Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Stress Analysis
Dr. Maaz akhtar
The theory of linear elasticity is useful for modelling materials which undergo small deformations
and which return to their original configuration upon removal of load. Almost all real materials
will undergo some permanent deformation, which remains after removal of load. With metals,
significant permanent deformations will usually occur when the stress reaches some critical value,
called the yield stress, a material property. Elastic deformations are termed reversible; the energy
expended in deformation is stored as elastic strain energy and is completely recovered upon load
removal. Permanent deformations involve the dissipation of energy; such processes are termed
irreversible, in the sense that the original state can be achieved only by the expenditure of more
energy.
Classical Theory of Plasticity
The classical theory of plasticity grew out of the study of metals in the late nineteenth century. It
is concerned with materials which initially deform elastically, but which deform plastically upon
reaching a yield stress. In metals and other crystalline materials the occurrence of plastic
deformations at the micro-scale level is due to the motion of dislocations and the migration of
grain boundaries on the micro-level. The deformation of microvoids and the development of
micro-cracks is also an important cause of plastic deformations. Plasticity theory began with
Tresca in 1864, when he undertook an experimental program into the extrusion of metals and
published his famous yield criterion discussed later on. Further advances with yield criteria and
plastic flow rules were made in the years which followed by Saint-Venant, Levy, Von Mises,
Hencky and Prandtl etc.
Classification of Plasticity Problems
There are two broad groups of metal plasticity problem which are of interest to the engineer and
analyst.
1. Small Plastic strains
The first involves relatively small plastic strains, often of the same order as the elastic strains
which occur. Analysis of problems involving small plastic strains allows one to design structures
optimally, so that they will not fail when in service, but at the same time are not stronger than they
really need to be. In this sense, plasticity is seen as a material failure.
2. Large Plastic Strains
The second type of problem involves very large strains and deformations, so large that the elastic
strains can be disregarded. These problems occur in the analysis of metals manufacturing and
forming processes, which can involve extrusion, drawing, forging, rolling and so on. In these
latter-type problems, a simplified model known as perfect plasticity is usually employed. The
word perfect means that the material in this model does not strain-harden, that is the yield
strength is used which is independent of the amount of plastic strain.
The Bauschinger Effect
If one takes a new sample and loads it in tension into the plastic range, and then unloads it and
continues on into compression, one finds that the yield stress in compression is not the same as the
yield strength in tension, as it would have been if the specimen had not first been loaded in
tension. In fact the yield point in this case will be significantly less than the corresponding yield
stress in tension. This reduction in yield stress is known as the Bauschinger effect. The effect is
illustrated in Figure-1. The solid line depicts the response of a real material. The dotted lines are
two extreme cases which are used in plasticity models; the first is the isotropic hardening model,
in which the yield stress in tension and compression are maintained equal, the second being
kinematic hardening, in which the total elastic range is maintained constant throughout the
deformation. The presence of the Bauschinger effect complicates any plasticity theory. However, it
is not an issue provided there are no reversals of stress in the problem under study.
relationships attributed to Ludik and Holloman can be used to describe the shape of plastic stressstrain curve. It has general form
or
where, is stress,
is yield stress, is strain,
and
are different strength coefficients and
is the strain hardening exponent (n=0 for perfectly plastic solids, n=1 for perfectly elastic solids &
n=0.1-0.5 for most metals).
Another flow equation known as Ramberg-Osgood law, works upto ultimate tensile strength is
given by:
where,
coefficient,
is
then
,
Maximum shear stress gives,
If the principal stresses are unordered, yielding under multiaxial state of stress occurs for any one
of the following conditions:
Above results when plotted on two dimensional principal plane, it gives a hexagon as shown
below:
Total stress is the sum of hydrostatic and deviatoric states of stress as shown in figure-8.
Also,
gives:
Above relation is an equation of ellipse, which gives for plane stress condition an elliptical shape
yield surface as shown in figure-9.
For a uniaxial state of stress at yield principal stresses can be given by:
,
Shape of yield surface for strain energy density criteria is an ellipse in principal stress space that
depends on the Poissons ratio. Assume a special case where Poissons ratio is zero above equation
represents the circle equation
and yield surface will be a circular region.
(2) Failure Theories for Brittle Material
Failure of brittle materials is characterized by ultimate tensile strength. Failure criteria for brittle
materials are discussed below.
(a) Maximum Principal Stress Criteria
This criteria is proposed by Rankine states that yielding occurs at a point when the maximum
principal stress reaches the value equals to maximum principal stress at yield in uniaxial tension or
compression. According to this theory failure occurs when
For plane stress condition
Maximum principal stress criteria for plane stress condition gives failure surface that represents a
square.
becomes,
Also,
Graphically, Mohr's theory requires that the two principal stresses lie within the shaded zone
depicted in Figure-14. Also shown on the figure is the maximum stress criterion (dashed line).
This theory is less conservative than Mohr's theory since it lies outside Mohr's boundary.
a) Tresca Criteria:
b) Von-Mises Criteria:
Answer
Problem-2
A foundation of a machine is made by gray cast iron. The most critical stress condition at a point
in the part is shown below. Find the factor of safety in the foundation, such that
,
Solution:
The gray cost iron is brittle material. For solution we apply maximum principal stress theory.
Thus the factor of safety of the part will be smaller value i.e.
Answer
Problem-3
A thin-wall tube with closed ends is subjected to a maximum internal pressure of 35 MPa in
service. The mean radius of the tube is 30 cm. If the tensile yield strength is 700 MPa, what
minimum thickness must be specied to prevent yielding? Consider failure based on Tresca
criteria.
Solution:
Hoop stresses,
Longitudinal stresses,
Answer
Problem-4
A circular shaft of tensile strength 350 MPa is subjected to a combined state of loading defined by
bending moment (M=8 kN.m) and torque (T=24kN.m). Calculate the required shaft diameter (d) in
order to achieve a factor of safety of 2. Use Tresca criteria.
Solution:
Since
&