Jan 2002

Relation between charge and pd on a capacitor is LINEAR

Microwave background radiation gives evidence that universe
has evolved from initial hot, uniform, dense state
Estimate for age of universe is 1.5 x 10^10 years
Carbon dating doesnt work for metorites/comets as they
contain no living body/carbon
Also no use for items under 100y old as the difference in count
rate is too small.

June 2002

E = KX^2
Gravitational field strength is the force on 1kg due to
gravitational attraction/field of earth
The interval between flashes on a capacitor are not same as it
takes longer to charge than to discharge a capacitor (e.g due
to R)
Force = Change in momentum/ change in time
Red Shift: As radiation travels through space, the wavelength
stretches with expanding space.
Boltzmann factor is a measure of ratio of number of particles
in energy states e joules apart
Ratio e/KT should be between 15-30 for reactions to occur
quickly
If there is a Boltzmann facor of 10^-7 it means 1 in 10^7
particles have energy to overcome the activation energy,
therefore a greater Boltzmann factor means there are more
particles able to escape the activation energy

Jan 2003
To show a pendulum graph, use T^2 vs L. It will be a straight
line graph through the ORIGIN
A pendulum with a larger height has larger GPE hence will run
for longer
A pendulum with a longer string and larger bob will have a
longer T period
It is not possible to predict the lifetime of one PARTICULAR
atom as radioactivity is random so we only know that a given
amount in a sample will decay but not specifically which atom
Using stars (cosmochronometry) to predict the age of the
universe gives us the least (min) possible age of universe as
stars were formed AFTER the universe, not before
June 2003

Particles in a fluid can have enough energy to leave the

surface even if the average energy of the molecules are less
than required, as kT only gives AVERAGE value so some have
more/less than required energy through chance interchanges.
Particles on objects (neutron stars) can spin at a fast rate
without flying apart as to keep a particle on the surface of an
object the magnitude of field strength must equal or exceed
the magnitude of centripetal acceleration.
Larger molecules take longer time to diffuse as they have
more collisions OR they are more massive so for the same
energy they have a lower velocity
Using radio waves to measure far galaxies is inappropriate as
the reflected signal will be weaker due to distance and they
are very far away many light years

Jan 2004

Cosmic microwave radiation observed at nearly equal

intensity gives proof that the early universe was at approx.
same temperature as the universe was created through a big
bang which resulted in microwave radiation. The present
distribution reflects the early distribution of temp
Air resistance is caused by a collision between an object and
air particles. This causes a change in momentum/velocity of
the AIR PARTICLES. This change in momentum exerts a force
on the object.
Gravitational potential is always negative as gravity is always
attractive. This means work is required to separate
gravitationally bound masses. At infinity distance the energy
is defined as zero therefore an object in a field would be in a
potential well.

June 2004

Further galaxies shows greater redshift as light from further

objects have travelled further/for greater time so have more
expansion
An object e.g. water gun hitting a target may feel a larger
momentum change than originally as there is a larger change
in velocity hence change in momentum per second is greater
In a capacitor, pd/current is not constant over time hence
energy calculated is AVERAGE
Amplitude in SHC is the greatest distance from equilibrium
position

Jan 2006

In real life decay rate falls during each time interval so it is

better to take more regular readings of count rate when
calculating half life
Current decreases when a capacitor discharges as V falls
hence I falls (V=IR)
When charging there is very low resistance hence on a graph
the voltage increase is instant but during discharge it is
exponential.
A particle with a higher velocity diffuses quicker as there are
more collisions/attempts per second
Exponential (SHM) = peaks of amplitude decrease with a
CONSTANT RATIO
In a spring not all GPE = Energy as some is lost through HEAT

June 2006

In an iterative model, it suggests that current/voltage is the

same over each iteration (e.g. over each one second) so it
predicts a more rapid rate of decay due to the exponential
nature. More iterations=more accurate
In a collision of a particle between a wall, the force on the wall
is the same magnitude as on the ball but in DIFFERENT
DIRECTIONS
Lower orbit = MORE NEGATIVE GPE = MORE KE = MORE V

Jan 2007

When calculating force of molecule with momentum on a wall,

DO NOT HALF THE MOMENTUM
When calculating centripetal acceleration, use the mass of the
object NOT the moon/sun larger object
At large distance, Grav Potential = 0 and PE Loss = KE Gain
For SHM acceleration is proportional to x
Dampers are more effective at top of buildings as there is a
larger aplitude of movement
Further galaxies show greater redshight as they have spent a
longer time travelling hence the expansion of wavelength is
greater

June 2007

For a lighter molecule, diffusion occurs quicker as it has the

same energy therefore greater velocity therefore times
between collisions are less

Jan 2008

Resonance reduces the time for which a note is heard as the

energy stays the same therefore the transfer of energy from
vibrating resonator is at a faster rate (due to increased
amplitude)
KE>GPE as work is done against resistive forces
Max acceleration at amplitude of displacement time graph and
max v at x intercepts
Using shorter time periods to model decay is more accurate as
it holds the rate of decay constant for a smaller time period
it constantly changes as rate of decay is proportional to no of
nuclei/charge remaining

