TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING II
(BCE IV/I)

2.0 HIGHWAY PAVEMENT

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

RIGID PAVEMENT

Syllabus: Overall
1.Traffic Engineering
2. Highway Pavement
3. Road Construction Technology
4. Highway Maintenance, Repair and Rehabilitation
5. Introduction to Bridge and Tunnel
Engineering

Syllabus: Going to Deal

2.0 Highway Pavement

(16)

2.1 Definition and Types of Pavements

2.2 Differences between Flexible and Rigid Pavement
Structure
2.3 Loads and Other Factors Controlling Pavement Design
2.4 Design Methods for Flexible Pavements- Road
Note 29, 31, CBR, AASHTO
2.5 Details of Asphalt Institute Method of Design of
Flexible Pavements
2.6 Design Methods for Rigid Pavements and
Westergaards Theory
2.7 Stress due to Load, Temperature Differential and
Subgrade Friction
2.8 Details of the IRC Method of Design of Rigid
Pavements for Highways

5.0 Introduction to Bridge and Tunnel

Engineering (8)
5.1 Choice of Bridge Location Site
5.2 Classification of Bridges and Component Parts of a
Bridge
5.3 Introduction to River Bank and Protection Structure
5.4 Types of Road and Railway Tunnels
5.5 Component Parts of Tunnel and Tunnel Cross-section
5.6 Survey for Tunnel Alignment
5.7 Drainage, Lightening and Ventilation Requirements for
Tunnel
5.8 Introduction of Tunneling in Firm Soil, Soft Soil and Rock
5.9 Tunnel Lining

2.1

Definition and Types of

Pavements

2.1.1 What is Pavement?

2.1.2 Objectives of Pavement
2.1.3 Functions of a Pavement
2.1.4 Types of Pavement
2.1.5 Structural Elements of a Pavement
2.1.6 Functions and Characteristics of Pavement Layers

2.1.1

What is Pavement?

A pavement is a Relatively
Stable Layer Constructed
over a Natural Soil (i) for the purpose of
Supporting
and
Distributing the Wheel
Loads so that the bearing
capacity of the underlying
soil is not exceeded, and
(ii) for providing an Adequate
Wearing Surface.
A pavement is a multilayered structure.
The
layers
are
placed
horizontal one over other.

2.1.2 Objectives of Pavement

To provide a stable and unyielding surface due to loads
caused by traffic.
To support and distribute wheel load of vehicles over
a wide area of the underlying sub grade soil.
To provide an even surface so that passengers in fast
moving vehicles will not be put to discomfort and unsafe.
To prevent water from entering the soil which may lead
to yielding(soft/elastic) of the road.
To provide an adequate surface for the movements of
vehicles with certain speed safely, comfortably and
economically.
To keep temporary deformation of the pavement
within the permissible limits so that the pavement can
sustain a large number of repeated load applications during
its design life.

2.1.3 Functions of a Pavement

Load Support
Smoothness/
Good Riding Characteristics
Drainage
Safety and Comfortable

2.1.4

Types of Pavements

Based upon the Structural Behaviour of the

Materials Used in the Construction, Pavements
are Classified as:
1. Flexible Pavement
2. Rigid Pavement
3. Semi-Rigid Pavement
4.

Composite Pavement

1. Flexible Pavement
So
named
because
the
pavement
structure
Deflects or Flexes under
Loading.
Pavements having Very Little
Resistance to Deformation
under the Wheel Loads.
Which have Very Low Flexural
Strength and is Flexible in the
Structural Behaviour under
the Wheel Loads.

 Its layers reflect

the deformation
of
the
lower
layers on to the
surface of the
layer.
Thus
if
lower
layer
somehow
gets
deformed,
the surface layer
of the pavement
also
gets
deformed

Stress Distribution in Flexible

Pavement

Each layer receives the

loads from the above
layer, spreads them out,
then passes.
Top layer experiences
more stress than the
descending layers.
So materials of higher
quality is used on the top
layer than the lower
layers
i.e.
gradually
decrease
in
material
quality with depth
Design
Principle
of
Flexible Pavement

Materials for Flexible

Pavement

Materials which fall in the

category
of
flexible
pavement
are
Soilaggregate Mix, Crushed
Aggregate, WBM, Granular
Materials with Bituminous
Binder,
Bituminous
Concrete, etc.
Pavement thickness is so
designed that the stresses
on the sub grade soil are
kept within its bearing
power and the sub grade
is
prevented
from
excessive settlement.

