MAKING OBSERVATIONS

LAB 1
OBJECTIVES:

to make observations while watching materials interact and undergo change

to understand, recognize and record qualitative and quantitative observations as well
as interpretations of data.
MATERIALS:
250 mL beaker
Thermometer
Electronic balance

aluminum foil (about 10cm x 10cm)

1 M copper (II) chloride solution

PROCEDURE:
1.

Cut a piece of aluminum foil to the dimensions indicated and record the mass.

2.

Place about 75 mL of copper (II) chloride solution into a clean 250 mL beaker and
record the temperature of the solution. Using your senses, make and record
observations about the chemicals that you are using before you move on.

3.

Crumple the foil into a loose ball and place it in the solution in the beaker.

4.

Immediately start recording your observations in Table 1. Copy your table with a
maximum of 10 minutes in it. As well, make and record observations about the
chemicals as the reaction is taking place. Make sure you record the highest
temperature achieved.

5.

When no further changes appear to be happening (stop at a max. 10 min.), make and
record observations about the chemicals once the reaction is complete.

6.

Place all the contents of the beaker in the waste disposal bucket at the back of the
room.

PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
1.

If we assume that the aluminum reacts with the copper (II) chloride solution, what do
you think will be left in the beaker after the experiment is over?

OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:

Volume of copper (II) chloride used: ___________
Mass of aluminum foil used:

___________

TABLE 1: Temperature of the solution before, during and after the reaction
TIME (min)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

TEMPERATURE (C)

OBSERVATIONS

Maximum Temperature achieved: __________

QUESTIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
1) Knowing the temperature change that occurred over a four minute span, calculate the
rate of temperature change per minute?
2) If you used a stronger (more concentrated) solution of copper (II) chloride with the
same piece of aluminum foil, what changes in observations might you observe?
CONCLUSIONS:
1) Write out one significant qualitative and quantitative observation from this lab.
2) Write out an interpretation of the data that you could take from this experiment.
3) State any sources of error which may have affected this lab.

COOLING AND HEATING CURVES FOR A SUBSTANCE

LAB 2
OBJECTIVES:

To investigate whether paradichlorobenzene is either a mixture or a pure
substance based on interpreting the cooling/heating process for PDC

To determine and compare the melting and freezing point of PDC.
MATERIALS:
Paradichlorobenzene in a test tube
Test tube clamp
Thermometer
1000 mL beaker

PROCEDURES:
Part 1 The Cooling Process
1. Obtain a test tube of paradiclorobenzene from the back of the room. Remove the
stopper and save it on your table until the end. Do not lose the stopper.
2. You will need to melt the PDC in order to place the thermometer into the test tube
and record the temperature. To do this, place the test tube clamp around the test
tube and immerse the tube in the hot water bath. Make sure that the water level in
the beaker is above all of the PDC in the test tube. You will know that all of the
PDC is melted when the inside of the test tube is above 65C.
3. Record your melted temperature as the zero time of your cooling curve in your
data table. Remember to hold the thermometer off of the glass.
4. Quickly remove the test tube from the hot water bath and move over to the warm
water bath. Immerse the test tube in the water, again making sure the water level
is higher than all of the PDC. Begin taking temperature readings and make
observations every 30s until all of the PDC has solidified. Your max. time is 12
minutes. You will have to hold the thermometer until the substance has solidified
around 49C or 12 minutes has been reached.
Part 2 The Heating Process
1. Once your thermometer in the cool bath has reached a temperature of around
49C and the PDC is solid, take a final temperature reading before you move to
the warm bath. Count this temperature as time zero for the heating curve data.

2. Remove the test tube from the cool bath and quickly move back to the hot water
bath. Immerse the test tube properly and continue with your readings and
observations every 30s until all of the PDC has melted and you have reached a
temperature no lower than 60C. (max. 12 min.)
3. When you have finished your readings, remove the thermometer from the PDC
test tube and immediately wipe it off with a paper towel.
4. Put the stopper back on the PDC test tube and return the test tube to the rack at the
back and let it cool off.

PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
A)

Does water freeze or melt at 0C? Explain.

B)

How are you going to figure out if PDC is a pure substance or a mixture?

OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:

Time
(min)
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
.
.
.

Cooling process
Temperature
(C)

Observations

Heating process
Temperature
(C)

Observations

ANALYSIS OF DATA:
Part 1 The Cooling Process
1. Using the data your group obtained during the cooling process, construct a graph
of temperature versus time. Use small circles for these data points and sketch a
smooth curve to join the circles.
2. Indicate on the graph where solidification began and ended.
Part 2 The Heating Process
1. On the same graph as the cooling curve, plot temperature versus time for the
heating process. Use small squares for these data points and sketch a smooth
curve

2. Indicate on the graph where melting began and ended. Use your data to help.

QUESTIONS:
1. From your cooling and heating curves, determine the freezing and melting point
of paradichlorobenzene.
2. Compare your answer above with two other lab groups and explain any
similarities or differences.
3. How would you explain the plateaus in your cooling and heating at around 52 C?
4. Suppose more PDC had been used in Part 1. What would be the appearance of
the new cooling curve?
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer the objectives. Include any sources of error that may have caused
your results to be inaccurate.

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGE

LAB 3
OBJECTIVES:

To observe some changes in the laboratory.

To infer whether each is a chemical or physical change.

