Policy Obstacles for 3D Printing and Makerspaces

in Africa
In a 3D printed future world, people will make what they need, where and when they need it.
Yet, technologies are only as good as the people using them.
--Hod Lipson and Melba Kurman, Fabricated: The New World of 3D Printing1
A once-shuttered warehouse is now a state-of-the art lab where new workers are mastering the
3D printing that has the potential to revolutionize the way we make almost everything. Theres
no reason this cant happen in other towns.
-- Barack Obama, 2013 State of the Union Address2

Introduction
While there has been much hype around 3D printing in the last five years, little research has
explored its impact on developing countries.3 Indeed, like any technology, there are multiple
methods and uses of 3D printing, each with its associated challenges. Just as entrepreneurs seek
applications to maximize the profitability of this new tool, policymakers interested in alleviating
extreme poverty should consider how their policies will affect 3D printings distributional
impact.

Methodology
In this paper, we outline how 3D printing works, its current applications, and how the technology
might be beneficial for economic development in the global South. Then, we explore two case
studies of 3D printing in community makerspaces or fabrication labs in Africa: Woelab in
Togo, and House4Hack in South Africa. Finally, we discuss results of a survey given to 3D
Printing stakeholders in the United States concerning possible policy challenges. Our hypothesis
1 Lipson, Hod, and Melba Kurman. 2013
2 Remarks by the President at the 2013 State of the Union Address. 2015.
Whitehouse.gov. Accessed May 14. https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-pressoffice/2013/02/12/remarks-president-state-union-address.
3 Google Trends. 2015.

is that particular national policy environments, in tandem with distinctive makerspace

characteristics, produce specific economic outputs from makerspaces. By studying the context
and output of two exemplary makerspaces, and integrating these findings with expert opinions,
we hope to provide useful insights for champions of makerspaces, in Africa and elsewhere.

I.

Overview of 3D Printing

The Technical Side

An alternative term for 3D printing, additive manufacturing, fundamentally contrasts with
traditional, subtractive manufacturing. Rather than removing or reshaping parts of a whole raw
material, additive manufacturing prints liquid matter into solid objects of a specific design. As
such, the 3D printed objects form is less limited by its process of production. Further, additive
manufacturing accomplishes small tasks more quickly (eliminating the time spent finding raw
materials) and more efficiently (leaving little if any wasted material).4
Given economies of scale, subtractive manufacturing remains more efficient for mass production
of goods, but many creative industries benefit from swiftly turning a digital design into a
physical facsimile for immediate testing. Since the American engineer Chuck Hall patented the
first 3D printer in 1986, his stereolithography technology has predominantly been used for
rapid prototyping. Today, prototyping accounts for over 70% of the entire 3D printing market.5
At the first stages of 3D printing, a digital blueprint is produced with Computer Aided Design
(CAD) software. These blueprints can be shared online, remixed, and reused, and the resultant
STL file (STereoLithography) is fed into a physical printer. From here, the type of printing
differs by the material used and the 3D printers design. Hulls breakthrough stereolithography
method arranges successive layers of resin onto a substrate. The first layer is cured and solidified
by light, until the second layer is laid, and so on. FDM, or Fused Deposition Modeling, injects
droplets of hot thermoplastic onto a surface to create the object. As the beads of liquid plastic
cool, a 3D object is formed. Given its relative simplicity, FDM is the most common 3D printer
sold to individuals or small businesses.6 More advanced types of printers use wider variety of
materials. Thermal Inkjet (TIJ) printers operate like FDM but can inject organic matter to create

4 Weinberg. 2010.
5 Ferdinand et al. 2015.
6 Ventola. 2014.

complex objects, like human organs. SLS is similar in method to stereolithography, but uses
metals and ceramics for large-scale custom manufacturing.