Types of Flexible Pavement

Dense-graded HMA
Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)
Open-graded HMA
Bituminous surface treatments (BSTs)
Earthen Roads-Stabilized and Unstabilized
WBM Roads, etc.

Types of Flexible Pavements

Dense-graded

Open-graded

Gap-graded

Rigid Pavement
So named because the
pavement
structure
deflects very little under
loading due to the high
modulus of elasticity of
the surface course.
Possesses considerable
flexural strength.
Has slab action and is
capable of transmitting
the wheel loads through
a wider area below.

Rigid Pavement
Doesnt get deformed to
the shape of the lower
surface as it can bridge
the minor variations of
lower layers.
Can take appreciable
tensile stresses .
Made
of
cement
concrete which may be
either plain, reinforced
or pre-stressed.
Stress Distribution in Rigid Pavement

Types Of Rigid Pavements

1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

2.Continuously Reinforced
Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

3.Jointed Reinforced Concrete

Pavement (JRCP)

4. Pre-stressed Concrete
Pavement (PCP)

5. Post-tensioned Concrete
Pavement (PTCP)

Semi Rigid Pavement

Has the intermediate properties between the flexible and the
rigid pavement.
Has much lower flexural strength compared to concrete
slabs but derives the support by the lateral distribution of
loads through the pavement depth as in a flexible pavement.
Has low resistance to impact and abrasion and therefore is
usually provided with the flexible pavement surface course.
Bonded materials like pozzolanic concrete(lime-fly ashaggregate mix), lean cement concrete or soil cement are
used in the base or sub-base courses which has higher
flexural strength than the common flexible pavement layers,
But have low flexural strength than rigid pavements.
Eg. Lean-concrete Base, Soil-cement, Limepozzolana
Concrete Constructions, etc.

Composite Pavement
Comprises of multiple, structurally significant
layers of different composition.
Consists of PCC as a bottom layer and bituminous
layer as a top layer.
Bottom layer (PCC) provides a strong base and
bituminous layer(top) provides a smooth and nonreflective surface.
Very expensive type of pavement so rarely used.
Eg. Brick -sandwitched Concrete Pavement (under
research in India), Asphalt concrete overlay over
a PCC
slab
Cement Concrete
Brick
,

2.1.5 Structural Elements of a

Pavement
A typical pavement structure consists of
1. Subgrade
2. Sub-base Course
3. Base Course
4. Wearing/Surface Course

Indian Practice

SURFACE/WEARING COURSE
BASE COURSE
SUB-BASE COURSE
SUBGRADE

British Practice

WEARING COURSE
BASE COURSE
ROAD BASE COURSE
SUB-BASE COURSE
SUBGRADE

SURFACING

American Practice

SURFACE COURSE
BINDER COURSE
BASE COURSE
SUB-BASE COURSE

SUBGRADE

For Flexible Pavements

1. Subgrade
2. Sub-base Course
3. Base Course
4. Wearing/Surface
Course

For Rigid Pavements

1. Subgrade
2. Sub-base Course
3. Base Course
4. Wearing/Surface
Course

2.1.6 Functions and

Characteristics of Pavement
Layers

Subgrade
Soil beneath the pavement is called the subgrade.
Subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the
other layers of the pavement.
Prformance of the pavement is affected by the characteristics
of the subgrade.
Desirable properties which the subgrade should possess are:
strength, drainage, ease of compaction, permanency of
compaction, and permanency of strength.
The strength of subgrade is increased by compaction or in
some cases by stabilization.

Function:
Subgrade is the foundation layer, the structure
which must ultimately support all the loads which
come on to the pavement and then dispersed to the
earth mass below.

Sub-base Course
A sub-base is a layer of material between the base and
subgrade.
Base course and sub-bases are used under the pavement
primarily to increase the load supporting capacity of the
pavement distributing the load through a finite thickness
of pavement.
A sub-base material can be of a lower quality materials
such as burnt clinkers, natural aggregates or slag than
the base course.
The sub-base should be laid as soon as possible after
final stripping to formation level, to prevent damage from
rain or sun baking which could cause surface cracks.

