Chapter 1 f5

Chapter 1 Transport
1.1 The Importance Of Having

A Transport System In Some
Multicellular Organisms
The Importance Of Having a Transport System in

Some Multicellular Organisms
Chapter 1 Transport
Living Organisms
Organisms
Living
Receive oxygen and nutrients from external
environment for cellular activities.
Eliminate toxic waste products from their
bodies through diffusion.
Smaller organisms with large total surface
area to volume (TSA / V) ratio enable
substances diffuse in and out of the cell
easily.
Amoeba
Hydra
Planaria
Planaria
InThelarger
TSA/V ratio
Chapter 1 Transport
Importanceorganisms,
Of Having a Transport
System in Some Multicellular Organisms
decreases.
There is an increased need for
oxygen
and
nutrients
to
be
supplied
to
the
cells
for
metabolism and waste product to
be removed.
The cells are often located far away
rom the external surface of the
body.
Exchange of substances by simple
diffusion is too slow.
To survive, they have developed
specialised structure that increase
the surface area for the exchange
of substances and an internal
Living organisms in their Total

Surface Area to Volume Ratio (TSA/V)
Unicellular organisms:
- Has a very high TSA/V ratio
- Has cells where nutrient and oxygen
molecules can easily diffuse into the
cells and waste products can easily
diffuse out.
Multicellular organism :
- Has very low TSA/V ratio
- Has less surface area per unit for
diffusion of nutrient and oxygen
molecules into its epidermal cells.
Chapter 1 Transport
1.2 Concept Of The Circulatory

System
Chapter 1 Transport
Concept of The Circulatory System

Circulatory System
Has 3 components
Medium
Vessels
fluid that flows in the system

(blood for animals and human,
haemolymph in insects)
carries the fluid
Pump (heart) keeps the fluid moving

through the vessels
Human
Circulat
ory
system
Blood is a type of connective tissue

consisting of 55% plasma and 45%
blood cells.
The blood passes into vessels such as
arteries,
arterioles,
capillaries,
venules, veins.
The muscular heart pumps blood
continuously around the body.
What is blood?
Centrifuge is a
machine that
separates substances
by spinning them at a
very high speed
Chapter 1 Transport
Composition Of Human Blood

Blood (an average adult = 5-6 litres )
Cell (45%)
Platelets
Erythrocytes
Leucocytes
Plasma (55%)
1. Water (90-92%)
2. Soluble solutes
. Dissolved gases
. Mineral salts
. Nutrients (glucose, fatty
acid,
amino
acid,
vitamin)
. Enzyme
. Horrmone
. Waste products (urea)
. Plasma
proteins
(albumin,
globulin,
fibrinogen)
The Composition Of Human Blood

Human Blood
Blood cells
Thrombocytes
2.5 mil/mm3
Leucocytes
7000 mil/mm3
Granulocytes
Basophyl
Neutrohyl
Eosinophyl
Plasma
Erithrocytes
5 mil/mm3
Agranulocytes
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Water
Soluble solutes
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
(1) Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
About 5 millions erythrocyte in 1 ml of blood.

Are small biconcave discs
This shape provides a larger TSA/V ratio than
that of a sphere and and therefore increase the
rate of gaseous exchange.
This shape also make the erythrocyte very
flexible and allows it to squeeze through blood
capillaries.
7-8 m in diameter, thickness of 2 m.
Has no nuclei and packed with haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is an oxygen-carrying protein
pigment which gives the erythrocyte its red
colour.
If haemoglobin combine with oxygen, the RBC
become bright red. Without oxygen, they are
dark red.
Are made in the bone marrow .
Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)
(2) Leucocytes (white blood cells)
Much less numerous than erythrocyte.

(6000-10000 leucocytes in 1 ml blood.)
Colourless, have a nuclues
Do not contain haemoglobin.
Larger than erythrocyte and irregular in
shape.
Phagocytic leucocyte (neutrophils and
monocytes) and can move by changing body
shape
Classified as either granulocyte (have
granular cytoplasm and lobed nuclei) or
agranulocyte (non-granular cytoplasm and
Leucocytes (white blood cells)

Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Leucocytes (white blood cells)

Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Leucocytes Component
1) Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Most common and form about 70% of the total

leucocytes.
Each cell has a multi-lobed nucleus
Are phagocytes, engulf bacteria by
phagocytosis and destroy them.
Form about 2%-4% of the total leucocytes.
Control allergic responses by producing anti
histamine.
Detoxify chemicals and reduce inflammation.
Are rarest among the leucocytes.
Form about 1% of the total number of leukocytes.
Secrete heparin to prevent blood clotting.
Secrete histamine to cause allergic reaction and
inflammation
Leucocytes Component
2) Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Are the smallest leucocytes.

Constitute about 25% of all leucocytes.
Each has a large rounded nucleus and only a small
amount of non-granular cytoplasm.
Are produced in the bone marrow but migrate to the
lymph glands and the lymphatics nodes for their growth
and development.
Some produce antibodies to aid in the destruction of
pathogens or to neutralise toxins.
Some attack and destroy infected cells.
Are the largest of leucocytes.

Consisting of 5%-8% of all leucocytes.
Are produced in the bone marrow,
Are phagocytic macrophages that ingest bacteria by
phagocytosis
Bio Insight
The proportions of leucocytes
may act as indicators for
certain types of diseases.
Eg: in leukemia, the count of
leucocytes increase, the
count of erythrocyte
decrease.
3) Thrombocytes (Platelets)
Cell fragments from bone marrow.

