Operation of Compressor Control and Protection Systems

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
OPERATION OF COMPRESSOR
CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical
File Reference: MEX-212.05
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Compressors
Operation of Compressor
Control and Protection Systems
Section
Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS ........................................................ 5
Pressure Control................................................................................................... 6
Variable-Speed Constant Pressure Control ............................................... 6
Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control ........................... 8
Suction Throttling Constant Pressure Control.......................................... 11
Discharge Throttling Constant Pressure Control...................................... 14
Blow-Off (Recycle) Constant Pressure Control........................................ 17
Flow Control ....................................................................................................... 17
Variable-Speed Constant Flow Control.................................................... 17
Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Flow Control ................................ 19
Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control................................................. 21
Discharge Throttling Constant Flow Control ............................................ 22
Blow-Off Constant Flow Control............................................................... 22
DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................................................ 23
Surge Protection................................................................................................. 24
Flow Systems .......................................................................................... 25
Surge Control on a Constant-Speed Compressor with
Suction Throttling..................................................................................... 27
Variable-Speed Compressor Based on Delta Pressure and Flow ........... 33
Variable-Speed Multisection Compressors .............................................. 34
System Arrangements ........................................................................................ 39
Series....................................................................................................... 40
Parallel..................................................................................................... 43
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................... 47
Valve Unloading ................................................................................................. 47
Clearance Pockets ............................................................................................. 52
Bypass Operation ............................................................................................... 53
Compressors
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................... 55

Relief Valve (Stage)............................................................................................ 55
Startup Bypass ................................................................................................... 55
High Process Temperature................................................................................. 56
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 57
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Variable-Speed Constant-Pressure Control System and
Characteristic Curves ................................................................................... 7
Figure 2. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control System and
Characteristic Curves ................................................................................. 10
Figure 3. Suction Throttling Constant-Pressure Control System and
Figure 4. Discharge Throttling, Constant-Pressure Control System and
Figure 5. Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System and
Characteristic Curve ................................................................................... 18
Figure 6. Alternate Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control
System Configuration ................................................................................. 19
Figure 7. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant-Flow Control System and
Figure 8. Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control System and
Characteristic Curve ................................................................................... 21
Figure 9. Basic, Volume-Controlled, Anti-Surge System .............................................. 26
Figure 10. Typical Capacity and Surge Control System and the Associated
Performance Curve for a Constant-Speed Compressor with Suction
Throttling .................................................................................................... 28
Figure 11. Performance and Surge Lines with Changes in Ambient Conditions .......... 30
Figure 12. Pressure-Compensated Surge Control System .......................................... 31
Figure 13. Discharge Mass Flow Rate Measurement Compensated to Inlet
Volumetric Flow Rate ................................................................................. 33
ii
Compressors
Figure 14. Surge Control System for a Variable-Speed Compressor Based on

Differential Pressure and Gas Flow Rate ................................................... 34
Figure 15. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with Surge Control Valve that
Protects the Entire Compressor.................................................................. 35
Figure 16. Performance Curves and Surge Line for Each Section of a Multisection
Compressor ................................................................................................ 36
Figure 17. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with a Surge Control
Valve for Each Section ............................................................................... 37
Figure 18. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with Remotely Operated
Control on the First Section ........................................................................ 39
Figure 19. Typical Surge Control System for Compressors in Series........................... 41
Figure 20. Integrated Surge Control System for Compressors in Series...................... 42
Figure 21. Discharge Pressure Control of Constant-Speed Parallel Compressors
with Dissimilar Operating Characteristics ................................................... 44
Figure 22. Control System that Uses the S-Criterion for Compressors in Parallel
Configuration .............................................................................................. 46
Figure 23. Suction Valve Unloader............................................................................... 48
Figure 24. Finger-Type Unloaders ............................................................................... 50
Figure 25. Clearance Pockets ...................................................................................... 52
iii
Compressors
INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
For the purposes of this module, a control system functions to
maintain process variables within their prescribed ranges. If a
process variable approaches a value outside of its prescribed
range and that could result in damage to the monitored
equipment, a protection system will function either to restore
the variable to an acceptable value or to shut down the
equipment.
The control and protection systems that are used on dynamic
and positive-displacement compressors are different because
the systems reflect the characteristics of the equipment. The
dynamic compressor control system must maintain the
compressor flow rate and the discharge pressure within
prescribed limits. The protection system must prevent the
compressor from operating under surge or stonewall
conditions. Surge and stonewall are damaging conditions, and
they are discussed in more detail later in this module.
Unlike the control and protection systems of a dynamic
compressor, a positive-displacement compressor cannot selfregulate capacity against a given discharge pressure; the
compressor, because its characteristic is constant volume, will
simply continue to displace gas until it receives a signal not to
do so. As a result, various methods of changing the volume
flow must be used. Because each rotation or stroke of the
compression elements will displace a given volume of flow in
the discharge system, protection of all positive-displacement
compressors requires a device to limit discharge pressure.
Because the volume of the discharge system is fixed, the
discharge pressure will continue to rise.
Compressors
DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Dynamic compressor controls can vary from the very basic
manual recycle control to elaborate ratio controllers. In
accordance with SAES-K-402, the control system must be
adequate to control the compressor at all specified operating
conditions. The driver characteristics, the process response,
and the compressor operating range must be determined
before the type of controls are chosen. Control systems for
dynamic compressors that are used at Saudi Aramco facilities
vary in their method of control. Control and protection systems
for dynamic compressors have fundamentally only two
functions to accomplish:
To provide stable control of the compressor at all of the
required operating conditions that are specified on the data
sheet.
To provide protection against operation in the surge area of
the performance curve.
Anti-surge control is part of the compressor protection system
that is discussed later in this module.
Dynamic compressor control systems are designed to maintain
a desired pressure to a process or a desired flow to a process.
Where the process operation may result in variations in either
or both compressor flow and discharge pressure, manipulation
of the compressor suction pressure may be required for
upstream stability of the process. For example, on a variable
speed controlled compressor, the governor would receive a
compressor suction pressure signal that would initiate a speed
increase upon an increase of suction pressure. A speed
increase would increase the compressor flow and probably the
discharge pressure. The reverse would occur if the suction
pressure decreased and the speed also decreased.
Multiple control systems may be applied to a system and
selected through the use of an auto-selector control. An autoselector controller receives inputs, such as flow, suction
pressure and discharge pressure, from more than one sensor.
The controller automatically selects, as the controlled variable,
the input variable that is closest to its desired limit value.
Compressors
The head-capacity control methods (in order of decreasing

efficiency) that are most commonly used for pressure control
and flow control are as follows:
Speed control
Adjustable inlet guide vanes (IGV) or adjustable diffuser
vanes
Suction throttling (STV)
Discharge throttling (DTV)
Blow-off
Recycle
Pressure Control
Pressure control is accomplished through modulation of a
performance control element. Process pressure is monitored,
and a signal from a pressure transmitter is sent to the pressure
controller. The pressure controller adjusts the control element,
which might be a guide vane positioner, a suction or discharge
control valve, or a rotational speed governor. The control
element would operate to maintain the process pressure at a
setpoint value.
Variable-Speed
Constant
Pressure Control
The most efficient way to match the compressor characteristic
to the required output is to change speed in accordance with
the fan laws. This variable-speed operation is most easily
accomplished through use of steam turbines, gas turbines, or
variable-speed (frequency) electric motors as drivers for
compressors. With such drivers, the speed can be manually
controlled through adjustment of the speed controller by an
operator, or the speed adjustment can be made automatically
through use of a pneumatic or electric controller that changes
the speed in response to a pressure or flow signal. Because
the only energy required by the process is provided by the
compressor without the use of throttling devices, variablespeed control is the most efficient method of control. The
operating speed range of the driver must match or exceed the
Compressors
operating speed range of the compressor.

