Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
HuF-6a
The c o n t e n t s of t h i s r e p o r t r e f l e c t t h e views
of t h e Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e which
i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a c t s and t h e accuracy
of t h e d a t a presented h e r e i n , The c o n t e n t s do
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e o f f i c i a l views o r
p o l i c y of t h e Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
This r e p o r t does n o t c o n s t i t u t e a s t a n d a r d ,
specification or regulation,
1. Report No.
s y s t e m d ~ e s i g nV a r i a b l e s
7. Author(s)
i
1
R.G.
J.D.
Mortimer, L. S e g e l , H . Dugoff,
Campbell, C.M. J o r g e s o n , R.W. Murphy
HuF- 6 a
Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e
u n i v e r s i t y o f - Michigan
Ann A r b o r , Michigan 48105
1I
11. Contract or Grant No.
FH-11-6952
13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Summary F i n a l R e p o r t
J u l .y 1 ., 1968-April 1 0 , 1970
F e d e r a l Hiahwav A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
Nztional ~ i ~ h w
S a af e ~t y Bureau
20591
Washington, D . C .
I
I
--
16. Abstract
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e f i n e t h o s e b r a k e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , ,
w i t h i n t h e s p a c e bounded by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between b r a k e p e d a l f o r c e and
v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n , which l e a d t o a c c e p t a b l e d r i v e r - v e h i c l e performance. A
d r i v e r - v e h i c l e b r a k i n g t e s t was performed i n which t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
r a t i o , t h e p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t , t h e s u r f a c e - t i r e f r i c t i o n , and d r i v e r c h a r a c t e r i s - l
t i c s ( a g e , w e i g h t ) were s y s t e m a t i c a l l y v a r i e d i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e ,
of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s upon minimum s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e and o t h e r performance v a r i a b l e s :
The t e s t s t h a t were performed on a low c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e showed
t h a t h i g h v a l u e s o f d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n r e s u l t i n l a r g e number of wheel1
l o c k u p s and lower mean d e c e l e r a t i o n i n b r i n g i n g t h e v e h i c l e t o a s t o p , compared
t o i n t e r m e d i a t e o r low d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n l e v e l s . T e s t s c o n d u c t e d on ;
i n t e r m e d i a t e and h i g h c o e f f i c i e n t o f f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s showed t h a t h i g h and
i n t e r m e d i a t e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s produced g r e a t e r mean d e c e l e r a t i o n s
and g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c i e s of wheel l o c k u p s t h a n lower g a i n s y s t e m s . The f r e q u e n c y
of l o s s of l a t e r a l c o n t r o l was s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r w i t h t h e h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n /
p e d a l f o r c e g a i n b r a k e s on a l l s u r f a c e s t h a n w i t h lower g a i n s . There were minor
~ e n e f i t sof 2 . 5 i n c h p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t compared t o z e r o i n c h e s . P o t e n t i a l
b r a k e f a i l u r e s and t h e i r e f f e c t s upon p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s were a n a l y z e d .
The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e f i n d i n g s f o r a v e h i c l e b r a k i n g s t a n d a r d were shown i n
terms of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e q a i n and p e d a l f o r c e .
-19.
unclassified
1 20.
unclassified
A v a i l a b i l i t y i s u n l i m i t e d . Document
may b e r e l e a s e d t o t h e C l e a r i n g h o u s e
f o r F e d e r a l S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h n i c a l
I n f o r m a t i o n , S p r i n g f i e l d , Va. 22151
for s a l e t o the public
21. No. of Pages
22
i-v
22. Pr~ce
TABLE
CONTENTS
L i s t of T a b l e s and F i g u r e s
....................
Summary of Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L i t e r a t u r e ~ e v i e w. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foot Force C a p a b i l i t y of D r i v e r s . . . . . . .
D r i v e r Braking Performance a s a F u n c t i o n o f
Pedal-Force and Pedal.Displacement . . . . . .
D r i v e r Braking P r a c t i c e . . . . . . . . . . .
FailureAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum Foot F o r c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Objectives
.........
