Introduction to biology

I. Nature of biology
Studying biology makes us aware of the realms of the
living world.
(a) Nanobe- smallest organism
(b) Blue whale- largest organism
(c) Wolffia globosa- smallest flower
(d) Rafflesia arnoldii- largest flower
Knowledge of physics, mathematics and chemistry
helps us understand biology
A. Biology as a science of life
It is through understanding of what makes such creature
an organism
Biology- the science of living things; has become a
frontier of sciences; the study of life. It is a scientific
field that is interested in the form, function, and
behavior of all living things.
B. Brief history of biology
Humans began studying biology in their desire
triumph over creation; initially based on superstition

to

(a) Hippocrates- wrote a book of diseases

(b) Aristotle- listed 500 species of animals
(c) Theoprhastus- founded botany and 500 species of
plants
(d) Galen- last real biologist of the ancient world
(e) Andreas Vesalius- inaugurated the modern era of
western medicine
(f) Leonardo da Vinci- an artist studying physiological
and anatomical details
(g) Anton van Leeuwenhoek- initiated microscopy
(h) Charles Darwin- on the origin of species
C. Importance of Biology
(a) discover the relationships among humans, animals,
and plants
(b) Learn to value life
(c) Learn about sustainable development
(d) Learn about the need to conserve
(e) Enables us to realize economic importance
(f) Enhances our interests and appreciation
II. What is a living thing?
What are the characteristics of life?
Living organisms are a carbon- and water-based
cellular form with complex organization and heritable
genetic information. They undergo metabolism, possess
a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and,
through natural selection, adapt to their environment in
successive generations.
A. Properties of life
1. Living organisms are: a carbon- and water-based
cellular form.
Cell Theory

(a) Cells are basic structural and physiological units of all

living organisms
(b) Cells are both distinct entities and building block of more
complex organisms
2. Living organisms: undergo metabolism
Require Energy
(a) Cells use nutrients to supply energy and build
new structures
(b) Metabolism: the sum total of chemical reactions
that occur in an organism
3. Living organisms: respond to stimuli
Respond
(a) helps ensure the survival of an organism
(b) allows an organism to carry on daily activities
4. Living organisms: possess a capacity to grow
reproduce
Reproduce and Develop:
(a) asexual reproduction (clonal reproduction):
produce exact replica of themselves
(b) sexual
reproduction
(many
strategies):
exchange
of
genetic
material
between
organisms
5.
Living
organisms
have:
heritable
genetic
information through natural selection, adapt to their
environment
Heredity
(a) genome all DNA molecules in a cell
(b) adaptation an organisms modification in
structure, function, or behavior suitable to the
environment
natural selection- When adaptations are so beneficial
that they are inherited in subsequent generations
6. Living organisms have: complex organization
Life Science
(a) biology is the scientific study of life
B. Characteristics of living things
(a) cellular organization
(b) Locomotion
(c) Irritability
(d) Matabolism
(e) Growth
(f) Reproduction
(g) Adjustment, integration, adaptation, coordination
C. Life is complex!
1. There are levels of life:
small molecules- large molecules- cells- tissues- organs
- organ system- complex organisms
2. There is diversity of life:
a. Prokaryotes: single-celled organisms. each cell is an
individual organism that can live and function
independently.

(1) Domain Bacteriaorganisms

consists of all the bacterial

James Watson and Francis Crick discovered DNA

structure

(2) Domain Archaea- contains the descendants of the

C. The Theory of Heredity:
most primitive organisms on Earth
(a) The genes of any organism are inherited as discrete
units
b. Eukaryotes: multi-celled organisms
(b) Those genes are packaged up in chromosomes
(3) Domain Eukarya
(a) Kingdom Protistamulticellularity
(b) Kingdom Plantae
(c) Kingdom Fungi
(d) Kingdom Animalia

first

group

to

develop

3. There is taxonomic order to life:

domain- kingdom- phylum- class- order- family- genusspecies
4. There is ecological order to life:
biosphere- region- landscape- ecosystem- communitypopulation- individuals
5. Life is interconnected and interdependent:
a. Producers
b. Consumers
c. Decomposers
III. The scientific process
To understand such a complex subject, scientists
developed the scientific method:
(a) allows scientists to modify and correct their beliefs
as new observations and information becomes
available
(b) if well supported > theory!
Observationshypothesisconclusion- scientific theory

experiment/observation-

IV. Core Ideas of Biology

Gregor Mendel Mendelian segregation; first scientist to

suggest how genes are inherited
D. The Theory of Evolution:
(a) Organisms that can respond to the challenges of living
will leave more offspring
(b) Descent with modification!
Charles Darwin first scientist to present this idea;
living organisms are related to one another

