by active transport mechanism which requires the expenditure of energy. Plants absorb minerals against the concentration gradient, ie. the cell sap contains a far greater concentration of the minerals as compared to that in the surrounding soil water. CAUSATIVE FORCES FOR ASCENT OF SAP AS the water moves upward from roots to the leaves, 2 lot of it evaporates through the stomata present on the lower surface of a leaf. This process of evaporation of water from leaves and other aerial parts of the plant is called transpiration ‘The xylem sap (water containing minerals) rises against the gravity without the help of any mechanical pump. The xylem sap is largely pulled upward by transpiration—cohesion-tension mechanism, also called transpiration pull. Pushing xylem sap: Root pressure: Root pressure causes guttation, the exudation of water droplets that can be seen on leaf surface. In most plants, root pressure is not the major mechanism during the ascent of xylem sap. At the most root pressure pushes the sap ia the xylem vessels up to a certain height. Later on the sap moves with cohesion, adhesion and transpiration pull. + Capillarity of xylem vessels: Xylem vessels are very narrow. This causes the water from a lower level to rise by a capillary action in order to fill up the vacuum created at the leaves due 10 loss of water by transpiration. Pulling xylem sap: Transpiration—Cohesion- tension mechanism or transpiration pull: Stomata are the sites of exchange of CO, and O; between photosynthetic tissues and atmosphere. They are also sites of transpiration. The air in these stomata is saturated with water vapour since itis in contact with the most walls of the mesophyll cells (Fig. 5.5). (On most of the days, the air is drier outside the leaf, ie. it has a lower water concentration outside than inside the leaf, Thus, the gaseous water diffuses outside the leaf through the stomata and there is 2 loss of water leading to cell transpiration, ‘This leads to a generation of tension (negative pressure) in the leaf due to the unique physical property of water. The thin film of water vapour present in the mesophyll cells replaces the water vapour which is lost from the leaf stomata by transpiration. During this process water is pulled fon by the adhesive and cohesive forces. This negative pressure or tension is the pulling force which draws water from the leaf xylem through S66 ASCENT OF SAPIN PLANTS{— eytopiasm upper epidermis wate fim mesopty/l lower epidermis Fig.5.5 Transpirational pull the mesophyll cells toward stomata. The water lost via transpiration is replaced by the water that is pulled out of the leaf xylem. * Pulling xylem sap—cohesion and adhesion of water: The transpiration pull on water extends from the leaves up to the root tip and even into the soil solution. This cohesion of water is due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules. Each water molecule is attached (adhered) to adjacent water molecule and this pull is relayed from molecule to molecule down the entire column of ‘water in the xylem. ACTIVITY 2 Take a young, medium sized, balsam plant. Remove this plant from soil, wash it and place it in a beaker. Half fill this beaker with water \ ©.TS. of oot containing eosine stain solution (pink colour). . Ensure that tho rocts are complotely Fig. 5.8 Watoris conducted through xylem. submerged in the solution. Leave this set up for about 3-4 hours. Now remove this plant from beaker and wash it in running tap water. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 t transvers ti ing through roots, ue eerie seein eaeeng teva fot 1. Which part in the stem, the xylem or the stem and leaves with the help of a sharp razor or , @ blade. Mount the sections on the slides and phicenis response far Manigpclt: of: Wal from root to the leaves? observe under 2 microscope. You will observe that in the centre xylem 2. In activity 1, why do leaves wilt in the twig vessels appear red due to conduction of eosine Salih he ayfern: removed? stain dye (Fig. 5.6). This shows thai water is 3. In activity 2, why was coloured eosine conducted through xylem, solution added to water in beaker? ASCENT OF SAP IN PLANTS 6 57Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil by their root system to survive. @ The water and mineral salts enter the root by moving between the cells passing through ‘endodermal cells before entering xylem. Water can also enter root hairs: then pass through the cells of the cortex and endodermis 1o reach xylem, % The water and minerals absorbed by rocts are transported through the xylem tissue, ‘® The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to the aorial parts of plants against the gravitational force is called ascent of sap. Xylem sap is pulled upward by (i) root pressure, (li) capillarity action of xylem vessels, (lil) transpiration—cohesion-tension mechanisms, and (iv) cohesion and adhesion of water. ‘® The ascent of sap by xylem can be demonstrated with the help of experiments, PEXERCISES | ‘A. Anwer these questions. What is ascent of sap? questions given below. 1. Name the process. 2. Define the above named process. 3. What is the significance of removing xylem from shoot b? 4, What conclusion do you draw from this set-up? 1. Name the process. 2. Name the parts labeled a, b, ¢ and d. 3. Name the process responsible for the entry of water molecule from soil into part labelled a. 4. Name the pressure which is responsible for the movement of water molecules in the direction indicated by arrows? 5a 6 Ascer Givon alongside is drawing of an experimental set-up demonstrating certain process. Answer the Name the tissue which conducts water and minerals from root to upper parts of the plant. Name the tissue that conducts food prepared in leaves to other parts of the plant. ‘Water column in xylem vessels is under tension’. Why? Explain the process of absorption of water by roots. List various causative forces for ascent of sap in plants: What is the mechanism by which xylem sap is pulled upwards in plants? How does transpiration pull help in transport of water from soil up to the leaves? Given alongside is a figure showing a process in plants. OF SAP IN PLANTTRANSPIRATION ‘Water flows in a continuous stream through a plant Roots of plant absorb water and minerals from the soil, This water then flows up the root and through xylem vessels in stem to the leaves. A small amount ‘Ater completing this chevier: Yount ba aid of this water is used by plant for photosynthesis and define: the: —terms—trar other activities. Rest of it evaporates from the surface ‘evaporation and guttation; ‘of spongy mesophyll cells and diffuses out of the * Seen between trans; pores in the leaves called stomata, The loss of water ay water vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is orca he uaepaion wl called transpiration TRANSPIRATION IS DIFFERENT FROM EVAPORATION Transpiration is different from evaporation. Major differences between transpiration and evaporation sare given in Table 6.1. ACTIVITIES TO DEMONSTRATE TRANSPIRATION ACTIVITY 1 To show that water vapour is given out during transpiration @ Teke a small-sized, well-watered potted plant. Cover the external surface of the pot and the ‘* With the help of a transparent polythene bag Sal wig Oth, cover the plant and tie its mouth at the base of the stem. Similarly, take another polythene bag and tie its mouth, this acts as control. Leave the two in sunlight for 2-3 hours and observe. ‘You will find that drops of water vapour appear ‘on the inner side of polythene bag tied around the plant (experimental set-up). This happens due to saturation of water vapour given out by b. control the leaves. On the other hand no water vapour appear in the other polythene bag (control). Fig.6.1 Release of water vanourby @ This shows that water vapour is given out ina piantbecause of transpiration during transpiration. setup TRANSPIRATION @ 59fable 6.1 Differences between evaporation and transpiration FEATURE EVAPORATION, formation of water vapour place of occurrence nature of process ‘water vapour formed at the surface of water at the surface of an object (non-lving or living) ‘TRANSPIRATION water vapour formed mostly in internal tissues of the plant at the exposed surface of plants both physical and physiological processes; besides environmental conditions, it is also Influenced by the rate o! water absorption, ‘osmotic pressure, position and number of stomata, etc. rate it varies according to the velocity of wind | it is slightly lower than evaporation under the velocity of wing influence of light | light does not directly influence the rate of | light influences transpiration due to its ‘evaporation influence on opening and closing of stomata effect of CO, pH no influence transpiration is influenced by pH, CO, and and hormones hormones activity 2 To demonstrate transpiration in plants ® You will require three bell jars and two cobalt chloride papers to perform this experiment. # Take two similar-sized, well-watored potted plants with broad leaves. Cover each pot ‘completely with a polythene bag. Tie the mouth of the bag round the base of stem of each plant. Mark each plant as A and B. ‘# Now cover each plant with a bell jar. In bell jar containing plant 8 place strips of dry cobalt Fig. 62 Experiment demonstrating transpiration in plants. Note that how bell jars A and B coniain water vapours on the inner walls, the cobat paper tums pink in belljar Bbbut no change appears in bell jar C. chloride paper. Cobalt chloride paper acts as an indicator of moisture. It Is blue when dry but becomes pink when exposed to moisture. * Now you have two set-ups: Set-up A with a potted plant covered with a boll jar, and set-up B with a potted plant having strips of cobalt chloride paper and covered with bell jar. Take one bell jar without plant but with cobalt chloride paper. Seal the edges of each bell jar with vaseline so that no air enters the apparatus from outside. * Leave the three set-ups undisturbed under the ‘sun for about one hour. Observe after one hour. ‘# The bell jar A shows water vapours ‘condensed on its inner wails, * The bell jar B shows water vapours condensed on the inner walls. The colour of cobalt paper tums pink in bell jar B. + There is no condensation in bell jar C and no change in the colour of ‘cobalt chloride paper (i.e. it romaine blue). This shows that there was ‘no moisture in the bell jar C. * You may conclude that condensation of water vapour ‘occurs and colour of cobalt paper changes as a proof of transpiration. 60 « TRANSPIRATIONaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION ‘The cuticle is a waxy layer secreted by the epidermis of the leaves and other exposed parts of the plant. Caticular transpiration accounts for only 3-10% of the total transpiration. It continues throughout day and night ‘There is very limited evaporation of water from cuticle. The cuticular transpiration depends upon the thickness of cuticle (greater the thickness of cuticle, lower is transpiration and vice vers). Gan you guess why desert plants have thick cuticle? LENTICULAR TRANSPIRATION It is found in the woody branches of the trees where lenticels are found. The lenticular transpiration accounts for only 0.1% of the total transpiration. Ii continues day and night because lenticels have no mechanism of closing. In lenticular transpiration, water from cell surface facing the lenticels evaporates directly lentcel bark Fig.6.7 Lenticular transpiration CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 1. What is transpiration? 