411

The Early History of the Axial Type of Gas Turbine

Engine
By Hayne Constant, M.A.
Introduction. In this lecture, I have attempted to put on record
a history of ideas. I have tried to show how the outlook of those
responsible for directing the early researches in this country on
the axial type of gas turbine engine developed as the work proceeded and how the progress achieved reacted back on their
state of mind. It has been my object to emphasize the reasoning
behind each technical step that was taken and then to show how
subsequent developments proved or disproved the validity of
this reasoning.
Although this treatment of the history of a very interesting
technical development is by no means intended as a postmortem, it is my hope that it may assist engineers in avoiding
in their own work the mistakes that have been made in the past.

EarIy Histmy. The first practical proposal to use a gas turbine as an aeroplane power plant was made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment in July 1926, when Dr. A. A. Griffith
outlined his aerofoil theory of turbine design.
In October of that year, a conference was held at the R.A.E.
at which Dr. Griffith put his proposals to a small committee
from the Air Ministry and the Aeronautical Research Committee. This conference expressed itself unanimously in favour
of putting in hand preliminary experiments to verify the theory.
Accordingly, a test rig consisting of a single-stage turbine
driving a single-stage axial compressor-both axial flow-was
designed. The rotor was operated by sucking air through it and
measuring the total head losses: this was the first occasion on
which free vortex flow blades were used. The unit was tested in
1929 and a stage efficiency of 91 per cent was achieved.
At the same time, the first wind tunnel tests on cascades of
compressor and turbine blades were made at R.A.E. These
were completed in 1927, but the results* were not available in
time to be incorporated in the turbo-compressor unit.
In spite of the success of this experiment, approval for the
construction of a turbine could not at that time be obtained and
no further work was done until several years later-in 1936.
During those seven years no furrher progress in the arts relating
to the gas turbine had been made, so what was believed possible
in 1936 could equally well have been done earlier. All that had
changed was mans outlook.
The Technical Background in 1936. In his aerofoil theory of
turbine design, Dr. G r f i t h had established the basic principles
of the design of aerodynamic compressors and turbines of the
multistage axial or radial flow type. His theory, in fact, could
be applied to any rotary mechanisms in which the working fluid
was deflected by blades of aerofoil shape.
Several important conclusions resulted from his work. It was
clear, for example, that it should be possible in a compressor or
turbine to attain small stage efficiencies of at least 90 per cent.
This conclusion was borne out by the results of the rig tests
already described. Again, it appeared that it was desirable, both
in the interests of efficiency and of control of the working fluid,
to arrange that the air flowed in a free vortex in the annular
space between one blade row and the next. His study of the range
of incidence over which a cascade of aerofoils could operate led
to the conclusion that in a multistage compressor of high pressure ratio there would .be inefficient operation and danger of
stalling when operating under conditions considerably different
from those for which the blading was designed.
This led to the conception of the compound turbine engine in
* HARRIS,
R. G. and FAIRTHORNE,
R. A. 1928-9 Technical Report
of the Aeronautical Research Committee, No. 33, vol. 1, p. 286,
Reports and Memoranda, No. 1206.

which compression was carried out in a number of mechanically

independent stages, each stage being driven by its own turbine.
I n such an arrangement, the rotational speeds of each stage
adjust themselves to the running conditions in such a way as
to reduce the range of incidence over which the blades have to
operate and thus decrease the danger of stalling. Finally, it was
concluded that to obtain satisfactory operation under part load
conditions, it was desirable, but not essential, to use a power
turbine in paralleI with the compressor turbine.
There was a small amount of earlier work on which it was
possible to draw. Sir Charles Parsons had designed and operated
a number of axial compressors from 1904 onwards, but, as these
had stalled blading, their efficiency was not high enough for use
in a gas turbine.
A considerable amount of experience had been gained at the
R.A.E. on exhaust gas turbo-compressors. This work had shown
that there was little difficulty in operating turbine wheels running at high temperatures and high tip speeds. For example,
considerable bench and flight testing was done on single-stage
impulse turbines with gas temperatures of 900 deg. C. (1,652
deg. F.) and tip speeds of over 1,000 ft. per sec. and the only
serious trouble that remained to be overcome was overheating
of the turbine bearing. The efficiency of these turbines was,
however, only about 60 per cent-due partly to their design
not being based on aerodynamic knowledge and partly to the
limitations in blade design imposed by their method of construction.
In centrifugal compressors, efficiencies of 75 per cent had been
attained at pressure ratios of 2/1 but at higher pressure ratios
the efficiencies were much lower. Materials were available
having reasonably good high-temperature properties. Thus in
Hadfields ERA/ATV we had a material which had a maximum
stress of about 30 tons per sq. in. and a useful creep strength of
5 tons per sq. in. at 700 deg. C. (1,292 deg. F.). It was with this
background that in 1936 we set to work on the gas turbine engine
at the R.A.E.
At that date, we believed that the axial type of compressor was
inherently capable of higher efficiencies than the centrifugal type.
But practically no knowledge of the capabilities and limitations
of axial compressors was available. On the other hand, we felt
confident from our experience of exhaust gas turbines that no
insuperable difficulties would be encountered in the turbine end
of the machine. Accordingly, we decided that the immediate
objective to be attained was a satisfactory axial compressor.

Anne. The first step was to produce an experimental multistage axial compressor to test the theory that had been built up
and to see to what extent the difficultiesthat had been anticipated
were real. Accordingly, we designed a small eight-stage axial
compressor which later became known as Anne.
The compressor as first constructed is shown in Fig. 1. The
aerodynamic design was based on an assumed adiabatic stage
efficiency of 90 per cent.
The design conditions were :Tip speed
. 750 ft. per sec.
Mean axial velocity . 500 ft. per sec.
. 3 lb. per sec. at N.T.P. entry conMass flow
ditions
Tip diameter .
. 6.0 inches
. 28,600 r.p.m.
Rotational speed
The blades were designed for 50 per cent reaction at the inner
radius with a twist to give free vortex flow. Blade camber was
45 deg. at all radii both on rotors and stators. The blade profiles
design was that known as R.A.F. 27 thickened 10 per cent

.
.