Figure 1 shows a typical variable-speed constant-pressure
control system for a steam turbine driven compressor, and it
also shows the associated characteristic curves. The
characteristic curves shown in Figure 1 assume a constant inlet
pressure (P1), inlet temperature (T1), and gas composition.
Each curve shows the pressure at which the compressor
supplies a certain volume rate of flow (Q) for a given speed. If
the compressor discharge pressure required by the process
exceeds the maximum pressure the compressor can produce
for a given speed, compressor surge will occur. The surge line
on the graph indicates the limit of minimum flow.
Figure 1. Variable-Speed Constant-Pressure Control System

and Characteristic Curves
Compressors
If the compressor is operating at the constant pressure point, Y

(flow rate Qy), and if the process requires a higher gas flow, the
discharge pressure immediately falls and the operating point
moves to the right and downward along the characteristic curve
for the given speed. The pressure transmitter will sense the
lowering pressure, and the pressure controller will send a
control signal to the turbine governor. The governor will
increase the speed of the compressor (through an increase in
turbine speed), which results in an increase in the system
pressure back to the pressure setpoint. The new operating
point would be located on the desired pressure line but further
to the right.
If the process required less gas flow, the discharge pressure
would begin to increase and the control system would
decrease the speed of the compressor (through a decrease in
turbine speed) until the pressure setpoint is restored. The flow
could be reduced until point X was reached. Point X is set at
the minimum operating point before the surge line (surge
control line). Anti-surge controls, which are discussed later in
this module, will prevent the operating point from moving to the
left of point X on each speed curve. If the process required a
flow rate of only point Z, the volume of gas (Qx - Qz) would
have to be blown off or recycled. The operating control would
have to be shifted from variable-speed control to blow-off
control, which is the only control that is available when the
process requires flows that are below the stable operating
range. Blow-off control is discussed later in this module.
Adjustable Inlet
Guide Vane Constant
Pressure Control
Inlet guide vanes evenly distribute the inlet flow to the
compressor stage impellers. Adjustable inlet vanes are built
into the inlet of the first stage, or succeeding stages of axial
compressors, and they can be automatically or manually
controlled through a linkage mechanism. Adjustable guide
vanes are used for the control of axial and single-stage
centrifugal compressors. Single-stage compressors frequently
incorporate an axial inlet, and they do not require fixed guide
vanes.
Pre-rotation adjustable guide vanes pre-whirl the gas that
enters the compressor stage in the direction of rotation, which
Compressors
develops less head than at design. Between full open and

maximum pre-whirl position, adjustable guide vanes provide
some degree of reduced horsepower over the suction throttling
valve.
Counter-rotation adjustable guide vanes are used to extend the
useful operating range of any dynamic compressor. The range
of operation is extended through a change of the angle of
attack and the inlet gas velocity to the impeller blade. For the
high flow region, the angle of attack is increased to eliminate
flow separation and to effect an increase in the produced head
of the impeller or blade. The elimination of flow separation and
an increase in the produced head will increase the capacity
range of the impeller.
Adjustable inlet guide vanes are expensive, limited in
effectiveness, and present many maintenance and operational
problems. At Saudi Aramco, centrifugal compressor adjustable
inlet guide vanes have proven to be mechanically unreliable in
general services; therefore, prior to control selection, the
economics of inlet guide vanes must be considered because of
their higher initial cost, complex mechanism, maintenance, and
requirement for frequent adjustment. Adjustable inlet guide
vanes should not be used on process centrifugal compressors,
and they should never be used in any sour gas service. Saudi
Aramco primarily uses adjustable inlet guide vanes for axial
and single-stage centrifugal air compressors.
Figure 2 shows a typical adjustable inlet guide vane constant
pressure control system, and it also shows the associated
characteristic curves for a constant speed compressor.
Compressors
Figure 2. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control System

The control element is the compressor guide vane mechanism.
The guide vanes are adjusted through use of a positioning
cylinder. This cylinder is operated by a servo-valve (SRV) that
receives a signal from the pressure controller.
If the compressor is operating at flow rate Qy and if the process
requires an increase in flow, the discharge pressure
immediately falls, and the operating point moves to the right
10
Compressors
and downward along the characteristic curve for the given inlet
guide vane (IGV) position. The pressure transmitter (PT) will
sense the lowering pressure, and the pressure controller (PC)
will send a control signal to the SRV. The SRV will open the
inlet guide vanes, which increases both the gas flow through
the compressor and the system pressure back to the pressure
setpoint. The new operating point would be located on the
desired pressure line but further to the right (point W).
If the process required less gas flow, the discharge pressure
would begin to increase and the control system would close the
inlet guide vanes, which decreases the gas flow through the
compressor until the pressure setpoint is reached. The flow
could be reduced until point X was reached. Point X is set at
the minimum operating point before the surge line. Anti-surge
controls, which are discussed later in this module, will prevent
the operating point from moving to the left on each inlet guide
vane position curve similar to point X. Like the variable-speed
constant pressure control, if the process required a flow rate of
point Z, the volume of gas (Qx - Qz) would have to be blown off
or recycled. The operating control would have to be shifted
from adjustable inlet guide vane control to blow-off control.
Suction Throttling
Constant Pressure
Control
Suction throttling control, which is also known as intake
throttling or capacity modulation control, is usually used in
situations in which the compressor is not equipped with inlet
guide vanes and is driven by a constant-speed drive. Suction
throttling is more efficient than discharge throttling by
approximately 3 to 5%. This control is also applied in plant and
instrument air compressor systems when the demand for air is
relatively constant. The system usually includes a large air
receiver, which allows large volume draws to affect major
pressure changes in the receiver pressure so that the air
compressor can modulate the flow with relatively small
pressure variations.
Compressors with this type of control system have a single
pressure-volume characteristic curve. Figure 3 shows a typical
suction throttling constant pressure control system, and it also
shows the associated characteristic curves for a constantspeed compressor.
11
Compressors
Figure 3. Suction Throttling Constant-Pressure Control System

