FOS4041 - Food Science and Composition

Professor: Jackie Shank, MS, RDN, LDN

What are the characteristics of Palm oil that makes it a desired product
by food industry to replace trans fats?
Ezgi Ertemin- Pearson
03/ 24 / 2015

Introduction
Dietary fats are indispensable, calorically dense macronutrients in our diets that provide
essential nutrition and support healthy body weight. Fatty acids are the major form of dietary fat
and primarily exist in foods in the triglyceride form.1 Hydrocarbon chain length and saturation
status defines the fatty acid structure and, therefore, function. Fatty acids are often classified
based on the existence, occurrence and configuration of double bonds. Saturated fatty acids
(SFA) contain no double bonds, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) contain one double bond
and, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) contain multiple double bonds. They are also determined to be cis or trans depending on the configuration of the double bonds.
Trans fatty acids (TFAs) can be produced by isomerization of cis unsaturated fatty acids
(UFAs) from a natural source (that is, enzymatic hydrogenation or biohydrogenation) and/or industrial source (for example, mainly partial catalytic hydrogenation (PCH)).2 In cis geometrical
configuration two hydrogen atoms from the double bond are on the same side of the carbon chain
as opposed to trans FAs which is 2 hydrogen atoms from the double bond diagonally opposed to
each other. This geometrical configuration gives trans FAs a linear and straight shape whereas
cis structures the carbon chain has a kink at the double bond site and causes fatty acid to bend.3
(Shape is a key aspect in the replacement of TFAs with SFAs. - develop).
Hydrogenation of oils, sometimes known as ``hardening'', is an addition reaction involving the ethylene bonds of the triacylglycerol (TAG) molecule and it can be described as the saturation of double bonds in the unsaturated fatty acids with hydrogen. 4 Partial hydrogenation can
cause a change from the `cis' form to the `trans' form of unsaturated bonds (geometric isomerisation), a change in the position of the unsaturated bonds (positional isomerisation) and formation
of conjugated systems of unsaturated bonds in polyunsaturated fatty acid chains (conjugation).
Most trans fat is formed through this process.
The over consumption of trans fat is associated with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) the
leading cause of mortality world wide, in fact , the consumption of trans FAs corresponding to
2% of a persons total energy intake (TEI) could increase the risk of CVDs to 23% to 25%.2 At
3.7% of energy, both ruminant and industrial Trans FA have been shown to have adverse effects
on blood lipids, and specifically increases in LDL cholesterol and decreases in HDL cholesterol.1
2

Even though some studies find association between cancers and trans FA consumption, according
to the Academy a relationship between trans fats and cancer has not been determined.1,2 Also
,metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes are among the diseases that are thought to be induced
by overconsumption of trans FAs.1
Partial Hydrogenated oils are used in food industry because they are less likely to spoil and they
have a longer shelf life. However health concerns of public and FDA regulations pushed industry
towards replacing hydrogenated oils with palm oil. The major fatty acids in palm oil are myristic
(14:0), palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic (18:2). 4 However the ratio of palmitic/stearic acid in
palm oil can vary. Palm oil is semi-solid at room temperature (20C) and the liquid portion could
be physically separated from the solid portion of palm oil by fractionation. After fractionation the
liquid portion is called "palm olein", which is commonly bottled and sold as cooking oils. The
solid fat portion is called "palm stearin" and it is commonly used to formulate trans-free fats such
as margarine, shortening and vegetable ghee. 4 This paper will investigate the use of palm oil in
margarines and frying oils. Also red palm oil developed by Malaysian Palm Oil Board will be
introduced.
How crystallization behavior of palm oil makes it a good substitute for hydrogenated oils
in margarine fats
Margarine is a water-in-oil emulsion and it contains at least 80% fat and, at maximum,
16% water.5 Margarine is commercially used for spreading, baking and cooking food products
such as pastries and cookies. Many vegetable oils have been modified to produce margarine
with required solid fat content (SFC) and melting behavior. Solidification enabled by partial hydrogenation that converts liquid oils to solid fats for use in margarines and shortenings is accompanied by the formation of trans FAs.6 Partial hydrogenation is responsible for 80% of trans FA
in the US diet.6 Palm oil and palm olein are important ingredients in food applications requiring
solid fats without hydrogenation and used largely by food manufacturers to replace trans FAs.4
The triacylglycerols (TAGs) in palm oil partially define most of the physical characteristics of the palm oil such as melting point and crystallization behavior.4 The crystallization is the
TAGs fractionation or chromatographic separation of solid and liquid lipid phases.2 The forma3