June 2008

If a longer strip is used in a SHM, there would be a PEAK

amplitude at a LOWER frequency
When damping, the PEAK ENERGY would decrease (DO NOT
TALK ABOUT AMPLITUDES)
In space, the outside atmosphere is thin hence the only force
acting on the craft is gravity so passengers and craft feel the
same acceleration hence causing weightlessness
When the craft re-enters the atmosphere, it is thicker hence
collisions with craft causes deceleration, but passengers dont
feel it inside the craft hence weight force is felt
If the pressure is increased, there are more molecules per m 3
so rate of collisions increase

Jan 2009

Change in momentum = momentum after momentum

before
Old radioactive substances are inaccurate to measure using
carbon dating as the activity is difficult to discriminate from
background radiation
Force = change in rate of momentum (11b) = d mv/ d t

June 2009

Pressure/volume graph is a curve

SHM: L and G are constants in a pendulum and acceleration is
proportional to displacement
If amplitude is halved, the velocity is halved, energy goes
down by 4 and acceleration halves
Page 15 bii
Gravitational potential = energy per kg of a point object due
to the presence of another mass

June 2010

Current is the flow of charge and rate of charge release is

proportional to charge on capacitor hence current falls when a
capacitor discharges
Density = no of molecules * mass / volume
GPE graph is a downwards curve
Gas particles exert a downward pressure on the ground as
particles bounce off the ground, hence the momentum of the
particles change. The force on the ground is its rate of change
of momentum
Redshift factor: change in wavelength/wavelength = v/c
V = original v (a*t)

Jan 2011

Gravitational potential is the area between the gravitational

field strength (g) and radius curve, from r=d to infinity where
r=d is the radius which you are measuring form
I = -dq/dt
In pv = 1/3nmc^2, n refers to the MASS OF ONE MOLECULE
Redshift gives evidence for the big bang as galaxies are
moving away from us, hence it must mean that the universe
was all at the same place at one point in time
Boltzmann factor shows that particles below kT can escape
due to the fact that the energy of a particle changes each
time it collides with otuers, and the rate at which this happens
is very large
Velocity/displacement graph shows the same curve of
amplitude, but different phase
Force in SHM is always towards the equilibrium
(force/displacement in opposite directions)
Calculate the momentum of each item separately
As the volume increases, same no of particles occupy larger
volume hence density decreases. Particles at higher T have
more energy to collide more frequently, hence they get further
apart and reduce density

June 2011

Gravitational field strength: Nkg-1

Force: Jm-1
Force on a SHM is doubled as displacement is doubled (F=kx)
Pulse/echo time gets shorter if the altitude of a satellite orbit
gets lower

For a particle moving from other planet/moon to earth, the

GPE of earth reduces deceleration of object enabling it to
travel closer to earth
When a particle hits a wall, the total momentum of particle
and wall doesnt change so p=2mv
Modeling the pressure of particles on a wall uses unrealistic
assumptions as the particles can have different velocities,
mass, inelastic collisions with wall, collisions with particles

June 2010

Gravitational potential = Jkg-1 (energy of a fixed point of mass

per unit mass due the presence of another object)
After a SHM oscillator reaches natural frequency, its amplitude
tends to 0
When acceleration due to gravitational field on a satellite is at
right angles to its direction, no work is done so the speed of
the satellite doesnt change

Jan 2012

When pressure in a box containing a pressurized container is

decreased, the container inside inflates because there are
more frequent collisions within the container compared to the
box
pV/T = constant
Theres a difference in redshift between each side of a galaxy
as one part moves towards while the other moves away from
us
The motion of a galaxy has no effect on the speed of light as
its always the same in a vacuum
The worldline for light is always 45 degrees because it travels
1 ly in 1y
Random walk is where the path is a string of straight lines with
varying length/direction
Average distance between collisions is constant and
the no of collisions is proportional to T, hence x prop to
root N and N prop to t therefore x=c root T

June 12

When calculating H0, use the GRADIENT of the graph

Hubbles law suggests galaxies are moving apart from each
other hence it must have been in same place at an earlier
time (bigbang)

1/H0 gives an estimate for the age of the universe as a galaxy

which has a constant V and moves a distance R since big bang
in time t, then t=r/v = 1/h0
damping removes energy

Jan 13

the charges on a capacitor plate are equal and opposite

area under weight/extension graph shows energy
not SHM when force is not proportional to displacement
The gravitational field direction ALWAYS acts towards centre
Grav potential from D to infinity
Centripetal force (mass*acceleration) = gravitational force
(mass*field strength), therefore centripetal ACCELERATION =
field strength
Reflect PULSE of radiation, and measure PULSE-ECHO time
Average energy (kT) of molecules stay the same but energy
change at each collision is random
Total P of rocket+fuel = constant. Fuel gains down momentum
so rocket gains up momentum, so P of rocket goes up with
time
Particles on top of rocket gas chamber exert upwards force but
none downwards as gases exit down
Mass/period graph curves upwards with decreasing gradient

June 13

Friction results in loss of KE hence momentum before is diff to

after
There is microwave background radiation which is red shifted
light from an earlier universe
Rearrange centripetal force and grav force with KE to find KE
in terms of G M and R