 Primary function to give structural support but

it can also:
Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade
into the pavement structure.
Improve drainage.
Minimize frost action damage.
Provide a working platform for construction.

Base Course
Layer of granular material which lies immediately
below the wearing surface of the pavement which
is the main spreading layer of the pavement.
Base course is the layer of material immediately
beneath the surface or binder course. It may be
composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, or
other untreated or stabilized materials.
The base course lies close to the pavement
surface and hence it must possess high
resistance to deformation in order to withstand
the high pressures imposed upon it. So, it is of
superior quality materials.

Functions:
This course receives the impact of the traffic
through the wearing course.
The loads are transferred to the sub-base and
subgrade through it.

Surface/Wearing Course
The wearing or surface course is the top course of
a pavement with which the wheels of vehicles are
in actual contact.
This is the layer in direct contact with traffic
loads.

Functions:
To distribute the load to the base.
To water-proof the base against the surface water.
To provide smooth riding surface, dust preventive
surface.

2.2 Differences Between

Flexible
and Rigid Pavements

2.2 Differences Between

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
1. Under heavy loads, yield
to
excessive
stresses
resulting in the local
depression of the surface.
2. A flexible pavement with
subgrade
of
varying
thickness will adjust itself
to the irregularities due to
different settlements.
3. Under
load
worsened
condition in subgrade will
get depression in the
pavement.

RIGID PAVEMENT

1. Under heavy loads, ruptures

occur thereby producing a
crack to the surface.
2. A rigid pavement with the
subgrade
of
varying
strength will not adjust the
irregularities
due
to
different settlement but acts
as a beam or cantilever.
3. Capable of bridging the
small
weakness
and
depressions
in
the
subgrade.

2.2 Differences Between

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

4. Has healing properties

(recomig to shape).
5. Temperature variations
due to atmospheric
conditions
do
not
produce stresses.
6. Strength
of flexible
layer is a result of
building up thick layers
and
thereby
distributing the load
over subgrade.

RIGID PAVEMENT
4. Doesnt have healing
properties.
5. Temperature
variations
produce
heavy
temperature
stresses.
6. Strength of rigid layer
is rather by bending
action.

Comparison Between Flexible

and Rigid Pavement

Comparison Between
CRITERIA

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

RIGID PAVEMENT

1.Design
Precision

LOWflexible pavements
designs are mainly
Empirical.

MORErigid pavements
are designed using
precise structural
analysis.

2.Design Life

10 ~ 20 years

About 40 years

3.Mainteneance Needs frequent

Needs very little

4.Initial Cost

LOW

HIGH

5.Stage
Construction

POSSIBLEintial
minimum thickness can
be provided and
additional overlays are
provided in keeping with
the traffic growth

DO NOT FIT for such

SCHEME

Comparison Between
CRITERIA

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

RIGID PAVEMENT

6. Availability of
Material

Bitumen scarce
resource and imported

Cement can be
produce in the country

7. Surface
Characteristics

Relatively LOW

GOOD produces
pavement surfaces
free from rutting,
potholes and
corrugations with good
riding quality

8. Penetration of
Water

NOT IMPERVIOUS
SURFACE water
enters through pores
and cracks

PRACTICALLY
IMPERVIOUS except at
joints where mud
pumping can takes
place

9.Utility Location

POSSIBLE public
IMPOSSIBLE
utilities such as water
supply pipes, telephone
cables sewer lines, etc
can be buried by

Comparison Between
CRITERIA

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

RIGID PAVEMENT

11. Traffic
Dislocation

Traffic can be opened

SHORTLY after it is
rolled

LONGER Needs 28
days to cure and set
the concrete to gain its
strength

12. Environmental
Considerations
During Construction

MORE HAZARDOUS
by burning bitumen

NO HAZARDOUS

13. Overall Economy

on a Life Cycle Basis

NOT ECONOMICAL

FAR MORE
ECONOMICAL

Difference between Flexible

and Rigid Plates

Flexible Pavement Construction

Rigid Pavements
ADVANTAGES
1.HIGH STRENGTH
compressive, abrasion,
compression-tension
2. GOOD STABILITY water,
heat stability, strength
increases with time
3. DURABILITY20~40 years
4. LOW MAINTENENACE
COSTlarge economic gain,
big investment but long design
period therefore maintenance
cost per year is LOW
5. SUITABILE FOR NIGHT
DRIVING