2 Write any three differences between transpiration and evaporation. &. In an experiment demonstrating transpiration in plants, the pot and soil were covered with a polythene bag. Why? 4. Out of the three types of transpiration, which has the maximum rate and which has the minimum rate of transpiration? 5. Which tissue in plant body is responsible for the movement of water from stem to the leaves? 6. Which part of stomata helps in regulating the stomatal transpiration? MEASURING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION ACTIVITY 4 Weighing method Take a small potted plant and cover its soil surface with a cloth and also cover the pot with a polythene to prevent evaporation from the surface other than the plant, Weigh the pot at the start of the activity and after 2 hours from start of activity. The difference in weight ives the weight loss of water by plant due to transpiration. Take a small plant and fix it in a glass bottle with a graduated side tube as shown in Fig 6.8, Fill the bottle with water and note down its reading (water volume). Ooserve for 2 hours. Fig. 6.8 Measuring the rate oftranspiration with the help of a weighing balance The loss in volume of water can be compared with the loss in weight of the plant with the help of a weighing balance. + Take @ lealy shoot (with no roots) and fix it in a test tube as shown in Fig. 6.8. Fill the test tube with water and pour ‘some oil at its top so as to prevent any evaporation, Place this test tube in a beaker and ‘weigh the two together. Wait for 2 hours and weigh the two again. The difference in weight will indicate the loss of water by the shoot due to transpiration. Fig.6.9 Experimental set-up to measure the rato of transpiration, TRANSPIRATION © 63‘evaporation trom leaves A loaty twig ‘hed in Sener a bubble potometer fils with water Fig. 6.10 Potometeris an apparatus for measuring relative rates of transpiration AcTIVITY 5 Potometer method Potometer such as Ganong's potometer is a device that measures water uptake by a leafy shoot. To use potometer take a small twig of a plant like Coleus and cut the twig obliquely to allow larger surface for the water intake. Fix the twig to one end of the potometer as. shown in Fig. 6.10. Fill the apparatus with water ensuring there are no air spaces in the water. Introduce an air bubble into the horizontal graduated capillary tube by slightly lifting the tube and then dipping it in a beaker containing coloured water. AS the shoot transpires, the water vapour it has lost is replaced by liquid water drawn in potometer to the xylem of the stem. The reading in the capillary tube ives the volume of water lost in a given time. LIMITATIONS # It is very difficult to introduce air bubble in the capillary tube. ‘# The twig does not remain alive for a long time, ‘@ Any change in external temperature may affect, the position of air bubble in the capillary tube. FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION Humidity (vapour pressure) The humidity of the atmesphere effects the rate of diffusion of water vapour from the stomata, Low humidity in the 64s usng a stop watch the movement of water along the capilay tube atmosphere increases the «ate of vanspiration, On the other hand high humidity in the air reduces the rate of outward diffusion of water from the substomatal cavity and reduces the rate of transpiration, ‘Temperature High temperature speeds up transpiration by providing the latent "etme heat of vaporization, Increase in temperature leads to evaporation of water while low temperature reduces capiary ube evaporation Intensity of light Light affects the rate of transpiration indirectly. Stomata open during light and thus transpiration occurs more in the light. During the night they are closed, thus the rate of transpiration is minimal, Can you guess what happens on a cloudy day? Air movement (velocity of wind) Moving air sweeps away the water vapour in the air outside the stomata, This speeds up diffusion of water vapour from stomata to outside air. Thus, windy conditions increase the rate of transpiration. Some plants in dry conditions (xerophytes) have folded leaves or epidermal hairs to help retain moist air around the stomata to prevent transpiration. Atmospheric pressure Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases diffusion of water vapour from stomata. The lower the atmospheric pressure, the greater is the rate of evaporation of water from leaves. Thus, rate of transpiration increases with the decrease in atmospheric pressure. Carbon dioxide concentration If the concentration of carbon dioxide outside increases han the normal (0.03%), the tomate get closed. This reduces the rate of transpiration. Water supply to the leaf Shostage of water in the soil affeas the water supply to the leaf and in turn the stomata close and the leaf ilts. This reduces the rate of transpiration Leaf structure ‘The shape of the leaf and the position of stomata on it influence water vapour loss. In xerophytes, the cuticle TRANSPIRATIONo | upper epidermis grooves win the leas tower tower pidermis nek eutele Fig.6.11 Sunken stomata in an Oleander leat is thick and there is negligible loss of water vapour ess transpiration). On the other hand in shady plants with a large leaf surface area and a thin cuticle, the loss of water vapour is more (more transpiration), HOW ARE PLANTS ADAPTED TO REDUCE EXCESSIVE TRANSPIRATION? ‘ The stomata may be sunken or covered by hair as in Oleander (Fig. 6.11). % ‘The number of stomata may be reduced as in xerophytes, 4 The leaves may become narrow to reduce leaf surface area 4 Theleaves may roll over or fold to reduce exposed surface and maintain moisture around stomata. 4 There may be very few leaves on a plant to reduce transpixation, 4 The leaves may have thick cuticle as in mango and ‘most evergreen irees to prevent evaporation of water SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPIRATION Ascent of sap Transpiration helps in ascent of sap due to pressure exerted by loss of water. As the water evaporates from leaves a suction force is produced at the top of plant which drains more water from the soil (Fig. 6.12), Removal of excess water Plants absorb far more amount of water than is actually required by them, Thus, transpiration helps in removing excess of water. Cooling effect Solar heat falling on plants increases their temperatu which may be dangerous to the plants, Transpiration TRANSPIRATION ‘evaporation of water trom leat surface into the atmosphere Fig. 6.12 Trenspiation helps in ascent of sap helps in reducing temperature of the leaf surface by evaporation of water vapour from it. Distribution of mineral salts ‘The transpiration from leaf surface drains more water from the lower parts and in tum from soil. This rising column of sap from soil contains mineral salts, Thus, the mineral salts are distributed to all parts of the plants. ANTI-TRANSPIRANTS: Physical or chemical substances that reduce the rate of transpiration by keeping stomatal pores closed are called anti-transpirants. Antitranspirants like plastic film, abscisic acid (ABA or AbA), phenyl mercuric acetate, dimethyl silicon, wax emulsion, etc. are applied over plants to clog the stomatal pores, thereby reducing the cuticular and stomatal transpiration. Anti- transpirants maintain a favourable internal water balance even in the case of very low availability of water. GUTTATION You must have seen accumulation of water droplets on the surface of leaves early in the morning, This is due to guttation, Guttation is exudation of water droplets on the leaf margins of plants such as banana growing especially in warm humid conditions Guttation is caused due to root pressure, When rate of transpiration is low, the roots of some plants keep on accumulating minerals and absorbing water. Thus, + 65Table 6.2 Dilferencesbetweentranspiration and guttation FEATURE ‘TRANSPIRATION GUTTATION form of water loss | loss of water by plants in the form of | loss of liquid droplets of water trom the | water vapour plant nature of water lost water lost is pure water water lost contains mineral salts mochanism water loss occurs through stomata, | water is lost through hydathodes at the cuticle or lenticels end of leaf vens regulation of transpiraton | stomatal transpiration is regulated by | opening of hydathodes cannot be guard cells regulated occurrence It occurs in the presence of sunlight | it occurs at night or early morning (stomatal) or throughout the day and night (lenticular or on cuticular) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 1. Why is cobalt chloride paper used to demonstrate the rate of transpiration by leaves? 2. Mention any two limitations of using a potometer. 3. How will the following conditions affect the rate of transpiration? a. Wind ». Cloudy day c. Very high temperature 8 4. Very less water available in soil e. Low atmospheric pressure Fig. 6.13 Gultation more water enters the leaves than is transpired. AS a 4. Mention any two adaptations in plants to result, the excess water is forced out through reduce transpiration. specialized structures on the margins of the leaves 5. Mertion any two acvantages of tranepiration called hydathodes. he differences between guttation to the plant. and transpiration is given in Table 6.2 Siiim™ Tho loss of water as water vapour from the aerial vapour through stomata and accounts for majority parts of the plant is called transpiration of transpiration by a plant. Transpiration is different from evaporation. Cuticular transpiration involves the loss of water ‘* Transpiration can be demonstrated with the help of vapour from the outside of leaf and other parts of activities the plant. it occurs regulafly during the day and at 4 Transpiration produces a suction force which drains night. water up from soll to the leaves. © Lenticular transpiration occurs through lenticels * There are three types of transpiration—stomatal, found in the woody branches of trees. It occurs cuticular and lenticular transpiration. continuously. Stomatal transpiration occurs by diffusion of water @ + Transpiration rate can be measured by weighing 66 6 TRANSPIRATIONmethod or with the help of a potometer. @ There are many advantages of transpiration such Rale of transpiration increases with increase in as cooling, ascent of sap, distibution of minerals intensity of light, temperature, velocity of wind, and removal of excess water. and availability of water. High humidity in the air Guttation is exudation of water droplets on the leat reduces the rate of transpiration. margins of plants. Choose the most correct answer of the following questions. 1. Transpiration pull will be maximum in which of the following conditions? 2. Stomata open, dry atmosphere and moist soi b. Stomata open, high humid atmosphere and well irrigated soil «. Siomata open, high humid atmosphere and dry soll 4. Siomata closed, dry atmosphere and dry soil 2. In which of the following conditions, the rate of transpiration will be maximum? High temperature b. High humidity «. Dry atmosphere 4. Ahigh temperature and dry atmosphere 3. Some plants like carrot store their food in their roots. This food is 1. absorbed from soil and is directly stored there. ». produced in leaves and is conducted downward by xylem. «. produced in leaves and is conducted downward by phioem. 6. produced in root hairs and is transported from cell to coll by absorption, 4, Guitation takes place through 2. lenticels. b. stomata. epidermis, @. hydathodes. 5. In trees, most of the transpiration ocours through a. stomata. ». cuticle «. lenticels. 