2001

ManualofWaterSupply
PracticesM51
AmericanWaterWorksAssociation

ThefirsteditionofAirRelease,Air/Vacuum,andCombinationAirValves,AWWAManualM51,
is the latest addition to AWWAs series of manuals of water supply practices. Operators,
technicians, and engineers will find the information in this manual useful for gaining a basic
understanding of the use and application of air valves. A valuable guide for selecting, sizing,
locating, and installing air valves in water applications, M51 provides information on air valve
types listed in AWWAStandardC512, latest edition, including the following: Airrelease valve,
Air/Vacuumvalve,Combinationairvalve.

AWWAM512001
Contents
Chapter1:Introduction...................................................................................................................3
OCCURRENCEANDEFFECTOFAIRINPIPELINES.........................................................................3
SOURCESOFAIRENTRYINTOPIPELINES.....................................................................................4
Chapter2:TypesofAirValves.........................................................................................................5
AIRRELEASEVALVES....................................................................................................................5
AIR/VACUUMVALVES..................................................................................................................5
COMBINATIONAIRVALVES.........................................................................................................7
Chapter3:LocatingAirValvesAlongaPipeline..............................................................................8
PIPELINELOCATIONS...................................................................................................................8
SUGGESTEDLOCATIONSANDTYPES...........................................................................................9
Chapter4:DesignofValveOrificeSize.........................................................................................11
SIZINGFORRELEASINGAIRUNDERPRESSURE.........................................................................11
ORIFICESIZINGMETHODFORRELEASINGAIR..........................................................................12
SIZINGFORPIPINGFILLING.......................................................................................................14
ORIFICESIZINGMETHODFORPIPELINEFILLING.......................................................................14
SIZINGFORPIPELINEDRAINING................................................................................................16
SIZINGFORGRAVITYFLOW.......................................................................................................16
ORIFICESIZINGMETHODFORGRAVITYFLOW..........................................................................17
SIZINGFORSPECIALAPPLICATIONS..........................................................................................20
AIRRELEASEVALVESELECTION................................................................................................21
AIR/VACUUMVALVESELECTION...............................................................................................22
COMBINATIONAIRVALVESELECTION......................................................................................23
Chapter5:WaterHammerEffects................................................................................................25
AIR/VACUUMANDCOMBINATIONAIRVALVES........................................................................25
AIRVALVESATWELLPUMPS.....................................................................................................25
AIRVALVESONPIPELINES.........................................................................................................26
Chapter6:Installation,Operation,MaintenanceandSafety.......................................................28
INSTALLATION...........................................................................................................................28
OPERATIONANDMAINTENANCE..............................................................................................31
SAFETY.......................................................................................................................................32

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Chapter1:Introduction
Air valves are hydromechanical devices designed to automatically release or admit air
during the filling, draining, or operation of a water pipeline or system. The safe
operation and efficiency of a pipeline are dependent on the continual removal of air
from the pipeline. This chapter includes an explanation of the effects of air and the
sourcesofairinapipeline.

OCCURRENCEANDEFFECTOFAIRINPIPELINES
Watercontainsatleasttwopercentdissolvedairbyvolumeinstandardconditions(14.7
psiaand60oF)(Dean,1992)butcancontainmore,dependingonthewaterpressureand
temperaturewithinthepipeline.Henryslawstatesthattheamountofgasdissolvedin
a solution is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solution
(Zumdahl,1997).Therefore,whenwaterispressurized,itscapacitytoholdairisgreatly
magnified. The bubbling in soft drinks occurs after they are opened because the
pressureoverthefluidisreduced,andtheexcesscarbondioxidegasrapidlyescapes.In
a water system, a similar condition may occur at the consumers tap when excess air
comesoutof solution.Onceoutofsolution,airwillnot readily return tosolutionand
willcollectinpocketsathighpointsalongthepipeline.
Air comes out of solutions in a pipeline because of low pressure zones created by
partiallyopenvalves,cascadingflowinapartiallyfilledpipe,variationsinflowvelocity
causedbychangingpipediametersandslopes,andchangesinpipelineelevation.
Anairpocketmayreducetheflowofwaterinapipelinebyreducingthecrosssectional
flow area of the pipeline and may, if the volume of the air pocket is sufficient,
completelyairbindthepipelineandstoptheflowofwater(Karassik,2001).
Generally,thevelocityoftheflowofwaterpastanenlargingairpocketissufficientto
prevent complete air binding of the pipeline by carrying part of the air pocket
downstreamtocollectatanotherhighpoint.Althoughtheflowvelocityofwaterflow
maypreventthepipelinefromcompleteairbinding,airpocketswillincreaseheadloss
inthepipeline(Edmunds,1979).Additionalheadlossinapipelinedecreasestheflowof
water and increases power consumption required to pump the water. Air pockets is
pipelinesaredifficulttodetectandwillreducethepipelinesystemsoverallefficiency.
Air pockets may also contribute to water hammer problems, pipeline breaks, pipeline
noise,andpipelinecorrosion,andcancauseerraticoperationofcontrolvalves,meters
andequipment.
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SOURCESOFAIRENTRYINTOPIPELINES
Inadditiontoaircomingoutofsolution,airmayenterpipelinesatleakyjointswhere
the pressure within the pipeline falls below atmospheric pressure. These conditions
existinthevortexatthepumpsuction,atpumpglandswherenegativepressureoccurs,
andalllocationswherethepipelineliesabovethehydraulicgradeline.
Air may enter pipelines through air/vacuum and combination air valves following
completepumpshutdown,throughtheorificesofairreleasevalvesinstalledinpipeline
location where the pipeline pressure is less than atmospheric, and through pump
suction pipes that are not properly designed to prevent vortexing. Finally, vertical
turbine and well pumps start with air in pump column, which may pass by the check
valveandflowintothepipeline.

