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Organ
Salivary
Glands
Oesophagus
Function
1) Near mouth
2) Produces amylase
1) Carries food from mouth to stomach
2) Made up of thick muscular wall
Stomach
1) Muscular sac with an inner layer that produces enzymes
2) Stores and digests food, especially proteins
3) Has glands that produce enzymes to digest protein
4) Other glands produce mucus to stop actual stomach from being
digested
Pancreas
1) Large gland below stomach; produces secretion called pancreatic
juice
2) secretes protease to digest proteins, lipase to digest lipids,
amylase to digest starch
Small
1) Long muscular tube
Intestine
2) Food is further digested by enzymes
3) Has microvilli to increase surface
Large
1) Absorbs water
Intestine
2) most of water comes from secretions of digestive glands
3) Food becomes drier and thicker; forms faeces
Rectum
1) Final section of intestines; faeces stored before egestion
Starch (i.e. sugars) is known as a Polysaccharide as it is a long chain of monosaccharides
joint together, whereas a disaccharide is just two monosaccharides joint together.
Glucose:- C6H12O6
Sucrose
Glucose
Lactose
&
Glucose = Maltose
Fructose =
Galactose =
SIMPLIFIED VERSION:
How
is
GLYCOSIDIC BOND
How are TWO MONOSACCHARIDES made from
DISACCHARIDE: Hydrolysis (Adding H2O)
How DIPEPTIDE
formed from 2
amino acids:
Condensation
(Removing H2O)
PEPTIDE BOND
How 2 AMINO ACIDS are formed from DIPEPTIDE: Hydrolysis (Adding H2O)
is
Competitive Inhibitors:
Enzyme rate reached more slowly
Have the same shape of substrate molecules
They attach themselves to active site (but not in a permanent way)
Therefore compete with substrate molecules for available active sites
Do NOT distort the active site
Therefore increasing the substrate concentration will eventually lead to all active sites
being occupied by substrate molecules.
The higher the concentration of competitive inhibitor, the longer this will take.
Non-competitive Inhibitor:
Enzyme rate not reached
Attach themselves to enzyme but NOT at the active site
Thus changing shape of active site
Disallowing enzyme-substrate complexes to be formed at all
Increasing substrate concentration has no effect as the active site is distorted in
shape
When students carry out tests using a carrot with a conducting tissue and storage tissue,
they should cut down the root but through one tissue only to make the test reliable.
When a solution is left overnight, bungs are placed on the tubes to prevent water from
evaporating and hence changing the concentration.
To find a link between water potential of two different solutions, we draw a graph and see
where the ratio is 1:1.
When initial length/final length is one of the independent
variables, it does not matter if the initial length is different in
test because the results are given as a ratio.
TEST
Starch
(Polysaccharide
)
REAGENT
Iodine dissolved in
Potassium Iodide
Solution
Lipids
Ethanol
Reducing Sugar
(monosacchari
de and
maltose)
Non-Reducing
Sugar (all other
disaccharides)
Benedicts Reagent,
then
Hydrochloric Acid,
METHOD
2 drops of iodine into 2cm3 of
test solution
Grind sample with Ethanol.
Add water and shake gently.
An emulsion is formed and
solution goes cloudy
Add 2cm3 of test solution to
Benedicts reagent. Shake,
and then heat to 95oC.
Add Benedicts Reagent to
2cm3 of test solution. If colour
does not change, add HCl,
this will hydrolyse
each
OBSERVATION
Blue/Black Colour
Cloudy White
Colour
Brown/Brick Red
Colour
Orange/Brick Red
Colour
then
Sodium Hydrogen
Carbonate, then
once again
Benedicts Reagent
Protein
(Polypeptide)
Biuret Solution;
Sodium Hydroxide,
Copper (II) Sulphate
disaccharide into
monosaccharide, then add
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
to neutralise acid, then add
Benedicts solution.
Add equal volume of sodium
hydroxide solution to 2cm3 of
test solution. Then add a few
drops of dilute copper (II)
Sulphate.
Lilac/Purple/Mauv
e/Violet Colour
Mitochondri
a
Rough
Endoplasmi
c Reticulum
Smooth
Endoplasmi
c Reticulum
Golgi Bodies
Lysosomes
Structure
Largest organelle. Surrounded by a
nuclear envelope, which is a double
membrane, containing pores called
Nuclear Pores. The interior is called
nucleoplasm which is full of
chromatin. It can also contain a
nucleolus which makes ribosomes.
