The National University of Singapore

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME2135 & ME2135E

Fluid Mechanics II
Semester 4
Session 2014/2015

Experiment II
Flow over an Airfoil

Venue: Fluid Mechanics Lab 2

WS2-01-47 (Ground Floor, Engineering Workshop 2)
Tel: 6516-2231

2 January 2015
1

Table of Contents
List of Figures

Nomenclature

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Lift Generation

1.3 Objectives and Scope

2. Experimental Set-up

2.1 Wind Tunnel

2.2 Airfoil

2.3 Pressure Measurement

2.4 Velocity Measurement

6
6

3. Analysis
3.1 Free Stream Velocity

3.2 Pressure Coefficient

3.3 Force Coefficients

3.4 Trapezoidal Method

3.5 Thin Airfoil Theory

4. Procedure

4.1 Experiment

4.2 Tables

10

5. Results and Discussion

10

5.1 Results

10

5.2 Discussion

11

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

11

6.1 Conclusions

11

6.2 Recommendations

11

References

12

Figures

12

Tables

16

Appendix A

19
2

List of Figures
Figure 1

a) Airfoil Terminology;
b) Pressure Gradient across a Curved Streamline;
c) Streamlines over an Airfoil

12

Figure 2

Airfoil in the Wing Tunnel

13

Figure 3

Schematic Diagram (Side View) of Pressure Measurement

13

Figure 4

Forces and Pressure on an Airfoil

14

Figure 5

Pressure Distribution around an Airfoil;

at a=10 and Re=2.33x105

15

Figure 6

Area between Two Curves using Trapezoidal Method

16

Table 1

Coordinates of Pressure Tappings

16

Table 2

Manometer Readings

17

Table 3

Pressure Coefficients

18

Appendix A

Location of Engineering Workshop 2

Nomenclature
A

axial component of force per unit span (Fig 4)

airfoil chord (Fig 4)

CD

2D drag coefficient, =

CL

2D lift coefficient, =

CP

D
1
U 2 c
2
L

1
U 2 c
2

pressure coefficient, =

P P
1
U 2
2
3

19

drag force per unit span

manometer reading (see Fig 3)

lift force per unit span

normal component of force per unit span (Fig 4)

pressure

Re

Reynolds number, =

airfoil thickness

free stream velocity, =

U c

PT P
1

Greek Symbols

angle of attack

dynamic viscosity of air, = 1.84 x 10-5 Ns/m2

density of air, = 1.18 kg/m3

density of water, = 103 kg/m3

inclination of manometer with horizontal

Subscripts
T

stagnation value

front surface (upstream of maximum thickness)

lower surface (below chord line)

rear surface (downstream of maximum thickness)

} see Fig 4

upper surface (above chord line)

free-stream value

1. Introduction

1.1

Background

An airfoil (Figure 1a) is a two dimensional cross-section of an airplane wing. It may be

thought of as a wing of infinite span with constant cross-sectional shape. With a forward
speed, wings can generate a lift force which enables the airplane to stay airborne. Airfoil
shapes are designed to provide high lift values at low drags, for given flight conditions.
Airfoil studies are not only relevant for airplanes, but also applicable to wings on F1 cars
and blades of a helicopter, propeller, hydrofoil, and wind turbine.

A typical subsonic airfoil has a streamline profile with a fairly rounded nose (leading edge)
and a sharp tail (trailing edge). A chord line is a straight line joining the leading to
trailing edges, the length of which is called the chord c. The acute angle between the free
stream velocity direction and the chord line is called the angle of attack (Figure 1a).
1.2

Lift Generation

The pressure in a curved flow increases radially outwards (or reduces radially inwards), in
order to accelerate the flow (Figure 1b). The curved streamlines around an airfoil result in
the pressure at the upper surface being lower than P, and the pressure at the lower surface
being higher P, as illustrated in Figure 1c. The pressure difference between the lower and
upper surfaces of an airfoil generates a lift force, which is the component of force
perpendicular to the direction of motion. The component parallel to the direction of motion
is called drag.

