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  • Otto 1988 Noisereduction

    Încărcat de

    Vinod K Jacob
    52 vizualizări19 pagini
    A textbook for Electronic Instrumentation

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    A textbook for Electronic Instrumentation

    Drepturi de autor:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd
    Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat
    52 vizualizări19 pagini

    Otto 1988 Noisereduction

    Încărcat de

    Vinod K Jacob
    A textbook for Electronic Instrumentation

    Drepturi de autor:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Descărcați ca PDF sau citiți online pe Scribd
    Indicator pentru conținut neadecvat
    din 19
    1 intRoDuCTION ‘The widespread use of electronic circuits for communicati automation, and other purposes makes it necessary for d operate in close proximity. All too often these circuits adversely. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) has becon Jem for circuit designers, and it is likely to become mo future. The large number of electronic devices in comm responsible for this trend, In addition the use of integr large-scale integration has reduced the size of electroni circuitry has become smaller and more sophisticated, more crowded into less space, thus increasing the probability of Today's equipment designers need to do more than systems operate under ideal conditions in the laborato obvious task, they must also make sure the equipment wil the “real world,” with other equipment nearby. This equipment should not be affected by external noise source! itself be a source of noise to the environment. Eleciromagn (EMC) should be a major design objective In Fig. 1-1 the block diagram of a radio receiver is used depict the various types of interference that ean occur in wiring between the various stages conducts noise, and so noise. In addition ground currents trom the various stage commen ground impedence and produce a noise voltage 01 Flectric and magnetic field coupling between signals in var also shown. ‘These noise problems are exampies of intraeq ence that must be solved before the radio will operate i When the radio is installed in the “real world” it bec additional external noise sources, such as shown in Fig, are conducted into the receiver on the ac power line, and | 48 exposed to electromagnetic radiation from various sou the noise sources are not under the designer's control. H ‘must sill be designed to operate in this environment. Figure 1-3 depicts the other side of the noise problem. 1 source of noise that may interfere with other equipment, P radiate noise directly, and the power cable conducts noise Noise current flowing in the power lead causes the lead to noise. Designing equipment to minimize noise generat important as designing equipment that is not susceptible 1 iwracouerion TX. ane tronic equipment such at tis radio can eit nts tht may interfere wth ober raion of cise ding equipment design can avoid thew emissions ny electrical signal present in a circuit other than the desired efinition does not apply to the distortion products produced in o nonlinearities. Although these distortion products may be they are not considered noise unless they get coupled into of the circuit. It follows that a desired signal in one part of a idered 10 be noise only if coupled to some other part of the ces can be grouped into three categories: (1) intrinsic noise rise from random fluctuations within physical systems, such as shot noise, (2) man-made noise sources. such ax motors, ‘al electronics, and radio transmitters, and (3) noise due to pances, such as lightning and sunspots. » is the undesirable effect of noise. If a noise voltage causes ration Of a circuit, it is interference. Noise cannot be el ‘reduced in magnitude, until it no longer causes interference. 3 FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY ic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of an electronic system ' properly in its intended electromagnetic environment, and DESIGNING FOR ELECTRONAGNETIC COMPATABILITY (2) not be a source of pollution to that environment, The environment is composed of both radiated and conducte therefore has two aspects, emission and susceptibility Susceptibility is the capability of a device or circui unwanted electrical energy (i.e.. noise). The susceptibility or device is the noise environment in which the equipm satisfactorily, without degradation, and with a defined marg opposite of susceptibility is immunity. One difficulty in dete ty (or susceptibility) levels is defining what constitutes pet dation Emission pertains to the interterence-causing potential purpose of controlling emissions is to limit the electro emitted, and thereby contro] the electromagnetic enviro other products must operate. Controlling the emission fr may eliminate an interference problem for many other pro it is desirable to control emission in an attempt top tromagnetically compatible environment. ‘To some extent susceptibility is self-regulating. If a prod to the environment, the customer will become aware of continue to purchase it. Emission, on the other hand, self-regulating. A product that is the source of emission ma by that emission. As a result various regulatory bodie standards to control emissions from certain classes of prod EMC design can be approached in either of 6vo ways: ‘approach, and the other is the systems approach. In the cr designer proceeds with a total disregard of EMC until the ¢ and testing or—worse yet—field experience suggests that Solutions, implemented at this late stage, are usually expe of undesirable “add-ons.” This is often referred 10 as approach. AS equipment development progresses from design tc Production, the varicty of noise mitigation techniques designer decreases steadily. Concurrently, cost goes