To record some recognizable characteristics of chemical changes.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus
1 spot plate

Figure 1
Reagents
set of 4 unknown solutions

PROCEDURES:
1. Obtain a clean spot plate or glass square. Place a piece of coloured paper underneath
the glass square if necessary. On the paper draw a grid as seen in Figure 1. If you use
the spot plate, label the chemicals you will be combining above the well of the spot
plate.
2. On the spot plate, combine the solutions by mixing A with B, A with C, A with D, B
with C, B with D, and C with D. Record your observations in your data table (there
are only 6 observations necessary). Make sure you use separate, clean droppers for
each of the solutions.
3. Once you have your data, rinse the solutions down the sink with lots of water. Before
you leave the lab, make sure you wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water
from the back of the room.
PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
1. What kind of observations do you think would indicate a chemical change? A
physical change?
2. What do you do if you observe a change during the experiment but you are not
sure whether it is chemical or physical?

OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:

Table 1
Unknown
A

B
C
D

QUESTIONS:
1. State your inference as to a physical or a chemical change occurring in each of the six
combinations of solutions.
2. Describe two chemical changes that you might observe occurring in everyday life.
3. Describe two physical changes that you might observe occurring in everyday life.

CONCLUSIONS:
Summarize your results and tell what you have learned in this lab. Dont forget any
sources of error that may have occurred.

SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE BY
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
LAB 4
OBJECTIVES:

To assemble and operate a paper chromatography apparatus.

To study the meaning and significance of Rf values.
To test various food colourings and to calculate their Rf values.
To compare measured Rf values with standard Rf values.
To separate mixtures of food colourings into their components.
To identify the components of mixtures by means of their Rf values.

MATERIALS:
Reagents

Apparatus

Scissors
Set of food colourings
Ruler
(yellow, red, blue, green)
Pencil Unknown mixture
Chromatography paper
3 large test tubes in a test tube rack
PROCEDURES:
PART 1: SETTING UP
1. Take the large test tube rack from your lab station and put it on your table. You will
use the 3 cleanest tubes in the rack. Assign them as test tubes A, B, and C.
2. Obtain a 60 cm length of chromatography paper and cut it into 3 strips of 18 cm each.
Then cut each strip so that they are 1.4 cm in width. Using a pencil, lightly draw a
line across each strip 4.0 cm from one end. Use scissors to trim this end of the strip
into a point, as shown in the figure below. Label these A, B, and C with a pencil.
18.0 cm

sample dye spot

4.0
cm

1.4
cm

3. Your instructor will assign you one colour (red, yellow, or blue) for you to test. Using
a capillary tube, spot your first strip of chromatography paper (labelled A) on the
pencil line with the colour assigned (see the figure above). The spots should not
exceed 0.5 cm in diameter.
4. For the strip labelled B, spot with the colour green. For the strip labelled C, spot with
the unknown mixture.
PART 2: Rf VALUES OF INDIVIDUAL FOOD COLOURINGS AND SEPARATION
OF MIXTURES INTO THEIR COMPONENTS
1. Add about 2 cm of water to each of the test tubes. Put strip A into test tube A so that
the tip just touches the bottom of the test tube. Do not allow the dye spot to be
immersed in the water. Do not allow the flat surface of the strip to rest against the
walls of the test tube.
2. Do the same for strips B and C into test tubes B and C respectively. Observe what
happens to your sample as the water moves slowly up the paper as a result of
capillary action.
3. See whether or not your samples separate into component colours. After about 30
minutes have elapsed, remove strip A from the test tube and immediately draw a
pencil line across the top edge of the solvent front (the water line) and the top of the
colour line.
4. Repeat Step 3 for strip B and strip C, making lines across all the component colours
and the water line.
5. Measure with a ruler the distances d1 (the distance the colour travelled) and d2 (the
distance the water travelled) on strip A. Record these results in Table 1 and calculate
the Rf value. Record the class data in Table 2.
6. Repeat Step 5 for strip B, measuring all the component colour distances and
calculating Rf values for each component colour in the green food colouring. Record
your results in Table 3.
7. Repeat Step 5 for strip C, measuring all the component colour distances and
calculating Rf values for each component colour in the unknown mixture. Record
your results in Table 3.
8. Identify the dyes used in this lab by comparing your calculated Rf values with those in
Table 4. Record those results in Table 3.
9. Clean up your materials. The strips may be placed in the garbage or proudly taped
into your notebook as a joyous memento of what you have learned.

PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
Chromatography is one technique used by chemists to separate mixtures of
chemical compounds in order to identify or isolate their components. In chromatography,
mixtures are separated according to the different solubilities of the components in liquids,
or their adsorptions on solids.
Chromatography has many applications, including detection and measurement of
pesticides in foods, and drugs and urine specimens. It is also used extensively in
biological research to separate alcohols, amino acids, and sugars. As well, the
pharmaceutical industry relies on chromatography for the production of high-purity
chemicals.
There are a variety of chromatographic techniques, but all share two features: a
moving carrier phase, and a stationary phase. In the stationary phase of paper
chromatography, the sample to be analyzed is spotted onto a piece of chromatography
paper. The sample is carried along this stationary phase by a solvent which acts as the
moving carrier. The components of the sample are carried different distances along the
paper, depending on their individual solubilities. After a length of time, the original spot
is spread out into a series of bands. These bands are then analyzed to determine their
identities.
In paper chromatography, one method of identifying these separated components
of a mixture is to calculate the Rf value of each. Rf stands for ratio of fronts. An Rf
value is simply the ratio of the distance travelled by the solute to the distance travelled by
the solvent:
where d1 = distance travelled by solute
Rf = d1/d2
d2 = distance travelled by solvent
The Rf value of a substance is a characteristic of that substance for a specific
solvent. A substance having a high solubility in the moving phase will be carried further
and will have a higher Rf value. By definition, Rf values vary from 0 to 1.
1.

On the basis of what principle is chromatography used to separate mixtures?

