Chapter1PoliticalThinkingandPoliticalCulture:BecomingaResponsibleCitizen

AlthoughthemajorityoftheAmericansbelievedthattheinvasionofIraqwasnecessary
withouttheUNsapproval,theirlevelsofsupportforwarvariedwiththeirknowledgeof
theenemy
HalfoftheAmericanpublicbelievedthatIraqwasalignedwithalQaeda,theterrorist
groupthathadattackedtheUSand9/11somemistakenlythoughtthatIraqhelpedplan
theattacksotherserroneouslybelievedthatIraqwasequippingalQaeda
PeoplewhomisunderstoodtherelationshipbetweenSaddamHusseinandalQaeda
weremorethantwiceaslikelytosupportthewar
Manypeopleliveintherealworldbutdontunderstandit
Inaselfgoverningsocietycitizensareexpectedtoactonbehalfofthemselvesand
others.Buthowcantheygovernthemselvesiftheyareoutoftouchwithreality
TheAmericanpublicweresurveyedandfoundouttheydontknowmuchaboutpolitics,
elections,andotherpoliticalissues
Thelackofinformationobviouslydoesnotkeepcitizensfromvoting,norareuninformed
citizenslackinginopinionsbuttheirsenseoftheworldiswildlyatoddswiththereality
ofit
LearningtoThinkPolitically
Politicalthinkingisreflectivethinkingfocusedondecidingwhatcanreasonablebe
believedandthenusingthisinformationtomakepoliticaljudgments
Anyformofgovernmentshouldbejudgedonitsabilitytopromotetheindividualasa
progressivebeing
ObstaclestoPoliticalThinking
Themajorbarriertopolitical
thinkingistheunwillingnessof
citizenstomaketheeffort
becauseitrequiresclose
attentiontopolitics,a
responsibilitythatmanypeople
refusetoaccept
AlthoughmanyAmericanspay
closeattentiontopolitics,itis
verypossiblethatthe
informationtheyreceiveare
false
Thenewsslantinformationtofirtheirpurposewhileburyingcontradictoryfacts
Thegovernmentisoftencontrolledbyindividuals
RightbeforetheIraqWar,theUSgovernmenttargetsbothIraqandalQaedaas
terrorists
Researchsuggeststhatfaultyperceptionsarebecomingmoreprevalent,and
thatchangesincommunicationarelargelytoblame

Manypeopleprefermessagesthatconformtowhattheyalreadybelievepeople
onlyfollowthetalkshows/channelstheybelievein
Ratherthanexpandingpeoplesthinking,suchexposuretendstonarrowand
distortit
Citizenscannotknowwhethertheirideasaresounduntiltheyhaveheard
alternativeviewsandweighedthemagainsttheirown
Peopledonthavethealternativeviewtocomparetowhattheyhaveheard
Themorepeopleunderstandpolitics,theyparticipatemore
WhatPoliticalScienceCanContributetoPoliticalThinking
Howtothinkpoliticallyinsteadofwhattothinkpolitically
Thetoolsarederivedfrompoliticalsciencethesystematicstudyofgovernment
andpolitics
Politicalscienceattemptsto
depictandexplainpolitics
PoliticalScienceoffersasetof
analyticaltoolsthatcan
increaseonesabilitytothink
politically:
Reliableinformation
abouthowtheUS
politicalsystem
operates
Systematic
generalizationsabout
majortendenciesin
Americanpolitics
Termsandconcepts
thatpreciselydescribekeyaspectsofpolitics
Politicalthinkingneedstobedevelopedthroughpractice
PoliticalCulture:AmericansEnduringBeliefs
TheunderstandingofacountryspoliticsstartsfromunderstandingitsPoliticalCulture:
thewidelysharedanddeepseatedbeliefsofitspeopleaboutpolitics
Americansbeliefsarethefoundationoftheirnationalidentity
TheAmericanscoreidealsarerootedintheEuropeanheritageofthefirstwhitesettlers
TheAmericanRevolutionwasthefirstsuccessfullargescalerebellioninhumanhistory
drivenlargelybythedesiretocreatearadicallydifferentformofsociety
CoreValues:Liberty,Individualism,Equality,andSelfGovernment
Thegovernmentservesthepeople,anditdoesnotownthem.Unalienable
rightsfreedomsthatbelongtoeachandeverycitizenandthatcannotlawfully
betakenawaybygovernment
Libertyistheprinciplethatindividualsshouldbefreetoactandthinkasthey
choose,providedtheydonotinfringeunreasonablyonthefreedomand
wellbeingofothers.

