9 - ANA - MARIA - IRINA - DRAGAN - PDF Metacog Final PDF

Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine ale Educaiei, Nr.
2/2013
NVAREA AUTOREGLAT
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
Ana-Maria Irina DRGAN

asistent universitar
Universitatea Constantin Brncui din
Trgu Jiu
Ana-Maria Irina DRGAN

University Constantin Brncui from Trgu
Jiu
Abstract: nvarea autoreglat este o

caracteristic fundamental a nvrii eficiente.
Autoreglarea nvrii se refer la capacitatea
elevilor/studenilor de a exercita un control
motivaional, metacognitiv i comportamental
activ
asupra
propriei nvri.
Factorii
determinani ai autoreglrii au fost grupai n
dou categorii: factori motivaionali i factori
strategici (Schraw & Brooks, 1999). Ambele
categorii de factori pot face obiectul unor
intervenii educaionale. Abilitile de autoreglare
reprezint una din cele mai importante
prerechizite ale nvrii individuale. Acestea
sunt, n cea mai mare parte, implicite n actul
predrii, dar pot fi identificate i n modul n care
profesorul abordeaz predarea i evaluarea:
aspectele pe care pune accent, ce criterii de
performan stabilete pentru notarea elevilor, ce
tipuri de ntrebri formuleaz etc. Multe din ele
sunt nvate n mod involuntar, implicit de ctre
elevi,
devenind
propriile
lor
abiliti
autoreglatorii. Abilitile autoreglatorii pe care le
deprind elevii n coal vor fi utilizate n cea mai
mare parte mai trziu n domeniul profesional.
Studiile arat de asemenea o corelaie ridicat
ntre
nivelul
autoreglrii
i
nivelul
performanelor. Ca atare, instruirea elevului
pentru a aborda n mod dinamic i flexibil
materialul de nvat devine de maxim
importan. Scopul strategiilor de nvare l
reprezint gestionarea judicioas a resurselor
cognitive i motivaionale ale elevului n vederea
rezolvrii de probleme.
Abstract: Self-regulated learning is a

fundamental characteristic of efficient learning.
Self-regulated learning refers to pupils/students
capacity to exert an active motivational,
metacognitive and behavioural control over their
own learning. The decisive factors of selfregulation were grouped in two major categories:
motivational factors and strategic factors (Schraw
& Brooks, 1999). Both categories can be the
object of educational interventions.
Self-regulation skills are one of the most
important prerequisites of individual learning.
Most of them are implied in teaching, but they
can be also identified in the manner in which the
teacher approaches teaching and assessment: the
aspects he focuses on, what performance criteria
establishes to give marks to students, what kind
of questions he asks etc. Many of them are
involuntarily learned, even by students, becoming
their own self-regulated skills. The self-regulated
skills that students learn in school will be mostly
used later in the professional field. Studies also
show a high correlation between the level of selfregulation and the level of performances.
Consequently, students training to dynamically
and flexibly approach learning material turns to
be an extremely important issue.
The aim of learning strategies is the
judicious management of students cognitive and
motivational resources in order to solve
problems.
Key words: self-regulated learning,

Cuvinte cheie: nvare autoreglat, factori motivational factors, metacognition, selfmotivaionali,
metacogniie,
autoeficacitate, efficiency, attribution
atribuire
Abilitile autoreglatorii reprezint

Self-regulation skills are one of the
unele din cele mai importante prerechizite ale most important prerequisites of individual
studiului individual. Pe msura naintrii n learning. The more students advance in
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Education Sciences Series, Issue 2/2013
100
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine ale Educaiei, Nr. 2/2013
coal, elevii trebuie s proceseze un volum

tot mai extins de informaii i s opereze cu
cunotinele la niveluri tot mai abstracte.
Managementul defectuos al cunotinelor i a
studiului personal, ce caracterizeaz pe muli
dintre elevi, ridic n mod serios problema
necesitii achiziiei unor strategii de control
al propriului comportament de nvare.
Astfel de strategii vizeaz, nu doar obinerea
unor performane nalte, ci i dezvoltarea
capacitii de nvare autonom (de
planificare a activitilor n funcie de
prioriti, de mobilizare n direcia atingerii
obiectivelor, de organizare a nvrii i a
contextului de studiu etc.) Problema este c
de cele mai multe ori, colile tradiionale nu
sunt suficient pregtite pentru instruirea unui
astfel de set de competene strategice. n
aceste coli, procesul de nvare al elevilor
este controlat n cea mai mare parte de
profesor (el stabilete scopurile i obiectivele
nvrii, el selecteaz materiale de studiu, el
structureaz mediul de nvare i motiveaz
elevii prin recompense, note i gratificare
verbal). Astfel c, ntreg procesul de
management al cunotinelor declarative i
procedurale este centrat n cea mai mare parte
pe profesor. Controlul asupra ce, cum, ct i
cnd nv elevii, i priveaz pe acetia din
urm de oportunitatea de a-i gestiona
resursele
(cognitive,
motivaionale,
emoionale) i de a-i regla propria activitate
de nvare.
Abilitile autoreglatorii au un dublu
rol:
a. Pe de o parte, vizeaz dezvoltarea uneia
dintre cele mai importante caliti
umane, respectiv capacitatea de
gestionare i control a propriilor
gnduri, motive, experiene emoionale
i comportamente. O astfel de
capacitate este vital pentru dezvoltarea
unor relaii armonioase i pentru
sntatea noastr psihic.
b. Pe de alt parte, reprezint poate cel
mai important set de prerechizite
necesar ajustrii la solicitrile pieei
muncii aflat ntr-o perpetu dinamic
school, the more they process a great amount

of information and operate with quite abstract
knowledge. The faulty management of
knowledge and personal study, which
characterize many students, seriously bring
up the matter of the need to purchase new
strategies to control their own learning
behaviour. These strategies aim not only to
obtain high performances, but also to develop
the autonomous learning capacity (of
planning the activities depending on the
priorities, of mobilizing in order to achieve
objectives, of organizing the learning and the
study context etc.). The problem is that most
of the time, traditional schools are not enough
prepared to train this set of strategic
competences. In these schools, the learning
process of students is mostly controlled by
the teacher (he/she establishes the learning
aims and objectives, selects the study
materials, structures the learning environment
and motivates students by offering rewards,
marks and verbal reward). Thus, the entire
management process of declarative and
procedural knowledge is mostly centred on
the teacher. The control over what, how, how
much and when the students learn, deprives
them by the opportunity to manage
(cognitive,
motivational,
emotional)
resources and to regulate their own learning
activity.
Self-regulated skills have a double
role:
c. On one side, they aim to develop one
of the most important human
qualities, namely the capacity to
manage and control their own
thoughts, reasons, emotional and
behavioural
experiences.
This
capacity is vital for the development
of harmonious relationships and for
our psychical health.
d. On the other side, it is perhaps one of
the most important sets of the
prerequisites needed to conform to
the markets requirements which are
continuously in a perpetual dynamic
and change. Zimmerman (1998)
101
i transformare. Zimmerman (1998)

afirm c repertoriul de strategii de
nvare autoreglat pe care l deprind
elevii n coal va fi utilizat n cea mai
mare parte ulterior n domeniul
profesional. Dintre abilitile pe care le
revendic cel mai frecvent piaa actual
a muncii, pot fi menionate: flexibilitate
n rezolvarea de probleme, generarea de
soluii dinamice, alternative, gndire
creativ i munc n echip. Din pcate,
trebuie s constatm c coala nc nu
este suficient pregtit n faa unor
astfel de provocri.
Date fiind astfel de considerente, se
impune o recalibrare - cel puin parial - a
multora din obiectivele educaionale actuale
n funcie de un astfel de set de solicitri.
Dezvoltarea la elevi a unor abiliti de control
a propriului lor comportament de studiu,
necesit cunotine i abiliti, cu privire la
procesele i mecanismele care au un rol
nemijlocit n managementului personal.
Un motiv n plus al reconsiderrii
sistemului de instruire l reprezint dinamica
expectanelor elevilor privind oferta colii.
Constatm faptul c, de multe ori elevii vin la
coal cu expectane i nevoi mult diferite de
cele la care rspunde n mod efectiv mediul
educaional. Fiind bombardai cu o
multitudine de informaii noi, att prin
intermediul internetului ct i prin diversele
canale mass-media, ei dezvolt capacitatea de
a opera simultan cu un volum imens de
informaii. ns, prin caracterului lor inerial,
de multe ori colile se comport ca un mediu
conservator, care ignor n bun msur
aceste poteniale capaciti. Modalitile de
operare multipl pot fi n bun msur
valorizate de ctre procesele nvrii
autoreglate. nvarea autoreglat ofer
oportunitatea monitorizrii unor procese
informaionale multiple i constituie n
acelai timp premisa unor procesri
informaionale de adncime. Dezvoltarea
abilitilor autoreglatorii poate fi realizat n
cadrul procesului instructiv, prin creterea
states that the series of strategies of

self-regulated learning acquired by
students in school will be mostly used
afterwards in the professional field.
Among the skills that the current
labour market requires very often are:
flexibility in solving problems,
providing dynamic and alternative
solutions, creative thinking and
teamwork. Unfortunately, we have to
notice that school is not enough
prepared to face such challenges.
Taking into account these grounds, it
is needed at least a partial recalibration of
many
current
educational
objectives
according to this set of requirements.
Students development of some skills to
control their own study behaviour needs
knowledge and skills, regarding the processes
and mechanisms which have a direct role in
personal management.
An additional reason to reconsider the
training system is the dynamic of students
expectancies regarding schools offer. It is
noticed that, many times students come to
school with expectancies and need which are
highly different from those effectively met by
the
educational
environment.
Being
overwhelmed by much new information, not
only by means of internet, but also by means
of different mass-media channels, they
develop the capacity to simultaneously
operate with a huge amount of information.
Yet, through their inertial character, schools
become many times a conservatory
environment, which consciously ignores
these potential capacities. The multiple mode
of operation can be also valuated by the
processes of self-regulated learning. Selfregulated learning gives the opportunity to
monitor multiple informational processes and
is in the same time the premise of deep
informational processing. Self-regulated
skills can be developed within the training
process, by increasing the weighting of some
activities, which mediate the experiences
through which the student learns to:
102
ponderii unor activiti, care mediaz

experienele prin care elevul nva s:
(g) systematically explore a learning

situation;
(h) self-monitor the cognitive processes,
proper learning activity and the
manner
of
organizing
their
knowledge;
(i) formulate hypotheses and use
strategies to test the hypotheses;
(j) plan the learning behaviour;
(k) reflect upon the own manner of
learning/understanding;
(l) generate
personal
significations,
which would constitute filters of
interpreting the study material
(Crotty, 1995).
In this context, the finality of learning
is represented by the acquisition (by students)
of a set of self-assessment skills of their own
competences and of the efforts and time
resources management in order to obtain
superior performances. The problem is, that
this type of approach of the own study habits,
called also self-regulated learning, is often in
conflict with the practices of traditional
learning, which most of the time rewards
memory and reproduction performances.
(a) exploreze sistematic o situaie de