D e c e l e r a t i o n Magnitude Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n
F a i l u r e Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D r i v e r - V e h i c l e Braking T e s t
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
Figure
Figure
2.
3.
Figure
4.
Figure
5.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
6.
7.
8.
9.
Figure 10.
.........
Brake t e s t i n p r o g r e s s .
..........
Cumulative p e r c e n t p e d a l for.ce f o r 276 f e m a l e s . . .
Cumulative p e r c e n t p e d a l f o r c e f o r 323 males.
...
Geometric mean d e c e l e r a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n of de..
c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , s p e e d and s u r f a c e .
Mean number o f wheel l o c k u p s a s a f u n c t i o n of
d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and s p e e d . . . . . . .
Foot p e d a l f o r c e measurement buck.
.....
........
lockup t i m e / t o t a l braking t i m e
of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l s u r f a c e . . . . .
Figure 1 2 .
F i g u r e 13.
Figure 1 4 .
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
6
8
10
10
12
12
14
Mean r a t i n g o f f o r c e r e q u i r e d f o r 28 s u b j e c t s
a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n
and d i s p l a c e m e n t . .
14
.................
Cut-off PFG v a l u e s f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y d r i v e r - v e h i c l e
b r a k i n g performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cumulative p e r c e n t of d e c e l e r a t i o n s f o r manual
.................
and power b r a k e s .
Cumulative p e r c e n t o f v e h i c l e s w i t h lower g a i n :
Manualbrakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cumulative p e r c e n t of v e h i c l e s w i t h lower g a i n :
Power b r a k e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r f r o n t
a x l e brake c i r c u i t f a i l u r e i n a loaded sedan
w i t h manual b r a k e s . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
F i g u r e 17.
4
6
Mean c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y r a t i n g f o r 28 s u b j e c t s
a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n and p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t .
............
F i g u r e 11.
The recommended d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e s p a c e . .
16
17
18
18
19
21
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
1.
TABLE
2.
.., ..
. . v. . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
OBJECTIVE
Having d e r i v e d a s u i t a b l e s e t of
l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n s upon t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n , a s
a f u n c t i o n o f p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t , i t was a l s o d e s i r e d t o recommend an a p p r o p r i a t e s e t of o b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g and compliance
p r o c e d u r e s . The e f f e c t of v a r i o u s t y p e s of b r a k e f a i l u r e s upon
t h e b r a k e p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a given l e v e l of d e c e l e r a t i o n was a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d i n o r d e r t o d e r i v e a methodology
by which d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e r a t i o s may be recommended f o r
a b r a k e f a i l u r e mode.
SUMMARY OF TASKS
I n o r d e r t o meet t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h i s program f i v e major
e x p e r i m e n t a l and a n a l y t i c a l t a s k s were c a r r i e d o u t .
LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of t h e l i t e r a t u r e was c a r r i e d o u t p e r t i n e n t t o an
a n a l y s i s of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an
automotive v e h i c l e .
The f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
The b r a k e p e d a l on c o n v e n t i o n a l v e h i c l e s i s a c t u a t e d by t h e
f o o t o r b o t h f e e t of t h e d r i v e r . For t h i s r e a s o n it i s import a n t t o know t h e f o o t f o r c e c a p a b i l i t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l s comprisi n g t h e d r i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n . A procedure was developed by which
l e f t and r i g h t f o o t maximum f o r c e e x e r t i o n c o u l d be measured
f o r a sample of female and male d r i v e r s . The p e d a l f o r c e measuri n g buck shown i n F i g u r e 1 was used i n t h e s e t e s t s . Male and
F i g u r e 1.
Two measure-
Maximum f o o t f o r c e f o r
A b r a k i n g t e s t was d e v i s e d i n which a
d r i v e r was r e q u i r e d , upon a s i g n a l , t o b r i n g t h e c a r t o a s t o p
a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e w i t h i n a l a n e t e n f e e t wide d e l i n e a t e d by
r u b b e r t r a f f i c cones ( F i g u r e 2 ) ,
three surfaces:
surface.