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Chapter2:TypesofAirValves
Thischapterdescribesthethreebasictypesofairvalvesusedinthewaterindustrythat
areincludedinAWWAC512,latestedition,StandardforAirrelease,Air/Vacuum,and
CombinationAirValvesforWaterworksServices.

AIRRELEASEVALVES
Airreleasevalves,alsocalledsmallorificevalves,aredesignedtoautomaticallyrelease
small pockets of accumulated air from a pipeline while the system operates under
pressure exceeding atmospheric pressure. A typical airrelease valve mechanism is
shown in Figure 21. Airrelease valves are characterized by outlet orifices, which are
muchsmallerthantheinletconnectionorpipesize.Orificesizesaregenerallybetween
1/16 in (1.6mm) and 1 in (25mm) in diameter, while the inlet connections can range
fromin(13mm)to6in(150mm)indiameter.
Whenreceived,thevalveisnormallyopenandwillventairthroughtheorifice.Aswater
entersthevalve,thefloatrises,closingtheorifice.Whenair,whichhasaccumulatedin
thepipingsystem,entersthevalve,itreplacesthewater,causingthefloattodropand
allowing the air to vent through the orifice. An airrelease valve designed with the
proper float weight and leverage mechanism will allow the valve to open at any
pressureuptothemaximumworkingpressureofthevalve.

AIR/VACUUMVALVES
Air/vacuum valves, also called large orifice valves, are designed to exhaust large
quantitiesofairautomaticallyduringpipelinefillingandtoadmitlargequantitiesofair
automatically when the internal pressure drops below atmospheric pressure. The
negativepressuremaybecausedbycolumnseparation,pipelinedraining,pumpfailure,
orabreakinthepipeline.Atypicalair/vacuumvalveisshowninFigure22.Air/vacuum
valvesarecharacterizedbyorificesbetweenin(13mm)and20in(500mm)diameter
that match the nominal inlet size of the valve when built in accordance with AWWA
C512. As a pipeline fills with water, the air in the pipeline must be expelled smoothly
and uniformly to minimize pressure surges. Likewise, after a power failure or as a
pipeline drains, air must be admitted to the pipeline to prevent the formation of a
vacuum,whichmaycollapsesomepipelinesorcausesurgesinthesystem.
Theoperationofanair/vacuumvalveissimilartotheairreleasevalveexceptthatthe
orifice diameter is considerably larger and will not open under pressure. And
air/vacuumvalveisnormallyopenandisdesignedtoventlargequantitiesofairthrough
theorifice.Aswaterentersthevalveduringfillingthesystem,thefloatwillriseclosing
the orifice. Air/vacuum valves once closed WILL NOT REOPEN TO VENT AIR while the

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pipeline is operating under pressure exceeding atmospheric pressure or if water is

present.

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COMBINATIONAIRVALVES
Combinationairvalvesaredesignedtoperformthesamefunctionasair/vacuumvalve
but, in addition, they will automatically release small pockets of air from the pipeline
whileunderpressurelikeanairreleasevalve.Combinationairvalvescanbesuppliedin
asinglebodyconfigurationoradualbodyconfigurationasshowninFigure23.

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Chapter3:LocatingAirValvesAlongaPipeline
Thischapteraddressesthelocationofairvalvesalongapipelinefortheeliminationof
air pockets, which could potentially cause air binding, and for pipeline drainage. The
informationinthischapterisintendedtoapplygenerallytotransmissionpipelinesbut
mayalsoapplytoothersituations.Thismanualdoesnotaddressthelocationoruseof
airvalvesfordownsurgeandcolumnseparationcontrol,whichshouldbeconsideredfor
somesystems.

PIPELINELOCATIONS
The proper location of airrelease, air/vacuum, and combination air valves is as
important as the proper size of the valve. An improper location can render the valve
ineffective. The following guidelines are recommended for the general location and
correspondingtypesofairvalves.However,theremaybeotherlocationswherevalves
maybedeemednecessary.
AsamplepipelineprofileillustratingtypicalvalvelocationsisshowninFigure31.The
horizontalaxisistherunninglengthofthepipeline,usuallyexpressedinstationpoints.
Station points are often expressed in hundreds of feet, such as 145+32, which is
equivalentto14,532feet.Theverticalaxisistheelevationoftheprofilestationsrelative
toaspecifiedhorizontaldatum.
Air valves are typically used in transmission pipelines where raw water is being
transportedtoatreatmentplantorwherefinishedwateristransportedtoadistribution
system, or similar applications. Air valves may not be needed on smaller piping in
distribution system piping grids where hydrants and service connections can provide
sufficientremovalofairintermsofbothperformanceandcost.

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SUGGESTEDLOCATIONSANDTYPES
Airvalvesshouldbeinstalledatthefollowinglocations.