nvare;
(b) i
automonitorizeze
procesele
cognitive, activitatea de nvare
propriu - zis i modul de organizare
al cunotinelor;
(c) formuleze ipoteze i s utilizeze
strategii de testare a ipotezelor;
(d) i planifice comportamentul de
nvare;
(e) reflecteze asupra modului propriu de
nvare / nelegere;
(f) genereze semnificaii personale, care
s constituie filtre de interpretare a
materialului de studiu (Crotty, 1995).
ntr-un astfel de context, finalitatea
nvrii o reprezint achiziia (de ctre elevi)
unui set de abiliti autoevaluatorii a
propriilor competene i de gestionarea
eforturilor i a resurselor de timp n vederea
obinerii unor performane superioare.
Problema este c, o astfel de abordare a
deprinderilor proprii de studiu, numit i
nvare autoreglat, vine deseori n conflict
cu practicile nvrii tradiionale, care
recompenseaz de cele mai multe ori
The process of self-regulated learning
performanele
de
memorare
i
de
is an interaction of many factors - personals
reproducere.
(motivational,
strategic,
self-control),
behavioural and contextual with an impact
Procesul nvrii autoreglate se on the students school performances
constituie ca o interaciune a mai multor (Zimmerman, 2000). Since there is no mental
factori - personali (motivaionali, strategici i skill, or a strategy to obtain high
de
autocontrol),
comportamentali
i performances, self-regulated learning is the
contextuali
cu
impact
asupra self-directed way through which the student
performanelor
colare
ale
elevilor converts the mental skills into strategies to
(Zimmerman, 2000). Nefiind nici o abilitate obtain high performances.
mintal, nici o strategie de obinere a unor
Self-regulated learning is an active
performane ridicate, nvarea autoreglat and constructive process of monitoring,
reprezint procesul autodirecionat prin care regulating and adjusting the cognitive
elevul convertete abilitile mentale n activity, the motivational / emotional
strategii de obinere a unor performane resources and of the own behaviour
ridicate.
depending on the set of aims of a person.
nvarea autoreglat este un proces
Taking into account the generic
activ i constructiv, de monitorizare, reglare character of this construct, it is necessary to
i ajustare a activitii cognitive, a resurselor make it operational through series of
103
motivaional
/
emoionale
i
a
comportamentului propriu n funcie de setul
de scopuri al unei persoane.
Dat fiind caracterul generic al acestui
construct, se impune operaionalizarea lui
printr-o serie de refereni comportamentali i
cognitivi. Altfel spus, ne intereseaz ce face o
persoan caracterizat printr-un nivel ridicat
al competenelor autoreglatorii. Corobornd
rezultatele mai multor cercettori (Boekaertz,
Midgley, Pintrich, Schunk, Zimmerman)
putem afirma c, nvarea autoreglat poate
fi circumscris prin urmtoarele dimensiuni:
9 stabilirea
obiectivelor
specifice
studiului (de exemplu, pentru tema de
la limba romn, de sptmna
viitoare voi scrie un eseu de ase
pagini, cu titlul...);
9 alocarea de resurse atenionale n
direcia
procesrii
informaiilor
relevante (de ex., voi fi atent
ndeosebi asupra comentariilor pe care
le face profesorul n timpul
demonstraiei);
9 utilizarea unor strategii eficiente de
codare, elaborare i organizare a
informaiei, n scopul reactualizrii ei
ulterioare (de ex., ncerc s surprind
ct mai multe relaii ntre ideile din
materialul studiat; aceste idei m vor
ajuta s mi-l reamintesc ulterior mai
bine);
9 vizualizarea sau generarea unor
imagini mintale vii, respectiv a unor
secvene comportamentale n scopul
reinerii unor informaii cu caracter
mai abstract (de ex., mi reprezint
potenialele piste pe care pot avansa n
abordarea acestei probleme de logic);
9 utilizarea unor resurse eficiente de
studiu (de ex., pentru a-mi face o bun
reprezentare asupra
fenomenului
migraiei psrilor, voi utiliza atlasul
geografic);
9 autoinstruirea prin verbalizri interne
orientate spre creterea performanei
(n cazul unei probleme complexe
cum ar fi elaborarea unui proiect -
behavioural and cognitive referents. In other

words, we are interested in what a person
with a high level of self-regulated
competences does. Corroborating the results
of more researchers (Boekaertz, Midgley,
Pintrich, Schunk, Zimmerman) we can say
that self-regulated learning can be
circumscribed
through
the
following
dimensions:
9 establishment of specific objectives of
the study (for example, for the
Romanian homework, for the next
week, I will write an essay of six
pages entitled ...);
9 allotting attention resources in order
to process relevant information (for
example, I will be extremely attentive
to the commentaries the teacher
makes during the demonstration);
9 use of some efficient strategies of
coding, elaborating and organizing
the
information,
aiming
to
subsequently put it up-to-date (for
example, I try to discover as many
relations as possible between the
ideas from the studied material; these
ideas will help me to remind it better
later);
9 visualisation or generation of some
vivid mental images, namely some
behavioural sequences in order to
obtain more abstract information (for
example, I represent my potential
stages on which I can advance to
approach this logical problem);
9 use of efficient study resources (for
example, in order to make myself a
good
representation
of
bird
migration, I will use the geographic
atlas);
9 self-training
through
interior
verbalisations oriented towards the
performance increase (in the case of a
complex problem such as
elaboration of a project I must take
into account more sources of
information);
9 self-monitoring the performance,
104
trebuie s iau n calcul mai multe

surse de informare);
9 automonitorizarea
performanei,
respectiv urmrirea selectiv a
prestaiilor anterioare (de ex., voi
nregistra noile cuvinte nvate sau
voi evita planificarea unor sesiuni de
studiu tip maraton);
9 autoevaluarea
progresului
prin
stabilirea i utilizarea unor standarde
realiste (de ex., m atept s iau o not
bun la lucrarea de control de
matematic, cel puin ct am luat la
teza unic);
9 managementul eficient al timpului (de
ex., mi voi organiza programul zilei
astfel nct s reuesc s finalizez
activitile importante sau mi voi
alege momentelor de studiu n
concordan cu perioadele de eficien
maxim);
9 organizarea mediului de nvare (de
ex. voi alege un mediu de nvare cu
ct mai puini distractori (gen:
televizor, CD-uri cu jocuri));
9 solicitarea de asisten n caz de
nevoie (de ex., voi recurge la ajutorul
unui coleg sau al profesorului n
situaia n care nu neleg explicaiile);
9 identificarea punctelor tari privind
propriile abiliti / capaciti (de ex.,
am o bun capacitate de elaborare a
unui program pe calculator);
9 valorizarea nvrii i a factorilor
care influeneaz nvarea;
9 anticiparea rezultatelor propriilor
aciuni ( de ex., dac m in de
programul fcut voi reui s iau o
medie bun la bacalaureat);
9 experienierea unor sentimente de
satisfacie potrivit efortului depus (de
ex., sunt mulumit atunci cnd aloc
zilnic minim trei ore studiului
individual
pentru
pregtirea
examenului de bacalaureat).
Toate aceste procese sunt constrnse
de caracteristicile contextului fizic i ale
mediului social. Astfel, n ultim instan
namely selective monitoring of

anterior performances (for example, I
will record the new words I learnt or I
will avoid planning study session of
marathon type);
9 self-assessment of progress by
establishing
and
using
realist
standards (for example, I expect to
get a good mark to Maths test paper,
at least the mark I took at the national
written paper);
9 efficient time management (for
example, I will organize my daily
schedule so that I would manage to
end the important activities or I will
choose the study time according to
the periods of maximum efficiency);
9 organization of the environment study
(for example, I will choose an
environment study with very few
distractors, such as: television, CDs
with games);
9 request for assistance in case of need
(for example, I ask a colleague or
teacher to help me if I dont
understand the explanations);
9 identifications of strengths regarding
the own skills / capacities (for
example, I have a better capacity to
elaborate a computer program);
9 valuation of learning and of the
factors which influence learning;
9 anticipation of the results of the own
actions ( for example, If I respect the
schedule you made me, I will succeed
in getting a good baccalaureate
average);
9 experimenting satisfactory feelings
according to the effort made (for
example, I am satisfied when I study
individually at least three hours a day
to prepare for the baccalaureate
examination).
All these processes are constrained by
the characteristics of the physical context and
social environment. Therefore, in the last
resort self-regulated activities have the role to
mediate the relationship between the
105
activitile de autoreglare au rolul de a media

relaia dintre individ i contextul n care se
afl acesta (Zimmerman, 1994; Pintrich,
2000a).
Cercettorii n domeniul nvrii
autoreglate consider nvarea un proces
multidimensional, ce implic o serie de
componente, de natur: (a) intern (cognitive,
motivaionale,
emoionale);
(b)
comportamental
i
(c)
contextual
(Zimmerman, 2000). nvarea autoreglat
poate fi totodat asimilat unor interaciuni
reciproce continue ntre abilitile individului
i orientarea motivaional a acestuia (Garcia,
1995). Dac abilitile vizeaz eficiena
strategiilor cognitive i metacognitive,
orientarea motivaional se refer la scopuri,
valori i expectane. Opiunea pentru o
strategie specific de soluionare a unor
probleme, indiferent dac implic cogniia,
metacogniia sau motivaia, depinde de
expectanele i convingerile elevului, de
valorile i scopurile lui relaionate cu studiul.
individual and the context in which he is

(Zimmerman, 1994; Pintrich, 2000a).
The researchers in the field of selfregulated learning consider that learning is a
multidimensional process, which implies
series of components, of different types: (a)
inner (cognitive, motivational, emotional); (b)
behavioural and (c) contextual (Zimmerman,
2000). Self-regulated learning can be in the
same time assimilated to some mutual
continuous
interactions
between
the
individuals skills and his motivational
orientation (Garcia, 1995). If the skills are
related to the efficiency of the cognitive and
metacognitive
strategies,
motivational
orientation refers to aims, values and
expectancies. The option for a specific
strategy of solving problems, regardless
cognition, metacognition or motivation,
depends on the students expectancies and
beliefs, of his values and aims related to
study.
Factors of the self-regulated learning
Factorii nvrii autoreglate