tion of the crystal network is associated with crystal particles that aligned themselves under van
der Waals attractive forces.5 According to Wiking et al., the crystal network and polymorphic
transformation in PO indicated that TAGs have the ability to crystallize in different polymorphic
forms, differing from crystal to crystal in its melting point and crystal structure.5 Since interesterification alters the TAG composition, crystalline morphology of the fats can be modified.6
There are three basic polymorphic crystals known as alfa, beta prime, and beta. These
polymorphs display a specific melting temperature that increases with their stability and their
molecular packing density.2 Textural qualities also differ among these crystals. The ability of
palm oil (PO) to crystallize as beta prime polymorph has made it an attractive option for the production of margarine fat.5
The aim of the study conducted by Pande et al. was to produce trans free structured lipid
(SL) for possible use as hard/industrial margarine. Margarine was formulated using SL and
compared with a reformulated commercial margarine. Melting and crystallization profiles of
lipid samples were determined following AOCS Official Method Cj 194 (Official methods and
recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists Society Cj 1r, 2009).6 Fats containing
predominantly beta prime crystals impart smooth texture and mouthfeel to margarine whereas
those with predominantly beta crystals impart grainy texture. In this study all samples had beta
prime crystal as the dominant polymorph type.
Texture profile analysis of margarine formulated with structured lipid (SLM) and reformulated commercial margarine (RCM) showed that SLM margarine was harder and less adhesive than the RCM but slightly more cohesive. Even though RCM is likely to be smoother and
easily spreadable than SLM due to its micro-structural morphology, the result of the study was
positive with respect to triangle test results. Margarine samples were spread on a toast and given
to 33 participants above 18 years of age in individual booths under fluorescent light. No significant difference in flavor between the two margarine samples found by the participants. As a results researchers concluded that structured lipids could be used as an alternative to hydrogenated
fat to formalize trans-free foods for the industrial use.6

Research findings of Saadi et al. supported the use of PO as an alternative option for the
production of margarine fat. Palm stearin (PS) expresses similar crystallization behavior and is
considered one of the best substitutes of hydrogenated oils due to its capability to impart the required level of plasticity and body to the finished product.5 Saadi et al. looked at behavior of
emulsifier on crystallization regime.
Two types of fats, refined bleached deodorized (RBD) PS and RBD PO used to conduct
this study. Lipid phase, formulated by PO and PS in different ratios, were subjected to an emulsification process. All blends of PO and PS were melted at 70C to destroy all crystals that
originally existed in the admixtures and then blended vigorously for 2 minutes. Monoacylglycerols (MAG) were used as emulsifiers. Emulsifiers influenced the TAG crystallization behavior,
which in turn influenced droplet coverage and retard the transformation from beta prime to beta
polymorph. As discussed earlier, beta prime polymorph is desired to create the best mouthfeel.
In addition,TAG, solid fat content (SFC), and thermal behavior analyses were done. They
found out that TAG composition, SFC, thermal behavior, and microstructure properties of palm
oil based margarine fats were significantly affected by blending and emulsification. 5 Also incorporation of PS less than 40% in the presence of a dose of ( MAG) as emulsifier expressed complete melting at body temperature (37 C) that should result in excellent mouthfeel. 5
Another contributor to the crystallization process and structure is the thermomechanical
history applied to the product such as cooling rate, degree of undercooling, annealing time and
application of flow. Study conducted by Tarabukina et al. states that viscosity changes which
corresponds to physical modifications occurring in the palm oil during cooling.7 As observed
with optical microscopy during the cooling of the palm oil, first crystals and spherulites were
formed, their number and size increased. Secondly, spherulites started to meet and formed aggregates composed of a few spherulites. Due to their particular shape, they had a different motion relative to isolated spherulites and, thus, could well be distinguished. Further, these aggregates grew in size. These larger entities had slower motion due to a collaborative motion. In the
sequel all the aggregates were connected together and formed a rigid network and the sample