2.

a) What constitutes the moving phase in this experiment?

b) What constitutes the stationary phase in this experiment?

3.

a) What does Rf mean?

b) Write the mathematical equation for calculating an Rf value and explain all the
terms.

4.

What is the benefit of having Rf Values?

5.

Why do you need a pencil for this experiment?

OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:

TABLE 1: Assigned Food Colouring
Colour Tested
Solute Distance (cm)
Solvent Distance (cm)
Rf Value

TABLE 2: Class Data for Individual Food Colourings Tested

Station
Red Rf
Yellow Rf
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Average Rf
TABLE 3: Separation of Mixtures Into Their Component Colours
Component Colours
d1
d2
Green
Colouring

Blue Rf

Rf

Dye ID

Unknown
Mixture

TABLE 4: Some Approved Dyes for Food Colouring

Dye
Red #2 Red #3 Red #4 Yellow #5 Yellow #6
Rf
0.81
0.41
0.62
0.95
0.77

Blue #1
1.00

Blue #2
0.79

QUESTIONS:
1. a) Which, if any, of the colours you tested in this experiment appeared to contain one
or more of the approved dyes listed in Table 4?
b) Which, if any, of the colours you tested did not correspond to any of the approved
dyes?
2. From your results, what are the components of green food colouring? Support your
answer both qualitatively and quantitatively.
3. What can you conclude about the identity of the components in the unknown
mixture? What qualitative and quantitative evidence supports your answer?
4. Why should green food colouring be classified as a mixture, whereas red, blue or
yellow should not?
5. Identify the dyes that appear on the chromatogram in Figure 1
(see Table 4). The original sample was purple food colouring.
6. A pharmaceutical chemist runs a chromatography test on a substance
and identifies two of its components by comparing their Rf values. If
the two components have Rf values of 1.00 and 0.41, and the solvent
front has travelled 12.0 cm from the samples origin, what is the
separation distance between the components on the chromatogram? Use SF
7. A chemist performs an Rf calculation, obtains a value of 1.20, and
decides that the answer is unacceptable. Why?
Figure 1

CONCLUSION:
Summarize your results and tell what you have learned in
this experiment. Dont forget any sources of error that may
have occurred.

GRAPHING AS A MEANS OF SEEKING A RELATIONSHIP

LAB EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECTIVES:

To make measurements of mass and volume for three different liquids.

To analyze the data by means of graphing techniques.

To determine a mathematical relationship between mass and volume for each
liquid.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus

Reagents

250 mL Erlenmeyer flask

mass balance
several burettes

water
methanol
salt (sodium chloride) solution

PROCEDURE:
1. Your instructor will assign you a volume of liquid to test. You will then use this
volume for all three liquids. The data will be shared with the class and therefore you
will be depending on each other for good results.
2. Determine and record the mass of a clean, dry 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask.
3. Go to one of the burettes that contains water, methanol, or salt solution (the order you
do these in is not important) and get your assigned volume of liquid as accurately as
possible. If you do not get the precise amount it does not matter. What does matter is
that you record exactly the volume that you did get in Table 1.
4. Mass out the total mass of the flask and the liquid. Subtract the mass you found in
Step 2 in order to determine the mass of the liquid. Record this in Table 1.
5. Now repeat Steps 3 and 4 for the other two liquids. Do not empty the flask each
time you add a different liquid just keep determining the mass of each volume by
subtracting the previous mass balance reading. Record your results in Table 1.
6. A data table similar to Table 2 will be on the chalkboard. Record your results from
Table 1 into the chart on the board.
7. Once all groups have finished, copy the completed Table 2 into your lab report.

8. Clean up all your materials and pour the contents of the flask down the sink with
plenty of water. Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the lab.
OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:
Table 1: Results for Lab Station _____
Water
Alcohol
Volume (mL)
Mass (g)
Volume (mL)
Mass (g)

Table 2: Class Results

Water
Lab
Volume
Mass
Station
(mL)
(g)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Alcohol
Volume
Mass
(mL)
(g)

Salt Solution
Volume (mL)
Mass(g)

Salt Solution
Volume
Mass
(mL)
(g)

ANALYSIS OF DATA:
1. Following the rules of good graphing, plot a graph showing mass vs. volume for each
liquid using the class data. Plot the results for all three liquids on the same graph,
making sure to differentiate between each liquid.
2. Draw best-fit lines for each graph and calculate the slope of each. Remember, slope is
calculated by:
m = slope = y (change in y values)
x ( change in x values)
Drawing deltas on your graph and subtracting your values to find your change in y
and your change in x does this.
3. Determine the mathematical relationship between the mass and volume for each
liquid. Remember:
y = mx + b
where y = the y variable
m = the slope of the line
x = the x variable
b = the y-intercept

1. The slope of your graph is actually the density. Compare these slope values with the
accepted values and do a percent error on them.
Percent Error =

experimental value accepted value

accepted value

X 100

The actual (accepted) density of water is 1.00 g/mL.

The actual density of methanol is 0.78 g/mL.
The actual density of salt solution is 1.10 g/mL.
QUESTIONS:
1. Use your graph to predict the mass of 6.5 mL of methanol.
2. Use your mathematical relationship to calculate the mass of 6.5 mL of methanol.
3. Compare your answers to Questions 1 and 2. Explain why they might not be identical.
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objectives, summarize your results and tell what you have
learned in this experiment. Dont forget any sources of error that may have occurred.