High Points. Combination air valves should be installed at pipeline high points to
provideventingwhilethepipelineisfilling,duringnormaloperationofthepipeline,
andforairinflowandvacuumprotectionwhilethepipeisdraining.Ahighpointis
defined by the hydraulic gradient and is considered the upper end of any pipe
segmentthatslopesuptothehydraulicgradientorrunsparalleltoit.
MainlineValves(notillustratedinFigure31).Air/vacuumvalvesorcombinationair
valvescanbeusedonthedrainingsideofmainlinevalvestofacilitatedrainingofthe
pipeline.
Increased Downslope. A combination air valve should be considered at abrupt
increasesindownslope.
Decreased Upslope. An air/vacuum valve or a combination air valve should be
consideredatabruptdecreasesinupslope.
LongAscents.Anair/vacuumvalveorcombinationairvalveshouldbeconsideredat
intervalsofmile(400m)tomile(800m)alongascendingsectionsofpipelines.
LongDescents.Anairreleasevalveorcombinationairvalveshouldbeconsideredat
intervalsofmile(400m)tomile(800m)alongdescendingsectionsofpipelines.
HorizontalRuns.Combinationairvalvesshouldbeconsideredatthebeginningand
end of long horizontal sections, and airrelease valves or combination air valves
shouldbeconsideredatintervalsofmile(400m)tomile(800m)alonghorizontal
sectionsofpipeline.Itisdifficulttoevacuateairfromalonghorizontalpipelineat
lowflowvelocities.

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VenturiMeters(notillustratedinFigure31).Airreleasevalvesshouldbeinstalled
upstream of Venturi meters to eliminate measurement inaccuracies caused by
trappedair.
DeepWellandVerticalTurbinePumps.Air/vacuumvalvesshouldbeinstalledonthe
dischargesideofdeepwellandverticalturbinepumpstoremovetheairinthewell
column during pump start up and to allow air to reenter the line after pump
shutdown. Air valves mounted on these type of pumps may require special
considerationinselectionbecauseoftheviolentchangesinflowrateduringpump
cycling.Airreleasevalvesareoftenusedwithtimedelayed,poweractuatedcheck
valvestoreleasetheairinthepumpcolumnslowlyunderfullpumppressure(Val
MaticValve,1997).
Siphons(notillustratedinFigure31).Tomaintainasiphononasectionofpipeline
thatextendsabovethehydraulicgradientandthatconstantlyrunsundernegative
pressure,installanairreleasevalveonthehighpointofthesiphontoventtheair.
However,theairreleasevalvemustbeequippedwithavacuumcheckdevieonthe
outlettopreventadmittingairintothepipeline.Forsystemsrequiringmoreventing
capacity, a similar approach can be accomplished with an air/vacuum valve with
vacuumcheckdeviceontheoutlet.

When reverse flow is undesirable after pump stoppage, a specialized air/vacuum

antisiphonvalvecanbeused.Anantisiphonvalveisdesignedtoventairduringstartup,
closetightduringflowingconditions,andopentobreakthesiphonduringreverseflow
conditionsusingaflowpaddle.

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Chapter4:DesignofValveOrificeSize
It is important to select proper size valve orifice for the specific location along the
pipeline. This chapter provides a common methodology used in the water industry
based on formulas and data tables. Numeric examples are provided for clarity. For
specificsizingofvalves,refertomanufacturerscharts,graphs,andformulas;thefigures
presentedinthischapteronlydemonstratethemethodsused.

SIZINGFORRELEASINGAIRUNDERPRESSURE
The orifice size for releasing air under pressure is generally between 1/16 in (1.6mm)
and 1 in (25mm) in diameter; however, the size the valve inlet connection can range
from in (13mm) to 6 in (150mm) in diameter with the smaller orifices found in the
smallersizedinletportandhigherpressurevalves.
There is no definitive method for determiningthe amount of air that may need to be
ventedfromagivenpipeline.Thisisbecauseofthedifficultyinpredictingthequantity
ofairthatwillenterthepipelineorcomeoutofsolutionasthepressurevariesalong
thepipeline.Acommonmethodistoprovidesufficientcapacitytoreleasetwopercent
of the flow of water in terms of air at standard conditions (Lescovich, 1972). This
methodisbasedonthe2percentsolubilityofairinwateratstandardconditions.The
airisventedthroughtheorificeoftheairreleasevalveatthepipelineworkingpressure
atthatvalvelocation.
Because of the high pressures involved, the applicable flow equation for air flow
through an orifice is based on compressible adiabatic flow where there is no heat
transfertotheair.Sonicflowwilloccurwhendischargingairatapressureexceeding1.9
times the inlet pressure. Assuming that the outlet pressure is atmospheric pressure
{14.7psia[101kPa(sbsolute)]},thenanyinletpressureexceeding1.9times14.7,or28
psia{13psig[90kPa(gauge)]},willproducesonicflow(ASME,1971).Atsonicflow,the
air velocity is limited to the speed of sound, thereby causing a restricting to the air
dischargeathigherpressures.
ForthepurposeofgeneratingthetablesandgraphsinTable41andFigure41,sonic
flowandadischargecoefficientof0.7wasassumed.Adischargecoefficientof0.7isan
approximationandfallsbetweenasmoothflownozzleandasquareedgedorifice.The
actual discharge coefficient of the valve and piping will be different. Therefore, the
capacity charts of valve suppliers should be consulted before selecting the final valve
size.
Theworkingpressureanairreleasevalveiscalculatedwithreferencetothemaximum
hydraulic grade line at the valve and not the pump discharge head. The working

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differentialpressureattheairreleasevalvelocationisthedifferencebetweenthevalve
elevationandthemaximumhydraulicgradientelevationatthevalve.
The following method may be used to approximate the orifice size required in an air
releasevalve.Itisimportanttoverifywiththesupplierthatthevalvewilloperatewith
the required orifice diameter at the expected maximum line pressure. Valve capacity
informationispresentedinbothtabularandgraphicformtosuitthepreferenceofthe
user. A flow formula is also provided to calculate the capacity of varying orifice
diametersatanypressurecondition.