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412

DEVELOPMENT O F THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION TURBINE

on a circular arc backbone. The performance of this blading and testing. The lack of testing equipment in 1936 reflected the
was deduced from the wind tunnel tests described in R. and M. general state of neglect into which our Service research establish1206. The mean pitch/chord ratio was 1-30 and the average axial ments decay when the stimulus of a major war is withdrawn.
clearance between the blade rows 11 per cent of the chord.
After this accident, immediate steps were taken to redesign
To prevent stalling when starting and when running under the compressor. During the interval since the f i s t design had
conditions greatly different from the design conditions, each crystallized, certain rumours, information, and changes in outstage had a large number of bleed holes through which a con- look had occurred. We had heard of the success of the Brown
trolled amount of air could be blown off from each stage. Bleed Boveri axial compressor, which could be started and operated
holes were also provided on the outlet diffuser.
satisfactorily without air bleeds. As we had been very nervous
Owing to the small size of the blades it was anticipated that that the air bleed holes in Anne would have a spoiling effect
considerable difficulty would be experienced in devising a satis- on the air flow when not in operation and might in addition
factory method of attaching them to disk rims running at 500 ft. cause mechanical failure by allowing bits of swarf to pass
per sec. I t was accordingly decided to machine the blades integral through the blading, we decided, in the light of the Swiss inwith the disks. This difficulty was imaginary and was due to our formation, to eliminate all air bleeds in the new design. Later
having inadequate experience of the mechanical design of experience proved this to be a retrograde step and air bleeds
machinery of this kind. It had a serious influence on the aero- were reintroduced in other compressors several years afterwards.
dynamic design, for in order to get the profiling tool between the
Owing to the difficulties that had been experienced in cutting
blades it became necessary to pitch the blades much farther bladed wheels from the solid, we decided to make the blades
apart than was desirable. This mistake of compromising the separately and mount them on the wheel rims on circular bases
aerodynamic design because of real or imaginary mechanical so that the stagger angle was adjustable.
limitations was repeated again and again during the following
We had also heard from Switzerland that to get maximum
years. It is a lesson which will only be learned by people with efficiency it was desirable to operate with an axial clearance
as much confidence in mechanical as in aerodynamic design.
between the blade rows of not less than one-third chord. We
When Anne was first tested, the only motor available could be were at the same time concerned about the danger of the blade
operated only from half to full speed. It was, therefore, im- wakes from one row inducing vibrations in the succeeding row
possible to motor the compressor slowly while its mechanical of blades if they were placed too closely together. We, therefore,
operation was corrected. The result was that immediately after decided to reduce the blade chord from 0.55 to 0.438 inch, thus
its first start, an oil seal rubbed and caused one of the disk increasing the axial clearance to a mean value of 37 per cent of
wheels to overheat. The blades carried by this wheel rubbed on the chord. Later experience has shown that this was a mistake
the outer casing and broke off and the remaining blade rows were and that a higher efficiency could be obtained by operating with
stripped. Thus over eighteen months work was lostin 30 seconds. smaller clearances.
The causes of this minor tragedy were the imperfect mechaniThe result of this change in the blading had a most serious
cal design of the compressor and the lack of suitable testing effect on the aerodynamic performance, since the resulting inequipment. A great deal of research, even in aerodynamics, crease in pitch/chord ratio from a mean value of 1.3 to 1.63
requires the services of competent mechanical engineers and reduced the predicted pressure ratio of the unit from 4/1 to just
these can only do their job effectively if they are kept abreast under 3/1. The layout of the redesigned compressor is shown
of development by actually engaging in design, manufacture, in Fig. 2.
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EARLY HISTORY O F THE AXIAL TYPE

413

Fig. 2. Axial Compressor Anne as Tested

t

I
I

/
/

C A M B E K ~ .
ANGLE
I

Fig. 3. Nomenclature for Compressor Blading

1.0-

oOl.O\

The aerodynamic design was again based on free vortex

blading with 50 per cent reaction at the h e r radius. The blade
profile was R.A.F. 27 on a circular arc camber, with a
thickness/chord ratio of 13 per cent. The definitions of camber
and entry angle, etc., are indicated in Fig. 3, showing the
general nomenclature used for axial compressors.
Anne ran successfully for the first time towards the end of
1938.The technique of testing had been greatly improved and
the only mechanical troubles experienced were in the t h r u s t
bearing. This bearing had to take a thrust of about 250 lb. at
27,000 r.p.m. As is usually the case with a new ball bearing
installation, considerable trial and error modifications had to be
made before satisfactoryoperation was obtained. We learnt from
these experiences the necessity in a new ball bearing installation
of keeping a constant watch on the temperature of the stationary
race. Many failures have been prevented by stopping units immediately an unexplained rise in temperature occurs.
Blade tip clearance indicators were used for the first time on
t h i s compressor and proved very successful. The indicator consists simply of an insulated needle which is screwed in through
the casing until it makes contact with the tips of the rotating
blades and thus completes an electrical Circuit.
T h e characteristics of h e are shown in Fig. 4. The Derformance was not quite up to predictions but Gas sufliciehtly
promising to encourage us to push ahead with the development

l8.000-\

5
21.5-

l6.000-,

14,000

zn

1
2
m
. -

2I.O

0.5

0-

0.5

I * 0.

1.5

2.0

Fig. 4. Characteristics of h e

~~

Values plotted are for standard entry conditions: 14 lb. per sq. in. a t
288 deg. C. (550.4 deg. F.)