The suction throttle valve (STV) is normally included as part of
the compressor package. Starting the system, especially with
a motor driver, with the suction throttle closed and the
discharge anti-surge vent valve open, will develop a vacuum on
the inlet to the impellers. Although this type of startup reduces
the motor starting torque and the horsepower requirements, it
must be avoided. SAES-K-402 states that suction throttling
must not result in subatmospheric pressure and risk of air
ingestion into the process streams. Starting torque is not
critical with a steam turbine driver, where the compressor
12
Compressors
package will be brought up to speed much slower. The

discharge anti-surge vent valve will still be open, however, for
turbine startup.
Suction throttling should be used when compressor flow and/or
discharge pressure may vary as required by the process. The
suction throttling valve may receive actuation signals from the
flow sensing device, from discharge pressure, or from suction
pressure upstream of the suction throttling valve.
If the compressor process is equipped with a recycle system,
the suction throttle valve is located upstream of both the
suction knockout drum and the anti-surge recycle return line.
The preferred location of the recycle return line is upstream of
the knockout drum. Such a location ensures good mixing of
the recycle stream with the main suction stream prior to
reaching the compressor. The preferred location of the suction
throttle valve is close to the compressor suction.
When electric motors are used as constant speed drivers, the
centrifugal compressor is normally controlled through use of a
suction throttling valve. Butterfly valves are typically used as
suction throttling valves because they minimize flow
disturbance. Throttling the suction results in a slightly lower
suction pressure than the pressure for which the machine is
designed and, therefore, a higher total head is required if the
discharge pressure must remain constant. The increase in
total head can be matched to the compressor head-capacity
curve, i.e., higher head at reduced flow. In throttling the inlet,
the density of the gas is reduced, which results in a matching of
the required weight flow to the compressor inlet-volume
capabilities at other points on the head/capacity curve.
In the control system that is shown in Figure 3, the value of
pressure is sensed by the pressure transmitter (PT). The
pressure transmitter converts this signal to a signal that is
proportional to the process pressure, and it sends a signal to
the pressure controller (PC). The pressure controller amplifies
the transmitter signal and sends a modified signal to the control
element. Depending on system requirements, the controller
may require additional correction factors, which are called reset
and rate. The control element is a suction throttle valve (STV)
that reduces the flow of gas into the compressor.
If the compressor is operating at point W on its unthrottled
13
Compressors
characteristic curve and if there is a reduction in the process

flow requirements, the pressure would increase to Y1 on the
unthrottled characteristic curve. The increase in pressure
would be sensed by the pressure transmitter, and a control
signal would be sent by the pressure controller to the STV to
modulate the valve. By throttling across the STV, the inlet
pressure can be reduced, and, although the compressor is
operating at the pressure ratio and volume of point Y1, the
discharge pressure and volume flow to the process will be
equivalent to point Y. To further explain the operation, the
following example, which assumes that the STV is fully open,
should be considered:
Qw = 100%,
P3
= 2.0
P 1w
Qy1 = 80%,
P3 1
Y = 2.1
P1
Inlet pressure P1 = 14.7 psia = P2 (No throttling)

Desired P3 = 29.4 psia
The compressor pressure ratio with 80% flow is 2.10. At
(P3/P1)Y1, the pressure ratio is 2.10. To maintain the discharge
pressure of 29.4 psia, the inlet pressure (P2) must be reduced
to 14.0 psia (29.4/2.10). The volume to the compressor Y1 (at
pressure P2) is 80%, but the equivalent volume Y (at pressure
P1) is less than the ratio of 80% x (14.0/14.7), or 76.3%, which
is the actual volume at pressure P1 that is delivered to the
process.
Anti-surge controls, which are discussed later in this module,
will prevent the operating point from moving to the left past
point X. Like the variable-speed constant-pressure control, if
the process required a flow rate of point Z, the excess flow
would need to be blown off or recycled.
Discharge Throttling
Constant Pressure
Control
Discharge pressure throttling for constant pressure is less
efficient than suction throttling; however, it may be more
economical from the standpoint of requiring a smaller throttling
valve and flanges. The discharge throttling valve is located
14
Compressors
downstream of the anti-surge recycle supply line. If a main

discharge aftercooler is used to cool the recycle gas, then the
throttle valve is located downstream of this cooler, which may
be a considerable distance from the compressor. If the recycle
gas has a dedicated cooler, then the throttle valve can be
located upstream of the aftercooler.
As with suction throttling, only one pressure-volume
characteristic curve is associated with discharge throttling for a
constant-speed compressor. Figure 4 shows a typical
discharge throttling constant pressure control system and the
associated characteristic curves for a constant-speed
compressor. Pressure control is maintained by throttling the
actual compressor discharge pressure to the desired setpoint
along the characteristic curve. Discharge throttling requires
more power than suction throttling for the same flow. For
example, if the process requires 80% flow with discharge
throttling, the compressor must operate at Y1, and the gas must
be throttled to the desired pressure. A comparison of this
scenario with suction throttling shows that the compressor
would operate at W1 with a lower pressure ratio. The actual
inlet volume to the compressor would be higher with suction
throttling, but the weight flow to the process is the same.
Because the pressure ratio is lower with suction throttling than
with the same conditions with discharge throttling, the
horsepower that is required for suction throttling would be
lower. The example shows that the advantage of suction
throttling depends on the shape of the dynamic compressor
curve. The steeper the curve, the greater the advantage. If the
characteristic curve is a flat, horizontal line, there is no
advantage to suction throttling.
15
Compressors
Figure 4. Discharge Throttling, Constant-Pressure Control System

16
Compressors
Blow-Off (Recycle)
Constant Pressure
Control
Blow-off constant-pressure control is the least efficient method
of control, and it is used to extend control range with only the
more efficient control methods. As previously shown in Figure
4, if only blow-off control is used, the compressor would always
operate at point W, regardless of the process requirements.
The difference in flow between the process requirements and
QW would have to be blown off, and all of the work expended
on the extra flow would be wasted. For flows that are less than
the surge limit, blow-off (recycle) control must be used. This
type of control is typically used as a protection device only,
and, in particular, it is used for anti-surge control.
Flow Control
Flow control can be accomplished with the same head-capacity
control methods as pressure control. In a flow control system,
a flow transmitter (FT) senses the process flow, converts the
signal to a signal proportional to the process flow, and sends
the signal to the flow controller (FC). The flow controller
amplifies the transmitter signal and sends a modified signal to
the control element.
Variable-Speed
Constant Flow
Control
Figure 5 shows a typical variable-speed constant-flow control
system, and it also shows the associated characteristic curve.
The characteristic curve is highlighted with the constant flow
requirements. If the compressor is operating at point Y and the
head required increases, the operating point will move up and
left along the specific speed characteristic curve as the flow
decreases. The flow transmitter will sense the decrease in
flow, and the flow controller will send a proportional signal to
the turbine governor. The governor will increase the speed of
the compressor (through an increase in turbine speed), and it
will increase the system flow back to the flow setpoint at the
higher resistance. The new operating point, Y1, would be
located on the desired flow line but at a higher pressure. The
opposite reaction will occur if process resistance decreases
17
Compressors
with subsequent flow increase: the compressor speed will be

reduced. Any desired flow may be chosen and controlled
within the shaded area of the curve. If the compressor has a
flow-oriented anti-surge control system, the flow transmitter and
controller that are used for system control can be the same as
what is used in the anti-surge system. Once the system
operating requirements fall within or to the left of the surge line,
the anti-surge protection system takes over and flow control of
the process is lost. If flow control were required in the area that
is located to the left of the surge line, separate flow transmitters
and controllers would be required: one flow transmitter and
controller to serve the process control and the other flow
transmitter and control to serve the anti-surge system.
Figure 5. Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System
18
Compressors
and Characteristic Curve