Schraw & Brook (1999) grupeaz
factorii determinani ai autoreglrii n dou
mari categorii: factori motivaionali i factori
strategici. Dac factorii motivaionali au fost
analizai n subcapitolul precedent, n cele ce
urmeaz vom analiza factorii strategici ai
autoreglrii, insistnd asupra strategiilor
cognitive i strategiilor metacognitive (vezi
Fig 1).
Schraw & Brook (1999) group the

decisive factors of the self-regulation into two
major categories: motivational factors and
strategic factors. The motivational factors
have already been analysed in the precedent
chapter, we will further analyse the strategic
factors of the self-regulation, focusing on the
cognitive and metacognitive strategies (see
Fig 1).
106
Autoreglarea
Factori
motivaionali
Autoeficacitate
Factori
strategici
Cunotine specifice
domeniului
Atribuire
Strategii
metacognitiv
Strategii
cognitive
Feed-back asupra
rezultatului
Feed-back asupra
procesului
Cunotine
metacognitive
Reglare
metacognitiv
Fig 1. Factorii nvrii autoreglate (adaptat dup Schraw i Brook, 1999).
Factors
Self-efficiency
Factors
Specific
knowledge
Attribution
Metacognitive
strategies
Strategies
Feedback on
Feedback on
Knowledge
Regulation
Fig 1. Factors of the self-regulated learning (adapted after Schraw and Brook, 1999).
107
Factorii motivaionali
Motivational factors
Motivaia este considerat unul din

cei mai importani factori care stau la baza
realizrii unei sarcini. Motivaia pentru
nvare, ca imbold spre nvare i implicare
susinut n realizarea sarcinilor pe care le
presupune aceast activitate, este rezultanta
unui complex de factori, ntre care se includ
factorii sociali i culturali, convingerile i
valorile personale i factorii contextuali,
specifici unei situaii de nvare (Pintrich,
1994).
Factorii sociali i culturali acioneaz la
nivelul normelor, valorilor i practicilor de
nvare ce se constituie n zestrea cultural a
unei persoane. Diferenele dintre culturi (s
lum spre exemplu doar diferena dintre
cultura urban i cea rural sau dintre cultura
familiilor cu statut socio-economic crescut i
cea a familiilor cu statut socio-economic
sczut) se gsesc la nivelul:
valorii pe care o acord nvrii de
tip colar (pentru unii nvarea n
coal este foarte important, pentru
alii ns experiena de via are o
importan mai mare);
tipurilor de interaciune pe care le
ncurajeaz n activitatea de nvare
(cooperare sau competiie);
concepiilor
despre
competen
(pentru unii competena se refer la
dobndirea de cunotine aprofundate,
pentru alii la dezvoltarea de
deprinderi de munc);
experienelor de nvare pe care le
asigur
(utilizarea
deprinderilor
academice n activitile curente).
Mecanismul prin care aceste aspecte i
pun amprenta asupra motivaiei unui tnr
pentru nvare este implicit. Scufundat n
aceast cultur, copilul interiorizeaz valori i
practici, care se manifest ulterior la nivel
comportamental, printr-o modalitate specific
de implicare n sarcinile colare.
Factorii
contextuali
influeneaz
orientarea persoanei, fie spre dobndirea de
Motivation is considered one of the

most important factors which form the basis
of the achievement of a task. Motivation for
learning, as a spur to learn and to sustainably
imply in performing the tasks that this
activity supposes, is the result of a complex
of factors, such as social and cultural factors,
beliefs, personal values and contextual
factors, specific to a learning situation
(Pintrich, 1994).
The social and cultural factors act at the
level of norms, values and learning practices,
which form the cultural heritage of a person.
There are differences between cultures (lets
take as example the difference between the
urban and rural culture or the difference
between families with a high socialeconomical position and families with a low
social-economical position) at the level of:
the value given to the school learning
(for some people school learning is
very important but for others life
experience is more important);
the types of interaction encouraged in
the learning activity (cooperation or
competition);
the concepts about competence (for
some people competence refers to the
acquirement of in-depth knowledge,
but for others competence refers to the
development of working skills);
the learning experiences provided (use
of the academic skills in current
activities).
The mechanism through which these
aspects leave their mark on a young man
learning motivation is implicit. Immersed in
this culture, the child internalizes values and
practices, which subsequently manifest in his
behaviour, through a specific modality of
getting implied in school assignments.
The contextual factors influence a
persons orientation, either to acquire a
competence in the field, or to obtain just a
specific performance. Among these factors
108
competen n domeniu, fie spre obinerea

doar a unei performane specifice. Printre
aceti factori se numr:
tipul sarcinilor de nvare (sarcinile
aplicative i cele legate de activitile
curente ale elevilor sunt mai atractive
dect cele decontextualizate i
faciliteaz orientarea spre dobndirea
de competen i nu doar spre
obinerea
unei
performane
particulare);
relaia de autoritate n clas
(autonomia n nvare determin o
motivaie intrinsec i o percepie
pozitiv asupra competenelor proprii
de nvare)
utilizarea formal i informal a
recompenselor
(recompensarea
competenei are un puternic rol
motivaional pe termen lung);
modalitatea de evaluare (orientarea
spre competen din cadrul evalurilor
formative determin o motivaie de
nvare superioar fa de orientarea
spre performan);
timpul acordat unei sarcini de nvare
(un interval de timp prea scurt are
tendina de a demotiva elevii);
modalitatea de grupare a elevilor
(gruparea rigid pe abiliti are
consecine
serioase
n
planul
performanelor i a motivaiei pentru
nvare).
Convingerile i valorile personale au un rol
mediator ntre factorii contextuali i cei
sociali, pe de o parte i comportamentele
motivaionale, pe de alt parte. Dintre cele
mai importante convingeri care afecteaz
implicarea n sarcinile de nvare sunt:
expectanele legate de autoeficacitatea
n sarcin (ineficiena perceput n
sarcini de nvare determin evitarea
acestora sau implicare mai redus n
acest fel de sarcini);
teoriile proprii despre inteligen
(conceperea inteligenei ca fiind o
entitate
nemodificabil
poate
we mention:
type of the leaning assignments (the
applicative assignments and those
related to students current activities
are more attractive than the
assignments out of context and
facilitate the orientation towards the
acquirement of competence and not
just to the obtainment of a particular
performance);
relationship of authority in class
(learning autonomy leads to an
intrinsic motivation and a positive
perception on the own learning
competences);
formal and informal use of rewards
(competence reward has a long-term
strong motivational role);
mode of assessment (orientation
towards competence within the
formative assessments leads to
superior
learning
motivation
compared to the orientation towards
performance);
time allowed to a learning assignment
(a short time interval tends to lose
students motivation);
manner to group students (rigid
grouping according to skills has
serious
consequences
on
performances
and
learning
motivation).
Personal beliefs and values have a mediating
role between the contextual and social
factors, on one side, and the behavioural
motivational factors, on the other side. The
most important beliefs affecting the
implication in the learning assignments are:
the expectancies related to the selfefficiency in the assignment (the lack
of efficiency perceived in the learning
assignments leads their avoidance or a
more reduced implication in this type
of assignments);
the own theories about intelligence
(the belief that intelligence is an
unchangeable entity can lead to a low
109
determina o motivaie sczut pentru

nvare n cazul unei percepii
negative despre propriile abiliti
intelectuale);
tipul atribuiilor pe care le fac elevii
(atribuirea eecului unor caracteristici
proprii i stabile, cum ar fi abilitile
de nvare, demotiveaz persoana
pentru activitile de studiu percepute
ca generatoare de eec);
locusul de control pentru nvare
(elevii care au un locus de control
intern, respectiv consider c pot s-i
influeneze performanele colare prin
implicarea n sarcin, vor fi mai
motivai pentru nvare);
valoarea acordat sarcinii de nvare
(cu ct nvarea este mai strns legat
de scopul elevului cu att valoarea
acesteia va fi mai mare i va crete
nivelul de implicare n sarcin);
Motivaia pentru nvare nu mai
poate fi privit simplist, ca o nsuire a unei
persoane sau ca rezultat al unor manipulri
contextuale de genul ntririlor i pedepselor.
Multideterminarea sa este evident, iar
identificarea factorilor care determin o
motivaie sczut este esenial pentru
dezvoltarea capacitii de autoreglare a
nvrii.
Motivai elevilor/studenilor a suferit
modificri de-a lungul timpului. n anii 6070, alegerea unei coli/faculti era motivat
de idealism sau dorina de a nva. Pe
msur ce economia s-a schimbat, alegerea
colii/facultii este determinat de tipul de
carier pe care i-l dorete elevul.
learning motivation if there is a

negative perception of the own
intellectual skills);
the type of attributions students make
(attribution of a failure to some own
and stable characteristics, such as the
learning skills, leads to the lack of
motivation for the study activities,
which are now perceived as failure
generators);
the control locus for learning (the
students who have an inner control
locus, namely they consider that can
influence their school performances
by implying in the assignment, will be
more motivated to learn);
the values given to the learning
assignment (the more related is the
learning to the students aim, the
bigger is the level of implication in
the assignment);
Learning motivation cannot be
regarded in a simple way, as a characteristic
of a person or as a result of some contextual
manipulations such as consolidations and
punishments. Its multidetermination is
obvious, and the identification of factors
which cause a low motivation is essential to
develop the capacity of self-regulate the
learning.
Pupils/students motivation has
changed in time. In the 60-70s, the choice of
a school/faculty was motivated by idealism or
the desire to learn. The economy has
changed, and the choice of a school/faculty is
determined by the type of career the student
wants.
Componente ale motivaiei academice
Components of the academic motivation

After analysing the reasons for which
students go to a faculty, we can highlight 7
components of the academic motivation:
n urma unei analize a motivelor

pentru care studenii urmeaz o facultate, se
pot evidenia 7 componente ale motivaiei
academice:
1. Scopul de a avea performane
academice superioare.
2. Credina n controlul personal al
1. The aim to have superior academic

performances.
2. The belief in the personal control of
success.
110
succesului.
3. Credinta n capacitatea personal de a
obine performane superioare.
4. Credina c efortul depus va conduce
la succes.
5. Valorizarea efortului constant pentru
obinerea succesului.
6. Cunotine legate de formularea
scopurilor i tehnici motivaionale
necesare pentru realizarea sarcinilor
colare zilnice.
7. Dorina de a aplica tehnici
motivaionale pentru a ndeplini
sarcinile zilnice i a menine motivaia
pe parcursul realizrii lor.
Un student poate fi motivat s se
angajeze n rezolvarea unei sarcini, dar
datorit distractorilor ce apar pe parcurs
(anxietatea fa de sarcin, condiii fizice care
pot ngreuna ndeplinirea sarcinii, diverse
gnduri care s nlture atenia de la sarcin,
etc.) i este dificil s persiste n ndeplinirea
ei. Distractorii pot fi ns nlturai prin
folosirea unor strategii de automotivare sau
de autoreglare a nvrii (Dembo & Eaton,
1997). Prin folosirea unor strategii de
stabilire a scopurilor, de control a strii, a
dispoziiei pentru nvare (mood control), de
control a capacitii de concentrare crete
performana academic.
3. The belief in the personal capacity to

obtain superior performances.
4. The belief that the effort made will
lead to success.
5. The valuation of the constant effort to
obtain success.
6. Knowledge
related
to
the
establishment
of
aims
and
motivational techniques necessary to
achieve the daily school assignments.
7. The wish to apply motivational
techniques in order to accomplish
daily assignments and to preserve the
motivation
during
their
accomplishment.
A student can be motivated to get
involved in solving an assignment, but
because of distractors which appear (anxiety
because of the assignment, physical
conditions which can make difficult its
achievement, different thought which would
distract the attention, etc.) it is difficult to
insist in its accomplishment. The distractors
can be eliminated by using some learning
self-motivation or self-regulated strategies
(Dembo & Eaton, 1997). By using some
strategies to establish aims, to control the
condition, the mood for learning, to control
the concentration capacity the academic
performance increases.
Autoeficacitatea
Self-efficiency
n esen, AE perceput poate fi