4. hydathodes. Name the following. The process by which an intact plant loses water in the form of water droplets. An instrument used to measure rate of transpiration ‘An apparatus used fo compare the rate of tanspiration in @ cut shoot. ‘Openings on the stem through which transpiration occurs. Kind of transpiration from the surface of leaves and stem. Process by which guard cells in stomata become flaccid and close The structure in leaf that allows gutlation. Mention, if the following statements are True (T) or False (F). Rewrite the wrong statements correctly. 1. Transpiration creates a pull for upward movement of the sap. 2. Potometer is an insttument used to measure the rate of transpiration. Water from root haits to leaves travel through »ylem vessels. During transpiration, the water vapour escapes stomata through plasmoiysis. Most transpiration occurs through lenticels in plants. Phenyl mercuric acetate and abscisic acid act as anti-transpirant Low humidity in the atmosphere results in decrease in the rate of transpiration. TRANSPIRATION © 67D. Given below is an example of a certain structure and its main functional eg. Kidney and excretion On a similar pattern fill in the blanks by completing the relationships. 1. Hydathodes and tivity. 2. Lenticels and 3. Thick cuticle and 4, Stomata and 5. Ascent of sap and 6. Flaccid guard cells and E. Complete the following statements by choosing the correct alternative out of those given in brackets. 1. Loss of water as droplets through leaves of an intact plant is termed _____ (bleeding / guttation / transpiration) 2, ___is a device that measures water uptake by a leafy shoot. (Voltmeter / Hygrometer / Potometer) 3, ______ transpiration is a way of maximum water loss by a plant. (Cuticular / Lenticular / Stomata) F. Define the following terms. 1. Transpiration 2. Guttation 3. Anti-ranspirants G. Answer these questions. 1. What is transpiration? 2. Differentiate between transpiration and evaporation. 3. What is guttation? How does it differ from transpiration? 4. Give the three kinds of transpiration. Out of those, which has the maximum rato and which has tho minimum rate of transpiration? 5. Name the tissue responsible for the movement of water from stem 10 leaves. 6. What is lenticular transpiration? Give one major difference between lenticular transpiration and cuticular ‘ranspiravon, 7. Give any three factors that accelerate the rate of transpiration. 8. Give any three factors that reduce the rate of transpiration. 8. How do stomata regulate the transpiration? Explain. 10. How does water vapour escape stomata? H. Give suitable explanations for the following. 1. A higher rate of transpiration is recorded on a windy day rather than on a calm day. 2. During the day transpiration and photosynthesis are interinked. 3. Some plants show wilting of their leaves during mid day even when the soll is well-watered, 4. More transpiration occurs from the lower surface of a dorsiventral leaf. |. Given alongside are the diagrams of a certain structure in plants in two conditions. 1. Name the structure shown. 2. Name the parts numbered 1-5. 3. What is the most apparent difference between A and B in the structure shown? 4. Descibe the mechanism which brings about the change in the structures depicted in A and B. a 8 68 6 TRanspiRATIONJ. Sometimes, you would have seen water droplets on the surface of grass leaves early in the morning. How does this happen? . The figures given alongside represent the set-up at the start of a certain experiment to demonstrate an activity of plants, 1. What is the aim of the experiment? 2. Why has cil been put in each test tube? 3. What will be the observations in the two test tubes after about 2-3 days? test ube 4. Give reason to explain any change observed as answered in (3) above. 5. Why has the test tube without the plant been taken in the experiment? L. Given alongside is a diagram of cross-section of a leaf demonstrating a certain process. 1. Define this process. 2. Name the parts labelled a, b and c. 3. Describe the events happening at label b and c. The apparatus shown alongside is Garreau’s potometer designed to demonstrate unequal transpiration from the two surfaces of a dorsiventral leat. Before keeping the leaf in between the cups, anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCI,) contained in two small vials were weighed and placed in both the cups. The ends of the cups were closed with corks through which two mercury manometers were connected. After a few hours, CaCl, vials were taken out and then weighed again. 1. What is the purpose ot keeping CaCl, vials inside the cup? 2. After a few hours, CaCl, vials were taken out and weighed again. Will you expect any ditference in weight? If so, give reasons. 3. What was the purpose of using a manometer? 4. What do you mean by transpiration? N. Given alongside is the diagram of an experimental set-up to study the process of transpiration in plants. Study the same and then answer the following questions. 1. What is the colour of dry cobalt chloride paper? ols 2. Is the experimental leat a monocot or a dicot? Give a reason to ai ica support your answer. paper 3, Why are glass slides placed over the dry cobalt chlofide paper? — sides 4. After about half an hour what change, if any, would you expect to find in the cobalt chloride paper placed on the dorsal and ventral sides of the leal? Give a reason to support your answer. 5. Define the term ‘transpiration’ TRANSF ATION © 69aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.second for food prepared by plants. The overall equation of photosynthesis is given here 6CO, + 12H,0 ESSE» CiH,,0, + 6H,0 + 60, Significance of photosynthesis Photosynthesis provides food for all. The process of photosynthesis occurs in green plants which are the primary producers in a food chain. 4 Photosynthesis is essential for sustaining life It is the ultimate source of oxygen and energy for all living organisms including producers and consumers Photosynthesis helps development of plants. It is necessary for synthesis of organic ‘compounds from inorganic compounds. It converts atmospheric carbon dioxide (produced by respiration and other activities) back to oxygen. in growth and Essential raw materials for photosynthesis To perform photosynthesis, plants require carbon dioxide (CO), water (H,0), light energy and chlorophyll. CO, and H,O serve as raw materials and light serves as a source of energy. The process of photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts (containing chlorophyll) Carbon dioxide ‘The main source of CO, for land plants is the atmosphere, which contains 0.03-004 per cent of this gas. Water plants use CO, dissolved in water. ‘Two main processes, photosynthesis and respiration, take place side by side but photosynthesis does not take place in the absence of light whereas respiration continues throughout the day and night. During the day when the light intensity is greater, the rate of CO, consumption for photosynthesis is higher than that of CO, liberation by respiration, hence, CO, is continuously absorbed from the atmosphere through stomata, During morning and evening hours, the intensity of light is usually low. At this time, a stage may come when CO, liberated during respiration is equal to CO, used in photosynthesis. At this stage, no exchange of CO, takes place between the environment and plants. This stage is known as compensation point. It has been experimentally proved that at normal temperature and light intensity, an increase in CO, concentratign up to 0.5 per cent may cause an increase in photosynthesis but only for a limited time period beyond which other factors become limiting, Wate Plants absorb water from the soil by their mot hair. This water is then transported up to the stem and leaves through the xylem vessels Along with water, many minerals which arc dissolved in it are also absorbed by the planis. Aquatic plants absorb water through their general body surface. Water rarely serves as a limiting factor in photosynthesis because less than 1 per cent of the water absorbed bya land plant is used in photosynthesis. Light Light is very important for photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy. Sun is the main source of radiant energy. Artificial light is also effective in photosynthesis but this light should be of a required intensity ‘The rate of photosynthesis is affected both by the quality as well as the quantity Gintensity and duration) of light. In red-coioured light, the rate of photosynthesis is maximum whereas in green-coloured light photesynthesis does not occur Leaves—the organs to trap solar energy It is a photoreceptor molecule that plays a great role in the process of photosynthesis. It i present in the chloroplast. Chloroplasts are mostly present in leaves, ‘That is why leaves are called photosynthetic organs, oveeng aratos) orophyls absors viokt 4 red ights predominantly Biophysics of ght Fig. 7.2 The absorption spectra for chlorophylls a and by PHOTOSYNTHESIS @ 71Chloroplasts are also present in young stems and fruits, The green colour of plants is due to the chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is of many types such as, Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll c Chlorophyll d Chlorophyll € Bacteriochlorophyll f these, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b arc ‘most important as they receive energy from the sun to bring about spliting of water. Etiolated (yellowed out) leaves and non-green tissues of plants do not have the capacity to cary out photosynthesis. The spectrum of, light that can be absorbed by chlorophyll is given in Figure 7.2. eeeeee Leaf as a photosynthetic organ Leaves are the most suitable and well-adapted organs to carry out the process of photosynthesis Histologically, in the leaves of angiosperms the cuticle layer of wax covers the outermost cellular layer, the epidermis, Below this layer, mesophyll tissue is present which is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue [Fig. 7.3(b)]. Water is transported through the vascular bundles existing in leaf veins, Leaf has large surface area which provides maximum light absorption. On plants, leaves are arranged at right angles to the light source to obtain maximum light. Chloroplasts are also concentrated in the upper layer of leaf. This helps them to obtain light energy very quickly, Water passes into the palisade cells by osmosis from the xylem and carbon dioxide diffuses in from the atmosphere. Sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll, By using this energy, carbon dioxide and ‘water are combined in the chloroplast with the help of a number of enzymes to yield sugar which is readily converted into a storable form of food, starch. The oxygen formed in the reaction diffuses out of the cells and is released into the atmosphere through the Why plants look green? Plants look green because of the region of light spectrum they absorb and reflect. Out of the visible light spectra, the pigments in plant leaves absorb only red and blue spectra Of incident light while green region of light spectrum is not absorbed and is reflected back. Thus, this reflection of green light gives. plants their grean colour. upper lower dorms om ». Section ofan angiosperm unight leaf showing upper ppalisade tissue and stoma cytoplasm water chloroplast cc. Apalisace cell showing chloroplasts mombrane terete ©, tyahoids glans Fig. 7.3 Joumey into leat 4. Chloroplast 72 © PHOTOSYNTHESISstomata, Stomata (singular—sioma) are minute pores present either on the lower or both the surfaces of the leaf to facilitate exchange of gases between the leaf and the atmosphere, Aquatic plants use carbon dioxide dissolved in water to prepare their