Small and irregular shape
Have no nucleus.
Involved in the process of blood clotting
and repairing damaged tissues.
1 ml blood contains 250 000 platelets.
Plasma
Is a yellowish liquid in which the blood cells are suspended.
90% water and 10% dissolved substances.
Content
Water
Proteins
Dissolved gases
Composition
Makes up 90% of the plasma
Important as solvent and a transport medium
Albumins, antibodies and clotting factors
(fibrinogen & prothrombin.
Carbon dioxide & oxygen.
Absorbed food
molecules
Consist of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and

vitamins.
Excretory waste
products
Consist of carbon dioxide, urea, uric acid and

creatinine.
Hormones
Salts
Consist of various hormones such as adrenaline,

insulin, glucagon and antidiuretic (ADH)
Consist of dissolved ionic salts such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, chlorides,
bicarbonates, phosphates & sulphates.
Function Of Blood In Transport

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport
of oxygen
of carbon dioxide
of absorbed food materials
excretory waste products
of heat
of hormones
of water to tissues
Chapter 1 Transport

Functions
FunctionsOf
Of Blood
Blood
Transport of materials
Gases
eg; Co2, O2
Food
Eg. amino
acids,
glucose
Hormones
Teach Biology Form 5
Waste
products
Heat
Defense against diseases
Human Blood Vessels

Human blood vessels
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Veins
Carry a slower-flowing
blood at low pressure
towards the heart.
Carry deoxygenated
blood (except in
pulmonary vein).
Capillaries Carry blood from

arterioles to venules.
Arteries
Carry blood away from

the heart at high
pressure.
Carry blood that is rich
in oxygen (except in
the pulmonary artery)
Characteristics
3 layers-endothelium,
smooth muscle, and
fibrous connective tissue
Single layer-endothelium
Structure of wall
3 layers-endothelium,
smooth muscle, and
fibrous connective
tissue.
Thickness of wall
Thick
Thin
Thinner than artery
Relative diameter of
lumen
Narrow
Wide
Very large
Very thin-single cell
Direction of blood
flow
Away from the heart
Towards the heart
From arteries to veins
Valve
Absent
Present
Absent
Oxygenated
transported
Carries oxygenated
blood (except
pulmonary artery)
Carries deoxygenated
blood (except pulmonary
vein)
Arteriole carries
oxygenated blood.
Venules carries
deoxygenated blood.
Relative pressure
High
Low
Gradually decreases from

the arteriole and to the
venule end.
Chapter 1 Transport
Human Blood Vessels

Blood vessels are tubes
that transport blood
from one part of the
human body to another.
The structure and
function of human
blood vessels
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
semi-lunar valve
vena cava
aorta
right artrium
pulmonary artery
pulmonary veins
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
left atrium
left ventricle
Basic Structure of Human Heart
Chapter 1 Transport
Structure And Function Of The Human Heart

The heart is a dark red cone shaped
muscular organ which situated between the
lungs and slightly orientated to the left. (in the
thoracic
cavity)
It is the size
of a clenched fist and weighs from
350 to 450 grams in an average adult
There
are
4 2 upper thin-walled atria
2
lower
thick-walled
chambers
ventricles
The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the
wall of the right ventricle because the left
ventricle pumps blood to all parts of the body
while the right ventricle only pump blood to the
lungs
The heart is divided into right and left side by a
wall called the septum
Human Heart
Chapter 1 Transport
tructure And Function Of The Human He

The valve between the left atrium and
ventricle has 2 cup-shaped flaps called the
bicuspid valve.
The right atrio-ventricular valve (between the
right atrium and right ventricle) has 3 cupshaped flaps called tricuspid valve
The atrio-ventricular valves prevent back
flow of blood into the atria when the
ventricles contract
Semi-lunar valves are located at the point
where the pulmonary artery and aorta leave
the heart. This is to prevent the back flow of
blood into the ventricle when they relax.
n heart has 3 valves to keep blood flowing in one dire
Tricuspid valve.
Semi-lunar valve
Bicuspid valve
Chapter 1 Transport
tructure And Function Of The Human He

The heart is mainly made up of myogenic
cardiac
The
heartmuscles.
muscles contract and relax
automatically throughout life and are not
controlled by the nervous system.
The heart functions like two pumps with
different pressure system.
The right pump forces deoxygenated blood
to the lungs via pulmonary artery.
The left pump forces the oxygenated blood
to other parts of body via aorta.
The oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the left atrium via pulmonary veins.
Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body
enters the right atrium via the vena cava.
The Circulation of Blood in Humans

a) Pumping of the heart
) (pg. 13, Figure 1.7, position of SAN and AVN)
) The sino-atrial node (SAN) is a group of
specialised cells located in the right atrial
wall, near the entrance of anterior vena
cava.
) Function: acts as pacemaker which
generates electrical impulse and initiates
the heartbeat.
) Medulla oblongata in the brain control the
pacemaker

) The electrical impulses spread
rapidly over the walls of both atria.
) The electrical impulse cause the atria
to contract simultaneously.
) The contraction of atria helps to
pump blood into the ventricles.

) The electrical impulses reach the atrioventricular node (AVN) which lying at
the base of the right atrium.
) Impulses from AVN are conducted by
specialised muscle fibres called bundle of
His and Purkinje fibres to the apex of
the heart.
) Electrical impulses spread to the ventricles
causing them to contract simultaneously
from the apex upwards.

) Contraction of the ventricle pumps the blood out
of the heart.
) Deoxygenated blood (from the right ventricle) is
pumped via the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
) Oxygenated blood (from the left ventricle) is
pumped via the aorta to the all parts of the body.
) The pumping of the heart is controlled by :
(a)Parasympathetic nerve slow down the
pacemaker
(b)Sympathetic nerve
- speed up the
pacemaker
(c)Adrenaline hormone - speed up the
pacemaker
What Is Cardiac Cycle
Is the series of events that occur

during one complete heartbeat.
Its includes the contraction
(systole) and relaxation (diastole)
of both atria and ventricles.
The average heart beat is about 72
heartbeat perminute.
The Contraction Of Skeletal

Muscles Surrounding The Veins
The pumping of the heart only generates
sufficient force to pump blood through the
arteries, arterioles and blood capillary.
When the blood reaches the veins, the
pressure produced by the heart is
insufficient to force blood back to the
heart.
So, the blood is sent back to the heart with
the help of the contraction of the
skeletal muscles surroundings the
veins.
Vein
When the skeletal muscles contract, the veins

constrict, valve opens and the blood is pushed
along through the veins and flows back to the
heart.
The Regulatory Mechanism Of

Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the force of the blood
exerted on the walls of the arteries.
Arterial blood pressure is the highest
during ventricle contraction. (systole)
and lowest during relaxation(diastole).
Baroreceptors monitor the pressure of
blood flowing to the body and brain.
Blood pressure is regulated by a negative
feedback mechanism.
Chapter 1 Transport

Regulation Mechanism Of Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is maintained by a negative feedback
Baroreceptors located in the arch of the aorta and the
mechanism.
walls of the carotid arteries detect changes in blood
pressure.
Baroreceptors
Cardiovascula
in arch of
r centre in
aorta and
Medula
nerve impulses sent to
carotid
Oblongata in
arteries are
the brain
stimulated
impulses
Increase in
sent
to effectors
blood pressure
Action of effectors
Normal blood
pressure
Blood
pressure
decreases
weaker cardiac
muscle
contraction
lower resistance
of blood flow in
the blood
vessels
The Circulatory System In