neleas
ca o anticipare a rezultatelor
pozitive n aciunile ntreprinse datorit
cunotinelor i abilitilor posedate. Mai
mult dect att, AE face diferen n modul n
care oamenii simt, gndesc i acioneaz. Ca
proces cognitiv, AE genereaz opiuni,
motivaii, emoii, idei i comportamente.
Subiectul nu numai c i evalueaz abilitile
n lumina succeselor sau eecurilor trecute,
dar i opteaz pentru anumite sarcini, i
dozeaz efortul, i monitorizeaz progresele
n funcie de experiena anterioar.
In essence, self-efficiency can be

understood as an anticipation of the positive
results in the actions performed due to
knowledge and skills owned. Furthermore,
self-efficiency make the difference between
the ways people feel, think and act. As a
cognitive process, self-efficiency generates
options, motivations, emotions, ideas and
behaviours. The subject not only evaluates
the abilities in the light of past successes or
failures, but he also opts for particular
assignments, doses the effort, and monitors
the progresses depending on the anterior
111
Convingerile despre AE afecteaz i

procesele gndirii i atenionale n direcia
potenrii sau reducerii eficienei lor.
Subiecii cu AE perceput i focalizeaz
atenia spre analiza i gsirea de soluii la
problemele cu care se confrunt. Cei ce au
ndoieli asupra AE i ndreapt atenia spre
propria persoana, fiind preocupai de
inabilitatea lor de a face fa situaiei; aceste
gnduri intruzive interfernd cu folosirea
eficient
a
potenialului
intelectual,
recanalizndu-l de la cerinele sarcinii la
teama de insucces.
Putem spune c percepia eficienei
proprii este reversul estimrii potenialului
propriu n funcie de performane. O
convingere asupra AE ridicat se rsfrnge
pozitiv asupra nivelului de aspiraie i a
investitiei de efort pe termen lung. O
devalorizare marcat a eu-lui are efecte
paralizante, asociindu-se cu un adevrat
declin la toate nivelele.
experience.
The beliefs about self-efficiency affect
also the processes of thinking and attention
aiming to intensify or reduce them. The
subjects with self-efficiency focus their
attention on the analysis and on finding
solutions to the problems they confront with.
Those who have doubts regarding the selfefficiency, pay attention to themselves, being
interested in their impossibility to face the
situation; these intrusive thoughts interfere
with the efficient use of the intellectual
potential, and re-channel it from the
assignment requirements to the fear of
failure.
We can say that the perception of our
own efficiency is the reverse of the
estimation of our own potential depending on
performances. A conviction on the high selfefficiency reflects positively on the level of
aspiration and on the long-term investments
of effort. A marked depreciation of ego has
AE este influenat de patru surse paralyzing effects, causing a real decline at
all levels.
majore de informaie:
experiena anterioar: se refer la
Self-efficiency is influenced by four
experiena personal acumulat de subiect major sources of information:
ca urmare a confruntrii cu diverse anterior experience: refers to the personal
sarcini;
experience accumulated by the subject as
experiena dobndit prin nvarea
a consequence of the confrontation with
vicariant: pornete de la observarea
different assignments;
celorlali n momentul angajrii lor n experience acquired through vicariant
diverse aciuni. Aceasta este strns legat
learning: begins from the observation of
de nvarea prin observarea modelelor;
others when they imply in different
persuasiunea
verbal:
const
n
actions. It is closely connected with the
exprimarea unor ncurajri i gnduri de
learning through observing models;
tipul eti bun n acest domeniu , tiu c verbal persuasion: consists in expressing
poi s faci acest lucru , etc. ;
some encouragements and thoughts such
starea fiziologic i psihologic din
as you are good in this domain , I
momentul anticiprii i desfurrii
know you can do this , etc. ;
sarcinii: semne precum oboseala, durerea, physiological and psychological condition
arousalul ridicat, construit adesea i
in the moment of anticipation and
experieniat ca fric, pot ghida gndurile
deployment of the assignment: signs such
i judecile subiecilor despre puterea,
as tiredness, pain, high arousal, often built
rezistena i capacitile lor n anumite
and experienced as fear, can lead the
situaii.
subjects thoughts and judges about their
power, resistance and capacities in certain
Astfel, majoritatea studiilor realizate
situations.
asupra AE au artat c subiecii ce au un
112
puternic sentiment de AE gndesc, simt i se

comport diferit de cei a cror AE este
sczut. i n condiiile activitii colare
impactul AE este extrem de puternic i, n
majoritatea situaiilor, hotrtor.
Atribuirea
Adesea, ca vector motivaional,
contiina eficacitii proprii (imaginea asupra
eficienei personale) evolueaz fie pe o
spiral ascendent (din succes n succes), fie
pe una regresiv (din eec n eec). Situarea
elevului n cadrul eecului parial sau total,
situare coroborat cu expectanele acestuia cu
privire la posibilitile / capacitile sale,
conduce la punerea n joc, pe termen mediu
sau chiar lung, a unor mecanisme
autodefensive. Acestea au menirea de a
conserva imaginea de sine a elevului, de a
asigura realizarea i meninerea
unei
ambiane propice autodepirii, de a facilita
obinerea acordului cu sine i implicit a
respectului de sine.
Studierea
mecanismelor
de
autoaprare puse n joc de ctre elevi necesit
luarea n considerare a faptului c acestea
acioneaz n contextul complex al unor
situaii de incertitudine unde subiectul nu
reacioneaz doar la eecul de moment ct i
la ateptrile sale privind evoluia
performanelor proprii. Aceste ateptri,
bazate pe experiena personal anterioar,
sunt n mare msur dependente de situaiile
colare precedente cu care elevul s-a
confruntat i de modul n care acesta le-a
fcut fa.
Unul dintre mecanismele defensive la
care se apeleaz cel mai frecvent este
atribuirea. Aceasta se refer, n linii generale,
la maniera de asumare a succeselor i
respectiv de imputare a eecurilor. S-a
constatat tendina subiectului uman de a
considera succesul ca fiind rezultatul direct al
efortului i calitii
prestaiilor sale (
situaie n care vorbim despre atribuire
intern pozitiv) i de a pune eecurile
nregistrate pe seama altora, a contextului n
Therefore, most of the studies about

self-efficiency showed that the subjects have
a strong feeling of self-efficiency, think, feel
and behave differently from those with a low
self-sufficiency. Even in school activities the
impact of the self-sufficiency is extremely
powerful and, in most cases, decisive.
Attribution
As a motivational vector, the
conscience of the own efficiency (image of
the personal efficiency) often evaluates either
on an ascendant spiral (from success to
success), or on a regressive one (from failure
to failure). The partial or total failure of a
student and his expectancies regarding his
possibilities / capacities, leads to the
activation on medium or even long term selfdefensive mechanisms. These aim to preserve
the self-image of the student, to insure the
creation and preservation of an environment
favourable to self-improvement, to facilitate
the obtainment of a self-agreement and
implicitly of self-respect.
The study of the self-defence
mechanisms used by students needs to take
into consideration that these act in the
complex context of some situations of
incertitude, in which the subject reacts not
only to the temporary failure, but also to his
expectations regarding the evolution of his
own performances. These expectations, based
on the anterior personal experience are
mostly dependent on the precedent school
situations with which the student conformed
and on the way in which he faced them.
One of the defensive mechanisms
often used is attribution. This generally refers
to the manner of assuming successes and
namely of imputing failures. There has been
notices that the tendency of human being is to
consider the success as being the direct result
of his effort and quality of performances (a
situation in which we talk about positive
inner attribution) and to blame the other on
failures, of the context in which the
confrontation with the assignment is made (in
113
care se realizeaz confruntarea cu sarcina ( this case we refer to the negative external
caz n care ne referim la atribuirea extern attribution).
negativ ).
The researches in the field has proven
Cercetrile n domeniu au demonstrat
faptul c sunt mai uor de suportat eecurile
considerate ca fiind rezultatul aciunii
perturbatoare a unor factori exteriori
subiectului
(programa colar
suprancrcat, dificultatea excesiv a
sarcinii, timpul insuficient acordat pregtirii,
subiectivitatea profesorului, etc. ) dect
eecurile acceptate ca fiind cauzate de ctre
slaba dotare cognitiv a elevului n discuie.
n concluzie, n mai toate situaiile
subiectul ncearc s-i menin o nalt stim
de sine, atribuind succesul unor cauze interne
i eecul unor cauze externe : este vorba, de
fapt, de ceea ce Weiner ( 1982 ) numea
bias-ul de complezen . Dar, dup cum
arat cercetatorul atribuirea unei cauzaliti
interne evoc, nainte de toate, referina la
capacitile i competenele proprii, pe cnd
atribuirea unei cauze externe este interpretat
cel mai adesea ca o imputare a cauzalitii
unor factori precum ansa sau hazardul. n
aceast conceptualizare apare deseori o
confuzie la nivelul dimensiunilor : intern /
extern i stabil / instabil. Pentru depirea
acestei dificulti, Weiner propune o analiz a
atribuirii cauzale care integreaz aceste dou
dimensiuni, ceea ce trimite la patru factori
cauzali posibili:
efortul ( intern i instabil ) ;
capacitile / competenele / aptitudinile (
interne i stabile ) ;
ansa ( extern i instabil ) ;
dificultatea sarcinii ( extern i stabil ) .
Mai mult dect att, cercetrile recente
demonstreaz faptul c atunci cnd progresul
unui elev, n ceea ce privete sarcinile
colare, este atribuit propriilor sale capaciti,
sentimentul de AE este mult mai crescut
dect atunci cnd saltul su calitativ i
cantitativ este atribuit efortului depus.
Analiza acestui aspect trebuie pornit de la
faptul c subiecii difer ntre ei n ceea ce
privete modul de a concepe abilitatea.
that it is easier to bear the failures considered

the result of the perturbing action of some
exterior factors of the subject (overcharged
school programme, excessive difficulty of the
assignment, insufficient time of the training,
teachers subjectivity, etc.) than the failures
caused by the low cognitive endowment of
that student.
In conclusion, in most of the
situations the subject tries to preserve a high
self-esteem, attributed the success to inner
causes and the failure to external causes: in
fact, it is all about what Weiner (1982) called
the complaisance bias. But, as the
researchers says, the attribution of an inner
causality evokes, first of all, the reference to
own capacities and competences, while the
attribution of an external cause is often
interpreted as a blame on the causality of
some factors such as chance or hazard. In this
conceptualisation there is often confusion at
the level of dimensions: inner / external and
stable / instable. In order to surpass this
difficulty, Weiner proposes an analysis of the
causal attribution which integrates these two
dimensions that reveal four possible causal
factors:
effort (inner and instable) ;
capacities / competencies / skills ( inner
and stable) ;
chance (external and instable) ;
difficulty of assignment (external and
stable) .
Furthermore, recent researches prove that
when the progress of a student in what the
school assignments concern is attributed to
his own capacities, the self-efficiency feeling
is much higher than when his qualitative and
quantitative leap is attributed to the effort
made. The analysis of this aspect must begin
from the fact that the subjects are different
regarding the way of perceiving the skill.
Some of them considers that effort forms the
skill, while others see effort as something that
114
Unii consider c efortul duce la formarea