ORIFICESIZINGMETHODFORRELEASINGAIR
Step1:Dividethepipelineflowrateingallonsperminutes(gpm)by7.48toobtainflow
incubicfeetperminute(cfm).
Step 2: Multiply the flow in cfm from step 1 by 0.02 to determine the required air
ventingvolume,astwopercentofthepipelineflowinstandardcubicfeetperminute
(scfm).Standardreferstoairatconditionsof60oFand0psi.
Step3:Determinetheworkingpressureatthevalvebysubtractingthevalveelevation
fromthehydraulicgradeelevation.Expressthepressureinpoundspersquareinch(psi).
iftheelevationsareinfeet,multiplyby0.433toobtainpsi.
Step4:RefertoTable41orFigure41andselecttheorificediameterthatprovidesthe
require capacity from step 2 at the pressure from step 3. Consult the available orifice
sizes from suppliers and select the valve that meets both the capacity and pressure
requirementsoftheapplication.

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EXAMPLE
Apipelinewithaflowrate10,500gpmrequiresanairreleasevalveatalocationwitha
valveelevationof600feetandahydraulicgradelineelevationof831feet.
1.
2.
3.
4.

10,500gpm/7.48=1,404cfm
1,404x0.02=28scfm
(831600)x0.433=10psi
Select3/16inorificefromTable41thatprovides40.9scfmat100psi.

The capacity information shown in Table 41 and Figure 41 is based on the

compressibleadiabaticflowequationandsonicflow(TechnicalPaperNo.410,1982).

Forsubsonicconditionswherepipelinepressuresaregenerallylessthan13psig(90kPa
[gauge]):

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SIZINGFORPIPINGFILLING
Fortheinitialfillingofapipeline,airshouldbeventedatthesamevolumetricrateas
the pipelineis beingfilled.Inmanycases, one pumpisturnedon untilthe line isfull.
The recommended procedure, however, is to fill the pipeline at a gradual rate to
preventsurgesintheline.Asuggestedfillingrateisabout1ft/sec(0.3m/sec).Formore
information,seethediscussionofwaterhammerinChapter5.
The volumetric rate of air from initial filling is vented to atmosphere at a typical
differentialpressureof2psi(13.8kPa).Valvesequippedwithantislamorslowclosing
devices may be sized with a differential pressure of 5 psi (34.5 kPa). The following
methodmaybeusedtoapproximatetheorificesizerequiredforpipelinefilling.Generic
tables,graphs,andformulasareprovidedtosuitthepreferenceoftheuser.
The applicable flow equation is based on compressible adiabatic flow through a short
nozzle or tube where there is no heat transfer to the air. Also, it is assumed that the
value at sea level and a temperature of 60oF (15.5oC). At high altitudes or extreme
temperatures,equationsofamoregeneralnatureshouldbeused.Forthepurposeof
generatingthetablesandgraphsinTable42andFigure42,adischargecoefficientof
0.7 is used. A discharge coefficient of 0.7 is an approximation and falls between a
smooth flow nozzle and a squareedged orifice. Therefore, capacity charts of valve
suppliersshouldbeconsultedbeforeselectingthefinalvalvesize.

ORIFICESIZINGMETHODFORPIPELINEFILLING
(Assumesairvalveisatsealeveland60oF[15.5oC])
Step1:Calculatetheventingflowrateinscfmusing:

Step2:RefertoTable42orFigure42andselecttheorificediameterthatprovidesthe
requiredflowattheselectedventingpressure.

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EXAMPLE
A66inpipelinewillfillataflowrateof10,500gpm(1ft/sec),andtheairvalvewillvent
theairatapressureof2psi.
1. Q=(10,500)(0.134)(2.0+14.7/14.7)=1,598scfm
2. ReferringtoTable42andFigure42,at2psi,selecta4inorificethatwillvent1,780
scfm.

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SIZINGFORPIPELINEDRAINING
Whenitisnecessarytodrainapipelineforrepairs,thepipelineshouldbedrainedata
controlledrateofabout12ft/sec(0.30.6m/sec)tominimizepressuretransients.An
airvalveatthehighpointadjacenttothedraininglocationmustbesizedtoadmitairat
thesamevolumetricrateasthepipelinebeingdrained.