An alternate variable-speed constant-flow control system
configuration is shown in Figure 6. In this arrangement, the
flow element (FE) is located at the compressor suction. The
operation of this system is identical to the operation on the
control system that was previously shown in Figure 5.
Figure 6. Alternate Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System Configuration
Adjustable Inlet
Guide Vane Constant
Flow Control
Figure 7 shows two, typical, adjustable, inlet guide vane,
constant-flow control systems and it also shows the associated
characteristic curves for a constant-speed compressor. One
control system measures flow on the discharge of the
compressor, and the other control system measures flow on
the compressor inlet.
The control element is the compressor guide vane mechanism.
The guide vanes are adjusted through the use of a positioning
cylinder. This cylinder is operated by a servo-valve (SRV) that
receives a signal from the flow controller.
If the compressor is operating at point Y and if the process
resistance decreases, the flow will begin to increase, and the
operating point moves to the right and downward along the
characteristic curve for the given inlet guide vane position. The
flow transmitter will sense the increase in flow, and it will send
a signal proportional to this increase to the controller. The flow
19
Compressors
controller will then send a control signal that is to the SRV. The
SRV will reposition the inlet guide vanes to a greater prerotation vane angle, which decreases gas flow through the
compressor back to the desired flow setpoint. The new
operating point, Y1, would be located on the desired flow line
but at a lower pressure. The desired flow setpoint can be
anywhere to the right and below the surge line. Like the other
control systems that are discussed in this module, operation in
the surge region is controlled through the use of the anti-surge
control system.
Figure 7. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant-Flow Control System

20
Compressors
Suction Throttling
Constant Flow
Control
Suction throttling constant flow control operates very similarly
to the suction throttling constant pressure control. Figure 8
shows a typical suction throttling constant flow control system,
and it also shows the associated characteristic curve.
If the compressor is operating at point W on its unthrottled
characteristic curve and if there is a reduction in the head
required, the flow would increase to Y1 on the unthrottled
characteristic curve. The increase in flow would be sensed by
the flow transmitter, which would send a corresponding signal
to the flow controller, which would then send the required
control signal to the STV to modulate the valve. The STV will
modulate until the desired flow, Y, is reached. The pressure
ratio at the compressor flanges for points W and Y is equal
because the compressor suction pressure (after the throttle
valve) is reduced to satisfy the flow setpoint.
Figure 8. Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control System

and Characteristic Curve
21
Compressors
Discharge Throttling
Constant Flow
Control
Constant flow control can be accomplished with discharge
throttling; however, as with the discharge throttling constant
pressure control system, it is less efficient and it requires more
power for the same flow than suction throttling. In Figure 8, if
the compressor is operating at point W and if a reduction in
process resistance occurs, the flow will increase toward Y1 until
the process resistance is matched. The control system senses
the increase in flow, and it modulates the discharge valve to
reduce flow and force the compressors operating point back
up along the characteristic curve to point W. With discharge
throttling, the compressor will operate at a maximum power
level, regardless of the process resistance.
Blow-Off Constant
Flow Control
As with blow-off constant pressure control, blow-off constant
flow control is only used to extend the operating range and as
anti-surge protection for the more efficient control methods. In
Figure 8, the compressor will always operate at point W with
blow-off control. If the operating point for the required flow is
point Z, the flow QW - QZ will be blown off, and all the work
done on the excess flow will thereby be wasted.
22
Compressors
DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The purpose of a protection system, as it pertains to this
module, is to prevent equipment from operating under
damaging conditions. When a monitored process variable
approaches a value that could cause damage to the
equipment, the protection system takes action either to restore
the variable to an acceptable value or to shut down the affected
equipment. One of the main functions of a dynamic
compressor protection system is to provide protection against
operation in the surge area of the performance curve.
Compressor surge is a large pressure and flow fluctuation that
occurs when the compressor is operated at a higher pressure
ratio than the design maximum. Surge typically occurs below
50% to 70% of the rated flow through the compressor,
however, the surge limit can be reached from a stable
operating point through a reduction in flow, a reduction in gas
density, a decrease in suction pressure, or an increase in
discharge pressure. An anti-surge system senses conditions
approaching surge, and it maintains the compressor pressure
ratio below the surge limit by recycling some of the discharge
flow to the compressor suction. Because of the heat that is
generated by compression, a method of cooling the recycled
gas flow must be used to prevent overheating of the
compressor.
In addition to preventing compressor surge, dynamic
compressor protection systems may include controls to prevent
stonewall. For a constant speed compressor with fixed suction
conditions, a decrease in process resistance or an increase in
gas density will cause the operating point to move along the
performance curve to the right, eventually reaching a point of
maximum flow and minimum head. Beyond this point, a further
reduction in the process resistance or an increase in gas
density will not increase the flow rate. This point is referred to
as the choke point or stonewall. Stonewall is not particularly
damaging to single-stage centrifugal compressors, but it can
affect the rotors and blades of multi-stage centrifugal and axial
compressors. To maintain a suitable process resistance and to
prevent compressor stonewall, an anti-choke controller may be
used to operate an anti-choke control valve. An anti-choke
controller is not usually required because most process
systems provide sufficient resistance to prevent choke.
23
Compressors
Dynamic compressor protection systems vary subtly across the

variety of available compressor types. Anti-surge protection
control systems may utilize a pressure control system, a flow
control system, or a combination of both pressure and flow.
Surge Protection
Every centrifugal or axial compressor has (at a given rotational
speed and at given inlet conditions) a characteristic
combination of maximum head and minimum flow beyond
which it will surge. Prevention of this damaging phenomenon
is one of the most important tasks of a dynamic compressor
control and protection system.
The purpose of the surge system is to prevent the low velocity
gas (low flow) from entering the compressor. Surging is an
operating condition that is caused by stall in the compressors
impeller, stator, or diffusers. Stall is described as flow
separation that results from low gas velocities. When a
compressor experiences stall, the energy that is produced by
the compressor (head) decreases. The result is backflow
through the compressor from the process, which is known as
surge. The following are some of the many harmful effects of
surge that can damage the compressor:
Rapidly rising temperature

Flow fluctuations
Pressure fluctuations
Speed fluctuations
Excessive thrust
Surge can be severely damaging to a compressor and can
even cause catastrophic failure. Protection systems are
installed that will trip the compressor and cause an emergency
shutdown if any of these effects are detected. The function of
the surge system is to continuously monitor the compressor
operating point and to open the surge control valve before the
compressor surges. Surge control is effected through use of
the following methods:
An increase in the throughput flow.

A decrease in the required head.
An increase in the compressor speed.
24
Compressors
All three methods will cause the operating point to move down
and/or to the right of the operating curve, away from the surge
control line. Because surge conditions can be defined by inlet
pressure, discharge pressure, inlet temperature, speed,
compressibility, and molecular weights, surge control systems
can monitor a variety of variables to determine whether a
compressor surge condition is imminent. Typical surge control
systems use flow, pressure, differential pressure, density,
differential temperature, and motor power, or combinations of
these parameters.
The most dependable and widely used method of surge control
is an increase in the throughput of the compressor by opening
the surge control valve. The surge control valve is essentially a
bypass valve that either recycles gas around the compressor or
blows the excess gas off to the atmosphere. Opening the
surge control valve will reduce the process system resistance
and allow the compressor to operate at a flow rate high enough
to that will prevent surge; however, because bypassing or
venting of the gas wastes power, surge flow should be
determined as accurately as possible to avoid unnecessary
bypassing or venting while maintaining safe compressor
operation. The surge control setpoint is usually 5 to 10% from
the actual surge line.
Flow Systems
A basic, volume-controlled, anti-surge system for compressors
with constant speed drivers and constant inlet conditions is
shown in Figure 9. The flow transmitter (FT) senses the
process flow through use of an orifice or venturi that serves as
the primary flow element (FE). The FT produces a signal that
is proportional to the process flow, and it sends the signal to
the surge controller (SC).
The surge controller compares the transmitted signal to its
setpoint signal. If the setpoint signal is exceeded, the surge
controller sends a signal to the surge control valve (SCV). The
SCV releases the pressure buildup at the discharge of the
compressor in response to the demands of the surge controller.
The discharge of the SCV is directed to a flare on an open
suction compressor, and back to the compressor suction
through a cooler, or, for air compressors, to the atmosphere
through a silencer.
25
Compressors
As flow decreases to less than the minimum volume setpoint, a