The r o l l i n g t i r e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e s e s u r -
f a c e s were, r e s p e c t i v e l y :
from 35 mph and 50 mph.
F i g u r e 2.
Brake t e s t in progress
c a t i o n of t h e b r a k e s was r e c o r d e d ,
By t h i s means a frequency
The
l a t t e r d a t a were r e q u i r e d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s
phase of t h e p r o j e c t .
FAILURE ANALYSIS
The
Figure 3 .
Figure 4 .
l e v e l o f d e c e l e r a t i o n from t h e v e h i c l e .
A f o r c e o f 85 l b s i s
t h e r e f o r e s u g g e s t e d by t h e s e d a t a a s t h e maximum b r a k e p e d a l
e f f o r t f o r a v e h i c l e d e c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e o r d e r of 0 . 7 5 g.
DRIVER-VEHICLE BRAKING TEST
Mean
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s were
found due t o t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n .
The mean d e c e l -
e r a t i o n s on each of t h e t h r e e s u r f a c e s , a t t h e two i n i t i a l s p e e d s ,
f o r t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n l e v e l s a r e shown i n F i g u r e
5.
The h i g h e s t g a i n ( d e f i n e d a s h i g h d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
0 35
mph
50 mph
Dry
Wet
------ -'
--e---
w-
--.-.-,------
F i g u r e 5.
------El
Wetopainted
Geometric mean d e c e l e r a t i o n a s a
f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n , speed and s u r f a c e .
TABLE 1.
Dry
35
PFG
L e v e l ( g / l b ) MPH
50
MPH
Wet
35
50
MPH MPH
Wet-Painted
35
50
MPH
MPH
Rank
Sum
[Those v a l u e s b l o c k e d o f f i n d i c a t e t h e p e d a l f o r c e g a i n s
p r o v i d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e s t mean d e c e l e r a t i o n u n d e r
each surface-speed c o n d i t i o n ] .
performance t o o t h e r l e v e l s .
The numbers w i t h i n t h e t a b l e i n d i -
c a t e t h e r a n k i n g s of e a c h of t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n
l e v e l s i n terms of s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h o t h e r l e v e l s .
The mean f r e q u e n c y w i t h which w h e e l s were l o c k e d up d u r i n g
e a c h r u n a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l s p e e d and t h e p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n i s shown i n F i g u r e 6 .
There i s a c l e a r r e d u c t i o n i n wheel
There were s l i g h t l y
less w h e e l l o c k u p s w i t h t h e 2 . 5 i n c h maximum d i s p l a c e m e n t p e d a l
t h a n t h e 0 d i s p l a c e m e n t on some o f t h e p e d a l f o r c e g a i n l e v e l s .
T h e r e was a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t upon mean number of wheel
lockups of t h e pavement s u r f a c e , w i t h f a r g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y o f
w h e e l l o c k u p s o c c u r r i n g on t h e w e t - p a i n t e d s u r f a c e t h a n on
e i t h e r t h e wet and t h e d r y which i n c u r r e d s i m i l a r f r e q u e n c i e s
(Figure 7)
Figure 6.
Mean number o f w h e e l l o c k u p s a s a
function of deceleration/pedal f o r c e
g a i n and s p e e d .
',
0.065
(1)
0.037
'\
Painted
Wet
(2)
0.021
(3)
0.012
0.007
(4)
(5)
0.004
(6)
F i g u r e 7.
Mean number o f w h e e l l o c k u p s as a
f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n and s u r f a c e .
10
painted surface.
up t i m e a s t h e p e d a l f o r c e g a i n i s reduced.
The p r o p o r t i o n of
TABLE 2.
Pedal D i s placement
Surface
D e c e l e r a t i o n / P e d a l Force Gain
0.065 0.037 0.021 0 . 0 1 2 0.007
(g/lb)
0.004
-------
MPH
Dry
Wet
WetPainted
Dry
Wet
Wet-
Painted
Mean
' p e r c e n t = Loss of C o n t r o l T r i a l s i n a T e s t C o n d i t i o n
T o t a l ( S u c c e s s f u l & Loss of C o n t r o l ) T r i a l s i n a x 1 0 0
Test Condition
-.