SIZINGFORGRAVITYFLOW
Apowerfailureorlinebreakmayresultinasuddenchangeintheflowvelocitybecause
ofcolumnseparationandgravityflow.Thegravityflowmayresultinexcessivevacuum
conditions occurring at the adjacent high points. Most small and mediumsize pipes
commonly used in the water industry can withstand a complete vacuum; however,
because low stiffness, largediameter pipelines may collapse from negative internal
pressures. Therefore, sizing air valves for gravity flow conditions is important to
maintaining the integrity of the pipeline. Air valves at high points should be sized to
allow the inflow of air to minimize negative pressures in the pipeline and prevent
possibledamagetopumpseals,equipment,orthepipelineitself.
When sizing an air valve orifice for gravity flow, the pipe slope will determine the
volumeofairrequiredtopreventexcessivevacuum.Anappropriateairvalveshouldbe
providedatthenearesthighpointwiththeorificesizetoallowtherequireinflowofair
to replace the water in the pipeline. Figure 43 illustrates the required inflow of air
requiredforvariouspipesizesandslopes.
Theorificesizingofanairvalveforinflowistypicallybasedonthelowerof5psi(34kPa)
ortheallowablenegativepressurebelowatmosphericpressureforthepipelinewitha
suitable safety factor. Sonic flow will occur when the outlettoinlet pressure ratio
(ASME,1971)fall below0.53.knowingthattheinletpressureisatmosphericpressure
(14.7 psia [101 kPa]), then any negative pipeline pressure below 7.8 psia (54 kPa
[absolute])or7psig(48kPa)(vacuum)willproducesonicflow.Becausetheflowwillbe
sonicandrestricted,flowvolumewillnotincreasebeyond7psi(48kPa)diferential.
If gravity flow occurs in a pipeline with a change in slope where the pipeline lower
sectionhasasteeperslopethantheuppersection,thenanair/vacuumvalveshouldbe
considered at the location where the pipeline change slope. The gravity flow will be
greater in the pipeline section with the steeper slope. The air/vacuum valve orifice
shouldbe sized sothattheinflowofairatthis pointequals thedifference inthetwo
flowratesattheallowablenegativepressure.
The applicable flow equation is based on compressible adiabatic flow through a short
nozzle or tube where there is no heat transfer to the air and subsonic flow. For the
purposeofestimatingcircularorificesizes,adischargecoefficient,Cd,of0.7wasused
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togenerateTable43andFigure44.Adischargecoefficientof0.7isanapproximation
and falls between a smooth flow nozzle and a squareedged circular orifice. Capacity
chartsofvalvesuppliersshouldbeconsultedbeforeselectingthefinalvalvesize.

ORIFICESIZINGMETHODFORGRAVITYFLOW
Step1:Determinetheallowablenegativepressureforthepipelinewithconsiderationof
a reasonable safety factor. Consult the pipe manufacturer for the maximum
recommended negative pressure. For lowstiffness, largediameter steel pipe, the
collapse pressure can be estimated by the general formula for collapse of thinwalled
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steelcylinders(AWWAM11,1989).Theformulaisapplicabletoapipesubmergedoran
abovegroundenvironment.Pipesusedinburiedservicewithgoodsoilcompactionare
notpronetovacuumcollapse.

Theallowabledifferentialpressureforsizingisthenfoundbytheformula

Thechoiceofsafetyfactor(i.e.,3.0or4.0)isatthediscretionofthepipelinedesigner.
When the pipe is not subject to collapse, a differential pressure of 5.0 psi (34 kPa) is
commonlyused.

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Step 2: Calculate the slope of the pipeline (S) as the change in elevation divided by
horizontaldistance(i.e.,riseoverrunexpressedinthesameunits,ft/ft).
Step 3: Determine the required air inflow in scfm from Figure 43 by matching the
pipelineslopeagainstthepipediameter.Forincreasesindowngradeanddecreasesin
upgrade,computethedifferencebetweentheflowsintheloweranduppersectionsof
pipe. Flow rates can also be calculated using common flow formulas, such as Hazen
Williams,Manning,orthefollowingformula:

Thecoefficient,C,variesfordifferentpiperoughnessandisdifferentfromtheCfactor
associatedwiththeHazenWilliamsformula.
Step4:RefertoTable43orFigure44forselectingtheorificediameterthatprovides
therequiredflowinscfmatthepermissibledifferentialpressure.
EXAMPLE
Using the aboveground 24 in ID by 1/8 in thick steel pipeline illustrated in Figure 45,
calculate the minimum orifice diameter at stations 10+00 (assuming a line break at
station 0+00), 25+00 (assuming a line break at station 20+00), and 40+00 (assuming a
linebreakatstation20+00).
1. d=ID+t=24.000in+0.125in=24.125in
Pc=66,000,000(0.125in/24.125in)3=9.2psi(fromEquation44)
Assumingasafetyfactorof4.0
P=9.2psi/4.0=2.3psi(fromEquation45)
2. S1=40ft/1,000ft=0.04
S2=40ft/500ft=0.08
S3=20ft/1,500ft = 0.013
3. ForS1=0.04andID=24,Figure43providesQ1=3,000scfm
ForS2=0.08andID=24,Figure43providesQ2=4,050scfm
ForS3=0.013andID=24,Figure43providesQ3=1,900scfm
Tosizetheorificeatstation25+00,Q25+00=4,0501,900=2,150scfm
4. Forstation10+00,useTable43andselecta6inorificewithaninflowcapacityof
about4,000scfmat2.3psithatexceedsQ1of3,000scfm.
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Forstation25+00,useTable43andselecta6inorificewithaninflowcapacityof
about4,000scfmat2.3psithatexceedsQ25+00of2,150scfm.
Forstation40+00,useTable43andselecta6inorificewithaninflowcapacityof
about4,000scfmat2.3psithatexceedsQ3of1,900scfm.