Organisms
The circulatory system can be divided into two
types; the open circulatory system and the
closed circulatory system.
a) The open circulatory system
) is common to insects.
) pump haemolymph into a hemocoel with the blood
diffusing back to the circulatory system between
cells.
) Blood is pumped by a heart into the body cavities,
where tissues are surrounded by the blood.
b) The closed circulatory systems
) Eg: vertebrates have the blood closed at all times
within vessels of different size and wall thickness.
Chapter 1 Transport

Blood Circulatory System
Closed
Open
blood is confined to
vessels
Single
blood flows only

once
through
the
heart
for
every complete
circulation
fish have this
type of
circulation
Double
blood flows only

once through the
heart twice for
every complete
circulation
Complete
Oxygenated
and
deoxygenated blood are
separated
mammals
and
birds
have
this
type
of
circulation
Blood (haemolymph)
is contained in the
body cavity known as
a haemocoel
insects have this
type of circulation
Incomplete
Oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood are
inextricably
amphibians mixed and
reptiles have this type of
circulation
Chapter 1 Transport
Open Circulation Of An Insect

ostia
chamber of heart
pericardial membrane
haemocoel
Haemolymph flows forward in the dorsal tubular heart

by waves of contraction which begins at the rear and
work its way toward the anterior end
The haemolymph then leaves the heart and enters the
haemocoel
The haemolymph is returned to the heart via the ostia
The ostia are equipped with valves that allow blood to
enter but not leave the heart
The Circulatory System In Insect
The open circulatory insect.

This means one or more hearts
pump the haemolymph through
vessel into the haemocoel.
The haemocoel contains soft
internal organs and is filled
with haemolymph.
Here chemical exchange occurs
between the haemolymph and
body cells.
Haemolymph flows out from the
hearts into the haemocoel when
the heart contract.
When the relax, haemolymph is
drawn back into the hearts
Chapter 1 Transport
Single Closed Circulatory System In Fish

Blood flows only once through
the heart for every complete
circulation
The heart has only one atrium
and one ventricle
Deoxygenated blood enters the
atrium and then the ventricle.
The ventricle pumps the bloods
to the capillaries in the gills
where the gaseous exchange
occurs.
The pressure drops as the
oxygenated blood leaves the
gills and flows directly to the
body
tissues.
The deoxygenated
blood then
flows back to the heart.
The Circulatory System In Fish
Double Closed And

Incomplete Circulatory
System In Amphibians
Chapter 1 Transport
Amphibians have a threechambered heart: two atria

and one ventricle which are
not separated by a septum
(not completely divided) and
Deoxygenated
oxygenated blood are mixed
in the single
ventricle
Amphibians
have
:
1. an incomplete double
circulation although blood is
pumped through the heart twice in
a circulation, there is a mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood in the ventricle.
2. a closed circulation because
blood is always contained within
the heart and the blood vessels.
Double Closed And

Incomplete Circulatory
System In Amphibians
Chapter 1 Transport
The blood contain lower levels

of oxygen but is sufficient to
meet the cellular requirements
of amphibians.
When on land, amphibians
such as frogs breathe air into
their
lungs
for
gaseous
exchange.
However, when they dive
under water, the lungs are not
used for respiration.
The ventricle diverts the
blood from the lungs to the
other body tissues.
The Circulatory System In Amphibians
The Circulatory System In Reptiles
Ventric
le
Closed, Double And

Complete Circulatory
System In Mammals
Chapter 1 Transport
Has four chambered heart that

prevents
the
mixing
of
the
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
The heart is divided into right and
left sides, the right side deals with
deoxygenated blood and the left side
with oxygenated blood.
This separation also prevents high
blood pressure from damaging the
fine
capillaries
of the
lungs.
Blood
is pumped
from
the heart to
the lungs, whence it returns to the
heart and is then re-pumped to the
body.
Humans
have
a
double
closed
circulatory sytem consisting of the
pulmonary and systemic circulatory
systems.
The blood enters the heart twice
during one complete cycle.
The Circulatory System In Mammals And Birds
The Circulatory System In

Human
The Circulatory system in birds

Birds, like human and mammals, each has a fourchambered heart that completely separates
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
The septum of the birds heart is complete,
providing for two separate circulatory systems:
a. Pulmonary circulation the right atrium and
the right
ventricle receives deoxygenated
blood from the body and sends it to the lungs.
b. Systemic circulation the left atrium and
left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs and sends it to
the body tissues.
Comparing The Circulatory System Of

Fish, Amphibians, Birds And Human.
(Exercise)
Characteristic
Fish
Amphibians
Birds
Human
Type of heart
Two chambered
heart
Three
chambered heart
Four chambered
heart
Four chambered
heart
Type of
circulation
Single
Incomplete
double
Double
Double
Separation of
deoxygenated
blood
No division of
circulation
Incomplete
separation
Complete
separation
Complete
separation
Type of
subsystems
Gills and
systemic
Pulmonary and
systemic
Complete
separation
Complete
separation
Heartbeat
60-240 beat per

minute
Dependent upon
temperature
Very high 150400 beat per

minute
72 beat per
minute
What Is The Advantages Of The Double

Circulatory System?
1.
Chapter 1 Transport
Human Circulatory System
Pulmonary circulation
circulation
Pulmonary
Flow of blood
from the heart
to the lungs and
back
to
the
heart
Systemic circulation
circulation
Systemic
Flow of blood
from the heart
to all parts of
the body and
back
to
the
heart
Chapter 1 Transport
1.3 Understanding The

Mechanism Of Blood Clotting
ITeach Biology Form 5
Chapter 1 Transport
Understanding the Mechanism of Blood