abilitii, n timp ce alii vd efortul ca pe
ceva ce compenseaz abilitatea sczut (
Bandura & Dweck, 1989 ; Dweck, 1991 ).
Astfel, feedback-ul ce atribuie succesele
efortului va avea efecte mai variate asupra
convingerilor de AE i , evident, asupra
performanelor, dect o are atribuirea
succeselor capacitilor / abilitilor proprii.
n aceste condiii pentru subiecii care
consider c abilitatea este format prin efort
susinut atribuirea succesului lor efortului le
va crete AE, dar este posibil ca aceia care
consider c abilitatea este o aptitudine
inerent / nnscut, care nu ine cont prea
mult de efortul personal s i pun adeseori
la ndoial AE. Se pare astfel c interpretarea
abilitii ca pe o aptitudine nnscut tinde s
submineze dezvoltarea propriilor capaciti (
Jourden & all, 1991 ; Wood & Bandura,
1989). n opoziie, a vedea abilitatea ca pe o
capacitate ce poate fi dobndit ( prin efort
susinut ), determin un sens mult mai elastic
al eficienei i totodat permite existena
unor aspiraii personale provocatoare,
formarea unei gndiri analitice i obinerea
de performane.
Oricum credinele asupra AE,
modificate sau nu de diferite tipuri de
feedbeck atribuional, reprezint factori
extrem de importani ce acioneaz foarte
puternic la nivel motivaional, afectnd astfel
procesul de autoreglare.
Factorii strategici
Fiind frecvent expui unor coninuturi
informaionale complexe i variate, elevii au
nevoie de modaliti prin care s grupeze i s
reorganizeze aceste coninuturi semantice. Pe
lng faptul c este economic, o astfel de
organizare are avantajul c faciliteaz
rapiditatea procesrii. Pentru o bun
gestionare a informaiilor elevii pot recurge la
o serie de strategii de nvare. Factorii
strategici ai nvrii vizeaz pe de o parte
cunotinele specifice unui anumit domeniu,
iar pe de alt parte setul de strategii cognitive
compensates the reduced skill (Bandura &

Dweck, 1989 ; Dweck, 1991). Therefore, the
feedback which attributes the efforts
successes will have more varied effects on
the convictions of self-efficiency and,
obviously, in performance, than the
attribution of successes to own capacities /
skills.
In these conditions the subjects who
consider that the skill is formed through
sustainable effort, the attribution of their
success to effort will increase their selfefficiency, but it is possible that those who
consider that a skill is an inherent / inborn
ability, which does not take into account
personal effort too much to often have doubts
about their self-efficiency. Therefore, it
seems that the interpretation of the skill as an
in-born ability tends to undermine the
development of own capacities (Jourden &
all, 1991 ; Wood & Bandura, 1989). In
contrast, the perception of a skill as a
capacity which can be acquired (through
sustainable effort), leads to a more elastic
meaning of efficiency and, in the same time,
enables the existence of some provoking
personal endeavours, formation of an
analytical thinking and obtainment of
performances.
However, the beliefs regarding the
self-efficiency changed or not by different
types of attribution feedback, represent
extremely important factors, which act very
powerful at motivational level, thus affecting
the self-regulation process.
Strategic factors
Since students are often exposed to
informational complex and varied contents,
they need modalities through which group
and re-organize these semantic contents. Not
only is this organization economical, but it
also has the advantage of facilitating the
rapidity of processing. For a better
management of information, students can
resort to series of learning strategies. The
strategic factors of learning concern on one
115
i metacognitive implicate n nvare.

(1) Nivelul de performan dintr-un
domeniu este determinat de cunotinele
specifice, dobndite prin nvare din acel
domeniu. Un domeniu de cunotine este
constituit din operaii i strategii rezolutive
subiacente, formate pe un anumit coninut.
Transferul cunotinelor este n mare parte
influenat de complexitatea i gradul de
similaritate al acestora cu noile cunotine;
prin urmare se face mereu referire la
coninuturile pe care s-au elaborat.
(2) Strategiile sunt tehnici de nvare
utilizate intenionat pentru realizarea unor
anumite obiective. Ele sunt eseniale pentru
orice tip de nvare deoarece duc att la o
gestionare judicioas a resurselor cognitive /
motivaionale limitate ale individului, ct i la
o abordare sistematic a problemelor pe care
le are de soluionat. Unii elevi dobndesc
aceste strategii n mod explicit sau prin
reflectare asupra propriilor experiene de
nvare. Exist ns i elevi care ntmpin
dificulti n deprinderea lor sau dezvolt
strategii greite ori contraproductive. Pentru
elevii cu dificulti de nvare, antrenamentul
strategic constituie cea mai eficient metod
de ameliorare a performanelor. Un aspect
important al acestor programe strategice l
reprezint informaiile cu privire la cnd i
cum trebuie utilizate strategiile nou nvate
(Schraw i Brooks, 1999 ).
Strategiile de autoreglare pot fi
clasificate n dou mari categorii: strategii
cognitive i strategii metacognitive.
a. Strategiile cognitive se refer la
modul n care elevul organizeaz i
interpreteaz informaiile nvate. Ele
includ :
9 organizarea i transformarea informaiei
(sublinierea, sumarizarea, realizarea unor
tabele, grafice, hri etc.);
9 monitorizare (luarea de notie, evidena
erorilor fcute etc.);
9 repetarea i memorarea materialului
(mnemotehnicile, explicarea materialului
altei persoane, formularea unor ntrebri
referitoare la materialul de nvat,
side the specific knowledge of a certain

domain, and on the other side the set of
cognitive and metacognitive strategies
implied in the learning process.
(1) The level of performance in a field
is determined by specific knowledge,
acquired through learning. A field of
knowledge is made of operations and
subjacent resolutive strategies, formed on
certain content. The transfer of knowledge is
mostly influenced by their complexity and
degree of similarity with the new knowledge;
consequently, it always refers to the contents
according to which they were elaborated.
(2) The strategies are learning
techniques used deliberately to achieve
certain objectives. They are essential for all
type of learning because they lead not only to
a judicious management of the cognitive /
motivational limited resources of the
individual, but also to systematic approach of
the problems he has to solve. Some students
acquire these strategies explicitly or by
reflecting on their own learning experiences.
There are also students who encounter
difficulties in their habit or develop wrong or
contra-productive strategies. For the students
with learning difficulties, the strategic
training is the most efficient method to
improve the performances. An important
aspect of these strategic programs is the
information regarding when and how the new
learnt strategies must be used (Schraw and
Brooks, 1999).
The self-regulation strategies can be
classified into two broad categories: cognitive
strategies and metacognitive strategies.
a. The cognitive strategies refer to the
way in which the student organizes and
interpret learnt information. They include:
9 organising and changing the information
(underlining,
summarizing,
drafting
tables, charts, maps etc.);
9 monitoring (taking notes, recording the
mistakes made etc.);
9 repeating and memorising the material
(mnemotechnics, explaining the material
to other person, asking questions
116
regarding the material learnt, using

utilizarea imageriei mintale, repetiia
etc.);
mental imagery, repetition etc.);
9 elaborating and understanding;
9 elaborarea i nelegerea;
9 sumarizarea materialului
n timpul 9 summarizing the material during learning;
9 organizing the material after learning.
nvrii;
9 organizarea materialului dup nvare.
b. The metacognitive strategies
b. Strategiile metacognitive cuprind comprise the actions the student performs to
aciunile pe care le ntreprinde elevul pentru improve the learning process. Among them
a-i mbunti procesul de nvare. Dintre we mention:
ele menionm:
9 formulating objectives and adequately
9 formularea de obiective i planificarea
planning the learning process;
adecvat a procesului de nvare;
9 dosing time and concentration effort
9 dozarea timpului i efortului de
depending on the level of difficulty of the
concentrare n funcie de nivelul de
assignment;
dificultate al sarcinii;
9 monitoring (checking the quality of the
9 monitorizarea
(verificarea
calitii
activity and progress, analysing the
activitii sau a progresului, analiza
assignment and the necessary steps in
sarcinii i a pailor necesari soluionrii
order to solve it);
ei);
9 predicting the performance;
9 predicia performanei;
9 changing the working strategy;
9 modificarea strategiei de lucru;
9 self-motivation;
9 automotivarea;
9 postponing gratification;
9 amnarea gratificrii;
9 searching adjacent information (library,
9 cutarea
de
informaii
adiacente
internet);
9 structuring the learning environment
(bibliotec, internet);
(eliminating or controlling distracting
9 structurarea
mediului
de
nvare
factors);
(eliminarea sau controlul factorilor
9 asking for help (colleagues, teachers or
distractori);
other competent persons).
9 solicitarea de ajutor (colegi, profesori sau
Metacognitive strategies imply a
alte persoane competente).
Strategiile metacognitive implic o combination of processes of planning,
combinaie a proceselor de planificare, monitoring, problematizing, solving problems
monitorizare, problematizare, rezolvare de and assessing the process of organizing the
probleme i evaluarea procesului de learning.
organizare al nvrii.
Cognitive strategies
Strategiile cognitive
A quite frequent situation encountered
O situaie frecvent ntlnit n in schools is the possibility that the students
domeniul colar o reprezint posibilitatea reproduce from memory the studied contents,
reproducerii din memorie, de ctre elevi, a without being able to transfer this
coninuturilor studiate, fr a fi ns capabili informational content in similar contexts. The
s transfere acest coninut informaional n information from the material remains often
contexte similare. Adesea informaiile uncertain because there is no relation between
coninute n material rmn inerte deoarece it and no connection with other knowledge.
nu sunt relaionate ntre ele i nici nu sunt The creation of relations between studied
puse n legtur cu alte cunotine. Generarea contents and between the contents and the
117
de relaii ntre coninuturi studiate i ntre

coninuturi i baza general de cunotine a
subiectului reclam implicarea aa numitelor
strategii cognitive.
Strategiile cognitive sunt modaliti /
tehnici de procesare a informaiei, pe baza
crora putem selecta, achiziiona i integra
informaiile noi n baza proprie de cunotine.
Strategiile ne ajut s reducem complexitatea
coninuturilor nvate i totodat s integrm
informaiile n ceea ce cunoatem deja pentru
a le utiliza ulterior n mod judicios (de ex. a
le transfera n alte situaii). Strategiile
cognitive vizeaz att procesele mentale, ct
i comportamentele specifice n care se
angajeaz elevii pe parcursul achiziiei de noi
cunotine. Adecvarea strategiilor cognitive la
sarcina curent este rezultatul aa numitelor
cunotine procedurale, respectiv acele
cunotine despre cele mai eficiente tehnici
prin care pot fi achiziionate i asimilate
cunotinele (Borkowski et al., 1990).
subjects general base of knowledge requires