up. 7 shown in Fig, I-4, Early solutions to interference problem usually best and least expensive. ‘The systems approach considers EMC throughout the signer anticipates EMC problems at the beginning of the p remaining problems in the breadboard and early prototype the final prototypes for EMC as thoroughly as. possible becomes an integral part of both the electrical and mechani Product. As a result EMC is designed into—an Product, and this is a more cost-effective approach, If noise suppression is considered for one stage o sub: when the equipment is being designed, the noise mitigatio simple and straightforward. Experience has shown that whe sion is handled this way, the designer should be able to prc not 2 1 = wrRoouenioN DESIGN TESTING PHASE PHASE a PaooUcTION PHASE ES EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT. TIME SCALE F equipmen development proceeds, the number of avaiable noisereduction down. AV the sare time the com of nots reduction goer up, F more of the potential noise problems eliminated prior to her hand, a sysiem designed with complete distegard to noise will almost always have noise problems when testing begins, that time, to find which of the many possible noise path S are contributing to the problem, may not be simple or ulions at this late stage usually involve the addition of extra that are not integral parts of the circuit, Penalties paid include gineering cost and the cost of the mitigation components and tion. There also may be size, weight, and power dissipation ULATIONS insight into the problem of interference and the obligations of esigners can be gained from a review of some of the more vernment and military EMC regulations and specifications, tions, dl States. the Federal Communications Commission. (ECC) use of radio snd wire communications. Part of its responsibility control of interference. Three sections of the FCC Rules and have requirements that are applicable to noniicensed elec: ent. These are Part 15 (for radio-frequency devices), Part 18 | Repultions, Tite 47, [Evie REGULATIONS. (for industrial, scientific and medical equipment), and Pa ‘ment connected to the telephone network). Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations sets forth te and operational requirements for radio-frequency devices. , cy device is any device that in its operation is capable of tionally or unintentionally, radio-frequency energy by radia ‘or some other means. Radio-frequency energy is defined by electromagnetic energy in the frequency range of 10 kt standards have a twofold purpose: to provide for the operat transmitters without a radio station license and to contro authorized racio communications services that may be cas. that emits radio-frequency energy or noise as a by-product Digital electronics fall into the latter category. Part 18 of the FCC Rules and Regulations sets forth tec and operational conditions for industrial, scientific, and me (ISM equipment). ISM equipment is defined as any device ‘waves for industrial, scientific, medical, or any other purpo transfer of energy by radio) and that is neither used nor inte for radio communications. Included are medical diathe industrial heating equipment, RF welders, RF lighting devic to produce physical changes in matter, and other relate cations devices Patt 68 of the FCC Rules and Regulations provides unifo! the protection of the telephone network from harm caused tion of terminal equipment (including PBX systems) and its the compatibility of hearing aids and telephones to ensure t hearing aids have reasonable access to the telephone nctwo telephone network includes electrical hazards to telephone ers, damage to telephone company equipment, malfuncti company billing equipment, and degradation of service t than the user of the terminal equipment, his calling or call FCC Part 15, Subpart J The FCC rule of general interest is Part 15, Subpart J beca almost all digital electronics. In September 1979 the FCC lations to control the interference potential of digital ele computing devices by the FCC). These regulations, “Tech for Computing Equipment” (Docket 20780), amended Part ules relating to restricted radiation devices, and they are n Part 15, Subpart J of Title 47 of The Code of Federal Reg these rules, limits are placed on the maximum allowable ra In the frequency range of 30 to 1000 MHz and on the max conducted emission on the ac power line in the frequency r 30 MHz, 1 eyimoDucTION regulations were the result of increasing complaints 10 the FCC ference to radio and television reception where digital electronics tified as the source of the interference. In this ruling the FCC said cis have deen reported to cause interference to __pavteslary the services below 20) Mite, sal and broadcast services. Several factors contributing (ie! (1) gal caupment ts become more rai thoughout sur oc, How beng Old for we in the homey (2) technolo his noceeat a f computers to the point where the computer desiger gees frequency and electromagnetic interference (EMI) oukleee most all radio including poli defines a computing device as tronic device or sysicm that generates and usos timing pulses at a cate Of 10,00 pulses (eles) por second and uses digital techniques of telephone equipment that uses digital techniques or any device os at generates andl utilizes radio frequency eneigy fer the purpose wt dain processing functions, such a5 electonie computations, open Fansformations, ‘recording, fling, sorting, storage. retrieval’ ay fon was intentionally made broad to include as many products as tus if product uses digital circuitry and has a clock frequency | 10 kHz, it is a computing device under the FCC definition, Thi vers most digital electronics manufactured today, ne devices covered by this definition are di led into two classes: A computing device that is marketed for use in a commercial, industrial, or