V. Scientific Method
The Scientific Method is a process used to find answers
to questions about the world around us.
The 7-step process to scientific investigations
(1) Formulate a question.
What do you want to know or explain? Use
observations you have made to write a question that
addresses the problem or topic you want to investigate.
(2) Research the question.
Researching your question lets you know if
others have done this same experiment before and if so,
what their data suggests. If they had a widely accepted
conclusion, you may want to try a different angle with
your experiment or test a different variable.
(3)Form a hypothesis.
What do you think will happen? A hypothesis is
your prediction for the outcome of the experiment. It is
based on your observations and should be testable!

There are four major unifying themes in the study of life.

(4) Conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis.

Design a procedure that tests your hypothesis
to see if your prediction is correct. Record all of your
data and observations and put them into a table that is
neat and organized.

A. The Cell Theory:

(a) All organisms are composed of cells
(b) All cells come from other cells

(5) Analyze data.

Is your data reliable? Does it make sense? Put
your data into a chart or graph and look for any trends.

Robert Hooke named cells; the first scientist to identify

a cell; honeycomb

(6) Draw Conclusions.

Do your data and observations support your
hypothesis? If you cannot make a definite conclusion,
you may need to try the experiment again. This means
you may either need to rewrite your procedure if it was
not specific enough; you may need to change your
hypothesis.

A theory is a unifying explanation that has been well

supported time and time again; statement of fact that
has not been disproven scientifically.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek the first to identify bacterial

cells, and he called them wee animalcules.
B. The Gene Theory:
(a) All organisms have a genome
(b) An organisms genes determine what it will be like
(secret code!)

(7) Communicate results.

Report the results of your experiment to let
others know what you have learned. This will be

represented as either a lab report, oral presentation, or

Science Fair display board.
The Cell Theory and the Microscope
Some Random Cell Facts
(a) The average human being is composed of around 100
Trillion individual cells..
(b) It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area of a
dot on the letter i
Discovery of Cells
Robert Hooke- 1665; English Scientist, discovered cells
while looking at a thin slice of cork; He described the
cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb; He thought that
cells only existed in plants and fungi
Anton van Leuwenhoek- 1673; used a handmade
microscope to observe pond scum & discovered singlecelled organisms; He called them animalcules; He also
observed blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, and
humans; Therefore, it was known that cells are found in
animals as well as plants
Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries and the
mid 19th century, very little cell advancements were
made. This is probably due to belief in Spontaneous
Generation. Examples: Mice from dirty clothes/corn
husks; Maggots from rotting meat
Louis Pasteurgeneration

Conclusively

disprove

1. The cell contains hereditary information(DNA) which is

passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
and metabolic activities.
3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried
out inside the cells.(movement, digestion,etc)
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular
structures within the cell(organelles, nucleus, plasma
membrane)
How Has The Cell Theory Been Used? The basic
discovered truths about cells, are the basis for:
Disease/Health/Medical Research and Cures(AIDS,
Cancer, Vaccines, Cloning, Stem Cell Research, etc.)

Early Microscopes
Early microscope lenses made images larger but the
image was not clear
Zacharias Janssen - made 1st compound microscope; a
Dutch maker of reading glasses (late 1500s)
Leeuwenhoek- made a simple microscope (mid 1600s)
magnified 270X
Leeuwenhoek's microscope

spontaneous

Development of Cell Theory

Matthias Schleiden- 1838, German Botanist, concluded
that all plant parts are made of cells
Theodor Schwann- 1839, German physiologist, who was
a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues
are composed of cells.
Rudolf Virchow- 1858, German physician, after extensive
study of cellular pathology, concluded that cells must
arise from preexisting cells.