INVESTIGATING MASS CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

LAB 6
OBJECTIVES:

To determine the change in mass that occurs in chemical reactions.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus

Reagents

250 mLErlenmeyer flask

rubber stopper for flask
2 test tubes (13 mm 100 mm)
tongs
mass balance

One of the following pairs of solutions:

1. A. barium chloride
B. sodium sulphate
2. A. lead acetate
B. potassium iodide
3. A. iron (III) nitrate
B. potassium thiocyanate
4. A. calcium chloride
B. sodium carbonate

PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
1. Why do we need to balance chemical equations?
2. Which reaction (if any) do you think might result in a change in mass? Explain.
PROCEDURES:
1. Get 2 test tubes and label them A and B with a glass marker.
2. Your instructor will assign you a set of solutions to react. Half fill test tube A with
solution A. Half fill test tube B with solution B.
3. Pour solution B into the Erlenmeyer flask.
4. Carefully lower test tube A into the flask using a pair of tongs so that you do not spill
any into solution B. Place the rubber stopper on the flask.
5. Determine the mass of your assembled apparatus and record this value in Table 1.
6. After making certain that the stopper is secure, gently turn the flask upside down and
mix the chemicals.
7. Determine the mass of your apparatus after you have mixed the chemicals and record
this value in Table 1.

8. Calculate the mass gained or lost during the reaction and record this in Table 1.
Record your results in Table 2 on the blackboard and into your lab report. You will be
analyzing the class data as a whole when answering the questions.
9. Dispose of the reacted chemicals in the chemical waste disposal container. Make sure
to wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the lab.
OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:
Table 1: Results for Lab Station ______.
Identity of solution A _________________________
Identity of solution B _________________________
Mass of apparatus & contents before reaction (g)
Mass of apparatus & contents after reaction (g)
Change in mass due to reaction (+ or -) (g)
Table 2: Class Results
Lab Station
Solution A
1
2
3
.
.

Solution B

Mass Change (g)

QUESTIONS:
1. Why is it important that the flask be sealed for this experiment, even after the flask is
returned to an upright position after mixing?
2. What observations lead you to believe that a chemical reaction occurred in the flask?
3. In general, what overall mass change results from a chemical reaction?
4. Suppose that a reaction was carried out in an open flask and the final mass was
significantly greater than the initial mass. What would you conclude?
5. If a reaction was carried out in an open flask and the final mass was significantly less
than the initial mass, what would you conclude?
6. Write balanced chemical equations to show what happened in each reaction. Assume
all reactions are double replacement reactions.
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objective by summarizing your results, state what you have
learned and discuss any sources of error which may have affected your results.

FINDING MASS AND COUNTING

PARTICLES
LAB 7
OBJECTIVE:

To understand the importance of relative mass
MATERIALS:
1 box of small paper clips

1 box of large paper clips

PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
This lab illustrates how you can find relative masses of particles. Remember a particle
can contain a single atom such as an atom of sodium or a particle can be thought of as a
single molecule such as a molecule of water (made up of atoms). The particles you will
use today are paper clips. Part B illustrates how the relative masses found in Part A can
be used to count out equal numbers of particles. (Note: This is done without counting out
paper clips in the beginning.)
1.

It would be easy for you to find the mass of two paper clips (one large and one
small). You would simply put them on an electronic balance. What does it
mean when you are asked to find the relative mass of the two same paper clips?

2.

By understanding what relative mass means, what part of chemistry does this
concept apply to in grade 11?

PROCEDURE:
PART A: FINDING RELATIVE MASSES OF PAPER CLIPS
1.

Obtain a palm full of large paper clips and a palm full of small paper clips.

2.

Clip one large paper clip to one small paper clip and set them aside.

3.

Continue pairing one large with one small paper clip, putting them with the other
pairs, until all of one size of paper clip is used up. Set the unused ones aside.

4.

Now separate the pairs of clips and put the large clips in one pile and the small
clips in another pile.

5.

Find the mass of large clips and record. Find the mass of the small clips and
record.

6.

Using the data from step 5, calculate the relative mass of large paper clips to one
gram of small paper clips. Show this calculation as a ratio or a fraction.

PART B: COUNTING PAPER CLIPS BY MEASURING MASS

7.

Using the results from Part A, predict the mass of large clips that would be
necessary to pair up one for one with 10 grams of small clips.

8.

Weigh out 10 grams of small clips and your predicted mass of large clips and see
if they pair up one for one.

9.

If the number of large clips did not pair up evenly with the number of small clips
in step 8 (within 1 clip), recalculate step 7 and repeat step 8.

QUESTIONS:
1.

Show the calculations for step A-6 and B-7.

2.

What mass of large clips would be necessary to pair up one for one with 50.0 g of
small clips?

3.

What mass of small clips would be necessary to contain the same number of clips
as in 8000 g of large clips?

4.

What mass of large clips would be necessary to contain the same number of clips
as in 300 kg of small clips?

5.

If you were to clip two small clips to each large clip, what mass of small clips
would be necessary if you had 70.0 g of large clips?

6.

Based on question 5, what would the new relative mass ratio be (mass of large
paper clips to one gram of small paper clips)?

7.

Based on your answer to question 6, what would the mass of large clips be if you
had 12.0 g of small clips?

8.

If you can, mass out 12.0 g of small clips and the mass of large clips calculated in
question 7. What should be true about the numbers of large clips and the number
of small clips present?

CONCLUSION:
Hand in a single answer sheet with just your calculations. Show all your work in an
organized logical fashion with all your units.

MOLES OF IRON AND COPPER

LAB 8
OBJECTIVES:

To determine the number of moles of copper produced in the reaction of iron and
copper (II) chloride.

To determine the number of moles of iron used up in the reaction of iron and
copper (II) chloride.

To determine the ratio of moles of iron to moles of copper.