Clotting
Necessity For Blood Clotting

Prevents excessive blood loss from the body
through a wound
Prevents blood pressure from falling to a
lower level
Prevents the entry of microorganisms and
foreign particles into the body through a
wound
Maintaining blood circulation in a closed
circulatory system
When you get a

cut, the blood
vessels around the
wound immediately
constrict to reduce
blood loss.
The platelets in the

blood become sticky
and clump together
at the site of injury
to plug the wound.
(also called the
platelet plug)
The platelets and damaged

tissues release
thrombokinase
(thromboplastin) and other
clotting factor.
Thrombokinase, in the presence of factor VIII,

converts prothrombin (an inactive plasma
protein) into thrombin (an active plasma
protein).
The conversion need the help from the calcium
ions and vitamin K.
Thrombin in turn catalyses the conversion of
fibrinogen (a soluble plasma protein) into fibrin
Fibrin forms a mesh over the

wound, trapping red blood
cells and sealing the wound.
A blood clot is formed. (pg 18,
photo.1.4)
Vitamin
K
Finally, the blood clot hardens and

dries to form a scab which covers a
wound.
When the wound heals, new skin is
formed and the scab peels or falls off.
Chapter 1 Transport
Understanding the Mechanism of Blood

Clotting
Summary of Blooding Clothing Mechanism

out
and
Platelets
clump
Endothelial
lining
2Blood flows
4
A
cutblood
in to
a formWhen a blood vessel is injured, platelets
1together
vessel
constricts
a plug
prevent blood
blood vessel
loss
of
bloodto
vessel
begin to collect at the site on injury,
forming a barrier called the platelet
plug.
An enzyme, thrombokinase is released.
Vitamin K
Calcium
Platelets on exposure to air,
3
Erythrocyte
Prothrombi
Blood and
vessel
break down
release 5Platelets
release ions
n
constricts
chemicals
to cause other thrombokinase
and
Thrombokina
platelets to stick to each other
other clotting factors
se
Fibrinogen
(soluble)
Thrombin
Fibrin
(insoluble)
Clot forms to stop further blood

loss
Mechanism Of Blood Clotting

1
Impaired Blood Clotting

Mechanism
a. Haemophilia
b. Thrombosis

Mechanism
a. Haemophilia
. Is a hereditary disease caused by a

recessive gene on X sex chromosome.
. Haemophiliac person lacks a gene that
produce particular clotting factors in the
blood. (eg. Factor VIII)
. The person may die to excessive bleeding
from minor cuts and bruises. (external
bleeding)
. He may also experience internal bleeding.
. It is more common in males than females.
. Certain clotting factors such as factor VIII can

Mechanism
b) Thrombosis
Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is
formed in the damaged rough inner wall of
the artery (supposedly smooth). (unbroken
blood vessel)
This may cause blockage of artery, known
as thrombosis.
If thrombosis happens in coronary
arteries, it is called coronary
thrombosis.
When the thrombus dislodges and is carried
away by the blood circulation, it is known as
an embolus.

Mechanism
b) Thrombosis
If the coronary artery is partially
blocked, it can cause chest pains called
angina.
A total blockage, which cuts off the
supply of oxygen and nutrients to the
heart muscles, causes a heart attack.
(myocardial infarction).
The affected heart muscles are damaged.
If only a small area of the muscle cells
dies, the victim can recover. Extensive
heart muscle damage can cause death.
If there is a blockage of blood to the
Chapter 1 Transport
1.4 The Lymphatic System
The Formation Of interstitial Fluid and

Lymph
Chapter 1 Transport
Blood that enters the arterial end of a capillary is

under high hydrostatic pressure.
This pressure forces fluid ( water and dissolved
substances ) from the blood plasma of the capillaries
to diffuse into the spaces between the cells
(intercellular spaces). (pg 21, fig 1.14)
This forms tissue fluid or interstitial fluid.
Composition
Has water , dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste
product, gases, small protein and more leucocytes
than the blood.
Has no erythrocytes, plasma protein (albumin,
globulin and fibrinogen) and platelets. (size too large
to pass through capillary wall)

Lymph
Importance
Chapter 1 Transport
Forms the internal environment of the body.

It bathes the cells and supplies them with their
requirements.
The exchange of substances between blood
capillaries and body cells occurs.
i. Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood
through the interstitial fluid into the body cells.
ii. Excretory waste products like carbon dioxide and
urea diffuse from the body cells through the
interstitial fluid into the blood.
1 Transport
The Formation Of interstitial FluidChapter
and
Lymph
te Of The Interstitial Fluid
Approximately 85-90% of the interstitial fluid flows

back (re enter) into the blood circulation at the
venous end of the capillary system where the
hydrostatic pressure is low. This is to maintain
the normal blood volume.
The blood plasma at the venous end of a capillary is
hypertonic to the surrounding interstitial fluid. As a
result, water, mineral salts and waste products flow
back into the capillary.
The remaining (10-15% = 4 liters) of the interstitial
fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries and is called
lymph. Lymph is a colourless/transparent
yellowish fluid transported to the lymphatic system.
The lymph flow takes place in only one direction
from the tissues to the heart. Semilunar valves
within the lymphatic vessels keep the flow of lymph
Human Lymphatic System
Chapter 1 Transport

Lymph
What happen if the excess interstitial fluid unable
to return to the blood circulatory system?
The interstitial fluid will accumulate

and cause tissue swelling called
oedema.
Chapter 1 Transport

Lymph
BIO INSIGHT
(page 21)
Elephentiasis is an eodematous
disease
caused
by
filarial
parasitic worms transmitted by
mosquitoes.
This worms live in lymphatic
vessels and cause the blockage
of the vessels.
Structure of The Lymphatic

System
The lymphatic system
is a
one
way
system
consisting of
a
network
of
lymphatic
vessels
and
capillaries,
numerous
lymph
nodes and
other organs, tonsil,
thymus
and spleen. (pg 22,
fig 1.15)
Chapter 1 Transport
Tonsil
Lymphatic vesse
Lymph nodes
Structure of Human Lymphatic

System
1) Lymphatic Capillaries
Blind-end tubes located in the

spaces between the cells.
The interstitial fluid which is not
absorbed into the bloodstream
drains into these capillaries.
The collected transparent yellowish
fluid is lymph.
2) Lymphatic Vessels
Lymph capillaries (smaller lymphatic vessels) unite/join to
form larger lymphatic vessels.
The vessels from the left side of the body, the alimentary
canal and the right side of the lower part of the body
flow into thoracic duct.
Thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessels in the body.
It carries lymph to the left subclavian vein and back into
the bloodstream.
The right lymphatic duct transport lymph from the right
side of the head and chest into the right subclavian
vein.
Have one way valve:
a) To ensure the continuous flow of the lymph away from the
tissues.
b) To prevent the back flow of lymph.