The Cell Theory Complete

The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory were now
complete:
1. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.
(Hooke)(1665)
2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting
cells. (Virchow)(1858)
Modern Cell Theory
Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in addition to
the original Cell Theory:

A) a screw for adjusting the height of the object being

examined
B) a metal plate serving as the body
C) a skewer to impale the object and rotate it
D) the lens itself, which was spherical
Modern Microscopes
Lens- makes an enlarged image & directs light towards
you eye
Magnification- the change in apparent size produced by
a microscope
total magnification- powers of the eyepiece (10X)
multiplied by objective lenses
simple microscopemagnifying glass

has

one

lens;

Similar

to

compound microscope- has multiple lenses (eyepiece &

objective lenses)

2. Eukaryote- Has several internal structures

(organelles); True nucleus; Either unicellular or
multicellular;
unicellular
example:
yeast;
multicellular examples: plants and animals

The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell

Stereomicroscope- creates a 3D image
Electron microscope- More powerful; some can magnify
up to 1,000,000X; Use a magnetic field in a vacuum to
bend
beams
of
electrons;
Images
must
be
photographed or produced electronically
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)- produces realistic
3D image ; only the surface of specimen can be
observed
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)- produces 2D
image of thinly sliced specimen; detailed cell parts (only
inside a cell) can be observed
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)- able to show
arrangement of atoms
A View of the Cell
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Cellular Organization
Cell- basic unit of an organism
Tissue group of cells functioning together.
Organ group of tissues functioning together.
Organ System group of organs functioning together.
Organism group of organ systems functioning together.

1. Boundaries
(a) Plasma Membrane- serves as a boundary
between the cell and its external environment;
Allows materials to pass in and out of the cell.
(b) Cell Wall- surrounds the plasma membrane of
the cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi; Plant cell
walls contain cellulose while fungi cell walls
contain chitin.
2. Controls
(a) Nucleus- Regulates cell function; Surrounded by
a
double-layered
membrane
(nuclear
enveloped) with large pores that allow materials
to pass in and out of the nucleus; Contains
chromatin long tangles of DNA.
(b) Nucleolus- Found in the nucleus and responsible
for ribosome production. Ribosomes are the
sites of protein production.
3. Assembly
(a) Cytoplasm- The jelly-like material that surrounds
the organelles.
4. Transport

Microscopes and Cells

Anton van Leeuwenhoek- 1600s; first described living
cells as seen through a simple microscope.
Robert Hooke- used the first compound microscope to
view thinly sliced cork cells; was the first to use the
term cell.
Mathias Schleiden- 1830s; identified the first plant cells
and concluded that all plants made of cells.
Thomas Schwann- made the same conclusion about
animal cells.

Cell Theory:
(1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
(2) The cell is the basic unit of organization of all
organisms.
(3) All cells come from other cells all ready in
existence.
Two Basic Cell Types
1. Prokaryote- Lacks internal compartments; No true
nucleus; Most are single-celled (unicellular)
organisms; Examples: bacteria

(a) Endoplasmic reticulum- Folded membrane that

acts as the cells delivery system.
Smooth E.R. contains enzymes for lipid synthesis.
Rough E.R. is studded with ribosomes for protein
synthesis.
(b) Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)- A series of flattened
sacs where newly made lipids and proteins from the E.R.
are repackaged and shipped to the plasma membrane.
5. Storage
(a) Vacuoles- A sac of fluid surrounded by a
membrane used to store food, fluid, or waste
products.
(b) Lysosomes- Contain a digestive enzyme; Can
fuse with vacuoles to digest food, or can digest
worn cell parts; Also known as suicide sacs
because they can also destroy the whole cell.
6. Energy Transformers
(a) Mitochondria- Produce the energy for the cell;
Also known as the powerhouse of the cell; Has
a highly folded inner membrane (cristae).
(b) Chloroplasts- Found in plant cells and some
protists; Transforms light energy into chemical
energy which is stored in food molecules;

Contain chlorophyll a green pigment that traps

light energy and gives plants their green color.
7. Support
(a) Cytoskeleton- A network of thin, fibrous materials
that act as a scaffold and support the organelles.
Microtubules hollow filaments of protein.
Microfilaments solid filaments of protein.

dividing. This is mainly due to the synthesis of proteins,

RNA and DNA. This is followed by division of the cell
nucleus (karyokinesis) and finally the division of the cell
cytoplasm (cytokinesis). All these events collectively
form a cell cycle.