was moving as a single body. This study succeeded in illustrating how the extent of shear affects
the different steps of the crystallization and aggregation processes in the case of palm oil.
Performance of palm oil in frying applications
Frying is a process of immersing the food product in hot oil and it involves different factors such as type of food, degree of saturation of the oil, oil temperature, and frying time, that
directly affect the rate of oil degradation and the final product properties.8 Studies that investigate the use of palm oil to replace hydrogenated oils are relevant for the culinary profession, and
the nutrition research field because fried foods are consumed largely in the restaurants and
homes.
A good frying oil must have high oxidative stability, be low in saturates and low in trans
fats, and, finally, produce high quality foods.9 During repeated deep-fat frying, oil goes through
oxidative degradation and chemical reactions like hydrolysis and polymerization that form numerous volatile and non-volatile compounds because of high temperatures, the presence of oxygen, and high moisture.8 Products such as free fatty acids, aldehydes, di- and monoglycerides,
and polymeric triglycerides during the frying application.10 Total polar compounds (TPC) and
polymeric triglycerides (PTG) are accepted as parameters that may be used to decide whether or
not the used oil should be discarded.8
Formation of different compounds, type of oil used and and the length of frying time effects the flavor of food since fried food directly absorbs the fat into the pores of the substance.8
Palm oil is a good alternative for frying application due to its moderate and small content of
linoleic and linolenic acids and it naturally has a high resistance to oxidation due to its high content of palmitic acid.9 Because oils with high unsaturated fatty acid contents such as canola oil
are more susceptible to damage than those containing saturated fats, these oils stabilized with
saturated oil blends.8 Palm oil can be used by itself or blended with other oils.
The study conducted by Bansal et al. aim to establish the behavior of palm olein in repeated, discontinuous deep frying with two different foods ,i.e. french fries and chicken

nuggets.10 Also, the stability of refined, bleached and deodorised (RBD) palm olein was studied
under both repeated frying and controlled heating conditions.10 Researchers measured thermooxidative alterations through various physical and chemical parameters.
One of the parameters that they looked at was the viscosity which increased with the
number of frying cycles for the samples at all measurement temperatures ranging from 40C to
180C. Because the amounts of total polar compounds (TPC) and polymeric triglycerides (PTG)
are considered as the two most important oil degradation criteria, their relation to other parameters investigated. For example, a linear relationships were found between viscosity and PTG and
also between viscosity and TPC. As a result, they though viscosity could be used as a parameter
to indicate frying oils degradation. Also, Bansal et al. found that thermal degradation was the
fastest in heated oil samples as compared to the frying ones. The results lead to a conclusion that
the pace of the chemical reactions involved under heating conditions is different from that during
frying of foods.10
Another study which evaluated the influence of the oil degradation on the sensory perception of french fries and chicken nuggets was done by Enriquez-Fernandez et al. However, they
also investigated influence of the type of oil, using palm olein and a blend of palm olein and
canola oil (50:50), fresh and after repeated discontinuous deep-fat frying.8 In the study, 1.8 kg of
each product was fried in each oil either palm olein or a blend of palm olein and canola oil in an
electrical domestic deep-fat fryer that was filled with 2.9 L of fresh oil. These foods were fried
as 80g. batches at 180C for 2.5 minutes and drained in the frying basket for 1 minute. Fried
foods were held at room temperature until the sensory tests.
A food oil monitor was used to determine free fatty acids and total polar compounds of
the fresh and used oils after five frying cycles. A triangle test was used to evaluate whether the
foods fried in fresh oil were perceived as different than the foods fried in used oil or whether
foods fried in palm olein were different than those cooked in the blend of palm olein/canola oil.8
Sensory evaluations were conducted by 72 non-trained judges and these judges were asked to fill
a sensory evaluation bullet.