System
Right
lymphatic
duct empties its
contents into the
right
subclavian
vein
the point (left

subclavian
vein)
where
lymph returns
to the blood
anterior
vena cava
Thoracic duct
empties
its
contents into
the
left
subclarian
vein
lymph nodes
lacteal in the villi

of small intestine
Chapter 1 Transport
Produce lymphocytes
Remove particles
of
debris
and
ingest bacteria
3) Lymph Nodes
Located at intervals along lymphatic

vessels.
Mainly found at the neck, armpits
and the groins.
Produce and store lymphocytes
which help to defend the body
against infections.

System
the
point
where
lymph
returns
anterior to
the
blood
vena
cava
right
lymphatic
duct empties its
contents into the
right
subclavian
vein
lacteal in the villi
of small intestine
Thoracic duct
empties
its
contents into
the
left
subclarian
vein
lymph nodes
Chapter 1 Transport
Produce lymphocytes
Remove particles
of
debris
and
ingest bacteria
Blood
Circulation
Blood
plasma in
the blood
capillary
The Flow Of Lymph

Interstitial fluid
in the spaces
between the
cell
Larger
lymphatic
vessel
Right
lymphatic
duct
Right side of
the head
and chest
Right
subclavian
vein
Chapter 1 Transport
Lymphatic
capillaries
(lymphatic
system)
Lymph
nodes
Smaller
lymphatic
vessel
Thoracic duct
(largest
lymphatic vessel
in body)
Left side of the body, the

alimentary canal (lacteal in
the ileum) and the right side
of the lower part of the body
Left
subclavian
vein
Chapter 1 Transport
The lymphatic System
Role Of The Lymphatic System

Transports
Transports interstitial
interstitial fluid
fluid back
back to
to the
the
bloodstream.
Blockage
of the lymphatic system causes
bloodstream.
the body tissues to swell with excess

fluid, a condition called oedema.
Transports
Transports absorbed
absorbed fats
fats (lipid
(lipid droplets)
droplets)
and fat
fat soluble
soluble vitamins
vitamins from
from the
the small
small
and
intestine into
into the
the bloodstream.
bloodstream.
intestine
Defends
Defends the
the body
body against
against infection
infection by
by
producing lymphocytes
lymphocytes and
and antibodies
antibodies to
to
producing
fight and
and destroy
destroy bacteria
bacteria and
and viruses.
viruses.
fight
Chapter 1 Transport
1.5 Role Of Circulatory System

In Body Defence Mechanism
Chapter 1 Transport
Role Of Circulatory System In Body

Defence Mechanism
sides transport, the circulatory system defend

body against disease-causing microorganism
led pathogen.
There are three lines of

defence mechanism
Role Of Circulatory System In Body

Defence Mechanism
The Bodys Defence
Mechanism
First line
of
defence
Skin
(i) Sweat
(sweat gland)
(ii) Sebum
(sebaceous /
oil gland)
(iii) Tears
(tears gland)
(iv) Saliva
(salivary
Second
line of
defence
Mucous
Phagocytos
membra
is by
1. nes
Secretion phagocytes
of
mucus,
a
viscous fluid that
contain lysozyme
to traps microbes
and
other
particles
2. Hydrochloric
acid
in
the
Chapter 1 Transport
Third line
of
defence
Antibodies
produced by
lymphocytes
Chapter 1 Transport
) The Bodys Defence Mechanism - First Line Of Defen

Consists of physical and chemical barriers that
prevent pathogens from the body
(a) The skin serves as a physical barrier as it is a
tough outer layer that is impermeable to bacteria and
virus. (role of epithelial lining in the epidermis of a skin)
It is also
made up of a
dead
keratinised
layer (2nd
protein
usually found
in hair and
horns) which
is difficult to
penetrate
Chapter 1 Transport
) The Bodys Defence Mechanism - First Line Of Defen

It is a chemical barrier :
1) Secretes sebum a protective film over the skin
2) Secrete sweat contain lysozyme (digest the bacteria
and foreign substance)
The tears and saliva contain lysozyme protect the
eyes and mouth from bacterial invasion
b) Mucuos membrane :
Lines the trachea, nasal cavity, respiratory tract,
digestive tract and urogenital tract secrete mucus
that contain lysosyme to trap dust particles and
bacterial spores
Cilia found in the respiratory tract sweep the trapped
particles to the pharynx.
The hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice produced by
the stomach destroy most bacteria in food and drink
consumed.
Chapter 1 Transport
2) The Bodys Defence Mechanism - Second

Line Of Defence
Starts when a pathogen is able to get through
the bodys first line of defence
Some white blood cells, such as neutrophils (in

the blood) and monocyte (develop become
macrophages in the interstitial fluid)
act as
phagocyte.
The ingestion and destruction of the pathogen is
carried out by phagocyte in a process known as
phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis:
~ the process by which phagocytic white blood cells
engulf and digest microorganism or phatogen.
Chapter 1 Transport
Line Of Defence
Stages
of
phagocytosis:
1,
2
1) The phagocyte is attracted by the chemicals

produced by the bacteria at the site of infection.
2) The phagocyte extends its pseudopodia and
moves toward the bacteria.
Chapter 1 Transport
Line Of Defence
3) Phagocyte extends portions of its plasma membrane
(pseudopodia) , wrapping around the bacteria.
4) Bacteria is trapped and engulfed (swallowed) by
the phagocyte.
3,
4
5,
6
5) Ingestion of the bacteria forms a phagosome

(phagocytic vacuole)
6) The phagocyte combines/ fuses with the lysosome
which release lysozyme (lysine) into the phagosome.
This combination is called phagolysosome
Chapter 1 Transport
Line Of Defence
7) The bacteria inside the phagosome are digested/
break down by the lysozyme.
8) Useful soluble digested products are absorbed

and assimilated by the phagocyte.
7,
8
Digest
ed
bacteri
a
9,1
0
9) A residual body is formed which contain the

indigestible material
10) The phagocyte release the waste products
from the cell through plasma membrane.
Chapter 1 Transport

Line Of Defence
Summary
of
phagocytosis:
stages
in
Chapter 1 Transport
3) The Bodys Defence Mechanism - Third Line Of