8. Locomotion
(a) Cilia- Short, numerous, hair-like projections from
the plasma membrane; Move with a coordinated
beating action.
(b) Flagella- Longer, less numerous projections from
the plasma membrane; Move with a whiplike
action.
9. Cell Division
(a) Centrioles- made of protein; play a role in the
splitting of the cell into two cells; found in
animal and fungi cells.

The cell cycle, also called generation time, is the

sequence of events in the life of a cell. The cell cycle
starts immediately after one cell division and ends with
the completion of the next division.
The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells is classified into
1. Interphase- the preparatory phase during which
the cell is metabolically very active and
prepares itself for the division.
Three important processes occur in interphase,
a. replication of chromosomal DNA, synthesis of RNA and
the basic nuclear proteins (histones)
b. synthesis of energy rich compounds which provide energy
for mitosis and
c. in animal cells, division of the centriole.

Cell Division
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. New
cells arise from the preexisting ones. The process by
which new cells are formed from the pre-existing cells is
called cell division.
In unicellular organisms, the cell division directly
produces two individuals and thus, represents a type of
reproduction (multiplication).
In multicellular organisms, there are two types of cells;
the somatic cells or the body cells (which form the body
of the organism) and the reproductive cells (such as
gamete-producing cells and-spore producing cells).
The somatic cells divide by mitosis (equational division)
and the reproductive cells divide by meiosis (reduction
division). Mitosis helps in growth and development of an
organism. Meiosis produces gametes in sexual
reproduction and spores in asexual reproduction.
All eukaryotic organisms, plants as well as animals,
show great regularity as well as similarity in the cell
divisions. Generally, a cell increases in size before

On the basis of DNA synthesis, interphase is subdivided

into following three stages:
a. G1 (Gap1) : It starts immediately after the previous
division. Therefore G1 is called gap phase or first growth
phase. Synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place. The
cell grows in volume.
b. S phase (Synthesis phase) : It is the period during which
DNA synthesis occurs, i.e. replication of chromosomal
DNA takes place. This results in doubling of the
chromosomal threads.
c. G2 (Gap 2) : It is the last part of interphase and occurs
just before the new cell division. Hence G2 is called predivision gap phase or second growth phase. It begins
after completion of DNA synthesis in the S phase and
ends when new division (karyokinesis) commences.
During G2, synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place
and the nuclear volume increases.
2. Karyokinesis- the division of the parent nucleus
into daughter nuclei.
3. Cytokinesis- the division of the cytoplasm. It
occurs after karyokinesis and divides the parent
cell into daughter cells.
Karyokinesis and cytokinesis together form the M phase
(i.e. cell division).
The total duration of a cell cycle varies greatly in
different organisms and under different conditions, e.g.
it may be as short as 20-30 minutes in the bacterium

Escherichia coli or may take 12-24 hours as in most (a) Chromosomes uncoil
higher plants and animals.
(b) Spindle fibres disintegrate
(c) Centrioles replicate
The time required for completion of each phase in the (d) Nucleur membrane forms
cell cycle varies greatly. In general, actual cell division (e) Cell divides
(M-phase) occupies only a short span of the total cycle
while the major span is occupied by the interphase.
Stages of mitosis
Normally, time duration of S and G2 phases is more or (1) Early prophase- DNA begins to condense
less equal. The duration of G1 is longer in cells which do (2) Late prophase- centriole pairs move apart; nuclear
not divide frequently, and is very short in cells which
envelope starts to break up
divide repeatedly in close succession.
(3) Transition to metaphase- spindle apparatus form

(1)

(2)
(3)
(4)

G0 stage : It is a stage during which cell cycle is (4)

(5)
arrested for an indefinite period.
(6)
(7)
Significance of cell cycle
In multicellular organism, the 'cycling type' of cells
(dividing cells) help in reproduction, growth and
replacement of dead cells, healing of wounds, etc.
The interphase allows time for synthesis and growth of
the dividing cell.
Properly controlled and regulated cell cycle results in
normal and proportionate growth of organisms.
Loss of control over the cell cycle can lead to cancerous
growth

Metaphase- chromosomes line up at the spindle equator.