According to comments from the judges, the main difference was in the texture of the
samples; those fried in palm olein had a more porous texture and were crispier than those fried in
the oil blend. Surprisingly the used palm olein compared to fresh palm olein did not cause a significant difference in the sensory perception of french fries or chicken nuggets fried in them. But
the type of oil caused differences in the sensory perception of both french fries and chicken nuggets. Therefore, Enriquez-Fernandez et al. concluded that the length of time the oil was used did
not affect the sensory attributes of the fried foods and type of oil used was a more important determinant of taste perception.
Marcoa et al. further investigated the effect of blending palm oil with oils having a higher
degree of unsaturation on fractionation efficiency and physicochemical characteristics of the
blend, particularly on clarity and resistance to crystallization. For this purpose, many analytical
parameters such as tocopherol and tocotrienol content and composition, color and flavor of the
selected blend (sunflower/palm oil 65 : 35 vol/vol) has been monitored along with many other
parameters during a prolonged frying process (8 h discontinuous frying without oil replenishment) in comparison to pure palm oil.11
Twelve panelists were required to evaluate, several sensory attributes, namely color (from
light yellow to brown), fried food smell, any other smell, crispiness, greasiness, and overall
acceptability by using a non-structured 10-cm length hedonic scale. Chips fried in palm oil were
perceived by tasters as greasier than those fried in the blend. However, a comprehensive evaluation of the sensory quality of fried food revealed that higher overall acceptability of chips fried in
palm oil was limited with some samples.
Marcoa et al. observed a 70% reduction for total tocopherols and a 94% reduction for total tocotrienols during 8 h of frying, while in the blend their contents decreased by 43% and by
50%, respectively. Researchers concluded that sunflower/palm oil blend tested in this study represented a valid alternative to pure palm oil as frying medium.11

Nutritional benefits of utilizing red palm olein

Red palm olein (RPOL) and red palm shortening (RPS) have been developed by Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) to retain carotenes and tocols in palm oil and its products, and it is
derived from crude palm oil and refined only mildly.12 It is suggested that commercial RPOL
contains about 519- 531 ppm of vitamin E and 720-733 ppm carotenes, mostly alfa and beta
carotenes.13 The carotenes in RPOL have been demonstrated to have the highest bioavailability
among all known plant carotenes. For this reason, RPOL has been used in many forms to deliver
its pro-vitamin A carotenes to children who are malnourished and who are at risk of going
blind.12 The RPOL can be utilized in wide range of food applications such as cakes, biscuits,
bread, cookies, rusks and red shortening because it can be processed into several fractions (olein
and stearin) with different physicochemical properties. 14
In study done by El-Hadad et al. suggested that RPOL could be a functional food because
the modification of palm oil by increasing the carotenes, tocopherols and tocotrienols concentrations would provide health benefits.12 Accordingly, they replaced butter fat in conventional
chocolate spread by red palm olein at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% levels to formulate functional chocolate spreads. On that account physical tests, chemical analysis, tocopherols analysis,
tocotrienols analysis, fatty acid analysis, and sensory evaluation were conducted. In addition,
they determined total carotenes via spectrophotometer and measured the storage stability.
They found that as RPOL increased, acceptability by panelists decreased. As a result,
chocolate spread made from 20% red palm olein (RPOL) and 80% butter fat was accepted and
selected for subsequent investigation. 12 The replacement of butter by RPOL in formulating the
chocolate spread did not significantly affect the viscosity and fat stability. The chocolate spread
made from 20% RPOL possessed highly significantly total tocopherols and tocotrienols however
the storage of these formulated functional chocolate spreads for 6 months at room temperature
led to a decline in the compounds. Therefore, storage time in room temperature set to be 6
months. This study concluded that a high quality functional chocolate spread was able to be produced by replacing the butter fat with RPOL at 20% level. Also, these formulated chocolate

spreads possessed 3.7 times more tocopherols and tocotrienols, and 19.8 times more carotenes
than the control (100% butter fat). 12
The same group of researchers investigated the physicochemical and functional properties of RPOL again, but this time they formulated biscuits. In this study, El- Hadad et al. replaced white shortening made from vegetable oil with RPOL at 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100% levels.
They simulated the recipes, procedures, and processing conditions applied in food industry on a
pilot-scale. Parameters that are similar to functional chocolate spread formulation study were
investigated. Biscuit samples made from 40% white shortening and 60% RPOL significantly exhibited the lowest values regarding water loss during baking and the highest antioxidant contents
at zero time, 6 and 12 months of storage. 14 Functional biscuits formulated in the present study
could be stored for more than 6 months without incident of oxidative rancidity. 14 However, they
suggested further investigation. El-Hadad et al. concluded that high quality functional biscuits
could be produced following the 40% white shortening and 60% RPOL ratio.
Since RPOL is developed by Malaysian Palm Oil Board, developing functional foods
with it was a focal point of many research studies in Malaysia. In the study conducted by AlHooti et al. utilization of RPOL and RPS in the preparation of pan bread was investigated. For
pan bread making 1.0 kg of wheat flour, 0.06 kg. of sucrose, 0.015 kg of salt, 0.03 kg of shortening, 0.04 kg of nonfat dry milk, 0.0175 kg. of instant dry yeast, 0.0035 kg of malt flour and 75
ppm of ascorbic acid was used. 13 The bread was baked at 2150 C for 24 minutes. 13 Bakery
shortening replaced with RPOL and RPS at 25, 50, 75 and 100% levels. After cooling, the
bread's over night color measurements were taken by portable spectrophotometer. Also, texture
and compression force value measurements were taken . After all Al-Hooti et al. concluded that
RPS could be used to replace the shortening without loosing the textural quality; however, increasing the PROL in the bread formulation increased the compression force and produced bread
with a harder texture. As a result, they suggested using an emulsifier in the bread formulation to
get best results which is rich in antioxidant vitamins.