business environment. . A computing device that is marketed for use in a residential environment, notwithstanding its use ina commercial, indus: trial, or business environment, . B devices are more likely to be located in closer proximity to crision receivers, the emission limits for these devices are about restrictive than those for Class A devices hese technical standards is the obligation of the manufacturer or @ product, To guarantee compliance, the FCC requires the fo test the product for compliance before the product can be ENC FESULATIONS complies with the rules, it cannot legally be advertised sin considered an offer for sale, In order to legally advertise a compliance, the advertisement must contain a statement t subject 10 FCC rules and will comply with the rules prior 1 For petsonal computers and theit peripherals (a subcateg the manufacturer must submit the test data to the FCC a fication trom the FCC before it can market the product. ‘T tan, if it 50 desires, ask for a sample product to test befor certification. For all other products (Class A and Class Bother computers and their peripherals) the manufacturer must ve by testing the product before marketing it. Verification isa procedure where nothing is submitted to the FCC unless quested. Compliance is by random sampling of products by ‘The time required to do the compliance tests product fails), and the time required to obtain certific Commission (if required), should be scheduled into the pre ment timetable Testing must be done on a sample that is representative units, This usually involves a production or preproductio Pliance testing must therefore be one of the last items in t timetable. This is no time for unexpected surprises! If the p est, changes at this point are diffiealt and expensive. desirable to approach the final compliance test with a | confidence that the product will pass. ‘This ean be done if ( design principles (as discussed in this book) have been used design and (2) preliminary emission testing was done on ea subassemblies ‘These rules aot only specify the technical standards (Limits must satisty but also the administrative procedures that m and the measuring methods that must be used to determine should be noted that the limits and the measurement | interrelated. The derived limits were based on specified Procedures. Therefore compliance measurements must be | the procecure outlined by the FCC in FCC/OST MP-4 “Fé Measurement of Racio Noise Emissions from Computing Appendix F), Tests must be made on a complete system, with all cables configured in a reasonable way that tends to maximize the For radiated emission the measurement procedure specific (or equivalent) measurement made over 2 ground plane with (6: other correlatable, linearly polarized) antenna. This is sh Table 1-1 gives the radiated emission limits for a Class A Measured at a distance of 30m, and Table 1-2 lists the limit Product when measured at a distance of 3m. ANTENNA SEARCH HEGHT 14 m J+ woRZonTaL & VERTICAL POCA em / FeCeIveR en field este Jor PCC raded emi v 0" FCC radiied miston xt. Equipment under test (EUT) i ‘able 1-1 _FOC Class A Raciated Emission Limits Measuring Field Frequency Distan si ce Wrength (Mz) (m) (aVien) 30-88) 30 0 88-215 30 50 216-1000) 30 0 ‘Table 1-2 FCC Clase B Radiated Emiesion Limits Mensuring Field Praueney Distance Strength (MH) (m) (vim) 20-88 3 as-2i6 3 I ___216-1000 3 200 See Soran 6 Tie EMC REGULATIONS ‘A comparison hetween the Class A and Class B limits mus same measuring distance. Therefore, if the Class A limits to the 3-m measuring distance (using a 1/r extrapolation), jts can then be compared as shown in Fig. 1-6. As can b B limits are more restrictive by about a factor of 3 (10dB Conducted emission limits are specified in the rules 0: believes that at frequencies below 30 MHz the primary caus wih communications occurs by conducting rf energy onto t and subsequently radiating it from the power line, “Table 1-3 shows both the Class A and B conducted emiss voltages are measured common-mode (hot to ground, ground) on the 2c power line using a 5012/50 4H line in gation network (LISN) as specified in the measurement “Appendix F). Figure 1-7 shows a typical FCC-conducted em Not only must a device be tested for compliance wi standards, but it must also be labeled as compliant, and infc provided to the user on its interference potential. In addition to the technical specifications mentioned earl contain a noninterference requirement which states that if w causes harmful interference, the user can be required to ce the device. Notice the difference in responsibility betwe CUS A FIELD STRENGTH (am) T 200 |— OUAse @ ptt tiviit _j__t_ 0 2 % © 10 0 so FREQUENCY (MH) igure 14, FCC Part 13, Subpart J radited emission bits measured 1 wmpooucion ‘Table 1-3 FCC Conducted Emission Limite Frequency Class A ‘Class B (Me) (HY) (ay) 045-16 1000 250 16-20 3000 250 ns and the nonintesference requirement. Although the technical nis the responsibility of the manufacturer or importer of the © noninterference requirement is the responsibility of the user of pn to the initial certification or verification of a product, the rules ‘that the manufacturer is responsible for the continued com. ubsequenily manufactured equipment. ze is made to a compliant product, the manufacturer or importer onsibility to determine whether that change has an effect on the of the product. The FCC hes cautioned manufacturers (Public . April 7, 1982) to note that P86, which on their ce scem insignificant, ate in fict ve ‘Thu change inthe layout of cit boar, or the dition 80 em MIN BOND METER, LISN & \ ‘GROUND PLANE TOGETHER = ECEIVER re 1-7. Tesi setup for FCC conducted emission mensuremeats, {BMC REGULATIONS, removal or even rerouting of a wire, or even a change in the | surely change the emission characteristics of the device ‘change in characteristics is enough to throw the product out of best be deiermined by retesting ‘At the time of this writing (July 1987), the FCC exempted five subciasses of digital devices from meetin standards of the requirements. These are 1, Digital electronics built into a transportation vehicl plane, or boat. 2. Industrial control systems used in an industrial plant, utility 3, Industrial, commercial, and medical test equipment. 