SIZINGFORSPECIALAPPLICATIONS
There are special situations requiring the application of air valves, such the control of
watercolumnseparationandtheminimizingofsubsequentpressuretransients.Sizing
of these valves is usually included in the transient analysis of a pipeline using a
computerprogramandisbeyondthescopeofthismanual.
Insomecases,suchaslargediameterpipessubjecttocollapse,thesizeoftheairvalve
calculated in the section Sizing for Gravity Flow may be beyond the size range of
standardmanufacturedvalves.Inthesecases,itissuggestedtoinstallclustersofvalves.
Anotheralternativeistouseahighcapacityvacuumbreakerincombinationwithanair
valvetoprovidetheneededinflowcapacityasshowninFigure46.
The sizing of air valves for vertical turbine deepwell pump discharge service is highly
dependent on the specific characteristics of the air valve and sometimes the pump.
Therefore,theseapplicationsshouldbebasedonthepublishedsizingrecommendations
oftheairvalvesupplier.Deepwellpumpapplicationsaredescribedfurtherinchapter5.

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AIRRELEASEVALVESELECTION
Thefollowinginformationisrecommendedforselectingthecorrectairreleasevalvefor
ventingaccumulatedairduringpipelineoperation:

CompliancewithAWWAC512,latestedition
OrificesizefromthesectionSizingforReleasingAirUnderPressure
NPTinletsize
Maximumworkingpressureofeachvalve
Valveconstructionmaterials
Typeofinstallation(inplant,invault,oroutdoor)

The selection of a larger orifice or inlet size is acceptable as long as the maximum
operatingpressureisnotexceeded.
Foragivenorificesize(e.g.,1/8in.[3mm]),severalinletsizesmaybeavailable(e.g.,
in[13mm]to6in[150mm]).Theinletsizeshouldbeaslargeaspossibletomaximizethe
air/water exchange in the pipeline connection. Also, the pipeline connection should
neverbelessthantheinletsizeoftheairreleasevalve.

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Themaximumworkingpressureofanairreleasevalveisrelatedtotheconstructionof
the valve body and the mechanical advantage of the float leverage mechanism. The
valvemusthavesufficientmechanicaladvantagetoallowtheweightofthefloattopull
thesealawayfromtheorifice.Valveswithlargeorifices(i.e.,greaterthen1/8in[3mm])
orhighoperatingpressures(i.e.,greaterthan175psi[1,206kPa])willusuallyemploya
compoundlevermechanismwithaseriesofleversandpivotthanthehighestexpected
operatingpressureatthespecificvalvelocation.
Typicaloptionsforairreleasevalvesincludespecialcorrosionresistantconstructionor
a vacuum check on the valve outlet to prevent air from reentering the system during
negativepressureconditions.

AIR/VACUUMVALVESELECTION
The following information is recommended for selecting the correct air/vacuum valve
for venting air during pipeline filling and admitting air during negative pressure
conditions:

CompliancewithAWWAC512,latestedition
Orificesize
Inletsizeandtypeofconnection
Maximumworkingpressureofeachvalve
Valveconstructionmaterials
Typeofinstallation(inplant,invault,oroutdoor)
Typeofoutletconnection(threaded,flanged,orhooded)

Theorificesizemustbesufficienttomeetalloftherequirementsfor

VentingairduringpipelinefillingpersectionSizingforPipelineFilling
AdmittingairduringpipelinedrainingpersectionSizingforPipelineDraining
AdmittingairduringlinebreakpersectionSizingforGravityFlow

Selectavalvesizethatsatisfiesallthreerequirements.Theinletsizeforanair/vacuum
valvegenerallymatchestheorificesize.Oversizedair/vacuumvalvesshouldnotbeused
where the potential for column separation exists or surges can result. The maximum
pressure rating of the valve will influence the seat material in the valve. Typically,
air/vacuum valves rated for high pressure (i.e., greater than 300 psi [2,068 kPa]) and
largediameter valves (i.e., greater than 14 in [350mm]) may be equipped with hard
nonmetallicseatsorstainlesssteelseatscontainingoringseals.

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Typical options for air/vacuum valves include special corrosionresistant construction,

screened hoods, and antislam or surgecheck devices mounted on the inlet to reduce
valvepressuresurges.

COMBINATIONAIRVALVESELECTION
The following information is recommended for selecting the correct combination air
valve for venting air during pipeline filling, admitting air during negative pressure
conditions,andventingaccumulatedairduringpipelineoperation:

CompliancewithAWWAC512,latestedition
Sizesofairreleaseandair/vacuumorifices
Inletsizeandtypeofconnection
Maximumworkingpressureofeachvalve
Valveconstructionmaterials
Typeofinstallation(inplant,invault,oroutdoor)
Typeofoutletconnection(threaded,flanged,orhooded)
Bodyconfiguration(singleordualbody)

Theorificesizemustbesufficienttomeetalloftherequirementsfor

Venting accumulated air under pressure per section Sizing for Releasing Air Under
Pressure
VentingairduringpipelinefillingpersectionSizingforPipelineFilling
AdmittingairduringpipelinedrainingpersectionSizingforPipelineDraining
AdmittingairduringlinebreakpersectionSizingforGravityFlow

Selectavalveconfigurationthatsatisfiesallfourrequirements.
Singlebodyconfigurationsaretypicallymoreeconomical.Theyaremorecompact,less
likely to freeze, and are tamperresistant. Singlebody configurations are limited in
availabilitytoamaximumsizeof8in(200mm).Dualbodyconfigurationsconsistofan
airrelease valve piped to an air/vacuum valve. Many combinations and ranges of
capacities are therefore available. Also, if the airrelease valve is being serviced, the
air/vacuumvalveisstillprotectingthepipeline.
The inlet size for a combination air valve generally matches the orifice size of the
air/vacuum orifice. Oversized combination air valves should not be used where the
potential for column separation exists or surges can result. The maximum working
pressure of the valve must also include the ability to vent air through the airrelease
orificeattheexpectedmaximumpressureofthespecificpipelinelocation.