C O D
E -g
E
2
t.
(D
r
I
01
O
0-
(Y
z
ID
C
3
C1f
:I
a 1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,,
0
0
0
'1
I
I
-.
Y (D
M Q
nJ rD
<
"lo-0
rn 0 d
-0
a
M rt
1
e:-- 4
rn
DJ
c a r
xz--
-z
'. -.
-u
r=
-?
"?
- -
*1
R)
-?
2:-
,
,
0
,
0
0
,
0
b u t a b l e t o t h e p e d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t v a r i a b l e i n t h e p e r c e n t of
l o s s of c o n t r o l t r i a l s .
C l e a r l y , most such e v e n t s o c c u r r e d
The r a t i n g s made by s u b j e c t s of
t h e magnitude of t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e t h e b r a k e
( F i g u r e 11) showed t h a t g a i n l e v e l s 1 and 2 r e q u i r e d t o o l i t t l e
f o r c e and l e v e l s 5 and 6 r e q u i r e d t o o much f o r c e .
The i n t e r -
on a l l t h r e e s u r f a c e s used i n t h i s t e s t , was
obtained.
Figure
1 2 shows t h e s l o p e s of t h e f u n c t i o n s r e l a t i n g d e c e l e r a t i o n t o
p e d a l f o r c e f o r each of t h e l e v e l s of t h e g a i n f a c t o r used i n
t h e test.
'
The r e s u l t s of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s of t h e
The t a b l e
shows t h a t on t h e d r y s u r f a c e l e v e l s 2 and 3 , a t b o t h s p e e d s ,
provided s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r performance t o l e v e l 1.
For
= 0.86).
This i s
VERY
GOOD
5-
GOOD
rnch displacement
inch displacement
7.5
Figure 10.
Mean c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y r a t i n g f o r 28
s u b j e c t s a s a f u n c t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and p e d a l
displacement.
TOO
GREAT
sOmwAT(
2.5
HIGH
RIGHT
W
k
0.065
(1)
0.037
'2)
0.621
(3)
0 . b
(4!
o.do7
(5)
o.;04
(6)
F i g u r e 11.
Mean r a t i n g o f f o r c e r e q u i r e d f o r 2 8
s u b j e c t s a s a function of deceleration/
p e d a l f o r c e g a i n and d i s p l a c e m e n t .
lower g a i n was d e s i r e d f o r t h e l i m i t i n g v a l u e .
Therefore, t h e
l i m i t i n g v a l u e of maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n was
t a k e n a s t h a t found w i t h g a i n l e v e l 2 and i s shown a s A i n
F i g u r e 12.
T h i s i s shown a s B i n F i g u r e 1 2 .
S i m i l a r l y , C was s e l e c t e d a t a d e c e l e r a t i o n of 0.40 g a s t h e
maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e g a i n .
s e l e c t e d , u s i n g a s i m i l a r r a t i o n a l e , by t h e d a t a shown i n Table
1.
The b r a k e
(manual) i n t h e i n i t i a l phase of t h e t e s t f o r
About 80 p e r c e n t of a l l peak b r a k e
These a n a l y s e s were c a r r i e d o u t f o r v a r i o u s f r o n t -
r e a r b r a k e f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s . The i n c r e m e n t s i n p e d a l f o r c e
t h a t were r e q u i r e d i n each of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s were n o t e d , and
i n many i n s t a n c e s c l e a r l y r e q u i r e d p e d a l f o r c e s t h a t c o u l d n o t
b e a t t a i n e d by a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e d r i v i n g p u b l i c .
40
60
80
100
Figure 12.
120
1
140
Figure 13,
Cumulative p e r c e n t o f
d e c e l e r a t i o n s f o r manual
and power b r a k e s .