signal from the surge controller will cause the surge control
valve to modulate to keep a minimum volume flowing through
the compressor.
Figure 9. Basic, Volume-Controlled, Anti-Surge System
26
Compressors
Surge Control on a
Constant-Speed
Compressor with
Suction Throttling
A typical compressor installation is a plant and instrument air
compressor that is driven by a constant-speed electric motor.
The compressor is required to maintain a constant pressure in
the discharge piping header. Figure 10 shows a typical
capacity and surge control system, and it also shows the
associated performance curve for a constant speed
compressor with suction-throttling. In this scenario, the
pressure transmitter (PT) and the pressure controller (PC)
maintain a constant discharge pressure by throttling the suction
valve. A flow transmitter (FT) and a surge controller (SC) are
used to measure the gas flow through the compressor. The
operation of the system is identical to the operation of the
suction-throttling, constant-pressure control system that was
previously discussed. As system demand decreases, the
suction throttle valve will throttle close, which decreases flow
through the compressor. The decrease in flow through the
compressor is sensed by means of the inlet flow transmitter.
As the compressor gas flow approaches the surge control
point, the surge controller will modulate the surge control valve
and vent the excess gas flow. As a result of the venting (or
recycle), the discharge pressure will decrease due to the
throttling of the suction throttle valve. The PC will signal the
suction throttle valve to open slightly in order to maintain the
system pressure. The pressure and the surge controller react
independently from each other, but they will seek a balance of
maintaining system pressure while maintaining minimum
compressor gas flow.
27
Compressors
Figure 10. Typical Capacity and Surge Control System and the Associated
Performance Curve for a Constant-Speed Compressor with Suction Throttling
28
Compressors
Constant speed dictates that the compressor will always follow

the performance curve. A point can be selected on the
performance curve at a predetermined distance from the surge
curve at which the surge control valve will modulate and
prevent compressor flow from decreasing past that point. The
surge control point will be the setpoint for the surge controller.
As discussed in previous modules, the performance and surge
curves are not single lines, but they will move with inlet
(ambient) pressure, temperature, and molecular weight, as
shown in Figure 11. The air compressor for the compressor
map that is shown in Figure 11 must provide 220 psig to the
discharge header with the mass air flow delivered at the
controlled pressure varying with the suction pressure and
temperature (assuming constant molecular weight). The
suction pressure will vary with the throttling of the inlet throttle
valve. Temperature will vary with the change from summer to
winter or with changes in the installation facility ambient
temperature. The operation of the compressor will change
from performance curve to performance curve with the
pressure and temperature changes. Each performance curve
will have its own surge curve or surge point for a single-speed
machine. The point of convergence of the surge curves is
shown in Figure 11 as the expected surge line.
29
Compressors
Figure 11. Performance and Surge Lines with Changes in Ambient Conditions
30
Compressors
Surge control systems can be designed to use compressor

discharge pressure to compensate for the changes in the surge
point. Figure 12 shows a pressure-compensated surge control
system.
Figure 12. Pressure-Compensated Surge Control System

This surge control system operates in the same manner as the
surge control system that was shown previously in Figure 10
with the exception of the pressure compensation. The surge
control system summer () performs calculations through use
of the inlet flow (which will vary with changes in inlet conditions)
and the discharge pressure (which is a constant for a pressure
control system). A ratio relay (R) is used to set the pressure
signal gain and bias. The surge control system summer
provides a compensated measured variable (inlet flow) to the
surge controller to compensate for the different inlet conditions.
Another option to compensate for the changes in the surge
point is through use of suction flow rate, temperature, and
pressure sensors to provide the necessary values to calculate
the actual cubic feet per minute flow rate that enters the
compressor. Calculation of the actual cubic feet per minute is
typically performed when the compressed gas molecular weight
is fairly constant. If the compressed gas molecular weight
31
Compressors
varies significantly, a density transmitter, which is located on

the compressor inlet, is used to compensate the surge control
system for changes in inlet conditions. A density transmitter is
a pressure transmitter configured to translate a pressure signal
for density.
Because of the following reasons, flow measurement in the
discharge of the compressor is often preferable to flow
measurement at the compressor suction:
The pressure gradient in the suction is too small to achieve

a reliable flow signal.
Flowmeter permanent pressure loss is not as objectionable
in the discharge header.
The inlet pipe diameter is so large that the required straight
run of piping that is needed for accurate flow measurement
would not be practicable.
A discharge flow measurement is already required for
process reasons.
Compressor discharge flow rate must be corrected for inlet
conditions for use in the surge control system, which is shown
in Figure 13. The configuration in Figure 13 is based on the
measurement of mass flow in the discharge and the fact that
mass flow into the compressor equals mass flow out of the
compressor. The discharge flow is compensated to mass flow,
and the mass flow is compensated to inlet volumetric
conditions.
32
Compressors
Figure 13. Discharge Mass Flow Rate Measurement Compensated

to Inlet Volumetric Flow Rate
Variable-Speed
Compressor Based
on Delta Pressure
and Flow
Figure 14 shows a typical configuration for a surge control
system on a variable-speed compressor that is based on the
pressure difference across the compressor and the gas flow
rate. This system can be designed for constant flow or
constant pressure control for normal operation. The speed
transmitter (XT) and the flow transmitter (FT) or the high
pressure side (discharge) signal of the differential pressure
transmitter (DPT) can be used as setpoint to the variable-speed
controller (XIC). For the surge system, the FT provides the
measured variable. The compensated compressor pressure
signal is provided by the DPT. Together, FT and DPT define
the operating point or the input to the surge controller. As the
operating point approaches the surge control point, the surge
controller will open the surge control valve to maintain the
required protection flow through the compressor.
33
Compressors
Figure 14. Surge Control System for a Variable-Speed Compressor Based on

Differential Pressure and Gas Flow Rate
Variable-Speed
Multisection
Compressors
Centrifugal compressors that use multiple sections that are
equipped with an interstage cooler capable of accommodating
gas removal or addition between the sections can be described
as two separate compressors that perform different duties but
that are driven by a single shaft. Each section of the
compressor has its own set of performance curves and its own
surge line. Figure 15 shows a basic, multisection, variablespeed compressor with an anti-surge valve that protects the
34
Compressors
entire compressor. The system that is shown in Figure 15 is

only suitable if the process gas does not contain any
constituents that will condense at compressor section 1
discharge conditions. If the process gas contains constituents
that will condense at compressor section 1 discharge
conditions, condensate will be drained from the intercooler, and
the molecular weight to the second section will change. In this
case, a separate surge protection system must be used for
each compressor section.
Figure 15. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with Surge Control Valve

that Protects the Entire Compressor
Figure 16 shows the performance curve and surge line for each
section of the compressor. The operation of this surge control
system is identical to the surge control for a variable-speed
35
Compressors
compressor based on delta pressure and flow, with the

exception that the differential pressure is measured across the
two sections.
Figure 16. Performance Curves and Surge Line for Each Section of a
Multisection Compressor
36
Compressors
Multisection compressor anti-surge control systems are