the implication of the so-called cognitive
strategies.
The cognitive strategies are modalities
/ techniques of processing the information, on
the base of which we can select, acquire new
information in the own base of knowledge.
The strategies help us to reduce the
complexity of the learnt contents and, in the
same time, to integrate information in what
we have already known in order to use it later
in a judicious way (for example, to transfer in
other situations). The cognitive strategies
concern both mental and behavioural specific
processes, in which students imply during the
acquisition of new knowledge. The
adaptation of cognitive strategies to the
current assignment is the result of so-called
procedural knowledge, namely those
knowledge about the more specific
techniques through which knowledge can be
acquired and assimilated (Borkowski et al.,
Importana strategiilor de nvare deriv 1990).
The importance of learning strategies
din funciile pe care le ndeplinesc pentru
derives from the functions they accomplish
subiect:
9 conin un set de pai care duc la un for the subject:
rezultat specific i de succes. O
strategie nu este o colecie de sugestii,
ci mai degrab un set de pai care
organizeaz abordarea sarcinii i a
rezultatelor. Chiar dac unele uniti
individuale ale realizrii sarcinii pot fi
evaluate (de ex., Ct de bine execut
pasul doi al strategiei n timpul
testului?), un singur rezultat este
folosit pentru a evalua succesul final
al strategiei ( de ex., n ce msur l-a
ajutat strategia s treac testul?).
Studentul poate s-i examineze
efortul i s evalueze eficiena
strategiei.
9 clarific aciunile pe care urmeaz s
le ntreprind elevii. O strategie de
succes trebuie s aminteasc att
aciuni mentale, ct i fizice. Absena
aciunilor fizice face dificil evaluarea
aplicrii strategiei i a monitorizrii
9 comprises a set of steps which lead to

a specific and successful result. A
strategy is not a collection of
suggestions, but rather a set of steps
which organise the approach of the
assignment and results. Even though
some individual units of the
assignments accomplishment can be
assessed (for example, How well
does he execute the second step of the
strategy during the test?), one single
result is used to assess the final
success of the strategy (for example,
To what extent did the strategy help
him to pass the test?). The student
can examine his effort and assess the
efficiency of the strategy.
9 clarifies the actions which students
are going to perform. A successful
strategy must include both mental and
physical actions. The absence of
118
progresului fcut n ndeplinirea

sarcinilor. n predarea unei strategii
profesorul trebuie s se asigure c
toate aciunile fizice sunt sprijinite de
explicaii clare ale aciunilor mentale
asociate. Informaiile despre aciunile
mentale ofer un ghid pentru deciziile
asupra celei mai bune metode de
realizare a sarcinii.
9 structureaz informaia, reactiveaz
cunotine relevante pentru rezolvarea
unei sarcini, genereaz ntrebri,
rezum etc.;
9 faciliteaz recursul la abilitile
metacognitive.
Reflecia
asupra
sarcinii i a modului n care este
abordat
i
finalizat
aceasta
reprezint printre cele mai importante
componente ale procesului rezolutiv.
De aceea aceste comportamente (de
ex., ntrebri personale asupra
resurselor
personale,
stabilirea
scopurilor, verificare, recapitulare,
automonitorizare) ar trebui incluse n
paii unei strategii de rezolvare de
probleme. O strategie eficient le
reamintete elevilor cnd s utilizeze
o anumit procedur.
9 i ajut pe elevi s selecteze i s
utilizeze proceduri, abiliti i reguli
adecvate. Strategiile i ghideaz pe
studeni n selectarea celor mai
potrivite proceduri, aptitudini i
reguli. Strategiile eficiente ofer un
ghid al resurselor necesare i al
momentului n care acestea trebuie
aplicate. Strategia ar trebui s le
aminteasc studenilor procedura ori
aptitudinea potrivit i timpul potrivit
la care ele trebuie angajate n timpul
procesului rezolvrii de probleme.
physical actions makes difficult to

assess the application of the strategy
and of the monitoring of the progress
made in achieving assignments. In
teaching a strategy the teacher must
be sure that all physical actions are
supported by clear declarations of the
mental associated actions. The
information about the mental actions
provides a guide for the decisions on
the best method of achieving the
assignment.
9 Structures the information, reactivates
the relevant knowledge in order to
solve an assignment, asks questions,
summarizes etc.;
9 facilitates the appeal to metacognitive
skills. The reflection on the
assignment and on the way it is
approached and ended is one of the
most important components of the
resolutive process. This is why these
behaviours (for example, personal
questions on the personal resources,
on the establishment of aims,
assessment, revision, self-monitoring)
should be included in the steps of a
strategy of solving problems. An
efficient strategy reminds students
when to use a certain procedure.
9 helps students to select and use
procedures, skills and adequate rules.
The strategies guide students in
selecting
the
most
adequate
procedures, skills and rules. The
efficient strategies provide a guide of
necessary resources and of the
moment in which they must be
applied. The strategy should remind
students the procedure or the adequate
aptitude and the right time when they
must be implied in the process of
solving problems.
Exist o multitudine de strategii de

nvare - de la simpla repetare pn la
There are many learning strategies
elaborarea, nelegerea i organizarea
materialului - care ns difer prin coninut i from the simple repetition to the elaboration,
eficien.
understanding and organization of the
119
material which differ through content and

efficiency.
Strategiile metacognitive.
Metacogniia
Metacogniia constituie una dintre
cele mai importante componente ale
sistemului cognitiv uman. Nivelul cognitiv nu
poate fi pe deplin neles n absena unei bune
reprezentri a funcionrii metacognitive,
respectiv a cunotinelor (mai mult sau mai
puin explicite) pe care le avem despre modul
n care funcioneaz mecanismele i
procesele mintale (memorarea, nelegerea,
atenia,
raionamentul,
rezolvarea
de
probleme etc.). Cunotinele metacognitive
reprezint deci:
(a) reflecii asupra propriei activiti
cognitive (de ex:. a ti cum s nvei sau
cum s discerni ntre simpla memorare i
nelegerea unui material) i
(b)
anticipri
cu
privire
la
posibilitile de exploatare a acestor reflecii.
Procesul de achiziie a unui astfel de
set de cunotine este mediat n bun msur
de ctre profesor. Prin urmare, multe din
demersurile metacognitive ale profesorului
vor fi preluate prin nvare implicit de ctre
elevi (de ex. modalitatea de alocare
preferenial a resurselor atenionale n
stabilirea anumitor conexiuni, accentuarea
unor aspecte specifice, alegerea deliberat a
unor strategii i reguli, demersurile
argumentative,
stabilirea
caracterului
adevrat sau fals al unor presupoziii, tipurile
de problematizri pe care le utilizeaz etc.).
Activitatea metacognitiv ia adesea forma
unui dialog interior (de ex.: Pare c este o
problem mai dificil. Din instruciunile
primite nu prea mi dau seama despre cum
pot s-o rezolv. Ar trebui s o reformulez.
Pentru acesta trebuie s-mi clarific
urmtoarele aspecte...). Problema este ns
c muli dintre elevi nu contientizeaz
necesitatea unui astfel de dialog n
organizarea i controlul nvrii. De
asemenea, caracterul implicit al cunotinelor
metacognitive poate sugera ideea, c elevii le
achiziioneaz i le utilizeaz n mod tacit. Ca
Metacognitive strategies.
Metacognition
Metacognition is one of the most
important components of the human
cognitive system. The cognitive level cannot
be fully understood in the absence of a good
representation
of
the
metacognitive
representation, namely of the (more or less
explicit) knowledge that we have about the
way in which the mechanisms and the mental
processes
function
(memorisation,
understanding, attention, reasoning, solution
of problems etc.). Thus, metacognitive
knowledge is:
(a) reflections on our own cognitive
activity (for example:. to know how to
learn or how to distinguish between the
simple memorization and the understanding
of a material) and
(b) anticipations regarding the
possibilities of exploiting these reflections.
The process of acquiring this set of
knowledge is mainly mediated by the teacher.
Consequently, many of the teachers
metacognitive approaches will be assimilated
by students through implicit learning (for
example the modality of preferential allotting
of attention resources in establishing
particular connections, highlighting specific
aspects, deliberate choice of some strategies
and rules, argumentative approaches,
establishing the true of false character of
some
presuppositions,
types
of
problematizations that he uses etc.). The
metacognitive activity often takes the shape
of an inner dialogue (for example: It seems
to be a more difficult problem. From the
instructions received I cannot figure out how
I can solve it. I should reformulate it. In order
to do it I should clarify the following
aspects...). The problem is that many
students are not aware of the need of this
dialogue in organising and controlling the
learning. In addition, the implicit character of
120
atare, de multe ori n coal se aloc instruirii

metacognitive un rol secundar, iar
metacogniiile rmn achiziii implicite,
nesistematice i n consecin dificil de
verbalizat. Mai mult, uneori profesorul poate
induce la elevi strategii de nvare
contraproductive, rezistente la schimbare i
care nu fac altceva dect s inhibe tentativele
reflexive ale elevilor.
Dac elevii nu realizeaz utilitatea
cunotinelor metacognitive n procesul de
nvare, probabil c le vor accesa n mod
sporadic i nesistematic i puin probabil s le
transfere n situaii noi de nvare
(Schoenfield, 1985).
n consecin, este recomandat ca
profesorul:
9 s verbalizeze pe parcursul predrii
propriile cogniii (de ex.: s asocieze
informaiile predate cu alte cunotine,
stabilind analogii de genul: este ca i
n mitul eternei rentoarceri...;
9 s fac comentarii rezumative (ceea
ce am prezentat pn acum poate fi
exprimat prin urmtoarea idee);
9 s expliciteze metacogniiile la care
recurge (ex.: monitorizrile periodice
pe care le face, modul n care i
proiecteaz demersul rezolutiv etc.).
Toate aceste activiti au rolul de a
sensibiliza i ncuraja totodat elevul s-i
asume responsabilitatea pentru propriul
proces de nvare i implicit pentru propriul
comportament.
Tipuri de cunotine metacognitive
n funcie de gradul de structurare i
de nivelul de contientizare, distingem trei
categorii
de
cunotine
(teorii)
metacognitive: tacite, informale i formale
(Schraw & Moshman, 1995, apud
McCromick, 2003). Aceste teorii sunt
structuri de cunotine utilizate pentru a
explica
demersurile metacognitive i
abilitile
de
reglare
a
propriului
comportament de nvare.
a. Teoriile tacite sunt convingeri i
metacognitive knowledge can suggest the

idea that students acquire and used it tacitly.
Therefore, in many situations in school the
metacognitive training has a secondary role,
and the metacognitions remain implicit, nonsystemic acquisitions, hard to verbalize.
Furthermore, if the teacher can induce to
students contra-productive learning strategies,
resistant to change and which do nothing
more than inhibit students reflexive attempts.
If the students do not realise the
usefulness of the metacognitive knowledge in
the learning process, they might access it
sporadically and non-systematically and it is
less probable to transfer it in new learning
situations (Schoenfield, 1985).
In consequence, it is recommended
that the teacher:
9 verbalizes while teaching his own
cognitions (for example: to associate
the information taught with other
knowledge, establishing analogies
such as: is similar to the myth of
eternal return...;
9 makes concise commentaries (what I
have presented so far can be
expressed in the following ides);
9 to explain the metacognitions he uses
(for
example:
the
periodical
monitoring he makes, the way in
which projects the resolutive approach
etc.).
All these activities aim to sensitise
and meantime encourage the student to
assume responsibility for his own learning
process and implicitly for his own behaviour.
Types of metacognitive knowledge
Depending on the degree of
structuration and on the level of awareness,
there are three categories of metacognitive
knowledge (theories): tacit, informal and
formal (Schraw & Moshman, 1995, apud
McCromick, 2003). These theories are
structures of knowledge used to explain the
metacognitive approaches and the skills to
121
cunotine implicite i nesistematice i cu