PoliticalLibertywasnearlyabirthrightforearlyAmericans
ReligioussentimentsalsoenteredintothethinkingoftheearlyAmericans
TheDeclarationofIndependenceringswiththeproclamationthatpeopleare
entitledtoLife,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness.
EarlyAmericansdidnothavelandlordslikeEuropewhoownsalloftheland.
IndividualismisthecommitmenttopersonalinitiativenotethatlibertyinAmerica,
asinnoothercountry,istiedtoadesireforeconomicindependence
Equalitythenotionthatallindividualsareequalintheirmoralworthandthereby
entitledtoequaltreatmentunderthelaw
Selfgovernmenttheprinciplethatthepeoplearetheultimatesourceof
governingauthorityandshouldhaveavoiceintheirgoverning
TheLimitsandPowerofAmericansIdeals
TheAmericansculturebeliefsareidealistic
Idealisticdoesnotguaranteethatpeoplewillliveuptothem
SlavesCivilWarJimCrowLawsequalrightsunderthelaw,but
therearetwodifferentAmericans:WhiteandBlack
ChineseandJapanesewerealsodiscriminatedagainstintheUS
Selectiveeducationforchildren
Howcouldanationthatclaimstoupholdtheprincipleofequalityhavebarredthe
Chinese,enslavedtheblacks,declaredwivestobethepropertyoftheir
husbands,andstolenIndianlands?
AlthoughAmericas
idealsobviouslydo
notdetermineexactly
whatpeoplewilldo,
theyarehardlyempty
promises.
TheUSdeterminedto
buildamoreequal
societythrough
education.
TheUShasthe
worldsmost
elaboratesystemof
highereducation,whichnowincludesmorethanthreethousandtwoyearand
fouryearinstitutions
TheprinciplesoflibertyandselfgovernmenthavealsoshapedAmericansociety
Americansareanationbornofanideanotaplace,buttheidea,createdthe
UnitedStatesGovernment
PoliticsandPowerinAmerican
Politicsisaconflictoverwhogetswhat,when,andhow.
Politicsisthemeansbywhichsocietysettlesitsconflictsandallocatestheresulting
benefitsandcosts

Thosewhoprevailinpoliticalconflictsaresaidtohavepower,atermthatreferstothe
abilityofpersons,groups,orinstitutionstoinfluencepoliticaldevelopments.
Themostextremeformofauthoritariangovernment,totalitarianism,admitstonolimits
onitspower:thestatecontrolsthemedia,directstheeconomy,dictateswhatcanand
cannotbetaughtinschools,definesfamilyrelations,anddecideswhichreligionsif
anycanbepracticedopenly
TheUShasasetofrulesdemocracy,constitutionalism,andafreemarkettokeep
politicswithinpeacefulbounds.
ADemocraticSystem
Democracyistheformofgovernmentinwhichthepeoplegovern,eitherdirectly
orthroughelectedrepresentatives
Majorityrulethroughthefreeandopenelectionofrepresentatives
Whenpoliticalleadersrespondtothepolicydesiresofthemajority,theresultis
majoritarianism
Intheus,majoritarianismoccursprimarilythroughthecompetitionbetweenthe
RepublicanandDemocraticparties
Majoritarianismhasitslimits
Pluralismholdsthat,onmostissues,thepreferenceofthespecialinterestlargely
determineswhatgovernmentdoes
PartyPolarizationisusedtocharacterizetodayspartypolitics
Authorityistherecognizedrightofofficialstoexercisepower
AConstitutionalSystem
Ifthemajorityprincipleisultimate,theworldwillbefilledwithmajoritytyranny
toguardagainstoppressivemajorities,thewritersoftheConstitutiondevisedan
elaboratesystemofchecksandbalances,dividingauthorityamongthe
legislative,executive,andjudicialbranchessothateachbranchcouldcheckthe
poweroftheothers
Congresswouldbeprohibitedfromenactinglawsthatabridgefreedomof
speech,press,andreligiontheselimitsreflecttheprincipleof
constitutionalismtheideathattherearelawfulrestrictionsongovernments
power
Legalactionistheuseofthecourtsasameansofassertingrightsandinterests
Iftheaccusedistoopoortohirealawyer,thegovernmentmustprovideone
Onpercapitabasis,thereareroughlytwiceasmanylawyersintheUSasin
Britain,Italy,andGermany,andfivetimesasmanyasinFrance
AFreeMarketSystem
Manyofsocietyscostsandbenefitsareallocatedthroughtheprivatesector
UnderCommunism,thegovernmentownsmostorallmajorindustriesandalso
takesresponsibilityforoverallmanagementoftheeconomy,includingproduction
quotas,supplypoints,andpricing
UnderSocialism,asitispracticedtodayinSwedenandothercountries,
governmentdoesnotattempttomanagetheoveralleconomy,butownsa