typically designed for compatibility of the sections at 100%
speed. Because the sections are different, manipulation of the
speed to accommodate changes in one section will affect the
other section and possibly place that section in a surge
condition. Surge control on multisection compressors must be
more stringent than surge control of a single section
compressor. Frequently, a separate surge control system is
required on each section to protect that section from surge, as
shown in Figure 17.
The surge control system for each section of the compressor
operates like the surge control for a variable-speed compressor
based on delta pressure and flow, but each sections surge
control system operates independently to prevent a surge
condition in each section.
Figure 17. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with

a Surge Control Valve for Each Section
37
Compressors
The mismatch in pumping capacities among the compressor

sections at lower speeds will occasionally result in a surge
condition in the first compressor section during compressor
startup. During startup, the first section will not have reached
the design pressure ratio, and the density of the gas that enters
the second section will be less than the density for which the
section is designed. Although the second stage is pumping the
expected volumetric flow, it is not pumping away the expected
mass flow rate. For this reason, volumetric flow through the
first section is less than expected, which results in a surge
condition. If the surge in the first section is severe enough to
cause damage, a remotely operated valve (H) can be installed
in a recycle around the first section, as shown in Figure 18.
During a startup, the remotely operated control valve is opened
to recycle the first section gas back to the suction. A recycle
cooler cools the recycled gas to prevent overheating in the first
section. When the compressor is up to speed, the remotely
operated control valve is gradually closed, and it is then left
closed during normal operation. In multistage compressors
that have a surge control valve for each section, the surge
controller for the first compressor section may have a manual
function mode, which would eliminate the need for a separate
remotely operated control valve.
38
Compressors
Figure 18. Multisection, Variable-Speed Compressor with Remotely Operated

Control on the First Section
It is good engineering practice to require that all automatic antisurge control systems be equipped with a manual override.
System Arrangements
Multiple compressor systems are assembled with either seriesor parallel-connected dynamic compressors. Compressors that
are connected in series provide the higher pressures that are
required in some petrochemical applications. Compressors
that are connected in parallel provide higher flow rates at the
same pressure, and the configuration provides greater
rangeability and reliability.
39
Compressors
The number of variables to be considered increases

dramatically with the number of compressors in the
configuration. As previously mentioned in this module,
compressor control and protection systems for single
compressors have two objectives: to provide stable control of
the compressor at all required operating conditions and to
provide protection against operation in the surge area of the
performance curve. Multiple compressor systems have two
more objectives: to balance the load among dissimilar
compressors and to safely start up and shut down the
compressors.
Series
Several surge control system designs are available for
compressors that are installed in series. One design calls for a
complete surge control system for each compressor or
compressor section, as shown in Figure 19. This system uses
a constant pressure controller that senses the final discharge
header pressure and that controls the suction throttle valve to
maintain capacity control. The surge control system on the first
compressor uses the discharge flow rate, the pressure, and the
temperature for a mass flow and discharge pressure system.
The surge controller measurement is a compensated flow
signal, and the setpoint is a biased discharge pressure signal.
The first surge control valve releases to flare or recycles
through a cooler (not shown) back to the compressor suction.
The second compressor surge control system uses an inlet
flow and the differential pressure across the compressor as
variables to the surge controller. When the second compressor
surge control system actuates, the discharge from the second
compressor is recycled back to the compressor suction.
Typical installations have the recycle line installed after the gas
cooler (not shown) and the return line connected upstream of
the suction knockout drum (not shown). This arrangement
allows the gas and compressor temperature to be maintained
by means of a single heat exchanger. In some cases, a
separate recycle heat exchanger (not shown) is used. Each
surge controller operates independently of the other; however,
the action of each surge controller will directly affect the
operation of the other surge control system because the
parameters that are measured on the compressor systems are
affected by each compressors operation.
40
Compressors
Figure 19. Typical Surge Control System for Compressors in Series

To minimize conflicting control problems, an integrated surge
control system is used. Figure 20 shows a typical integrated
surge control system for two compressors in series. Like the
control system that was shown in Figure 19, both compressors
have an independent surge control system. Both compressors
that are shown in Figure 20 use compressor differential
pressure and inlet flow as process variables for the surge
control system. Conflicting interaction between the two surge
control systems is minimized through transmission of the
41
Compressors
changes in output of any one surge controller to the other

surge controller. Each surge controller uses this information to
protect its own compressor (or section) from surge.
Figure 20. Integrated Surge Control System for Compressors in Series
42
Compressors
Parallel
When two or more centrifugal compressors operate in parallel
and discharge into a common header line, a method of
controlling each compressor independently must be provided.
Parallel compressors should have identical characteristics, but
the compressors that are purchased with the same
specification data usually will not have identical characteristics.
Individual compressor operating characteristics vary due to
manufacturing and assembly tolerances, which would have
some effect on their individual performance; therefore, parallel
operation should have a single discharge pressure sensor in
the common header and a flow sensing device for each
compressor. A single controller would receive the common
pressure signal and the individual compressor flow signals, and
it would provide an output signal that would actuate the specific
control element for each compressor. Figure 21 shows a basic
pressure control system for constant-speed compressors that
are arranged in parallel.
43
Compressors
Figure 21. Discharge Pressure Control of Constant-Speed Parallel Compressors

with Dissimilar Operating Characteristics
The most effective parallel compressor operating strategy is to
simultaneously load and unload the compressors equally as
required. Simultaneous, equal loading and unloading will
improve the efficiency and rangeability of the parallel
compressor configuration. In some installations, the control
system should be set up so that the compressors in the parallel
system will sequentially load and unload. When the control
system is set up for sequential loading/unloading, the least
efficient compressor should be loaded last and unloaded first.
The control system for compressors in a parallel configuration
should unload the compressors so that all compressors in the
parallel system will reach their control lines simultaneously.
44
Compressors
The surge control system for compressors that operate in

parallel is more complex than the system for compressors that
operate in series. When two or more centrifugal compressors
operate in parallel, the greatest surge protection and efficiency
results from all compressors operating equidistant from their
respective surge control lines. The compressor and
instrumentation industries have adopted a criterion to measure
the angular distance between the operating point and the surge
control line. The criterion is known as the S-Criterion. The S
value is a dimensionless number that is relative. The absolute
value of the number has, therefore, no meaning; however,
compressors that have the same S number will be operating
equidistantly from their respective surge lines. A surge control
system that causes all of the S numbers to be equal will,
therefore, ensure that all compressors simultaneously
approach the surge control line.
The S-Criterion can be calculated through use of the following
equation:
S=
p c + b
p o
Where:
pc = The differential pressure across the