Current and Possible Uses of 3D Printing

3D printing can be used to make and re-create jewelry, food, architectural replicas, farming tools,
prosthetic limbs, presidential busts, and recently, human organs.7 Combined with on-demand
circuit-board routing, users can produce household electronics in their consumer own homes.
The global 3D printing market, growing at an explosive annual rate of 46%, is expected to reach
$1.6 billion by 2016 and $21 billion by 2020.8 The technology, originally developed in university
labs, has led to a vibrant online and global community dedicated to open source design and
entrepreneurial innovation. By and large, this revolution came about largely without government
assistance, and the regulatory framework is only just emerging.9

Additive Manufacturing in Africa

In Africa, decentralization of 3D printing presents an opportunity to leapfrog mass
manufacturing, just as decentralized mobile phone technology let the continent leapfrog fixedline networks. Africas informal sector might have a particular aptitude for adopting the
technology. Less than 45% of African teenagers are enrolled in secondary school, and many of
those that drop out find apprenticeships in informal industries such as auto mechanic repair.10
Within the large cluster of auto repair workshops in Ghanas Suame magazine, for example,
about 74% of artisans learned their skill through apprenticeship, lasting an average of 3-5 years.11
The informal industrial sector in Africa has been slow to adopt ICT tools, partially due to a lack
of access, and partially due to the high risks of innovation. This has made adjusting to the auto
industrys shift to digitization very difficult.12

7 Public Knowledge Conference 3D in DC, April 29th 2015. Authors Notes.

8 Culumbus. 2015.
9 Interview with Michael Weinberg of Public Knowledge. April 2015.
10 World Bank. World Development Indicators. 2015.
11 Waldman-Brown. 2014.

But with the ability of 3D printers and CNC printing to create for new inventions [these
technologies] have the potential to automate tedious tasks and drastically improve manufacturing
capabilities.13 As 3D printers grow cheaper and more accessible, young apprentices might be
able to pick up and transfer the skill within 3 to 4 years.
The informal auto repair industry is just one area where 3D printing could accelerate urban
development. In remote villages, 3D printers could rejuvenate artisanal craftworks, or print
replacement parts for solar panels and water filtration systems.14 Further, when combined with
the high-speed internet of the continents innovation hubs, rapid prototyping and distributed
manufacturing could help diffuse new ideas quicker.15 In this sense, 3D printers could help
Africa develop its own self-organized, self-sufficient form of industrial engineering, what one
critic calls self-organized Generative Justice.16

A Maker Movement with Makerspaces

The maker movement is a modern DIY culture of enthusiasts seeking to democratize design and
manufacturing technology. A makerspace is simply a shared space with a set of shared tools for
designing and building DIY electronic hardware, programming, and manufacturing projects.17
Makerspaces can be conceived as collaborative workshops, where 3D printers are part of a suite
of tools including CAD software, CNC routers, engravers, mini-mills, and laser scanners.18
Through access to tools for rapid prototyping of new objects, or on-demand manufacturing of
pre-designed objects, any makerspace patron can become his or her own micro-factory. Given
the significant cost of acquiring and maintaining 3D printers, many makerspaces have some sort

12 Gebler et al. 2014.

13 Ibid.
14 Santoso et al. 2014.
15 Public Knowledge Conference 3D in DC, April 29th 2015. Authors Notes.
16 Foster and Eglash. 2015.
17 Kemp. 2013.
18 Public Knowledge Conference 3D in DC, April 29th 2015. Authors Notes.