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Conclusion
Federal nutrition label regulation enacted in 2003 requires the mandatory disclosure of
trans fat content on packaged foods. 15 Also, an FDA labeling requirement that went into effect
in 2006 required food labels to list TFAs on their Nutrition Facts panel on a separate line under
the saturated fat listing when present at 0.5 g or more per serving. 1 In addition, dietary supplements were also required to list TFAs in the Supplement Facts panel. All these regulations, media
attention to this dietary issue and lawsuits against major food industry firms by public interest
groups pushed food industry towards reduce trans fats both in response to consumer demand and
through competition to maintain product reputation. 15
Partial hydrogenation, the process that creates the trans fat in foods, raises the melting
temperature of vegetable oils. In this way, they remain solid or semi-solid at room temperature,
and also increases their shelf- life. 15 The physical characteristics of palm oil, such as melting
point and crystallization behavior, makes palm oil favorable to replace trans fats. According to
the studies that I investigated, the thermal behavior and microstructure properties of palm oil
make it a good substitute in margarine fats. Palm oil blends that are used in frying applications
get positive results from comprehensive sensory evaluations. Nevertheless, the nutritional value
of palm oil can be increased through the utilization of red palm oil that is high in antioxidant.
However, using palm oil in the food industry to replace trans FAs raises eye brows and still remains controversial because of its saturated fat content which is known to contribute cardiovascular diseases. Environmental activists also criticize the food industry on palm oil issue because
of destruction of forests and even criminal activities involved in opening up land to grow palm
trees.
Application to Practice
All these research results illustrates very positive view of point on palm oil usage. However, as The Academy points out, if trans FA content is <0.5 g per serving, then TFA does not
need to be listed in food fact panel. 1 Also, manufacturers that utilize palm oil may also be using

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other oil blends that contains trans FAs. For these reasons products claimed to be zero trans fat
should still be consumed with caution.
Generally commercial pastries, cookies, deserts and fast food industry utilizes palm oil.
Products such as Ben& Jerry ice cream, Nutella, Nestle chocolate products, Oreos, Ritz crackers,
Pamelas gluten free cookies can be given as example. However, a number of companies that
uses palm oil exceeds these examples. We can say today palm oil is one of the most used oils in
the industry. Also, cost efficiency causes industry to prefer palm oil, in this way companies can
save money by excluding partial hydrogenation process.

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References

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Trans Fatty Acids in Foods. Journal of Food Science. 2013; 78 (3)
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4- Sambanthamurthi R, Sundram K, Tan Y. Chemistry and biochemistry of palm oil. Progress in

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5-Saadi S, et al. Effect of blending and emulsification on thermal behavior, solid fat content, and
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6- Pande G, Akoh CC, Shewfelt RL. Utilization of enzymatically interesterified cottonseed oil
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10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01304.x

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8- Enriquez-Fernandez LA, Yanez LAC Sosa-Morales MA. Influence of Oil Type and Freshness on the Sensory Perception of Fried Foods. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology,
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11- Marcoa et al. Frying performance of a sunflower/palm oil blend in comparison with pure
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14- El-Hadad NN, Abou-Gharbia HA, Abd El-Aal MH,Youssef MM. Red Palm Olein: Characterization and Utilization in Formulating Novel Functional Biscuits. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2010;
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