4. Microprocessor controlled appliances, such as a dis nyet, or power tool 5, Specialized medical devices, generally used at the di the supervision of a licensed health care practitioner Each of these devices is subject to the noninterferenee re rules. Since the exemptions mentioned are temporary they of any new rule-making procedure initiated by the FCC. Th form of publishing a Notice of Proposed Rule-Making, comments from industry; after the comments are revie issued. If there actually is interference from any of these ucts, a new rule might be made. Therefore it is prudent | turer to design all equipment to meet the technical reat rules. ‘A. general overview of these regulations is. containe Bulletin 62 (1984) Since the FCC has purview over many types of elec including digital electronics, design and development orgs have a complete and current set of the FCC rules applicabl products they produce. These rules should be referenced d to avoid subsequent embarrassment when and if a con stration is required. International Harmonization Tt would be desirable to have one international standat emission from electronic products instead of many differe dards, Then 2 manufacturer could design and test & prodi Standard that would be acceptable worldwide. ‘The most likely vehicle for accomplishing this objectiv. onal Special Committee on Radio Interference (CISPR, 1+ irmooueTion CISPR was formed in 1034 to determine measurement methods for radio-frequency interference in order to facilitate international SPR has no regulatory authority, but iis standards, when adopted iments, become national standards. In 1985 CISPR adopted a new nssion standards (Publication 22) for Information ‘Fechnology t (cigital electronics). Many European countries have adopted zements as their national standard, and more are expected to do uture. The United States, as a voting member of CISPR, voted in he new standard. This put considerable pressure on the FCC to same standards. Therefore the limits of CISPR Publication 22 are ecome the international EMC standard 8 compares the new CISPR radiated emission standard with the °C standard. The FCC limits have been extrapolated to a 10-1 Gistance for this comparison. As can be seen, the CISPR limits estrictive in the frequency range from 88 to 230 MHz. From 88 0 he CISPR Class A limit is 3.5 dB more restrictive, and from 216 2 the CISPR Class A limit is 6.5 dB more restrictive than the Tequirements compares the new CISPR narrowband conducted emission the present FCC standard. A major diffrence is that CISPR it in the frequency range of 150 to 450 kHz where no FCC limit Xts, For Class A products the CISPR standard is 9.5dB more rom 1.6MHz to 30MHz. For Class B products the CISPR 2B more restrictive from 0.5 to 5 MHz. SS el ite MEASURING OISTANCE=10n cuss A classe 1 csen eel rt Lo ae © a FREQUENCY (Mhz) * Pari 15, Subpart F and CISPR, Publication 22, radiated ervision tims ance of 10m. ENC REGULATIONS 65 ciser oo —— YYOURGE (4844) & ciseA a “oozes 05 1 28 8 0 a FREQUENCY (MH) Figure 19. FCC Part 15, Subpart J and CISPR, Publication 22, nar lerusion lint Susceptibility wugust 1982 the U.S. Congress amended the Commu 13 (hue Bi #3259) we pve te FOC sey tity of home electronics equipment and systems, Exa efestroni equipment ar radio at television set, home by scenity systems, antomatc garage door opener, electri tumbles, and stereo/high fidelity amplifer systems. At tion is aimed primarily at home equipment and stems, i Prevent the FCC from adopting standards for devies th Outside the home, To date, however, the FCC tas no authority. Although it published an inquiry into the Pr Frequency Interference to Electronic Equipment (Gene 78-368), the FCC relies on self-regulation by industry, become lax inthis respests the FCC may move to eters Surveys ofthe electromagnetic environment (Heirman have shown that a field strength greater than 2V/m occurs time. Since there is no legal suseptiblty requirement equipment, 2 reasonable immunity level objective would b The government of Canad his released an Elestromag ty Advisory Bulletin (EMCAB 1) in which it defines three of immunity for electronic equipment and states the follow 1+ wteIODUCTION. clucts that meet GRADE formance degradation, ducts that meet GRADE 2 (3V/m) are unlikely to experience radation, ducts that meet GRADE 3 e degradation only under vei 1 (W/m) are likely to experience (10 W/m) should experience perform Ty arduous circumstances, y Standards portant group of EMC specifications are those issued by the triment of Defense. MIL-STD-461B specifies the limits that muct nd MIL-STD-462 specifies the test methods and procedures for © tests contained in MIL-STD-461B. These standards are more han the FCC regulations because they cover susceptibility ay nell n, and the frequency range from 30 Hi to 40GHy t Procedures specified in MIL-STD-462 are quite different than ied by the ECC. and this makes direct comparison of the Ms diffcnt. For radiated emission the military siandard specifica rember (shielded room) testing, whereas the FCC rules requise {esting. For conducted emission testing the military measocs I the FCC messures voltage. *gories of tests specified by MIL e block diagram in Fig. 1-10. Tests ted emissions as well as radiated 4 list of the emission and suscepti D-461B. The Military Specificatio ‘aan also be used by indus ‘free nonmilitary equipment. -STD-461B are oxganized 2s are required