1.3

Objectives and Scope

The objectives of this experiment were to investigate the pressure distribution around the
airfoil and to calculate the lift and drag forces. The experiment was conducted at a specified
angle of incidence relative to the wind direction and at a specified wind speed.

2. Experimental Set up

2.1

Wind Tunnel

The air flow was generated by the blower of a subsonic wind tunnel (Figure 2), which was
of the open-circuit type. It has a working section of square cross-section, 0.30 m x 0.30 m.
.
2.2

Airfoil

The airfoil used in this experiment was a NACA 0015 section of chord length 101.6 mm. It
has a symmetrical profile with a maximum thickness 15% of the chord. The airfoil
spanned the test section of the wind tunnel, and was supported by two end plates. One of
the end plate was graduated in degree for determining the angle of attack.

2.3

Pressure Measurement

The airfoil has 11 static pressure taps at the mid-section (mid-span) on the upper surface.
The same tappings can be used to measure pressures on the lower surface at negative
incidence, due to symmetry of the airfoil. The pressure tappings were connected to a multitube manometer to measure the static pressure distribution around the airfoil (Figure 3). The
manometer was inclined at an angle to increase the sensitivity.

2.4

Velocity Measurement

The flow speed in the wind tunnel was measured by using a standard Pitot-static tube
(Figure 3) and by applying Bernoulli's Equation.

3. Analysis

3.1

Free Stream Velocity

Apply Bernoulis Equation from free stream to the nose of the pitot tube (Figure 3):

1
1
P + U 2 =
PT +
U T2
2
2

= 0 at pitot nose

(1)

The free stream velocity may be expressed as

=
U

w g ( hT h ) sin

PT P
=
1

The Reynolds number, Re =

3.2

(2)

U c

(3)

Pressure Coefficient

P - P
1
rU 2
2
P - P
Substitute from Equation (1), CP =
PT - P
Pressure coefficient is defined as CP =

(4)

Pressure difference is measured by the manometer: P - P =r w g ( h-h ) sinq

where r w is the density of water in the manometer

g is gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s 2

and h is the reading of the manometer column (Figure 3)
Thus, pressure coefficient may be expressed in terms of the manometer readings
=
CP

3.3

rq
g ( h - h ) sin
h - h
=
rq
g ( hT -h ) sin
hT h

(5)

Force Coefficients

The resultant aerodynamic force that acts on an airfoil can be resolved into a pair of
orthogonal forces. The two most commonly used pairs are those which are
perpendicular and parallel to the free stream direction ( i.e. lift L and drag D forces
respectively) and those which are perpendicular and parallel to the chord line (i.e. normal
N and axial A forces respectively). These components of force are shown in Figure 4.
Referring to Figure 4, the normal component of force is
=
N

( P P ) dx

( 6)

where c is the chord length, P and Pu are the pressures on the lower and upper surfaces.
7

The axial component of force =

is A

t
2

(P

Pr ) dy

(7)

where Pf is the pressure upstream of the maximum thickness, Pr is the pressure downstream
of the maximum thickness, and t is the maximum thickness.

From the resolution of forces, the lift and drag forces are

( 8a )
(8b )

L N cos a A sin a
=
D N sin a + A cos a
=

1
Substitute Equations (6) and (7) into Equation (8a) and divide throughout by U 2 c , the lift
2
coefficient is given by
t
+
c

2
1

CL =
( CPf CPr ) dy sin
( CP CPu ) dx cos
c 0
t

2
+0.075
1
0
x
y
y
= cos
0 ( CP CPu ) d c sin 0.075
( CPf CPr ) d c + 0 ( CPf CPr )u d c

(9)

Similarly, the drag coefficient is given by

t
+
c

2
1

+ ( CPf CPr ) dy cos

CD =
( CP CPu ) dx sin

c 0
t

2
+0.075
1
0
x
y
y
= sin

+
C
C
d
C
C
d
CPf CPr ) d
cos
(
)
(
)
(

Pf
Pr

0 P Pu c

u
c
c
0
0.075

The integrals of the above equations are areas between pressure distribution curves in
Figure 5.

