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Using Zone Theory to Understand Mathematics Teachers Technology Implementation in

Turkey: Recommendations from Australia and South Korea
Elif N. Gokbel
GDIT 707 Instructional Technology Design & Leadership
Fall 2015

Introduction

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As digital technologies become rapidly integrated into every level of education,
the potential for these technologies to renovate mathematics teaching and learning can be
easily imagined. Several studies argue that the use of new technologies during the
instruction is essential for maintaining opportunities for students to be digital learners in
the information age (e.g., Greenhow, Robelia, & Hughes, 2009). These technologies also
offer new opportunities for teachers to adopt their teaching skills for more effective
instruction to those learners.
Surveys of K-12 teachers show consistent declines in the classroom use of
technologies. In their recent report on trends in international mathematics and science,
Mullis et al. (2012) indicated in Turkey, at least monthly 24% of eight grade students
teachers had them to explore mathematics principles and concepts; 26% of the students
teachers had them to look up ideas and information; 22% of teachers at least monthly had
students to process and analyze data; and 21% of eighth grade students teachers had
students computers to practice skills and procedures. These low figures imply that
effective integration of technology into classroom instruction has yet to be realized.
Theoretical Framework
Zone Theory
Vygotsky (1978) defined the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as the
distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peer (p. 86). That is, the

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ZPD addresses the distance between a childs self-capacity of problem solving and the
greater level of performance that can be promoted with expert guidance, either capable
adult or peer.
In addition to the gap between existing and future ability, there are other factors
impacting development. For example, Valsiner (1997) expanded the concept of the ZPD
and proposed two other zones influencing a childs development: The Zone of Free
Movement (ZFM) and the Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA). The ZFM represents a
structure of the childs action and thought limited by environmental constrains. And, the
ZPA is defined as a set of activities offered in the environment toward promotion of new
skills.
Originally, Valsiners (1997) theory was intended to explain child development,
but researchers in the previous literature noted that the three aspects of Zone Theory
(ZPD, ZFM, and ZPA) could be observed in the context of teacher education (e.g.,
Blanton, Westbrook, & Carter, 2005; Goos, 2005; Hussain, Monaghan, & Threlfall, 2013;
Wu, 2004). It was also argued that the zone theory is applicable to any human
development situations where the environment is structurally organized, and so it seems
reasonable to extend toward teachers personal and professional development on the use
of technology in teaching and learning.

Previous Studies that use Zone Theory in the Context of Teacher Education

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Snoeyink and Ertmer (2001) attempted to identify factors impacting technology
integration by teachers. The authors classified the factors into two categories: first-order
(external) barriers, including resource-related issues such as lack of equipment, lack of
support, and second-order (internal) barriers, including organizational culture, teachers
beliefs and attitudes about teaching and technology. Similarly, Wachira and Keenwe
(2011) also have identified a range of factors influencing mathematics teachers interest
and implementation of technology. These include: availability and unreliability of
technology; time; anxiety and confidence; availability of appropriate teaching materials;
technical support and technology leadership; knowledge of how to integrate technology
into mathematics teaching; beliefs about the role of technology in learning (Wachira &
Keengwe, 2011). In terms of the theoretical framework outlined above, these different
types of knowledge and experience represent elements of a teachers ZPD, ZFM, and
ZPA, as shown in Figure 1.
Zone theories were used in teacher education research from various subject areas,
such as language, science, and mathematics. In their study, Shabani et al. (2010)
examined the instructional implications of Vygotsky's (1978) pivotal concept of Zone of
Proximal Development and its applications to the concept of language teacher
professional development. Blanton et al. (2005) explored the use of Valsiners zone
theory to interpret the ZPD of three secondary teachers in mathematics and science. In
this study, they used classroom discourse to identify what the teachers promoted (zone
of promoted action) or allowed (zone of free movement) in the classroom as a way to
understand better their potential for development (p.5).

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Consistent with previous studies, Gooss (2012) approach to the use of zone
theory interprets Valsiners zones from the perspective of teacher as learner. He
developed a framework by adapting Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development, and
Valsiners Zone of Free Movement and Zone of Promoted Action, to investigate
mathematics teachers technology use. He first used the framework to analyze computer
and graphics calculator technologies integration into classroom practice by the preservice and novice secondary mathematics teachers (Goos, 2005). Then, the framework
was used in a series of studies investigating factors influencing secondary mathematics
teachers use of digital technologies into classroom instruction (Bennison& Goos, 2010;
Goos, 2008; Goos, 2012).
Now, this study aims to extend the literature by examining how eighth grade
mathematics teachers implement ICT tools into teaching and learning by using the Zone
framework. Second, it will contribute to the literature by providing lessons and
recommendations from Australia and South Korea for Turkey. Last contribution of the
study will be that the focus will be on ICT (information and computer technologies) tools
as instructional materials instead of computers and graphing calculators.
Figure 1 represents Gooss (2012) approach to use zone theories in examining factors
affecting mathematics teachers technology implementation.