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DEVELOPMENT O F THE I N T E R N A L C O M B U S T I O N T U R B I N E

414

Fig. 5. Axial Com

Ruth. The information and ideas arising out of the design

and testing of Anne were applied in 1939 to a new compressor
called Ruth whose mechanical design and manufacture were
due to the Fraser and Chalmers works of the General Electric
Company.
The principal step forward in this compressor was the
reintroduction of a small pitch/chord ratio. It will be recalled
that this ratio in Anne was undesirably large owing to the blade
chords being reduced to give greater axial spacing between the
blade rows. On Ruth, the mean pitch/chord ratio was 1.03 compared with 1.63 on Anne. The result of this change was a con-
siderable increase in the pressure rise per stage, so that in the six
Annes eight stages.
Fig. 5 shows a general arrangement of the compressor. The
six rotor stages were mounted on a drum built up from rings
pulled together by a central shaft. The reasons for changing
from the disk to the drum type of construction will be referred
to later when dealing with complete turbine engines.
T h e design conditions for Ruth were :Maximum tip speed
Mean axial velocity
.
Mass flow

. 650 ft. per sec.

. 430 ft. per sec.

Tip diameter .
Rotational speed

2.5

2.

i**
3

6.0 Ib. per sec. at N.T.P. entry

conditions
8.0 inches
18,700 r.p.m.

The basic aerodynamic design was similar to that of h i e .

The performance of the compressor is shown in Fig. 6. The
chief points of interest are the higher pressure ratio per stage
and the serious falling off in performance at speeds above the
design speed. This deterioration was expected and was, I
believe rightly, attributed to compressibility effects in the lowpressure stages of the compressor. At 19,000 r.p.m. the maximum
Mach number* was 07 and the highly cambered blades used

,.
,.
,.

Fig. 6. Characteristics of Ruth

Values plotted are for standard entry conditions : 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
* The Mach number or coefficientis the ratio of the actual to the at 288 deg. C . (550.4 deg. F.) abs. Total head efficiencies are about
8 per cent higher than the static head efficiencies shown.
acoustic velocity in the fluid.
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EARLY H I S T O R Y O F T H E AXIAL T Y P E
415
I have already referred to the difficulties which we feared
would not operate much above this figure without a compressiwould be encountered if we tried to develop too high a pressure
bility stall occurring.
A number of other axial compressors were constructed which ratio in a single compressor.
We, therefore, started off with the idea of a compound engine
gave us detailed information on a number of points but as they
did not lead to radical changes in our outlook they will not be with two mechanically independent compressors. A large
number of alternative arrangements of components had to be
referred to here.
investigated. One of the earliest of these is shown in Fig. 7. This
Early Turbine Schemes. In 1937, following a recommenda- was a double compound engine with a power turbine in parallel
tion by the Engine Sub-committee of the Aeronautical Research with the compressor turbine. These early studies brought us
Committee under the chairmanship of Sir Henry Tizard, the face to face with the conflicting requirements of mechanical and
Air Ministry authorized the Royal Aircraft Establishment to aerodynamic simplicity. The conflict exists in every turbine laystart work on the problem of the gas turbine. As the R.A.E. out we have considered and the ideal will not have been reached
was not equipped to carry out large-scale manufacture, it was until we can devise an arrangement in which both sets of requirearranged that detail design and manufacture should be carried ments are identical.
In the layout shown, the aerodynamic requirements have
out for the Establishment by the Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical
been given priority, the air being subjected to (as we then
Company.
The first scheme considered (designated A) involved the use believed) as few unnecessary bends as possible, and the frontal
of centrifugal compressors. These, however, were quickly area reduced to a minimum. But the mechanical complication
abandoned and all further work was concentrated on the axial of two concentric shafts was more than we could face, and the
compressor type, because it was believed that this type could scheme was abandoned at an early stage. We decided to avoid
give higher efficiency with a lower frontal area and less bulk. the mechanical difficulties of the concentric arrangement by
The first requirement was for a plant to develop brake power dispersing our units as shown in Fig. 8. In this layout, the
on the test bed for a demonstration of the practicability of the aerodynamic requirements were sacrificed in order to givc a
gas turbine.
simple mechanical arrangement in which each compressor was
We were not aiming at a power plant in which weight and directly driven by its own turbine so as to form a simple inbulk were reduced to the limit, for this would have involved us dependent unit. The price that was paid for this simplicity was
in prolonged development work which neither the R.A.E. nor a flow path for the working fluid which involved no less than
Metropolitan-Vickers could at that time have undertaken. We twelve right-angled bends.
In those days, we were supremely confident of our powers to
were, however, anxious to produce a layout which was inherently
of a type on which a compact and light power plant could later control the working fluid but not so sure in our knowledge of
be based. It was for this reason that we sacrificed compressor mechanisms. The consequence was that we tried to evade the
and turbine efficiency in order to use the smallest possible mechanical problems but gave ourselves some serious aeronumber of stages and ran our compressors at higher Mach dynamic difficulties as a result. This outlook persisted for some
numbers than the attainment of maximum efficiency would time.
require.
It was finally decided not to fix the final arrangement of com-

Fig. 7. Arrangement of Coaxial Compound Turbine Engine

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COMPRESSOR

POWER TURBINE

Fig. 8. Arrangement of Dispersed Compound Turbine Engine

Pressure ratio: 5/1.

EARLY H I S T O R Y O F T H E AXIAL T Y P E

417

ponents until tests had been made on a single turbo-compressor

unit. The object of these tests was to obtain confirmation that
the mechanical details of design were sound and that the actual
performance obtained confirmed that predicted from a knowledge of the performance of the component parts. This decision,
which was mainly due to lack of confidence in our own judgement, turned out to be a v e n lucky one since it gave us time to
appreciate the aerodynamic defects of the complete scheme. A
unit known as the B.10 was therefore constructed.
The B.10 Turbo-compressor (Betty). The B.10 turbocompressor represented the high-pressure unit of a complete
compound engine rather similar to that already shown in Fig. 8.
It consisted of a 9-stage axial compressor driven by a 4-stage
turbine. The layout is shown in Fig. 9, but the combustion
chamber connecting compressor delivery to turbine intake has
been omitted in the diagram. The unit was designed to be selfrunning, but delivering no useful power. The compressor was
first tested separately by driving it with a steam turbine. The
testing was carried out by Metropolitan-Vickers.
This compressor had blading based on the same general
principles as our earlier compressors, but with refinements embodying recent increases in our knowledge of flow past blade
cascades.
The mean value of pitch/chord ratio was 0.80. The tip speed
at entry was 566 ft. per sec. and at exit 460 ft. per sec.; the mean
axial velocity 356 ft. per sec.; the rotational speed, 7,000r.p.m.;
and the designed mass flow 16-4 lb. per sec. at N.T.P. entry
conditions. The compressor was tested in 1939 and gave a very
good performance. The test results are shown in Fig. 10.