of membership fee to recoup these costs. Thus, makerspaces can be considered non-rivalrous,
excludable public goods.
A related concept is FabLabs, the educational outreach network of MITs Bits and Atoms
program. Fablabs can be considered the MIT brand of makerspaces, as they focus on education
through off-the-shelf, industrial-grade fabrication and electronics tools, wrapped in open source
software and programs written by MIT researchers.19 Of the 526 official Fablabs in the world,
17 are in Africa.
While access to tools and financial support is a major hurdle for makerspaces in less developed
contexts, the Makerspace model fits with the emerging norm of self-sufficient, communitydriven development. It offers a method of technology transfer for absorbing knowledge and
innovating new, locally-sourced projects. Others have suggested that the African concept of
Ubuntu, or mutual dependence, promotes cooperation and knowledge sharing and is
particularly aligned with the Makerspace ethos.20
According to one maker movement expert at development contractor DAI:
The development community holds it as axiomatic that the best solutions are the ones that
people are empowered to create themselves, meeting their own needs in their own contexts. With
its emphasis on access to knowledge, lower barriers to development and manufacturing, and
geography-neutral collaboration, the maker movement enables exactly those solutions.21
All Makerspaces share the common principles of shared space, tools, and knowledge. What
distinguishes them are their organizational goals, business models, stage of development,
composition of human knowledge, and local contexts.22 As we shall see with the following case
studies, each variable impacts how Makerspaces operate, and the level to which external
stakeholders are effective in supporting local makerspaces.

19 Fab Foundation, 2015. http://www.fabfoundation.org/fab-labs/

20Adebola et al. 2014
21 Ryan-Silva. 2015.
22 Van der Hijden and Juarez. 2014.

II.

Case Studies: Makerspaces in Africa

TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF CASE STUDY COUNTRIES23

23 World Bank. World Development Indicators. 2015.

Togo
Political and Economic Context
Togo is a small West African country of 6.8 million people. It scores low on the Human
Development Index,24 with 2013 GDP per capita at $1,390 (34th in Sub-Saharan Africa). In 2011,
73% of the 2011 population lived on less than $2 per day.25
In 2011, two in five Togolese adults and one in five Togolese youth (aged 15-24) were illiterate.26
Three-quarters of the Togolese population are currently under 35, but just 35% are aged 15-35 in
2013.27 The latter age group has soaring unemployment (8.1%) and underemployment (20.5%).28
5.6% GDP growth in 2013 was largely driven by cotton, coffee, cocoa, and phosphates, plus
services in retail, transport, and communications.29
Social and economic development is markedly better in the capital city of Lome. In 2011, over
80% of Lomes population has access to water and electricity, compared to less than 60% in the
nation as a whole.30 In some portions of North Togo, 90% of the 2011 population was below the
national poverty line; in Lome, this figure is 33%.31 Most of the countrys top technical
universities are in Lome.
But as a primarily commodity-driven economy, Togos high-tech sector is weak. In 2013, just
0.2% of all manufactured exports were considered high technology (totaling $900,000).32 In
24 United Nations Population Fund. Human Development Indicators Report. 2014.
25 World Bank. World Development Indicators. 2015.
26 ibid
27 Togo - African Economic Outlook. 2015.
28 ibid
29 Ibid
30 International Monetary Fund. 2015.
31 ibid
32 World Bank. World Development Indicators. 2015.

2010, a meager 35 people per million worked in research & development, a figure ten times less
than in South Africa.33
The regulatory environment is also burdensome for new businesses. A member of the West
African Monetary Union, Togo ranks 30th out of 42 African countries on Heritage Foundations
2014 Economic Freedom Index, and 142 out of 189 on the World Banks Ease of Doing Business
Index.34 Getting necessary licenses to start a business takes over five months.35 However, Togo
was highlighted as a Top 10 Improver in the 2015 Ease of Doing Business report, for reforms
of its macroeconomic and regulatory policies, a positive trend also noted by Heritage
Foundation.
Faure Gnassingb was appointed to the presidency in 2005 by the military after the death of his
father, who ruled Togo as a military dictatorship for almost four decades. Ghassingb held
elections two months later, which he won despite electoral irregularities and cutting off
international aid. His party won the 2013 legislative elections, which were reportedly flawed but
without incident. The country is now preparing for the 2015 presidential elections.36
Togos economic and political institutions are still developing, as evidenced by improving
governance indicators. However as of 2015, it is unclear which policies and ministries in Togo
would be responsible for regulating additive manufacturing in the country.