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Typical options for combination air valves include special corrosionresistant

construction, screened hoods, and antislam or slowclosing devices mounted on the
inlettoreducevalvepressuresurges.

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Chapter5:WaterHammerEffects
Waterhammerisasuddenriseinpressureresultingfromrapidchangeinflowvelocity
inpipelinesandisalsoreferredtoassurgeortransientpressure(AWWAM11,1989).
Water hammer is an extremely complex phenomenon requiring computer analysis;
however, the use of general operating principles will minimize the effects of water
hammer.Thischapterpresentssomeapplicationsforairvalvesinsystemswherewater
hammermayoccur.

AIR/VACUUMANDCOMBINATIONAIRVALVES
Tominimizetheeffectsofwaterhammerduringfillingofapipeline,itisrecommended
that the pipeline filling velocity be maintained at 1ft/sec (0.3m/sec) or less. Properly
designed air/vacuum or combination air valves will allow air to exhaust from the
pipelinerelativelyunrestricted.However,whenthelastoftheairescapesthepipeline,
the air/vacuum or combination air valve may shut abruptly in response to the water
reaching the valve float. The resulting collision between adjacent columns of water in
the vicinity of the valve may cause a rapid deceleration of the water in the pipeline,
resultinginasurge(Tullis,1989).Airvalvesmaybeequippedwithslowclosingdevices
tominimizetheabruptclosingoftheair/vacuumorcombinationairvalves.
Air/vacuumorcombinationairvalvesareprovidedonpipelinestoprotectagainstpipe
collapse under negative pressure conditions. These pipelines are especially prone to
water hammer effects during the filling operations because the orifice diameter
required for collapse criteria provides minimal air discharge regulation, especially at
excessivefillingrates.Fortheseandotherinstallationswherelargediameterairvalves
areused,itisimportanttoprovideforstrictcontrolofthefillingrate.Thismayrequire
the throttling the pump discharge flow rate or throttling the gravity supply flow rate
duringthefillingoperation.Generally,afillingratethatlimitsthepipelinevelocitiesto
1ft/sec(0.3m/sec),isacceptable(sanks,1989).

AIRVALVESATWELLPUMPS
Air/vacuum or combination air valves installed on the discharge of vertical turbine or
deepwellpumpsaresubjecttowaterhammerproblemssimilartothoseencountered
inthefillingofpipelines.Airneedstobeventedfromthepumpcolumnuponstartup.
Otherwise,airmaybedeliveredintothedischargepipelinewhenthecheckvalveopens.
Uncontrolled air exhaust and the abrupt closure of the air/vacuum valves on pump
dischargeapplicationscanleadtoseriouspressuresurges.
To minimize these water hammer effects, the pump discharge flow rate may be
controlled at startup, or slowclosing devices or airthrottling devices may be
incorporatedintotheair/vacuumvalvedesign.Thesespecialdevices,manufacturedfor
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vertical turbine and deepwell pump installations, generally regulate the exhaust rate
andclosurespeedoftheair/vacuumvalve.Itisimportanttonotethantheslowclosing
and dampening devices are effective in suppressing water hammer only when placed
nearthepump.Figure51showstheproperlocationofanair/vacuumvalvewithslow
closingdevice.
Airrelease valves can be used with timedelayed, poweractuated pump discharge
controlvalvestoreleaseairinthepumpcolumnslowlyunderfullpumppressurebefore
thecontrolcheckvalveopens.

AIRVALVESONPIPELINES
The presence of air in a transmission pipeline may reduce the conveyance capacity of
thepipelinesubstantially.Underwaterhammerconditions,entrappedairmaymagnify
thesurgeproblem.Trappedaircanstoreenergyandcausecheckvalveslamming.Ifair
pocketsbecomedislodged,waterhammercanbecausedwhentheairpassesthrough
restrictions,throughpartiallyopenvalves,orfromonehighpointtoanothercausinga
changeinvelocity.Somegeneralguidelinesforminimizingtheeffectsofairinapipeline
areasfollows(Tullis,1989):
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1. Fillslowly,1ft/sec(0.3m/sec)velocity.
2. Install properly sized air/vacuum or combination air valve so air is not released
underhighpressureduringpipelinefilling.
3. Laythepipelinetoasetgradeandinstallairvalvesathighpoints.Iftheterrainisflat,
installairvalveatregularintervals.
4. Flushthesystematmoderatevelocities,24ft/sec(0.61.2m/sec),andlowpressure
tomovetheairtotheairvalves.
5. Installairvalvesupstreamofcontrolvalvessoairdoesnotpassthroughmodulating
valves.
6. Use combination air valves wherever possible so that air flow is provided to
accommodatefilling,draining,andairaccumulation.
Water hammer in pipelines can also be analyzed with special computer programs
(Wood,latestedition).Waterhammersoftwarecanprovideimmediatefeedbackofthe
effectsofsuggestedairvalvelocationsandsizesonsystemperformingincluding:

Valvesizeandlocationeffectsduringpipelinefilling
Identificationofadditional(notobvious)locations
Effectivenessofalternatelocationsandsizes
Documentationandconsistencyofvalvelocationsandsizing

Studies have shown a strong correlation between analysis and system performance
(Kroon,1984).