Defence
Is the immune system which is a specific defence.
Immunity: the state in which the body is resistant to
infection by a disease causing pathogen (e.g: virus)
Antigens:
Substances usually protein, that the immune system
recognizes as foreign body.
Usually found on the outer surface on an invading
microorganism/pathogen.
It induces the lymphocytes to release antibodies into
the bloodstream to destroy a particular antigen
Immunisation: the process of inducing immunity by

administering a vaccine.
Chapter 1 Transport
3) The Bodys Defence Mechanism - Third Line Of

Defence
Involves lymphocytes which produce antibodies to

fight diseases and infection.
Antibodies: protein released by lymphocytes into the
bloodstream.
The antibodies produced can defend the body in the
following ways:
Neutralisation
Lysis
Third Line Of Defence
Opsonisation
Agglutination
Lysin
Chapter 1 Transport
Types Of Immunity
Immunity is the ability of the human body to use

antibodies to fight against the invasion of
pathogens
Immunity
Nature
Active
Artificial
Passive
Active
Passive
Active : The body produces its own antibodies in response

stimulation by an antigen.
Passive: The body receives antibodies from an outside sou
Natural: from body

Artificial : from outside source (eg. From animal)
Chapter 1 Transport
Types Of Immunity
Immunity
Active
Nature
Immunity
acquired
after
recovery
from
Permanent
infection
immunity
after
infection
Eg: Chicken
pox
Passive
Artificial
Immunity
acquired by
A
vaccine is a
vaccination
preparation of
weakened or dead
form of pathogen
Immunity last for
a long time
Eg: BCG and
measles vaccine
Nature
Immunity
acquired
through
maternal
antibodies,
placenta and
mothers
milk
Temporary
immunity
first few
months after
birth
Artificial
Immunity
acquired by
injection of
antiserum or
serum
An
injection is
containing
given
to a person
antibodies
when he is
infected with a
disease at high
risk
Eg: bitten by a
poisonous snake
Immediate and
temporary
immunity
Types Of Immunity
Chapter 1 Transport
1) Naturally Acquired Active Immunity

Immunity acquired after recovery from infection
When a person is exposed to a pathogen, the
antigens of the pathogens stimulate an immune
response.
The
immune system produces antibodies in
response to the antigen.
After the person recovers from the infection, the
person is immune to the pathogens because the
lymphocytes remains in the body.
ce
x
e d
e
Permanent immunity after infection
Eg: the person is immune to the
chicken pox virus after he has
been infected by it.
Types Of Immunity
Chapter 1 Transport
2) Artificially Acquired Active Immunity

Immunity acquired by immunization or
vaccination.
A vaccine is a preparation of weakened (live) or
dead form of pathogen that is not harmful to the
persondiseases
receiveslike
it. measles are highly
Some
contagious.
A series illness or death may result when a person
is exposed to the pathogens for the first time.
So, a person need to be immunized, to activate
his immune response artificially by injecting a
vaccine before the infection occurs.
A vaccine stimulates the body to produce
antibodies.
The process of inducing immunity by
administering vaccine is called immunization..
Immunity last for a long time
Eg: BCG and measles vaccine
Chapter 1 Transport
Role Of Circulatory System In Body Defence Mechanism
The Structure Of HIV
enzymes
RNA
capsid
viral
envelope
viral
proteins
Chapter 1 Transport
Role Of Circulatory System In Body Defence

Mechanism
The Effect HIV On The Bodys Defence

Mechanism
Effects Of HIV (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus)
HIV attacks the immune system by

reproducing inside the lymphocytes and
killing them
HIV causes AIDS (Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
AIDS is a condition in humans in which the
immune system begins to fail, leading to
various life threatening infections.
Chapter 1 Transport

Mechanism

Mechanism
Transmission Of HIV
Unprotected sexual contact with an HIV
infected person
Reusing and sharing contaminated needles
Transmission from an infected mother to
infants during pregnancy, delivery or
breastfeeding.
Chapter 1 Transport

Mechanism

Mechanism
Prevention Of Aids
Avoid unprotected sexual contact
Do not have sex with any individual whose
background and health status is unknown
HIV positive mothers should not breastfeed
their babies
Screening of blood products for HIV has
eliminated transmission through blood
transfusions
Never reuse or share needles or syringes
Chapter 1 Transport
1.6 Appreciating A Healthy

Cardiovascular System
Chapter 1 Transport
Appreciating A Healthy Cardiovascular System
Cardiovascular diseases
Disorder of the heart and
circulatory system
Hypertensi
Embolism
on
Thrombosis
Angina
the
blood
Heart
attack
Atheroscler
osis
Risk Factor
High levels of
blood cholesterol
Age
Smoking
Obesity
Diabetes mellitus
Family history
Sedentary lifestyle
Chapter 1 Transport
Appreciating A Healthy Cardiovascular System
Healthy Cardiovascular System

Diet low in
cholesterol
saturated
fats
and
Diet high in unsaturated oils

Diet
with
sufficient
vegetables and fruit
green
Avoid excessive intake of salt

Avoid smoking
Regular exercise
Stress-free lifestyle
leafy
Chapter 1 Transport
1.7 Understanding The

Transport Of Substances In
Plants
Chapter 1 Transport
Understanding the transport of substances in

plants
Necessity For Transport Of Substances In Plants
Water and mineral salts have to be transported

to all parts of the plant
Water is needed as a solvent and reactant in cell
metabolism
Mineral ions are needed for chlorophyll synthesis,
healthy plant growth and development
Organic food materials synthesized by the leaves
during photosynthesis need to be sent to the
growing regions, storage organs and other parts
of plants.
Chapter 1 Transport

plants
Vascular Tissues In Stems, Roots And Leaves

Plants have two separate transport
systems (tissues)
Xylem
Gives
support
and
transport water and
mineral ions, from the
roots to the upper
parts of the plant,
against gravitational
force.
Phloem
Transport organic food
substances
synthesised by the
leaves
during
photosynthesis
to
other parts of the
plant.
Do xylem and phloem transports oxygen and

carbon dioxide ?
NO. The exchange of gases is by diffusion.
Chapter 1 Transport

plants
Structure Of Xylem In Relation To Transport
Xylem
Vessels
Long
Hollow
Continuo
us tubes
Tracheids
Parenchy
ma
Store
food
substa
nce
Do not
have an
open ends
to form a
continuou
s hollow
Water
tubeshas to pass from
Fibres
For
suppor
t
cell to cell though