numberofmajorindustriesandguaranteeseveryindividualaminimalstandard
ofliving
FreeMarketSystemoperatesmainlyonprivatetransactionsfirmsarelargely
freetomaketheirownproduction,distribution,andpricingdecisions,and
individualsdependlargelyonthemselvesforeconomicsecurity
TheUSeconomyischieflyafreemarketsystem
EnormousconcentrationsofwealthareonUSprivatesectorsuchasGoogle,
Ford,andBankofAmerica
Corporatepoweroperatesinpartthroughtheinfluencethatfirmshavewith
policymakers
Wealthisalsothefoundationofelitism,whichreferstothepowerexercisedby
wellpositionedandhighlyinfluentialindividuals
WhoGoverns?
AdefiningcharacteristicofAmericanpoliticsisthewidespreadsharingofpower
FewnationshaveasmanycompetinginterestsandinstitutionsasdoestheUS
TheTextsOrganization
Americanpoliticsoperateswithinaconstitutionalsystem
Publicpoliciesarethedecisionsofgovernmenttopursueparticularcourseofaction
Politicsaretheresultofpoliticalinteractionsthatpoliticalscientistscallthepublicpolicy
process
Thefirststageproblemrecognitionreferstotheemergenceofanissue
Thesecondstageofthepolicyprocessispolicyformulation
Thepolicyimplementationisthethirdstage

Chapter2ConstitutionalDemocracy:PromotingLibertyandSelfGovernment

ThefeaturesoftheConstitutionsoughttocreatealimitedgovernmentonethatis
subjecttostrictlegallimitsontheuseofpower,sothatitwouldnotthreatenthepeoples
liberty.
Theyalsosoughttoestablishasystemofrepresentativegovernmentoneinwhichthe
peoplewouldgovernthroughthe
selectionoftheirrepresentatives
Representativegovernmentrequiresthat
themajoritythroughitselected
representativeshasthepowertorule
Limitedgovernmenternmentrequires
thatmajorityrulestopatthepointwhere
itinfringesonthelegitimaterightsand
interestsoftheminority
Thischapterwillbeabout:
Americaduringthecolonialperiod
developedtraditionsoflimited
governmentandrepresentativegovernment

TheConstitutionprovidesforlimitedgovernmentmainlybydefininglawfulpowersand
bydividingthosepowersamongcompetinginstitutions
TheConstitutioninitsoriginalformprovidedforrepresentativegovernmentmainly
thoughindirectmethodsofelectingrepresentatives
Theideaofpopulargovernmentinwhichthemajoritysdesirehaveamoredirectand
immediateimpactongovernmentofficialshasgainedstrengthsincethenations
beginning
BeforetheConstitution:TheColonialandRevolutionaryExperiences
AmericansadmiredlimitedgovernmentbecauseitisdifferentfromotherEuropeans
countriesbesidesGreatBritaintheBritishParliamentwascompletelyseparatedfrom
themonarchytherightsofEnglishmen
Eachcolonyhaditsownelectedrepresentativeassembly
TheAmericanRevolutionwaspartlyarebellionagainstBritainsfailuretoupholdthe
coloniesestablishtraditions
TheBritishgovernmentstartingtaxingonthecoloniesaftertheFrenchandIndianWar
Taxingthecolonieswasawaytoreducethedebt,soParliamentleviedastamptaxon
colonialnewspapersandbusinessdocuments
Notaxationwithoutrepresentation
ParliamentbackeddownandrepealedtheStampAct,itthenpassedtheTownshend
Act,whichimposedtaxesonallglass,paper,tea,andleadsoldinthecolonies
In1774,thecolonistsmetinPhiladelphiaattheFirstContinentalCongresstoformulate
theirdemandsonBritain
KingGeorgeIIIrejectedtheirdemands,andBritishtroopsandMassachusetts
minutemenclashedatLexingtonandConcordonApril9,1775.
TheDeclarationofIndependence
Ideasabouttheproperformofgovernmentalsofueledtherebellionotherthan
thegrievancesagainstBritain
JohnLockeclaimedthatgovernmentisfoundedonasocialcontract
Lockassertedthatpeoplelivinginastateofnatureenjoycertaininalienable
rights(ornaturalrights),includingthoseoflife,liberty,andproperty
ThomasJeffersondeclaredthatLockewasoneofthethreegreatestmenthat
everlived,withoutexception
TheArticlesofConfederation
Aconstitutionisthefundamental
lawthatdefineshowa
governmentwilllegitimately
operatethemethodfor
choosingitsleaders,the
institutionsthroughwhichthese
leaderswillwork,theprocedures
theymustfollowinmaking
policy,andthepowerstheycan
lawfullyexercise