Has a double-membrane, outermembrane is permeable, and the
inner membrane known as cristae
which is folded to increases surface
area. The space enclosed is known
as the matrix and it contains
chromatin (circular strands of DNA)
and ribosomes.
System of membranes enclosing a
fluid filled space. Rough appearance
as it studded with numerous
ribosomes.
System of membranes enclosing a
fluid filled space, but with no
ribosomes attached on its surface.
Fluid filled, fattened vesicles. These
vesicles release their contents at
cell membrane by exocytosis.
It is round and has a membrane,
but no internal structure.
Ribosomes
4) Active Transport: Movement of substance through the carrier (only carrier) intrinsic protein
of a partially permeable membrane which is specific for that substance and
has a binding site for ATP, against the concentration gradient which requires
energy. Cells performing active transport will have lots of mitochondria as
they are the site of aerobic respiration and therefore produce ATP.
Differences of Active Transport & Facilitated Diffusion: 1) Active Transport uses energy
2) Active Transport goes against the
concentration gradient
3) Active Transport only uses carrier proteins
How the products of starch are absorbed by epithelial cell in small intestine lining (these
epithelial cells are just like the ones that are in the alveoli, they have the same features):
1) Glucose moves into epithelial cell with sodium ion via protein
2) Sodium removed from epithelial cell via carrier protein by active transport into blood
maintaining a low concentration of sodium in the epithelial cell
3) Glucose moves into blood by facilitated diffusion
(Epithelial cell will have lots of mitochondria to provide ATP for active transport of sodium
ions into blood as active transport requires energy as it moves against the concentration
gradient.)
Bacteria Cells are Prokaryotic. All cells have cell-surface membrane.
Organelle
Function
Cell Wall
Physical Barrier against mechanical damage
Capsule
Protects against bacterium from other cell
Help bacteria stick together for protection
Cell Surface
Differentially permeable layer which controls the entry and
Membrane
exit of chemicals
Flagellum
Aids movement of bacterium as it is rigid
Plasmids
Posses genes to aid survival in adverse conditions
Mesosomes
Site of respiration
Ribosomes
This is where protein synthesis takes place
Differences between Bacteria Cell and Epithelial Cell: 1) Epithelial Cell is eukaryotic
2) Bacteria Cell is prokaryotic
3) Prokaryotic cell has no Mitochondria
4) Prokaryotic cell has no Golgi Body
5) Prokaryotic cell has Plasmid
6) Prokaryotic cell has Cell Wall
7) Prokaryotic cell has Small Ribosomes only
(70s)
Some bacteria cells have Suckers, this allows them to stick to surfaces and remain in that
area.
Cholera: 1) caused by the Cholera bacterium which survives stomach acid and reaches the
small intestine.
2) Here, they produce a toxin that has two parts
3) One part binds to receptors on the epithelial cell (the only cell that has receptors).
4) The other enters epithelial cell and causes chloride ions to move out reducing
water potential in
lumen and increasing water potential in epithelial cell.
5) Water moves from high water potential in cell to low potential into lumen
(intestine) through osmosis
6) This leads to diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, etc.
Why it only affects Epithelial Cells: Only Epithelial Cells have this specific carbohydrate
receptor
This receptor is a protein and has a complimentary shape to
the toxic
In the exam, if it asked as to how cholera is caused, and it is 2 marks, you will write:
Water potential lowered in small intestine, therefore osmotic loss of water.
Cholera can be treated with Oral Rehydration Therapy; hence this is a drip which provides
the body with all that which it has just lost.
It contains: Water, Glucose, Sodium, Other Electrolytes, and Starch
Diseases such as Cholera, are due to drinking contaminated water, therefore the highest
number of Cholera cases are in the summer as it is in Summer that water related activities
are done.
We need lots of respiration as we have lots of living cells and have a high metabolic rate.
Transmissi
on
It is
caused by
microscopi
c lung
injury and
some are
geneticall
y more
susceptibl
e. The
exact
cause is
unclear.
What it Does
It thickens the
epithelium at alveoli
wall due to the scar
Antibiotics
Hygiene
Improved
Health
facilities
Nutrition to
keep
immune
system
strong.