The r e s u l t s of compliance t e s t s on
The c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p e d a l f o r c e
terms of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a d e s i r e d d e c e l e r a t i o n w i l l be
achieved,
of v a r i o u s b r a k e system f a i l u r e s upon p e d a l f o r c e r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of d r i v e r f o r c e c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of d e c e l e r a t i o n s i n c u r r e d i n everyday d r i v i n g .
Figure 1 6
MANUAL BRAKES
Figure 1 4 .
Cumulative p e r c e n t o f v e h i c l e s w i t h
lower g a i n : Manual b r a k e s .
Figure 15.
Cumulative p e r c e n t o f v e h i c l e s w i t h
lower g a i n : Power b r a k e s .
F i g u r e 16.
Cumulative p e d a l f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
f o r f r o n t a x l e brake c i r c u i t f a i l u r e
i n a loaded sedan w i t h manual b r a k e s .
shows t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of d r i v e r p e d a l
f o r c e , t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n s used by d r i v e r s , and t h e f r o n t - r e a r
b r a k e e f f o r t of a h y p o t h e t i c a l v e h i c l e i n a normal and i n a f r o n t
b r a k e c i r c u i t f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n . This diagram can be used t o
determine t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e female, f o r
example, d r i v i n g a manual brake v e h i c l e w i t h a 6 0 / 4 0 f r o n t r e a r b r a k e e f f o r t d i s t r i b u t i o n , f a i l s t o a c h i e v e a probably
d e s i r e d deceleration during a s t o p following a f r o n t brake c i r c u i t f a i l u r e . Using t h e r i g h t - h a n d s c a l e of F i g u r e 1 6 , t h e
5 t h p e r c e n t i l e l i n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e female f o o t f o r c e c a p a b i l i t y
l i n e a t A. Proceeding v e r t i c a l l y t o t h e @ = 4 0 % l i n e , p o i n t
B , and then a g a i n h o r i z o n t a l l y back t o t h e r i g h t - h a n d s c a l e ,
i t i s found t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e female
f o o t force d r i v e r f a i l i n g t o achieve her desired deceleration
l e v e l i s 8 p e r c e n t . This means t h a t t h e r e i s a p r o b a b i l i t y of
8 p e r c e n t t h a t t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n t h a t t h e d r i v e r may p e r c e i v e
a s b e i n g r e q u i r e d w i l l need a p e d a l f o r c e e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r
19
t h a n s h e i s capable of e x e r t i n g .
CONCLUSIONS
The a n a l y t i c a l and experimental s t u d i e s have shown t h a t
boundary v a l u e s of maximum and minimum d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
g a i n can be d e r i v e d which could be used i n o r d e r t o s e t recommended
l i m i t a t i o n s upon t h e s e brake system c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
The d a t a
s e l e c t e d , being w i t h i n t h e c a p a b i l i t y of 5 p e r c e n t of female
d r i v e r s , a t which near t o t h e p r a c t i c a l maximum d e c e l e r a t i o n
should be a t t a i n a b l e from a passenger c a r .
For t h i s reason 85
High
With
,021
,012
.007
Figure 1 7 .
1.
s h o u l d b e 0.21 g / l b b e c a u s e :
a.
I n F i g u r e 1 2 , C i s t h e most c r i t i c a l l i m i t and
f a l l s on t h i s f u n c t i o n ;
b.
c.
T h e r e f o r e , F i g u r e 17 shows a l i n e of s l o p e 0.021 g / l b
a s t h e maximum g a i n and t h e bound on minimum p e d a l f o r c e i n t h e
deceleration/pedal force space.
2.
The low g a i n l i m i t i n t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n / p e d a l f o r c e
b.
above i s a d o p t e d , it w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o employ a b r a k e t e s t
p r o c e d u r e t o o b t a i n p e d a l f o r c e v a l u e s a t a number of d e c e l e r a t i o n l e v e l s less t h a n 0.2 g and up t o a maximum a t t a i n a b l e p r i o r
t o wheel l o c k i n g on a d r y , smooth, P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e
s u r f a c e a s d e s c r i b e d i n SAE J-843.
I n t h i s way t h e curve r e l a t i n g