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Valsiners Zone
Theory

Zone of Free
Movement
(ZFM)

Access to resources

Technical support

Vygotskys Zone
Theory

Zone of Promoted
Action (ZPA)

Professional dev. activities

Collaboration with
colleagues

Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD)

Teachers pedagogical
beliefs
Pedagogical knowledge
Teachers confidence

Teachers use of
technology

Figure 1. Adapted Model of Zone Theory

This study attempts to understand eighth grade mathematics teachers technology
implementation, using the zone theory. To achieve that goal, this study investigates the
use of information and computer technologies in Australia, South Korea, and Turkey.
There are several research questions this study will address in relation to the application
of the zone theory:
1) What are the differences in use of information and computer technologies (ICT) by
eighth grade mathematics teachers in Australia, South Korea, and Turkey?
2) What is the relationship between the use of ICT and eighth grade mathematics
teachers ZPD in Australia, South Korea, and Turkey?

Skill/experience in working with technology

Pedagogical knowledge (technology integration)
General pedagogical beliefs

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3) What is the relationship between the use of ICT and eighth grade mathematics
teachers ZFM in Australia, South Korea, and Turkey?

Access to technology resources &teaching materials

Technical support

4) What is the relationship between the use of ICT and eighth grade mathematics
teachers ZPA in Australia, South Korea, and Turkey?

Professional development activities

Collaboration with colleagues
Methodology

Sample
This study will use the International Computer and Information Literacy Study
(ICILS) 2013 database. ICILS was the first assessment in the series of studies by the
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) to
measure trends in students' computer and literacy achievement. ICILS researchers
gathered the data from approximately 60,000 Grade 8 (or equivalent) students, and
almost 35,000 teachers, school ICT-coordinators, principals in more than 3,300 schools
from 21 countries. There was two-target population that the ICILS 2013 survey focused.
First target population comprised students represented eight years of schooling while the
second target population included teachers that taught regular school subjects such as
science, mathematics, and language to the target grade during the testing implementation
during the 2012-2013 academic years.
A systematic random sampling approach including multiple sampling stages,
clustering, and stratification was used for both target populations (Jung & Cartens, 2015).
About 150 schools in most participating countries were targeted and 20 students and 15

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teachers were sampled from each school. Therefore, eight grade mathematics teachers in
the selected countries will be drawn from the database for the current study.
Analysis
The International Association of Evaluation of Educational Achievement
International Database (IEA IDB) analyzer, which has an SPSS plugin, will be used to
merge data from the eighth grade mathematics teachers files in all the 21 countries that
took part in the survey. For the first research question, which examines the differences in
the ICT use of the teachers, a descriptive analysis will be shown using in the form of bar
graphs and tables with means, standard deviations, and standard errors to compare the
distributions of each variable across nations. These graphs and tables will be generated
using the IDB analyzer. For the second, third, and fourth research questions, regression
analysis will be performed for each focal country.
References
Bennison, A., & Goos, M. (2010). Learning to teach mathematics with technology: A
survey of professional development needs, experiences and impacts. Mathematics
Education Research Journal, 22(1), 3156. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF03217558
Blanton, M. L., Westbrook, S., & Carter, G. (2005). Using valsiner's zone theory to
interpret Teaching practices in mathematics and science Classrooms. Journal of
Mathematics Teacher Education, 8(1), 533. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-0050456-1
Goos, M. (2005). A sociocultural analysis of the development of pre-service and
beginning teachers pedagogical identities as users of technology. Journal of
Mathematics Teacher Education, 8(1), 35-59.
Goos, M. (2012). Sociocultural perspectives on research with mathematics teachers: A
Zone Theory Approach. EM TEIA Revista de Educao Matemtica E
Tecnolgica Iberoamericana, 3(2), 221.
Goos, M., & Bennison, A. (2008). Surveying the technology landscape: Teachers use of
technology in secondary mathematics classrooms. Mathematics Education Research

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Journal, 20(3), 102130. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF03217532.
Greenhow, C., Robelia, B., & Hughes, J. E. (2009). Learning, teaching, and scholarship
in a digital age Web 2.0 and classroom research: What path should we take now?.
Educational researcher, 38(4), 246-259.
Hussain, M. A., Monaghan, J., & Threlfall, J. (2013). Teacher-student development in
mathematics classrooms: Interrelated zones of free movement and promoted actions.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 82(2), 285302. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10649012-9426-6
Jung, M., & Cartens, R. (2015). ICILS 2013 User Guide for the International Database
Amsterdam,theNetherlands: IEASecretariat.
Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., Minnich, C.A., Stanco, G.M., Arora, A., Centurino, V.A.S.,
& Castle, C.E. (2012). TIMSS 2011 Encyclopedia: Education Policy and
Curriculum in Mathematics and Science (Volumes 1 and 2). Chestnut Hill, MA:
TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center.
Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky s Zone of Proximal
Development: Instructional Implications and Teachers Professional Development.
English Language Teaching, 3(4), 237248. http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v3n4p237
Snoeyink, R., & Ertmer, P. A. (2001). Thrust into technology: How veteran teachers
respond. Journal of educational technology systems, 30(1), 85-111.
Valsiner, J. (1997). Culture and the development of children's action: A theory of human
development. John Wiley & Sons.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Interaction between learning and development (M. LopezMorillas, Trans.). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.),
Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (pp. 79 91).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wachira, P., & Keengwe, J. (2011). Technology Integration Barriers: Urban School
Mathematics Teachers Perspectives. Journal of Science Education and Technology,
20(1), 1725. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-010-9230-y

Gooss (2012) interpretation of Zone Theories into context of teachers technology use

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