validitate ndoielnic cu privire la activitatea
cognitiv proprie. Achiziia lor are loc printro nvare incidental, neintenionat. Astfel
de convingeri se dezvolt adesea pe baza
experienelor, respectiv a confruntrii cu
diferite sarcini de nvare / memorare (de ex.
evaluarea
corectitudinii
coninuturilor
memorate) i se exprim prin cunotine
implicite de genul: ce trebuie reinut /
nvat?, ce nseamn s tii materia?. De
cele mai multe ori dobndirea unor astfel de
cunotine este realizat n mod intuitiv, fr
o analiz critic a modului n care
funcioneaz mintea i fr o anticipare a
implicaiilor lor. Prin faptul c nu fac obiectul
unor testri obiective, teoriile tacite pot fi
frecvent incoerente i lipsite de flexibilitate.
b. Teoriile informale sunt cunotine
fragmentate care nu dispun de o structur
teoretic explicit, integrativ, care s le
justifice veridicitatea. Totui, spre deosebire
de primele, ele prezint un grad parial de
contientizate, iar subiectul poate pe baza lor
s emit judeci cu privire la eficiena lor.
Realiznd de pild o sarcin de memorare,
elevul poate s genereze reflecii asupra
modului n care funcioneaz memorarea,
descoperind c unele modaliti de memorare
sunt mai eficace dect altele.
c. Teoriile formale sunt reflecii
sistematizate, dobndite printr-o nvare
intenionat, explicit, care deriv din
structuri teoretice testate empiric. De regul,
subiecii
care
subscriu
unor
teorii
metacognitive
formale
i
planific
activitile, i automonitorizeaz aciunile i
i autoevalueaz rezultatele n funcie de
acestea. Ca atare, pe parcursul planificrii vor
estima cu mai mult acuratee timpul i
efortul necesar pentru a-i atinge scopurile.
Astfel de reflecii faciliteaz construirea unor
reprezentri adecvate ale abilitilor cognitive
proprii i implicit proiectarea unor strategii
adecvate de abordare a sarcinilor (n funcie
de care planific, selecteaz i monitorizeaz
implementarea lor). Teoriile metacognitive
formale se dezvolt prin modelare, prin
regulate our own learning behaviour.

a. The tacit theories are beliefs and
implicit and non-systemic knowledge with a
doubtful validity regarding the own cognitive
activity. Their acquisition is made through an
accidental, unintended learning. These beliefs
are developed on the basis of experiences,
namely of the confrontation with different
learning / memorization assignments (for
example, the assessment of the correctitude
of memorized contents) and are expressed
through implicit knowledge such as: what
must be remembered by heart / learnt?,
what does it mean to know the subject?.
Most of the time the acquisition of this
knowledge is made intuitively, without a
critical analysis of the way in which the mind
functions and without an anticipation of their
implications. Since they are not the object of
objective tests, the tacit theories can be often
incoherent and inflexible.
b. The informal theories are
fragmented knowledge without an explicit,
integrative theoretic structure, which would
justify the veracity. However, unlike the tacit
theories, informal theories have a partial
degree of consciousness, and on their base the
subject can put forward opinions on their
efficiency. For example, achieving an
assignment of learning by heart, the student
can generate reflections on the way in which
memorization functions, discovering that
some modalities of learning by heart are more
efficient than others.
c.
The
formal
theories
are
systematized reflections, acquired through an
intended, explicit learning, which derives
from empirically tested theoretical structures.
Usually, the subjects who subscribe to formal
metacognitive theories plan their activities,
self-monitor their actions and self-assess their
results depending on these. Therefore, during
the planning they will estimate with a better
accuracy the necessary time and effort to
fulfil their aims. These reflections facilitate
the creation of adequate representations of
own cognitive skills and implicitly the
projection of adequate strategies of
122
studiu individual, prin autoreflexive i prin

intermediul interaciunilor de la nivelul
clasei.
Diferena major dintre cogniii i
metacogniii vizeaz obiectul asupra cruia
opereaz cele dou procese. Astfel, dac,
cogniiile sunt direct implicate n realizarea
unei sarcini, rolul metacogniiilor este de a
selecta cele mai eficiente strategii cognitive i
de a regla funcionarea lor n direcia obinerii
unor
performane
superioare
prin
monitorizare i control (Slife i Weaver,
1992). Distingem astfel 3 niveluri la care
poate fi procesat informaia: nivelul
cognitiv, nivelul metacognitiv i nivelul
funciilor executive.
(a) Nivelul cognitiv se refer la
totalitatea cunotinelor
i strategiilor
cognitive
(atenionale,
mnezice,
comprehensive, de organizare etc.) de care
dispune un subiect i care sunt stocate la
nivelul MLD. Un astfel de patrimoniu
strategic,
achiziionat
pe
parcursul
ontogenezei asigur conversia cunotinelor
(ndeosebi procedurale) n aciuni de
soluionare a unei diversiti de sarcini. Rolul
lor crucial este evident ns n procesul
rezolvrii de probleme.
(b) Nivelul metacognitiv reclam o
reflectare continu asupra funcionrii
nivelulului cognitiv. El conine, pe de o parte,
modelele specifice ale modului de
funcionare a diverselor procese cognitive, iar
pe de alt parte reflectarea asupra
interaciunilor dintre componentele strategice
i baza proprie de cunotine. n urma
experienierii unor succese i eecuri, la nivel
metacognitiv se structureaz pattern-uri
specifice de utilizare a strategiilor.
(c) Mecanismul care coordoneaz cele
dou niveluri (cognitiv i metacognitiv) este
reprezentat de aa numitul nivel al funciilor
executive. Funciile executive asigur
monitorizarea, controlul i utilizarea efectiv
a cunotinelor i a strategiilor prin punerea
lor n concordan cu funcionarea nivelului
metacognitiv (Butterfield, i Albertson,
1995).
approaching the assignments (depending on

which the subjects plan, select and monitor
their
implementation).
The
formal
metacognitive theories develop through
modelling, individual study, self-reflection
and interactions in class.
The major difference between
cognitions and metacognitions concerns the
object on which the two processes operate.
Therefore, if the cognitions are directly
implied in the fulfilment of an assignment,
the role of metacognitions is to select the
most efficient cognitive strategies to regulate
their working in order to obtain superior
performances through monitoring and control
(Slife and Weaver, 1992). There are 3 levels
where the information can be processed:
cognitive level, metacognitive level and the
level of executive functions.
(a) The cognitive level refers to all
knowledge and cognitive strategies (attention,
mnemonic, comprehensive, organisation etc.)
that a subject possesses and are stored at the
level of MLD. This strategic patrimony,
acquired during the ontogenesis insures the
knowledge conversion (especially the
procedural one) into actions of solving a great
variety of assignments. Their crucial role is
obvious in the process of problems
resolution.
(b) The metacognitive level requires a
continuous reflection on the cognitive level
operation. It comprises on one side specific
models of the mode of operation of the
different cognitive processes, and on the
other side the reflection on the interactions
between the strategic components and the
own base of knowledge. After experiencing
some successes and failures, specific patterns
of using the strategies are structured at the
metacognitive level.
(c) The mechanism coordinating the
two levels (cognitive and metacognitive) is
represented by the so-called level of
executive functions. The executive functions
insure the monitoring, control and effective
use of knowledge and strategies by
coordinating them with the operation at the
123
metacognitive level (Butterfield, and

Albertson, 1995).
The executive functions can intervene
in various situations:
(a) in the control and monitoring of
the necessary steps to correct a
wrong solution;
(b) in the assessment at the level of
accuracy of a prediction;
(c) in the assessment of the usefulness
of intermediary results etc.
The executive functions are an
umbrella concept which circumscribes the
hierarchical superior coordination of series of
cognitive processes used in regulation and
orienting the behaviour towards aim in new
or difficult situations (Hughes and Graham,
2002).
The main processes associated with
the executive operation are: answer
inhibition, working memory and attention
commutation (flexibility). Having a crucial
planning in problems resolution, in the
initiation of particular activities, in
estimation, the executive functions are
cognitive components, which provide the
finding of flexible solutions, the inhibition of
habitual answers by cancelling gratification,
the adaptation to rules change etc. The role
of the executive functions in the real life is
especially highlighted in the management of
ambiguous or very uncertain situations, in
situations in which fast decisions must be
taken, on the base of the estimation of costs
and benefits of finding solutions etc. In
conclusion, the executive functions insure the
flexible coordination and the coherence of
mental actions and behaviour in case of
n activitatea de scriere a unui eseu, following the instructions with a high degree
de pild, monitorizarea const n estimarea of ambiguity.
progresiv a ceea ce nelege un prezumtiv
cititor, iar controlul se refer la mobilizarea
For example, when writing an essay,
resurselor cognitive, n vederea ajustrii
corespunztoare a coninuturilor scrise n the monitoring consists in a progressive
funcie de tema i planul prealabil stabilit. FE estimation of what a presumptive reader
intervin n elaborarea unor modele mentale understands, and the control refers to the
asupra modului n care funcioneaz mobilization of cognitive resources, in order
activitatea cognitiv. Aceste modele sunt to adequately adapt to written contents
Funciile executive pot interveni n