ThefirstUSgovernmentwasbasedontheArticlesofConfederationandnotona
Constitution
TheArticlesofConfederationcreatedaveryweaknationalgovernmentthatwas
subordinatetothestates
UndertheArticlesofConfederation,thenationalgovernmenthadnojudiciary
andnoindependentexecutive
TheArticlesprohibitedCongressfromlevyingtaxes,soithadtoaskthestates
formoney
OncetheRevolutionaryWarended,however,thestatesfeltfreetogotheir
separateways
ANationDissolving
Inlate1785athisMountVernonhome,WashingtonmetwithleadersofVirginia
andMarylandtosecureanagreementbetweenthetwostatesoncommercial
useofthePotomacRiver
Manyfarmersfacednotonlylosingtheirpropertybutbeingsenttoprisonfor
unpaiddebtsaftertherebellioninwesternMassachusetts
Hamiltonconvincedthedelegatestoadoptaresolutioncallingforaconvention
torendertheConstitutionoftheFederalgovernmentadequatetotheexigencies
ofunion
CongressconcurredandscheduledaconstitutionconventionofUnion.
NegotiatingTowardaConstitution
Prominentdelegates,GeorgeWashington,BenjaminFranklin,andJamesMadisonwere
determinedfromtheoutsettoestablishanAmericannationbuiltonastrongercentral
government
TheGreatCompromise:ATwoChamberCongress
TheVirginiaPlanalsocalledthelargestateplantodrafttheconstitutional
conventionof1787,includedseparatejudicialandexecutivebranchesaswellas
atwochamberCongressthatwouldhavesupremeauthorityinallareas(small
statesonlyhaveafewdelegateswhilelargestateswouldhavenumerous
delegates)
TheNewJerseyPlan(alsocalledthesmallstateplan)calledforastronger
nationalgovernmentthanthatprovidedforbytheArticlesofConfederation(it
wouldhavethepowertotaxandtoregulatecommerceamongthestates
Thedebateoverthetwoplansdraggedonforweeksbeforethedelegates
reachedwhatisnowknownastheGreatCompromise
Itprovidedforabicameral(twochamber)Congress.OneChamber,theHouseof
Representatives,wouldbeapportionedonthebasisofpopulation.Theother
chamber,theSenate,wouldbeapportionedonthebasisofanequalnumberof
senators(two)foreachstate
ArticleVoftheConstitution:Nostate,withoutitsconsent,shallbedeprivedofits
equalsuffrageintheSenate
TheThreeFifthsCompromise:IssuesofSlaveryandTrade
Issuesoverslaveryforcedasecondmajorcompromise