for both radiated and conducted suseptibility lity requirements established iS a comprehensive docu: try as a guideline for designing - NOISE PATH gram of 2 typical noise path is shown in Fig. I-11. As can he fements are necessary {0 produce a noise problem. Fist there toise source. Second, there must be 2 r receptor circuit that is {he noise. Third, there must be a coupling channel to traname m the source to the receiver. ‘ep in analyzing « noise problem is to define the problem. This is raining what the noise source is, what the receptor is, and how < Teceptor are coupled together. It follows that there are thee the noise path: (1) the noise can be suppressed at the source, or can be made insensitive to the noise, or (3) the transmission coupling channel can be minimized. In some cases, noise echiniques must be applied to two. or to all three parts of the VAGNETIC FELD ELECTRIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBLITY TESTS [mone] ; L ae L seqes a reaeae EMENTS mist 4514, SPECIFICATION TEST EMISSION TESTS CONDUCTED. RADIATED POWER LEADS MAGNETIC FIELD ELECTRIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC (CONDUCTED POWER LEADS CONTROL AND SIGNAL LEADS L 1+ netpoouctioN Emission and Susceptibility Requirements of ML-STo-4619 ADIT Recutrorente of ONLSTOWCHO A Description Conducted emissions, power and interconnecting leads low-frequency (up to 15 kH2) Conducted emissions, power and interconnecting leads 9.015 t0 50 MHz Conducted emissions, antenna terminals 10kHz to 26 GHz Conitucted emissions, power leads, spikes, time demain Conducted susceptibility, power leads, 40 Hz to SOkHz Conducted susceptibility, power leads, 0.05 to 400 ME Intermodulation, 15 kHiz to 10 GHz Rejection of undesired signals, 30 Hz to 20 GHe Cross modulation, 30 Hz t0 20 GHz Conducted susceptibility, spikes, power leads Conducted susceptibility, squelch circuits Concucted susceptibility, structure (common-mode) ‘current, 60 Hz 10 100 kHz Radiated emissions, magnetic field, 003 to SOkHz Radieted emissions, electric field, 14 kH2 to 10 Giz Radiated emissions, spurious and harmonics, radiated technique Racisted susceptibility, magnetic fel, 0.09 to 50 kHz Radiated susceptibility, magnetic induction field, spikes and power frequencies Radiated suscepibility, electric field, 14 kFz to 40GHz Radiated emissions tactical and special purpose vehicles and enginc-driven equipment Conducted emissions and radiated emissions and suscept- ‘bility, energy generators, and associated component UPS and MEP equipments Conducted and radiated emissions, commercial electrical and electromechanical equipments ao ee! | cample, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1-12. It shows @ motor connected to its motor-drive circuit. Motor noise is vith @ low-level circuit in the same equipment. Commutator he motor is conducted out of the shield on the leads Boing to the _ From the leads, noise is radiatod to the low-level ercuitry ample, the noise source consists of the ares between the brushes mutator. The coupling channel has two parts: conduetion on the and radiation from the leads, The receptor is the low-level 8 ease not much ean be done about the source or the receptor, e interference must be climinated by breaking the coupling *¢ conduction out of the shield or radiation from the leads must both steps may be necessary. This example is discussed more ter S Use oF Neon THEORY couruns j SboRGE crane Pe 1, Dre ve canbe problon hae mut bes noe so fsceptbte tothe noise, and a coupling channel that transris the nose 10 ron nose coxrnot een ‘Sncut Low. tor, and the rece ger IsI2. In his exemple the noise source & them: BPE rae cope sed ce of ofan ote nor mp fom the wae USE OF NETWORK THEORY the exact answer to the question of how any electric space variables (x, y, z) and of time (1), Solutions for any problems are usually very complex. To avoid this comple mato analysis technique called “electric circuit analysis” ist ‘design procedures | Crit analysis eliminates the spa variables and provi solutions as a function of time only. Circuit analysis assum 1. All electric fickls are confined to the interiors of eap 2. All magnetic fickds ate confined to the interiors of in 3. Dimensions of the circuits are small compared to t inder consideration. impli al fields, even What is really implied is that extemal fields, Present, can be neglected in the solution of the network. Y. fields may not necessarily be neglected where their effect or concerned, 1 + intmcoucion, sample, a 100-W power amplifier may radiate 100mW of power, (mW are completely negligible as far as the analysis of the power concerned. However, if only a small percentage of this radizted Picked up on the input of a sensitive amplifier, it may produce signal ver possible, noise coupling channels component networks. For instance, eileen two conductors ean be repres: vo conductors (See Fig. 1-13). A ti vo conductors can be represented by cuits (see Fig. 1-14) ‘approach (0 be Valid, the physical dimensions of the circuits must airPared to the wavelengths of the signals involved. This assump: de throughout most of this book, and it is normally reasonable le, the wavelength of a I-MHz signal is approximately 300 m. For signal, itis 1m. For most electronic circuits, the dimensions are an this, hea this assumption is not tnuly valid, the lumped component tion is still useful for the following reasons are represenied as equivalent a time-varying electric field ‘ented by & capacitor connect- ime-varying magnetic field that 'y a mutual inductance between solution of Maxwell's e ‘quations is not practical for most “real a. hoise problems because of the complicated boundary condi red component representation, althou, ih it docs not necessarily the correct numetical answer, does clearly show how noise ELeorhie ast) i IuPeDaNce S) TO GROUND yy 2 PHYSICAL