Anaphase- sister chromatid (DNA) move apart
Telophase- cytoplasmic division occurs
Interphase- cytokinesis; after mitosis, two diploid
daughter cells have formed.

Mitosis-division of somatic (body) cells.

Meiosis-division of gametes (sex cells)
Mitosis
"Mitosis is an equational division, dividing the mother
cell into two daughter cells which are identical to each
other and also to the original mother cell in every
respect. In mitosis, the chromosomes of the mother cell
are duplicated and distributed equally to the two
daughter cells."
Stages of Mitosis (IPMAT)
1. Interphase- phase of mitosis where the cell
performs its normal activities for life; DNA is in
the chromatin state; Interesting things happen!
(a) Cell preparing to divide
(b) Genetic material doubles
2. Prophase- Chromosome pair up!
(a) Chromosomes thicken and shorten; become visible; 2
chromatids joined by a centromere
(b) Centrioles move to the opposite sides of the nucleus
(c) Nucleolus disappears
(d) Nuclear membrane disintegrate
3. Metaphase-Chromosomes meet in the middle!
(a) Chromosomes arrange at equator of cell
(b) Become attached to spindle fibres by centromeres
(c) Homologous chromosomes do not associate
4. Anaphase- Chromosomes get pulled apart;
Spindle fibres contract pulling chromatids to the
opposite poles of the cell
5. Telophase- Now there are two!

Summary
of
mitosis
(1) It can take place in haploid as well as diploid cells.
(2) Both the daughter cells formed through mitosis
receive similar characters and number of chromosomes
as that of the mother cell.
(3) The original structure of the chromosomes remains
unchanged in both the daughter nuclei.
(4) Hence, it is an equational division and the resulting
daughter
cells
are
identical
qualitatively
and
quantitatively.

Significance of Mitosis
(1) It is an equational division which maintains equal
distribution of the chromosomes after each cell cycle.
(2) The resulting daughter cells inherit identical
chromosomal material (hereditary material) both in
quantity (i.e., number) and quality (i.e., genetic make
up or characters).
(3) Mitosis maintains a constant number of
chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.

(4) It helps to maintain the equilibrium in the amount of

DNA and RNA contents of a cell, as well as the nuclear
and cytoplasmic balance in the cell.
(5) Dead cells are replaced by newly formed cells
through mitosis. It thus helps in the repair of the body.
(6) It helps asexual reproduction, growth and
development of organisms.
Meiosis
In the sexually reproducing organisms, two important
phenomena regulate the number of chromosomes in the
life cycle. These are meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is
the reduction division in which the diploid (2n) number
of chromosomes is reduced to haploid (n) during
gamete formation (or spore formation). Whereas, in
fertilization, the two haploid gametes fuse to form a
diploid zygote. In this way, the diploid condition is
restored again in the life cycle.

3. The karyokinesis of meiosis consists of two complete

nuclear divisions called first meiotic division (Meiosis-I
or M-I) and second meiosis division (Meiosis-II or M-II).
4. M-I is reduction division involving separation of
homologous chromosomes.
5. M-II is equational division like mitosis which involves
duplication of chromosomes.
6. The four daughter nuclei are haploid due to the
reduction division (M-I). Moreover, they differ from each
other in the characters of chromosomes due to crossing
over during Prophase-I of M-I.
7. Cytokinesis may be successive or simultaneous
dividing the diploid mother cell into four haploid
daughter cells.

"Meiosis is a special type of division characteristic of

reproductive cells in which the diploid number of
chromosomes is reduced to haploid in the daughter
cells. In meiosis, chromosomes divide once while the
nucleus (and in some cases the cytoplasm also) divides
twice. Four haploid daughter cells result from one
diploid mother cell. These differ from each other as well
as from the mother cell."
Meiosis- 4 daughter cells produced; Each daughter cell
has half the chromosomes of the parent; 2 sets of cell
division involved

Summary
of
1. Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells only.
2. It occurs in diploid cells.