SouthernstateswereconcernedthatnorthernrepresentativesinCongresswould
taxorevenbartheimportationofslaves
Congressalsoimposedaheavytariffontheexportofagriculturegoods,which
wouldmakethemmoreexpensiveandthereforelessattractivetoforeignbuyers,
theSouthwouldagainbearmostofthetaxburdenbecauseitprovidedmostof
theagriculturalgoodsshippedabroad,suchascottonandtobacco
ThreeFifthCompromiseforpurposesofapportionmentoftaxesandseatsinthe
U.S.HouseofRepresentatives,eachslavewastocountaslessthanafull
person
TheseCompromisehaveledcriticstoclaimthatthefarmersoftheConstitution
hadnoobjectionstoslavery
Yetthesouthernstatesdependenceonslaverywasarealitythathadtobe
confrontediftherewastobeaunionofthestates
AStrategyforRatification
Smalldecisionssuchasfederaljudiciaryandbureaucracywerelargelydelegated
toCongress
Thelastissuethathadtobedecidedwasaprocessforratifyingtheproposed
constitution
Theyalsorecognizedthatratificationwouldbedifficultmanystatesleaders
wouldopposegivingstrongpowerstothenationalgovernment
Inaboldmove,thedelegatesignoredCongresssinstructionsandestablished
theirownratificationprocess
TheRatificationDebate
TheAntiFederalists(asopponentsoftheConstitutionwerelabeled)raised
argumentsthatstillechoinAmericanpolitics
Theyclaimedthatthecentralgovernmentwouldbetoopowerfulandtheydistrust
thecentralizedpowerandworriedthatthepeopleslibertycouldbeeclipsedas
easilybeadistantAmericangovernmentasithadbeenbytheBritishKing
ThefactthattheConstitutioncontainednobillofrightsheightenedthisconcern
ThenecessaryofaBillofRightsappearstobegreaterinthisgovernmentthan
everitwasinanygovernmentbefore
WithoutaBillofRights,withoutcheck,limitation,orcontrol,ourrepublicwillbe
lost,andtyrannymustand
willarise.
AntiFederalistsarguedthat
suchrepresentativesare
morecompetentthan
thoseofasuperiorclass
Thepresidencywasanother
sourceofcontention
Americanmonarchy?
WouldtheConstitutionbecomeatoolbywhichthewealthruledoverthosewith
littleornomoney?

Theantifederalistsacknowledgedthatneedformoreeconomiccooperation
betweenthestatesandforastrongercommondefensed,buttheyopposedthe
creationofastrongernationalgovernmentasthemechanism,arguingthata
revisionoftheArticlesofConfederationcouldaccomplishthesegoalswithoutthe
riskofestablishonoverlypowerfulcentralgovernment
TheFederalistsresponsewithapersuasivecaseoftheirown
AmajorityofordinaryAmericansopposedtheConstitutionsratification,buttheir
voiceinthestateratifyingmainsupportedthechange
TheFarmersGoals
TheConstitutionofferedtheworldanewmodelofgovernmentinwhichawritten
documentdefiningthegovernmentslawfulpowerswouldrepresentahigher
authoritythanthedictatesofanypoliticalleadersoinstitution
TheConstitutionembodiedthefarmersvisionofapropergovernment
Creationofanationalgovernmentstrongenoughtomeetthenations
needs,particularlyintheareasofdefenseandcommerce
Preservethestatesasgoverningentities
Establishanationalgovernmentthatwasrestrictedinitslawfulusesof
powerandthatgavethepeopleavoiceintheirgovernance
ProtectingLiberty:LimitedGovernment
TheframersoftheConstitutionsoughtanationalgovernmentthatcouldactdecisively
butnotonethatwouldactirresponsibly
Infact,libertytheprinciplethatindividualsshouldbefreetoactandthinkasthey
choose,providedtheydonotinfringeunreasonableonthefreedomandwellbeingof
otherswasthegoverningidealthattheframerssoughtmosttouphold
Thedilemmaisthatgovernmentitselfcanuseforcetointimidateorbrutalizeits
opponents
GrantsandDenialsofPower
Theframerschosetolimitedthenationalgovernmentinpartbyconfiningits
scopetoconstitutionalgrantsofpower
TheCongressspowersinclude:powerstotax,establishanarmyandnavy,
declarewar,regulatecommerceamongthestates,createanationalcurrency,
andborrowmoney
Theframersalsouseddenialsofpowerasameanstolimitgovernment
prohibitingcertainpracticesthatEuropeanrulershadroutinelyusedtooppress
policiesopponents
TheframersmadetheConstitutiondifficulttoamend,therebymakingithardfor
thoseinofficetoincreasetheirpowerbychangingtherules
UsingPowertoOffsetPower
theysoughttolimitedgovernmentbydividingitspoweramongseparatebraches
SeparationofpowerswaswidelyadmiredinAmerica,andwhenthestates
draftednewconstitutionsafterthestartoftheRevolutionaryWar,theybuilttheir
governmentsaroundtheideal