!
I
I
PER

lb
MASS FLOW-LB.

SEC.

Fig. 10. Characteristics of Betty

Values plotted are for standard entry conditions: 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
at 288 deg. C. (550.4 deg. F.) abs.

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D E V E L O P M E N T OF T H E I N T E R N A L C O M B U S T I O N T U R B I N E
This was the first axial compressor to be tested with a mechanical than aerodynamic knowledge. It may be that our
reasonably high Reynolds number and the satisfactory aero- knowledge of mechanisms was sufficient to make us aware of the
dynamic and mechanical results obtained gave us confidence difficulties that had to be overcome, while our comparative
ignorance of aerodynamics allowed us to accept problems in
that we were working along the right lines.
After the turbine had been tested separately with steam and this field with equanimity. We, therefore, shirked the difficulty
the combustion chamber had been developed, the complete unit we could foresee and plunged lightheartedly into the aerowas assembled and tested in October 1940. The only troubles dynamic morass from which more experienced aerodynamicists
experienced during its operation were the bearing failures which might have recoiled.
It is interesting to speculate on the form of gas turbine that
we have now come to recognize as being nearly always aswould have been devised by a band of aerodynamicists without
sociated with a new bearing installation.
There were a number of mechanical features in the B.10 unit mechanical experience. Would it have been a weird contraption
to which it is worth while drawing attention. The first of these of cogs and pulleys with everything arranged for the comfort
is the drum type of rotor used in both the turbine and com- and guidance of the all-important working fluid?
pressor. The principle reason for the use of a drum rather than
The Nightmare of Thermal Distortion. I recall very well a
a disk type of construction was to obtain uniform expansion
and contraction of the rotor and casing. We feared that a disk period in 1938 when the difficulties likely to be encountered by
with its higher heat capacity would cool down less rapidly than differential thermal expansion and distortion overshadowed my
the casing and cause blade fouling when the unit was stopped. thoughts like a nightmare.
It will, I think, be agreed that there was some justification for
Although no trouble due to this cause had occurred on the compressor Anne, the test conditions had been far less onerous than these forebodings, for an engine of the size we were conthose occurring in the B.lO. It has yet to be proved that these templating would increase in length by about 1 inch when hot.
fears were unnecessary, but experience is gradually accumu- Again, the blade clearances at which we wished to operate
lating which strongly suggests that no troubles of this sort will would have been completely taken up by a change of only
50 deg. C. (90 deg. F.) in the local temperature of certain parts
occur.
We were very reassured to find that satisfactory operation with of the engine. Further, the degree to which the materials used
freedom from distortion could be obtained with a red-hot rotor could flow plastically and thus relieve thermal stresses while
-inlet temperature 675 deg. C. (1,247 deg. F.)-running at avoiding permanent distortion was not known.
high speed. Although we had had little trouble with exhaust gas
turbines operating at considerably higher speeds and temperatures, the clearances allowed were much greater than could be
tolerated in the high efficiency reaction blading of the B.lO.
Water-cooled bearings were used with success in this unit,
but were abandoned in later machines in favour of the simpler
air cooling.
The principle aerodynamic lesson that we drew from the tests
was that the losses occurring in collecting elbows and volutes
were more than could be tolerated. This confirmed the results
obtained from some volute tests which were carried out while
the B.10 was under construction. It became quite clear that for
aircraft applications, where space was limited, our decision to
avoid mechanical complication by the introduction of features
which were aerodynamically undesirable, was unsound. In a gas
turbine, whose performance depends so intimately on the various
losses suffered by the working fluid in its passage through the
machine, there must be no compromise with the aerodynamic
requirements.
The appreciation of this point completely changed our outlook on design and we abandoned our earlier conception of a
dispersed double-compound engine.
We had then to decide on an alternative arrangement in which WATER
a smoother path was provided for the working fluid. It was clear
to us that the layout must be such that all the machinery was
coaxial, so that no collector elbows or volutes would be required.
The principal point at issue was whether compression should be
carried out in a single compressor or whether we should need to
compound and use two mechanically independent coaxial compressors in order to get sufliciently flexible operation to obtain
easy starting.
The decision we were required to make was a very difficult
one. The pressure ratio for which we were designing was only
5/1 and considerable evidence had accumulated that up to this
ratio it should be possible to start comparatively easily-without
stalling the compressor-without resorting to the complication
of compounding. On the other hand, this unit was an experimental prototype which we hoped would show the way to further
developments along similar lines. And since these developments
would naturally be directed towards the use of higher pressure
ratios, we were reluctant to build into the engine a feature which
might prevent its development to those higher ratios.
The decision that was reached was again to avoid mechanical
complication. We decided to do all our compression in a single
compressor and to postpone to the future the problems of
compounding. I have regretted this decision ever since.
This refusal to face mechanical problems is a l l the more serious
when it is remembered that this development was the responsibility cf the Engine Department, which certainly had more
418

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EARLY H I S T O R Y O F T H E A X I A L T Y P E
For these reasons, very considerable thought was given to the
problem of reducing relative expansion as much as possible.
Many schemes-some
of terrifying complexity-were
considered, and as an example, the layout shown in Fig. 11 may be
of interest. In this arrangement it was proposed to insulate the
main structure of the turbine from the hot gases by using a
water-cooled internal liner. The rotor was to be similarly insulated by water jackets between the disk rims, the water being
fed in through the stator blades.
An alternative method of preventing heat flow into a turbine
disk or drum depends on passing the cooling medium along
axial slots beneath the blade roots. A rig was made up to
measure the effectiveness of such an arrangement, using air as
the cooling medium, and it was found so satisfactory that it was
later incorporated in the F.2 engine. The idea is quite straightforward and simple and is illustrated in Fig. 12.
Another example of detail design to reduce thermal stresses
is the double cone type of drum end piece used with success on
the B.10 and on later turbines. The design of these end pieces
caused a great deal of worry, since the calculated elastic stresses
were over 100 tons per sq. in.; but the plastic yield saved the
situation.