compressor
b
= The surge margin
po = The differential pressure across the flow

element
The S-Criterion will be less than 1 when the operating point is
safely away from surge, and it will be equal to 1 when the
operating point is on the surge line control line. Figure 22
shows a parallel compressor configuration with suction
pressure control, load sharing control based on the deviation of
the compressor operating point from the surge control line (S 1), and anti-surge control. The anti-surge controllers calculate
the S value for the compressors, and they monitor the
compressor parameters to detect the approach to surge
condition. The two load-sharing controllers, one for each
compressor, perform a calculation to ensure that all
compressors will simultaneously reach their surge lines.
45
Compressors
Figure 22. Control System that Uses the S-Criterion for Compressors
in Parallel Configuration
46
Compressors
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Unlike centrifugal compressors, positive-displacement
compressors cannot self-regulate capacity against a given
discharge pressure. A positive-displacement compressor will
simply keep displacing gas until indication is received to control
it otherwise. Capacity control for positive-displacement
compressors is usually accomplished in steps, either
automatically or manually, through the use of suction valve
unloaders, clearance pockets or slider valves, or a bypass
valve. These basic control system options for positivedisplacement compressors are used to maintain constant
suction pressure, constant discharge pressure, or a desired
flow rate through the compressor.
The control systems that are selected for use are dependent
upon the operating requirements of the compressor. Suction
valve unloading, which is the most commonly used, loads or
unloads cylinders. Clearance pockets are commonly used for
small capacity adjustment of cylinders with no power change;
however, when clearance pockets are used, they reduce
cylinder efficiency. Bypass valves are useful in placing a
compressor under load during a process system startup or
shutdown; however, because the energy of compression is
wasted, bypass valves do not provide an efficient method for
loading or unloading a compressor. Bypass valves may be
used in conjunction with unloaders or clearance pockets to
exactly obtain the desired capacity values. Variable-speed
control is not a preferred method for positive-displacement
process compressors because the use of variable-speed
control may result in problems with valve design and rod
reversal. Variable-speed control for positive-displacement
compressors will not be discussed in this module.
Valve Unloading
Suction valve unloaders, as shown in Figure 23, are the most
commonly used capacity control device. An unloader holds the
cylinder suction valve open during the suction and compression
piston strokes; so, suction gas is only pushed back and forth in
the cylinder. The cylinder continues to take in gas normally;
however, instead of completing the normal cycle of
compression and discharge, the cylinder will simply pump the
gas, still at suction pressure, back into the suction chamber via
47
Compressors
the open pathway. No gas is discharged to the process.

Additionally, because there is no occurrence of compression,
virtually no horsepower is consumed other than through
passageway losses.
Direct, manual operation of unloaders may be satisfactory for
simple one- or two- cylinder services in which the process does
not require automatic control and in which sufficient time for
operation is available. When automatic control is required, the
unloader is fitted with a piston or diaphragm. A signal from a
control device (either the air or the gas being processed)
depresses the diaphragm. The diaphragm is connected to
fingers that open the suction valve.
Figure 23. Suction Valve Unloader
48
Compressors
All valve unloader types can be manually operated, or they can

be actuated through use of a pneumatic cylinder. When
pneumatically actuated, these devices can be designed to load
or unload upon either application on removal of air pressure.
The advantages of pneumatic operation are the ability to
remotely control the capacity of the compressor or even to
automate the control.
In applications that use cylinder lubrication, the unloaders are
usually timed to prevent excessive accumulation of lube oil in
the cylinder. On double-acting cylinders, for example, after
approximately 30 minutes of operation, the head-end unloader
will briefly close, and the crank-end unloader will briefly open to
drain excessive oil.
Finger-type unloaders are shown in Figure 24. There are three
types of pneumatically operated finger-type unloaders: (a)
direct-acting (air-to-unload); (b) reverse-acting or fail-safe (airto-load), which automatically unloads the compressor in the
event of control air failure; and (c) manual operation.
The finger-type unloaders consist of a series of small fingers
that are housed in the valve crab assembly and that are
actuated through use of a push rod from an outside actuator.
To unload the valve, the fingers are lowered so that they
depress the valve-sealing components and hold the valve in
the open position. The pathway between the cylinder bore and
the gas passage is through these open suction valves. Fingertype unloaders will typically be mounted on each suction valve
so that the flow area of the unloaded pathway is maximized.
Also, because the fingers simply hold open the existing suction
valves, no special valve design is required. Actuation of fingertype unloaders can be manual (through the use of a handwheel
and screw or lever arrangement to lower the fingers) or
automatic (through the use of a small air cylinder on the top of
the unloader stem).
49
Compressors
Figure 24. Finger-Type Unloaders
50
Compressors
One of the major problems that is associated with finger-type

unloaders is the potential for damaging the valve-sealing
elements with the fingers. The force that is generated by
pneumatically actuated fingers, as they are driven down
against the valve-sealing components, can contribute to
premature valve failure.
In accordance with SAES-K-403 and in order to minimize
maintenance and to increase valve life, reduced unloader
pressure settings will be used whenever possible. Pressure
settings must be compatible with the ESD system set pressure,
which is determined by the minimum acceptable system
pressure that is required for safe plant operation. Pressure
settings must also provide sufficient receiver storage capacity
to allow startup of the standby compressor. Unloader controls
must be set to maintain a 100 kPa (ga; 15 psig) pressure
differential from loading to unloading. If air is used to operate
the unloader, external operators with a vent chamber between
the diaphragm and the vent packing are mandatory for
flammable gas service.
Manufacturers standard automatic control may be either on/off
or step unloading. On/off control is acceptable for small
process air or gas compressors in intermittent service, but the
driver must be sized for frequent on-load starting. Automatic or
manual step unloading may be accomplished through the use
of either suction valve unloaders, clearance pockets, or a
combination of both. Five-step unloading must provide
capacities of 100 percent, 75 percent, 50 percent, 25 percent,
and 0 percent; three-step unloading must provide capacities of
100 percent, 50 percent, and 0 percent; and two-step
unloading must provide capacities of 100 percent and 0
percent. If a cylinder is unloaded to 0 percent, special
precautions must be taken to prevent overheating in the
cylinder.
In general, suction valve unloading is an excellent method to
control capacity. The devices are simple and easy to maintain
and operate. Suction valve unloaders are efficient, and they
are very good for startup unloading so that starting torque
requirements are extremely low.
51
Compressors
Clearance Pockets
Clearance pockets, which are shown in Figure 25, are pockets
or reservoirs that are attached to the cylinders. For reduced
capacity operation, the clearance pocket valve is opened, and
the cylinder capacity is reduced by the effect of this added
clearance on the volumetric efficiency. The gas is compressed
into the pockets on the compression stroke, and the gas
expands into the cylinder on the suction stroke to reduce the
intake of additional gas. Clearance pockets provide an
additional volume to the fixed clearance volume of a cylinder.
This additional volume reduces the amount of gas that is
introduced during the suction stroke of the piston. The
reduction of the amount of gas that is introduced results in a
reduced capacity of the compressor.
Figure 25. Clearance Pockets