DISADVANTAGES
1.NECESSITY OF CEMENT AND
WATER ID LARGEfor 20 cm
depth, 7 m wide cement
concrete pavement for every 1
km road needs 400~500 ton
cement and 25 ton water
2.HAVE JOINTS difficult to
construct and maintain, cause
vibration on vehicle
3. DIFFICULT TO REPAIR
repairing work influences the
traffic movement largely
4.PAVEMENT IS QUITE LATELY
AVAILABLE FOR TRAFFIC
OPERATIONS needs 15~20
days

 Concrete (Rigid) Pavement acts more like a Bridge

over the
Subgrade.
Inch-for-inch much Less Pressure is placed on
Materials
below Concrete than Asphalt (Flexible) Pavements.

2.3 Loads and Other Factors

Controlling Pavement
Design/Pavement Design
Parameters/Pavement Design
Factors

2.3 Loads and Other Factors

Controlling Pavement Design
1. Traffic Factors and Loads Characterization
2. Material Characterization - Soil Factors
3. Environmental Factors
4. Failure Criteria

1. Traffic Factors and Loads

Characterization
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement
design.
The key factors include:
a) Tire/Wheel/Axle Loads
b)Axle and Tire Configurations
c) No. of Load Repetitions
d)Moving Loads
e) Traffic Distribution
f) Contact Area
g)Vehicle Speed

A) Tire/Wheel/Axle Loads
Wheel load which determines the depth of the
pavement required to ensure that the sub grade
soil is not failed.
Wheel configurations affect the stress distribution
and deflection within a pavement.
Many commercial vehicles have dual rear wheels
which ensure that the contact pressure is within
the limits.

Axle -The common axis of rotation of one or more

wheels whether power-driven or freely rotating.
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or
gear.

Axle Load
The total weight felt by the roadway for all wheels
connected to a given axle.
In another way, it is the fraction of total vehicle
weight resting on a given axle.

 Single Axle
Load - The total
load transmitted by all
wheels of a single axle
extending the full
width of the vehicle.

Tandem Axles

Tridem Axles

Quad Axles

Axle Loads Practice in Nepal

According to DOTM, Nepal 6 wheel
: 16.2 T
10 wheel
: 25
T
12 wheel (lift axle)
: 31
14 wheel
: 35.2 T

No. of Axle Load Repetitions

The influence of traffic on pavement not only depends on
the magnitude of the wheel load, but also on the
frequency of the load applications.
The number of repetition of loads cause elastic and plastic
deformations.
Each load application causes some deformation and the
total deformation is the summation of all these.
Although the pavement deformation due to single axle
load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of load
repetition is significant.
When a load from a heavy vehicle is applied repetitively to
the pavement it causes certain damage (cumulative
strains in various layers of the pavement)

 The damage caused by each axle depends on its

load, configuration and repetitions.
It is possible to evaluate the damage caused by
the repetitions of each axle load group.
Instead of analyzing each axle load group
separately, they can be converted into equivalent
repetitions of a standard axle using equivalent
axle load factors.
Standard Axle: Single axle with dual wheels
carrying a load of 80 kN (8.16 tonnes or 18,000
lb) is defined as standard axle.

Moving Loads
The damage to the pavement is much higher if
the vehicle is moving at creep speed.
Many studies show that when the speed is
increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the stresses
and deflection reduced by 40 per cent.

Contact Area
The tire pressure is an important factor, as it determines
the contact area and the contact pressure between the
wheel and the pavement surface.
Even though the shape of the contact area is elliptical, for
sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often
considered.
If the effect of the tire wall is ignored, the contact pressure
between the tire and pavement must be equal to the tire
pressure.
For low-pressure tires, contact pressures under the tire wall
may be greater than at the center of the tire.
For high-pressure tires the reverse is true.
For most problem however, the assumption is made that
contact pressures are uniform over the imprint area.