Fig. '12. Detail of Air-Cooled Disk Rim

The D.11 Gas Turbine (Doris). The new unit was known as
the D.ll gas turbine and a general arrangement is shown in
Fig. 13. The unit consisted of a 17-stage compressor directly
driven by an 8-stage turbine and power was obtained from a
5-stage low-pressure turbine taking gas from the exhaust of the
high-pressure turbine.
In order to fit the D.ll into the background of what we then
believed and now know to be possible, the generalized performance curves for propeller turbines under ground level static
conditions are shown in Fig. 14, with the approximate design
point for the D.11indicated.
These curves are based on the following assumptions :Compressor small stage efficiency .
. 87 per cent
.
87
9,
Main turbine efficiency
Power turbine and exhaust efficiency
. 88 ,,
Combustion efficiency .
98
3,
Combustion pressure loss .
. 2 lb. per sq. in.
Jet velocity
.
. 500 ft. per sec.
Total head efficiencies are given.
It will be seen that we were attempting to do something quite
modest compared with the tremendous possibilities that lie
before us towards the bottom right-hand corner of Fig. 14.

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419

D E V E L O P M E N T OF T H E I N T E R N A L C O M B U S T I O N T U R B I N E

420

0.3

40
80
I20
SPECIFIC EQUIVALENT B.H.P.-B.H.P.

160
ZM)
PER LB. OF AIR PER SEC

240

Fig. 14. Generalized Performance Curves for Propeller

Engines
Propeller turbine : sea-level static.
T3[= Total head temperature at combustion chamber outlet.
P3[ = Total head pressure at combustion chamber outlet.
Plt = Total head pressure at compressor inlet.
The compressor was first constructed and tested in 1941.
There is no need to go into the details of the blading since the
tests showed this to have undesirable features. Fig. 15, Plate 1,
shows the compressor opened up.
The test results are shown in Fig. 16. Although owing to
its many stages this compressor gave a considerably higher
pressure ratio than we had ever obtained before, its charaaeristics at high speed were unsatisfactory. The sudden jump from
a compressor of nine stages to one of seventeen was an ambitious
advance and the poor results obtained showed that we had outstepped our knowledge. This was the first occasion on which it
had not paid to be too bold, for our previous failures had been
due to lack of courage.
The trouble on Doris was to some extent due to the Mach
number at entry being too high but more important was the fact
that we assumed in the design too large a thickening of the
rotor and casing boundary layers as the air passed through the
compressor.
The result of this was that the effective flow path at the highpressure end of the compressor was greater than we had designed
for. As a consequence of this the mean axial velocity was reduced
and the blade incidence increased to such an extent that blade
stall occurred at a comparatively high mass-flow. The compressor surge line was thus swung over in the direction of higher
mass-flows and operation on those parts of the characteristic
which normally gave the highest efficiency, became impossible.
The results of the compressor tests showed that reblading
of a number of stages would be necessary before the mating of
compressor and turbine would be sufficiently good for selfrunning of the complete unit to be obtained.
At this time a jet propulsion project, which had been proceeding in parallel with the work already described, reached a
stage at which it was decided to give it priority over the D.ll.
The reblading of the compressor was accordingly abandoned
for the time being and little work was done on the rest of the
unit.

Fig. 16. Characteristics of Doris

Values plotted are for standard entry conditions : 14.7Ib. per sq. in.
at 288 deg. C. (550.4deg. F.)abs.
Although I have made incidental references to the complete
turbine engine, t h i s history has so far consisted mainly of the
story of the axial compressor. To preserve continuity, I will
continue this story and then return to a fuller consideration of
the complete engine.

Fredu. The next compressor was designed for the jet propulsion project to which I have just referred and to which I will
return later. The design conditions for this compressor, known
as Freda, were as follows :Mass flow
. 50 lb. per sec. at N.T.P. entry conditions
4/1
Pressure ratio .
Rotational speed
. 7,390 r.p.m.
Number of stages
9
Maximum tip speed . 718 ft. per sec.
Mean axial velocity
500 ft. per sec.
. 22.2 inches
Tip diameter .

.
.
.

The blading was of free vortex design using as usual

R.A.F. 27 profiles on a circular arc backbone, with a mean
thickness/chord ratio of 13 per cent. The mean pitch/chord ratio
was 0.90 at the outer and 0.68 at the inner radius. The rotor
blades were all similar and set at the same angle, the progressive
reduction in height towards the higher pressure end being
achieved by cutting the blade tip to the appropriate length. The
stator blades were all similar to each other, length adjustment
being made by cutting off the tips; they were untwisted.