Togolese Makerspaces
Within this context, Woelab independently emerged as Lomes community makerspace in
summer 2012.37 The founder, Sename Koffi, is an architect and anthropologist by training. He
envisaged Woelab as a community space for what he calls low high-tech, an ethos of groundup, democratic technological development. At Woelab, which means doing it in the local
language, three fundamental principles compose the group philosophy: Democracy of
Technology, Collaboration/Co-working, and Open Source.
33 ibid
34 Heritage Foundation. 2015
35 World Bank Group. Ease of Doing Business Report. 2015.
36 CIA World Factbook. 2015.
37 Woelab.com

Unlike conventional tech incubators, Woelabs chief aims are empowerment (open transfer of
skills), rather than entrepreneurship (closed private gains).38 By applying technical skills to an
African context, they have merged the traditional African craftsmans aesthetic and the modern
hackers ethic.
Some examples of the labs successes to date include:
Jerry, a small computer and server built entirely from e-waste that runs on Linux or Ubuntu
software.
Kodjo Afate Gnikous 3D printer, the W.Afate, built entirely from e-waste for less than $100. It
has won numerous international awards, and Afates vision is to print objects out of plastic waste
on Mars.39 While Sename Koffi has called W.Afate his labs greatest pride, he adds it is
ultimately one small part of the makerspace program that adds another educational tool for other
makers.
Other participatory design forums such as HubCite, an initiative that seeks to adapt the eurocentric concept of the technological smart city into the African context.
Togo celebrated its ten most promising young entrepreneurs in 2013, three of which were
WoeLab students.

38 Sher. 2015
39 W.AFATE to MARS | International Space Apps Challenge. 2013

FIGURE 1: A DEMONSTRATION OF THE W. EFATE 3-D PRINTER IN WOELAB

Since 2012, Woelab has grown from a few enthusiasts to 25-30 young men and women, with a
median age of 19.40 Despite the international acclaim received by its makers, Woelab has kept to
its grassroots foundation, and remains an independent entity. Most technical skills were acquired
online via cybercafes and engineering schools. For funding they rely upon competition awards,
donations, and odd jobs in the community.

Challenges
At the same time, these hackers are feeling pressure to expand and professionalize. Woelab is
the only known makerspace in Togo, and is actively seeking ways to broaden its reach outside
Lome. Further, the lab will need sustain itself over the long-term, which means less reliance on
the leadership of Mr. Koffi.41
Over the next five years, Woelab will be seeking to consolidate its community capacity. Mr.
Koffi wishes to provide schools with free and quick access to computers, and empower them to
40 Kate Gage: MakerCon New York 2014 - YouTube. 2014
41 Interview with Kate Gage. 2015.

be their own manufacturers and designers. This will lead to a multiplication of makerspaces in
communities outside Lome, which will lead to even more innovative solutions. To accelerate
their innovation, and transition to a culture of making, Woelab leadership requests new
projects, and know-how to train themselves in open source technologies.42

South Africa
Political and Economic Context
South Africa is a large African country of 48 million people. According to the HDI it is a medium
developed country, ranking 118 out of 187 countries in 2014. Its GDP per capita in 2014 was
$12,000, and 31.3% of the population lives below the poverty line. Its literacy rate is 93.7%, and
youth unemployment (ages 15-24) is very high, 51.5%. The overall unemployment rate is 25%.43
Services are the largest sector (69.1%) of the South African economy, followed by industry
(28.5) and agriculture (2.4%). South Africa is the worlds largest producer of platinum, gold, and
chromium. In addition to mining, South Africas industries include automobile assembly,
metalworking, machinery, textiles, iron, steel, chemicals, fertilizer, foodstuffs, and commercial
ship repair. Its retail and financial sectors are the most developed in Africa.44
South Africa experienced a slowdown in GDP growth in 2012 due to labor unrest that affected
the automotive and agricultural sectors. However, growth is expected to increase to 2.7% in
2014, up from 1.9% in 2013. South Africa ranks 6th in the region, and 72nd in the world
according to the 2015 Index of Economic Freedom. The labor market lacks flexibility, labor
regulations are not applied effectively, and it takes five procedures and 19 days to start a
company.45
Given the recent economic troubles and the lack of employment, it is not surprising that people
are turning to alternative methods of productivity and learning. These economic conditions may
be a contributing factor to South Africas success in the makerspace sector.