To determine the number of atoms and formula units involved in the reaction.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus

Reagents

250 mL beakers
wash bottle
stirring rod
mass balance
steel wool
tongs

copper (II) chloride

2 iron nails
1 M hydrochloric acid
distilled water

PROCEDURE:
DAY 1:
9. Label a clean, dry 250 mL beaker with your name. Find the mass of the beaker and
record it in your data table.
10. Add approximately 8 g of copper (II) chloride crystals to the beaker. Find the mass
and record it in your data table.
11. Add 50 mL of distilled water to the beaker. Stir the solution with a stir rod until all
the crystals have dissolved.
12. Obtain 2 nails and clean them with a piece of steel wool until the surface of the nails
is shiny. Find the mass of the clean nails and record it in your data table.
13. Place the nails into the solution and leave them undisturbed for 20 to 30 minutes.
During this time copper should be forming in the solution.

14. Once the time has elapsed, use tongs to carefully pick up one of the nails and use the
wash bottle to rinse off any copper from the nail back into the beaker. Keep your
copper! You may have to use the stir rod to scrape any excess copper off. Place the
nail to dry on a piece of paper towel. Repeat this step for the other nail.
15. Carefully decant the liquid from the solid into another beaker. Decant means to pour
off only the liquid from a container that contains both a solid and a liquid. Use your
stir rod for this process (see diagram). If you lose some solid, you need to start
decanting it all again.

16. Rinse the solid with about 10 mL of distilled water. Decant. Repeat this process four
more times.
17. Wash the solid with 25 mL of hydrochloric acid, decant, and then wash one last time
with 25 mL of distilled water. Decant one last time.
18. Place the beaker in the drying oven until next day.
19. Once the nails are completely dry, find the mass of them and record it in your data
table.
20. Pour the decanted solution down the sink with lots of water and clean up. Wash your
hands before leaving the lab.
DAY 2:
1. Get your dry beaker with the copper in it from the drying oven.
2. Find the mass of the beaker and the copper and record it in your data table.
3. Place the copper in the garbage and clean up your beaker. Wash your hands before
leaving the lab.
PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
1. Look at DAY 1 procedure #7. A waste liquid will be in the beaker. What is the name
of this decanted solution that you will pour down the sink with lots of water? (Tip: it
is not HCl as you have not added acid yet nor is it CuCl2..) What type of chemical
reaction has occurred to make this solution?

OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:

Table 1: Before the Reaction
Mass of empty, dry beaker (g)
Mass of beaker and copper (II) chloride (g)
Mass of two iron nails
Table 2: After the Reaction
Mass of two iron nails (g)
Mass of beaker and dry copper (g)
QUESTIONS:
4. Find the following masses:
a) mass of iron used up in the reaction
b) mass of copper (II) chloride used
c) mass of copper produced in the reaction
5. Find the number of moles of the following:
a) moles of iron used
b) moles of copper produced
6. Find the number of atoms of each substance involved in the reaction.
a) atoms of iron used
b) atoms of copper produced
7. Calculate the ratio of moles of copper produced to moles of iron used.
8. Suppose you have an unlimited supply of copper (II) chloride to react with iron. How
many moles of copper would be produced by reacting 34.0 g of iron with copper (II)
chloride solution?
9. How many moles of iron would have been used up if 45.0 g of copper were to be
produced?
10. How many atoms of copper would be involved in question 6?
11. How many atoms of iron would be involved in question 6?
12. How many grams of copper would be produced from the reaction of 456 g of iron?
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objectives by summarizing your results and tell what you have
learned in this experiment. Dont forget any sources of error that may have occurred.

CALCULATIONS WITH A CHEMICAL REACTION

LAB 9
OBJECTIVES:

To observe the reaction between solution of calcium chloride and sodium
carbonate, forming insoluble calcium carbonate.

To calculate the number of moles of each of the starting materials present in the
solution.

To determine the reactant that is in excess.

To determine the theoretical amount of calcium carbonate that could be produced.

To compare the theoretical amount to the actual amount of calcium carbonate and
calculate the percent yield.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus

Reagents

2 - 250 mL beakers
wash bottle
stirring rod with rubber scraper
mass balance
2 - 100 mL graduated cylinders
ring stand with funnel holder
funnel
filter paper

0.60 M sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

0.40 M calcium chloride, CaCl2
distilled water

PROCEDURES:
DAY 1:
21. Pour approximately 75 mL of sodium carbonate into a graduated cylinder and record
the exact volume in your data table. Pour the sodium carbonate into a clean, dry 250
mL beaker.
22. Pour approximately 50 mL of calcium chloride into the other graduated cylinder,
again recording the exact amount in your data table.
23. Pour the calcium chloride into the beaker and describe the resulting reaction in your
data table. Stir the contents for about one minute.
24. Obtain a piece of filter paper and label it with your name in pencil. Find the mass of
the filter paper and record it in your data table.
25. Set up your ring stand with the funnel holder. Place the funnel in the holder. Fold
your filter paper into a funnel shape and place it in the funnel. Wet the filter paper

with a small amount of distilled water to hold it in the funnel (your instructor may
show you how).
26. Stir your solution and begin carefully pouring it into the filter paper. Be careful so
that none of the solid flows out of the filter paper or funnel. Continue filtering until
you get as much of the solid out of the beaker as possible (you may have to use the
rubber scraper).
27. Rinse the inside of the beaker with some distilled water and filter. Repeat this two or
three more times to remove as much solid as possible.
28. Once all the solid is on the filter paper and the liquid has all drained through into the
beaker, carefully remove the filter paper from the funnel and unfold it onto a piece of
paper towel. Let the paper towel absorb most of the water for a few minutes.
29. Place the filter paper (folded in half) without the paper towel in the TOP rack of the
drying oven until next day.
30. Clean up your apparatus and pour the filtered solution down the sink with plenty of
water. Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the lab.
DAY 2:
4. Get your filter paper with your solid on it from the drying oven.
5. Find the mass of the filter paper and the solid and record it in your data table.
6. Place the solid in the garbage and clean up. Wash your hands before leaving the lab.
PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
1. Why do you have to calculate the theoretical amount in this experiment?
2. If the mass of your filter paper and solid that you recorded after day 2 is more than
the theoretical mass that you will calculate in question # 4, explain a possible reason
for the extra mass.
OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:
Table 1:
Volume of sodium carbonate solution (mL)
Volume of calcium chloride solution (mL)
Describe what happens after mixing the solutions
Mass of dry filter paper (g)
Mass of filter + dry solid (g)