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EARLY H I S T O R Y OF T H E AXIAL T Y P E
42 1
The compressor was first tested separately and gave an axial compressor (Freda) by adding further stages to raise its
excellent performance. The test results are shown in Fig. 17.
pressure ratio. The new compressor (Sarah) was manufactured
The performance of Freda was the best so far obtained from by Armstrong Siddeleys as part of a jet propulsion turbine
an axial compressor. Its good performance was due to a number engine known as the A.S.X. The blading of Sarah was in two
of factors. In the first place it operated at a higher Reynolds parts : the high-pressure part was identical with that of Freda;
number than any previous compressor. Its blade aspect ratio the low-pressure part consisted of five stages of blading generally
was also higher than any earlier compressor except Doris; and similar to the Freda blades but designed to have constant
Doris, as we have already seen, suffered from a number of ail- reaction at all radii instead of reaction increasing with radius,
ments which masked any benefit it might have derived from this as is implied in the free vortex blades used on all our earlier
design feature. Freda also had blades produced by a new press- compressors.
ing process which gave both a good finish and very accurate
This first departure from free vortex blading deserves some
and consistent profiles.
comment. We had for some time suspected that the losses in a
forced vortex might not be appreciably different from those in
a free vortex in which the angular momentum was inversely
proportional to the radius. If this proved to be true, it might
under certain conditions be preferable to use a forced vortex.
For example, with constant reaction at all radii the work input
at the blade roots can be increased so that a higher pressure
rise per stage can be achieved. Since, however, for a given tip
Mach number the Mach number at the root is greater on constant reaction blades than on free vortex blades, a smaller thicknesslchord ratio, i.e. a larger chord, has to be used on the
constant reaction blades. Although this increases the weight and
tends to reduce the advantage of the higher stage-pressure rise,
there are occasions on which the balance of advantages may be
in favour of such blading. The tests on Sarah were not conclusive, but there were no grounds for deducing from them that
constant reaction blading had a lower efficiency than the free
vortex type.
The general conclusion that was drawn from these results and
from the various other researches that were proceeding on the
same subject, was that it was possible to impose on the flow
through a compressor or turbine a forced vortex having any
angular momentum distribution over a comparatively wide
range without serious changes in the blading efficiency. The most
suitable distribution to use would depend on the design
conditions.
The leading particulars of Sarah were as follows :Maximum tip speed 714 ft. per sec.
Mean axial velocity
490 ft. per sec.
50 lb. per sec. at N.T.P. entry conMass flow
ditions
Tip diameter
. 20.5 inches
Rotational speed
. 8,000 r.p.m.
Mean pitchlchord ratio 1.24

.
.
.

The compressor tests gave very good results and these are
shown in Fig. 18. The high aspect-ratio blade and low Mach
numbers are the principal reasons for its good performance at
high-pressure ratios.

Fig. 17. Characteristics of Freda

Values plotted are for standard entry conditions: 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
at 288 deg. C. (550-4 deg. F.) abs.
It is a characteristic of axial compressors that the cumulative
effectsof small deviations from design in the low-pressure stages
may have a serious effect on the performance of the highpressure stages, and this will react on the performance of the
whole compressor. This trouble is, of course, most serious in
high-pressure compressors. I n Freda our earlier experience, and
a little luck, resulted in our estimates of the progressive change
in the condition of the boundary layers through the compressor
being more accurate than before. The result of this was that
the high-pressure blades were in fact subjected to conditions
very nearly in accordance with those for which they had been
designed.

Sarah. The next step in the axial compressor development

was an attempt to improve the performance of the best existing

Blade Stresses. At this point it is convenient to refer to a

number of special problems that were always with US. The first
of these is the question of permissible blade stresses.
The development of the gas turbine has been very much
hampered by lack of knowledge of permissible blade stresses.
Both the compressor and turbine blades are subjected to a
tensile stress and a steady gas bending stress on which is superposed a fluctuating bending stress due to the effect on the air
flow of stationary members in front of or behind the blades.
The tensile and steady bending stresses can be calculated with
reasonable accuracy but we were-and to a large extent still are
-in great ignorance concerning the magnitude of the forcing
impulses set up by the adjacent rows of fixed blades, entry
spider arms, etc.
The problem of studying the effect on the life of a blade of
changes in the mean stress at which it is run is complicated by
the fact that a blade has a considerable number of modes of
vibration, each of which involves a resonance speed. The mean
stress that a blade can stand is therefore affected by the nearness
to resonance at which it is run.
This problem of blade stresses represents probably the biggest
gap in our knowledge of turbine engines. It is not a gap which
will be filled by general development experience since one might
run an engine for years without trouble and then wreck it by a
few hours operation right on one of the blade critical speeds.

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422

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION TURBINE

The Combustion Problem. Combustion work was started in
a very crude way in 1936. My first fuel pump was a six-cylinder
Bosch Diesel engine pump feeding a common gallery, and this
supplied Diesel oil to a single orifice.
We knew that we could get a shorter combustion chamber by
using vapour instead of liquid injection but we anticipated that
serious difficulties would be encountered in attempting to steer
a middle course between the Scylla of cracking and the
Charybdis of priming. These fears were later confirmed by the
troubles met with in the Power Jets vapour injection schemes.
Having decided not to use vapour injection we were left with
the alternatives of either directing the fuel upstream with solid
or atomized injection, or downstream with a swirl or other form
of atomization, or some combination of the two systems.
After short trials of both systems, we decided to concentrate
on upstream solid injection since we found that, with the particular arrangement of atomizing jets used, fuel spray tended to
hit against the walls of the chamber and blow off in an imperfectly burnt state. No exhaustive comparison was made of
the two M e r e n t arrangements but later tests have shown that
there is not a great deal of difference between upstream and
downstream injection and either may be used according to convenience. Controlled atomization is, however, definitely preferable to relying for atomization on the penetration of a solid
upstream jet.
For ignition we relied at first on a Diesel engine glow plug
which was later modified and improved by having a priming jet
built in, thus allowing fuel to be injected on to a wick surrounding the heater element. This worked quite well but took
too much current and was later abandoned in favour of the spark
plug now in general use.
In the B.10 unit there was no serious combustion problem
!
since ample space was available, and it was not until the F.2
engine came into being that combustion really became a limiting
factor.
In this engine, with its two-bearing shaft, it was necessary to
limit the combustion chamber length not only to save weight
but also to avoid running into the main whrling speed. I t was
also desirable to keep the cross-sectional area of the chamber low
in order to maintain a small frontal area.
\
When the engine was being designed, I had either to base the
chamber design on the knowledge available at that time and
1
accept a rather clumsy and bulky layout or else to gamble on
40
50
future developments. I chose the latter course and allocated
IASS FLOW LB. PER SEC.
for combustion a space smaller than that considered necessary
at that time, hoping that during the design and construction of
the engine combustion development would make sufficient progress for combustion to be achieved in the space available. I
think that with a normal type of combustion system my hopes
would have been realized, but with the annular form actually
used development is necessarily slow. Consequently, by the
time the combustion design had to be completed the combustion development was still unsatisfactory, and it has had a
retarding effect on the progress of the engine ever since.
The annular type of combustion system used in this engine
is of considerable interest, and a typical design is shown in
Fig. 19. By allowing air to flow through,a complete annulus
instead of through a number of separate pipes, a larger area of
flow for a given overall diameter can be achieved. The price
that is paid, however, is that the chamber has to lje developed
as a whole, whereas with the pipe system development can be
carried out on a single pipe. The result is that the rate of
development of an annular chamber is much slower than that of
a system having separate pipes.
Bending
Centrifugal Material
The result of the failure to estimate the probable rate of comstress,
stress,
bustion development, which prejudiced the early days of the
tons per
tons per
sq. in.
sq. in.
F.2 engine, was that much time was lost in trying to overcome
the difficulties resulting from a combustion intensity higher than
2.70
1.43
Al
could be controlled by the techniques then available.
Sgel
Turbine Design. Right from the start of this work we had
I
2.15
I
2.13
I
A1
abandoned the steam turbine practice of dividing mbines into
3.97
2.54
Al
two types-impulse and rea&on. This was, ofcourse, an in1.66
0.33
evitable result of our conception of free vortex blading in which
0.93
1.45
Al
2-3
1.6
A1
the degree of reaction increases progressively from root to tip.
1
We were faced, therefore, not with the alternative of designing