InFederalistsNo.10,Madisonaskedwhygovernmentsoftenactaccordingto
theinterestsofoverbearingmajoritiesratherthanaccordingtoprinciplesof
justiceheattributedtheproblemtothemischiefsoffaction
hearguedthatpeoplearedivideintoopposingreligious,geographical,ethnic,
economic,andotherfactions
Afactionthatcontrolledthelegislaturecouldenactlawsruinoustootherinterest
asafersystemwouldbeonebranchtocheckanother
SeparatedInstitutionsSharingPower:ChecksandBalances
PoliticalscientistRichardNeustadtdevisedthetermseparatedinstitutions
sharingpowertodescribetheframersgoverningsystem
Checksandbalance
Legislative,executive,andjudicialpowersintheAmericansystemaredividedin
suchawaythattheyoverlap,eachofthethreebranchesofgovernmentchecks
theotherspowersandbalancesthosepowerswithpowersofitsown
Sharinglegislativepowers
ThepresidentcanvetoactsofCongress,recommendlegislation,andcall
specialsessionsofCongress
Thepresidentalsohasthepowertoexecuteandtherebyinterpretthe
lawsCongressmakes
TheCourthasthepowerofjudicialreview:itcandeclarelawsof
Congressvoidwhenitfindsthattheyarenotinaccordwiththe
Constitution
SharingExecutivePowers
Thepresidentspowertomaketreatiesandappointhighrankingofficials
issubjecttoSenateapproval
Congresshasthepowertoimpeachandremovethepresidentfromoffice
Thejudiciarysmajorcheckonthepresidencyisitspowertodeclarean
actionunlawfulbecauseitisnotauthorizedbythelawsthattheexecutive
claimstobeimpeaching
SharedJudicialPowers
Congressisempoweredtoestalblsihthesizeofthefederalcourtsystem,
torestricttheSupremeCourtsappellatejurisdictioninsome
circumstances,andtoimpeachandremovefederaljudgesfromoffice
Congresscanrewritelegislationthatthecourtshavemisinterpretedand
caninitiateamendmentswhenitsdies=agreeswithcourtrulingson
constitutionalissues
Thepresidenthasthepowertoappointfederaljudgeswiththeconsentof
theSenateandtopardonpersonsconvinceinthecourts
Thepresidentisalsoresponsibleforexecutingcourtdecisions,afunction
thatprovidesopportunitiestoinfluencethewayrulingsarecarriedout
TheBillofRights
AlthoughthedelegatestothePhiladelphiaconventiondiscussedthepossibilityof
placingalistofindividualrights,theyultimatelydecidedthatitwasntnecessary

TheConstitution,unliketheArticlesofConfederation,grantedthefederal
governmentdirectauthorityoverindividualcitizensandyetdidnotcontainalist
oftheirrights
Ultimately,thedemandforabillofrightsledoitsadditiontotheConstitution
JudicialReview
ThewritersoftheConstitutionbothempoweredandlimitedgovernment
BecausetheConstitutiondidnotexplicitlygrantthejudiciarythisauthority,the
principlehadtoestablishinpractice
TheCourtasserteditspowerofjudicialreviewthatis,thepowerofthejudiciary
todecidewhetheragovernmentofficialorinstitutionhasactedwithinthelimitsof
theConstitutionand,ifnot,todeclareitsactionnullandvoid
ProvidingForRepresentativeGovernment
ThereisnocontradictionbetweenthisideaandtheConstitutionsprovisionsforlimited
government,becauseindividuallibertyisanessentialelementofrepresentative
government
Thegreatriskofpopulargovernmentwasthetyrannyofthemajority:thepeopleacting
asanirrationalmobthattramplesontherightsoftheminority