QUESTIONS:
13. Calculate the following values:
d)
e)
f)
g)

moles of sodium carbonate used

moles of calcium chloride used
mass of calcium carbonate produced
moles of calcium carbonate produced

14. Write a balanced chemical reaction for the equation that you observed in this lab.
15. Determine which of the reactants was in excess in this reaction.
16. Calculate the amount of calcium carbonate that should theoretically form from the
amount of the limiting reactant.
17. Calculate the percent yield in your reaction.
18. Suppose you wanted to add just enough 0.40 M calcium chloride solution to 75.0 mL
of 0.60 M sodium carbonate solution for all of the solutions to react.
a) What volume of 0.40 M calcium chloride solution would be required?
b) What mass of calcium carbonate would be produced assuming 100% yield?
c) What mass of sodium chloride would be produced assuming 100% yield?
19. How would you be able to recover the sodium chloride from the solution?
20. A similar reaction occurs when barium chloride is mixed with sodium carbonate
solution. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
21. Calculate each of the following for the reaction that occurs when 56.0 mL of 0.50 M
barium chloride is mixed with 78.0 mL of 0.75 M sodium carbonate solution:
a) moles of barium chloride added
b) moles of sodium carbonate added
c) mass of barium carbonate produced, if the yield is 78.0%
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objectives by summarizing your results and tell what you have
learned in this experiment. Dont forget any sources of error that may have occurred.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

LAB EXERCISE 10
OBJECTIVES:

To understand the relationship between electron configuration and the location of
an element within the period.

To examine and graph periodic trends in atomic radii and the first ionization
energies.

To construct the periodic table published by Mendeleev in 1871 according to a list
of clues and your knowledge of the modern periodic table.
MATERIALS:
Graph paper
Blank periodic table sheet for electron configurations
Blank 1871 version of the periodic table
Reference book (Heath Chemistry)
PROCEDURES:
PART 1: ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
10. Obtain blank periodic table for the first 4 rows.
11. For each of the elements listed, write the electron configurations in the space
provided.
PART 2: TRENDS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
1. Obtain 2 pieces of graph paper.
2. Using the data listed in Table 1, construct a graph of atomic radius vs. atomic number
on the first piece of graph paper.
12. Using the data listed in Table 1 and the second piece of graph paper, construct a
graph of first ionization energy vs. atomic number.

Table 1:
ELEMENT
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorous
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium

ATOMIC
NUMBER
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

ATOMIC RADIUS
(nm)
0.0357
0.050
0.152
0.111
0.088
0.077
0.070
0.066
0.064
0.070
0.186
0.160
0.143
0.117
0.110
0.104
0.099
0.094
0.231
0.197

FIRST IONIZATION
ENERGY (kJ/mol)
1312
2372
519
900
799
1088
1406
1314
1682
2080
498
736
577
787
1063
1000
1255
1519
418
590

PART 3: MENDELEEVS PERIODIC TABLE

1. Obtain a blank 1871 version of the periodic table.
2. Using the clues below, place the name of the 67 known elements of 1871 in the
correct space. You will need to use the reference book provided by your instructor.
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
1F
1G
1H
1I
2A
2B
2C
2D
2E

has a single electron in the 1s sublevel

derived its name from the Latin word for stone, lithos
can be collected as a silver liquid in the electrolysis of salt
has a first ionization energy of 418 kJ/mol
has a density of 8.96 g/cm3
is the first alkali metal with a completed 3d sublevel
was originally identified by its Latin name, argentum
is an alkali metal located in period 6 of the modern periodic table
derived its name from the Latin word for dawn, aurora
was used as a target substance in the experiments by Irene Joliot-Curie
is an alkaline earth metal located in period 3
is the metallic component of the substance limestone
is a transition metal with 30 protons
is represented by the symbol Sr

2F
2G
2H
3A
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F
4A
4B
4C
4D
4E
4F
4G
5A
5B
5C
5D
5E
5F
5G
5H
6A
6B
6C
6D
6E
6F
6G
6H
7A
7B
7C
7D
8A
8B
8C
8D
8E
8F
8G
8H
8I