Pulmonary Fibrosis
Symptoms due to it
Emphysema
Transmissi
What it Does
Symptoms due to it
on
The lungs contain
The lungs are not able to
Shortness of Breath:
elastic tissue made
force out all the air from the 1) Loss of elasticity in lungs
of the protein called
alveoli. The surface area of
2) stale air not exhaled, therefore fresh air
elastin. This tissue
the alveoli is reduced and
difficult to inhale
stretches when we
alveoli burst, therefore
3) Reduced surface area of alveoli leads to
breathe in and out.
creating abnormally large
less oxygen in blood, therefore more rapid
In emphysema, the
alveoli. As a result, little if
breathing required
elastin is
any gas exchange takes
Chronic Cough:
permanently
place across the stretched
1) Bodys effort to remove damaged tissue
stretched. It is
and damaged alveoli. Also
Bluish Skin Colour:
caused significantly
the cilia on the bronchi and
1) Low levels of oxygen in blood
by smoking, but not
bronchioles are destroyed.
entirely.
When diffusion takes place at the alveoli: The diffusion is through a concentration gradient,
through the epithelium of alveoli and then through the epithelium of the capillary wall.
Why is hard to breathe when lungs have reduced elasticity:
1) Lungs cannot inflate properly
2) Breathing out is affected
3) The concentration gradient is reduced
Change in lung tissue in fibrosis can reduce efficiency of gas exchange: WHY:
1) Alveolar walls thicken
2) Longer Diffusion pathway
3) Scarred tissue reduces surface area
Risk Factors of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD):
1) Smoking
2) Air Pollution
3) Genetic Make-up
4) Infections
5) Occupation
How the Lung is adapted to intake high levels of oxygen:
1) Many Alveoli provide large surface area
2) Alveoli walls thin, therefore shorter diffusion pathway, therefore faster diffusion
3) Walls of capillary thin and there are many capillaries
4) Wall of capillary have flattened cells
5) Cell membrane of cells in capillary is partially permeable
6) Many blood capillaries provide large surface area
7) Intercostal Muscles to ventilate lungs and maintain concentration gradient
8) Wide trachea
9) Cartilage rings keep airways open
10)
Ventilation maintains concentration gradient, therefore faster diffusion
Risk: measure of the probability that damage to health will occur as a result of a particular
hazard.
Factors: Time Periods, Alcohol, Occupation, Pollution, Gender, Stress, No. of Cigarettes
smoked n day
Factors associated with cancer: Smoking, Diet, Physical Activity, Sunlight, and Obesity
Factors associated with Coronary Heart Disease (CHD): Smoking, Diet, High BP, High
Cholesterol, Obesity, and Physical Activity
In Graph Analysis and Drug Trials:
1) When explaining mention peak points, increase and decrease in graph and overall
increase/decrease in graph
2) Sometimes the evidence from the graph may not be enough to draw a certain
conclusion. WHY:
Any correlation does not mean there is a causal relationship
There may some other factor producing a rise/fall in both factors
Sometimes, there is no relation between both factors as the graph moves along
3) Sometimes, data is given in a logarithmic form; this exaggerates the numbers and
allows the effect of low numbers to be seen.
4) In some graphs, medical cases are presented for the prevalence of a certain disease,
however, the number presented may not be the actual number of people with that
disease as many people do not go the doctors.
5) If it asks you why a drug may not be perfect:
Unknown Long-Term side effects
Study should be carried out on humans and the study should be repeated
6) When taking drug trial, scientists should consider the following of volunteers:
Age
Health
Gender
Ethnicity
7) If scientists use two drugs/vaccines and both combined have higher effect, then both
must be similar i.e. they must have the same antibodies, etc.
When working out percentage increase: ((big number-small number)/small number) x 100
3) Once Ventricle is full, it sends down electrical impulse down Bundle of His
4) This causes ventricles to contract
Atheroma:
How can diet increase risk of Myocardial Infarction:
High salt in diet increases blood pressure
High intake of cholesterol can result in fat accumulating under lining of artery, this is
called an Atheroma
This can cause a blood clot in the coronary artery
A blood clot prevents oxygenated blood from flowing
Hence the heart muscle is deprived of oxygen and therefore cannot respire, thus it
dies.
If your diet is low in LDL, less cholesterol will be absorbed by the blood and therefore the
chances of a myocardial infarction will be reduced.