DemocracyversusRepublic
Noformofrepresentativegovernmentcouldeliminatecompletelythethreatto
libertyofmajoritytyranny,butthefarmersbelievedthatthedangerwouldbe
greatlydiminishedbycreatingarepublicangovernmentasopposedtoa
democraticgovernment
Bythetermdemocracy,theframersmeantagovernmentinwhichthepowerof
themajorityisunlimited
Bythetermrepublic,theframersmeantagovernmentthatconsistsofcarefully
designedinstitutionsthatareresponsivetothemajoritybutnotcaptivetoit
Trustees:therepresentativesareobligedtoservetheinterestofthosewhoelect
them,butthenatureofthisinterestisfortherepresentatives,notthevoters,to
decide
LimitedPopularRule
TheConstitutionprovidedthatallpowerwouldbeexercisedthrough
representativeinstitutions
TheHouseofRepresentativeswastheonlyinstitutionthatwouldbebasedon
directpopularelectiontismemberswouldbeelectedtoservefortwoyearsbya
voteofthepeople
USsenatorswouldbeappointedbythelegislaturesofthestatestheyrepresent
Presidentialelection
Directelectionwastwiceproposedandtwicerejectedbecauseitwould
linkexecutivepowerdirectlytopopularmajorities
ElectoralCollege
Eachstatewouldhavethesamenumberofelectoralvotesasithad
membersinCongressandcouldselectitselectorsbyamethodofits
choosing

Theframersdecidedthatfederaljudgesandjusticeswouldbeappointedrather
thanelectedtheywouldbenominatedbythepresidentandconfirmedthrough
approvalbytheSenate
UnliketheHouseofRepresentatives,institutionssuchastheSenate,presidency,
andjudiciarywouldnotyieldtoanimpassionedmajorityinasingleelection
AlteringtheConstitution:MorePowertothePeople
Selfgovernmentwasanidealthathadledtensofthousandsofordinaryfarmers,
merchants,andtradesmentorisktheirlivesintheAmericanRevolution
JeffersonianDemocracy:ARevolutionoftheSpirit
ThomasJeffersonobjectedtoitssystemofrepresentation,voicingthe
AntiFederalistsfearthatfederalofficialswouldlosetouchwiththe
peopleanddiscounttheirinterests
AdamspubliclyindicatedthattheConstitutionwasdesignedfora
governingeliteandhintedthathemightuseforcetosuppressdissent
JeffersonchallengedAdamsinthenextpresidentialelectionand,upon
defeatinghim,hailedhisvictoryastheRevolutionof1800
AlthoughJeffersonwasachampionofthecommonpeople,hehadno
clearvisionofhowapopulargovernmentmightworkinpractice
Jeffersoniandemocracywasmostlyarevolutionofthespirit
JeffersontaughtAmericanstolookonnationalgovernmentinstitutionsas
belongingtoall,notjusttheprivilegedfew
JacksonianDemocracy:LinkingthePeopleandthePresidency
JacksoncarriedouttheconstitutionalrevolutionthatJeffersonian
democracyhadforeshadowed
Unlikethepresident,whowastheonlyofficialwhocouldlegitimately
claimtorepresentthepeopleasawhole,membersofCongresswere
electedfromseparatestatesanddistrictsratherthanfromtheentire
country
Toconnectthepresidencymorecloselytothepeople,Jacksonurgedthe
statestoawardtheirelectoralvotestothecandidatewhowinsthestates
popularvote
TheProgressives:SenateandPrimaryElections
TheProgressivesrejectedtheBurkinaideaofrepresentativesas
trustees,insteadembracingtheideaofrepresentativesas
delegatesofficeholdershowareobligatedtocarryouttheexpressed
opinionsofthepeopletheyrepresent
TheProgessivesalsoinstigatedtwochangesinfederalelections
Primaryelectiongivesrandandfilevotersthepowertoselectparty
nominees
th
DirectelectionofUSsenators,whobytheratificationofthe7

Amendmentin1913werechosenbystatelegislaturesandwerewedel
perceivedasagentsofbigbusiness
ConstitutionalDemocracyToday

ThetypeofgovernmentcreatedintheUSin1787couldaccuratelybecalleda
constitutionaldemocraticrepublic
Itisconstitutionalinitsrequirementthatpowergainedthroughelectionsbeexercisedin
accordancewithlawandwithduerespectforindividualrightsdemocraticinits
provisionsformajorityinfluencethroughelectionsandarepublicinitsmixof
deliberativeinstitutions,eachofwhichmoderatesthepoweroftheothers
Bysomestandards,theAmericansystemoftodayisamodelofrepresentative
government
Byotherstandards,however,theUSsystemislessdemocraticthansome.