Topic A

Militarization of the Arctic

Question of Addressing the Militarization of the Arctic Circle and Dealing
with the Political, Economic, and Climatic Challenges Faced in the Region

Chairs: Caio Hachem & Matheus Bevilacqua

Index
Background Information...2
Timeline7
Key Terms.....11
List of Relevant Territorial Disputes.12
List of Relevant UN Treaties......12
Guiding Questions.....13
Further Research...14

Background Information
With warming seas creating new opportunities at the top of the world, nations are
scrambling over the Arcticits territorial waters, transit routes and especially its natural
resourcesin a rivalry some already call a new Cold War.
The New York Times (Aug. 29, 2015)

The Arctic is often depicted as

one of the most isolated and remote
regions of the world, defined by its harsh
climate and ice-choked waters; however,
the melting of the polar ice caps is
creating new opportunities for trade and
resource

extraction.

With

the

Arctic

becoming more open and hospitable, the

area

has

begun

to

face

increased

territorial claims and the military presence

from many of the countries in the region.
The militarization of the Arctic is an issue of both regional and
international importance. It may seem as if Arctic issues should only concern
the countries that border upon it, but in fact, the fate of the Arctic concerns

many nations and is of utmost importance to international community as a

whole.
The Arctic region has been emerging as a potential conflict zone
since the earliest attempts for its militarization. Despite having gained
importance during the Second World War, when the region served as a
supply line to the Soviet Union from the Allies, it was only during the Cold
War that it gained major
strategic importance. At the
time, both the Soviet Union
and

the

United

States

strengthened their positions

in the Arctic, developing military capabilities in the region and further
escalating tensions. The division of the international system into two
antagonistic blocs created a competition for strengthening military
capabilities in order to succeed in the case of a military threat. Also, the
prospects for the development of the Arctic in its economic and energetic
facets greatly encouraged disputes over the region.
During recent years, the projections of climate change have shifted
the worlds attention to the Arctic. The region is seen as having great
potential mainly because of its natural resources; it is estimated that 13% of

the worlds oil resources and 37% of its natural gas resources are located in
the region.
Beyond that, and of major economic relevance, is the progressive
thawing of the sea ice in the region, which may open a maritime transit
passageway, the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and the Northwest Passage (NP),
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, priority to many of the countries in
the region. In comparison with
traditional southern sea routes via the
Suez or Panama Canals, the routes
through

the

Arctic

offer

considerable reduction (about 40

percent) in the travelling distance
between Europe and the west coast
of North America, Northeast Asia and the Far East, (Yenikeyeff and Krysiek,
2007 - Oxford Energy Comment). The Northwest Passage is mainly disputed
between Canada and the United States over its status as internal or
international waters. Currently, the utilization of such passages is still limited
to the risks and costs of icebreaking; however, it is likely that in some
decades these routes will be used despite such challenges, shortening the
connection between Asia and Europe

In face of such benefits, the states situated in the Arctic region have
been attempting to push forward their territorial claims, of which the dispute
over

the

Lomonosov

Ridge

(disputed

by

Denmark, Canada and Russia) is the most

prominent. In accordance to the United Nations
Convention of the Law of the Sea, a State may
enlarge its Exclusive Economic Zone if it is
proved that the seabed is an extension of its continental shelf. The turning
point in this debate was the 2007 Russian expedition into the Arctic Ocean
Arktika 2007 in search of geological evidences to prove the extension of its
continental shelf. After the Russian flag has been planted in the seabed, the
other States have also launched their own expeditions.
In order to achieve the
interests of the states one may
face an increasing process of
militarization

and

territorial

divergences in the region. The

Arctic Five nations (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark)
have been developing their military capabilities and their demands in
icebreakers to the exploitation of natural resources and commercial routes.
The potential benefits of the Arctic are also calling the attention of non-

regional States, such as China, India, Japan, and also the European Union,
among others. These States are increasing their capabilities and investing in
technologies to exploit the Arctic. Their role is important, because if their
interests are not fulfilled they may intervene in such a way to achieve them.
Therefore, the Chairs for the 2015 SPMUN Disarmament and
International Security Council invite delegates to discuss all these issues
concerning

the

Arctic

region

from

the

perspective of potential conflicts, which concern

both international peace and security. Above all,
the debate must take into account not only the
interests of the Arctic countries, but the
consequences of the issue to the international community. As a result,
delegates must find a consistent solution, be it a revision or reassurance of
the status of the Arctic region.

Timeline

*Extracted from http://www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2015/07/15/timeline-militarization-arctic

November 1994: UNCLOS

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),
establishing Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of 200 nautical miles
beyond a countrys baseline, goes into effect. Countries must ratify
UNCLOS in order to make an official claim to an extended continental
shelf with the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
They have ten years to make a claim after ratifying UNCLOS.
September 1996: OTTAWA DECLARATION
The Ottawa Declaration is signed, establishing the Arctic Council. The
Arctic Council, which is composed of Canada, Denmark, Finland,
Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S., aims to address issues
faced by the governments and indigenous peoples of the Arctic region.
January 2000: WARD HUNT ICE SHELF
The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf, which had remained solid for 3,000 years,
begins to crack. This photo shows the "ice island" that has formed off
of Ward Hunt Island following eight years of continual ice melt.
January 2004: OIL DISCOVERY
Researchers find evidence of oil deposits just 200 miles from the North
Pole. This discovery incentivizes Arctic nations to make official claims to
large portions of the Arctic.
July October 2007: ARKTIKA 2007
Russia symbolically renews its 2001 claim to the Lomonosov Ridge by
planting a Russian flag on the seabed of the Arctic Ocean, garnering
international ridicule. The flag-planting was part of Arktika 2007, a
research trip related to the 2001 claim. Russia hoped to prove