mai multe situaii:
(a) n controlul i monitorizarea
pailor necesari pentru a corecta
o soluie greit;
(b) n evaluarea nivelului de acuratee
a unei predicii;
(c) n evaluarea utilitii unor rezultate
intermediare etc.
Funciile executive reprezint un
concept
umbrel
care
circumscrie
coordonarea ierarhic superioar a unei serii
de procese cognitive utilizate n reglarea i
orientarea comportamentului nspre scop n
situaii noi sau dificile (Hughes i Graham,
2002).
Principalele procese asociate cu
funcionarea executiv sunt: inhibiia
rspunsului, memoria de lucru i comutarea
ateniei (flexibilitatea). Avnd un rol crucial
n planificare, n rezolvarea de probleme, n
iniierea unor activiti, n estimare, funciile
executive sunt componente cognitive, care
asigur gsirea de soluii flexibile, inhibarea
unor rspunsuri habituale prin amnarea
gratificrii, ajustarea la schimbarea regulilor
etc. Rolul FE n viaa real este evideniat
mai cu seam, n managementul unor situaii
ambigue sau cu grad ridicat de incertitudine,
n situaii n care se impune luarea unor
decizii rapide, pe baza estimrii costurilor i
beneficiilor unor soluii etc. FE asigur deci
coordonarea flexibil i coerena aciunilor
mentale i a comportamentului n cazul
urmrii de instruciuni cu grad ridicat de
ambiguitate.
124
similare celor dezvoltate de oamenii de tiin depending on the prior theme and plan. The
n momentul n care analizeaz o sarcin.
executive functions intervened in the
elaboration of some mental models on the
Aplicaii educaionale ale nvrii
way in which the cognitive activity functions.
These models are similar to those developed
autoreglate
by scientists when they analyse an
Fiecare elev i elaboreaz o teorie assignment.
proprie despre ceea ce nsemn nvarea. O
astfel de teorie poate fi naiv, eronat sau, Educational applications of the self-regulated
learning
dimpotriv, poate fi bine articulat, adecvat.
Teoriile (convingerile) elevilor asupra
nvrii individuale, respectiv asupra
Each student elaborates an own theory
mijloacelor necesare atingerii unor scopuri about what learning means. This kind of
specifice n contexte date pot s se modifice theory can be nave, wrong or, on the
n timp (Harter, 1999; Paris & Cunningham, contrary, articulated, adequate. Students
1996). Procesul de nvare individual poate theories (beliefs) on individual learning,
fi mbuntit pe trei ci principale: (a) namely on the necessary means to achieve
indirect, prin experien, (b) direct, prin specific aims in given contexts can change in
instruire i (c) prin practic. Astfel,
time (Harter, 1999; Paris & Cunningham,
(a) studiul individual poate fi 1996). The process of individual learning can
influenat de experienele recurente din be improved on three major ways: (a)
coal. De exemplu elevii pot realiza c indirectly, through experience, (b) directly,
autoevaluarea muncii proprii sporete through training and (c) through practice.
acurateea nvrii, fr a solicita investiii Therefore,
mari de timp. O astfel de informaie poate fi
(a) the individual study can be
dobndit n mod tacit printr-o monitorizare influenced by school recurrent experiences.
succesiv a expectanelor profesorului legate For example, students can realise that selfde procesul nvrii.
assessment of their own work increases the
(b) profesorii pot oferi informaii accuracy of learning, without invest too much
explicite
privind
procesul
nvrii time. This kind of information can be
individuale. De pild, o strategie de nvare acquired tacitly through a successive
individual este predat direct atunci cnd monitoring of teachers expectancies related
profesorul de matematic:
to the learning process.
(b) teachers can provide explicit
9 descrie
necesitatea
analizei
fiecrui termen din enunul unei information on the process of individual
probleme
learning. For example, a strategy of
9 solicit plasarea termenului n individual learning is directly taught when the
locaia potrivit
Maths teacher:
9 cere
efectuarea
calculelor
9 describe the necessity of analysing
aritmetice asupra
termenului
each term in the statement of a
respectiv
i
verificarea
problem
rspunsului.
9 asks to place the term in the
Instruirea asupra procesului nvrii
proper position
individuale poate evidenia strategii detaliate
9 asks
that
the
arithmetic
sau poate implica n mod crescnd reflecia
calculations be carried out on that
elevilor asupra scopurilor i standardelor
term and that the answer be
utilizate n timpul nvrii. Instruirea
checked.
explicit de a evita distraciile i de a
The training on the process of
125
persevera n faa dificultilor reprezint un

exemplu
de
control intenionat
care
promoveaz procesul nvrii individuale
(Corno, 1993).
Profesorii
pot
s
transmit
cunotinele despre nvarea autoreglat n
mod direct pe diverse ci:
individual learning can highlight detailed

strategies or can highly imply students
reflection on the aims and standards used
during learning. The explicit training to avoid
fun and to persevere in front of difficulties is
an example of intended control which
promotes the process of individual learning
(Corno, 1993).
Teachers can transmit knowledge
9 n primul rnd elevii pot beneficia de
analizele i discuiile legate de diverse about the self-regulated learning directly on
strategii de nvare. De pild, different ways:
discuiile cu elevii din clasele primare
9 Firstly, students can benefit from the
se pot focaliza asupra modului n care
analyses and difficulties related on
pot fi utilizate imaginile pentru
different learning strategies. For
nelegerea textelor. n schimb, cu
example, the discussions with the
elevii de gimnaziu i de liceu se pot
students from primary education can
discuta metodele eficiente de luare de
notie. Totodat, profesorii pot iniia
focus on the way in which images can
be used to understand the texts. On
discuii metacognitive despre diverse
stiluri de nvare i pot descrie
the other side, with the students from
strategii de nvare adecvate fiecrui
gymnasium and high school it can be
stil. Redm cteva dintre ntrebrile
discussed what efficient methods they
care pot ghida astfel de discuii: Ce
can use to take notes. Teachers can
sunt strategiile de nvare ? Cum
also initiate metacognitive discussions
opereaz ele? Cnd e important s fie
about different styles of adequate
aplicate? Rolul acestor discuii este ca
learning for every style. We will
elevilor s li se ofere oportunitatea de
further present some questions which
a-i explora propriile strategii de
can lead these discussions: What are
nvare.
learning strategies? How do they
9 n al doilea rnd, profesorii pot s
work? When is it important to apply
proiecteze activiti de instruire de tip
them? The role of these discussions is
to give students the opportunity to
deschis nchis i totodat s-l asiste
explore their own learning strategies.
pe elev n procedurile rezolutive pe
9 Secondly, teachers can project open
care le ntreprinde. Ar trebui s se
close training activities and, in the
insiste mai mult pe munca n echip,
same time, assist the student in the
care s ghideze elevii ntr-o abordare
resolutive procedures. The teacher
de adncime a nvrii i mai puin
should insist more on the teamwork,
asupra temelor i sarcinilor de rutin;
which would guide students in an in9 n al treilea rnd, profesorii pot reduce
depth approach of learning and less on
ponderea testelor obiective (teste tip
homework and common assignments;
gril, teste tip fals - adevrat), testele
9 Thirdly, teacher can reduce the
competitive i comparaiile ntre elevi,
amount of objective tests (multiple
care
afecteaz
nivelurile
de
choice tests, true false tests),
autoeficacitate i de competen ale
competitive tests and comparisons
elevilor. Proiectele, portofoliile i
between students, which affect the
feed-back-ul
privind
prestaiile
levels
of
self-efficiency
and
realizate pot motiva elevii, pot stimula
competence of students. The projects,
nvarea autoreglat i pot dezvolta
126
portfolios and feedback on the

performances can motivate students,
stimulate the self-regulated learning
and
develop
creativity.
The
connection between the personal
assessment and external standards can
help students to fructify time and
effort resources in order to acquire
results.
creativitatea.
Legtura
dintre
evaluarea personal i standardele
externe pot ajuta elevii sa-i fructifice
resursele de timp i de efort nspre
dobndirea rezultatelor.
(c) procesul nvrii individuale
poate fi deprins prin practic. De exemplu,
proiectele colaborative solicit elevul s
contribuie doar cu o parte la ntregul proiect.
Dac contribuia unui elev este inadecvat,
nevoia pentru mbuntire a muncii poate s
devin evident n procesul desfurrii
lucrului asupra proiectului. Aceast nevoie
poate sa fie punctat explicit de ctre semeni
(elevi) i procesul mbuntirii muncii
individuale devine parte a activitii de
realizare a proiectului.
(c) the process of individual learning

can be acquired through practice. For
example, the collaborative projects require
that the students contribute partially to the
entire project. If the contribution of a student
is inappropriate, the need to improve the
work can be obvious while working in the
project. This need can be explicitly pointed
out by people (students) and the process of
Procesul nvrii individuale nu este improving the individual work becomes a
aadar nsuit exclusiv printr-o singur part of the project-making activity.
modalitate. Toate modalitile prezentate
Thus, the process of individual
anterior opereaz mpreun n direcia
consolidrii strategiilor nvrii individuale. learning is not exclusively acquired through
Colaborarea cu profesorii i colegii i ajut pe one modality. All the aforementioned
elevi s dobndeasc n timp propriile lor modalities operate together in order to
teorii asupra nvrii i propriile abiliti de consolidate the strategies of individual
learning. The collaboration with teachers and
nvare autoreglat.
colleagues help students to acquire in time
their theories about learning and their own
skills of self-regulated learning.
Bibliografie :
Mayer, R. (2001). What Good is
Educational Psychology? The Case of
Cognition and Instruction. Educational
Psychologist, 36(2), 83-88.
Halpern, F. D. Teaching Critical
Thinking
for
Transfer
Across
Domains.Dispositions, Skills, Structure
Training, and Metacognitive Monitoring,
California
State
University,
San
Bernardino.
Paris, S. G, Paris, A.H. (2001).
Classroom Applications of reasearch on SelfRegulated
Learning.
Educational
Psychologist, 36(2), 89-101
Bruer, J., (1994). Schools for
Bibliography :
Mayer, R. (2001). What Good is
Educational Psychology? The Case of
Cognition and Instruction. Educational
Psychologist, 36(2), 83-88.
Halpern, F. D. Teaching Critical
Thinking for Transfer Across Domains.
Dispositions, Skills, Structure Training,
and Metacognitive Monitoring, California
State University, San Bernardino.
Paris, S. G, Paris, A.H. (2001).
Classroom Applications of research on SelfRegulated
Learning.
Educational
127
Thought, Basic Books, NY

Gage, N. L., Berliner, D., (1992).
Educational Psychology, Houghton Mifflin
Company
Phye, G. D. (ed), (1997). Handbook
of Academic Learning. Construction of
Knowledge. Academic Press.
Psychologist, 36(2), 89-101

Bruer, J., (1994). Schools for
Thought, Basic Books, NY
Gage, N. L., Berliner, D., (1992).
Educational Psychology, Houghton Mifflin
Company
Phye, G. D. (ed), (1997). Handbook
of Academic Learning. Construction of
Knowledge. Academic Press.
128

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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine ale Educaiei, Nr.

Ana-Maria Irina DRGAN

Ana-Maria Irina DRGAN

Abstract: nvarea autoreglat este o

Abstract: Self-regulated learning is a

Key words: self-regulated learning,

Abilitile autoreglatorii reprezint

coal, elevii trebuie s proceseze un volum

school, the more they process a great amount

i transformare. Zimmerman (1998)

states that the series of strategies of

ponderii unor activiti, care mediaz

(g) systematically explore a learning

(a) exploreze sistematic o situaie de

behavioural and cognitive referents. In other

trebuie s iau n calcul mai multe

namely selective monitoring of

activitile de autoreglare au rolul de a media

individual and the context in which he is

Factorii nvrii autoreglate

Schraw & Brook (1999) group the

Fig 1. Factorii nvrii autoreglate (adaptat dup Schraw i Brook, 1999).

Motivaia este considerat unul din

Motivation is considered one of the

competen n domeniu, fie spre obinerea

determina o motivaie sczut pentru

learning motivation if there is a

Componente ale motivaiei academice

Components of the academic motivation

n urma unei analize a motivelor

1. The aim to have superior academic

3. The belief in the personal capacity to

n esen, AE perceput poate fi

In essence, self-efficiency can be

Convingerile despre AE afecteaz i

puternic sentiment de AE gndesc, simt i se

Therefore, most of the studies about

that it is easier to bear the failures considered

Unii consider c efortul duce la formarea

compensates the reduced skill (Bandura &

i metacognitive implicate n nvare.

side the specific knowledge of a certain

regarding the material learnt, using

de relaii ntre coninuturi studiate i ntre

subjects general base of knowledge requires

9 comprises a set of steps which lead to

progresului fcut n ndeplinirea

physical actions makes difficult to

Exist o multitudine de strategii de

material which differ through content and

atare, de multe ori n coal se aloc instruirii

metacognitive knowledge can suggest the

cunotine implicite i nesistematice i cu

regulate our own learning behaviour.

studiu individual, prin autoreflexive i prin

approaching the assignments (depending on

metacognitive level (Butterfield, and

Funciile executive pot interveni n

persevera n faa dificultilor reprezint un

individual learning can highlight detailed

portfolios and feedback on the

(c) the process of individual learning

Thought, Basic Books, NY