3.4

Trapezoidal Method

Each area may be approximated by several trapezoids, the width of which may be nonuniform. The trapezoidal method, as illustrated in Figure 6, is a simple geometric
approximation to a strip between the curves y=f(x) and y=g(x) by assuming the change
8

(10)

between any two points x=a and x=b is linear:

f (a ) + f (b) g (a ) + g (b)

(b a )
2
2

[ f ( x) g ( x)] dx
a

(11)

By summing up the areas of several trapezoids, the area enclosed by the pressure
curves or loops may be approximated.

3.5

Thin Airfoil Theory

The thin airfoil theory is an inviscid theory which is used to predict the lift acting on an
airfoil. It predicts that the lift coefficient is directly proportional to the angle of attack in
radian. Analytically, the above statement can be stated as
CL = 2

(12)

This prediction is quite accurate when the angle of attack is smaller than the stall angle.

When the angle of attack is small, the flow over it is attached to the upper and lower
surfaces since an airfoil is a streamlined body However, as the angle of attack
increases, a certain critical angle will be reached at which the flow can no longer stay
attached to the upper side of the airfoil. When this happens, flow separation is said to have
occurred and the phenomenon is known as stall. The angle of attack at which stall first
occurs is called the stall angle.

4. Procedure
The Experiment and Tables may be done as a group effort.

4.1
a.

Experiment
Check that there is no air bubble in the manometer tubes. Level the manometer base,
and record the inclination of the manometer tubes to the horizontal.

b.

Start the wind tunnel motor and run it to give a specified speed in the test
section, as given by the Instructor. Each group will do the experiment at only one
speed. For the purpose of comparing results, one group will work at the lower
speed around 7.5 m/s and the other, at the higher speed around 15 m/s, as
9

assigned by the Instructor. Measure the exact speed with a pitot-static tube at a
location upstream of the airfoil.
c.

Note the atmospheric temperature.

d.

Check t h a t the zero angle of incidence corresponds to that on the end plate, by
observing the pressure reading at the leading edge (tube 1). Zero incidence occurs
when the leading edge pressure is a maximum (i.e. a stagnation point)

e.

Take manometer readings with the airfoil at a small angle of incidence specified by
the Instructor. Check that the reference of the manometer readings is connected to the
free-stream pressure tapping, as shown in Figure 3. For the purpose of comparing
results at different speeds, both groups will do the experiment at the same
incidence. Pressure on the other surface may be obtained from negative incidence.

f.

4.2

Repeat the measurement of the wind speed in the test section.

Tables

a.

Table 1 gives the non-dimensional coordinates of the pressure tappings.

b.

Record the manometer readings, at the specified angle of incidence, in Table 2.

c.

Compute and tabulate the pressure coefficients in Table 3.

5. Results and Discussion

The Results (including calculations & graphs) and Discussion should be done individually.

5.1

Results

a.

Calculate the free-stream velocity and the Reynolds number.

b.

Plot CP and CPu against x/c as illustrated in Figure 5. Extrapolate your curves to the
trailing edge x/c = 1.

c.

Plot CPf and CPr against y/c as illustrated in Figure 5. Clearly indicate whether it
corresponds to the lower or upper surfaces. Make sure that the pressure distributions
are continuous at the leading and trailing edges, y/c=0; that is, (CPf)u can only be
joined to (CPf); and (CPr)u can only be joined to (CPr). In this plot, two pressure loops
should be obtained. Check carefully to ascertain whether each loop is contributing to
a positive or negative axial force
10

d.

The lift and drag coefficients, CL and CD, may be obtained from the integration of the
pressure coefficient curves as indicated by Equations (9) and (10). The definite
integral is the area between the pressure curves or net area enclosed by the pressure
loops, as shown in Fig 5. Be careful with the signs of the areas!

e.

5.2
a.

Calculate the lift-drag ratio CL/CD.

Discussion
State the value of the maximum CP and its location (x/c, y/c). Do you expect the value
of maximum CP to be higher, if you increased the angle of incidence?

b.