openings called pits
Vessels and tracheids form the two main parts in
conducting elements.
Xylem vessel
lignified wall
rim of
bordered
pit
torus
(valve)
perforation
s in end
wall
lumen
bordered
pits
border
pits in
annular
section
thickening
single
large
perforatio
n in end
wall of
vessel
Tracheid
Sloping
end
wall perforated
by
bordered
pits
Lignified
wall
strengthened
with bars of
lignin
Chapter 1 Transport

plants
Vessels
A vessel is formed from a
chain of elongated cylindrical
cells placed end to end
lignified wall
The horizontal end walls

lumen
break down to provide an
rim of
bordered
uninterrupted flow of water
bordered
pits
up the plant.
pit
border
The vessel consist of dead
pits in
cells
and
loses
its torus
annular
section
protoplasm
for
the (valve)
thickening
perforation
flowthickenings
of water.
continuous
The lignified
s in end
single
wall
prevent the walls caving
large
in, increase the adhesion
perforatio
of water molecules and
n in end
help the water to rise by
wall of
The
capillarity.
cell wall of the xylem vessel are strengthen
by
vessel
lignin deposited in various pattern. Figure 1.24.

this to prevent the collapse of vessel and provides
Teach Biology
Form 5
mechanical
support.
Chapter 1 Transport

plants
Tracheid
Tracheids are similar to vessels except that they are
five-sided in cross-section and less efficient in
conducting water.
Their tapering end walls are perforated by pits.
Pits are the opening where
from cell to cell.
Sloping
end
wall perforated
by
bordered
pits
water passes through
Lignified
wall
strengthened
with bars of
lignin
Chapter 1 Transport

plants
Structure Of Phloem In Relation To Transport
Transloca
tion
The transport of soluble organic food substances (eg.

sucrose & amino acid) in the phloem from the leaves
to other parts of the plants.
Phloem
sieve
tubes
companion
cells
fibers
sieve
tubes
Sieve tube - a cylindrical
column of sieve cells
(sieve
tube
elements)
The
joinedend
end walls
to end of each
sieve tube element are
perforated
by
pores
structures
called
forming
Longitudinal
strands
of
sieve
plates
cytoplasm
passing
through the pores of the
sieve
plates
help
to
transport materials from
cell to cell
parenchy
ma
companion
cells
The companion cell has a
nucleus,
vacuole,
cytoplasm and numerous
mitochondria.
They
are adjacent and
closely associated with
the
tube cell.
The sieve
companion
cell provide
metabolic support for the
sieve
tube
cells
in
the
transport
of
organic
Transport manufactured
food,
substances.
eg. Sucrose & amino acid
from the leaf into the sieve
Chapter 1 Transport
Transport of Substances in Plants
Translocation
Transport
of
Transport
of
photosynthesis
photosynthesis
the
the
soluble
soluble
products
products
of
of
The following
following experiments
experiments have
have been
been done
done to
to
The
show that
that translocation
translocation occurs
occurs in
in the
the phloem.
phloem.
show
The Ringing Experiment
Technique using compounds of
14
C as tracers
Analysis Of The Content Of The Phloem Tubes
Chapter 1 Transport
1.8 Transport Of Substances In

Plants
Chapter 1 Transport
Transport of Substances in Plants

Pathway Of Water From The Soil To The Leaves
The cytoplasm
cytoplasm of
of the
the root
root hair
hair cell
cell is
is
The
hypotonic to
to the
the surrounding
surrounding soil
soil water
water
hypotonic
Water diffuse
diffuse into
into the
the cell
cell by
by osmosis
osmosis
Water
Water is
is then
then drawn
drawn from
from cell
cell to
to cell
cell by
by
Water
osmosis until
until it
it reaches
reaches the
the xylem
xylem vessels
vessels
osmosis
mineral ions
ions are
are activity
activity secreted
secreted into
into the
the
mineral
xylem and
and this
this increases
increases the
the osmotic
osmotic
xylem
pressure. This
This generates
generates aa pressure
pressure known
known
pressure.
as root
root pressure.
pressure.
as
1.8
Synthesising the concept of transport of
substances in plants
Translocation
The transport of dissolved organic
substances (sugar and amino acid) in the
phloem from the leaves to the other parts
of the plants.
The importance of translocation :
The survival of a plant depends on the
transport of organic substances.
Enables organic substances to be stored or
converted to other sugars once it reaches
its destination.
Organic substances are translocated
downwards from the leaves to the storage
organs such as the roots.
They are translocated upwards from the
storage organs to the growing regions such
1.8 Synthesising the concept of transport of

substances in plants
Transpiration
- is the loss of water in the form of water
vapour
from the plant to the
atmosphere by evaporation.
- 90% of transpiration occurs through
stomata
10% through the cuticle and through
lenticels in woody stems.
1.8 Synthesising the concept of transport

of substances in plants
The Importance of transpiration in plant:
Creates a transpirational pull that draws

water and dissolved mineral salts from the
roots to the leaves.
Helps in the absorption and transport of water
and mineral ions from the roots to the
different parts of the plants.
Produces a cooling effect in plants in hot
weather.
Helps to supply water to all plant cells for
metabolic processes.
Helps to prevent plants from wilting by
maintaining cell turgidity.
Transpirational pull
Is a suction force that moves the continuous
water column upwards through the xylem
vessels from the roots to the leaves.
TRANSPIRATIONAL STREAM
Is the continuous flow of water through

the plants.
Transpiration
1.8 Synthesising the concept of transport of substances in plants
External
factors
that affect
the rate of
transpirati
on
Air movement
Carries away water vapour away rapidly
outside the
stomata.
So that more water molecules can diffuse to
the
surroundings.
The rate of transpiration increases.
Little
air
movements,
water
vapour
accumulates around
stomata
The rate of transpiration decreases
Temperature
High temperature increases the kinetic
energy of water molecules
Causing them to move faster through the
stomata.
Also reduces the humidity of surrounding air
Increases the rate of transpiration.
1.8 Synthesising the concept of transport of substances in plants
External
factors
that affect
the rate of
transpirati
on
Light intensity Higher light intensity stimulates stomatal

openings,
Increases the rate of transpiration.
Sunlight also provides heat energy for the
leaves
increases evaporation of water.
In the dark, stomata close,
Relative humidity
The
rate
of transpiration
Relative
humidity decreases.
is high, the air is
saturated with
water vapour.
Water is unable to evaporate from plant
cells.
Rate of transpiration decreases.
Low relative humidity (dry air) increases
the
concentration gradient of water between
the leaves
and the surrounding air.
Rate of transpiration increases.
Potometer:
used to measure the rate of water uptake in a cut

shoot under different condition. (the rate of transpiration in plant)
Distance of air bubble