Traffic Distribution
Along with load type and repetitions, the load
distributions across a particular pavement must be
estimated.
For instance, on a 6-lane highway (3 lanes in each
direction) the total number of loads is probably not
distributed exactly equally in both directions.
Often one direction carries more loads than the other.
Furthermore, within that one direction, not all lanes
carry the same loading.
Typically, the outer most lane carries the most trucks
and therefore is subjected to the heaviest loading.
Therefore, pavement structural design should account
for these types of unequal load distribution.

Traffic Distribution Contd

Typically, this is accounted for by selecting a
"design lane" for a particular pavement.
The loads expected in the design lane are either
(1)directly counted or
(2)calculated from the cumulative two-direction
loads by applying factors for directional
distribution and lane distribution.

Vehicle Speed
Speed is directly related to duration of loading.
The greater the speed, larger the modulus of
elasticity and smaller the strains on the pavement.
So higher speed of the vehicles is DESIREABLE.
In general, slower speeds and stop conditions
allow a particular load to be applied to a given
pavement area for a longer period of time
resulting in greater damage.
At bus stops (where heavy buses stop and sit
while
loading/unloading
passengers)
and
intersection approaches (where traffic stops and
waits to pass through the intersection)

2. Soil Factors
Soil under the pavement foundation is seldom
homogeneous.
Large variations may occur in its properties.
To predict the behavior of the soil under different
conditions, it is essential to carry out certain tests.
The soil strength varies with type of the soil, bulk density,
moisture content, permeability, internal structure of the
soil etc.
It also depends upon the method of application of load on
the soil.
We know that the soil strength increase with increase
density and decreasing moisture content.
As the elastic properties of soil are very low, in the design
of flexible pavement, the supporting capacity of sub grade
is very important factor.

2. Soil Factors Contd.

To determine the supporting capacity of sub
grade generally following properties of all the soil
are determined.
Shear Strength
Bearing Capacity
Penetration Resistance of the soil

3. Environmental Factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of
the pavement materials and cause various
damages.
Environmental factors that affect pavement are :
1. Temperature Variations
2. Frost Action and
3. Moisture/Precipitation/Rainfall

Temperature Variations
Temperature affects the resilient modulus of
asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete
slab.

In rigid pavements, due to difference in

temperatures of top and bottom of slab,
temperature stresses or frictional stresses are
developed.

Frost Action
Frost heave causes differential settlements and
pavement roughness.

Most detrimental effect of frost penetration

occurs during the spring break up period when
the ice melts and sub grade is a saturated
condition.

Moisture/Precipitation/Rainfall
The precipitation from rain and snow affects the
quantity of surface water infiltrating into the sub
grade and the depth of ground water table.

Poor drainage may bring lack of shear strength,

pumping, loss of support, etc.

4. Failure Criteria
1. Fatigue Cracking

Is due to the build up of tensile strain at the

bottom of Asphaltic Concrete Layer
Pavement is considered failed if 20% of the surface
has cracked

2. Rutting Failure

Is due to the build up of excessive compressive

strain at the top of subgrade layer
Pavement is considered failed if it exhibits a rut
depth of 20 mm

Equivalent single wheel load

To carry maximum load with in the specified limit
and to carry greater load, dual wheel, or dual
tandem assembly is often used.
Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single
wheel load having the same contact pressure,
which produces same value of maximum stress,
deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at
the desired depth.
The procedure of finding the ESWL for equal
stress criteria is provided below.

 This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and

Foster method, based on the following assumptions:
equalancy concept is based on equal stress;
contact area is circular;
influence angle is 450; and
soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half
space.
The ESWL is given by:

Where,
P = wheel load,
S = center to center distance between the two wheels,
d = clear distance between two wheels, and
z = desired depth

Numerical Example 1
Find ESWL at depths of 5 cm, 20 cm and 40 cm
for a dual wheel carrying 2044 kg each. The
center to center tyre spacing is 20 cm and
distance between the walls of the two tyres is 10
cm.