possesses a nuclear charge of +48

is an alkaline earth metal found in period 6 of the modern periodic table
is a liquid metal, originally called hydrargyrum
has a single electron in the 2p sublevel
is a lightweight metal with a molar mass of 27.0 g/mol
is a transition metal with an atomic number of 39
is a metal represented by the symbol In
is the first metal of the lanthanide series
is found in group 13 and period 6 of the modern periodic table
is the element whose common isotopic form is the basis of the atomic mass unit
has a second ionization energy of 1577 kJ/mol
is located between scandium and vanadium on the modern periodic table
is represented by the symbol Zr
derived its symbol from the Latin word stannum
is a very dense metal with an atomic mass of 207.2 g/mol
is the first member of the actinide series
is the most abundant element in the atmosphere
has 3 electrons in its 3p sublevel
is a byproduct of fossil fuel oxidation and represented by the symbol V
is a period 4 nonmetal known since 1250
is a member of both group 5 and period 5 of the modern periodic table
was originally called stibium
is located in period 6 of the modern periodic table, below niobium
is a metal with atomic number 83
is the most abundant element in the Earths crust
is a member of group 16, known during the time of the Roman Empire
is the first member of group 6 on the modern periodic table
is represented by the symbol Se
has 42 protons within its nucleus
is a halogen whose crystals sublime
was originally called wolfram
is the third member of the actinide series
has an atomic radius of 0.099 nm
is represented by the symbol Mn
forms a diatomic gas with the molar mass of 159.8 g/mol
has a molar mass of 127.6 g/mol
is a group 8 metal known during the time of the Roman Empire
is an element named after the German word for Satan
has an average atomic mass of 58.9 g/mol
is located between iron and osmium on the modern periodic table
has a nuclear charge of +45
has an atomic mass of 106.4 g/mol
has 114 neutrons within its nucleus
is named after the Latin word for rainbow, iris
is an inert metal often used in electrodes and has an atomic number of 78

QUESTIONS:
7. Examine the placement of electron configurations on your periodic table. What
relationship can be seen in an elements placement within a group and its electron
configuration?
8. Examine the graph of atomic radius vs. atomic number. What trend do you observe as
you go across a period?
9. Which group appears to have members with the largest atomic radii? Which group
has the smallest?
10. Examine the graph of ionization energy vs. atomic number. What trend do you
observe as you go across a period?
11. No members of group 18 of the modern periodic table can be found on Mendeleevs
classification chart. Suggest a reason for their absence.
12. What factor may account for the observed trend in atomic radii as one proceeds
across a period?
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to summarize your results, by stating what you have learned.

MOLECULAR MODEL BUILDING

LAB 11
OBJECTIVES:

To represent molecular structures with electron dot and structural (line) diagrams.

To construct molecular models of simple substances.

To construct molecular models illustrating the different types of isomers.
MATERIALS:
Molecular model kit

PROCEDURE:
1.

Construct models for each of the following alkanes. In your lab, draw the structural
diagram and the electron dot diagrams for each of these molecules.
a. methane, CH4
b. ethane, C2H6
c. propane, C3H8

2. Construct models for all structural isomers for each of the following compounds.
Draw the structural diagram, and name each one.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

butane, C4H10
pentane, C5H12
hexane, C6H14
cyclohexane, C6H12
methylhexane, C7H16

(there are 2 of them)

(there are 3 of them)
(there are 5 of them)
(there is only 1)
(there are 2 of them)

3. Construct models for all structural isomers of butene, C4H8. Draw the structural
diagrams for each (there are 4 of them) and then name each one. Note that 2 of
them are geometric isomers.
4. Construct models for all structural isomers of propyne (there is only 1), C3H4, and
butyne (there are 2 of them), C4H6. Draw the structural diagrams for each, and
then name each one.
5. Construct models for all structural isomers of n-hexanol, C6H13OH. Draw the
structural diagrams for each (there are 3 of them) and then name each one.

6. Construct models for the following structural isomers. Compare their structures
and the placement of the oxygen atom. Draw the structural diagram for each
isomer.
a. ethanol, C2H5OH
b. dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3

QUESTIONS:
22. Can cyclopentane (C5H10) be considered an isomer of pentane? Explain.
23. What is the difference between a cis and trans isomer?
24. Explain why there are such a huge number of organic compounds.
25. How many isomers are possible for the following structures?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

methane
ethane
propane
butane
pentane
hexane

CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objectives by summarizing your results and tell what you have
learned in this experiment.

POLAR AND NON-POLAR SOLUTES AND SOLVENTS

LAB 12
OBJECTIVES:

To determine the type of solvent that generally dissolves ionic compounds.

To determine the type of solvent that generally dissolves polar covalent
compounds.

To determine the type of solvent that generally dissolves non-polar covalent
compounds.

To investigate the effect of adding a polar liquid solute to a non-polar liquid
solvent.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus
Tweezers
Test tube rack
6 test tubes (13 mm x 100 mm)
6 stoppers for test tubes

Reagents
sodium chloride crystals
sucrose crystals
iodine crystals
3 unknown solid solutes
paint thinner
glycerol

PROCEDURES:
PART 1: Solubility Tests on Known Solutes
1.

Obtain 6 clean, dry test tubes and place them in a test-tube rack so that you have two
rows of 3 test tubes each.

2.

Half fill one set of 3 test tubes with room temperature water and half fill the other 3
test tubes with paint thinner.

3.

Into the first pair of test tubes (one with water and one with paint thinner) add
enough salt crystals to just cover the bottom of the test tubes.

4.

Stopper the test tubes and hold it on with your thumb while you shake each test tube
to see if each substance dissolves. When you are sure no further changes are taking
place, record your observations in Table 1. Dispose of the chemicals in the waste
disposal jar.

5.

Repeat Steps 2, 3 and 4 with crystals of sugar in each. Dispose of the chemicals in
the waste disposal jar.

6.

Repeat Steps 2, 3 and 4 with a single crystal of iodine in each. Dispose of the
chemicals in the waste disposal jar.

PART 2: Solubility Tests on Unknown Solutes

1.

Repeat Part 1 of this experiment, but refer to Table 2 and test the solubilities of
unknown solutes A, B, and C.

PART 3: Mixing Two Liquids

1.

Fill a clean test tube one quarter full with paint thinner, then add twice as much water
to the same test tube.

2.