EQUIVALENT REPRESENTATION ‘ciRCUIT tho leu are coupled by an cleceic fel, the coupng can be repretented Use OF NerWonk THEORY conoucror ONCURREN ‘conoucToF MAGNETIC. FELD PHYSICAL REPRESENTATION, i 2 Mian, oe } Yo=hahtals le EQUIVALENT ‘cincuT Figure 1-14. When oo circuin are coupled by a magnetic jie, the coup (af 6 mutual inductance, ters. On the other han depends on the system parameters. Maxwells equations, even i poste, does nc bow clearly In general, the numerical values of the pups comnone iffie calculate with any precision, except for certain fle. Gos oo cutis ues ti ioe comp be ting neat canon vy ie een we econ efined in a qualitative sense. + npoDUCTION ODS OF NOISE COUPLING ‘ctively Coupled Noise € most obvious, but often overlooked, way looked, ways to couple noise into a conductor. A wire run through e " a ugh a noisy environment may pic then conduct ito another crit There cases ore Gf s to prevent the wire from picking up the noise. or to remove “em it, by decoupling before it interferes with the suscepuble jor example in this cate supply leads, Ifthe des ply, or if other equipment is connected 10 th = ted to the power supply, it extsary to decouple the noe from the wares belo ter et @ through Common Impedance 2 10 circuit | through the common ground impedance. nin Fig. 1-16, Any change in the supply current required by carourr oe circu 3 1 i t i ‘GROUND ‘GROUND 1 ouno cunRenr WE fUND. I LTAGE 1 GROUND ee got 1 ‘cbumon RCUIT 2 ¥ ‘GROUND | = IMPEDANCE. y en ow clcuis share a common und caren IRI omen ground, the soul vole of each one ke MISCELLANEOUS Noise souRcES ine, owen ‘coMMON LINE SUPPLY IMPECANCES sadace Flgere 1-16. Wher ww circuits use a common power supply, curren dramn the voltae athe oer cicuit, circuit 2 will aifect the voltage at the terminals of ciceu common impedances of the power supply lines and the impedance of the power supply. Some improvement ean connectng the leads from circuit 2 closer to the powe terminals, thus decreasing the magnitude of the common ‘The coupling through the power supply's internal impedar however. Electric and Magnetic Fields Radiated electric and magnetic ficlds provide another coupling. All circuit elements including conductors radiate fields whenever charge is moved. In addition to this uninter there is the probleia of intentional radiation from sources s stations and radar transmitters. When the receiver is clo (acar field), elecirie and magnetic fields are considered s the receiver is far from the source (far fcld), the radiation combined electric and magnetic or electromagnetic radiat MISCELLANEOUS NOISE SOURCES Galvanic Action If dissimilar metals are used in the signal path in low-level. voltage may appear duc to the galvanic action between the Presence of moisture or water vapor in conjunction with produces a chemical wet cell, The voltage developed dep *See Chapter 6 for an explanation of near eld and fa Fil 11+ wrmecuenon *d and is related to their positions in the i sition: galvanie series shown in The farther apart the metals are on this table, the larger the voltage. If the metals are the same no potential difference can on © produeing a noise vote, the us of similar metals can corrosion problem. Gahaticcoroson eames poate neta 1 be transeried to the other one. THs pratt Ga rial 0 be destroyed. The rate of cotrntes seyonea ee etont of the envionment and how fer pan the tle ee oe nes, The farther apor the mca ate inthe patter vee tee on transfer. An undesirable, but common, combination of mete mand copps Wil this combination, the luminuns a oereas {he reteon slows down eonierbly, however the ee Keadtin solder since aluminum and lesdstn welder ng ae cera. ments are needed before galvanic action can occur: e material (higher rank in Table 1-5 olyte (usually present as moisture) de material (lower rank in Table 1-5) tcting electrical connection between anode and cathode it as a leakage path). eng Cel Wvanie Series DIC END plible & corrosion) 1. Magnesium 13, Neel (asta) 14 Bras 2. Zine 15. Copper 5. Galvanized ste 16, Brome & Aluminie 28° Group tv 7, Come toy 5 Cadmium 18, More 6. Aluminum 1757 BF. Ser totie 20, Nickel (passivey” 2 Sea 21, Stainless sel 9. Stainless steel a (active) 2. Siner 0. Lendstin solder Group V3, Canthte 1 Lead 24 Gold 2 Tin 25. Platinum CATHODIC END, | (Least suseptbe f certoxon) mersion in a strongly oxidizing acielc solation MSOELLANEOUS NOIeE coURCES CORROSION. caTHODE t NO MOISTURE > BETWEEN ELECTAOL Figure 1-17. Galvani action can occur if wo dissilar metals are joined on the sorjace Galvanic action can take place even if moisture does not anode and cathode. All that is needed is some. moistur where the two metals come together, as shown in Fig. 1-1 As seen in Table 1-5, the metals of the galvanic serie: five groups. When dissimilar metals must be combined, it metals from the same group, Electrolytic Action A second type of corrosion is due to electrolytic action. irect current flowing between two metals with an eleetrol be slightly acidic ambient moisture) between them. This t does not depend on the two metals used and will occur eve same. The rate of corrosion depends on the magnitude of the conductivity of the electrolyte Triboolectric Effect A change can be produced on the dielectric materi with dielectric docs not maintain contact with the cable conduct the triboclectric effect. It is usually caused by mechanies sable. The charge acts as 2 noise voltage source within the ing shorp bends and cablo motion minimizes this effect noise” cable is available in which the cable is chemically tre the possibility of charge buildup on the dieleetrc. ‘Conductor Motion Ifa wire is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is ends of the wire. Due to power Wiring and other circuits \ flow, stray magnetic fields exist in most environments. low-level signal is then allowed to move