Rate of transpiration
=
Time taken
------------------------------- (cm/min)
Pathway Of Water From The Soil To The Leaves.

a) Movement of water through the roots (involve Osmosis)
) The cell sap in root hair cells contains sugars, amino acids
and salts.
) It is more concentrated than the surrounding soil solution.
) Water diffuse into the root cells by osmosis.
) The entry of water into a root cell dilutes its cell sap.
) The cell sap of the adjacent cortex cell would then be more
concentrated,
) Causing water molecules to diffuse across the root, from cell
to cell by osmosis.
) Water moves inwards from cell to cell in the cortex until it
reaches the endodermis.
) The endodermal cell has a Casparian strip which blocks the
water movement via cell wall.
(refer I-TEACH)

a) Movement of water through the roots
(involve root pressure and capillary action)
Mineral ions are actively pumped from the root cells into
the solution in the xylem vessels.
These vessels found in the roots then become more
concentrated.
Water enters the xylem from the root cells by osmosis.
This creates an upward force called root pressure.
Root pressure helps to push water up to a certain height in
the plants.
However, root pressure alone is insufficient to force water
to the top part of a tall tree.
Other factors involved are capillary action and
transpirational pull.
(refer I-TEACH)
Root pressure
A force pushing water up the stem from the roots.

The result of an active process in which energy from ATP
is used.
CAPILLARY ACTION
(COHESION AND ADHESION OF WATER)
Cohesion is define as the force of attraction
between the same molecules. The cohesion forces
between water molecules hold the continuous
column of water together and when water
transpires from the leaf, the whole of water
column moves up the xylem vessels.
-Adhesion is defined as the force of attraction
between different molecules. Water molecules tend
to adhere to the walls of the xylem vessels. The
adhesive forces can support a considerable mass of
water.

b) Movement of water through the stems
(involve capillary action and transpirational pull)
The results of the cohesive and adhesive forces.
Xylem vessels (long, narrow and hollow tubes) forms
a continuous column of water.
c) Movement of water through the leaves
(involve transpirational pull)
The water vapour in the air spaces diffuses out to the
atmosphere via the stomata transpiration.
Water in the xylem is diffused into the mesophyll cells
to replace the water lost through transpiration.
The transport mechanism in plants
Evaporation of water
Controlled by opening
and closing of stomata
Leave
s
driven by transpiration pull
(passive)
Aided by capillarity/
cohesion and adhesion
(passive)
Stem
involves root pressure
(active)
Involves osmosis,
capillary action
(passive)
Roots
Through root hairs
Absorption of soil water
Concept map of the movement of water in

plants
How do some plants remove the excess water

absorbed from the soil when stomata close at night
and transpiration does not occur?
They have special glands called hydatodes located

at the left edge.
The root pressure generated forces the water out of
the hydathodes.
This process is called guttation.
Guttation happens on nights that are hot and humid.
The Regulation Of Transpiration By Stomata

Dicotyledonous leaves have stomata on the lower
surface.
Monocotyledonous leaves have stomata on both
upper and lower surfaces.
Each stoma consists of a pair of kidney shaped
guard cells sorrounding stomatal pore.
Guard cell: -has a thinner elastic outer wall
-has a thicker, less elastic inner wall.
-has a nucleus, cytoplasm and
chloroplast.

The mechanism of the opening of the stoma:
During the day
During the night
Figure 1.28 (a) page 38
Figure 1.28 (b) page 38
1. Light stimulates
photosynthesis in the guard
cells
1. Photosynthesis stop.
2. Glucose is produced and

energy is generated for active
transport
2. Potassium ions (K+) exit the

guard cells.
3. The guard cells accumulate

potassium ions (K+) from
adjacent cells through active
transport.
3. Water diffuses out from the

guard cells by osmosis
4. The guard cells become

hypertonic and water from
adjacent cells diffuses into the
guard cells by osmosis
4. The guard cells become

flaccid

The mechanism of the opening of the stoma:
During the day
During the night
5. The guard cells swell up and

become turgid.
5. The stoma closes
6. Since the inner walls of the

guard cells are thicker than the
outer walls, the guard cells
bend outward.
7. The stoma opens.

Chapter 1 f5

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Chapter 1 Transport

1.1 The Importance Of Having

The Importance Of Having a Transport System in

Living organisms in their Total

1.2 Concept Of The Circulatory

Concept of The Circulatory System

fluid that flows in the system

Pump (heart) keeps the fluid moving

Blood is a type of connective tissue

Concept of The Circulatory System

Composition Of Human Blood

The Composition Of Human Blood

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

(1) Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

About 5 millions erythrocyte in 1 ml of blood.

Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

(2) Leucocytes (white blood cells)

Much less numerous than erythrocyte.

Leucocytes (white blood cells)

Leucocytes (white blood cells)

Most common and form about 70% of the total

Are the smallest leucocytes.

Are the largest of leucocytes.

Cell fragments from bone marrow.

Consist of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and

Consist of carbon dioxide, urea, uric acid and

Consist of various hormones such as adrenaline,

Function Of Blood In Transport

Concept of The Circulatory System

Teach Biology Form 5

Defense against diseases

Human Blood Vessels

Capillaries Carry blood from

Carry blood away from

Thinner than artery

Away from the heart

Towards the heart

From arteries to veins

Gradually decreases from

Concept of The Circulatory System

Human Blood Vessels

Teach Biology Form 5

Basic Structure of Human Heart

Structure And Function Of The Human Heart

tructure And Function Of The Human He

n heart has 3 valves to keep blood flowing in one dire

tructure And Function Of The Human He

The Circulation of Blood in Humans

The Circulation of Blood in Humans

a) Pumping of the heart

The Circulation of Blood in Humans

a) Pumping of the heart

The Circulation of Blood in Humans

What Is Cardiac Cycle

Is the series of events that occur

The Contraction Of Skeletal

When the skeletal muscles contract, the veins

The Regulatory Mechanism Of

Concept of The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System In

Concept of The Circulatory System

blood flows only

blood flows only

Teach Biology Form 5