Was the shear stress along the airfoil included in the pressure measurement by the
manometer? Hence, state whether your experimental CL and CD corresponded to the
total lift and drag on the airfoil. Suggest another method to measure lift and drag other
than pressure distribution.

c.

Compare your experimentally measured CL with the Thin Airfoil Theory prediction of
CL = 2.

d.

Compare your experimental lift coefficient with the other group, which was
obtained at a different speed. Do you expect the CL to be higher if the speed was higher?

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1

Conclusions

This experiment investigated the pressure distribution over an airfoil at a small angle of
attack with the flow. The pressure distribution curves were integrated to obtain the lift and
drag forces on the airfoil. The experiment illustrated the concept of lift and drag forces
generated by a streamlined body moving through air. It demonstrated the significance of the
non-dimensional lift and drag coefficients.

6.2

Recommendations

Further studies include experiments at other angles of attack to investigate the variation of
lift with incidence and determine the stall angle. Studies at higher Reynolds number will be
interesting to show the effect of boundary layer transition on the surface from laminar to
turbulent flow.
11

References
1.

Anderson J.D. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, McGraw Hill.

2.

Bertin J.J. and Smith M.L. Aerodynamics for Engineers, Prentice Hall.

3.

Kermode, A.C. Mechanics of Flight, Pitman.

a)

b)

c)

Figure 1. a) Airfoil Terminology; b) Pressure Gradient across a Curved Streamline;

c) Streamlines over an Airfoil
12

airfoil
flow

flow

end plate
multi
manometer

Figure 2. Airfoil in the Wind Tunnel

Figure 3. Schematic Diagram (Side View) of Pressure Measurement

13

(Pf)u
(Pr)u

Figure 4. Forces and Pressure on an Airfoil

14

1.5

Cp

trailing edge

0.5

CP

0
0.000
-0.5

0.200

x/c

0.400

-1

0.600

0.800

1.000

1.200

CPu

-1.5

leading edge

-2
-2.5
-3

(C

=
area between curves

(Cpf)

+ve

-0.050

(cPr)

lower surface

trailing edge

0
0.000
-0.5

y/c

(cPr)u
0.050

-1

0.100

upper surface

-1.5

-ve

x
CPu ) d
c

cP

0.5

-y/c
-0.100

1.5

-ve

-2

(cPf)u

leading edge

-2.5
-3

+0.075

y
y
net area within loops = ( CPf CPr ) d + ( CPf CPr ) d

u
c

c
0.075
0

horizontal shading

vertical shading

Figure 5. Pressure Distribution around an Airfoil; at a=10 and Re=2.33x105

15

Figure 6. Area between Two Curves using Trapezoidal Method

Table 1. Coordinates of Pressure Tappings

y/c

y/c

upper

lower

3.268

0.025

0.032

-0.032

4.443

0.049

0.044

-0.044

10

5.853

0.098

0.058

-0.058

20

7.172

0.197

0.071

-0.071

30

7.502

0.295

0.074

-0.074

40

7.254

0.394

0.071

-0.071

50

6.617

0.492

0.065

-0.065

60

5.704

0.591

0.056

-0.056

10

70

4.58

0.689

0.045

-0.045

11

80

3.279

0.787

0.032

-0.032

12 (extrapolated)

101.6

Tapping No.

x mm

|y| mm

x/c

2.5

Note: c = 101.6 mm
16

Table 2. Manometer Readings

Atmospheric temperature (at beginning of experiment):
(at end of experiment) :
Airfoil angle of incidence, a:
Manometer inclination to horizontal, :
Manometer reading of dynamic pressure, hT-h, (at beginning of experiment):
(at end of experiment) :
Manometer readings of pressure distribution, h- h (see Fig 3)

Tapping No.

h- h

h- h

upper surface (at a)

lower surface (at -a)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
(extrapolated)
17

Table 3. Pressure Coefficients (from Equation 5)

Tapping No.

cPu

cP

upper surface (at a)

lower surface (at -a)

10

11
12
(extrapolated)

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Appendix A. Location of Engineering Workshop 2

19