Speed,
r.p.m.

unit

Freda
Betty
Doris
E.5

Ruth

Alice

Anne
Sarah

.
.
.I
.

.
.

II
1

7,390
7,000

7,300
171100
24;OOO
8.000
24;ooo
8,OOO

I1

i:::
~

~~

I1
I

!;:

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EARLY H I S T O R Y OF THE A X I A L T Y P E

Fig. 24b. F.2 Jet Propulsion Engine, Another View

Fig. 24c. F.2 Jet Propulsion Engine, Another View

[I.Mech.E., 19451
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Plate 3

Plate 4

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION TURBINE

Fig. 24d. F.2 Jet Propulsion Engine, Another View

Fig. 260. Gloster F.9140 Aircraft with .F.2 Engines

[I.Mech.E., 19451
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423

Fig. 19. Arrangement of F.2 Combustion Chamber

for impulse or for reaction, but simply of deciding how much
reaction to put in at the design radius.
There were at first very few reliable data to go on and our
early decisions were based on little more than guess work. We
were sure that with blades of 50 per cent reaction at the mean
height (varying from about 40 per cent reaction at root to 60 per
cent at tip) we ought to be able to attain a small-stage efficiency
of about 90 per cent based on total head pressures.
We believed that if the degree of reaction was reduced so that
the blades were pure impulse at the root and 40 to 50 per cent
reaction at the tip, we should only be able to attain about 85 per
cent efficiency. This loss of 5 per cent in turbine efficiency would
make a considerable difference to the engines overall efficiency
and power.
On the other hand there were a number of distinct advantages
to be gained by reducing the amount of reaction. In the first place
the temperature drop in the nozzles would be greater, thus
leading to lower turbine blade temperatures. Again the heat
drop per stage would be increased, leading to a lighter and more
compact turbine. I n spite of these points we decided that the
balance of advantage lay with the high reaction blading and this
was used in all the early designs.
I t soon became apparent, however, that, provided there was
no actual recompression at the blade root so that the degree of
reaction became negative, the loss in efficiency was very much
less than the 5 per cent we had assumed. It appeared that the
blading losses were not greatly affected by the actual amount of
reaction, provided that the flow had some acceleration at all
radii. In the next engine, the F. type, we accordingly designed for
a considerable decrease in the amount of reaction. The natural
consequence of t h i s was a change from a multistage drum type
rotor to a single- or two-stage disk wheel.
Materials. Most of our compressors were made in light
alloy, the material for the blades being RR.56. This material
proved quite satisfactory and gave little trouble. After various
methods of producing compressor blades had been tried a pressing process was perfected by High Duty Alloys, Ltd., which
produced a very cheap and accurate blade.
I n Rex 78, Firth-Vickers produced an austenitic heatresisting alloy which was adequate for all our requirements at
the time. I n the forged and heat-treated form it would withstand a stress of nearly 3-0 tons per sq. in. at 750 deg. C.
(1,382 deg. F.) for a creep strain of 0.1 per cent in 300 hours
(which was our design requirement), and it had an ultimate
tensile srrength of 22 tons per sq. in.
But the difficulty with the heat-resisting materials was not so
much one of obtaining an alloy which had sufficiently good
physical properties in the test piece as of getting sound material
in the shapes needed for disks and drums. The steel manufacturers had many problems before they overcame these
di&ulties. We naturally dissipated a lot of effort in toying with
unconventional materials, plastics for compressor blades,
ceramics for turbine blades, etc., but could find no reasons for
going ahead with any of them.