through this field, 1+ mempooueTion in the wire. This problem can environment. The solution is sin nps and other tie-down devices be especially troublesome in a mple: prevent wiring motion with DDS OF ELIMINATING INTERFERENCE ving chapters present techni iques by which interference between circuits can be nated, or at least reduced. The primary vailable for combatting interference are listed as follows: ding inding ncing ing ion ‘ation and orientation it impedance level control design llation techniques (frequency or time domain). x B, presented in the form of a checklist, nonly used is a summary of the reduction techniques. ‘Even with all these ailable, it should be remembered that noise usually cannot be itcan only be minimized to the point where it no longer causes It the simplest cases, a si oblem may not exist, ‘Com = many alternative solutio disagreement. In this be ingle unique solution to the noise promises are generally required, and sis tbe best can be the suyec at ook we wil present the techniguse for decreasing interference: Decsion on whith tale ised in @ specific case, however, ate things that mu Dy the system design engineer, . Pe Y "8 equipment that does not generate noise is as important as g equipment that is not susceptible to noise osteffective, noise suppression should be contidered early in urces can De grouped into three categories: (1) intrinsic noise (2) man-made moise sources, and (3) noise due to natural ices, OOCRNTHY al lectonis devizes must comply with th BD aces cave toc ty can be mated in 4 The following are temporary exempt trom the FCC Digialelettonks in ransporation vehicles Industria control systems Test equipment Home applances Specialized medical devices © Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of an elec function properly in its intended electromagnetic envi ¢ Elvetromagnetic compatibility has two aspects, emis tibility © Electromagnetic compatibility should be a major desi ¢ Three items are necessary to produce a noise probler A noise source A coupling channel A susceptible receptor ‘ The three primary means of noise coupling are the f Conductive coupling Common impedance coupling Coupling by radiated electromagnetic fields '* Mcials in contact with each other must be galvanical '# There are many techniques by which noise can 6 electronic system; a unique solution to most noise re does not exist BIBLIOGRAPHY Bell Laboratories. Piyscal Design of Electronic Sysiems. Vol. 2 trochemstry and Protection of Surfaces), Prentice ll, Engl 1970 CISPR, Pablicaion 22.~Limiis and Methods of Measuremeat of Characteristics of Information Technology Equipment.” 1985, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47 (47CER). Part 15, Subp Cohen, T. Jo, ond MeCoy, L. G. “RELA New Look at an Ol March 1995. EMCAB 1. “Immunity of Elecrical/ Electronic Equipment Inten the ‘Canadian ‘Radio Enviroment.” Government of Canad ‘Communications, Issue 1, September 1977, and Tse 2, Aug 1 wrmoouenon nlestnding the BCC Re non, 1 °C Methods of Messuiement 0 s FOCIOSH MP 1083 ramision Cautions sgtinst Change in Vee Notice No. 3281, April 7, 1982, " Bu DN. "Broadcast 8: leciomagnti Env IEEE National Telecommunications Co: i sel Proceed 7 ulations Concerning Computing Devices” os 3 Rado Nose Emission fom Computing Computing Eauipmens.” ment Neer Telephone Eq ynference, 1976, a ‘Noninsing Radaton Spore ih ns of the Sth Inematonc Rauaon Prose eso “Intemational anc Nationl Rado Don White Consultants, ‘Germantown, Md. “one, as kez 461B. “Electromagnetic Interfer i ca Apri 1980 12, “Eledromapnete Interference Charen G. “Gorman RF Protec cinologs. April lune 15 R 1, Elecromagnetc inference and C rece and Compa. Yo. (etic 11 EMI Speions Don White Comune Gore rence Characteristic Requicements for Measurement of," mn Regulations Affecting EDP Instalkaions RJ. Blecwomag netic Interference and Cony td ei Interference and Compaiibility. Vol. 2 (EMI Test ")- Don White Consullants, Germantown, Md., 1974 2 CABLING ‘This chapter is devoted to cabling and cable shielding, and ¢ grounding. Since the subjects of cable shielding and groun felated, these two chapters should be studied together. example, shows that a cable shield used to suppress electric aded, but Chapter 3 explains where that ground shoul Cables are important because they are the longest parts, therefore act ay efficient antennas that pick up and/or ra¢ chapter covers the coupling mechanisms that occur bety ceables, and between cables (crosstalk). Both unshielded and are considered In this chapter we assume the following: 1, Shields are made of nonmagnetic materials and have 9 less than a skin depth at the frequency of interest." 2. The receptor is not coupled so tightly to the source th the source. 3. Induced currents in the receptor circuit are small enow the original field. (This doos not apply to a shicld aro circuit.) 4. Cables are short compared to a wavelength. Since cables are assumed short compared to a waveleng between circuits can be represented by lumped capacitance between the conductors. The circuit can then be analy network theory. ‘Three types of couplings are considered. ‘The first is capa coupling, which results from the interaction of electric Circuits. ‘This type of coupling is commonly identified in electrostatic coupling, an obvious misnomer since the field ‘The second is inéuctive, or magnetic, coupling, which interaction between the magnetic fields of two circuits. This is commonly described as electromagnetic, again mistead since no cleetric fields are involved. The third is a combin ‘and magnetic fields and is appropriately called electromagr “HC the shiold is thicker than a skin depth, some additional smekting (5 calculated by methods ia this chapter. The effect is discussed further in 2+ CABLING ‘The techniques developed to cope with electric coupling are also te for the electromagnetic