food through photosynthesis. Chlorophyll pigment is mainly present in the chloroplasts (plastids). ‘The chloroplasts can be seen easily under a light microscope, 46 1 in diameter (Fig. 7.3(c)]. Chloroplasts are double-membraned structures. The inner membrane fines the lumen of the chloroplast called mateix or stroma. In higher plants chloroplasts contain stacks of lamellar structures called grana (singtlar—ranum). If you look into the c1oss section of the grana, you will find sac-like structures formed of lamellae. These structures are called thylakoids, The thylakoids of one granum are connected to other granum by a membrane called stroma lamellae (Fig, 7.34) Opening and closing of stomata Each stoma consists of a stomatal aperture and two surrounding guard cells, ‘The guard cells are kidaey- shaped and contain chloroplasts. The inner wall of each guard cell is thick and outer wall is thin. nucleus somalia pore uard cell condoemocie (water moves in) ‘a. Stoma open (ater moves ous) 'b, Stoma close Fig. 7.4 Opening and closing of stomatal ore During the daytime, the cel-sap concentration, become high due to accumulation of sugar. This leads to endosmosis and water is withdrawn inside guard cells from neighbouring cells. This makes guard cells turgid so that their thin outer walls get stretched out widening the stomatal pore (Fig.7.4a). ‘The pressure developed in guard cells is turgor pressure. During the night, there is no photosynthesis, carbon dioxide gets accumulated in guard cells. This carbon dioxide then combines with water to form carbonic acid which has a pH of 5.0. It promotes the conversion of sugar into starch which is insoluble in water. As a result, exosmosis takes place and guard cells become flaccid or lose turgidity. Thus, the slit like stomatal pore gets narrowed down and closes (Fig. 7.4). CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 A. Give the overall reaction of photosynthesis B. State whether following statement are True or Fals 1. Photosynthesis is the only process by which solar energy is convarted into chemical energy. 2, Photosynthesis is necessary for synthesis of inorganic compounds from organic compounds. 3. Photosynthesis is the only biological process that releases oxygen into the air. 4, In photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy. 5. Rate of photosynthesis is maximum in green light whereas it is minimum in red light. 6. Chlorophyll ¢ and chlorophyll e are most important as they absorb energy from sunlight to bring about spliting of water. THE MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS As already discussed in previous section, mesophyll tissue in a leaf is the principal site of photosynthesis, Mesophyll tissue is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. Water is transported into palisade cells by osmosis from xylem and carbon dioxide diffuses in from the atmosphere. Sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll of mesophyll tissue By using light energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are combined in the chloroplast with the help of a number enzymes to yield sugar. It is readily converted into a storable form, starch. The oxygen PHOTOSYNTHESIS ¢ 73Table7.1 Mainparticipants, their function and the result of light dependent reaction PARTICIPANT FUNCTION water broken down to give O,, H* and photosystem Il absorbs solar eneray cytochrome system | transports electrons: photosystem | NADP* absorbs solar energy accepts electrons evolved in the process is given out in the atmosphere through stomau, Phases of photosynthesis There are two types of reactions in photosynthesis— the light reaction and, the dark reaction (light independent reaction). Light reaction—Hill’s reaction This is the photochemical phase of photosynthesis As the name suggests, this is a light dependent reaction, that is, light plays a key role in this reaction, This reaction occurs in the thylakoids of grana in chloroplasts. A series of chemical reactions occur in quick succession, initiated by light. The main steps of this reaction are as follows (Table 7.1} Step 1: Excitation of chlorophyll The photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll) absorbs light energy in the form of photons. After being exposed to light energy, the chlorophyll molecule gets excited and emits electrons, which travel through electron transport chain in chloroplasts + Step 2: Formation of ATP from ADP The above mentioned reaction in step 1 is mediated by electron acceptors and Adenosine triphosphate Table 7.2 Nain participarts, their tunction ani PARTICIPANT FUNCTION usp takes up CO; Oy provides carbon atom ATP provides energy NADPH provides H* atoms for reduction 7a RESULT electrons | 0, produced is collected in thylakeid and passes into photosystem I! supplies. energized electrons cytochrome system to releases energy for ATP production supplies electrons to NADP* converts to NADPH (ATP) is synthesized from Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. ATP is used during dark reaction ADP + Pi + energy > ATP Step 3: Splitting of water ‘The splitting of water also known as photolysis (photo means light and sis means breaking) takes place in light reaction during which, water is broken down into highly reactive ions. 0 > 2H" + 0, + 2e ‘The free oxygen is the oxygen gas given off during photosynthesis Step 4: NADP reduced to NADPH ‘The released H” {hydrogen ions reduce NADP molecule (Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide phosphate) into NADPH (reduced form of NADP) NADP + 2e° +H" > NADPH Photosystems There are two types of photosynthetic units present in most chloroplasts called Photosystems. These are of two types— photosystem | and photosystem Il, where different reactions take place. 1d the result oflightindegencent reaction RESULT CO, is fixed CO, is reduced broken down to ADP oxidised NADP* 6 PHOTOSYNTHESISeco, (trom atmosphere) 12 NADPH (fram light reaction) 12 Rup 12. NADP Cavin-Bangon oyele Glucose (CHO) é Starch Fig, 7.5 Calvin-Benson cyole (named ater its discoverers Melvin Calvinand Andy Benson) Ho thnks space .6 Summary of lightand dark reactions €. Thelightreactions occur in grana where sunlight is ‘captured, water is sot and oxygen is given out, and ATPand NADPH sur in stroma, where carbon dioxide is fixed and reducedatte: being incorporated into the Calvin ‘are produced. The dark reactions cycle. Reduction uses the ATP and NADPHfrom the ight reactions, b, ATP synthesis Dark reaction—Calvin cycle This is the biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis. The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts. This reaction does not require light energy, but it dees nor mean that it occurs during dark only. This is a light independent reaction (Table 7.2) ‘The dark reaction occurs simultaneously with the light reaction and the time gap between the two is less than one thousandth ofa second. In the dark reaction, NADPH molecules and ATP molecules, both produced curing light reaction are utilized to produce sugar (C,H,,0,) from carbon dioxide. During dark reaction, reduction of carbon dioxide occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast by means of a scties of reactions known as the Calvin cycle during which fixation and reduction of carbon dioxide take place, Thus, at the end of dark reaction, carbon dioxide is synthesized and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) is regenerated. What happens to the end products of photosynthesis? Glucose (sugar) is either immediately used up by the cells oF is stored in the form of starch. @ The water (H,0) produced may be utlized by the plant or reutilized for the continuance of photosynthesis. 4 Most of the oxygen produced diffuses out into the atmosphere through the stomata in the leaves. This oxygen is used by all of us and other living organisms including plants in respiration. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 1. In the chemical reaction of photosynthesis, which one substance is a raw material as well as the product? 2, What alternative term is also given to light independent reaction? 2. Where does light reaction occur in the chloroplast? 4, How is photolysis brought about? 8. Complete the following equation: NADP + —__+ — NADPH ‘©. What is the sources of oxygen produced during photosynthesis—H.0 or CO;? 7. Why are dark reactions called so? PHOTOSYNTHESIS # 75FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS There are a number of factors affecting the rate of Photosynthesis, These factors are light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and water availability, Light intensity The rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with an increase in the intensity of light, However, extremely high intensities of light do aot increase the te of photosynthesis. Optimum light intensity for photosynthesis varies with the species of the plant. In fact, very high light intensity may bleach chlorophyll and retard photosynthesis. Photorespiration On hot and dry days, stomata on the leaves close down to prevent excessive loss of moisture. In this way, water gets conserved but CO, cannot enter the leaves from outside. Photosynthesis, on the other hand, goes on continuously. So, oxygen produced as one of the ond products of dark reaction is accumulated in the leaves. ‘A high O, level triggers photorespiration, a process that oxidises RUBP (lixed CO,) without the production of any energy molecule—ATP or NADPH! This reduces the plant's sugar-building capacity. In a way, photorespiration acts to undo the work of photosynthesis. Hence, it is a wasteful process! Carbon dioxide concentration In normal conditions, carbon dioxide is the major limiting factor in photosynthesis, The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in the CO, concentration. The concentration of CO, in the atmosphere yaries from 0.03-0.04 per cent A concentration of 0.08 per cent of CO, for short duration is optimum for increasing the rate of photosynthesis. However, over long periods even 0.1 per cent CO, concentration in the atmosphere can be dangerous for photosynthesis, Temperature In general, increase in temperature results in an increase in the rate of photosynthesis when other factors are not limiting, Photosynthesis is restricted t0 a temperature range in which the enzymes remain active. The maximum suitable temperature when 400. 30. 200. Rate of photosynthesis ° to 200 Temperature (°C) Fig. 7.7 Etfect of temperature on rate of shotosynthesis photosynthesis occurs best is about 35°C after which the rate falls. The process of photosynthesis stops above 40°C as the enzymes are destroyed Similarly, low temperature also inhibits enzymatic activity and rate of photosynthesis is reduced (Fig 7.7) Water Less than 1 per cent of the total water absorbed by plants is utlized as a raw material in photosynth Water rarely becomes a limiting factor in photosynthesis, Does pollution affect photosynthesis? Certain gases of industrial origin like ozone and sulphur dioxide, damage leaves of some plants. Soot can block the stomata and reduce the transparency of leat epidermis. This affects the light-capturing capacity of chlorophyll and reduces the rate of photosynthesis. CARBON CYCLE ‘The cyclic process in which carbon element is circulated continuously through the living and non. living components of the biosphere is called carbon cycle in nature (Fig. 7.8) rbon is a basic constituent of living organisms. In fact, carbon is the most essential constituent of all the major organic compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleic acids present in the living organisms. Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere is the main reservoir of carbon. 76 ¢ PHorosyaTHESiSCarton dioxide ————+ © inthe ene: Photosynthesis Respiration; Combustion ff Decomposition og) Respiration; “of dead Carbonates in ss, Decomposition \. plants water £8 et oad animcle Pe) is S ¥ Fool oD Fides Groen Pans (Pov, keros ,— (organic (organic gas, coal, wood) / /| compound) compound) 7 // /ioy carbonates hel bee es Slow chemical cen ‘change Fractional distilation | Fig. 7.8 Carbon cycle in nature ‘The main steps of the carbon ¢ Carbon is present as carbon atmosphere. Green plants use this carbon dioxide and prepare their food (as carbohydrate) by the process of photosynthesis, ‘When animals eat the plant, plant carbohydrate is converted into animal carbohydrate. When plants and animals respire, they give out carbon dioxide, which is returned to the atmosphere. When animals and plants die, their bodies are decomposed by decomposers and carbon dioxide is retumed to the atmosphere. Some of the dead plants and animals get buried deep under the earth. These change into fossil fuels like coal and petroleum through slow. chemical changes. Petroleum gives us fuel like kerosene, petrol, diesel, petroleum gas, ete. When these fuels burn, they give out carbon dioxide which goes into the atmosphere. Some carbon dioxide is present in the dissolved state in water. This gets converted into calcium carbonate (CaCO,) in limestone and other carbonate rocks Weathering of carbonate containing rocks or treatment of their minerals gives catbon dioxide. When acid rain falls on these rocks, then carbon dioxide is released. Volcanic eruptions and hot springs also release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. PHOTOSYNTHESIS @ 77 Thus, there is a continuous exchange of carbon. dioxide between atmosphere, water bodies and living beings ‘The different processes which help in the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere are: Photosynthesis by green plants. % Formation of fossil fuels (like coal, petroleum, natural gas, ec.) 4 Formation of carbonate rocks. Formation of carbonate shells, skeleton, etc. ‘The different processes which help in the addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere are: Respiration of plants and animals Decay of dead plants and animals Burning of fossil Fuels Aciion of acid rain on carbonate rocks, shells, ete. Volcanic eruptions. geees EXPERIMENTS ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS Destarching Since the presence of starch is regarded as an evidence of photosynthesis, the experimental plant should have no starch in its leaf, before the experiment is started. A potted plant may be destarched by le a dark place for 2-3 days For experiments on plants in open, the selected leaves must be destarched by wrapping in aluminium foil for 2 days and th ing it inACTIVITY 1 Testing a leaf for starch ‘# Detach the leat and dip it in boiling water for 1 minute. This will kill protoplasm and enzymes in it, 60 that no furthar chemical change takes place. Boiling will also make the cell more Permeable to water. + Now boil the leaf in methylated spirit in a water bath til it becomes colourless due to removal of chlorophyll # The leat now becomes brittle and hard. Place it again in boiling water to make it soft again. Spread the leef fiat on a white surface such as a glazed tile and pour iodine solution (lodine = 0.3 g: potassium iodide = 1.5 g and water = 100 mL) on the leaf surface. What do you observe? You will observe that any part having starch becomes blue-black, while, a leaf without starch shows brown colouration. alcohol bive-back Fig. 7.9 Experimental sot-up to test aleat for the presence of starch AcTIVITY 2 To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis @ Take a plant with variegated leaves which has chlorophyil only in patches. Such leaves can be found in plants like Coleus, Tradescantia, Croton, etc. ® Destarch the leaf by placing the plant in dark for 2-3 days. blue-black een portion of the les ~~ Pa aa Fig. 7.10 Experimental setup to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis, “~ + Place the plant again in day light for a few hours, # Detach the leat and draw its outline on a paper, clearly showing the distribution of chlorophyll Test this leaf for presence of starch. # Only the paris which were green previously, turn blue with iodine. This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis (Fig. 7.10), Activity 3 To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis '# Take a potted plant and destarch its leaves by keeping it in dark for 2 days. Take a black papor and cut simpio ‘L’ shape in it making a stencil. Cover one leaf with one such paper. Leave the set up in daylight for 4-6 hours. # Detach the leaf and test it for presence of starch. You will observe that only the part of the leaf that could get light through the cut out design and the other exposed parts of the leaf tum blue-black showing the presence of starch in it (Fig. 7.11), ‘blue-black b Fig. 7.11. Experimental setup to show that ight is necessary for photosynthesis : 7a © PHoTosynTHESISaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.directly or indirectly (b) produces oxygen, and (0) provides the energy present today in fossil fuels. @ Leaves contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are mosi important as they receive energy from the sun to bring about spliting of water curing photosynthesis. Chlorophyll pigment is present in chloroplast. Chiroplasts contain 2 main pars—stroma end grana Photosynthesis occurs in two phases—light dependent reaction and light independent (dark) reaction. ‘@ Light dependent reaction is called photochemical phase of photosynthesis. This reaction occurs in thylakoids of grana of chloroplasts. # Light reaction includes trapping of light energy by chlorophyll, spiting of water and formation of ATP from ADP. Hydrogen ions produced due to splitting of water combine with NADP to produce NADPH Light independent (dark) reaction is a biosynthetic phase which occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts. This reaction does not require light energy. During dark reaction, NADPH molecules and ATP molecules both produced during light reaction, are utilized to produce sugar CgH;zO, from carbon dioxide. Dark reaction occurs simultaneously with light reaction and the time gap between the two is less than 1/1000 of a second. As a result of photosynthesis, glucose, water and oxygen are produced. Glucose is either immediately used up by cell or is stored in the form of starch, sucrose and cellulose. Water iSeS Out into atmosphere which is used by living beings for respiration, Light intensity, CO, concentration, temperature and, poliution affect photosynthesis. Carbon cycle involves a series of chemical reactions through which carbon dioxide is circulated in nature im ‘A. Choose the most correct answer to the following. 1. A plant is kept in a dark cupboard for about 48 hours before conducting any experiment on Photosynthesis to remove chlorophyll from the leaves. remove starch from the plant. ensure that no photosynthesis occurs, ensure that the leaves are tree from starch. 2. Ifthe rate of respiration becomes more than the rate of photosynthesis, plants will be killed instantly, 1. stop growing and gradually dio of starvation. continue to live, but will not be able to store food. grow more vigorously because more energy will be available. 3. Which one of these reactions occurs during photosynthesis? ‘a. Carbon dioxide is reduced and water is oxidised. b. Water is reduced and carbon dioxide is oxidised. . Carbon dioxide and water aro both oxidised. 4. Carbon dioxide and water are both reduced. 4. During photosynthesis, oxygen comes from a. water. ight onorgy. . carbon dioxide. 4. both carbon dioxide and water. 5. How many water molecules are required in chemical reaction to produce one molecule of glucose during Photosynthesis? a6 2 18 2 24 80 ¢ PHOTOSYNTHESISWhich of the folowing types of chlorophyll is / are most important for photosynthesis? a. Chlorophyll a . Chlorophyll b . Chlorophyll @ and b 4. Chlorophyll d 7. The rate of photosynthesis will be maximum in a. red-coloured light. ». green-coloured light. . yellow-coloured light. 4. viole-coloured light. B. Name the following. 1. The structure where photophosphorylation takes place. The gas released as a by-product of photosynthesis. The site of pholosynthesis (cell organele). The point at which no exchange of CO, takes place between the plant and the environment The type of chlorophyll which receives maximum energy from the sun to bring about splitting of water. The site of photochemical phase of photosynthesis within the chloroplest ‘Type of photosynthesis reaction wherein photolysis of water takes place. First form of food substance produced during photosynthess. Source of CO; for aquatic plants. C. Give one point of difference between the following on the basis of hints given within the brackets. 1. Photosynthesis and respiration (gas released) 2. Light reaction and dark reaction (products formed) 3. Photosystem | and photosystem Il (function) 4. Red light and green light (rate of photosynthesis) D. Comment on the following statements. 1. A tiger owes its existence to chlorophy/l 2. Oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis. 3. In most experiments on photosynthesis, a destarched plant is used. 4, Most leaves have a more green and shiny upper surface than the lower one. E. Given below are sets of five terms. Rewrite the terms in the correct order so as to be in logical sequence with regard to photosynthesis. Grana, water molecules, O,, hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, photons F. Complete the following statements by filling in the blanks with the appropriate word from the choices given in brackets, 1. The site of tight reaction in the cells of a leat is —_________(grana / stroma / cytoplasm) 2. The chemical substance used to test the presence of starch in the cells of a leaf is __________ {cobalt chloride / iodine / Benedicts’ solution) 3. The rate of photosynthesis will increase with__________ in the CO, concentration. (increase / decrease) 4. Light dependent reaction is also called __________ (photochemical phase / biosynthesis phase / chemosynthetic phase) * 5. Dark reaction of photosynthesis is known as (Hill reaction / Calvin cycle / Cyclic phosphorylation) G. Write the full forms of 1. NADP 2. ADP ATP 4. RuBPH. Given below are certain biological statements which are incomplete and hence incorrect. Rewrite the correct form of the statement by inserting a suitable word/words at the right place. Do not delete any word from the statement. 1. Destarching a plant means removing the starch from the plant. 2. The spliting of water molecules into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions is termed photolysis. |. Draw a labelled diagram of the stomatal apparatus found in the epidermis of leaves and label the stomata, guard cells, chloroplast, epidermal cells, cell wall and nucleus. J. A plant is a producer as well as consumer of oxygen. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer. a Note the relationship between the first two words and suggest the suitable word/words for the fourth place. thylakoid : chloroplast :: cristae L. State whether the following statements are True or False. ‘The dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs during the night. Photosynthesis stops at a temperature of about 35 °C, The source of O, given out during photosynthesis is water. ‘The light reaction of photosynthesis occurs throughout the day and night. Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll in graen parts of plants, Splitting of water takes place during the light reaction ‘The ATP produced curing light reaction s used during the dark reaction. The rate of photosynthesis decreases with an increase in the intensity of light. M. Given below is an outline of the process of photosynthesis. Fill in the missing terms at places numbered 1 to 15. During photosynthesis plants take in gas from atmosphere which enters through —___2__ present on leaves and _®_____ trom sol. The green pigment ___4 _ absorbs —___ energy which drives the process. The equation for photosynthesis is (complete the equation). s ¥ z 8 10 . " * 19 9 13 Chlorophyll is contained within organelles called — There are two kinds of photosynthetic reactions. N. Given below is result of a certain experiment containing four test tubes, filled with pond water and then placed in bright light. TEST TUBE vest wube ae Ta Tee F A | | Pond weed Pond weed Pond weed Pond weed 25° water srl orc Tee ibe w 25°C with aluminium foil 1. Which of the tubes would produce maximum oxygen? 2. Which tude will produce the minimum oxygen? 3. What does this experiment show about effect of light and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis? 82 6 PHOTOSYNTHESIS.Answer these questions. 1. What are the raw material used in photosynthesis? 2. What is photosynthesis? Write the overall reaction of photosynthesis. 3. What are stomata? Where are maximum number of stomata found on a plant? 4. Name the gas that enters stomata during photosynthesis and the gas that passes out of stomata during photosynthesis. 5. Without photosynthesis, the air would become unbreathable. Why is it so? ‘6 If(COp concentration keeps on increasing in the atmosphere, vill it increase the rata of photosynth Why? P. The following diagram is a set-up to demonstrate an experiment. Pondweed was placed in five water-filled tubes. The experiment was set up as shown in the diagram. ‘The tubes were then left for 24 hours. igre J~— dm ight ele dark, = wit ramvod yom ale SS 1. In which test tube would you expect the greatest increase in dry weight of the pondweed? ad b.2 63 a4 25 2. In which test tube would you expect to find the plant with the least amount of starch? ad b.2 63 a4 5 3. The test tube in which most oxygen would be found is ad b.2 23 a4 a5 4. The test tube in which least carbon dioxide would be found is ad b.2 «3 a4 05 5. The test tube in which the piant would survive for the shortest length of time is ad b.2 23 a4 25 Q. A candidate in order to study the Importance of certain factors in photosynthesis took a potted plant and kept it in dark for over 24 hours. Then in the early hours of the morning she covered one of the leaves with black paper in the centre only. She placed the potted plant in the sunlight for a few hours, and then tested the leaf which was covered with black paper for starch. 1. What aspect of photosynthesis was being investigated? 2. Is there any control in this experiment? If go, state the same. 3. Why was the plant kept in the dark before the experiment? 4. Describe step by step how the candidate proceeded to test the leaf for the presence of starch. PHOTOSYNTHESIS @ 83aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.The motor nerves are divided into two groups, depending upon the site where they camry infomation. Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system The somatic nervous system regulates voluntary uctivities and takes messages to the skeletal muscles, The autonomic nervous system (ANS) although has connections with the central nervous system, it works somewhat independently to regulate involuntary sctivities. It consists of nerves and ganglia which innervate the visceral organs like heart, lungs, digestive tract and other internal organs and perform 4 variety of functions that are not under the control of our will. It has vo components, viz. sympathetic and parasympathetic, which are antagonistic to each other in their functions. You will learn about the vous system in a later section. The broad organization of nervous system in humans is shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2. Let us first lear about nerves and functioning of the nervous system before discussing about the avo divisions of nenous system. NERVES Nerves are composed of nerve fibres bundled together like the strands of a telephone cable (Fig, 820), These nerve fibres or nerve cells are called neurons which form the basic units of the nervous system. Messages are conducted by nerves in the form of electrical impulses ‘Types of nerves ‘There are three types of nerves depending upon the direction in which they transmit the nerve impulse. Sensory nerves, These are also called afferent nerves (Latin: afferent means casy toward), These nerves contain neurons which carry messages (impulse) from sensory receptors (in sense organs) towards the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord), Example: optic nerve from eye leading to brain. Motor nerves. These are also called efferent nerves (Latin: gjférent means carry away). These nerves contain neurons which take messages away from the central nervous system towards the effector organ, such as muscles and glands, Example: nerves arising in brain and leading to the muscles of the eye balls. Mixed nerves. There are many nerves which are comprised of both afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) nerve fibres. These are called mixed nerves, Example: most cranial and spinal nerves are called mixed nerves. Ganglia (singular: ganglion) ‘These are the aggregate of nerve cells from which the nerve fibres arise. STRUCTURE OF A NERVE CELL (NEURON) ‘The functional unit of the nervous system is a highly specialized cell called the nerve cell or neuron. Eich nerve cell (Fig. 8.3) consists of three principal parts. # Cell body or cyton * Axon # Dendrites ‘The cell body or cyton (or Perikaryon) has a large, central nucleus surrounded by the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm (also called neuroplasm), Nissl granules and neurofibrils are present. Cell organelles like mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, microfilaments anc microtubules, are also present in the cytoplasm. There is no centrosome in cyton. Several short, thread-like branches called dendrites (Greek: dendron means tree) arise from the cell body. The dendrites conduct nerve impulse to cyton, One of the branches grows very large in comparison to others. This branch is called the axon. The axon is covered by three layers 4% Axolemma (the innermost layer) Myelin sheath or medullary sheath (the middle hayes) # Neurilemma (the outermost layer) The axolemma and neurilemma are continuous sheaths, whereas the myelin sheath is not a continuous one, It is consiricted at intervals. These constrictions are known as modes of Ranvier The axon ends in axon endings. Fig. 8.3 Anerve cellor neuron 88 ¢ NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGSSynapse ‘The loose connection between the axon endings of one nerve cell and cyton of the next nerve cell is called the synapse or we can also say that the point of contact between two neurons is known as synapse. In other wiords, signals travel from one neuron to another neuron across a junction called the synapse. ‘Structure of the synapse The neurons do not touch at the synapse. The space between adjacent neurons is called the synaptic cleft. ‘Tho axon torrrinal of a presynaptic neuron has a bulb-like ‘appearance known as synaptic bulb (Fig. 8.4). The transmission across a synapse is by chemical means. The synaptic bulb contains chemicals known as neurotransmitters. When a nerve impulse (action potential) arises at the axon terminal, it causes synaptic bulbs to release neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmiters diffuse easily across the synaptic cleft. In this way, the impulse is transmitted from one nerve cell to another nerve cell or neuron, There are many neurotransmiters but the principle ones are acetylcholine and norepinephrine. What does a synapse do? # Allows information to pass from one neuron to ancther # Ensures that the nerve impulse travels in one direction ‘only ‘Allows the adjoining neuron to be excited or inhibited Amplifies a signal (makes it stronger) oooe Filters out low-levelled stimuli Functioning of the nervous system ‘The nervous system receives a stimulus, through a receptor organ, integrates oF coordinates it, and affects a response through the effector organ. Thus, a coordinated behaviour has five main components—stimulus, receptor, coordinator, effector, and response (Fig, 85). In such a coordinated behaviour, any stimulus of sound, sight, smell, etc. is perceived by receptor organs like eyes, ears, skin, ete The brain and spinal cord are the coordinators which receive information in the form of messages called nerve impulses, from receptor organs via 7 neurons, The information flows to the effector organs, i.c. muscles, and the response occurs. sensory neurons itochondnon synaptic aus synaptic vesicle containing neurotaramitrs presynaptic ‘mamorane postsynaptic ‘membrane Fig. 8.4 Structure of the synapse Helps in information-processing by adding together the effects of all impulses received Fig.8.5 Components of coordinated behaviour NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS ¢ 89Communication through the nerve— Nerve impulse Nerve impulses pass along a neuron in one direction only. At one end, the neuron is connected 10 a sensory receptor that receives the message or stimulus and converts it into electro-chemical waves which are carried by the neuron. The fibre at this stage is said to be excited. In a given neuron, the dendrites are the receptors, the cell body is the integrator and the ends of the axons are the transmitters, This means that the stimulus from the receptor organ is received by the dendrites, conducted to the cell body of the neuron and passed on through the axon to another neuron and finally to the effector organ. The sxon endings of one nerve cell are loesely pliced on the cell body or cyton of ancther nerve cell, Figure 8.6 explains in a simple way what happens during the conduction of an impulse along a nerve. ——__——- Fig. 8.6 Asimple analogy of ‘nerve Impulse CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 A. Name the following. 1. Nerves transmitting impulse to brain and spinal cord. 2. Neurons transmitting message from brain towards effector organ. 3. Functional unit of the nervous system. 4, Thread-iike branches arising from cell body of a neuron. 8, The innermost layer of the axon. 6. The receptor in the neuron. 7. Connection between the axon endings of one neuron and cyton of the next neuron. 8. Chemical contained in synaptic bulbs. 8, Neurotransmitter released in the synaptic cleft. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, The human brain ‘The human brain is a highly developed organ and is situated in the cranium of the skull. In an adult, it weighs about 1200-1400 g, about 2% of body weight Lis covered on the outside by three membranes called meninges (singular. menix). Meninges are protective coverings of the brain. ‘The outer tough, protective layer dura mater is formed of fibrous tissue. The middie arachnoid layer is a delicate membrane. The inner thin, transparent and highly vascular layer is the pia mater. The cerebrospinal fluid fills the spaces between the meninges and a Iso brain cavities or the ventricles Italso acts like a cushion to protect brain from shocks Some facts about the brain ‘® The adult human brain weighs about 1.2 to 1.4 kg and has about 10000 million nerve cells in it. ‘® The brain of vertebrates (including human. beings) is hollow. Its cavity is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Brain in invertebrates is solid. ® Strangely enough, in spite of all the nerve cells inside the brain, the brain has no sensory nerves of its own. It cannot feel either pleasure or pain. What we call a ‘headache’ actually comes from the membranes and tissue around the brain or from the muscles of the scalp, neck or face. The human brain is divisible into three major divisions (Table 8.1, Fig. 87) Forebrain Midbrain % Hindbrain Table 8.1 Divsions of tie human brain and their components DIVISION Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain Mesencephalon MAIN COMPONENTS: Diencephalon (Pineal, pitultory, thalamus, hypothalamus) and cerebrum Corsbellum, pons and modula oblongata 90 4 NeRVoUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGSthaismue cerebrum hypothalamus. pituitary oland medulla oblongata (nin sem) Fig. 8.7 Parts ofthe humanbrain FOREBRAIN It is the anterior region of the brain. It has following parts: % Cerebrum (seat of intelligence, consciousness and voluntary action) © Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland) memory Cerebrum The cerebrum is the main part of forebrain. Cerebrum js the largest and the most prominent part of the brain. It is divided into the right and left cerebral hemispheres by 2 deep median longitudinal groove. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of nerve fibres called corpus callosum. Corpus callosum’ helps in the transfer of information from one hemisphere to another. Each hemisphere is hollow factory area ee parietal bbe (speech) frontal lobe (inking) Fig. 8.8 Diferent are associated with differentfunctions. and ats walls have two regions—an outer cortex and an inner region. ‘The outer layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex. It is made of grey matter and is highly convoluted in appearance with ridges and grooves. The ridges of these convolutions are called gyri Gingular. gyrus) and depressions between them are called sulci Gingular, sulcus). The ridges and depression increase surface area for ‘more nerve cells. The number and pattern of convolutions in the cerebrum are associated with the Gegree of intelligence. The inner region of cerebrum consists of white matter that has axons of nerve cells The cerebrum (because of highly developed grey matter) governs mental abilities like thinking, reasoning, learning memorising and intelligence. It also controls will, emotions and speech It enables us to observe things around us through sense organs. This part of the brain also controls feelings of love, admiration and hatred Wig 88). Diencephalon ‘The diencephalon mainly consists of the pineal gland, pituitary gland, thalamus and hypothalamus. It encloses a cavity called the third ventricle. The thalamus consists of two large ovoid masses. It is a relay station for sensory impulses going to the cerebrum. ‘The hypothalamus is situated at the floor of the brain and helps in thermoregulation. The diencephalon performs many activities. It contains reflex centres for muscular and glandular activities. It also has centres of emotions, hunger and thirst. It also helps in controlling the body temperature (thermoregulation) and water-salt balance in the body (osmoregulation). MIDBRAIN It is a thick-walled structure and constitutes a comparatively smaller portion of the brain, The midbrain or mesencephalon connects the anterior region of the brain to the posterior region and therefore all nerve fibres pass through this region. HINDBRAIN ‘The hindbrain has three main parts. % Cerebellum + Pons % Medulla oblongata NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS @ 91Cerebellum The cerebellum is situated in the dorsal region of hind brain. Cerebellum is a much smaller area and is located at the base under the large cerebrum, There are no convolutions, but many furrows. It has an outer cortex made of grey matter and an inner section consisting of white matter, It maintains equilibrium and controls postures. It makes the body movements smooth, steady and coordinated. It regulates and coordinates contraction of skeletal muscles Role of cerebellum in walking If @ person's cerebellum gets damaged, he or she may not be able to walk. Such a person can learn to walk again but with difficulty. Walking no longer is automatically controlled in the person. It may now require some conscious effort. The person's situation is similar to a young growing child leaming to walk! Similarly, the cerabollum of an alcoholic man is not able to coordinate properly and he walks clumsily Pons Pons forms the part of the briin stem at the floor of hindbrain. It is a bridge of transverse nerve tr extending from the cerebrum to the cerebellum. It also connects the forebrain to the spinal cord, Medulla oblongata ‘The medulla oblongata is the third main component of the hindbrain. It is the lowermost part of the brain located at the base of skull. It is continued as spinal cord in posterior region. It contains vital reflex centres, such as cardiac centre, respiratory centre and centres for swallowing, sneezing, coughing and vomiting. Brain waves Our brain is continuously sending out certain waves. These waves differ in their nature at different times, such as while we sleep, when we close our eyes, when we read and so on. This activity of the brain can be recorded with the help of an instrument called electro- encephalograph. While recording brain waves, electrodes are taped to different parts of the scalp and the activity of the brain is recorded in the form of an electroencephalogram (EEG). Cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata are the parts of brain visible externally. While corpus callosum, thalamus and hypothalamus are parts that are not visible externally. SPINAL CORD ‘The spinal cord is a long cord which arises from the medulla oblongata and runs along the vertebral column, It passes through the neural canal of the vertebral columa, Like the brain, it i also protected by three meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and 2 cushion of adipose tissue. In the transverse section of spinal cord, a central al can be seen. This canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Immediately surrounding the canal are clusters of eytons which form the grey matter. In the peripheral part, axons are concentrated and this area is called the white matter (Fig. 8.9). On each side of the spinal cord are two homs, the dorsal horn and the ventral hora. A nerve joined to the dorsal hom picks up sensations from various ‘organs. Its called the sensory nerve. From the ventral hor or root arises the motor nerve which takes the messages from the spinal cord to the organs concemed, cent og tas ZS ‘nerve (motor) ‘association spinal cord Fig. 8.9 Structure of the spinal cord 92 + NeRVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGSrey matter white mater relay or association ‘neuron (conducts Impuises through the ‘rey matter) rotor fibre (eondyt, Impuises fom ne spinal ‘21d the effector ogan) sensory neuron — synapse central canal — vental root ofthe spinal nerve spinal nee ettedtor organ timated receptor ‘organ in the skin Fig. 8.10 Componerts of rellex arc The spinal cord conducts reflexes below the neck. It conducts sensory impulses from skin and muscles 10 the skin and also conducts motor responses from brain to musdes of trunk and limbs. Reflex arc and reflex action There are certain body responses which are immedi and do not require any processing by the brain, These responses of actions are controlled by the spinal cord These are called reflex actions. A reflex action may be defined as a spontaneous, automatic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without the involvement of brain. The pathway followed by sensory and motor nerves in a reflex action is. ca (ig. 8.10). The entire sequence of events that constitute a reflex arc are summarized in Fig. 8.11 led the reflex are Types of reflexes There are two types of reflexes: @ simple or natural reflexes, and © conditioned or acquired reflexes. Simple or natural reflexes are those reflexes which do not require any previous learning experience, Such reflexes are inborn and inherited from parents. Some examples of simple reflexes are % Blinking of eyelids in response to a foreign particle that approaches the eye. © Closing of eyelid in response to a strong beam of light being Mashed on the eyes & Withde AL of the leg, if you suddenly step on a Knee jerk response in which if a made below the knee cap. involuntarily extended % Immediate withdrawal of hand if a person touches 4 hot object unknowingly. Conditioned or acquired reflexes are those which develop due to some previous experience. The conditioned reflexes are not inborn and result due to learning in one’s life time Some examples of conditioned reflexes are 4% Watering of mouth (salivation) at the sight of tasty food. @ ‘Typing on the keyboard of a computer. @ Playing a musical instrument @ Surfing the channels while watching the television, sharp tap is then the leg is Components of a reflex are A reflex arc has four main components @ Receptor or sensory organ to perceive the stimulus % Sensory or afferent nerve which carries the message from receptor to the spinal cord % Relay or internuncial acurons of the spinal cord which transmit impulses from the afferent neurons, to the efferent neurons @ Motor or efferent nerve which carries the message from the spinal cord to the mu: (effector organ) Jes or glands NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS ¢ 93.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.of an individual, Let us study more about the autonomic nervous system. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) ‘The autonomic nervous system inchides a chain of ganglia which lie close to the spinal cord and are associated with their cross neurons. ANS is primarily 4 motor system consisting of neurons that control the functioning of many organs # Heart muscles * Glands % Smooth muscles (muscles of blood vessels, digestive, respiratory and reproductive tracts) ‘The ANS can stimulate or inhibit the activity of its target organs. The ANS is divided into two divisions— sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems (Fig 8.12), ‘These ovo divisions are anatomically and functionally distinct. Bel ru The sympathetic fibres ae ston, GP arise from the thoracic and lumbar portion of the spinal cord, whereas the parasym- pathetic fibres arises from the brain and the sacral portion of the spinal cord. The effect of the two divisions is anta- gonistic. In general, the sympathetic system stimulates a particular function and prepares the body for violent actions against unusual conditions, while the parasympathetic system has inhibitory or calming down effect, it 2 petunia establishes normal fhbied conditions after the violent action is over. The major differences ler between sympatheti and. parasympathetic nervous system are given in Table 82 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 1. Define peripheral nervous system. 2. Differentiate between the peripheral and central nenous systems. 3. Differentiate between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. 4. Name the various organs innervated by autonomic nervous sysiem. 5. Write the effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems on hear, eyes, stomach, urinary bladder, blocd vesse's and bronchi. 