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Chapter6:Installation,Operation,MaintenanceandSafety
Toensurethattheairvalvewilloperateproperly,reasonablecareisneededinhandling,
installation,andmaintenance.Thischapterprovidesthebasicinstructionsforusingair
valves, but it is important that the instructions provided with the valve be carefully
reviewedandfollowed.

INSTALLATION
InstallationManual

The instruction manual supplied by the manufacturer should be reviewed in detail

beforeinstallinganairvalve.Atthejobsitepriortoinstallation,theairvalveshouldbe
visuallyinspectedandanypackingorforeignmaterialintheinteriorportionofthevalve
should be removed. The nameplate information on the air valve should be verified to
ensurethatthevalvecoincideswiththatspecified.
Location

The air valve should be installed as close to the pipe as possible. The interconnecting
piping to the air valve must slope upward toward the valve and be large enough to
accommodatetherequiredflowofair.Thefurthertheairvalveisfromthepipeline,the
largertheconnectingpipeshouldbe.
ShutoffValve

Ifashutoffvalveisthesamesizeastheconnectingpipe,itshouldbeinstalledbetween
theairvalveandthetopofthepipelinetofacilitatemaintenance(seeFigure61).The
shutoffvalveshouldbelocatedasclosetothemainpipelineaspossible.
SizeofConnectiontoPipeline

Thesizeoftheconnectiontothetopofthepipelineshouldequalorexceedthatofthe
airvalveinletconnection.
ValveCoating

Internal and external valve corrosion should be controlled by applying the proper
coatingwhennecessary.
BoatingMaterial

Allnutsandboltsshouldbeprotectedtopreventcorrosion.
ValvesLocatedAboveground

Abovegroundairvalvesshouldbeprotectedfromfreezing,contamination,orvandalism.
ValvesLocatedBelowground

In addition to the protection from freezing, contamination, and vandalism, air valves
locatedbelowgroundshouldalsobeprovidedwithapropervalvevault.
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ValveVault

Avalvevaultshouldhaveadequatescreenedventilationtosatisfytheairrequirements
forthevalveandventilationofthestructureasshowninFigure62.Thetwoventpipes
provideforregularairflow.Infreezingconditions,asingleventpipewithbafflecanbe
used. There should be adequate drainage provided to prevent flooding of the vault.
Valve vaults should be large enough to provide a minimum of 2ft (0.6m) of clearance
aroundandabovetheairvalveformaintenanceandvalveremoval.

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Flooding

Flooding submerges the air intake of air valves, prevents the proper operation of the
valve, and may introduce contamination into the pipeline. An outside air intake piped
directly to the air valve may help prevent contamination of the pipeline. Provide all
intakepipingwithadownturnedelbow,anairgap,andabirdscreen.

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DepthofBurial

Valvesshouldbeburiedbelowthefrostlinetopreventfreezing.Wherecombinationair
valves are used, those in a single body are less likely to freeze than those in separate
bodies.
Freezing

Suitableinsulationandelectricalheattapeshouldbeprovidedinareaspronetofreezing.
Frozenairvalveswillnotoperateandcanbedamaged.Thermallyactivatedreliefvalves
(typicallysuppliedin3/8orin[9mmor13mm]diameter)canbeinstalledonthevalve
body to release water and reduce the possibility of damage from freezing. The relief
vale automatically opens when the water temperature in the valve falls below a set
point(typically35oF[2oC])andreclosesathightemperatures.
Contamination

Valveswithtopthreadedopeningsshouldbeprotectedwithaprotectivecap,Ubend,
or elbow to prevent rocks, sand, and other particles from falling into the valve. To
protect air valves with large metal hoods covering the valve discharge opening from
rodents and bird nests, a heavy screened cagecovering the air valve outlet should be
used.

OPERATIONANDMAINTENANCE
Themanufacturersrecommendationsandairvalveoperationandmaintenanceshould
befollowed.
ContinuouslyOperatingAirValves

Air valves that operate continuously should be opened and flushed more often than
valvesusedforfillinganddraining.Allairvalvesshouldbeopenedandflushedatleast
annually.
FillingandDrainingPipelines

Caution is required when filling or draining pipelines that have air/vacuum or

combination air valves installed on the pipeline; see chapter 5. Never prop the valve
open by inserting objects into the valve venting port. This can damage the valve seat
andtheobjectmayfallintothevalve.
Inspection

Air valves should be inspected at least annually for leakage, and the resilient seats
shouldbereplacedasnecessary.

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SAFETY
UndergroundStructures

Hazardousgasescollectinginundergroundstructureshavecausedinjuriesandfatalities.
Gasesdrawnintoapipelinecanexitthroughairvalvesandremainintheunderground
structure. Always ventilate the underground structure and use a combustible gas and
lowoxygen detector before entering the structure. Consult Occupational Safety and
HealthAdministrationrulesandprocedures,suchastheneedforharnessandground
levelsupervision,inallundergroundwork.
Inspection

Wheninspectingairvalve,isolatethevalvebyclosingtheshutoffvalvebeforeputting
handsandfingersintothevalveoutlet.Iftheairvalveshouldsuddenlyclose,handsor
fingerscouldbeinjuredorlost.Pressurizedaircanalsobetrappedbetweentheshutoff
valveandtheairvalve;therefore,anyremovalofairvalvebolts,plugsorcoversmustbe
donewithextremecaretoreleasetrappedairslowlyandpreventseriousinjury.
PipelineFilling

Thread protectors and packing material should be removed from air valves prior to
fillingthepipeline.

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