CONCRET E

i n Ma r i n e
Environment s
C

oncrete has had extensive use as construction material for seaways, jetties, groins, breakwaters, bulkheads and other structures exposed to sea water. The
performance record has generally been good. Cases of
comparatively rapid deterioration have usually resulted
from failure to consider and compensate for the conditions to which marine concrete is exposed. Laboratory
and field tests have indicated that recognizing the causes of marine concrete deterioration and adopting preventive measures results in satisfactory material performance. This article proposes to review these causes and
the remedial steps that have been developed.
Freezing and thawing cycles are one cause of marine
concrete deterioration. Other causes are chemical in nature and relate to the corrosion of reinforcing steel, sulfate water attack on the concrete, or aggregate reaction.
In regions where severe winter weather prevails marine concrete is especially vulnerable to deterioration
due to freezing and thawing at and slightly above the
mean tide level. Here it is frequently subjected to two cycles of freezing and thawing per day. Due to the expansion of ice crystals concrete under such conditions tends
to crumble and spall. Field and laboratory tests have
demonstrated that air entrainment will markedly improve concrete durability under these conditions. Without air entrainment concrete of good quality usually will
withstand freezing and thawing for no longer than one
winter. It has been found that concrete without air entrainment will attain a 50 percent reduction in modulus
of elasticity in 110 or fewer cycles of freezing and thawing. Air entrained concrete withstands more than ten
times this number of cycles before attaining the same reduction. Three to six percent of entrained air is usually
recommended for marine structures where coarse aggregate size ranges from 112 to 3 inches. Air entrainment

also reduces segregation and bleeding, results in lower

permeability, and increases cohesiveness and workability in structures where freezing and thawing are not factors.
Corrosion of reinforcing steel rates high among the
chemical causes of deterioration of concrete in a marine environment. Such corrosion results from electrochemical processes induced by the action of salts on the
steel. Corrosion causes expansion and pressure which in
turn causes concrete rupture and spalling along the
plane of the reinforcing bars. Sea salts absorbed by reinforced concrete produce corrosion cells wherein anodic
(positive) and cathodic (negative) areas are established.
Corrosion products formed on the anodic areas of the
steel are sufficient to rupture the concrete.
Such corrosion has occurred in concrete that is permeable due to a high water/cement ratio. It has also occurred in cases where there is insufficient concrete covering over the steel. Consequently, to avoid conditions
that result in corrosion of steel, it is recommended that
the water/cement ratio be 5.5 to 6 gallons per sack of
cement and that the steel be embedded at least 3 inches
in the concrete.
Opinions differ regarding the use of sea water in the
concrete mix itself. Some codes both here and abroad
prohibit its use generally or under certain conditions
while other codes permit it. Recent tests concerning the
problem, reported to the American Concrete Institute
in June, 1959, indicate that sea water used for mixing
concrete for air exposed reinforced structures tends to
leave the reinforcement vulnerable to corrosion. However there appears to be no danger of corrosion of reinforcement when sea water is mixed in concrete that is
totally immersed in sea water.
With one exception chemical reaction between con-

Seawall at Tampa, Florida, protects city against severe

wave damage.
crete and sea water is not considered a major cause of
deterioration. The one exception concerns the presence
of critical quantities of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) in the
cement, which can result in sulfate attack.
Calcium sulfoaluminate is present in concrete as a result of the interaction of C3A and gypsum. Sulfoaluminate crystals are distributed uniformly in sound concrete but residual C3A in the concrete after the gypsum
is depleted enhances the materials capacity to form additional calcium sulfoaluminate from sulfate (S04) in sea
water. Stresses resulting from this additional growth are
often sufficient to rupture the surface.
Concrete having a low water/cement ratio and containing cement low in C3A has proved highly resistant
to sulfate attack. Type V cement which contains a maximum of 5 percent C3A will minimize crystal formation in
marine concrete. Type II cement which contains 8 percent C3A is a second choice should Type V be economically unfeasible. There are Type I cements available in
some parts of the country which have the desired properties of Type V and II and are less expensive than either.
It has been found that the use of pozzolans with cements containing more than 5 to 8 percent C3A will increase the sulfate resistance of the concrete. However
tests have indicated that using pozzolans with Type V cement reduces sulfate resistance, and no concrete made
with cement and pozzolans blends has proved as sulfate
resistant as that made with Type V cement alone.
Another chemical cause of marine concrete deterioration is the use of reactive aggregates. Alkalies in cement
often react with aggregates such as opaline cherts, critobalites, chalcedony and certain types of shale, all of
which contain hydrated silica, to form alkali-like silicates
that may rupture and crack concrete. Such aggregates
should be avoided, but if this is impossible then a low
alkali cement and a pozzolanic admixture will tend to reduce the problem of excessive alkali-aggregate reaction.
Some authorities believe that the use of low alkali cement alone is sufficient to avoid the reaction, thus elim-

inating the dangers of low early strength and the greater

volume change in the concrete during wetting and drying which sometimes accompany the use of pozzolans.
Proper placement of marine concrete, especially within the tidal zone which is 2 feet below and above high
tide, is also important in avoiding conditions leading to
deterioration. Placement in this zone should be a continuous operation and horizontal joints and seams
avoided whenever possible. If construction joints must
be used the concrete should be left to harden undisturbed. The bonding surface should then be cleaned
thoroughly, cement grout broomed into the wet surface,
and new concrete placed immediately.
In summary, the following practices are recommended to produce marine concrete of excellent durability:
1. Proper mix proportions using the optimum cement
content will yield a dense, impervious and relatively
unabsorbent concrete.
2. The optimum concrete is 612 to 712 sacks per cubic
yard and the water/cement ratio should not exceed 6
gallons per sack of cement to produce a mix that is
plastic and workable.
3. Reinforcing steel must have a minimum of 3 inches of
concrete cover.
4. Type V cement with 5 percent C3A content produces
the best results; Type II with 8 percent C3A is second
choice.
5. Non-reactive aggregates should be used. The alternative is to compensate with low-alkali cement and/or
pozzolans.
6. An air entraining agent will reduce the danger of deterioration due to freezing and thawlng.
7. Especially at the tidal zone concrete should be placed
in a continuous operation; if construction joints are
necessary the bonding surface should be cleaned and
grouted and new concrete placed immediately.
8. Concrete should be compacted thoroughly to avoid
honeycombing and to provide a dense, homogenous
mass.
These recommendations have been derived from extensive laboratory and field tests which indicate that
properly designed concrete placed with care in sea water
is sound and durable. Concrete in marine environments
has proved more economical than steel or wood which
are often subject to considerable maintenance and/or
comparatively rapid deterioration.

PUBLICATION #C620363
Copyright 1962, The Aberdeen Group
All rights reserved