52
Compressors
The gas in the volume at the end of the compression stroke is

at the elevated discharge pressure. During the suction stroke
of the piston, the volume expands in the cylinder to a pressure
that is lower than the suction pressure to the particular cylinder.
The expansion volume is constant for any cylinder with a
constant stroke length; therefore, if additional volume of highpressure clearance gas is available due to the clearance
pocket, the pressure level of the expanded gas at the end of
the suction stroke will be higher. Higher pressure results in
less suction pressure gas being introduced into the cylinder
and in a reduction in the compressor capacity.
The cylinder volume increased by the clearance pockets does
not have an effect on the power that is required for the
compression stroke. The cylinder pressure at the beginning
and end of the compression stroke is the same, and the stroke
volume remains unchanged. Clearance pockets are usually of
a fixed volume, and they are sized to reduce flow precisely to a
predetermined level. Typically, the use of multiple fixed-volume
clearance pockets that allow for numerous reduced-capacity
steps of control are used.
In accordance with SAES-K-403, fixed-volume clearance
pockets that allow the capacity to be reduced through an
increase of the clearance volume of the cylinders may be
manually or automatically operated. Variable volume pockets
must not be used.
Bypass Operation
A bypass valve system places a bypass valve in a line from the
compressor discharge back to the compressor suction to route
some or all of the compressor discharge to the suction. A
bypass valve may be used as the sole means of control, but it
is usually employed in combination with other control methods.
The bypass valve controls capacity by directing the
compressed gas back to the compressors suction. Directing
the compressed gas back to the compressor suction is
accomplished by piping from the compressors discharge line,
through a control valve, back to the compressors suction line.
To reduce the flow to process, the bypass valve is opened, and
the excess flow is diverted back to the compressors suction.
In addition to being simple, this system also has the advantage
of being infinitely controllable (within the limitation of the size of
the bypass line).
53
Compressors
Use of the bypass valve for continuous capacity control

requires that the bypass gas stream be provided with a cooler
to remove the heat of compression prior to returning to the
suction. The use of a bypass valve across the compressor is
not as power-efficient as is the use of cylinder unloading.
The most practical application for the bypass line is for small
degrees of fine capacity control or for limited duration start-up
unloading, where a simple loop around the compressor can be
opened for a short period of time to relieve the initial
compression load.
54
Compressors
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Typical positive-displacement compressor protection systems
consist of relief valves, startup bypass valves, and high process
temperature indication and control. Individually or combined,
these protection devices help to ensure safe and reliable
operation of the compressor system.
Relief Valve (Stage)

A relief valve (PZV) is an automatic pressure-relieving device
that is actuated by the static pressure upstream of the valve.
When the static pressure upstream of the PZV exceeds its
allowable value by a specified amount, the PZV actuates to
relieve the pressure. Conventional PZVs are the most
common, and they open fully when actuated. Pilot-operated
PZVs are less common, and they modulate when actuated.
In accordance with SAES-J-600, PZV(s) must be provided for
positive-displacement compressors where the pressure at a
closed discharge can exceed safe limits. For positivedisplacement compressors, interstage PZVs, as well as
discharge PZVs, must be provided. The pressure setpoint
must exceed the rated discharge pressure by 10 percent or
175 kPa (ga), whichever is greater. For reciprocating
compressors, a greater differential than 10 percent may be
required due to pressure surges. Interstage PZVs must be set
at or above the compressors settling-out pressure to avoid
lifting at shutdown. In addition, the PZV capacity must equal
compressors capacity, and it must discharge to a safe area or
flare and not to the compressor suction.
The relative setting of the relief valves in each stage of a typical
three-stage reciprocating compressor is basically the same.
The stage discharge piping and components are protected
from overpressurization by the PZV, which is set at
approximately 10% above the stage discharge pressure.
Startup Bypass
In most instances, a reciprocating compressor must be
unloaded for startup. Practically all reciprocating compressors
must be unloaded to some degree before starting so that the
55
Compressors
driver torque that is available during acceleration is not

exceeded. The need for an unloaded startup is required
because starting a positive-displacement compressor fully
loaded can have a 3:1 peak-to-mean torque ratio. This peak
torque requirement, coupled with breakaway friction, means
that the driver now must have as much as a 350 percent
starting torque capability. Typical motors are designed to have
only 40 to 60 percent starting torque capability.
Both manual and automatic compressor startup unloading is
used. Common methods of unloading during startup include
discharge venting, discharge to suction bypass, and cylinder
unloading.
High Process Temperature

In accordance with 31-SAMSS-002, the high temperature
shutdown device is required to safely shut down the
compressor. At a minimum, a high temperature shutdown
device must be installed in the final stage discharge gas
stream, and a high temperature shutdown device must be
installed downstream of the aftercooler. Additional high
temperature shutdown devices may be installed for high lube
oil temperature. On some compressors, a temperature switch
may be unsuitable due to high vibration levels at or near the
cylinder head. Thermocouples or RTDs should be used as a
means of temperature measurement.
API-618 specifies that the maximum discharge temperature of
300F can be exceeded for compressors with non-lubricated
cylinders. Temperature control for non-lubricated compressors
must comply with the requirements of 31-SAMSS-002. Note
that SAES-K-403 requires that compressors used in hydrogen
service limit discharge temperature to 275F (135C).
56
Compressors
GLOSSARY
aftercooler
Heat exchanger for cooling air or gas discharged from

compressors. Aftercoolers also provide a means of
removing moisture from compressed air and gases.
actual capacity
Quantity of gas actually compressed and under actual

pressure and temperature conditions.
clearance pocket
An auxiliary volume that may be opened to the clearance

space to increase the clearance, usually temporarily, to
reduce the volumetric efficiency and, therefore, actual
capacity of the compressor.
guide vane
A stationary element, which may be adjustable, that directs

the gas to the inlet of a compressor impeller or blade.
intercooler
Heat exchanger for removing the heat of compression

between stages of a compressor.
modulation
Manipulation of one variable (the manipulated variable) in

order to control another variable (the control variable).
performance curve
A plot of expected operating characteristics, such as head or

discharge pressure versus inlet capacity.
stonewall
A point of maximum flow and minimum head or discharge

pressure on a dynamic compressor operating curve and
beyond which a reduction in process resistance will not
increase gas flow rate.
surge limit
The volume flow below which dynamic compressor

operation becomes unstable.
throttling
Manipulating a variable to a higher or lower value.
aftercooler
Heat exchanger for cooling air or gas discharged from

compressors. Aftercoolers also provide a means of
removing moisture from compressed air and gases.
actual capacity
Quantity of gas actually compressed and under actual

pressure and temperature conditions.
clearance pocket
An auxiliary volume that may be opened to the clearance

space to increase the clearance, usually temporarily, to
reduce the volumetric efficiency and, therefore, actual
capacity of the compressor.
57

Operation of Compressor Control and Protection Systems

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POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................... 55

Figure 14. Surge Control System for a Variable-Speed Compressor Based on

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

The head-capacity control methods (in order of decreasing

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

operating speed range of the compressor.

Figure 1. Variable-Speed Constant-Pressure Control System

If the compressor is operating at the constant pressure point, Y

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

develops less head than at design. Between full open and

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 2. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant Pressure Control System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 3. Suction Throttling Constant-Pressure Control System

package will be brought up to speed much slower. The

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

characteristic curve and if there is a reduction in the process

Inlet pressure P1 = 14.7 psia = P2 (No throttling)

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downstream of the anti-surge recycle supply line. If a main

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Figure 4. Discharge Throttling, Constant-Pressure Control System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

with subsequent flow increase: the compressor speed will be

Figure 5. Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

and Characteristic Curve

Figure 6. Alternate Variable-Speed Constant-Flow Control System Configuration

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Figure 7. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vane Constant-Flow Control System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 8. Suction Throttling Constant Flow Control System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

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Dynamic compressor protection systems vary subtly across the

Rapidly rising temperature

An increase in the throughput flow.

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

As flow decreases to less than the minimum volume setpoint, a

Figure 9. Basic, Volume-Controlled, Anti-Surge System

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Constant speed dictates that the compressor will always follow

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Surge control systems can be designed to use compressor

Figure 12. Pressure-Compensated Surge Control System

varies significantly, a density transmitter, which is located on

The pressure gradient in the suction is too small to achieve

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 13. Discharge Mass Flow Rate Measurement Compensated

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 14. Surge Control System for a Variable-Speed Compressor Based on