Stopper the test tube and shake the test tube. Examine what happens to the liquids
after shaking, and record your observations in Table 3.

3.

Add one iodine crystal to the test tube, stopper and shake. Make a sketch of the test
tube and its contents in your observations.

4.

In a second test tube, fill it one quarter full with glycerol. It is a polar liquid. Add
twice as much water. Add one iodine crystal, stopper and shake. Record your
observations in Table 3 and make a sketch in your observations.

5.

Dispose of all chemicals in the waste disposal jar. Clean up all your apparatus and
make sure you wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the lab.

PRE-LAB PREDICTIONS:
1. What type of solvent do you predict will dissolve, ionic compounds? Polar
compounds? Non-polar compounds? Explain why you predict this?
OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:
Table 1: Known Solutes with Known Solvents (choose: yes = soluble no = insoluble)
Solutes
Salt
Sugar
Iodine
Solvents
(NaCl Ionic)

Water
(Polar Covalent)

Paint Thinner
(Non Polar Covalent)

(C12H22O11 Polar
Covalent)

(Non Polar Covalent)

Table 2: Unknown Solutes with Known Solvents

Solvents
Water

Solutes
B

(Polar Covalent)

Paint Thinner
(Non Polar Covalent)

Table 3: Liquid Combinations

Combinations of Liquids
Water and Paint Thinner
Water and Glycerol

Covalent Types

Results

QUESTIONS:
1.

a. What general trend appears in Table 1 with regard to which type of solute
dissolves in which type of solvent?
b. This general solubility trend is sometimes expressed as Like dissolves like.
Explain

2.

a. Attempt to classify each of the unknown solutes from Part 2 as ionic, polar
covalent, or non polar covalent.
b. What problem do you encounter in making this classification?
c. How could you overcome this problem?

3.

Explain the terms miscible and immiscible and use these terms to explain the
results from Part 3.

4.

How did the addition of an iodine crystal help in identifying the layers of liquids in
the water paint thinner combination?

5.

Explain how many layers you would expect to see if water, paint thinner, and
glycerol were combined in one test tube.

6.

Explain which solvent from this experiment you would use to remove road salt
stains from a pair of jeans.

CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objectives by summarizing your results and tell what you have
learned in this lab. Dont forget any sources of error that may have occurred.

ACID-BASE TITRATION
LAB 13
OBJECTIVES:
2. To titrate a hydrochloric acid solution of unknown concentration with standardized
sodium hydroxide solution.
3. To utilize the titration data to calculate the molarity of the hydrochloric acid solution.
MATERIALS:
Apparatus

Reagents

250 mL Erlenmeyer flask

volumetric pipette (10 mL)
burette
burette clamp and stand
pipette bulb

standardized sodium hydroxide solution (approx. 0.50 M)

unknown hydrochloric acid solution
phenolphthalein solution

PROCEDURE:
31. Obtain about 50 mL of the unknown hydrochloric acid solution into a clean beaker
and about 50 mL of the standardized sodium hydroxide solution into another clean
beaker. Your instructor will provide you with the exact molarity of the NaOH. Record
this value in Table 1.
32. Using the green pipette bulb and 10 mL volumetric pipette, rinse out the pipette with
a small amount of HCl and then transfer 10.0 mL of the HCl solution into a 250 mL
Erlenmeyer flask.
33. Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein solution to the HCl solution.
34. Rinse out a burette with a very small amount of the standardized NaOH solution and
drain it, keeping the tip filled with the NaOH. Refill the burette and record your initial
volume in Table 1.
35. Gradually add the NaOH from the burette into the Erlenmeyer flask containing the
HCl. Swirl the flask continuously. As you approach the equivalence point continue
adding NaOH drop by drop from the burette, noting any changes in the flask.
36. As the equivalence point is reached, a pinkish colour will appear. As you approach
this point, the colour will take longer to disappear as you swirl it. Add the NaOH drop
by drop until the colour no longer disappears. Record the final volume of the burette
in Table 1. The most accurate reading is one in which the solution is a very faint pink.

37. Repeat steps 2 through 6 after cleaning out your Erlenmeyer flask (the contents can
be poured down the sink with lots of water). Continue repeating until you get two
trials that are within 0.10 mL of one another.
38. Clean up all your apparatus and make sure you wash your hands with soap and water
before leaving the lab.
OBSERVATIONS AND DATA:
Table 1: Volume of NaOH Needed to Neutralize 10.00 mL of Unknown HCl
Molarity of NaOH
=_______________
Initial Volume of NaOH
Final Volume of NaOH
Volume of NaOH used
Average Volume of NaOH

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3
(if necessary)

QUESTIONS:
26. Calculate moles of NaOH from the average volume used, and the given molarity.
27. Calculate moles of HCl present originally.
28. Calculate the molarity of the HCl solution.
29. What was the reason for cleaning out the burette with NaOH before starting the
titration?
30. What is the concentration of a NaOH solution when it requires 30.0 mL of 0.50 M
HCl to neutralize 50.0 mL of the NaOH?
31. What is the concentration of acetic acid (HCH3COO) when 32.5 mL of 0.56 M NaOH
is required to neutralize 15.0 mL of the acid?
32. When 6.25 g of oxalic acid (H2C2O4) are placed in water containing phenol red, the
suspension is yellow. What is the molarity of the KOH if 32.2 mL of KOH is required
to change the colour to red?
33. A 5.0 g tablet of TUMS (Mg(OH)2) neutralizes 450 mL of stomach acid (HCl). What
is the molarity of the stomach acid?
CONCLUSIONS:
Make sure to answer your objectives by summarizing your results and tell what you have
learned in this experiment. Dont forget any sources of error that may have occurred.