42 Kate Gage: MakerCon New York 2014 - YouTube. 2014

43 CIA World Factbook. 2015.
44 Kumo et al. 2015.
45 Heritage Foundation. 2015.

South African Makerspaces

There are many makerspaces in South Africa, including House4Hack, Jozihub, and KAT-O. Each
have their own organizational models and goals. General activities in these makerspaces include
entrepreneurial support, hacker/DIY spaces/resources, and educational courses. Communitydriven makerspaces are supported by local membership dues and businesses housed in the
makerspace.
There are also makerspaces supported by external organizations. External support for
makerspaces comes in the form of international non-profit organizations, the South African
government, and academic institution support.
The South African governments Department of Science and Technology and the National
Research Foundation have funded a learning center at the South African Astronomical
Observatory, called the Brain Centre. The Centre offers free internet access to youth and holds
programming and application development workshops.46
There are seven Fab Labs in South Africa. Fab Labs are local affiliates organizations of the US
non-profit Fab Foundation. In order to become an official Fab Lab, an organization must adopt
the Fab Foundations charter, offer some amount of free public access, share common tools and
practices, and participate in the global Fab Lab network.47
The House4Hack makerspace has been described as ground zero for 3D printing in South
Africa. There are no membership fees to join House4Hack, and the 3D printer firms housed there
contribute to the rent. Hack4House self-describes their model as a combination hackerspace and
innovation incubator.
Several 3D printer designs debuted at House4Hack. Peter van der Walt, a founding member of
House4Hack, designs and sells 3D printers called BabyBots. They are made of sheet metal parts
fashioned by a laser cutter and a CNC machine.

46 Axup et al. 2015.

47 What Qualifies as a FabLab? Fab Foundation.

FIGURE 2: VAN DER WALTS BABYBOT 3D PRINTER

Richard van As, another member of House4Hack, designs and sells 3D printers with a focus on
ruggedness and durability. van As made his start in 3D printing when designing affordable
prosthetic RoboHands after losing his own fingers in an accident.

His RoboBeast 3D printer, based on RepRap open source 3D printer designs, is designed for
plug-and-play operation on both stable and unstable surfaces.

FIGURE 3: VAN AS ROBOBEAST 3D PRINTER

Quentin Harley, another member of House4Hack, designed a 3D printer known as the RepRap
Morgan. The printer won the $20,000 GADA Prize for Innovation in 2013.48

48 Oxford. 2014.

FIGURE 4: HARLEYS REPRAP MORGAN 3D PRINTER

KAT-O, Curiousity Campus, and Modern Alchemists form a collective of organizations

providing maker space, educational courses, technology incubation, and brand management.

Robyn Farah, founder of the Cape Town makerspace KAT-O, has identified challenges to
makerspace success in South Africa.49 The primary challenge is the lack of communication
between the many makerspaces. Funding is an additional challenge, as makerspaces must be able
to afford a physical space, equipment, and staff. She recommends South African makerspace
leaders convene and collaborate to solve communication problems.

III. Survey Analysis

We solicited anonymous survey responses from attendees at the April 29, 2015 Public
Knowledge 3D/DC conference in Washington, D.C. Attendees included representatives from US
non-profits, corporations, and academic institutions. We also solicited survey responses from the
3D printing subreddit, at Reddit.com/r/3dprinting. In total, we received 19 responses.
Respondents over-represent the United States, but are evenly balanced between private sector,
academia, and public/nonprofit. The table below shows information regarding the respondent
location and economic sector.