definitively that the Lomonosov Ridge was a natural prolongation of

Russia.
May 2008: USGS ARCTIC RESOURCE APPRAISAL
The U.S. Geological Survey estimates 90 billion barrels of oil, 1,669
trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and 44 billion barrels of natural gas
liquids remain undiscovered in the Arctic. These estimates provide a
basis for increased interest in Arctic hydrocarbons.
May 2008: ILULISSAT DECLARATION
The five Arctic coastal states (U.S., Canada, Russia, Denmark, and
Norway) adopt the Ilulissat Declaration to affirm their commitment to
the UNCLOS framework, and agree to the orderly settlement of any
possible overlapping claims to the Arctic region.
May 2011: AGREEMENT ON COOPERATION ON AERONAUTICAL AND
MARITIME SEARCH AND RESCUE
The Arctic Council signs the Agreement on Cooperation on
Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic in line with
the 1979 International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR
Convention). The terms of the agreement require each Arctic Council
nation to have military capabilities in the Arctic.
July 2011: BARENTS SEA AGREEMENT
A maritime delimitation agreement between Norway and Russia
regarding the Barents Sea goes into effect, ending almost 40 years of
territorial conflict and treaty negotiations between the two Arctic
nations.
May

2013:

AGREEMENT

ON

COOPERATION

ON

MARINE

OIL

POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

The Arctic Council signs the Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil
Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic. Like the 2011

Search and Rescue agreement, the terms of the agreement require

each Arctic Council nation to have military capabilities in the Arctic.
October 2013: KOTELNY ISLAND MILITARY BASE
Russia reopens a Soviet-era military base on Kotelny Island. The island is
situated between the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea in the
Russian Arctic.
February 2014: US NAVY ARCTIC STRATEGY
The U.S. Navy releases an updated and expanded version of its original
2009 Arctic strategy in light of the increasingly rapid rate of ice-melt in
the region. An expanded naval presence is scheduled to take full effect
in 2020.
January 2015: AUSTFONNA ICE CAP
A study on Norways Svalbard Islands reveals that the Austfonna Ice
Cap has thinned 160 feet since 2012.
February 2015: LOWEST WINTER SEA ICE EXTENT
The U.S. National Snow & Ice Data Center reports that the Arctics
maximum winter sea ice extent is the lowest on satellite record.
March 2015: JOINT VIKING
Norway performs Joint Viking in the northernmost county of
Finnmark, the countrys largest military exercise since the Soviet era.
Finnmark borders Russias Arctic area.
May 2015: CANADIAN ARCTIC SPENDING
Defense News reports that Canada plans to devote $3.4 billion (U.S.) to
infrastructure developments in the Arctic in 2015.

June 2015: US DOD BEGINS MEASURING SEA ICE

The U.S. Department of Defense begins measuring Arctic sea ice in
light of decreasing seasonal ice cover in the region. According to a
GAO study on the DOD's role in the Arctic, melting sea ice "could
eventually increase the need for a U.S. military and homeland security
presence in the Arctic, particularly in the maritime environment."

10

Key Terms
EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE
A sea zone wherein the respective state has the authority to exert its
sovereign rights over, including the exploration and exploitation of any
natural resources that may be present.
GLOBAL SANCTUARY
An area in which exploitation is banned and is an area primarily devoted
to science and research.
TERRITORIAL DISPUTE
A disagreement about the claim over land that lies between two
territories.
NATURAL RESERVE
An area protected for its flora and fauna, geological interest, and
conservation for the purpose of developing science. Antarctica is an
example.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
The most comprehensive attempt at creating a unified regime for
governance of the rights of nations with respect to the world's oceans.
The treaty addresses a number of topics including navigational rights,
economic rights, pollution of the seas, conservation of marine life,
scientific exploration, piracy, and more.

11

List of Relevant Territorial Disputes

The Lomonosov Ridge

The Bering Strait and Beaufort Sea Disputes

The Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route

The Svalbard Archipelago and the Hans Island Disputes

List of Relevant UN Treaties

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 16th November

1994, (A/RES/68/71)

UN Habitat Resolution Sustainable development of Arctic human

settlements, 20th April 2007, (HSP/GC/21/L.5)

12

Guiding Questions
What international regime shall be employed to define the countries right to
use Arctic resources and routes?

What opportunities and challenges will rise with the creation of Arctic routes?
How should this process be conducted in order to promote the most
beneficial results to humankind?

What role can non-Arctic countries play in the Arctic issue and how can their
actions interfere in the Arctic countries sovereignty?

Consider the International Law and territorial controversies among Arctic

countries, what sort of collective actions should be taken to avoid increasing
militarization?

What actions could be taken to improve governance within the Arctic Council
and/or to eventually lead to the constitution of an international regime for
the Arctic?

13

Further Research

http://www.ufrgs.br/ufrgsmun/2013/wpcontent/uploads/2013/10/The-Militarization-of-the-Arctic-PoliticalEconomic-and-Climate-Changes.pdf

http://www.cfr.org/arctic/thawing-arctic-risks-opportunities/p32082

http://www.cfr.org/arctic/emerging-arctic/p32620#!/

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/30/world/united-states-russia-arcticexploration.html

http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/un
clos_e.pdf

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/02/us/politics/obama-to-call-formore-icebreakers-in-arctic-as-us-seeks-foothold.html

http://www.businessinsider.com/chart-of-russias-militarization-ofarctic-2015-8

http://www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2015/07/15/timeline-militarizationarctic

http://www.cfr.org/region/arctic/ri379

http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritori
es/arctic_regions/index.html?inline=nyt-geo

http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/10/01/science/20071002_A
RCTIC_GRAPHIC.html

14