The F.2 Turbine Engine. We must now return to 1939 and

trace the history of the jet propulsion unit, for which the compressor Freda was designed.
Immediately the war broke out, it became necessary for us to
reconsider the whole of our gas turbine programme. Until that
moment, we had been proceeding with a research objective of
demonstrating the practicability of an aircraft gas turbine for
propeller drive. We were aware that the complication of the
power turbine made the project of a longer term character than
that of the simple jet propulsion engine on which Power Jets
were working. But we believed that for long-range aircraft,
flying at the speeds that were in view at that time, there would
be a need for a propeller turbine.
However, the urgency of war made it desirable to concentrate
our efforts on projects which could be completed quickly. In
September 1939 we therefore suggested to Power Jets that a
jet propulsion engine should be constructed on the basis of the
D . l l design, the power turbine being omitted.
My original conception of the F. type jet propulsion engine is
shown in Fig. 20. This design, known as the F.1, was produced
in December 1939 and it provided for a unit giving 2,150 lb.
static thrust, a pressure ratio of 4/1, a maximum temperature
of 800 deg. C. (1,472 deg. F.) with a mass flow of 38.0 lb. per sec.
The design speed was 9,450 r.p.m., the overall diameter 27
inches, and the length 7 ft. 9+ in. The compressor was of nine
stages with a rotor having a disk wheel construction; the combustion chamber was of annular, straight-through layout; the
compressor was driven with a single-stage water-cooled turbine;
provision was to be made for control of the compressor boundary
layers by air bleeds; and bearing lubrication was by oil bath
with no circulating system.
We had hoped to get this engine manufactured as a joint
effort by Power Jets and R.A.E., and plans were made to this
effect. In July 1940, however, Power Jets had to withdraw owhg
to the pressure of other commitments, and the work was taken
over by the Metropolitan-Vickers Company instead, but by the
time t h i s change was made the design had evolved considerably.
I n the new design, the F.lA, the capacity had been increased to
47.5 lb. per sec. giving 2,690 lb. of static thrust at 7,470 r.p.m.
As w i l l be seen from Fig. 21, the compressor disk wheels had
been replaced by a drum,the water-cooled single-stage turbine
had become air cooled with two stages, and the intermediate
bearing had disappeared.
The change to the drum was, I now believe, a retrograde step,
occasioned by our fears of losing the blade tip clearance owing to
unequal cooling of rotor and stator. We changed to a two-stage
turbine in order to reduce the overall diameter of the unit.
Although we achieved our object, the net result was probably
in the wrong direction, for it involved an increase in weight and
may have added starting difliculties. The loss of the centre
bearing increased the weight and later introduced whirling
speed difficulties. I must admit that to me the two-bearing
arrangement still looks right and I have been unable to reconcile
t h i s with the better performance on paper of the three-bearing
system.

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424

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION TURBINE

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EARLY HISTORY O F THE AXIAL TYPE

Fig. 266. Gloster F.9/40Aircraft with F.2 Engines, Another View

Fig. 26c. Gloster F.9/40Aircraft with F.2 Engines, Another View

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Plate 5

Plate 6

[I.Mech.E., 19451

DEVELOPMENT O F THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION TURBINE

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."E:
Y

."M
rz

0
!a

Fig. 22. Arrangement of F.2 Jet Propulsion Engine

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426

DEVELOPMENT O F THE I N T E R N A L COMBUSTION TURBINE

There is, however, no doubt that the introduction of air

cooling was a beneficial change. Its adoption was due to the
success resulting from a similar change in the contemporary
Power Jets engine. On the whole, the first six months of 1940
was a period during which inspiration was conspicuous by its
absence. Perhaps this may have been due to the unsettling
effects of international friction.
It was this design, together with all existing material, which
was handed over to Metropolitan-Vickers in July 1940. The
layout of the engine (F.2) as finally manufactured, tested and
flown, is shown in Fig. 22 and photographs of the compressor
rotor and complete engine are shown in Figs. 23 and 24, Plates 2,
3 and 4.
The F.2 engine ran for the first time in December 1941, and
test results are shown in Fig. 25. The leading particulars of the
engine are given below :Static thrust
.
. 2,200 lb.
Specific fuel consumption . 1.07 lb. per hour per lb.
.
. 7,390 r.p.m.
Maximum speed
Maximum temperature
. 800 deg. C . (1,472 deg. F.)
Weight .
. 1,530 lb.
.
. 36inches
Overall diameter
. 103 feet.
Overall length .
It may be mentioned here that the engine was superior to its
German contemporary the Jumo 004 by 25 per cent in respect
of specific fuel consumption and by 5 per cent in respect of
specific weight. The engine flew for the first time in the F.9/40
fighter aircraft in November 1943. The aircraft with these
engines installed is shown in Fig. 26, Plates 4 and 5.
The generalized performance curves for jet propulsion engines
at 500 m.p.h. in the stratosphere are shown in Fig. 27. The
design performance of the F.2 engine is approximately indicated
on this Fig. The big advances that have yet to be made by
increase in pressure ratio and maximum temperature should be
noted.

By this time the F.2 engine had shown what it could do in its
original form, and further work on it became largely a matter
of development. The responsibility for this lay with the engineers of the Metropolitan-Vickers Company and I will leave this
part of the story to them. This is a convenient opportunity for
me to pay a tribute to the tirelessly thorough work of the
engineers of this company, with whom I had the pleasure and
privilege of working during these early days. My own interests
and duty lay with research, and having passed this engine on to
Metropolitan-Vickers, I had to leave it in their capable hands
and turn my attention to the next step forward.
Perhaps forward is the wrong word to use here. For it will not
have escaped your notice that most of our time during the early
years was devoted to attempts to retrieve errors made by departing from the conceptions of 1936. If, in the fullness of time, the
wheel is to go full circle, we may return once more to the
original idea of the double compound axial engine with coaxial
shafts, similar to that shown in Fig. 7-similar, but I hope with
a wealth of detail differences.
Conclusions. There has not been space here to do more than
outline the more important events that occurred in the early
history of the axial type of gas turbine engine in this country.
The record has been carried from 1936 (when the work
effectively started) to about 1942 (when the F.2 engine passed
from the research to the development stage).
In parallel with the engine work, a considerable amount of
research was proceeding on the related problems of combustion,
aerodynamics, thermodynamics, and stressing. But a l l that is
another story.
In the five years covered by this review, we succeeded in producing an axial compressor with an overall efficiency of 84 per
cent at a pressure ratio of 6/1, a multistage turbine with an
overall efficiency of 89 per cent, a jet propulsion turbine engine
with a thermal efficiency of 22 per cent, and a lot of ideas for the
future. Some of these ideas have already borne fruit and I hope
that more will do so in the days to come.

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