TABLE 2: RESPONDENT SECTOR

Private Sector

7 (37%)

All

1 (5%)

Academia

6 (32%)

Public Sector

4 (21%)

Non-Profit

1 (5%)

49 Fripp. 2014.

TABLE 3: RESPONDENT LOCATION

Metropolitan DC

5 (26%)

Africa

1 (5%)

USA, outside of DC area

11 (58%)

Global

1 (5%)

Europe

1 (5%)

Respondents ranked perceived levels of importance regarding five challenge areas of the 3D
printing sector. We selected the challenge areas based on initial research hypotheses regarding
the diffusion of 3D printing technology.
The figure below shows respondents perceived levels importance regarding access to inputs,
financial considerations, labor skill level, access to markets, and intellectual property.

FIGURE 5: IMPORTANCE RANKING FOR 3D PRINTING CHALLENGE AREAS

Analysis of Results

At least a quarter of all respondents said every challenge area was important to 3D
printing. Respondents selected Access to Inputs as the most critical challenge area.
Financial and labor skill level were identified as the 2nd and 3rd most critical challenge
areas, respectively.
Access to inputs, finances, and labor skill level each received at least 70% responses in
the critical and important categories. Access to markets and Legal (IP) were evenly split
between critical/important and minor/not relevant.
Respondents identified Legal (IP) as the least critical challenge area, but 33% still
identified it as important. Legal (IP) was the only challenge area to receive Not
Relevant responses.
Access to markets received the most minor responses, but received around the average
number of important responses.

Our results align well with an earlier survey of seven African makerspaces, which found that
policy structures contribute less to their organizational effectiveness than basic funding, training,
and infrastructure.50

50 Adebola et al. 2014.

Conclusion
From our survey results and case studies, we have found that makerspace needs are
heterogeneous. At one end, some smaller, community-driven, non-profit makerspaces essentially
require basic access to tools and knowledge. But larger, entrepreneur-focused, for-profit
makerspaces need methods to market their products and scale operations. Each uses different
materials, has different ends, and can be supported in different ways. In the developing world
both types are present, and there is no center of gravity51 for which model will eventually
dominate.
Policy options for supporting 3-D printing makerspaces therefore depend on the type of
makerspace being targeted. If the goal is empowerment through a public technological space,
offering knowledge transfer through open 3D design libraries, technical conventions like
makerfaires, and vouchers for FDM filament and software would be key. At the same time,
donors should avoid core funding of community-driven makerspaces, to maintain their
autonomy. If the goal is entrepreneurship, decreasing tariffs on TIJ and SLS printers may prove
valuable, as would facilitating e-commerce, so budding entrepreneurs can more easily market
their products.
Examples of domestic policies to support makerspaces can be found in the US. For example, the
Mayors Maker Challenge broadens access to expensive manufacturing technologies for
students and entrepreneurs in over 90 cities.52 Meanwhile, the National Institute of Science and
Technologys Manufacturing Extension Partnership helps thousands of startups scale from DIY
shops to small businesses. These activities were announced around the White House Maker
Faire, a first-ever convention of over a hundred Makers from more than 25 states to network with
federal agencies and private businesses.53
To transfer these skills to entrepreneur networks in developing countries, 3D printing and
innovation hubs were featured during the 2014 Young African Leaders Initiative summit in

51 Interview with Kate Gage of USAID. Authors notes.

52 FACT SHEET: President Obama to Host First-Ever White House Maker Faire. 2015
53 ibid

Washington DC.54 Similarly, commentators on African technology have advocated for both
bringing 3D printers into the continents schools and innovation hubs.55
Our point is that policies facilitating makerspace access to tools, funding, and knowledge transfer
are all necessary, and many already exist. The challenge is segmenting the market and targeting
each policy to the appropriate type of makerspace.

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