case. For analysis in the neat field, we consider the electric and magnetic fields separately, whereas the netic field case is considered when the problem is in the. far Xe circuit causing the interference is called the source, and the ing affected by the interference is called the receptor. "ITIVE COUPLING Fepresentation of capactive coupling between two conductors i Fig. 21, Capacitance Gy, isthe stay capacitance Betnees conc 2, Capacitance Cy, is the capacitance between conductor | and 1 Is the total capacitance between conductor 2 and ground, and & tance of circuit 2 to ground. The resistance R results from th >nnested to conductor 2 and is not a stray component. Capa consisis of both the stray capacitance of conductor 2 to plound fect of any circuitry connected to conductor 2 ivalent circuit of the coupling is also shown in Fig. 2 ¥, on conductor 1 as the source of interferenes and con ted citeuit or receptor. Any capacitance connected dirce such a5 Co in Fig. 2-1, ean be negl >upling. The noise voltage Vy he expressed as follows: Consider nductor 2 tly across lected since it has no effect on Produced between conductor 2 and Jol Cai(Cy + Cp) JoFURCy + Cg) @4) Figure 2, Capacitive coupling benveen ave conductors, for definitions of near and far felis ‘capacirive COUPLING Equation 2-1 does not show clearly how the pickup vol the various parameters. Equatior: 2-1 can be simplified for is a lower impedance than the impedance of the stray cap: Cag. In most practical ceses this will be truc. Therefore, f STIG toa)" Eq. 2-1 can be reduced to the following: Vy = joRC¥« Electric field (capacitive) coupling can be modeled as a ct connected between the reveptor circuit and, ground, with jwC,,V,. This is shown in Fig. 2.98, Equation 2-2 is the most important equation deseribin coupling between two conductors, and it clearly shows voltage depends on the parameters. Equation 2-2 show voltage is directly proportional to the frequency (w = 21 source, the resistance R of the affected circuit to ground, th between conductors 1 and 2, and the m: Assuming that the voltage and frequ changed, this leaves only to remaining parameters for ro coupling. ‘The receiver circuit can be operated at a lower re capacitance C,, can be decreased. Capacitance C,, can | proper orientation of the conductors, by shielding (descr section), or by physically separating the conductors. It th moved farther apart, C,, decreases, thus decreasing the in conductor 2.* The effect of conductor spacing on capac shown in Fig. 2-2. As a reference, dB is the coupling whe are separated by three times the conductor diameter. As cz figure, little additional attenuation is gained by spacing t distance greater than 40 times their diameter (1 in, in the wire). If the resistance from conductor 2 to ground is large, s 1 0 Tels Ga)” then Eq. 2-1 reduces to G25 releash (Did), (Fie 33, this rehves to Cn lt £65 10°" tas per moter (Pm) fo ce spe. EFFECT OF SHIELD ON GAPAGITIVE COUPLING oh a g —-— - e e g ¢ 4 { fy i % ot I a > > = B08 TREGUENCY 2 Figure 23, Frequency response ofeopuctive coupled ro ae ‘Under this condition the noise voltage produced between ad voltage is independent of frequency and is of a larger mag #2, Ris smal. ge ‘A pilot of Eq. 2-1 versus « is shown in Fig. 23. As i fe maximum noise coupling is given by Eq. 2-3. The figure a stevie actual noise voltage is always less than or equal to the ¥ Bu ee D2, Ata frequency of ay ay REa+ Go eee Equation 2-2 gives a value of noise that is 1.41 times th ay most all practical eases, the frequency is much Less than Es By ial BE EFFECT OF SHIELD ON CAPACITIVE COUPLING 2. First consider the case where the receptor (conducto 1 a Tesistance to ground. If shield is placed around conduct ee re ee iE fatlon becomes that of Fig. 2-4. An equivalent cal a ye Se coupling between conductors is included. The voltage 5 7 , shield is (GP) ©=P/a 40 LyHL M0138 ONMdNOD Gs are SHIELO 8 EQUIVALENT ciRcuit PHYSICAL, REPRESENTATION pling with shield placed around receptor conductor, Figure 24. Copasitve co OF SHELD ON CAPACITIVE COUFLING “Since there is no current flow through C,, the voltag “conducior 2 is VW If the shield is grounded, the voltage V, = 0, and the noi conductor 2 is likewise reduced to zero. This case—w conductor does not extend beyond the shicld—is an ideal typical In practice, the center conductor normally does extend b ‘and the situation becomes that of Fig, 25. There Cj; is between conductor | and the shielded conductor 2, and C tance between conductor 2 and ground, Both of these c Ihesause the ends of conductor 2 extend beyond the shield. I is grounded. there is a noise voltage coupled to conductor is expressed as follows: ‘The value of Cy, and hence Vy, in Eq. 2-7 depends o conductor 2 that extends beyond the shield For good electric field shielding, itis therefore necessary the length of the center conductor that extends beyond the provide a good ground on the shield, A single ground con {e004 shield ground, provided the cable is not longer than o: ‘Wavelength. On longer cables multiple grounds may be ne If in addition the receiving conductor has finite resistanc arrangement is that shown in Fig. 2-6. If the shield is ‘equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in the figure directly across the source can be neglected since it has no ef coupling. The simplified equivalent circuit can be recogni Girouit analyzed in Fig, 2-1, provided Cyo is replaced by the ys. Therefore, if TGF Ca¥ Oa which is normally true, the noise voltage coupled to condu Vy = foRCY, ‘This is the same as Eq, 2-2, which is for an unshielded cable is greatly reduced by the presence of the shield. Capac consisis primarily of the capacitance between conductor NOUCTIVE COUPLING aA pyr EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

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