Solution:
1) For desired depth z = 40 cm, which is twice the
tyre spacing,
ESWL = 2P = 22044 = 4088 kN
2) For z = 5cm, which is half the distance between
the walls of the tyre,
ESWL = P = 2044kN
2) For z = 20 cm,

Therefore, ESWL

Equivalent Single Axle Load

Vehicles can have many axles which will
distribute the load into different axles, and in turn
to the pavement through the wheels.
A Standard Truck has two axles, front axle with
two wheels and rear axle with four wheels.
But to carry large loads multiple axles are
provided. Since the design of flexible pavements
is by layered theory, only the wheels on one side
needed to be considered.
On the other hand, the design of rigid pavement
is by plate theory and hence the wheel load on
both sides of axle need to be considered.

 Legal Axle Load:

The maximum allowed axle load on the roads is
called legal axle load.
For highways the maximum legal axle load in
India, specified by IRC, is 10 tonnes.

Standard Axle Load:

It is a single axle load with dual wheel carrying 80
KN load and the design of pavement is based on
the standard axle load.

 Tareweightsometimes calledUnladen Weight,

is theweightof an empty vehicle or container.

By subtracting it from the GrossWeight(Laden

Weight), theweightof the goods carried (the
netweight) may be determined.
Laden = fully loaded

Unladen = empty

Repetition of Axle Loads

The deformation of pavement due to a single
application of axle load may be small but due to
repeated application of load there would be
accumulation of unrecovered or permanent
deformation which results in failure of pavement.
If the pavement structure fails with N1 number of
repetition of load W1 and for the same failure
criteria if it requires N2 number of repetition of load
W2, then W1N1 and W2N2 are considered equivalent.
Note that, W1N1 and W2N2 equivalency depends on
the failure criterion employed.

Equivalent Axle Load Factor

An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per
pass to a pavement by the ith type of axle relative to the
damage per pass of a standard axle load. While finding the
EALF, the failure criterion is important. Two types of failure
criterion are commonly adopted: fatigue cracking and rutting.
The fatigue cracking model has the following form:

where,
Nf = number of load repetition for a certain percentage of
cracking,
t = tensile strain at the bottom of the binder course,
E = modulus of elasticity, and
f1; f2; f3 = constants

 If we consider fatigue cracking as failure criteria,

and a typical value of 4 for f2, then:

where, i indicate ith vehicle, and std indicate the

standard axle.
Now if we assume that the strain is proportional
to the wheel load,

 Similar results can be obtained if rutting model is used, which is:

Where,
Nd = permissible design rut depth (say 20mm),
c = compressive strain at the top of the subgrade, and
f4; f5 = constants.
Once we have the EALF, then we can get the ESAL as given
below.

where,,
m = number of axle load groups,
Fi = EALF for ith axle load group, and
ni = number of passes of ith axle load group during the design
period.

Numerical Example 1
Find the equivalent axle load. If the number of
load repetition expected by 80 KN standard axle
is 1000, 160 KN is 100 and 40 KN is 10000.
Solution:
Refer the Table. The ESAL is given as Fini = 3225
kN

Numerical Example 2
Find the equivalent standard axle load if the
equivalence criteria is rutting if the number of
load repetition expected by 120 kN axle is 1000,
160 kN is 100, and 40 kN is 10,000. Assume 80
kN as standard axle load and he rutting model is
where f4 = 4.2 and f5 = 4.5.

Solution:
Refer the Table. The ESAL is given as Fini =
8904.94 kN.

Numerical Example 3
Find the equivalent axle load using fatigue cracking
as failure
criteria according to IRC if the number of load
repetition
expected by 60kN standard axle is 1000, 120kN is
200 and 40 kN
is 10000.

Solution:
Refer the Table. The ESAL is given as Fini =
6030.81 kN

Fig. ESWL-Equal tress Concept

2.4 Design Methods for

Flexible Pavements- CBR,
Road Note 29, 31,
AASHTO

Design Methods for Flexible

Pavements

1.

Design Methods of Flexible

Pavements

Mechanistic(Theoretical/Analytical) Design Approach

Based on Boussinesqs Theory
Based on Burmisters Theory
2. Empirical Design Approach
Group Index Method
CBR (California Bearing Ratio) Method
Road Note 29 Method
Road Note 31/ Catalogue Method
IRC Method
IRC Recommended CBR Method (IRC 37: 1970)
IRC 37: 1984
IRC 37: 2001
AASHTO Method
3. Mechanistic-Empirical Design Approach Semi-empirical Design Approach
Triaxial Method
Asphalt Institute Method