Meiosis
The Chemical Basis of Life

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

2.1 The emergence of biological function starts at the
chemical
Everything an organism is and does depends on
chemistry
Chemistry is in turn dependent on the arrangement
of atoms in molecules
In order to understand the whole, biologists study
the parts (reductionism)
Molecules and ecosystems are at opposite ends of
the biological hierarchy;
-Each level of organization in the biological
hierarchy builds on the one below it;
- At each level, new properties emerge

2.3 Elements can combine to form compounds

Chemical elements combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds; Example: sodium + chlorine sodium
chloride
2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons
The smallest particle of an element is an atom
Different elements have different types of atoms
An atom is made up of protons and neutrons
located in a central nucleus
The nucleus is surrounded by electrons
Each atom is held together by attractions between
the positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons
Neutrons are electrically neutral
Atoms of each element are distinguished by a
specific number of protons
- The number of neutrons may vary
- Variant forms of an element are called isotopes;
Some isotopes are radioactive
2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical
properties of an atom
Electrons are arranged in shells
-The outermost shell determines the chemical
properties of an atom
-In most atoms, a full outer shell holds eight
electrons
Atoms whose shells are not full tend to interact with
other atoms and gain, lose, or share electrons

2.2 Life requires about 25 chemical elements

A chemical element is a substance that cannot be
broken down to other substances by ordinary
chemical means
About 25 different chemical elements are essential
to life
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up
the bulk of living matter, but there are other
elements necessary for life
Goiters are caused by iodine deficiency

2.7
Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of
opposite charge
When atoms gain or lose electrons, charged atoms
called ions are created
- An electrical attraction between ions with opposite
charges results in an ionic bond
Sodium and chloride ions bond to form sodium
chloride, common table salt
2.8 Covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons, join atoms
into molecules
Some atoms share outer shell electrons with other
atoms, forming covalent bonds
- Atoms joined together by covalent bonds form
molecules
Molecules can be represented in many ways
- molecular formula, electron configuration,
structural formula
2.9 Water is a polar molecule
Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may share
electrons equally, creating a nonpolar molecule
If electrons are shared unequally, a polar molecule
is created
In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger pull
on the shared electrons than hydrogen
- This makes the oxygen end of the molecule
slightly negatively charged
- The hydrogen end of the molecule is slightly
positively charged
2.10 Overview: Waters polarity leads to hydrogen
bonding and other unusual properties

The charged regions on water molecules are

attracted to the oppositely charged regions on
nearby molecules
- This attraction forms weak bonds called hydrogen
bonds
Like no other common substance, water exists in
nature in all three physical states: solid, liquid, gas

2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and

basic conditions
A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an
acid, and one that accepts H+ ions in solution is a
base
Acidity is measured on the pH scale: 0-7 is acidic ,
8-14 is basic ; Pure water and solutions that are
neither basic nor acidic are neutral, with a pH of 7

2.11 Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive

Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules can
move from a plants roots to its leaves
Insects can walk on water due to surface tension
created by cohesive water molecules
2.12 Waters hydrogen bonds moderate temperature
It takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen bonds
- Therefore water is able to absorb a great deal of
heat energy without a large increase in
temperature
- As water cools, a slight drop in temperature
releases a large amount of heat
- A water molecule takes a large amount of energy
with it when it evaporates; this leads to evaporative
cooling
2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water
Molecules in ice are farther apart than those in
liquid water
- Ice is therefore less dense than liquid water, which
causes it to float
- If ice sank, it would seldom have a chance to thaw
- Ponds, lakes, and oceans would eventually freeze
solid
2.14 Water is a versatile solvent
Solutes whose charges or polarity allow them to
stick to water molecules dissolve in water
- They form aqueous solutions

Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers

Buffers are substances that resist pH change
- They accept H+ ions when they are in excess and
donate H+ ions when they are depleted
- Buffers are not foolproof

2.17 Chemical reactions rearrange matter

In a chemical reaction:
- reactants interact
- atoms rearrange
- products result
- Living cells carry out thousands of chemical
reactions that rearrange matter in significant ways