2 5 Papi ‘ety ‘stimulates Fig. 8.12 Autonomic nervous system showing sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, NERVOUS SYSTEM INHUMAN BEINGS @ 95Table 8.2 Differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The nerve fibres originate in the middle portion— thoracic and lumbar region of the spinal cord. The garglia are in a chain running parallel and close to the spinal cord. Stimulatory effect. It diates the pupils of eyes. It decreases salivation It increases the heartbeat rate. It inhibits gastric and pancreatic activities. It accelerates the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline. It inhibits peristalsis in the muscles of stomach, Intestine and unnary bladder and decreases activity. It results in the constriction of blood vessels and raises blood pressure. It stimulates sweat glands, PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ‘The nerve fibres originate from the brain and lower (eacral) region of the spinal cord. The ganglia are near or in the target organ. Inhibitory (calming down) effect. It constricts the pupils of eyes. It increases salivation. It decreases the heartbeat rate. It stimulates gastric and pancreatic activities. It inhibits the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline. It stimulates peristalsis in the muscles of stomach and urinary bladder and increases activity. It results in the dilation of blood vessels and lower blood pressure. It stimulates tear glands. ERRNO # The nervous system in humans is divided into two parts: central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, ‘# The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord and Is the site of Information processing in the nervous system. ‘# The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that traverse between central nervous system and different parts of the body. ‘@ The functional unit of the nervous system is @ highly specialized cell called the nerve cell or the neuron. Each neuron has three principal parts—the cell body or cyton, the axon and dendrites, ‘@ Nerves can be sensory, motor or mixed, # The nervous system receives a stimulus through a receptor organ, integrates or coordinates it, and effects a response through the effector organ. @ The human brain has three main divisions—the {forebrain comprising 0! cerebrum and diencephalon, the midbrain and the hindbrain comprising of cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata. ‘ Cerebrum is the largest and the most prominant part of the brain. It has sulci and gyri which increase surface area for nerve cells. The outer cortex of cerebrum contains grey matter. Cerebrum ‘governs mental abiliies like thinking, reasoning, learning, memorising, intelligence, will and emotions. Cerebellum is the smaller part located at the base Under the large cerebrum. It maintains equilibrium and contiols postures and coordinates muscular activities. ¢ Medulla oblongata is the lowermost part of the brain located at the base of the skull. It contains vital teflex centres and convols the activities of internal organs. # The spinal cord is a long cord which arises from the medula oblongata and runs along the vertebral column, @ Reflex action is a spontaneous, automatic and mechanical response to a stimulus controlled by the spinal cord without the involvement of brain. # Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are antagonistic to each other in their functions. 96 + NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGSiim ‘A. Choose the most correct answers for the following statements. 1. Junction of two neurons is called a a. joint. >. synapse. ¢. synapsis. ic buttons. 2. The part of the brain which brings about muscular coordination is the a. cerebrum. ». cerebellum. c. hypothalamus. 4. medulla oblongata. 3. Motor nerve carries the message to a. sensory organ. ». spinal cord. ¢. effector organ. 4. brain 4. Reflex actions are the actions controlled by a. brain ». spinal cord. c. both brain and spinal cord. 4. neither brain nor spinal cord. 8. Cerebellum is the part of the brain which is responsible for «. interpreting sensations, ». conducting reflexes in the body. ¢. maintaining posture and equilibrium. a. controlling thinking, memory and reasoning, 6. In mammals, the corpus callosum connects 1. the two optic lobes. ». the two cerebral herrispheres, c. the cerebrum to the cerebellum. 4. the pons to the medulla oblongata. B. Answer these questions. 1. Which part of the brain enables us to observe the objects around us? 2. Name the three meninges which cover the brain. 3. Name the fluid present in the ventricles of the brain. 4. Which part of the skull protects the brain? 5. Give one word for the following statements. . Part of brain which enables us to stand erect . Junction of two neurons 6. Arrange the following in a proper sequence. receptor organ, muscle action, spinal cord, motor nerve, stimulus, sensory nerve 7. What is an axon? 8. What is the role of corpus callosum? Where is it found? 9. Give any three functions of the cerebrum. 10. What is the importance of hindbrain in controlling our body actions? 11. What is the sympathetic nervous system? 12, What is the parasympathetic nervous system? 13, Mention the functions performed by—cerebrum and cerebellum. 14. Explain reflex action and reflex arc with the help of an example. Draw a labelled diagram to show reflex action. 15. State whether the following are simple teflexes, conditioned reflexes, or neither of the two: a. sneezing ». blushing . contraction of eye pupil 4. titing up a book knitting without looking 1. suddan application of brakes without thinking NERVOUS SYSTEM INHUMAN BEINGS ~ 97aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (overall effect on body) 8. Sensory and motor nerves (direction of nerve impulse carried) |. State the location and functions of the following. PARTS LOCATION FUNCTION |. Adipose tissue 2. Cerebrospinal fluid 3. Medullary sheath 4. Cerebellum 5. Corpus callosum 6. Gyri and Sulci J. Match the terms of Column I with those of Column II and write down the matching pairs. COLUMN | COLUMN I 1. Dendrons 2. basic unit of nervous system 2. Neuron ». carries impulses away from brain and spinal cord Afferent neuron «. carries impulses towards the brain and spinal cord Efterent neuron 4. nerve impulse 5. Acetylcholine ‘©. neurotransmitier 6. Hypothalamus 4. thermoregulation K. Given alongside is the diagram of sagital section of brain. 1. Identify and name the parts labelled 1 to 5 2. State the funcions of parts labelled 1 and 3. 3. What will happen if the parts labelled 2 and 4 get damaged. L. Complete the following statements by choo: 1g the correct alternative from the brackets. 1. The dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord contains cell bodies of _____ (motor / sensory / intermediate neurons) 2. The seat of memory and intelligence in human brain is __________ (cerebrum / cerebellum / hypothalamus) 3. The ________ (thalamus / typothalamus / medulla oblongata) helps in thermoregulation. M. The diagram given alongside represents A 3 rower tho spinal cord of a mammal soon in a transverse section together with the nerves. Study the same and then answer the questions that follow. 4. Labol tho parts 1-8 indicated by guidelines. NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGS +2. What do the arrows indicate? What is the pathway indicated termed? 3. What type of nerve is shown in the diagram? N. The diagram given below shows the internal structure of the spinal cord, depicting a simple reflex. Study the same and then answer the following questions. muscle Tres 1. Name the parts numbered 1 to 8, 2. Using the letters of the alphabet shown in the figure, indicate the direction in which an impulse enters and leaves the spinal cord. 3. What is the term given to the point of contact between two nerve cells? 4. What is meant by ‘simple rellex'? Give two examples of simple reflexes, and name the stimuli too. 5. How does the arrangement of nerve calls in the spinal cord differ from that in the brain? ©. The diagram alongside represents the human brain as seen in ‘an external view. Study the same and then answer the questions that follow. 1. Name the parts numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4 2, Menton the difference in the arrangement of the nerve cells in the parts numbered 1 and 4, 3. What is the main function of the paris numbered 3 and 4? 4. Name the sheet of nerve fibres that connects the two halves of the part labelled 1 P. The diagram alongside is that of a human brain. Guidelines 1 to 5 indicate different parts of the brain as follows. 1. Frontal lobe of cerebrum 2. Temporal lobe of cerebrum 3. Occipital lobe of cerebrum 4. Cerebellum 5. Medulla oblongata Q. Study the diagram and answer the following questions. 1. What handicaps would result from a. damage to part numbered 3? » damage to part numbered 4? 2. Mention one main function of each of the parts numbered 1, 2 and 5. 100 + Nervous SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEINGSSENSE ORGANS All living organisms are sensitive. They respond to physical and chemical changes in the environment We all have special cells called receptors which receive stimuli from the environment, Some of these are contained in sense organs. Eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin are the major sense organs in our body which are sensitive to light, sound, taste, smell and touch, respectively. Each of these sense orgins is directly connected with the brain SOME KEY TERMS Stimulus: A physical event that affects an organism and excites its receptors, For example, mechanical stimuli (pressure and touch), chemical stimuli (taste and smell) and thermal stimuli (heat and cold) Sensation: general state of awareness of stimulus, Receptors: Special cells that receive stimulus from the environment. Some common types of receptors are photoreceptors (respond to light—rods and cones in . chemoreceptors (respond to chemicals—taste buds), thermoreceptors (respond io change in temperature—skin), mechanoreceptors (respond 10 touch—nerve fibres around hair) THE EYE AND THE SENSE OF SIGHT Vision or sense of sight is the most important of all body senses. We all respond to light stimulus. Humans have two eyes situated in orbits on the front side of the head. Each eye is in the form of a ball called eyeball which measures about 2,5 em 1 inch) in diameter. Each eyeball can be rotated with the help of distinct scts of muscles Accessory structures of eye Eyebrows, eyelids, eyelashes and the tear glands are the accessory stmetures of the eye (Fig, 9.1). ‘The eyebrows help to protect the eyeball from foreign objects, perspiration and direct rays of sunlight Eyelids are folds of skin and muscles lined by conjunctiva. The upper and lower eyelids have many SENSE ORGANS @ eyebrow lacrimal eyelashes: / ‘After completing this part of the chapter, you will be able to define a receptor and name various kinds of receptors: name and describe the location of various sense organs in human body; % describe the structure and functions of eye; # trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina and explain how light is focussed for distant and close vision; 4 describe the events in photoreception of light and role of rods and cones in vision; explain the causes and consequences of various defects of eye and methods of their correction; describe the structure and genera! functions of the outer, middie and inner ears; explain how ear serves as an organ for ‘dynamic and static equilibrium; | % describe the location, and function 101aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing 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